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Redemption Song: A Commentary on Caribbean Society 
 
Maria Bacchus 

Centre for Caribbean Studies  

Faculty of Arts & Science, University of Toronto 

 
Maria Bacchus is a Guyanese Canadian undergraduate student at the University of Toronto. Having completed a Bachelor of Arts with a major in 

History and minors in Anthropology and Classical Studies, her academic career has been characterized by an exploration of the social, cultural, and 

religious landscapes of antiquity and contemporary times through her production of artwork, literature, and oral history during her time at the 

university. 

                                                                                  
 
KEYWORDS: 

Stuart Hall 

Historical Causality  

Foreign Influence 

Colonialism 

Plantocracy 

Cultural Continuity  

Assimilation  

Race 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
ABSTRACT 

                                                                                        
This essay unpacked and analyzed the seven-part documentary series, Redemption Song, narrated by Stuart Hall, about 

the Caribbean in the early 1990s. Given the diversity of the Caribbean, Redemption Song unified the Caribbean by framing 

how the Caribbean’s past of foreign influence has shaped its present. Thus, this essay linked historical causality and the 

Caribbean’s present as a cultural mosaic to argue that Redemption Song demonstrates how contemporary Caribbean 

society is a product of its history of foreign influence and colonialism. This was accomplished by discussing a scene from 

each episode of Redemption Song and connecting it with secondary literature on Caribbean society to touch upon how 

the series represents and comments on contemporary Caribbean society. Namely, this essay discussed issues concern-

ing the economy, identity, citizenship, race, class, sovereignty, borders, and tourism and how they relate to British, Afri-

can, Indian, French, Spanish, and American influences in the Caribbean 

 

Introduction 
Redemption Song is a seven-part documentary series nar-
rated by the late theorist Stuart Hall about the Caribbean in 
the early 1990s. An overarching study of the Caribbean is 

 
1 Kamala Kempadoo, “Introduction: Thinking About the Carib-
bean,” in Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, Race and Sexual Labor 

challenging, considering its diversity of ethnicities, lan-
guages, religions, and cultures.1 This begs the question, 
what unites the Caribbean as a topic of discussion and 
study? While the series covers many cases, many 

(Routledge, 2004), 5. 

Caribbean Quilt 
Journal Homepage: https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/cquilt/index 
 
 



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contemporary issues represent critical aspects of Carib-
bean society. Sidney Mintz argued that the Caribbean is 
distinct due to its social form, which stems from the colo-
nial history that has shaped the region.2 Therefore, this es-
say will play with the dynamics of historical causality and 
the Caribbean as a “cultural mosaic” to argue that the con-
tent explored in Hall’s Redemption Song exemplifies the 
linkages of Caribbean society and its history of colonialism 
and foreign influence. This will be achieved by analyzing 
a central theme or scene from each episode of Redemption 
Song to show how the series may comment on issues of 
Caribbean society contemporary to the filming of the series. 
These issues comment on how foreign or global forces in-
fluence different areas of life in the Caribbean, showing the 
relationship between the Caribbean’s past and its present.  
 
Episode 1 
The first episode in the series, “Iron in the Soul,” laid the 
foundation of the series. As a result, Hall began by address-
ing a seminal component of the Caribbean: its history with, 
and legacy of, colonialism and slavery. At the core of a dis-
cussion of slavery in the Caribbean is the institution that 
organized and maintained slavery, the plantation. As Mintz 
argued, the intersection of slavery, plantations, and sugar 
reshaped the Caribbean society and the economic land-
scape.3 The plantation was integral because its economic 
structures brought different people from the world together 
in a particular way, shaping the population and social com-
position of the Caribbean.4 On top of bringing together di-
verse peoples, the plantation system controlled the lives of 
the people within it, and so, one’s status within the planta-
tion shaped how one related to others and was perceived.5 
“Iron in the Soul” depicted the plantation in its historical 
form describing slavery in Jamaica, and its contemporary 
vestiges, by featuring the Cave family plantation in Barba-
dos. The Caribbean’s history with the plantocracy also con-
textualizes its current economy. Beckford discussed the 
unequal distribution of land in Jamaica, where the few 

 
2 David Scott, "Modernity that Predated the Modern: Sidney 
Mintz’s Caribbean," in History Workshop Journal 58, no. 1 
(2004): 199. 
3 Scott, 200. 
4 George L. Beckford, “Introduction,” in Persistent Poverty: 
Underdevelopment in Plantation Economies of the Third World 
(University of West Indies Press, 1999), 3. 
5 Beckford, 9. 

existing plantations account for 56% of the available farm-
land in the country.6 As a contrasting point, small farms 
(of less than five acres), which occupy 71% of the farms in 
Jamaica, only encompassed 12% of the country’s farm-
lands, thus restricting the opportunities of these small 
farmers.7 The difficulty of local Caribbean farmers in at-
taining land attests to the continued monopoly the planta-
tion has on land in the Caribbean. Despite this, Steven 
Cave, the current owner of the Cave plantation, expressed 
concern over the Barbadian government threatening to na-
tionalize his family’s plantation.8 When held against the 
economic angle of an uneven distribution of land skewed 
in favour of the plantation, his words appear short-sighted 
or conveniently ignoring the benefit of the country and 
many small farmers over his personal preferences. This at-
titude of entitlement is a vestige of the plantocracy, demon-
strating how the Caribbean’s historical plantation system, 
and its embedded class structure, continued to impact con-
temporary Caribbean society and economy.  
 
Episode 2 
The second episode, “Out of Africa,” attests to the contin-
ued presence of Africa in the Caribbean. Redemption Song 
used this standpoint to describe Haiti’s history and the ex-
pressions of African identity and culture in contemporary 
Haitian and Jamaican society. As the episode presented, 
Vodou served as an amalgam of different West and Central 
African rituals that came over with slavery and survived 
due to Haiti’s isolation.9 In Jamaica, Africa is intentionally 
drawn upon as inspiration with Rastafarianism and Marcus 
Garvey’s “Back to Africa” movement.10 Thus, Caribbean 
society is a product of assimilation and retention in re-
sponse to its history of encroachment, colonialism, and 
slavery.11 Slavery worked by trying to instill a sense of in-
herent inferiority in the enslaved people, especially in com-
parison to the superiority of their Retaining African cus-
toms and traditions within music, dance, religion, and lan-
guage has allowed those in the Caribbean to survive the 

6 Ibid., 23. 
7 Ibid. 
8 Redemption Song, “Iron in the Soul.”  
9 Redemption Song, “Out of Africa.”  
10 Ibid.  
11 Stuart Hall, "Negotiating Caribbean Identities," New Left Re-
view no. 209 (1995): 7-8.  



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rupture of displacement and overall, the trauma of slav-
ery.12  
 
As “Out of Africa” elaborates, Africa evoked a rediscovery 
of roots, the recreation of one’s history, and a reclamation 
of one’s agency.13 Thus, Rastafarians believed they were 
in exile and aspired to return to Zion or Africa, showing 
that repatriation is vital to their belief.14 Africa becomes 
idealized as a powerful symbolic point of reference for 
home, roots, and source of identity. Additionally, the Bib-
lical references of Ethiopia provide a counternarrative of 
liberation and dignification which contrasted with the con-
ditions of slavery.15 This reinforces the notion that socie-
ties in the Caribbean have been influenced and shaped by 
resistance to slavery and the plantation.16 Therefore, Re-
demption Song celebrates the role this cultural retention 
has played in the past and present, contextualizing the Af-
rican influences in contemporary Caribbean society.  
 
Episode 3 
“Paradise Lost” describes the differing conditions of life in 
the Dominican Republic, ranging from wealthy individuals 
such as Senora Puccini, who can afford to travel all around 
the world and host extravagant parties, to Haitian migrant 
workers, whose lives have been compared to slavery. The 
juxtaposition between the two speaks to the intersection of 
race, citizenship, statelessness, and nationalist ideologies 
in the Dominican Republic. Hall frames the discussion 
with a remark that even the poorest Dominican citizen 
would not be caught dead cutting sugar cane.17 Instead, it 
is the work of migrants from Haiti. This intentionally con-
trasts the Dominican citizen against the Haitian migrant in 
the Dominican cane fields. Other scholars, such as Samuel 
Martinez, have also used the word “slavery” to describe the 
situations of the Haitian migrant workers within the Do-
minican sugar industry. 18  Haitians have migrated and 
worked in the cane fields of the Dominican Republic since 
the beginning of the twentieth century.19 By the 1930s, the 

 
12 Hall, 7, 12. 
13 Redemption Song, “Out of Africa.” 
14 Chevannes, 1. 
15 Ibid., 34. 
16 Ibid., 17. 
17 Redemption Song, “Paradise Lost.” 
18 Samuel Martinez, "From Hidden Hand to Heavy Hand: 
Sugar, the State, and Migrant Labor in Haiti and the Dominican 

“piece-rate” wage system was instituted, where cane cut-
ters were only paid according to how much sugar cane they 
cut, resulting in economic coercion due to such low 
wages. 20  Additionally, 25,000 Haitians were killed in 
1937, but those living on the sugar estates were spared, es-
tablishing that the only safe space for Haitians on Domin-
ican soil was within the bateyes.21 Redemption Song sheds 
light on the lives of these Haitians and the forced labour, 
constant surveillance, horrible living conditions, and debt 
to the company store they faced.22  
 
Additionally, Hall described Haiti as “the Republic’s tradi-
tional enemy.”23 This wording contextualizes the condi-
tions of Haitians in the Dominican Republic and links it to 
a history of a racialized construction of the Dominican Re-
public in opposition to Haiti. The Trujillo dictatorship led 
a propaganda effort in the 1930s to depict Haitians as cul-
turally and racially distinct from the Dominican people, es-
tablishing Dominican identity and citizenship along racial 
lines while isolating and Othering those of Haitian de-
scent.24 This mistreatment of Haitian workers coincided 
with the redefinition of the Dominican Republic and Haiti 
along racial lines, with the populace of the former depicted 
as Spanish and the latter as African, which limited the op-
portunities for Haitian workers in the Dominican Republic 
to the cane fields. Ultimately, the fear of the “Haitian men-
ace” justified Trujillo’s dictatorship.25 Overall, the depic-
tion of Haitian migrant workers in the Dominican Republic 
in Redemption Song has been used to show the stark con-
trast between classes in the country. Still, this case study is 
the tip of the iceberg in discussing race, style, and national 
identity in the country.  
 
Episode 4 
The fourth episode, “La Grande Illusion,” explored society 
in Martinique in light of its historical and contemporary 
connections with France. Martinique’s connection with 
France is evident in its everyday community, as seen 

Republic," Latin American Research Review (1999): 57. 
19 Martinez, 60. 
20 Ibid., 66-67. 
21 Martinez, 70. 
22 Redemption Song, “Paradise Lost.” 
23 Ibid. 
24 Martinez, 69. 
25 Ibid., 71. 



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through the country's widespread French culture and lan-
guage. The pervasive French influence in Martinique 
speaks to the colonial tendency to transfer its culture, lan-
guage, and education systems to its Caribbean colonies.26 
The Caribbean middle class was seen as having the social 
and cultural capital to rule the Caribbean post-colonial 
state because they adopted the West's cultural capital and 
consumptive patterns. 27  However, such features of the 
West were incompatible with the Caribbean’s economy 
and nature due to clashes with the natural racial hierarchy 
in the Caribbean.28 This racial hierarchy necessitated the 
negotiation of one’s identity within or against their “inher-
ent” social rank within the racial hierarchy.29  
 
An example of this can be seen in the episode’s depiction 
of the white population in Martinique, with interviewees 
stating that they do not mix with other racial groups to 
maintain their racial and cultural superiority. 30  Marti-
nique’s education system also teaches French language and 
history but ignores, sidelines, and ultimately erases black 
history.31 The varying value and attention placed on dif-
ferent histories and cultures show the uneven racialized 
landscape of the Caribbean. Redemption Song acknowl-
edges this condition in the title of the episode. As elabo-
rated by Aime Cesaire, “La Grande Illusion” refers to the 
belief that the enduring French influence in Martinique 
would allow its citizens to be considered equal to Black 
Frenchmen.32 The status of being an equal Black French-
men remains an illusion due to the racialized nature of Car-
ibbean society.33 This racial hierarchy is present in Marti-
nique, so while French culture and language transfer was 
transferred, it was placed on top of the racial order. Thus, 
the denial of this order perpetuates the “Grande Illusion.” 
Therefore, in Martinique, there is a disjuncture between the 
valorization of French identity and what this French iden-
tity embraces and hides, which has repercussions on the 
identity and self-recognition of those living in the 

 
26 Redemption Song, “La Grande Illusion.” 
27 Aaron Kamugisha, "The Coloniality of Citizenship in the 
Contemporary Anglophone Caribbean," Race & Class 49, no. 2 
(2007): 24-25. 
28 Kamugisha, 24-25. 
29 Hall, 8. 
30 Redemption Song, “La Grande Illusion.” 
31 Ibid. 
32 Ibid.  
33 Redemption Song, “La Grande Illusion.” 

Caribbean.  
 
Episode 5 
“Worlds Apart” highlights the linkages between history 
and contemporary society in portraying Trinidad and Guy-
ana's racialized divisions and tensions. The Caribbean 
post-colonial state is ultimately a racial state based on how 
The connection between race, colour, culture, and class 
shapes Caribbean society. 34  In Trinidad and especially 
Guyana, there is an ideological divide between those of Af-
rican and Indian origins. This divide is believed to have 
begun when Indian indentured workers were brought in by 
colonial powers after emancipation, taking away the bar-
gaining power of formerly enslaved people to better con-
ditions and wages.35 The tension between those of African 
and Indian descent in the Caribbean was fostered by colo-
nial powers, dividing society to prevent the union of these 
groups against the colonial administration.36 Despite the 
perceived differences between the groups, they share the 
common interest of being shaped by foreign influences, 
which pit them against each other.37 However, this ideol-
ogy also produces material consequences, leading to ethnic 
polarization and political violence.38 This racial divide is 
present in Guyanese politics between the People’s Progres-
sive Party (PPP), which Indo-Guyanese broadly supports, 
and the predominantly Afro-Guyanese-supported People’s 
National Congress (PNC).39 These parties are perceived to 
be inherently different even though they are ideologically 
similar, with liberal-democratic views, following the 
1990s.40 Thus, Redemption Song depicted the naturaliza-
tion of ethnic polarization due to a specific history.  
 
Additionally, “Worlds Apart” provides a new avenue to 
consider how racial identity and ethnic divisions can be 
subverted in Caribbean society through featuring the singer, 
Drupatee. As an Indo-Trinidadian, Drupatee is part of a 
community that strongly draws upon the largely patriarchal 

34 Kamugisha, 26. 
35 Kevin Edmonds, “Race and Conflict in the Caribbean,” Lec-
ture at the University of Toronto. 
36 Ibid. 
37 Perry Mars, "Ethnic Politics, Mediation, and Conflict Resolu-
tion: The Guyana Experience," Journal of Peace Research 38, 
no. 3 (2001): 366. 
38 Mars, 357. 
39 Ibid., 356. 
40 Ibid., 357. 



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Indian family values.41 Thus, she was expected to be a 
housewife in a private, supportive role in the domestic 
sphere. Despite this expectation, and with her husband’s 
support, Drupatee challenged traditional Indian patriarchal 
expectations and became a famous public singer. Drupatee 
also subverted racial lines by appealing to Afro-Trinidad-
ian audiences by singing Calypso.42 Thus, the portrayal of 
Drupatee in “Worlds Apart” showed that it is possible to 
transverse these gendered and racial divisions, showing 
how these seemingly “inherently different” groups were 
not, in fact, worlds apart. This subversion reiterates that the 
tale of a historical rift between Guyanese of Indian and Af-
rican descent is a myth based on relatively recent antago-
nisms.43 Race is seen as a pervasive reason for divisions 
shaping many aspects of Caribbean society, such as politics 
and gendered family structures. Still, the episode furthers 
this topic by showing how this preconception of race as an 
end-all can be subverted and challenged.  
 
Episode 6 
“Following Fidel” focused on life in Cuba. Within this ep-
isode, Hall also touches upon Guantanamo Bay. By doing 
so, Hall reasserts that despite the hard borders and security 
measures between Guantanamo Bay and the rest of Cuba, 
it is still part of Cuba. The physical and ideological mainte-
nance of separation between Guantanamo Bay and the rest 
of Cuba links to a more extensive discussion of sovereignty 
and the nature of foreign intervention in Cuba. The story 
of Cuba is intertwined with foreign influence, as expressed 
through the vintage American cars found on its streets or 
the Soviet-style clothing tailored for Eastern European 
women, available in Cuban stores.44 The case of Guan-
tanamo Bay reinscribes the nature of the foreign occupa-
tion, as it represents a portion of Cuba that still belongs to 
the United States but also hardly resembles Cuba.45 The 
Cubans in Guantanamo Bay must commute to work over 
large distances and face security searches. Meanwhile, the 
Americans who live on the base are isolated, with no com-
munication with the outside. So few can compare the 

 
41 Redemption Song, “Worlds Apart.” 
42 Ibid. 
43 Mars, 366. 
44 Redemption Song, “Following Fidel.” 
45 Ibid.  
46 Ibid. 
47 Yarimar Bonilla, "Ordinary Sovereignty," Small Axe: A 

conditions in Guantanamo’s well-stocked shelves and the 
bare ones surrounding Cuba.46 The case of Guantanamo is 
one of security, management and, ultimately, dissociation, 
where the “savagery and barbarism” of its surroundings are 
kept outside its gates.47  

Guantanamo Bay is a space of containment and 
management for those that could potentially “trouble” the 
nation, namely Haitian migrants.48 However, the terms of 
the lease of Guantanamo Bay to the United States dictate 
that the Cuban government has “sovereignty” over the area 
even though the United States operates and exercises its 
military control.49 Therefore, Guantanamo Bay serves as 
“a carefully crafted legal absence” which allows the United 
States to use simultaneously and remain unaccountable for 
this space in Cuba.50 Thus, this shows how space can be 
constructed in a way separate from its surroundings, allow-
ing foreign occupation to co-occur unimplicated. Despite 
this, Hall challenges this dismissal of accountability by 
bringing Guantanamo Bay back into the conversation of 
Cuba by featuring clips of the site and its workers and con-
trasting it with the rest of Cuba.51 This speaks to a more 
significant pattern of the illusion of accountability and 
(non)sovereignty found in the discourse of imperialism, 
occupation, and foreign intervention compared to its real-
ity in the Caribbean.52 
 
Episode 7  
“Shades of Freedom” ends the series by discussing how, 
despite the formal end of colonialism and slavery, Carib-
bean society has attained freedom in differing degrees. Per-
haps one of the most poignant examples of this conditional 
emancipation from foreign influence is seen with tourism 
in the Caribbean. The Caribbean has been a source of de-
sire for its natural beauty and “tropical sensuousness.”53 
Colonial portrayals of the Caribbean as welcoming and 
open for conquest are repurposed by the current tourism 
industry, distorting the Caribbean’s reality and presenting 

Caribbean Journal of Criticism 17, no. 3 (2013): 161. 
48 Bonilla, 160. 
49 Bonilla, 161. 
50 Ibid., 160.  
51 Redemption Song, “Following Fidel.” 
52 Bonilla, 161. 
53 Kempadoo, 1.  



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an orchestrated Caribbean caricature to the tourist.54 This 
is motivated by the fact that many of the economies of Car-
ibbean countries rely on profits from a particular view of 
the Caribbean.55  However, as expressed in Redemption 
Song, the money and services brought in by tourism is not 
used to benefit the country’s people but to enrich those who 
own the tourism sector.56 Actions undertaken to help the 
locals, such as replacing a statue, are only accomplished if 
seen benefitting the tourist industry.57 The attention and 
effort put into the tourism industry, rather than national de-
velopment, contributes to the alienation of Caribbean peo-
ples.58 As discussed in the episode, the local becomes in-
cidental, a second-class citizen, and sidelined against the 
needs of the tourist.59 The material and ideological con-
struction of the Caribbean according to foreigners' desires 
and consumption patterns is a simultaneous act of violence 
towards its locals.60 Thus, Hall ends the episode with a 
message that links all the episodes of Redemption Song to 
Caribbean society in general: an awareness that the Carib-
bean’s past was cast in “different images of Europe” and 
now must determine if its present reshapes or breaks away 
from these images to depict the Caribbean in its likeness.61 
The balance between the benefits of the tourism industry 
in the Caribbean against the damaging effects of Caribbean 
alienation, commodification, and reproduced inferiority 
must be negotiated as Caribbean society redefines itself 
from its past. 
 
In conclusion, contemporary Caribbean society is a prod-
uct of its past and has been shaped by cultural continuity 
and change. This essay has analyzed each episode of Hall’s 
Redemption Song and has put it in conversation with topics 
relevant to Caribbean societies today to demonstrate that 
Caribbean society is shaped by its history of foreign influ-
ence. Thus, this essay has touched upon issues of economy, 
identity, citizenship, race, class, sovereignty, borders, and 
tourism and how it has related to British, African, Indian, 
French, Spanish, and American influences in the Carib-
bean.  

 
 

 
54 Kamugisha, 29. 
55 Kempadoo, 1.  
56 Redemption Song, “Shades of Freedom.” 
57 Kamugisha, 28.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

58 Ibid., 29. 
59 Redemption Song, “Shades of Freedom.” 
60 Kamugisha, 29. 
61 Redemption Song, “Shades of Freedom.” 



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