































 
 
 

32 
 

Climate Change and 
Caribbean Coral Reefs 

*** 
Anastasia, a student at the University of Toronto, St. George, is 
pursuing a Bachelor of Science Double Major in Physics and 

Caribbean Studies and a Minor in Mathematics.  She is a pianist, plays 
the guitar and steelpan and spends her free time arranging music.  Her 
love for soca music and steelpan in no way takes away from her passion 

for classical piano and physics. As a person of the Trinidadian 
Diaspora with many interests, Ana has decided to look at the Caribbean 
from a different perspective by combining her love for science and the 

region. 
 

THIS PAPER IS A SYNOPSIS OF THE ORIGINAL 

*** 

Along with its remarkable history and exciting topography, the 
Caribbean has a complicated political flavour which adds to recent 
challenges of climate change. Studies provide evidence of dramatic 
world weather patterns, with temperatures reaching all-time lows, 
irregular rain fall, hotter summers and terrifying hurricane seasons 
which appear to be worsening. These changes in climate are directly 

Introduction 
 

This paper explores the extent to which climate change is 
affecting the Caribbean region. In the first part, the importance of coral 
reefs to the Caribbean will be shown. In the second part, the sensitivity 
of coral reefs to environmental changes will be examined. Since human 
activity plays a major role in climate change, the third part will explore 
several anthropogenic (manmade) forces that affect climate change, 
with spin off effects that threaten the existence of coral reefs and 
beaches in the region. The paper concludes with suggested strategies 
and policies to counteract the effects of climate change in the 
Caribbean.   



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 33 
 

affecting the Caribbean region. The region’s economy, largely 
dependent on “sun, sea and sand” is gradually being destroyed.  More 
importantly, the livelihood of many who survive on tourism and fishing 
is being dramatically affected. Increasing carbon dioxide levels have 
resulted in rising earth temperatures with concomitant high levels of 
coral reef bleaching. Increases in storm and hurricane activity have 
caused destruction of coastal systems. Increased rainfall and 
tremendous flooding have brought havoc to the fishing industry. In 
short, Caribbean progress is being stifled by changes in climate. 
 

Coral reefs are among the world's most amazing ecosystems in 
terms of biodiversity, far surpassing rain forests and other land 
ecosystems

Importance of Coral Reefs to the Caribbean 
 

1

Coral reefs are really marine systems created from the secretion 
of calcium carbonate from corals

. One merely has to take a trip to Tobago's Buccoo Reef to 
experience this wonder of nature. There, the opportunity presents itself 
to enjoy one of the most stunning sites in the world while sitting in a 
comfortable glass bottom boat in the scorching sun. Millions of 
organisms live in this coral reef which is also home for hundreds of 
thousands of varieties of fish.   

2. Corals live in colonies, which grow 
on the surface of the reef3. They extract limestone from the water and 
with the help of zooxanthellae, secrete calcium carbonate to make the 
hard shells of protection that are left behind when the coral dies, 
resulting in the formation of coral reefs4. Zooxanthellae are single 
celled plants that live inside larger organisms, mostly corals5. They 
have a mutual relationship with corals and coral reefs6. Corals provide 
protection for zooxanthellae, which in turn provide food and nutrients 
for the coral via photosynthesis, enabling the secretion of the calcium 
carbonate needed for the reef7

                                                             
1 (Birkeland) page 4 
2 (Schluter) page 3 
3 Ibid 
4 ibid 
5 (Baker) 
6 ibid 
7 Ibid 

.   



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

34 
 

Photosynthesis of zooxanthellae is very important for corals and 
for the calcification (formation of calcium carbonate) of coral reefs.  
Both processes, i.e. photosynthesis and calcification, take place side by 
side in these ecosystems.  Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction of 
carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose (a carbohydrate), which is 
one of the main sources of food for the corals8. At the same time that 
zooxanthellae are carrying out processes of photosynthesis, the coral 
itself is carrying out processes of respiration (reverse photosynthesis), 
which produces carbon dioxide that zooxanthellae use9

Coral reefs are important to the Caribbean for three (3) main 
reasons

.   
While scientists recognize the importance of these organisms to 

each other and tourists no doubt visit to enjoy the beauty of the reefs, a 
more significant aspect of coral reefs is that they present a source of 
livelihood for many in these countries.  

10

(1) They provide a substantial amount of food for humans including 
"gastropods (e.g. queen conch), bivalves (e.g. giant clams, rock 
oysters, and pearl oysters), octopus, squid, cuttlefish, lobsters, 
prawns and sea cucumbers"

.   

11. Aquamarine organisms in coral 
reefs are an important source of food for coastal communities, 
entire countries and a wide-range of pelagic or inshore pelagic 
fishes12

(2) They are major contributors to tourism. They are a huge source 
of income for tropical countries, especially those in the 
Caribbean, through scuba diving, jewelry, curios and souvenirs 
from black corals, gorgonaceans, seashells, giant clams and 
dried fishes

. 

13

(3) They are vital to the aquamarine trade. In the region, there are 
over 60,000 small scale fishing operations. In Jamaica alone, 
over 95,000 tons of fish are harvested for food and business 
annually

. 

14

                                                             
8 (Jean-Pierre Gattuso) page 4 
9 Ibid page 4 
10 (Birkeland) page 13 
11 Ibid page 56 
12 Ibid page 15 
13 Ibid page 46 
14 Ibid page 46 

. Fish from coral reefs and surrounding seas are 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 35 
 

exported to all corners of the earth, bringing in income to local 
businesses. 

Almost all the countries of the region have at least one coral reef. 
They range in size and diversity. In this section, five (5) reefs will be 
looked at. These are to be found in the Dominican Republic, Belize, 
Tobago, St. Lucia, and Cuba. They are all major income sources in their 
respective countries.  In the Dominican Republic, 37% of the country’s 
income comes from the tourism industry with over 500,000 Dominicans 
employed in the tourism sector15. The Parque Jaragua in the Dominican 
Republic houses coral reefs, mangroves, sea grass beds and beaches16. 
The reefs produce a great deal of the sand for beaches, which are part of 
the Dominican Republic's Biosphere Reserve. The Reserve brings in 
over $100 million US dollars from park fees, lodging, gas stations and 
small businesses17

The coral reef off the coast of Belize also contributes to hefty 
revenue from the tourism industry. Approximately US$175 million to 
US$262 million in 2007 flowed from coral reef and mangrove 
associated tourism

. 

18. According to the World Resources Institute, reef 
associated tourism and fishing associated with the reef is part of their 
cultural tradition and provides a safety net for the livelihood of 
Belizeans19. Sport fishing and diving off the coast of Belize alone 
contributed approximately US$ 30 - US$37 million in 200720. This can 
be compared to the gross US$11.2 million that Belize collects from the 
1.2 million pounds of fish sold in one year21. Reef and mangrove 
associated fishing off the coast of Belize amount to over US$15 million 
per year for the Belizean economy22

Research pertaining to the economic advantages of coral reefs in 
Tobago and St. Lucia estimate income from visitors’ spending money 
on reef related recreation, accommodation and other activities, to 
US$43.5 million in Tobago and US$91.6 million in St. Lucia, all in the 

.  

                                                             
15 (Jeffrey Wielgus) page 2 
16 Ibid page 5 
17 Ibid page 5 
18 (Emily Cooper) page 2, 4 
19 Ibid page 2 
20 Ibid page 4 
21 Ibid page 4 
22 Ibid page 4 



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

36 
 

year 200623. The resulting combined income from direct and indirectly 
related reef associated tourism amount to over US$101 million for 
Trinidad’s economy and over US$160 million for St. Lucia’s24. In these 
two countries, coral reef fishing has a much smaller economic impact 
when compared with Belize, ranging from US$0.7 million in Tobago 
and US$0.4 million in St. Lucia. Coral reef fishing is essential in 
providing jobs, adding cultural value and a social safety net in both 
locations25. The World Resources Institute (WRI) recognizes the value 
of coral reefs to the Caribbean and its people in areas of food and public 
sector jobs. They are also valued as a source of fuel, providing air 
quality maintenance, climate and water regulation, erosion control, 
storm protection, cultural diversity, spiritual and religious values, 
cultural heritage values (e.g. Lucia), recreation, ecotourism and other 
goods and services for the people of the region26

Cuba can be singled out as having one of the largest reefs in the 
Caribbean, surrounding the island on all four coasts

. 

27. These reefs 
stretch virtually along the entire Cuban coastline and for the most part, 
resemble barrier reefs28. Coral reef fishing also plays an important part 
in the Cuban economy as both a food source and an income 
generator.29. The Cuban fishing industry catches and exports many 
different marine species from the lane snapper from the Gulf of 
Batabanó, to the Nassau grouper, the queen conch and shrimp off the 
southern shelf of the Cuban coast30. Chuck Adams explains that despite 
the fact that economic conditions have not been ideal in Cuba since the 
“Special Period” (referring to the period of economic crisis after the 
collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990’s) exports of fish continue to 
be high for the country31. Most recent figures quoted by Adams showed 
that annual seafood exports in the 1990’s were averaging US $107 
million, with an increased export value of US $125.4 million in 199632

                                                             
23 (Lauretta Burke) page3-4 
24 Ibid page 4 
25 Ibid page 4 
26 (Institute)page 3 
27 (Institute, Cuba) 
28 (UNEP) page 135 
29 Ibid page 136 
30 Ibid page 136 
31 (Chuck Adams) page 6 
32 Ibid page 6 

. 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 37 
 

With these figures in mind, there can be no doubt about the importance 
of corals and coral reefs to the Caribbean region.   

 

(1) Rising sea levels is one external factor that may affect coral reefs

Sensitivity of Coral Reefs to Environmental Changes 
 

Corals are highly sensitive organisms that are affected by 
changes in their environment. They require very strict environmental 
conditions in order to survive, grow and revive themselves after natural 
processes.   

33. 
At different times of the year there are natural changes in sea levels 
due to the movement of the sun and earth in relation to one 
another34. These changes in sea levels affect the life and death of 
corals since reefs that live closer to the sea surface are alternatively 
exposed or flooded in relation to the sea level35. This natural rise 
and fall of sea levels is exacerbated by global warming and climate 
change. This results in sea levels remaining elevated, which in turn 
causes serious flooding problems for coral reefs36

(2) Coral reefs are also affected by the changes in sea temperatures.  
Corals can survive in seas temperatures ranging from 18 Û&� WR���Û 
C, but prefer ideal conditions of 26 Û&�WR��� Û&

.    

37. Sea temperatures 
determine the rate of growth of corals and drastic changes in these 
temperatures outside the regular range could cause total destruction 
of reefs38

(3) Corals are affected by the salinity levels of the water.  Corals grow 
ideally in seas where the salinity levels are between 3.3 to 3.6 %

.   

39.  
Salinity levels change due to the dumping of large amounts of fresh 
water when glaciers melt40. Salinity levels are also subject to change 
due to precipitation, storm activity, fresh water runoff and severe 
droughts41

                                                             
33 (Birkeland) page 46 
34 Ibid page 46 
35 Ibid page 47 
36 Ibid page 5 
37 (Birkeland) page 50 
38 Ibid page 50 
39 Ibid page 52 
40 (Lee Hayes Byron) page 1 
41 Ibid page 1 

.   



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

38 
 

(4) Light intensity also affects the growth of corals. As depth increases, 
light intensity decreases exponentially42. As a result, photosynthesis 
and calcium carbonate levels decrease43

(5) The upwelling of nutrients could have a number of different effects 
on coral life

.   

44. Upwelling is the process by which warm, nutrient 
rich water rushes in to replace cool, nutrient depleted water45. It 
brings in warm water from closer to the coasts, due mostly to the 
winds blowing over the sea46

 
.   

While coral reefs are a large source of economic assistance to 
developing states, especially in the Caribbean, their environmental 
advantages are equally important. Marine ecosystems such as coral 
reefs and mangroves protect island coastlines from added erosion and 
destruction from storms and natural breakwaters41. Reefs not only 
protect the beaches and coastlines from storms and waves but also 
provide the sand for beaches47. Clearly, the destruction of beaches and 
the coastal systems of developing states is a major concern in light of 
climate change and rising sea levels.  

Climate change is not only affecting the earth’s surface 
temperatures, but  is also affecting sea temperatures, sea levels and the 
intensity and frequency of weather systems, such as storms and 
hurricanes. The next section of the paper will explore existing evidence 
of destruction of coral reefs in the region. It will be seen that together 
with changing weather patterns in the region, specifically hurricanes in 
the past few years, there has been severe beach erosion which presents 
challenges to the tourism economy of the Caribbean. 

 

Coral reefs in the Caribbean are being slowly destroyed, and it 
will be shown that a primary reason for this destruction is 

Destruction of Coral Reefs, Intensification of Hurricanes and 
Effects on Beaches 

 

                                                             
42 (Birkeland) page 56 
43 Ibid page 56 
44 Ibid page 56 
45 (Wikipedia) 
46 Ibid  
47 (UNEP) page 55 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 39 
 

anthropogenic (manmade)48. While human activity is not the only 
reason for the depletion of coral reefs, over the last few years such 
activity has only exacerbated the situation. Human impact on reefs can 
be separated into 4 categories: pollution; sedimentation; over fishing 
and climate change49

(1) Pollution in the form of nutrient upwelling is a type of reef pollution 
and is linked very closely to human waste and agricultural runoff

.  
  

50

(2) Sedimentation has been linked to coastal development such as 
dredging, land reclamation, deforestation and poor agricultural 
practices throughout the islands

.   

51

(3) Unsustainable fishing is more so related to marine life in the reefs 
rather than the physical reef itself.  Over fishing is extracting marine 
life from the system at a rate which is faster than it could be 
naturally replenished

.     

52

(4) Human activity causes climate change. Industrialization increases 
levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which in turn increases 
global temperature. Increases in temperature cause sea levels to rise 
due to melting glaciers and polar ice caps. Increased sea 
temperatures cause coral bleaching

. 

53. Coral reefs in the Caribbean 
prefer to grow in the upper levels of the temperature range of 18°C 
to 36°C.  Coral bleaching is the loss of color by coral polyps due to 
them expelling their zooxanthellae or by the zooxanthellae expelling 
their chlorophyll which is used in photosynthesis54. Temperature 
increases of 1-2° C above the maximum temperature range for just a 
few weeks are enough to cause mass coral bleaching and the 
destruction of reefs55.  Coral bleaching events have increased since 
1979 and has been correlated to occurrences of the El Niño 
Southern Oscillation (ENSO)56

 
 (explained later).   

                                                             
48 (Hance) 
49 (UNEP) page 56 
50 Ibid page 57 
51Ibid page57; (Nicholls) page319 
52 Ibid page 58 
53 Ibid page 59 
54 Ibid page 59 
55 Ibid page 59 
56 Ibid page 62 



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

40 
 

The World Resources Institute confirms that reefs are being 
greatly affected by human activity and have faced serious depletion 
over the years. As much as 80% of the coral reefs in the Dominican 
Republic are at threat from over fishing and sedimentation due to 
increased unemployment and coastal development57. The coral reefs 
around the coasts of Trinidad and Tobago are all under threat from over 
fishing and coastal development since fishing is very important for 
coastal villages58. 85% of the reefs are at threat of destruction from 
water pollution from poorly treated sewage, agricultural runoff, 
fertilizers, pesticides and chemicals59. Despite the fact that the Buccoo 
Reef in Tobago has been declared a restricted area, coastal development 
and the tourism industry has done very little to preserve this 
ecosystem60. 90 sq km of the coral reefs surrounding the St. Lucian 
coast are being threatened by coastal development and over fishing, but 
the main source of damage to the reef has been from regional hurricanes 
and storms61. In Belize, 63% of the reef is directly affected by over 
fishing, coastal development, and agricultural runoff from sugar and 
banana plantations and from natural weather systems62. For the first 
time in 1995, severe coral bleaching occurred off the coast of Belize 
although it had already occurred in different reefs in the region63. In 
Cuba, 70% of the country’s reefs are being affected by over fishing, 
pollution and hurricane activity64

Climate change is put forward as the greatest anthropogenic 
(man-made) contributor to adversity facing coral reefs in the Caribbean. 
Reefs are being damaged due to rising sea levels, rising sea 
temperatures and by increased weather phenomenon associated with 
occurrences of ENSO and increased and intensified hurricane activity

.  

65

                                                             
57 (Institute, Dominican Republic) 
58 (Institute, Trinidad and Tobago) 
59 Ibid  
60 Ibid  
61 (Institute, St. Lucia) 
62 (Institute, Belize) 
63 Ibid  
64 (Institute, Cuba) 
65 (Mimura) 

.  
The El Niño is the five month period when the mean sea surface 
temperature anomaly in the region of the central equatorial Pacific 
Ocean exceeds a threshold value of 0.5° C for a minimum of six months 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 41 
 

including October, November and December. A cold phase or La Niña 
occurs when sea surface temperatures in the region are less than -0.5°C 
for the same six month time period66. The Southern Oscillation is the 
atmospheric counterpart to the El Niño. It is described as the oscillation 
of the air pressure between the tropical eastern and western Pacific 
Ocean waters67

 
FIG. 2 – Characteristics of an ENSO 
event under normal conditions and 

. Waters on the west of the Pacific Ocean tend to be 
warmer, resulting in cooler temperatures on the coast of Peru (east 
Pacific Ocean). 

during an El Niño68

El Niño and the Southern Oscillation work hand in hand to give 
the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) which affects the entire world 
in some way. ENSO can occur in different phases; the warm phase or El 
Niño; the neutral phase (neither defined as warm nor cold) and the cold 
phase or La Niña

.  Under normal 
climate conditions, there are only warm 
sea temperature conditions off the coast 
of South America and there is upwelling 
of the cool water (thermocline) from 
below that contributes to the success of 
the fishing industry off the Peruvian coast. 
During an El Niño, the warm water 
spreads across the equator and warm 
weather conditions are experienced across 
the equator.  When this happens, there is a 
reduction in the upwelling of the 
thermocline which affects the fishing 
industry. 

 
 
 
 
 

69

                                                             
66 (WMO); (Tartaglione) 
67 Ibid  
68 (Rhode Island) 
69 (Tartaglione) 

. According to Tartaglione et al., during warm 
ENSOs (El Niño) when there is a decrease in atmospheric pressure, 



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

42 
 

there is a decrease in hurricane activity in the Caribbean and a decrease 
in the probability of a hurricane hitting land70. It is during the La Niña 
phase of an ENSO that there is increased hurricane activity in the 
region71. In the last 20 years, there have been many major El Niño 
events in 1991-92, 1994-95, 1997-98, 2002-03, 2004-05 and 2009-1072

 

.  
All of these occurrences were synonymous with decreased hurricane 
activity. 

 
 
Table 1 – Table showing the number      Table 2 – Table showing the number 
of tropical storms/ hurricanes during      of tropical storms/hurricanes during 
an El Niño phase in the Caribbean     a La Niña phase in the Caribbean 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

It is during the La Niña years that hurricane activity increases 
and research has shown that since 1995 the occurrence of hurricanes 
reaching category 3 has almost doubled73

Looking at the results in the previous tables, we see that with 
time there was a general trend of decreased hurricane activity over the 

 (Table 1). 

                                                             
70 Ibid  
71 Ibid  
72 (T. F. Wikipedia) 
73 (Centre) 

Year Tropical Storm/ 
Hurricanes 

1992 – 1993 5 
 

1995 – 1996 21 
 

1998 – 1999 14 
 

2003 – 2004 21 
 

2005 – 2006 31 
 

2010-2011 21 
 

Year Tropical Storm/ 
Hurricanes 

1991 – 1992 7 
 

1994 – 1995 7 
 

1997 – 1998 8 
 

2002 – 2003 14 
 

2004 – 2005 16 
 

2009 – 2010 11 
 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 43 
 

last 20 years compared to the average hurricane activity of 10–15 
tropical storms/ hurricanes during normal conditions. After every El 
Niño event, there is a La Niña phase which is categorized by increased 
hurricane activity, seen in Table 2. It can also be seen that over the last 
20 years there has been increased hurricane activity over time, in 
correlation with the strength of the previous year’s El Niño. For 
example in 2005, one of the strongest El Niño’s occurred, seeing very 
little tropical storms reaching hurricane status even though there were a 
greater number of storms on the whole. After this El Niño, one of the 
strongest La Niña’s occurred with a record of 31 tropical storms/ 
hurricanes that year. 

During an El Niño (warm phase) there is an increase in sea 
surface temperatures and a decrease in the strength of westward 
blowing trade winds74. There is also an increase in vertical wind shear 
(change in wind speed with height) and El Niño’s tend to dry out and 
warm the atmospheric temperature above the sea75. Wind shears cause 
tropical storms to tilt. Therefore, when there is an increase in vertical 
wind shear, tropical storms tilt and this is what causes a reduction in 
hurricane activity during an El Niño. During a La Niña there is a 
cooling of the sea surface temperatures and an intensification of 
westward blowing trade winds76. There is a decrease in vertical wind 
shear and cooler atmospheric temperatures77

With climate change being very apparent in the past few 
decades, it has become very obvious that the atmosphere and oceans 
have risen in temperature. ENSO events have increased and intensified 
and have caused tremendous coral bleaching whenever they occurred

. This decrease in vertical 
wind shear does not force tropical storms to tilt and does not prevent 
their formation. 

78

                                                             
74 (Rhode Island) 
75 Ibid 
76 Ibid  
77 Ibid  
78 (Buddemeier, Kleypas and Aronson) 

.   
 
 
 

 



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

44 
 

FIG. 4 – Effects of wind shear to hurricanes during an El Niño79

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

During the 1991-92 ENSO events, the Caribbean saw 
tremendous coral bleaching in countries such as Jamaica and the 
Bahamas80. For the first time in the 1990’s Belize experienced coral 
bleaching81. During the 1997-98 ENSO events, high levels of coral 
bleaching were recorded throughout the world, including the 
Caribbean82. After a major bleaching event in 1997-98, there were also 
recorded bleaching events across the Caribbean in 2005, due to higher 
than normal sea surface temperature, with the occurrence of an ENSO 
during that time period. The thermal stress caused by this event resulted 
in mass coral bleaching across the entire Caribbean Sea from Panama to 
Nicaragua, the Bahamas, the Lesser Antilles, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto 
Rico and the Windward and Leeward islands83. Scientists studying 
Virgin Island coral reefs predicted similar levels of coral bleaching in 
2010 as in 2005 where the territory lost about 60% of its reefs84

The rise in sea temperatures over the last few decades has 
caused high levels of coral bleaching in the region. However, the rise in 
sea surface temperatures has not been the only cause for the destruction 
of reefs in the region. Coral bleaching by high sea temperatures has 
only exacerbated the damage caused by natural weather phenomenon 
such as storms and hurricanes. There is one thing to keep in mind 
however, that with climate change becoming an issue, hurricane activity 

.   

                                                             
79 (Byrnes) 
80 (Brown) page 1 
81 Ibid page 1 
82 (UNEP) page 59 
83 (Eakin, Morgan and Heron) 
84 (lisaparavisini) 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 45 
 

has increased over the last few decades, as mentioned earlier with an 
average of 10 - 15 tropical storms/ hurricanes during non-El Niño years.  
With sea temperatures increasing, waters become more favorable for 
the formation of hurricanes and an increase in frequency and intensity 
of hurricane activity in the region is expected85

The table below shows an average of over 50% of tropical 
storms becoming hurricanes over the last 20 years. It is very clear that 
not only has the frequency of hurricane activity been increasing in the 
region, but the intensity of hurricanes is sky-rocketing beyond belief. 
An example is the damage caused by Category 2 Hurricane Tomas to 
St. Lucia

. This can be seen in 
hurricane data collected by the National Hurricane Centre over the past 
few decades. 

86

Table 3 – Table showing percentages of tropical storms that became hurricanes 
during La Niña phases in the last 20 years

. Compared with other hurricanes at that stage, Hurricane 
Tomas caused tremendous damage. Thus, it is evident that increased 
hurricane intensity is a cause for great concern. 

 
87

Year 

 
 

# of Tropical Storms # Hurricanes % 
1996 13 8 61.5 

 
1998 14 10 71.4 

 
2004 16 8 50 

 
2005 31 15 48 

 
2010 17 8 47 

 
 
The nexus between hurricane frequency and intensity due to 

climate change and damage to coral reefs will now be examined. In a 
research paper done on the effects of hurricanes on reefs in the region, 

                                                             
85 (Reid) 
86 Ibid  
87 (Centre) 



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

46 
 

the results showed that after major hurricanes over the last 20 years, 
there was a 17% decrease in coral cover across the region, with no sign 
of re-growth or recovery up to 8 years after88

 Following 15 hurricanes and 15 tropical storms that passed 
through the Caribbean region in 2005, scientists recorded that coral 
bleaching in the region was never higher. Coral reefs in the US Virgin 
Islands decreased by over 50% in that year and the same thing 
happened in Puerto Rico, the Cayman Islands, St. Marteen,  Saba, St. 
Eustatius, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Barbados, Jamaica and Cuba

. The research indicates, 
the more intense the hurricane, the more coral reef loss is expected. The 
paper concluded that with increased hurricane intensity and no reef 
recovery after a hurricane, the effects on reef mortality in the region 
was devastating. This research was carried out for hurricanes up until 
2001. Subsequently, the next major hurricanes occurred in 2005. 

89. 
Coral mortality in the Lesser Antilles was just as severe, with 73% 
damage to certain coral species in Trinidad Tobago90. The hurricanes of 
2005 caused tremendous damage to coral reefs in the region causing 
mass flooding, bringing in muddy water and sediments from land run 
off, and increased wave activity91

It is important to be reminded of the importance of reefs in 
protecting the coastlines and beaches of Caribbean islands. With the 
major decline of reefs and the loss of protection to coasts, hurricanes 
have caused more damage than imaginable. In 1995, Tropical Storm Iris 
and Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn devastated the coastlines of Anguilla, 
Antigua and Barbuda, Nevis, Montserrat and Dominica causing severe 
coastal erosion

. 

92. The distance of coastline retreat in the islands varied 
from 2.5 m in Dominica to up to 17.5 m in Barbuda (coastal retreat 
refers to the average retreat of land from its original location)93. This 
coastal retreat brought with it damage to infrastructure and coastal 
vegetation94

                                                             
88 (Gardner, Cote and Gill) page 8 
89  (Wilkinson and Souter) page 1 
90 Ibid  
91 Ibid  
92 (Cambers) 
93 Ibid  
94 Ibid  

. 
 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 47 
 

 
 
 
 
  
 
 
FIG. 5 – Barnes Bay, Antigua before and after Hurricane Luis95

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

FIG. 6 – Coconut Beach, Dominica before and after the 1995 hurricane season96

Regular monitoring of Caribbean beaches over the years has 
shown that coastlines have been retreating and eroding at a rate of 0.3 m 
per year

 
 

97. In 1998, beach erosion caused by storms and hurricanes 
resulted in Cuba having to refill its beaches with over 1million m3 of 
sand after the effects of Hurricane Lili98. In 2001 after Hurricane 
Michelle, there was a net loss of over 140 million m3 of sand from just 
one of Cuba’s beaches99. In 2004, when Hurricane Ivan passed over the 
Cayman Islands, there was serious damage to the coastline beaches, 
especially to the Seven Mile Beach on the western peninsula. Although 
no quantitative data was given for the amount of damage caused, the 
reason suggested for such damage was the lack of reef protection along 
that part of the coast along with very strong wave surges.100. In Jamaica,   
damage to beach and housing has also occurred due to hurricanes and 
storms undermining housing foundations along coastlines of St. 
Margaret’s Bay and Orange Bay101

                                                             
95 Ibid  
96 Ibid  
97 (Cambers, Impact of Climate Change on the Beaches of the Caribbean) 
98 (UNEP/GPA) page 56 
99 Ibid page 57 
100 (Young) page 48 
101 (Robinson, Rowe and Khan) 

. Hurricane forces have also caused 



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

48 
 

breaking and erosion of limestone cliffs in Jamaica. This occurred with 
Hurricane Wilma102.   

Clearly, damage to coral reefs by hurricanes and storms is being 
aggravated by the anthropogenic factors of pollution, sedimentation, 
overfishing and climate change. Reduction of coral reefs in the 
Caribbean portends even further damage to land and coasts of 
Caribbean islands. 

 

Dr. Ulric Trotz defines mitigation as “anthropogenic 
intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse 
gases.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies & Policies for the Region 
 

103” He refers to adaptation as the “adjustment in natural or 
human systems to a new or changing environment.104” In relation to 
climate change and global warming, adaptation refers to the adjustment 
of natural and human systems105

(1) Early action  to avoid the more disastrous effects of climate change, 
such as setting effective carbon prices

. In this context, mitigation and 
adaptation strategies are looked at in an effort to alleviate the strain on 
the environment being caused by climate change. Different strategies 
need to be adopted for each Caribbean island depending on levels of 
damage and the economic and political climate. The Intergovernmental 
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Caribbean Community 
Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) advocate mitigation (through 
reduction of carbon emissions) and adaptation strategies, in relation to 
the Caribbean and other Small Island Developing States (the latter are 
low-lying coastal countries that have small, growing populations, 
limited resources, susceptibility to natural disasters and dependence on 
international trade).  Some broad adaptation strategies that are plausible 
are:  

106

(2) Increasing government funding for research, development and 
demonstration of carbon-free energy sources

 

107

                                                             
102 Ibid  
103 (Trotz) page 3 
104 Ibid page 2 
105 Ibid page 2 
106 Ibid page 11 
107 Ibid page 11 

 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 49 
 

(3)  Preventing development close to coasts108

(4) Modification of land use and building codes
 

109

(5) Defence structures such as dikes, levees, sea walls, flood gates and 
tidal barriers

 

110

(6) Afforestation measures along with wetland recreation
 

111

 
A few mitigation strategies include: 
 

 

(1) Finding more efficient ways of using fossil fuels112

(2) Suppression of greenhouse gases, e.g. suppression of carbon dioxide 
from oil and gas wells

 

113

(3) Switching to renewable sources of energy like biomass, wind 
energy or solar energy

 

114

(4) Waste minimization –reuse, reduce, recycle
 

115

 
 Strategies and policies are not easy to put in place without 

cooperation from all sectors in the respective states. The Caribbean 
islands have dynamic governmental structures, with varying policy 
goals and economic priorities. For example, the Haitian government 
when it takes up office may prioritize the rebuilding of its infrastructure 
and a steady supply of food and provision for its people. On the other 
hand, Trinidad and Tobago has no immediate concern with rebuilding 
infrastructure and can therefore utilize brain and manpower to 
implement sustainable policies.  

 

The ultimate success for implementation of these policies and 
strategies rests in the hands of the local population and the government, 
with the help of the private sector. The adaptation strategies outlined 
above are very wide ranging but require a great deal of deliberation and 
funding from governmental and private enterprises. The reason for 
specifying private enterprise is because the economic situation in some 
countries of the region is so dire that they would not be able to fully 
                                                             
108 (IPCC) page 313  
109 Ibid page 313 
110 Ibid page 313 
111 Ibid page 313 
112 Ibid page 591 
113 Ibid page 597 
114 Ibid pages 603 - 614 
115 (Bogner) 



Anastasia Deonarinesingh – CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE CARIBBEAN 

50 
 

fund these projects, like intensive research into energy sources. The 
Caribbean is a region with a lot of potential for other energy sources, 
but the economies of the individual islands cannot meet the demand of 
these projects.  This is where integration should play a larger role, with 
each country helping each other for the betterment of the entire region.   

Smaller scale adaptation strategies could be adopted as outlined 
above, such as the modification of land use and building codes and the 
construction of defense structures. These are steps that could be taken 
even though they are small. These small changes do add up and can 
have big effects. The simple construction of defense structures could 
help eradicate much of the beach erosion along the coasts of our islands.  
The simple modification of land, better agricultural practices, drainage 
modifications and afforestation (replanting of forests) could prevent top 
soil erosion on land during hurricanes and storms.   

Improved strategies and policies need to be taken on by the 
governments of the region. However, smaller projects like construction 
of defense structures and everyday practices of recycling are the 
people’s responsibility. 
 

The Caribbean region’s delicate ecosystems are clearly 
vulnerable to continuing changing climate. To combat the problem, the 
region’s massive potential for utilizing other energy sources must be 
tapped into. Although some islands are hugely dependent on the 
importation of fossil fuels and gas, an immediate and concerted shift to 
other sources of renewable, sustainable energy is imperative. Solar, 
biomass, wind and hydropower are undemanding and natural 
modifications for islands surrounded by water. Further research into 
these energy sources and their application to the region must be 
encouraged and funded both by individual islands and regional 
alliances. Caribbean governments must band together for effective 
mitigation and adaptation strategies. The main focus must be the 
prevention of further damage to the region from the effects of climate 
change. Immediate reduction of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere 
will enormously impact rising sea and earth temperatures. Ultimate 
success in implementation must begin with the local population 

Conclusion 
 



CARIBBEAN QUILT | 2011 
 

 51 
 

working side by side with the government and the private sector. 
Private sector resources can greatly assist with the funding of projects 
like intensive research into alternative energy sources. Meanwhile, 
interim measures such as the construction of simple defense structures 
can help eradicate beach erosion along the island coasts. The 3R`s – 
reuse, reduce, and recycle – should be adopted by every household in 
the Caribbean to help reduce the effects of climate change on their own 
country. Individual concern such as careful recycling practices will 
demonstrate that we are all becoming aware of our environment at this 
most crucial juncture in global development. 

 
 
 

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