logo: logo: logo: logo: logo: logo: the internet: breaking the rule of teaching grammar antonius suratnol abstract iii this paper the writer reports the use of the ifllernet as part of strategy in teaching grammar of english. in such a case, students managed to both experience the wealth of computer technology through the internet abundant facilities for learnillg language and the success in grasping bener ideas of the language rules. through this activity, students functioned as "active explorer" of the rule of the language and as such were motivated to invest time and energy into their unusually interesting alld challellging . structure class. studellts were put into groups with which they wellt exploring the internet to find out the predetermined topic of exercises and practiced it together in groups, printed it out and then accoullled for it in front of the class. they had to be able to defend their answer infront of the class and to be ready 10 explain their answer. based on ihe observation made during the running of the class, the writer found that this teaching method allows students to more experience structure of english. then, from their comments they admitted that they learned structure better as they feel they were challenged to experience more than the ordinary book-based class. key words: internet-based exerrises, rule active explorer. accounting for, real structure experience. introduction teachers and students are now living in such a different learning environment that we are hardly possible to compare with the mid twentieth drs. antonius suratno, ma <antono_dito@yahoo.com> is a full-time lecturer of lbe faculty of leiters. soegijapranata calbolic university. semarang. 22 celt. volumc7.number i.july2007: 15-23 '! overview ofstudents' performance. conclusion despite some limitations in integrating the internet into the teaching of structure, such as the students' computer surfing skills and the uniformity of the students' learning pace which is different from one student to others _ and from one group to the other, involving internet resources in the structure teaching and learningprocess, one way of breaking the traditional rules of teaching english grammar, is of a highly motivating and encouraging learning experience. this method truly drove the snldents to be actively 90ing the exercise and searching for relevant information. through this way, the learning process can be turned from merely passive recipient of knowledge to an actively self-searching as well as building up responsibility to account for the grammatical point so that they experience a more memorable process of structure learning. eventually, all that can be done to overcome the problem of surfing skills and comprehensiveness of the grammatical explanation is giving them more exposure to usage principles as well as frequent experience of surfing. bibliography brandl, klaus. "integrating internet-based reading materials into the foreign language curriculum: from teacherto student-centered approach". in language learning technology, vol. 6, no.3. september 2002: 87-107. brown. douglas. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: edison wesley longman. inc .• 2001. brown. james dean. "computers in language testing: present research and some future direction". in language learning and technology. vol. 1. no.1. july 1997. a. sura/no, internet: breakting the rule of teaching grammar 23 kratjka, jarek. "using the internet in esl writing instruction". in the illicmet tesl joumaf, vol: 6, no. ii, november 2000. singhal, meena. "the internet and foreign language education: benefits and challenges", 1999. in the /f,umet tesl jollmaf vol 6, no.3, september 2002. sperling, dave. dave sperling's imemel gliide, 2nd cd. new york: prentice hall regents, 1998. teeler, dede and gray, peta. how to use the internet in elt. edinburg: pearson education limited. 2000. warschauer, m. and d. healey. "computers and language learning: an overview". in language teaching, vol. 31. 1998: 57-71. logo: the ideology and the ideational meaning processes behind the advertisements of cosmopolitan magazine' cicilia san sau2, heny hartono, and angclika riyandari3 abstral'l: this sllidy iried to r('\'eal the ideology and the process of ideational liieaning hehilld the alhertisemellts foulld in a female maga:i,,(', cosmopolitan. rhe cliicl~l'sis of ideology \l'as hased on four basic assulllptions. rhey are beall(v, prestige, health and others. /n ana~ld"g the processes of the ideational meaning, the \l'riterllsed hallida.!· theolj' that discllsses ahollt six types of proce.ues. they are material (doing/e"ellt) process. mental (thinking/ sensing/ feeli"g) process. relt1tiollal (attriblltirel idelltifying) process, behavioral process. i·erhal process and existelllial process. rhe resllits show that the adl't'rtisements are dollli"ated hy beauty ideology (45.5%) and relational process (41.4%). based oil the reslllt, it is clear that as a ./i.'male liiaga:ine. c osliiopolitan presents ac/l'ertisellll'lits ihal olfer beawrprodllcts/ sen·ices. a!orem'el; relational pron'.u (icl(,li/~ryillg) is iisee/lllore "ecelllse the proe/llcer cllld ihe cull'erlis('/' cwe clware ihat they ccll/nol colllpel ihe coiisllll1ers to i,,~i' the prodlicisi sen'ices offeree/. the /lse of'he process is aimed in sho\\' ihe prodllcts/services thai will raise ihe cllriositl· o( ii/e coii.\'iiliiers und iv per.mac/e ihe coilslmlers 10 huy the proc/llct.\·/~('i"icl's. key word.~: ae/"erti.h'liit'nt:\· tl'xls. ideology. processes o/iclecltiollal 1ii('liliing. trcl1lsilil'i~i' sysi(,11i, this article is ;1 development of the thesis defended at the faculty of l.etters. soegijapranata catholic vni vcrsity. scmarang. c('cilia san san, s.s. <ceciliasansan(ayahoo.com> is an alumnae of thc faculty of letters. socgijapnmata semarang and currently an education stall';lt the centre for language training soegij;lpranata catholic university. sej1larang angl'lika riyandari, s.s, m.a.' gllen2ike(c/ yahoo.com· ;md li('n~·ii;1rt()n(). s.s, m.pd . ..::henyhartono(cl,yahoo.conp arc lecturers of the faculty of letters. soegijapranata catholic university. semamng c sansan, h. hartono and a. riyandari, ideology and ideational meaning 187 they can increase people's prestige. products/ services that are offered through the magazine and can raise people's prestige are jewelry, car, and mobile phone. bmliography butt, david. el.al. "using functional grammar". sydney: macquarie university, 2000. chaney, david. "lifestyles". in lifestyles: sebuah pengantar komprehansij. edited by idy subandy ibrahim. yogyakarta: jalasutra, 1996. eggins, suzane. "an introduction to systemic functional linguistics". london: pinter publisher, 1994. eriyanto. "anal isis wacana:pengantar analisis teks media". yogyakarta: lkis yogyakarta, 2001. fairclough, norman. "language and power". london & new york: longman, 1989. __ . "critical discourse analysis:the critical study of language". london:longman, 1995. halliday, m.a.k. "an introduction to functional grammar". london: edward arnold, 1994. ibrahim, i.s. and hanif suranto .eds. "wanita dan media: konstruksi ideologi gender dalam ruang publik orde baru". bandung: rosda, 1998. jefkins, f. "advertising third edition". london: me handbook, 1994. leiliyanti, e. "konstruksi identitas perempuan dalam majalah cosmopolitan indonesia". in jurnal perempuan untuk pencerahan dan keselarasan. 2003: 28,69-83. martin, j.r. and david rose. "working with discourse". sydney and hong kong: the state university ofsemarang, 200 i. nur r., t.h. "stereotipe dan komoditas perempuan dalam iklan". in jurnai perempuan untukpencerahan dan keselarasan. 2003: 28, 119-128. 188 celt, volume 7, number 2, december 2007: 175 188 appendix transitivity system pr: material; +actor; (+goal) (+range) (+beneficiary) pr: mental; +senser; +phenomenon pr: verbal; +sayer; (+receiver) (+verbiage) pr: behavioural; +behaver; (+behaviour) (+phenomenon) pr: existential; +existent pr: identifying; +token; +value pr: attributive; +carrier; +attribute +circumstance "--+ ... i_n_o_t --' logo: social impacts of modernization on the tappers: a study on ahmad tohari's bekisar merah supannanl abstract: the mimetic and interdisciplinary approach covering economy. history. culture. and ecology used in this research are mainly aimed at revealing the social impacts of modernization on the tappers as reflected in ahmad tohari's bekisar merah. the analysis shows that modernization does not only cause positive impacts but also negative one. which are even stronger. the bad . impacts include monopoly. human and cultural conflict. imbalanced ecology. poverty, disharmony. violation of law, materialistic life. less religiosity. drop outs; and migration. the positive impacts include independence. adaptation, rationalil)i and efficiency. the problems appear in the novel reflects the inner conflict of the author. ahmad tohari questions the ideas of the coming of the electricil)' set in karangsoga village. modernization can only be enjoyed by the upper class of the society. it cannot meet the necessity of the traditional people. the tappers cannot enjoy the electricil)~ even more. it causes misery alld poverty. key words: modernization. tappers. social impacts. electrification drs. suparman, s.s. m.hum. <suparman _ stainska@yahoo.co.id> is an alunmae from the english department of sebelas maret university in surakarta (1997) and _ the american studies graduate program of gadjah mada university in yogyakarta (2005). he currently dedicates himself to being the managing editor of jurnal sastra dan bahasa and the secretary of the faculty of english letters at stain surakarta (2006 -now). suparman, social impacts of modernization on the tappers 67 conclusion modernization has changed all ways of life of karangsoga tappers .. the form of modernization in bekisar meral! is the introduction of electrification. it brings about great changes in the society especially the tappers of karangsoga. the changes can include all aspects of life, but they primarily shape social aspects of traditional people-the tappers. it shapes the behavior of the tappers in the society. electrification in bekisar meral! does not only cause positive impacts, but also negative ones, which are stronger. the negative impacts include human and cultural conflict, imbalanced ecology, poverty, disharmony, greediness. the positive impacts include adaptation, the introduction of new technology, and efficiency. the problems in the novel reflect the inner conflict of the author, ahmad tohari. he questions the ideas of the coming of the electrification on the traditional tappers. ideally, the coming of modernization should maximize the positive impacts and minimize the negative ones. bibliography abraham. francis. modemisasi di dllnia ketiga. translated by m. rusli karim. yogyakarta: tiara wacana, 1991. abrams. mh. the mirror of the lamp: romalltic theory alld critical tradition. new york: oxford university press. 1979. bradbury. malcom e. macfarlane. modemism. new york: penguin book. 1976. burns. tom and elizabeth. sociology of literature alld drama. great britain: c.nichol1s and company ltd. 1973. harrison, david. the sociology of modemization alld development. london: unwin hyman ltd. 1988. hidayat. zu1yani. modemisasi dan pellgaruhll),a terhadap system pertallian di yogyakarta. jakarta: dekdikbud dirjen jakarta. 1994. holman. c hugh. a handbook to literature. 4'" edition. usa: merrill company. inc. 1981. jamee1ah. m. islam and western society: arefutation of the modem way of life. india: adam publisher and distributors. 1966. 68 celt, volume7.numbcr i.july 2007: 51-68 kreuttzmann. herman. "from modernization theory towards the clash of civilizations': directions and paradigs shifts in samuel huntington's analysis and prognosis of global development". in geojournalvol. 46. netherlands: k1uwer academic publisher. 1998: 225-265. long. norman. sosiologi pembangunan pedesaan. jakarta: p.t. binaaksara •. 1987. mansyur. cholil. sosiologi masyarakat kota dall desa. surabaya: usana offset printing. 1998. pppb team (pusat pembina dan pengembangan bahasa). kanlus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka, 1994. saadah. sri. masyarakat petani. matapencaharian sambilan dan kesempalan kerja di kelurahan cakuilg tlmur daerah khusus ibukota jakarta. jakarta: depdikbub, 1990. smith, h.n. can american studies develop a method ill studies in american cullure". edited by joseph j. kwiat and marry c. turpie. usa: university of minnesota, 1980. sugono, i>!ndy. ensiklopedia saslra indonesia. bandung: pt. rosdakarya. 2003. tohari, ahmad. bekisar merall. jakarta: pt.gramcdia, 1993. tohari. ahmad. sastra dan budaya islam nusalltara. yogyakarta: smf adab lain sunan kalijaga, 1998. . weiner. myron, ed. modernisasi dinamika pertumbuhan. yogyakarta: universitas gadjah mada press. 1977. wunlu, ceisy nita. "wilderness versus civilization as reflected in cooper's the last of mohicans and the prairie". in journal berkala bpps .. yogyakarta: universitas gadj8h mada press, 1996. logo: viewing contrastive rhetoric from a post modern perspective: finding an implication to the second language writing pedagogy susilo' abstract: the hybrid nature of culture that comes up as a result of postmodern world brings about considerable interaction, borrowing, and fusion between cultures and communicative genres. in such situation, there is erosion of national boundaries. greater multilingualism, and fluidity in identity; hence a" absolute constroct of particular culture is getting blurred. consequently, the term "native identity" has come to a "blurring spot" in the sense that it will be simply awkward to hold firmly one's native identity when multilingualism has become norm. this hybrid and plural character of identity has gone to be considerable as the basis of contrastive texts analysis. the newest way of looking at the contrastive rhetoric is that differences in pragmatic or rhetorical expectations should not be considered as unproficiency or interference for the bi/multilingual writer, rather rhetorical choices opted by the bi/multilingual writer should be considered as critical/alternate discourse. this article is aimed to look at the pedagogy of shuttling between languages done by multilingual writers as the new orientation in the teaching and learning second language writing. key words: contrastive rhetoric, multilingual, monolingual, second language writing. dr. susijo, m.pd. <olisusunmul@yahoo.com> is a lecturer from east kalimantan, samarinda, mulawarman university's graduate school in education and in the english department of the fkip program +62 -541-74118. 108 celt, volume7, number 2, december 2007: 99 109 bffiliography bhabha, homi k. the location of culture. new york: routledge, 1994. budiharso, t. rhetoric and linguistic features of english and indonesian essays made by efl undergraduate students. malang: unpublished dissertation, graduate program, state university ofmalang, indonesia 200 1. cahyono, b. y. "how english learning development influences efl students' rhetoric ofindonesian essays". in bahasa dan seni. vol. 29, no.1, 2001: 98-108. canagarajah, a.s. "shuttling between discourse: textual and pedagogical possibilities for periphery scholars". in identity. community, discourse. english in international settings. edited by g. cortese and duszak. new york: peter longag, european academic publishers, 2005. canagarajah, a.s. "negotiating the local in english as a lingua franca" . in annual review of applied linguistics. vol. 26, 2006a: 197-218. __ . "toward writing pedagogy of shuttling between languages: learning from multilingual writers". in college english. vol. 68 no.6, 2006a: 589 604. __ . critical academic writing and multilingual students. ann arbor: university of michigan press, 2002. connor, u. 2005. "dialogue. comment by ulla connor". in journal of second language writing, vol. 14,2005: 132-136. graddol, david. english next. why global english mean the end of english as a foreign language? united kingdom: the english company, ltd, plymouth,2006. harjanto, i. english academic writing features by indonesian learners of english. malang: unpublished dissertation, graduate program, state university of malang, indonesia. 1999. hyland, k. "scientific english: hedging in a foreign culture". in the languageculture connection. an anthology series 37. edited by joyces e. james. singapore: seameo relc, 1996. hyland, k. genre and second language writing. ann arbor: university of michigan press, 2007. jenkins, j. world englishes: a resource book of students. london: routledge, 2003. susilo, viewing contrastive rhetoric from a post modem perspective 109 kachru, y. "contrastive rhetoric in world englishes". in english today, vol. ii, 1995:2131. kachru, y. "culture, context, and writing". in culture in second language teaching and learning. edited by e. hinkel. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1999:75-89. kamimura, taeko. "composing in japanese as a first language and english as a foreign language: a study of narrative writing". in recljournal. vol. 27, no.l:47-69. kaplan, r. b. "cultural patterns thought in inter-cultural education". in readings on english as a second language for teachers and teacher trainees,],,4 ed. edited by k. croft. cambridge, massachusetts: winthrop publishers, inc, 1980 leki, i. "cross-talk: esl issues and contrastive rhetoric. in writing in multicultural settings. edited by c. severino, j.c. guerra and j.e. butler. new york, ny: the modem language association of america, 1997: 234244. ngadiman, a. "javanese cultural thought patterns as manifested in expository discourse". malang: unpublished dissertation, graduate program, state univeristy ofmalang, indonesia, 1998. spack, r. "the rhetorical construction of multilingual students". in tesol quarterly, vol. 31, 1997: 765-774. sulistyaningsih. "a descriptive study on rhetoric in students' expository essays. malang: unpublished mater thesis, graduate program, state university of malang, indonesia, 1997. zamel, v. "toward a model oftransculturation". in tesol quarterly, vol. 31, 1997:341-352. logo: retillnking tradmon in modern life krisprantono i --#. ' . .'~i!:'.!: ~.,~ abstract: iii a gelleral sellse. traditioll is associated with tl 'ila'~' ' .. thar remaiilsilllegraltollsall.whileo/ltheotllerlultidmo~f~ •.. ~~~..fi .. look towards the flltttre. f!isrorically, traditiolls derived from '-. :p;"'9"~·i" collditiolls siich as social system. climate. ollr liutllral el/l'irollj, e lap, i'",'t' alld 0,,1' beliefs abo 1/1 religioll alld philosophy. however, mode;~~~f5ti>'j. is more related to 0111' social ecollomic factors, leelll/olog." alld global illformatioll. these illfillence the c/uliiges of ollr attiwde towards our heritage alld what li'e should do abol/l it. iii the iollg existellce of iiiii/ulllity allew generatioll appears mllg"'." every twellty jive years. iii model'll tillle. we questioll holl' call t/'cidilioll sm .... i\·e ill the dyn(lll/ic adi'cli/cemelll of /iioderni;:,atioll '! iii thf' west alld e\'ell ill the eastern ("tltllr£' together li'ith the illfillellce of modemily. tl'llditiolls alld (:(u'erelll ciistoills lun'e gradllally clf'c/illed. alld ill 5011. e cases lun'e c!i.w/ppellred. does this coliseqllelllly meall ihat traditioll (/ild (ii/ it stalltis for iul~'e bet'll left be/lilld (/1/(1 disappeared '! key words: traditioll, modernity. c/lltul'(' (/1/(/ pllilasoph." introduction over these generations. what caused people to group together were the basic survival needs. but what bound them culturally and emotionally was the emergence of tradition. referring to this situation heidegger states in david gross's the past ill ruins that "everything essential and of great magnitude has arisen only out of the fa!.:t that man ..... was rooted in a tradition". gross argues that "tradition is a vital source of social cohesion and continuity and that the erosion of past values and practices is a disaster, the root cause of contemporary spiritual and social decay" ( 1992:4). i. dr. jr. krisprantono, is a iccturer at the faculty of architecture, socgijapranat;1 c.uholic university, semarang. 130 celt, volume5.number2.december2005: 125-135 phenomenon and elements of a largely urban society, with this different sty les and notion that modernization is the product of industrialization. significantly, in a general sense, modernity has reshaped the notion of society. but understanding the nature and reasons for the ideology of modernity demands some brief examination of the historical process which has helped to shape it the ideological basis of modernity has formulated its own 'new world' and is based on 'rationality', 'individualism', 'materialism' and 'developmentalism'. modernity has transferred the norms of rational ways of life (lash and friedman 1992). some say that development of modernity in the west derived from the same historical process that gave us the enlightenment and industrial periods. originally, the 'enlightenment' was the title of a painting by the german artist, deniel chedowski in the 181b century. the picture depicts the early morning sunlight on the village with a building like a kind a manor house, surrounded by people on their way towards the building. this ideology is directed towards the "birth of industrial revolution" (1m hof 1994:3). in the painting of enlightenment, the light of the sun refers to contemporary reform movements. in britain, the english employed the term enlightenment to emphasis that the 18th century society was "enlightenment beyond the hopes and imaginations of former times" (1m hof 1994:4). in france, at the same time, enlightenment denoted the beginning of freedom from fetters and absolutism, and these ideologies lead to the frech revolution" ..... .les seufes 'jum!eres' de fa raison naturelle sont capable de conduire les hommes a la perfection de fa science et de la sagesse humaine". lumiere was the french word for 'light' and represented understanding and knowledge (1m hof 1994:4). in the 1780s, the german term 'aufklarung' was applied to that historical era: das zeitalter der aufklarung the age of enlightenment conveyed "the idea of light in number of parallel combinations" (1m hof 1994:5). generally, enlightenment spreading out 'reason and science' transmitted in some ways trough many areas of discipline. 1m hof writes, the light enters into hearts and minds to remove veils and scre~ns that covered our sight, and led to a freedom of thought (1994:5). krisprantono, rethinking tradition in modem life 131 approximately in the 18th century the enlightenment implies creation opportunities that affect the transition from theory to practice, from criticism to action, from design to improvement and the reform of the education system (1m hof 1994:6). the nature enlightenment concerned primarily looking forward, rather than backward, with the expectation that men would be directed by their own reason and be free from orthodoxy, to search for "opportunities of new stability following the crises of the 17th century. the basic ideology of enlightenment a program of action was meant to train not only new men but better men. it was " ........ to liberate human beings from their chains by de-socialization of knowledge and instead reliance on scie"ntific knowledge". every individual had" ........ a freedom was his own conscience and had to observe ethical principles". for this function of a goal, it absorbed the idea of the doctrine of the four cardinal virtues, derived from greek and roman ethical system, justitia, prudentia, temperantia and fortitude-justice wisdom, moderation and courage (1m hof 1994:213). derived from the enlightenment, classical knowledge was seen in terms" of its practical application in the way of methodical thinking. but by the late 181h century, this opinion had become widespread. in europe, the romantic movements in literature and the arts began in the closing decade of the 181h century, led by england in the i 780s gennany in the] 790s and frarice in the 18oos. the term romanticism in its pluralistic and varied manifestations became " .... the timbre of national historical movements with differing connotations outside its historical boundaries" (frust 1979: 14). the webster's dictionary (1995: 836) describes ·romanticism' as" ... an exaltation of individual values and aspirations". the french encyclopedia, larousse du xxe siecle designates ·romantic' as those" ... at the beginning of the 19th century, emancipated themselves from the classical rules of composition and style". the end of romanticism in the 1911l century, was the dawn of ·modernism' as syre and lowy express in figures romantic anti-capitalism in frust romanticism that "one cannot therefore avoid facing the hypothesis that romanticism is an essential component of mqdern culture" (frust, quoted in frust 1979: 1 05). at the end of thc? 20lh century we are said to be in the middle of a modernizing period but the evidence for this is complicated. the most powerful legacy of the present age is the belief that as modern societies develop tradition has less and less of a role to play in the lives of individuals. eisenstadt explains 132 celt. volume 5, number 2, december 2005: 125-135 traditional society is conceived as bound by the cultural horizons and modern society is considered culturally dynamic and oriented to change innovation (eisenstadt 1973:10). in indonesia's big cities, many groups of citizens tend to live a modem lifestyle, though their institutions often depend on and express the traditional overtones of a pre-modem society. perhaps unexpectedly, a large number of modem organizations depend on the continuation of trad itional forms. in indonesia, religious life is well maintained, and the rituals and ceremonies connected with religion have been performed from distant times up to the present. for example, waisak for the hindus, christmas for christians and even islamic iduljitri are celebrated by most indonesians. these rituals and ceremonies have helped to retain indonesian traditional society in modem times. the evolution of tradition in modernity one of the most important potential changes with modernization is the dimension of human life and cultural communities. it is interesting to discuss whether traditions still have value in modem society, although it might be difficult to discover whether or not they exist. in the third world countries, such as in southeast asia which are encountering the effects of modernity from developed countries, the main resistant factor is that the country's economic development is not advanced enough to utterly displace tradition particularly in big cities. in less developed rural areas. modernity does not have much intluence, thu.; older customs and ways of life are still alive in many areas. notions such as the failure of tradition. and defects in modernity. or the decline of customs are seen to be due to modernity. it is claimed that the power of modernity destroys the future of tradition and thus causes the decline of tradition. on the one hand. tradition are essentially there to: ..... regulate cultural and social lives, basically appearing from the villages. rules by religious or secular authority and in rule of natural order and belief' (center 1992: i) in the binary opposition between tradition and modernity arguments presented above, the word tradition commonly refers to the composite beliefs and practice that are authoritative and natural and of the particular society's past. thus, 'traditional' societies are" ... usually those krisprantono, rethinking tradition in modem life 133 that are portrayed as organically maintaining social order, they are stable, unchanging, and governed by authoritative rules which creation and legitimization of reflexive subject" (center 1992: 2). modernity is now, however, our reality. each of these developme~ ____ is taken to be a loss, and the main underlying cause of them is the declo " ,,,,,,1 .1' ~~ tradition. gross, addressing this anomaly, claims that at present "t ~. -; ,.tt still survive, only they do so beside, behind, between or beneath the p j::~><.)' and structure of modernity" (1992:42). it is claimed that the po q, .v ~ modernity causes the decline of tradition. anthony giddens supports the idea in the "reflexive modernization: politics, traditions and aesthetics in modem social order" writing that traditions have not disappeared altogether from the modem world. but rather their status has ch'anged. they are less secure and have become relics", which he calls "the past with no effective connection with the present (1994:100). luke also argues in "the past in ruin, tradition and critique of modernity" that" ... tradition may still persist in the social constitution ... beside, behind, between and beneath the practice and structure of modernity" (quoted in heelas 1996:112). conclusion the relevance of the past history of society can be carefully recorded and learned precisely by the historian. by understanding the historical consciousness of the society continuously one can ,become knowledgeable about the framework of traditions. but this does not guarantee that restoring tradition and past practices can have any part in addressing present problems. here, the historian is entrusted with the fact not only of collecting factual details of customs before they disappear, but of preserving some sense of their feel, ethos and texture for future generations. in their purest form these recent traditions attempt to set the lock back in order to bring the past to life. as an ideology, traditionalism opposes the present in its entirety and looks to past values for an alternate way of living. yet for tradition to become reoperative, modernity would have to be eradicated so that the normatively of antedated traditions can be restored. 134 celt. volume 5. number 2. december 2005: 125-135 in order for tradition to refunction. it must be revised. made over. touched up. enhanced, or glamorized in some manner in order to become more attractive for whatever purpose the state or mark.;!t may intend. in connection with commodities, some forms of tradition have been preserved that otherwise would have been forgotten. for example. in indonesia, the stories of shadow puppets based on the old hindu tale, the mahabarata, when islam came to indonesia in the 151h and 161h centuries, were represented in an islamic version to entice the javanese to adopt the moslem faith. this tradition has been perpetuated. not only for the sake of tourism, but because the stories.are meaningful and interesting for the javanese. bibliography collins. h. english dictionary and thestllll'lls. harper. london: collins publisher. 1983 eisenstadt. s.n. modemizlliion. protest "nd ch(lll~e. new york: prentice hall. 1966. ___ . 1973. tradition. chall~e and mot/emity. new york: john willey and sons ltd. 1973 furst. l.r .. comollrs 0/ ellropean romalllicism. london: methuen. 1980. giddens. a. moclel'llity alld self idelllity. oxford: blackwell publisher, 1990. ___ . lil'in8 in tile post traditional society. in rej1exh'e modernization: politics, tradition and aesthetics in model'll social olrler. by u. beckand, agiddens and s. lash. cambridge: polity press. 1994. gross. d. the past ill ruills. massachusetts: mit press. 1992. hahcrmas, j. modemity i's post mot/emity. cambridge: polite press. 1981 heelas. p .. s. lush and p. morris. ljetrculitiollali:mioll: authority "1il1 self/del/tity ii/ (/1/ age oj'cultllral ullcerr"iilly. oxford: bluckwell publisher. 1996. 1m hoi'. u .. the ellfightenmelll. oxford: blackwell publisher. 1994. lash. s. rej1exh'e model'llizatioll: politics. tmditioll "lid aesthetics ill moe/em social order. cambridge: polity press. 1994. lash. s and and j. friedman. modemityalld idemit,\'. oxford: blackwell ltd. 1992 lowenthal. d. our past be/ore us. london: temple smith. 198 i. krispra!ltono, rethinking tradition in modem life 135 _" _"_. the past is foreign country, cambridge: up, 1985. pocock, jga. machiavellian momellt, london: princelown university press, 1975. webster, the new intemationallvebster's distiollary of english language. usa: the trident press, 1995. williams, r. cuitllre, fontana press, 1981. logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the correlation between online peer review and academic writing students’ learning styles 1emilia ninik aydawati, 2dwi rukmini, 3dwi anggani linggar bharati and 4sri wuli fitriati 1,2,3,4english education program, post graduate study, universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia email: 1emilianinik@gmail.com; 2wiwidwirukmini@mail.unnes.ac.id; 3dwi_anggani@mail.unnes.ac.id; 4sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id received: 11-12-2017 accepted: 20-06-2018 published: 22-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the correlation between online peer review and academic writing students’ learning styles 1emilia ninik aydawati, 2dwi rukmini, 3dwi anggani linggar bharati and 4sri wuli fitriati 1emilianinik@gmail.com; 2wiwidwirukmini@mail.unnes.ac.id; 3dwi_anggani@mail.unnes.ac.id; 4sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id 1,2,3,4english education program, post graduate study, universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia abstract: peer review studies have been done for years. it has been found that by having these activities, learners will get benefits from the communication with the peer who can give them input to improve their writing performance. peer review can be done face to face or online. face to face peer review is done synchronously where two students are having discussion on their essay, whereas online peer review can be done synchronously or asynchronously. this preliminary study investigates how the application of synchronous online peer review in academic writing class can be implemented to help them to do revision and improve their writing skills. the participants of this study is 50 students of academic writing class from two different class. this is an experimental study where the students were treated to get peer review activities from the software which is uploaded in web. they did the practice twice with the shuffled questions. this was aimed that they would be ready to give review. pretest and post-test were conducted and gracian questionnaire to know their learning styles was uploaded in the web for them to fill in order to know their learning styles. it was found out that there are some improvement and there is correlation between their academic skills and the learning styles. key words: writing class, online peer review, learning styles abstrak: peer review dalam kelas menulis telah dilakukan tatap muka dan baru-baru ini peer review online telah dilakukan. 246 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 245 253 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj berdasarkan beberapa penelitian, online peer review terbukti membantu siswa merevisi makalah mereka dan meningkatkan keterampilan menulis mereka. penelitian ini menyelidiki korelasi online peer review dan gaya belajar. sampel penelitian ini terdiri dari 50 mahasiswa dari academic writing class. peer review dilakukan secara serentak. pada awal dan akhir penelitian, pre tes-dan post test diberikan untuk menentukan apakah peer review memberikan efek positif pada pengembangan kemampuan menulis siswa efl. sebelum melakukan peer review online, para siswa dilatih untuk melakukan peer review. mereka berlatih memberikan komentar berdasarkan model dan pedomannya. hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa dalam melakukan peer review online, siswa lebih fokus pada tata bahasa daripada konten. selain itu, peer review juga meningkatkan keterampilan menulis siswa, baik tata bahasa maupun konten. juga, mereka membuat revisi yang menyarankan bahwa peer review secara online dapat membantu siswa efl menyadari potensi revisi efektif mereka dalam tugas akhir mereka. kata-kata kunci: kelas menulis, peer review online, gaya belajar introduction studies describing peer review has been done for decades. another study on peer assessment model designed in collaborative learning has been done by and the findings showed that peer assessment model was in line with the collaborative learning design and it provided an opportunity upon preservice english teachers’ genre based writing competence increase and problem solving and the model was suitable, adaptable and functional to reduce the conventional assessment in order to gain the reflected learning effectiveness (sumekto, 2016). some studies have examined a variety of research questions, which can be categorized into three main areas. they are studies describing the activities done in peer review activities, the effect of peer review and the attitudes of students towards the peer review activities (ferris, 2003). she describes the studies that have been done in 1990s. some studies on the peer review characteristics have shown that students with collaborative type improve their writing skills. mangelsdorf & schlumberger (1992 as cited in ferris, 2003) finds that there are three stance types identified: prescriptive, interpretive, and collaborative that aydawati. e.n., rukmini, d., bharati, d.a.l. & fitriati, s.w. the correla 247 tion between online peer review in academic writing students’ learning styles https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students take in responding to a sample student essay and students who assumed the collaborative stance got higher course grades. a study on the application of peer feedback activities shows that there are influences of the pair interaction to revisions and development of writing aspects. in the first term, feedback provided by collaborative learners and expert learners in pair interaction contributed to the revision changes of their partners’ writings. feedback provided by dominant learner had little contribution to revision changes of writing of another dominant learner. besides, collaborative pairs and expert/novice pairs had better revised writing than other pairs who were under other patterns (mufiz, fitriati, & sukrisno, 2017). meanwhile, another study done by astrid, rukmini, sofwan & fitriati ( 2017) found that students either having low or high writing anxiety had lack of confidence, ability and management control in delivering appropriate feedbacks, but students showed active participation and independency. online peer review online peer review is the peer review which is conducted using computer. it can be done when there is internet connection. there are two ways that students can do when applying online peer review. first, they can do it at the same time with their peer (synchronously) and at different time (asynchronously). theory on syncronous learning is proposed by haslam (2017). he defines synchronous online classes as those that require students and instructors to be online at the same time. lectures, discussions, and presentations occur at a specific hour. all students must be online at that specific hour in order to participate. in order to be successful, a learner is responsible for his or her learning. therefore, individuals should know what their own learning so that they can contribute to their learning process. it is in the learner’s hand to use different ways and develop the learning styles to some extent. learning styles a study on the correlation between learning styles and writer’s self assessment has been done in irania (sahragard & mallahi, 2014). the study attempted to explore the preferred language learning styles of a group of 248 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 245 253 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj iranian efl learners and differences in the styles of learners with different l2 writing proficiency levels. moreover, the study examined differences between the more proficient and the less proficient writers' self-assessment. the participants were 30 iranian upper-intermediate efl students learning english at a language institute. the necessary data were collected through willing (1988) language learning styles questionnaire, a writing selfassessment checklist developed by the researchers based on paulus (1999) grading rubric, and the students' written compositions. as for data collection, the students were asked to answer the learning styles questionnaire and to do a writing task and finally to assess their own writings by filling out the selfassessment checklist. meanwhile, grasha (1996) explains that there are six different types of learning styles as follows. first is independent. these learners who like to think for themselves confident in their learning abilities prefer to learn content that they feel is important choose to work alone on projects than with others likes a maximum of choice and flexibility, minimum of structure. second is avoidant. they are not enthusiastic about learning do not participate uninterested and/or overwhelmed does not want to be called on in class. third is collaborative. they learn by sharing ideas and talents cooperate and like to work with others likes discussion in class and group projects. the fourth is dependent. they are little intellectual curiosity and learn only what required view teacher is and peers as sources of structure and support look for authority figures to set guidelines likes clear deadlines and instructions. the fifth is competitive. they learn material in order to perform better than others feel must compete for rewards like to be center of attention and receive recognition for their accomplishments and the last is participant. they are good citizens and enjoy going to class take part in course activities as much as possible eager to do the required and optional requirements motivated. to classify learners’ learning styles, grasha has made a questionnaire consisting of 60 items to classify learners’ learning styles. methodology since this is an experimental research. this qualitative method is applied to get better understand the processes involved in the actual application of peer review during the experimental phase. an experiment is conducted in order to investigate whether or not synchronous online peer review can enhance academic writing skills of students with different learning styles aydawati. e.n., rukmini, d., bharati, d.a.l. & fitriati, s.w. the correla 249 tion between online peer review in academic writing students’ learning styles https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (independent, collaborative and participant). the students who participated in the experiment (both in the pilot and main studies) will be asked to do the peer review activities seriously for the success of this study. in addition, i will make the aims and objectives of synchronous and asynchronous online peer review is clear to the participants of this study. discussion in doing peer review activities from the web, students need guidelines and instructions clearly as there is no one who they can ask about when they do the practice. the step by step practices of online peer review both synchronous and asynchronous make the students understand how to do the peer review. besides, they also become familiar with the composition skills such as how to construct hooks, thesis statement, topic sentence and concluding sentence. meanwhile, when the students practice to review the grammar based on the kinds of grammar skills like the kinds of clauses, run on sentences, subject verb agreement, noun form, verb form, pronoun form, pronoun reference, punctuation, it is assumed that they become more alert. the number of the participants is 56 students from academic writing class a and cass b. however, complete data were got from 42 students. some of them (2 students) did not finish their academic writing course. they dropped in the middle of the semester. there are 6 students, who did not submit their final draft of the pretest. thus, they should be dropped. there are 4 students, who did not fill in the questionnaire for classifying them based on their learning styles based on grasha’s learning styles’ classification which consist six criteria. table1: correlation value of synchronous online peer review learning style n score increase correlation value avoidant 11 6.91 0.618 independent 6 6.8 0.899 participative 17 2.29 0.796 competitive 3 2.33 0.80 dependent 4 2.75 0.990 collaborative 6 2.75 0.929 250 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 245 253 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the table above shows that the increase of score of pretest and posttest is quite big for avoidant and independent students with the score increase around 7, while for students with other learning styles show that the increase is around 2 to 3. it seems that both avoidant and independent students get the advantage of the practice of synchronous online peer review. table2: correlation value of asynchronous online peer review learning style n score increase correlation value avoidant 11 2.09 0.813 independent 6 3.166 0.790 participative 17 1.235 0.779 competitive 3 3.33 0.9025 dependent 4 0.25 0.997 collaborative 6 2.33 0.971 when doing asynchronous peer review students show a bit increase in their posttest score with the lowest of 0.25 for dependent students and 3.33 for competitive students. the correlation value is quite big for all the students with six different learning styles. it is around 0.8 to 0.9. this means that there is a correlation between learning styles and the practice of asynchronous online peer review. table 3: correlation value of synchronous and asynchronous online peer review learning style n correlation value (synchronous) correlation value (asynchronous) avoidant 11 0.618 0.813 independent 6 0.899 0.790 participative 17 0.796 0.779 competitive 3 0.80 0.9025 dependent 4 0.990 0.997 collaborative 6 0.929 0.971 when the correlation value between synchronous and asynchronous online peer review, it can be concluded that for those with avoidant and competitive, asynchronous online peer review is more suitable for them as the aydawati. e.n., rukmini, d., bharati, d.a.l. & fitriati, s.w. the correla 251 tion between online peer review in academic writing students’ learning styles https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj correlation value is higher when they apply asynchronous rather than synchronous peer review. conclusion from the results of experimental studies on online peer review conducted in a synchronous and synchronous manner, it can be concluded that students can conduct systematic peer reviews because training has been conducted to do peer review online. from the results of the fgd with the participants it can be concluded that they average the activities of using a mobile phone or computer so that the training can be done whenever they want. besides that, the randomized questions also make them become familiar with the comments they need to give according to the topic they are reviewing. furthermore, it was also assumed that they could do peer review better if they were distinguished between two things they had to review, namely whether it was composition skills or grammar skills. from the calculation of the correlation values, it was found that all peer review activities carried out both synchronously and asynchronously had a positive impact with increasing their value, although there were also some students whose grades were lower. of the 6 different learning styles, there are 4 learning styles that do not show a large difference in correlation value. participants who have partcipative, dependent and collaborative styles show that the correlation values are not much different. while independent participants showed that the value correlation was higher if they conducted asynchronous peer review online. for students with competitive and avoidant learning styles, they are more suitable when conducting an asynchronous peer review online. references aghaee, n., & hansson, h. 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(2013). improving students’ summary writing ability through collaboration: a comparison between online wiki group and conventional face-to-face group. turkish online journal of educational technology, 12(3), 107–116. 4.pdf (p.1) logo: logo: untitled logo: logo: the use of indonesian textbooks in the efl class as alternative elt materials at the primary schools in indonesia y. e. budiyana j abstract: the produclion of ic'.w/)(}oks is /jolh cosily and 1;1/11' consilii/ii/x. aii"e swill' lillie ihae already l'xisis ii l'lisl w/wiiiii of primed tlullaia/s. bearing in mil/d ihl' colislraillfs /iientioned, ;1 \i'oiiid seem sellsih/e to make lise of exislillg mlller;als. the pllrpojl' of this artie/e is 10 argile ihat olh('/' indollesiall lexlbooks w;lh /ocal cu/tural collfellfs slich as bahasa ilidonl's;ti (illc/olll'sillll /allx"agl'), /lmll p('//xl'lahiulii a/am (sc;ellce education). /lmll pengeta/ll/tln sos;al (social sc;ellcc' edllcal;oll), {llid pellclic/;kall axall/a (relig;olls edllcal;on), call be adapled anel dc'i·l'ioped./fi/·lhe leaclt;lig of eliglish al primm)' schools. key words: /ocal cllllllral collle1ll maler;als introduction the idea for adapting and developing elt materials for indonesian learners at the primary school stems from the fact that most commercially published elt materials focus on clements about american or british culture. this argument is. firstly. hased on my observations upon the elt textbooks for young learners sold in the bookstores in semarang (see appendix i). l\itore than 7()11r of the tcxthoob arc written h~ foreign elt writers. most of the textbook writers who daim that their books arc made lisc of in both efl and esl contexts arc native speakers who consciollsly or unconsciously transmit their views. values. bdiefs. attitudes and feelings of their own society. they normally live in their own culture and therefore find it hard to compose data beyond their own cul-tural boundaries. as a result. other learners from i. drs. y.e. budiyana, m.a. is;1 lecturer of the faculty or letters, soegijapranata catholic university. scmarang. 112 celt, volume 5. number 2. december 2005 : 111-123 other societies such as indonesia find it difficult making use of them on account of their irrelevance to their own culture. secondly, in order to meet local needs, the elt materials must be closely linked to the national curriculum which is obliged to be implemented nationally. clearly, almost all of the foreign textbook writers do not base their text books on this curriculum. the 1994 national curriculum places emphasis on indonesian culture. such topics as at school, in the classroom, in the library, in the school canteen, in the school garden, school activities, scouting activities and classroom regulations are culture-specific, while most of the textbooks on the above topics are english or american culture based. thirdly, the argument is also based on the fact that the english teachers in elementary schools, in particular pangudiluhur elementary schools are class teachers who are the ikip graduates of the engl ish department. in other words. being class teachers. all of them have been familiar with the teaching of other subjects. the implication is that they will find it easier to teach something familiar than that of being unfamiliar. the use of local content materials as a smooth departure from what is culturally familiar in the dayto-day environment of the students to unfamiliar schema according to widdowson (1990). in our daily life. there are two types of knowledge involved in expressing and interpreting meanings in a given language: syslelllic and schemalic knowledge. schl'iii(/lic knowledge refer~ to socially-acquired knowledge. in contrast. syslc'lilic knowledge refers to the folmal propertie~ of language. involving its semantic and syntactic systems. in native language learning, it child's sysll'l1iic and .\"cht'llwtic knowledge are believed to develop concurrently. however, widdowson says that foreign language learning experience is different: here icarner~ have .tlrem.ly heen ~()cialized into .fcilc'i//(/lic knowledge associated with their mother tongue: they arc initiated into their culture in the very process of language learning (1990: 163-164). in tracing the connection between both kinds of knowledge, it is easier to give the evidence in a precise form. let us take the word breakf(/sl in y. e. uudiyana, the use ql bu/oii('siall textbooks 113 ~ r:;"'?;;z~_!,"!'i;,\ englis.h which is culturally transla,t!!d into mllklill pag; in indonesia~, c . t1;~.' .. :fj{::1~> speakmg, breakfast cannot be sltnply and culturally translated mto ~1'\. pagi. the concept of breakfast may give some different kid] :~-:;'~ , .. interpretations from that of makall pagi.. ~plih;"y-:'" it demonstrates how even a simple word like breakfllst contains cultural information. while the indonesian children will normally think of makall pagi as rice. an egg. 1l'inpe or tallll, and water, english children think of breakfast as milk. bread. eggs or bacon. we can have orange juice or apple juice for breakfast but not for makall pagi because if we do. our parents will be worried about the possibility of our suffering from a stomach-ache. the two words presented above are authentic examples. learning a particular language involves acquiring a whole set of concepts. if the concepts in both languages are different. there must be smooth transition from familiar to unfamiliar schemas. alptekin further mentions that: given what is known ahout the facilitating effects of familiar schemas (or schem,.ta) on foreign language acquisition. it is most natuml for learners to rely on their already established schematic knowledge when developing systemic knowledge (1993: 136), the implication in teaching is that the learners who learn english for the first time, especially primary school students, must start from the elements rdated to their life environment and their background culture. something with which they arc already familiar ,md then step-by-step they arc introduced to the items related to the target culture after their mastery of the vocabulary items in their own culture. through the process of adaptation. the concept of ii/(/klltl pagi (the indonesian breakfast) should be introduced to the learners first although the texthook presents the coi1l:cpt of the english breakfast. the new concept should be introduced later. comparing the two different cultural concepts will be interesting for learners as a cross cultural t!x!!rcise. foreign textbooks somt!times show some patterns of behaviour in an english speaking social context that indonesian learners may find strangt!. the picture below is an illustration taken from the book entitled teaching english ill the primary school by halliwell (1992: ii 0). 114 celt. volume 5. number 2. dcccmbcr2005 : 111-123 picture i: the tasks arc taken from teachillg english ill the primary school by halliwell (1992:110). there are four children. derek. ann. rob. and richard. who have different kinds of pets; a dog. a rabbit. a white mouse. and a cal. indonesian learners. for example. find it uncommon oreven disgusting to think ofhavillg a mouse as a pet because indonesia is an agricultural country where mice are considered as farnlers' enemies. similarly. in countries where the majority of the population \s moslem. such as indonesia and malaysia. dogs will not be looked after as pets because they are strictly forbidden by their religion. using a dog as a pet. particularly in moslem schools. will not be an appropriate example and will result in the learners' unhappiness and discomfort. in this case. the teacher must be wise enough to adapt this kind of exercise to the local environment. using textbooks without a process of adaptation in this case is not a wise decision. instead of using {/ dog and llll/oll.,·e. the teacher. for examplt!. may use 1i parrot or 1i pigeon as examples of pets. the following picture is also another example of adaptation taken from the same book. in sekcting and grading vocabulary items from forl.'ign textbooks. the teacher should start frolll those related to background culture. the word .\"ii(}\rillg is culture-specific. therefore. it should not be introduced to the indonesian learners at the same time as raining. hot. and foggy. the teacher can introduce cloudy instead because raining. foggy. hot. and cloudy are related to tropical weather. y. e. budiyana, tile usc ofllldollesi(/ll tt:xi/jooks 115 ---_.----_ .. &..__# .-_._-, piclure 2: the tasks are taken from 7('(/cllillg ellglisll ill lill' prill/(/ry scllool hy halliwell (1992:79). most task based and problem solving activities above are taken from imported materials. they characterize communicative approaches and materials which are not value free models of behaviour and reneet the day to day situations in the native speaker's world which may not be in harmony with the situlltions of some cultures. in pillces where there is ii growing shortage of local textbooks. the teacher's role is 10 make effective use of the ex isting foreign textbooks and bllckground culture materials through variolls degrees of adaptation. an alternative technique of exploiting background culture materials of subjects other than english for efl teaching this section deals with several examples of how to exploit background culture materials of subjects other than english for efl teaching. according to halliwell, 116 celt. volume 5. numbcr2. december 2005 : i i 1-123 learning other things in english will help children to learn english. in the process. they will be handling real meaning rather than just words and structures for their own sake (1992: 131). this section intends to show that there are tasks in the student textbooks of other subjects wonhwhile for elt materials by which students will be learning, at some stage, to record information diagrammatically. a. exploiting the materials of /lmu petlgetahuan sosial (social studies) in social studies. the primary school students are usually asked to fill in the forms provided by the teacherto record informa-tion from the statistics in their own village offices showing, for example. the data about the number of population (adult. male. female. children). occupa-tions. religions. families. etc. usually these surveys are conducted in either their mother tongue or indonesian as pan of social studies. the following tasks can just as easily and far more usefully be done in the english lesson. desa wononnoal k£camatah 8emaraho 8i!la1ah picture 3: the tasks are taken from /lmll pellgeralllulil sos;a/ by bale (1989:34). y. e. budiyana, the use of it/dot/esiat/ texlbooks 117 the task above is done after the students have been taught the different types of occupations. they are then asked to go to the offices of the chiefs of their villages to see the statistics and to fill out the forms provided by the teacher. they have to find the infonnation about the distribution of occupations in their own village. in the following english lesson, they have to report it to the class orally as follows: t/rae are 100 fanllers, 20 brickla,n'rs, alld 45 ('017'1'1111'1"5 ill my i'il/age. although the purpose is to practice collecting information about their :-oeinl environment, this exercise is eminently suit-able source of materials needed for english lesson. this authen-tic material collected by the students will become a good source for the teacher to teach other topics, for example, comparison. using their own diagrams, the students arc expected to be able to produce such sentences as: tlil'h' are more iilirses iiiall doctors ill illy \'iii{/~e, thc'u! are iiioh' farmers ii/(iii i('(lcll£'l'," ill \\'ollolin~{/i. tile /lllil/ber ofll"rses (lnd leachers ill iii." l'iiia~(' i.1 ille ,wii/e. a follow-up activity allows students to compare the infonnation of their village with that of others. for example: there are morefamlen ill illy i'il/age (iii111 ill wi/i/'i. tiieh' i,~ iii(' ,wille iiiiliih"r of ('acllen ill /'0111 i'il/age.l. 118 celt, volume 5. number 2. december 2005 : 111-123 ' .. . ,:} , picture 4 the task are taken fromjlllllt pellgewiluw/ sosial ( 1989:23) by asnawi and rachmat ( 1989:23). the task in picture 4 is taken from the student workbook of iimu pellgeta-iili{1ii sosial (social studies for primary schools). the students are asked to write the names of the occupations in the pictures, the names of the people in their village whose jobs are shown in the pic-tures such as repainnan. merchant, mechanic. etc., and then report it to the class in the following english lesson. through this kind of activity. the students' learning is not limited to the classroom only. but they also learn how to learn outside and beyond the classroom. in line with this argument, phillips further mentions the importance for students to learn not only inside the classroom but also beyond and outside as follows: finally. it is increasingly recognized ihal children need to 'iearn how to learn' . this means thallheir education and learning should not be confined 10 ihe limits of their classroom. text-hooks, and teacher, but that we should help them to acquire skills and independence that will enable them to continue learn-ing outside and beyond school (1993:6). y. e. budiyana, tlu' use of indonesian textbooks 119 in other words. the students need to be aware of how they learn. and to experiment with different learning styles. to organize their work. and to be open and interested in all that surrounds them. b. exploiting the teaching materials of jim" pellgetallllall alam (natural science) the task in picture 5 is extracted from the student book of iimu pengetallll(ll/ alam (natural science) by agus f. tangyong (1990:29). the students are asked to observe the things in the classroom and then with the labels provided by the teacher. they must stick the labels to thejjems oncerned. this kind of exercise i~ a simultaneously involving activi,{'~lic:h~} builds on the children's desir~ to talk to each other. it provides th'-'~~!~y good reason to get out of their seats. ~~~~? picture 5: the tasb arc taken fwm /111111 /'('l/g('i(//i11(/1/ a/(/1ii hy tangyong ( )yyo: 2lj) ~'#a~j p .. "" 'j:fipustp.-r.tc. exploiting the materials of pelldidikall agama (religious education) indonesia is a country with multi-ethnic groups and religions. there are hundreds of ethllic groups living all over indonesia with four major religions: islmn. christianity. hinduism. and buddhism. religious education is a compulsory subject in all levels of education. tolerance and a sense of 120 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : 111-123 respecting other religions are emphasized in religious education. students should know such things as religious holidays and places of worship. having read the textbook of religious education, i found that there are activities or tasks which can be applied to the teaching of english as shown in picture 6 below. (iiliiiii • iiiiiiii '!§!iiii .. cfui!ri i i h!idu q i§i§iii 'iiuciiid • iiucii#ii!ci picture 6: the tasks are taken fromjlmu pendidikan pengetahuan sosial 4 by asnawi and raclunat (1989:43) this was originally a mother tongue exercise designed to teach children the kinds of religions and places of worship. in fact, it works equally we1lll1 the early stages of english as a vocabulary exercise and a question and answer exercise in the present tense. the students are asked to draw a line to match the word and the picture and then expected to be able to use the vocabulary items in such sentences as: moslems go 10 mosque on friday and christians go to church on sunday. according to phillips it is common sense that "if the lesson is enjoyable, it will be memorable; the language involved will stick, and the children will have a sense ·of achievement which will develop motivation for further learning" (1992:8). y. e. budiyana, the use of flu/one sian textbooks 121 conclusion the rational for adapting elt materials for indonesian learners at primary school stems from the fact that most commercially published elt materials focus on elements about target language culture. most of the textbook writers who claim that their books are made use of in both efl and esl contexts are native speakers. they normally live in their own culture, and therefore find it hard to compose data beyond their own cul-tural boundaries. in contrast, the 1994 national curriculum places emphasis on the indonesian culture. as a result, other learners from other soc ie-ties such as indonesia find it difficult making use of them on account of their irrelevance to their own culture. learning a particular language involves acquiring a whole set of concepts. if the concepts in both languages arc different, there must be smooth transition from familiar to unfamiliar schemas. the implication in teaching is that the learners who learn english for the first time, especially primary school students, must start from the elements related to their life environment with their background culture. with which they are already familiar and then step-by-step they are introduced to the items related to the target culture after their mastery of the vocabulary items in their own culture. comparing the two different cultural concepts wil i be interesting for learners as a cross cultural aspect. with the growing shortage of time and money for writing textbooks, particularly in the seldom taught languages. there is a premium on making effective use of what already exists. the use of background culture materials and the idea of integrating english as a foreign language with other subjects are due to the fact that the work the teacher does in an english lesson and the work he/she does in other lessons. in terms of process. have similarities. therefore. the tasks in student textbooks of scielke educa-tion. social studies. indonesian suhject. religious education. can he used for \\'ork in efl classes. bibliography allwright rl "what do we want teaching materials for t. 111 eltjo/li'iilll. vol. 36. no. i. 1983: 4-17. alptckin. c. ( 1993: 136-143), 'target-iangunge culture in efl materials". in elt jo/lrnal, vol. 47. no.2. 1993: 136-143. asnawi n. and raehmat. lembar kerjlllllll/l p(·iig(·tallllllll sosial kelas 4. jakarta: grnmcdia. 1989. 122 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : 111-123 bale, j.llmu pengetahuan sosial .. jakarta: balai pustaka, 1990. block, d. "some thoughts on diy material design", elt journal. vol. 45, no.3, 1991:211-217. breen, m. p. and candlin, c. "which materials 7: a consumer's and designer's guide". in elt textbooks and materials: problems in evaluation and development. edited by l. e. sheldon. london: modem english publication, 1987: 76-81. brumfit.·c. "introduction: teaching english to children", in teaching english to children. edited by c. brumfit. 1. moon, and r. tongue. london: collins elt, 1991: iv-viii. clarke. d. f. ''materials adaptation: why leave it all to the teacher". in elt journal vol. 43,no. 2, 1989: 131-141. clarke, 1. and m. clarke. "stereotyping in tesol materials". in harrison brian, culture and the language classroom. by h. brian. london: mcmillan modem english publication, 1990: 31-45. cunningsworth,a. "evaluating course materials". in teacher training. edited by s. holden. london: modem english publication, 1979. dendrinos, b. the efl textbook and ideology, athens: n.c.grivas publication, 1992. haliiwejl, s. teaching english in the primary classroom, london: longman, 1992. harrison; r. keep writing 2. burnt mill, harlow, essex: longman, 1992. larsen~freeman, d. and m.h. long. an introduction to second language research, london-newyorlclongman, 1991: 154-167. mckay, s. l. teaching english overseas: an introduction, oxford: oxford university press, 1992. nababan, p.w.i. "english as a foreign language in indonesia". a paper presented at the 41 st tefun seminar, padang (indonesia): ikip padang, 1993. phillips, s. young learners .. oxford: oxford university press, 1993. scott, w. a. and l.h. ytreberg, l h. teaching english to children. harlow. essex: longman group uk limited. 1990. sheldon. l. e. "evaluating elttextbooks and materials". in eltjoumalvol. 42. no.4. 1988: 237-246 widdowson, h. g aspect o/language teaching, oxford: oxford university press, 1990. tangyong, a. f.llmu pengetahuan alam, jak~: departemen p &k williams, d. "developing criteria for textbook evaluation", inelt joumal. vol. 37, no.3, 1983: 251-255. no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 y. e. budiyana, the use o/illdonesiall texrbooks 123 appendix elt primary textbooks sold in gramedia, kharisma, merbabu bookstores, and used in language schools in semarang title authors publisher primary vocabulary practice 1· 6 chan sun king binarupa & preston english enrichment exercise 1· 6 loa tek binarupa & preston yang lim lee weng primary english assessment 1-6 wan mun ching (edit) binarupa & preston preston primary composition evelyne len binarupa & preston practice 1-6 preston assessment papers 1-6 linda loa binarupa & preston longman english course j.hobbs longman reach out catherime m. frazer prentice hall julie oeterville maytai step out catherime m. frazer prentice hall julie oeferville maytai w.o.w rob nolasco oxford univ. press get ready felicity hopkins oxford univ. press mengenal bahasa inggris 1-3 th. nung atasana gramedia get ready drs. marias (ed) erlangga start with english 1-3 himawan erlangga integrated english for children 1-3 y. mei setyanto kanisius logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia an investigation of proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places 1rusma setiyana, 2nyak mutia ismail, 3endah annisa rahma, and 4faizatul husna 1economic management department, faculty of economy, university of teuku umar, meulaboh, indonesia; 2english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, university of syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia; 3aquatic resource management department, faculty of marine and fisheries, university of teuku umar, meulaboh, indonesia; 4sociology department, faculty of social and political science, university of teuku umar, meulaboh, indonesia email: 1rusmasetiyana@gmail.com; 2nyakmutiaismail2010@gmail.com; 3endahdarussalam89@gmail.com; 4faizatulhusna88@gmail.com received: 01-07-2018 accepted: 08-09-2018 published: 20-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj an investigation of proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places 1rusma setiyana, 2nyak mutia ismail, 3endah annisa rahma, and 4faizatul husna 1rusmasetiyana@gmail.com; 2nyakmutiaismail2010@gmail.com; 3endahdarussalam89@gmail.com; 4faizatulhusna88@gmail.com 1economic management department, faculty of economy, university of teuku umar, meulaboh, indonesia 2english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, university of syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia 3aquatic resource management department, faculty of marine and fisheries, university of teuku umar, meulaboh, indonesia 4sociology department, faculty of social and political science, university of teuku umar, meulaboh, indonesia abstract: it is assumed that acehnese do not make use of personal space during interactions. this study aims to investigate the proximity levels used by acehnese people when communicating with other people. the observation approach was used to collect data with people who were in natural interaction in public places as the participant. the data were pictured and kept anonymous in regards of ethical codes maintained in research. the results show that there are three conditions obtained from this study. first, mostly, acehnese people use intimate level of proximity, which is less than 0.46 meter eventhough when they are interacting with strangers. however, this condition only applies if the interactions taking place is male-male interactions or female-female interactions. second, in a condition where the stranger interaction is male-female, the proximity employed by the people is in the level of personal—which is 1.2 meter. lastly, men maintained farther distance compared to women. in conclusion, the farthest proximity level that acehnese applied was social level (1.2 m to 3.7 m); yet, the main influencing factor is genders. 194 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 193 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: proxemic behavior, level of proximity, gender interaction, non-verbal interactions, proxemic investigation. abstrak: dipercaya bahwa masyarakat aceh tidak menggunakan jarak personal disaat berinteraksi dengan orang lain. studi ini bertujuan untuk menginvestigasi level prksemik yang digunakan oleh masyarakat aceh. observasi digunakan sebagai cara untuk mengumpulkan data. observasi dilakukan dengan orang-orang yang berinteraksi secara natural di tempat umum. data yang didapat dijaga agar tetap anonim mengingat etika yang harus dijaga dalam riset ini. hasil riset ini menunjukkan tiga kondisi. pertama, kebanyakan orang aceh menggunakan level intim, yakni kurang dari 0.46 meter walaupun mereka berinteraksi dengan orang asing. walaupun begitu, kondisi ini hannya berlaku ketika interaksi terjadi antara laki-laki atau antara perempuan. kedua, dalam kondisi interaksi antara orang asing laki-laki dan perempuan, mereka menggunakan level personal, yakni 1.2 meter. yang terakhir, laki-laki menggunakan jarak yang lebih jauh dibandingkan wanita. dapat disimpulkan bahwa jarak yang paling jauh yang digunakan oleh masyarakat aceh adalah level sosial (1.2 m to 3.7 m); tapi gender selalu mempengaruhi jarak ini. kata kunci: sikap proksemik, level proksemik, interaksi antar gender, interaksi non-verbal, investigasi proksemik. introduction aceh, one of the provinces in indonesia, is famous for its warm citizens this statement is true since acehnese do not hesitate to smile and say greetings to the strangers particularly tourists who visit aceh. also, acehnese are generally heplful, for instance to show the right direction for those who get lost on their way. this condition gives an advantage for acehnese people inasmuch as they are able to learn the tourists’ languages, especially english, easily nevertheless, probably the people from western countries assume that acehnese is offensive as they invite to have a talk at wrong and unexpected moments. this is because the western and asian culture are different as asserted by hall (1990) that western culture tends to choose spacious area when talking, while asian tends to get intimate. this spacious area when interacting (verbally or silently) is called proxemic as firstly introduced by edward t. hall in 1966. rusma, s., ismail, n.m., rahma, e.a. & husna, f. an investigation of 195 proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this study considered purposeful since it investigatedthe levels of proximity used by acehnese when they are interacting each other because the difference between culture apparently give huge influence—not ony in the target language learning but also in other life aspects, just to mention (ismail, 2017). there are four proxemity levels as lined out by hall (1990), namely intimate, personal, social, and public. hence, this study is considered important since more people are coming to aceh, whether for work or tourism purposes. this study is expected to help the visitors to engage effective communication with indigenous people, as well as to provide information that different approach is basically needed when dedicating others with their hospitality. based on the explanation above, a research question being sought in this study is as formulated in the following: what proximity level is generally used by acehnese people during interactions? are there any other influencing factors? literature review different cultures might hold various concepts of personal space as the interaction takes place. therefore, each culture determines its own way in representing intimacy level between two speakers. this notion is in line with hall (1991, p. 60) as he argues that “space speaks to us just as loudly as words”. he further introduced the term proxemics to refer to different space level used in different culture during interaction. according to agnus (2012), there are three areas in proxemics field, they are distance, space, and modes of behavior and perception. however, this study only focused on the use of distance during interaction. since there are four levels of territory brought in by hall (1963), below is provided the illustration of the territory radius of each individual. figure 1 shows the four areas of territory. the first one is intimate level which is up to 0.46 meter; personal level is between 0.46 meter to 1.2 meter; social level is between 1.2 meter to 3.7 meter; and public level is over 3.7 meter. hall (1963) proposes that intimate space includes some characteristics such as touching, whispering, and embracing. people in this zone are categorized as certain people who hold special relationship such as children and spouse. then, personal space, usually among friends or relatives, is usually marked by talking with normal voice. social space is marked by talking with normal to rather loud voice. it is usually used during the interactions with acquaintances and unfamiliar people. lastly, public space is marked with the 196 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 193 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj use of certainly loud voice, sometimes a special device such as microphone and loudspeakers are also put in use. this space is generally attempted in seminars, public lectures, presentations, etc. figure 1: proxemic distance (hall, 1963) some examples are also provided by hall (1990) as in the following. the first example is territory in american culture. in public, americans employ two or three persons in conversations and there is also a distance between one group to another. the way they keep from intruding others is by controlling their voice to be not too loud. however, if they speak loud enough, other people would only pretend they do not hear. next, in germany, they consider visual and sound intrusions to their private sphere. this means that if we look at them for no reason in public—or talk loudly—they will likely to get angry. despite sometimes they are misunderstood to be similar, in fact english and american have a great disparity. if american classifies people by space they use, englishmen employ social status as a way of classifying people’s status— especially those who were brought up in middleand upper-class social status. another different perception has also been found in japan, an asian country. there is, indeed, no word “privacy” in japanese. japanese sees the contrary side of american culture where they have special space for work, family, bedroom, etc. it is not a problem for the japanese to sleep close to each other on the floor. however, the concept of privacy does exist in japan; they prefer to give meaning in arranging objects. contrastingly, the arabs are considered to have the most intrusive ways in defining privacy. it is the characteristics of the middle eastern culture to push and shove people, even to pinch and to touch others, in public place. thus, no wonder that most westerners are commonly shocked when visiting arabs, as the middle rusma, s., ismail, n.m., rahma, e.a. & husna, f. an investigation of 197 proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj easterners are, too. however, iranians keep their distance even among themselves when they are in public places (gharaei & rafieian, 2013). this shows that even among the arabs themselves, which is in the similar culture, can reveal differences (sameer, 2017). in indonesia, which is also an asian country, similar perceptions as the japanese are adopted. in her study, ningrum (1998) found that intimate and social distance in indonesia is closer than that settled by hall (1990). besides, she also mentioned that there are other factors that influence the distance, they are gender and types of relationship. furthermore, prawitasari (2009) adds that the room safety also determines the personal distance of indonesian people. in addition, ballendat, et.al (2010) also mention that other factors such as position, identity, movement, and orientation play roles in determining the spatial distance among people around us. from the reviews above, it is resumed that people with different culture, expect other people to act like, or at least, respect the way they behave in their culture. as eresha, et.al (2013) also support that german and arab people even want robots to react like their own culture when interacting with them, including in maintaining territorial space in communication. methodology the method used was a qualitative research with observation of participants’ personal identities. the participants’ identities were kept anonymously. they were observed approximately for 30-45 minutes to determine the relationship between the participants if they were family membes, friends or strangers. the ethical practice in disguised-observation which implies that the confidentiality and anonimity of research data obtained from the participants must not be exposed for any explicit or implicit pledge, and proper method and secure manner should also be implemented (clark, 2006). the sudy was conducted in small town, meulaboh, aceh barat, aceh in eight public places; a park, a playground, a market, a hospital, a mosque, a restaurant, a sports field, and a beach. the reason why these public places chosen was to observe participants’ spacial distance. the data were captured without recording any conversiation and participants’ awareness since it might have broken the secure manner and could have cause anti-observed behaviour from the participants. after obtaining the data, they were analyzed by data reduction, data display, and data verification (miles, huberman, and saldana, 2013). 198 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 193 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results the result of this study was in form of pictures to identify the relationship among the participants. after observing for more or less an hour, the results are shown in the following pictures: figure 2: proximity between male-female non strangers the picture above shows a family sitting in a hospital bench. the relationship among the participants is male-female non strangers. it can be seen that those people who were waitingare the family members. they are sittingnear with one another without rigidity and look comfortable. the woman is sitting at the edge of the bench, separated from her husband (wearing black shirt) by a little boy. she is not sitting directly next to her husband. meanwhile, the husband is stiiting directly next to man in white shirt. from the situation, it can be concluded that the main consideration of their seating is gender. commonly, if there is still extra space, most men do not sit directly close to women. yet, intimate distance which is less than 0.46 m was still applied. another data observed is provided below where people are waiting in a bank. after studying figure 3, it can be stated that the woman and man in the left circle are not family members and acquaintances. they are male-female stangers. their space was approximately 0.46 cm yet still in personal distance category which is 1.2m. moreover, both women in the right circle are friends and it can be seen from their proximity by sitting closely in the level of intimate less than 0.46 cm. the main point of sitting in public place from the picture is also gender. whenever male-female interaction occurs, strangers and non strangers,they keep distance of their seating in public places. rusma, s., ismail, n.m., rahma, e.a. & husna, f. an investigation of 199 proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 3: proximity between male-female strangers situations observed from figure 1 and figure 2 are in compliance with ningrum’s statement (1998), saying that indonesian people do apply closer levels of proximity but genders and types of relationship always prevail as the influencing factors. it is line with acehnese cultural norm which is men and women keep distance when interacting each other. as stated by par and leo (2011), cultural norm is one of influencing factors in determining the interaction distance. figure 4: proximity between female-female non strangers figure 4 shows two nurses holding hands while interacting. the distance level of their physical contact was less than 0.46 cm. this shows that the females are comfortable to have physical contact near each other. the nurses are cowokers who know each other in the hospital. the situation is similar to turkish cultural behaviour as stated by chelik (2005) about speaking and standing too far one another make the speakers not comfortable. 200 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 193 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by comparison, there is another picture of female-female stranger proximity, which is shown in figure 5 below: figure 5: proximity between female-female strangers the picture illustrates women sitting next to each other yet they kept distance which was approximately 1.2 m. they are not talking with one another and are just sitting in the police station. to differentiate between female-female non stranger and female-female stranger, it can be proven from the data above (figure 3 and figure 4) that female-female non stranger easily made physical contact due to their intimate relationship. however, it is difficult for femalefemale strangers to get physical contact and start conversations since they do not know each other although they are sitting in the closer level of proximity. the proximity level of male-male strangers is shown in figure 6 and 7. in figure 6, the picture shows that there are two men sitting in a bench of a hospital. they are sitting farther distance approximately with 1.2 m of level proximity. while the other circle shows the level distance between male-female non strangers. they are married couple but they kept distance within 1.2 m. it is line with iranian culture norm which stated by gharaei & rafieian (2013), that iranians are understandable where people are most likely to keep their distance in public. rusma, s., ismail, n.m., rahma, e.a. & husna, f. an investigation of 201 proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 6: proximity between male-male strangers subsequently, two non-stranger males as showed in figure 7 are talking to each other within 1.2 m (personal level). in other words, they do not keep intimate level of proximity. in this case, probably it caused by the room safety as stated by prawitasari (2009) that even though they know each other, it does not mean that they have to sit well in a face-to-face condition. figure 7: proximity between male-male non-strangers they are female-female non-strangers who are having lunch in a canteen. it can be seen that the proxemic distance used in the picture above is intimate level is less than 0.46 m. it means that they are standing and talking comfortably within much closer distance than male-male non-strangers did as shown in figure 8. 202 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 193 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 8: proximity between female-female non-strangers by comparison, figure 9 shows another proxemic distance applied by malemale non-strangers. they are also college friends who are sitting for lunch in a canteen, but not sitting next to each other even though there is an empty space next to his friend. in this position, they used personal level of proxemic, namely 1.2 m. figure 9: proximity between male-male non-strangers rusma, s., ismail, n.m., rahma, e.a. & husna, f. an investigation of 203 proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 1 is provided to illustrate the proxemic distance used by participants. table 1: acehnese proxemic distance no gender relationship proxemic distance 1 male-male stranger social level (3.7 m) 2 male-male non-stranger personal (1.2 m) 3 female-female stranger personal (1.2 m) 4 female-female non-stranger intimate level (≤0.46 m) the table shows that there is a significantly different between male-male nonstrangers and female-female non-strangers in proxemic distance. personal level is used by male-male non-strangers and intimate level used by female-female non-strangers. in short, men keep more distance than women. furthermore, the farthest distance is used by male-male stranger within social level (3.7 m), whereas the closest distance is used by female-female non-strangers in distance less than 0.46 m. in addition, as seen in the figure 4, female-female nonstranger interaction also applies physical contact that is hand-holding. as suprihadi & rokhayani (2016) and pasaribu & kadarisman (2016) add that there is a difference in male and female in learning as well as in interacting socially—verbally and non-verbally. conclusion three conclusions can be drawn from the results and discussion above.first,most acehnese use intimate to personal level of proximity when interacting to each other verbally and non verbally. yet, this definitely depends on gender (parkel & leo, 2012; ningrum, 1998). second, there is a significant difference between-gender interactions namely male-male strangers, male-male non-strangers, female-female strangers, female-female nonstrangers, malefemale strangers, and male-female nonstrangers. furthermore, the implication of this study shows that the result can be useful for outsiders who come to aceh in managing their level of distance among acehnese people, which profoundly depends on gender, as also suggested by ningrum (1998). 204 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 193 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references agnus, o. m. (2012). proxemics: the study of space. irwle, 8(1), 1-7. ballendat, t.,marguardt, n., & greenberg, s. (2010). proxemic interaction: designing for a proximity and orientation-aware environment. in the proceedings of its, november 7-10, pp. 121-130. saarbrucken, germany. celik, s. (2005). get your face out of mine: culture-oriented distance in efl context-a helpful guide for turkish efl teachers. tömer language journal, 128, 37-50. clark, (2006). anonimysing research data. leeds: esrc national center for research methods, university of leeds. eresha, g., haring, m., endrass, b., andr, e., & obaid, m. (2013). investigating the influence of culture on proxemic behaviors for humanoid robots. in the proceedings of the 22nd ieee international symposium on robot and human interactive communication, august 26-29, pp. 430-43, gyeongju, korea. gharaei, f. m. n., & rafieian, m. r. (2013). investigating cross-cultural differences in personal space: kurdish and northern women in iran. journal of asian behavioural studies, 3(8), 70-78. hall, e. t. (1963). a system for the notation of proxemic behavior. american anthropologist, 65(5), 1003–1026. doi:10.1525/aa.1963.65.5.02a00020. hall, e. t. (1990). the hidden dimension. new york: garden city. hall, e. t. (1991). a first look at communication theory. in e. m. griffin (ed.), a first look at communication theory. new york: mcgraw hill. ismail, n. m. (2017). “that’s the biggest impact!” pedagogical values of movies in elt classrooms. studies in english language and education, 4(2), 216225. miles, m.b., huberman, a.m., & saldana, j. (2013). qualitative data analysis. london: sage publications. ningrum, p. (1998). personal space pada mahasiswa (studi pada kelompok mahasiswa di kantin fakultas sastra universitas indonesia) [personal space for students (study in a group of students in the canteen of the faculty rusma, s., ismail, n.m., rahma, e.a. & husna, f. an investigation of 205 proxemic behavior among acehnese in public places https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of literature, university of indonesia)] (unpublished bachelor thesis. universitas indonesia, jakarta). retrieved from http://lib.ui.ac.id/opac/ themes/libri2/detail.jsp?id=20286939&lokasi=lokal parker, l., & leo, t. (2011). proxemics distance and gender amongst australians. griffith working papers in pragmatics and intercultural communications, 4(1), 19-25. pasaribu, t. a., & kadarisman, a. e. (2016). coding logical mechanism and stereotyping in gender cyber humors. celt: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature, 16(1), 22-48. prawitasari, m. (2009). pengaruh kualitas ruang terhadap intimate distance berdasarkan gender [the effect of room quality on intimate distance based on gender] (unpublished bachelor thesis, universitas indonesia, jakarta). sameer, i. h. (2017). the analysis of speech acts patterns in two egyptian inaugural speeches. studies in english language and education, 4(2), 134147. suprihadi., & rokhayani, a. (2016). relationship between gender, subject preference and learning styles. celt: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature, 16(2), 242-270. 1.pdf (p.1) 001 dec2018.pdf (p.2-14)   students’ response to the application of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet in teaching cause-effect essay 1ngasbun egar, 2siti musarokah 1,2department of english education, faculty of language and arts education, universitas pgri semarang, semarang, indonesia email: 1egarpgri@gmail.com; 2musarokahsiti@yahoo.com received: 15-10-2017 accepted: 17-11-2017 published: 03-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students’ responses to the application of peer-editing group correction for cause–effect written assignments 1ngasbun egar and 2siti musarokah 1egarpgri@gmail.com; 2musarokahsiti@yahoo.com 1,2english education department, faculty of language and arts education, universitas pgri semarang, semarang, indonesia abstract: the study aims at describing the students’ response to the application of group correction of students’ written assignment technique assisted with peer-editing worksheet in cause-effect essay teaching. the type of the study is descriptive qualitative research. the respondents of the study are the fourth semester students of the english education department of universitas pgri semarang. the techniques used to collect the data are questionnaire and interview. the data are analyzed qualitatively the result of the study shows that through group correction of students’ written assignment technique assisted with peer-editing worksheet, the students can take some advantages. for example, the students can review other group’ works easily; they can also learn from other work errors to avoid making the same errors in their own writing, and add more ideas on their own writing by reading others’ works, etc. in conclusion, group correction of students’ written assignment technique assisted with peer-editing worksheet is useful learning technique for both the writer of the essay and the students who provide feedback. key words: students’ response, group correction of students’ written assignment, peer–editing worksheet, cause–effect essay teaching abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan mendeskripsikan respon mahasiswa terhadap penerapaan group correction of students’ written assignment berbantu peer-worksheet dalam pengajaran cause-effect essay. penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif deskriptif. subjek penelitian egar n., & musarokah, s.students’ responses to the application of peer editing 197 group correction for cause-effect written assignments https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ini adalah mahasiswa semester empat program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris universitas pgri semarang. teknik yang digunakan dalam pengumpulan data adalah kuesioner dan interview. data dianalisis menggunakan analysis kualitatif yaitu dengan mereduksi data, mendisplay data, dan membuat kesimpulan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa melalui group correction students’ written assignment berbantu peer-editing worksheet, mahasiswa mampu mereview tulisan mahasiswa dari kelompok lain dengan lebih mudah; kesalahan dari tulisan mahasiswa yang direview atau dikoreksi bisa dijadikan sumber belajar bagi mereka agar tidak melakukan kesalahan yang sama; dengan membaca tulisan teman, hal ini juga bisa menambah gagasan-gagasan baru bagi tulisan mereka sendiri, dan lain sebagainya. dapat disimpulkan bahwa group correction students’ written assignment berbantu peer-editing worksheet adalah teknik pembelajaran writing yang sangat berguna bagi mahasiswa yang dikoreksi tulisannya dan mahasiswa yang mengoreksi tulisan atau mahasiswa yang memberikan feedback. kata kunci: respon mahasiswa, karya tulis hasil koreksi kelompok siswa, peer–editing worksheet, pengajaran esai cause–effect introduction the present researches on the use of feedback on english writing done by either the teachers, peers or self tend to have good effects on students’ writing result. the feedback given is in the form of corrections, comments, or criticisms of the students’ writing result. by applying peer feedback with or without assisting the teaching methods or techniques applied using any media or worksheet, it can help develop students’ writing skill (behin & hamidi, 2011; egar & musarokah, 2017). although all kinds of feedback have their own benefits, peer correction seems to be the most effective feedback among the others (ganji, 2009). even though self-correction can help the students correct the errors in writing, but it can only be applied locally, whereas through peer correction the students can review their own work globally based on others’ point of view (yang, 2010). moreover, from students’ perspective, the application of peer feedback can reduce their anxiety to write, improve their confidence, and develop their writing by cooperating each other (yatibas & yatibas, 2015). because of its benefits, peer feedback is chosen to be the most significant technique in developing students’ writing skill and motivation. 198 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 196 – 207 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj however, the following two researches has different findings with the previous mentioned researches. the first research was conducted by sultana (2009) which investigated the acceptability of peer correction between young and adult learners. the research result of sultana shows that although many young and adult learners agree with the application of peer correction, some of them are less trusting the correctors because they think that they have the same level of ability with them, and they choose the teachers as correctors better than peer correction because of lower ability of the correctors than their teachers. the second research done by chen, chung and wu (2013) examined the effects of faded prompts and feedback on college students’ reflective writing skills. the finding of their research proved that faded prompts can promote students’ reflective writing skills; however, the feedback cannot. in line with the findings of the previous researches, the issue of the feedback on students’ writing result become more interesting to be explored. however, all researches mentioned before do not use the teaching aid in applying any kind of feedback in writing, so it is necessary to know the effects of feedback given by peers if any kind of feedback is assisted with any kind of teaching aid. therefore, the current study tries to investigate the students’ response to the use of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet. in this case, we attempt to examine the effects of peer feedback combining with worksheet from students’ perspective. it also aims at describing the benefits that can be taken by the students from the activity of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet, and finding out the problems which can be minimized through group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet. literature review a. writing a cause-effect essay generally, writing an essay is different from other kinds of writing, such as writing a report or an article. although all of them have a topic to be discussed, but they have their own characteristics and distinctions. oshima and hogue (2006, p. 56) states, “an essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long; it is about one topic, just as a paragraph.” therefore, when we intend to write an essay, we should have one topic to be discussed by developing a paragraph into some paragraphs discussing a topic. an essay falls into the category of academic writing like other kinds of writing mentioned before. egar n., & musarokah, s.students’ responses to the application of peer editing 199 group correction for cause-effect written assignments https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj because it belongs to academic writing, the tone used in this kind of writing is formal (oshima and hogue, 1999). an essay has three main parts; they are introduction, body, and conclusion. the introduction in an essay has two parts, general statement which function is to attract readers’ interest and a thesis statement which states the main idea of the essay. the body of the essay develop the thesis statement into one or more paragraphs. each paragraph in the body expands the subdivision of the topic. the concluding paragraph is the end of the essay; it can be written in two ways, summarizing the subtopics in the body or paraphrasing the thesis statement (oshima and hogue, 2006, p. 56). there are many kinds of essay, such as cause effect essay, problem solution essay, argumentative essay, process essay, etc. in this study, we focus on cause effect essay. according to oshima and hogue (2006, p. 95), cause/ effect essay is an essay that discusses the causes (reasons) for something, the effects (results), or both causes and effects. feng-checkett and checkett (2005, p. 192) stated that “cause or effect development explains the reasons or results associated with some thing or event …, and effect analysis explains the result and consequences stemming from causes”. moreover, cause effect essay can be organized in two ways, block organization and chain organization (oshima and hogue (2006, p. 95). in block organization, it discusses all the causes as a block, first; the number of the paragraph depends on the number of the causes. then we can write all effects together as a block. when we use block organization, we can write either causes or effect; we can also write only causes or only effects. the transition paragraph then is placed between one major section and another major section by a short paragraph. the aim of the transition paragraph is to conclude one section and introduce another section. however, if we want to use chain organization, we can write causes and effects in a link alternately. one case may lead a second case, which in turn leads a third case, which in turn leads a fourth event, and so on. we link each new cause and its effect in a chain. b. group correction of students’ written assignment d’rourke states, “group correction of students’ written assignments is an effective, straightforward method for improving writing skills but which also encourages oral discussion of grammar and the development of a critical ability in the student” (1991, p. 36). moreover, she adds, “it is a method which draws on the principles of process writing and of group activity within the classroom”. seeing the definition, we can say that the principle of group 200 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 196 – 207 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj correction of students’ written assignments is same with cooperative learning. therefore, this technique belongs to cooperative learning because the activity done by the students is peer collaboration. d’rourke then mentions seven steps done in group correction of students’ written assignment (1991, pp. 3642). first, the teacher gives writing assignment to the students; in assigning the students, the teacher should not limit the words used by the students. the second step is organizing groups; in organizing the groups, the teacher can divide the students into a number of groups consisting of three or four members in each group. however, if the groups have to be large, the teacher should photocopy the assignment written by the students. the next step is distributing the assignment; in distributing the assignment which will be corrected, the teacher distributes the assignments to each group not containing the author of the assignment. the next step is that the students detect and correct the errors in specific time; the teacher gives the sheet as the place of the correction. after that, the students discuss the errors, and the teacher monitors group discussion carefully and check whether or not the students corrected the others’ assignment properly. the guidance can be offered to the students in this section. in post group correction, the corrected assignments are returned to the students, and they can revise the assignment based on the correction given by another group. in the final stage, the teacher gives the students a quiz as a follow-up of the group correction. it is held two or three weeks after the application of the group correction. because of some consideration, in applying the group correction of students’ written assignment, the last phase, quiz, was changed. because the assignment given was in the form of writing the essay, we changed stage seven by giving the students’ essay writing test. we apply group correction of students’ written assignment techniques assisted with peer-editing worksheet proposed by oshima and hogue (2006, p. 326) which consists of eight main questions or instructions. it instructs the students to identify the completeness of the essay started from introduction to conclusion. egar n., & musarokah, s.students’ responses to the application of peer editing 201 group correction for cause-effect written assignments https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology the data of the study are qualitative data. those are in the form of students’ written responses. they are collected through whatsapp, one of favorite social media lately. this technique is taken based on the consideration that college or university students’ really get in touch with this kind of social media. there are 40 students who had got the treatment listed in writing 4 course, and the students who give response of the three questions given are 33 students. then the data are analyzed by identifying the students’ responses one by one. in identifying the students’ responses, we take the essence of the responses and discard any ideas or expressions which are not necessary. after identifying the data, we display the data by inserting them into the table and describing them. then, we draw the conclusion. therefore, data were analyzed using qualitative analysis. results a. students’ responses to the application of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet in responding the use of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet in cause-effect essay learning, the students have different responses. the result can be seen in table 1. the table shows that the students have positive responses to the use of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet in teaching cause-effect essay. the positive responses are, for example, such technique really helps the students to improve their writing skill; it can also be simple and effective way to correct others’ work. moreover, from students’ perspective group work in group correction of students written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet can help inactive students to correct others’ work in earnest. table 1: students’ response to the use of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet students’ code students’ response s1 it makes easy to learn writing an essay by correcting another one’s work. 202 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 196 – 207 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj s2 it is good method for scholar to be a better writer. s3 it improves my own and my friend’s work. s4 we can give compliments, suggestions, and corrections of others’ work. s5 it is very helpful for student’s writing. s6 it is very influential method. s7 it is more valuable than self-editing. s8 it allows me to have things i might have overlooked brought to my attention. s9 it improves critical thinking for students. s10 it is one of effective techniques to improve students writing skill. s11 it is very useful for students in order to understand what the text about. s12 it provides an opportunity for writers to know what their writing looks like to others s13 it makes easy to correct others’ work. s14 it helps for finding the purpose of the text and what the interesting part of the text is. s15 it helps for correcting others’ work easily and quickly. s16 it helps for getting used to have others review our own work. s17 it encourages students to analyze friend’s work. s18 it is very effective method for writing an essay. s19 it helps to work as a team. s20 it helps for students who are inactive and earnest in correcting the language errors in friend’s work. s21 it helps for understanding the content of the work. s22 it helps for correcting friend’s work s23 it is effective method since we can learn from incorrect friend’s work. s24 it encourages the students to give compliments about friend’s work. s25 it is very helpful for improving writing skill. s26 it is very effective way to help our friend improving their writing. s27 it is effective way to know our mistakes. s28 it is such a simple way to correct others’ work. s29 it encourages students to analyze friend’s work s30 we can correct friends’ work so that their next work will be better. s31 it is such a nice way for learning essay writing. s32 it makes easy to correct others’ work. s33 it is very helpful for student’s writing. egar n., & musarokah, s.students’ responses to the application of peer editing 203 group correction for cause-effect written assignments https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. benefits of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet from students’ point of view, the use of group correction of students written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet in teaching causeeffect essay has many benefits. for example, the students can know their own mistakes or errors in their writing; they can also learn from the errors produced by their friends’ writing being given feedback in order to avoid making the same mistakes; and they have the skill to link the paragraphs as well. furthermore, it can encourage mutual work in groups. the complete benefits can be seen in table 2; table 2: benefits of group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet students’ code students’ response s1 knowing own mistakes on writing s2 seeing whether my essay is interesting or not from other’s opinion s3 learning many things from my own mistakes in writing an essay s4 making a work stronger and improving the skills of writing s5 knowing my lack of my writing s6 knowing how to link between paragraphs and appropriate topic for writing s7 learning how to read carefully with attention to details of a piece of writing s8 developing my own self as a writer. s9 discovering more knowledge by reading many other’s text or essay s10 knowing how to write in a great way because we saw our friend’s mistakes on writing s11 helping for finding the content of the writing. s12 knowing what kind of other’s writing work made s13 helping for finding the content of the essay. s14 helping for finding the errors in the writing. s15 learning from other’s work in order to avoid making the same mistakes s16 ensuring consistency in writing s17 making the students do better work s18 helping for learning for friend’s grammatical, punctuation, capitalization errors. s19 improving my writing skill from my own mistakes s20 gaining confidence in students’ work. 204 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 196 – 207 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj s21 adding new knowledge and vocabulary s22 finding the mistake by comparing to each other’s review s23 learning how to response and anticipate the readers s24 enhancing group dynamics s25 knowing mistakes in writing had done s26 helping me in improving my writing as to produce better writing. s27 learning from our own and friends’ mistakes s28 it does not spend much time for correcting and reviewing. s29 it does not spend much time for correcting. s30 knowing our own mistakes, minimize it, and repair it. s31 learning grammatical and spelling error from another one’s work s32 encouraging mutual work s33 the content of the essay looks more clearly as consisting point by point c. writing problems minimized through group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet through group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet, there are many writing problems which can be minimized by the students. for example, they are grammatical errors, punctuation errors, spelling errors, problems in using transition signals, incoherent and incohesive paragraphs, problem in writing thesis statement, etc. from all those problems, grammatical errors become the problem which can be minimized significantly because from 33 students, there are 15 students or almost half students of the total students who state that grammar problem can be minimized through group correction of students’ written assignment that is assisted with peer-editing worksheet. table 2: writing problems minimized through group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet students’ code students’ response s1 content and goal of the essay s2 thesis statement, signal words, and grammar s3 errors in writing s4 errors of work s5 unnecessary sentence, incoherent paragraphs, transition signals, grammatical errors egar n., & musarokah, s.students’ responses to the application of peer editing 205 group correction for cause-effect written assignments https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj s6 imbalance between one paragraph to the others s7 tenses and punctuation problems s8 inconsistencies and grammatical errors s9 how to catch what the text about s10 grammatical, punctuation, capitalization, cohesion, and coherence errors. s11 the best feature of the text s12 the weaknesses of writing s13 the conclusion of the essay s14 errors in writing s15 grammatical and spelling errors s16 problem in writing s17 thesis statement s18 grammatical, punctuation, capitalization errors, writing essay’s technique s19 thesis statement, adequacy of support, coherence, transition, essay formula s20 spelling, grammar, punctuation s21 the content problem of every paragraph s22 grammar, spelling, cohesion and coherence s23 grammar and vocabulary s24 thesis statement s25 grammar, the unity if each paragraph, problem in thesis statement, the use of word hyphen s26 grammar, thesis statement, and transition s27 grammar, punctuation, contents, and topic s28 thesis statement s29 the perception of the writer s30 grammar and punctuation s31 coherence and cohesion s32 thesis statement s33 grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation conclusion from those three main findings, the results of the study strengthen the results of some researches which was conducted by some previous researchers, and these prove that giving feedback in students’ writing done by peers has positive effects on not only students’ writing skill but also students’ critical thinking, motivation, and confidence in writing. teaching aid used in this case peer-editing worksheet can also help the students to correct their friends’ 206 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 196 – 207 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj work easier, and it can help the students to write coherent and cohesive essay as well. acknowledgement parts of this paper have been presented at the 5th celt international conference in semarang, indonesia during 9-11th september 2017. the conference was a project funded by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education. references behin, b., & hamidi, s. (2011). peer correction: the key to improve the iranian english as a foreign language learners’ productive writing skill. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 30, 1057-1060. chen, c. h., chung, m. y., & wu, w. c. v. (2013). the effects of faded prompts and feedback on college students’ reflective writing skills. the asia-pacific education researcher, 22(4), 571-583. d'rourke, v. (1991). group correction of students' written assignments. guidelines, 13(1), 36-44. checkett, l., & feng-checkett, g. (2005). the write start with readings: sentences to paragraphs. houghton mifflin college division. ganji, m. (2009). teacher-correction, peer-correction and self-correction: their impacts on iranian students’ ielts essay writing performance. the journal of asia tefl, 6(1), 117-139. egar, n. & musarokah, s. (2017). group correction of students’ written assignment assisted with peer-editing worksheet: the effects on students’ cause/effect essay writing. proceeding international conference on education and science 2017 (pp. 556-562). oshima, a., & hogue, a. (1999). writing academic english. new york: longman. egar n., & musarokah, s.students’ responses to the application of peer editing 207 group correction for cause-effect written assignments https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj oshima, a., & hogue, a. (2006). writing academic english (4th ed.). new york: longman. sultana, a. (2009). peer correction in esl classrooms. brac university journal, 6(1), 11-19. yang, y. f. (2010). students’ reflection on online self-correction and peer review to improve writing. computers & education, 55(3), 1202-1210. yastıbaş, g. ç., & yastıbaş, a. e. (2015). the effect of peer feedback on writing anxiety in turkish efl (english as a foreign language) students. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 199, 530-538. 5.pdf (p.1) 005 dec2017.pdf (p.2-13) depan_celt dec 2012 a book review: a good start, though incomplete, for creative writers the everything creative writing book carol whiteley avon, ma: adams media 2002, 320 pages isbn 978-1-58062-647-7 reviewed by iwan sulistiawan 1 carol whiteley tries to guide the readers through the entire process of creative writing, from writing preparation and getting the ideas to drafting and editing what has been written. whiteley also expects readers to learn all about the different formats of 1 iwan sulistiawan, m.si <bungkelinci@rocketmail.com> is the chair of the english dept. of sekolah tinggi bahasa asing lia jakarta and prose writer with an additional pen name "bung kelinci" celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 205–209 206 creative writing and find hundreds of writing tips, resources, examples, inspirational excerpts, advice and encouragement. it is a good start, indeed, for a beginning writer in creative writing and the book is easy to understand as it is written in a casual, expository, conversational manner. nevertheless, the tagline accompanying the title of the book (all you need to know to write a novel, play, short story, screenplay, or article) is not fully fulfilled in this book as, in my opinion; it provides more resources for prose writers especially novel and short story writers. the first chapter provides the very basic needs of a creative writer, the preparations. they cover not only the tangible things like computer, pen or paper but also the time, inspiration, positive attitude and the expectation of success a writer should have. whiteley works in details in this initial chapter. he says that a writer needs to find a comfortable place to write. what would work for you if you had the luxury of setting up a custom workplace? think about how you like to read or study, how sound affects you, how easily you’re distracted, how disciplined you are, if you need people around you, your general nature. i, for example, am incredibly sensitive to sound. if a clock is ticktick-tocking nearby, it’s suddenly the only thing i hear (2002:2). the next thing whiteley mentions is the importance of a creative writer’s having a kind of complete set of reference materials. this is, i think, what indonesian creative writing students (and lecturers, unfortunately) need to pay serious attention to. i often find my students and fellow creative writers write without adequate reference and research (research is sulistyawan, i. br: a good start though incomplete for creative writers 207 discussed in details in chapter 12 of this book). they sometimes only rely on the writing passion, which is good, but not enough because even if your work is fiction, the characters of your story should be, using william kenney’s term, plausible, while the plausibility of characters can be obtained through reference and research. this first chapter is ended with a bunch of tips to keep and develop the writers’ spirit of writing and creativity that will make them keep writing despite the obstacles and criticisms they will encounter. the following two chapters discuss the short story and the novel as well as the comparison between the two. the explanations in general cover the whole things. however, for novice writers, i think whiteley needs to add the explanation on how to write the narration, the dialogues, the thoughts and feelings of the characters, considering that every genre of creative writing has its own convention. the narration of short stories and novels, for instance, has to be written in past tenses, while in screenplay writing, story is narrated in present tenses. this knowledge is important for indonesian creative writers, especially, those who are interested in writing in the english language. as the term creative writing belongs not only to fictional work but also to non fictional work the book goes on with books for pre readers like babies and toddlers, the screenplay, functional nonfiction, literary nonfiction, poetry. as for the chapter discussing the screenplay (chapter 6) i think there should be more explanation on the use of the screenplay writing terms as they are related to cinematography. though some other books say that it is not necessary for a creative screen writer to master all those terms, a glossary of some basic screenplay writing terms is still needed as screenplay writing terms differ considerably from even the terms used in the screenplay’s celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 205–209 208 closest genre, play script stage directions. a simple basic knowledge (as the complicated one belongs to film directors) should be gained by screen writers as they should always put in mind that their work is written not to be read or staged but to be visualized and watched on tv or in cinema. the sense of incompleteness is also felt in chapter 9 (poetry). whiteley does discuss the definition of poetry, the line and meter, the rhyme, genres, forms, images, figures of speech and figurative language (the latter two are discussed further in chapter 17: rhetorical devices), but she does not put the discussion on the “speaker” in a poem. this is important because i find my students, whom i told to write poems, often misunderstand the term “speaker” with the author of the poem. however, whiteley’s decision to go deeper with the rhetorical devices in a separate chapter is a very good decision considering that rhetorical devices are not only important for poem writers but also for prose, screenplay and even the nonfiction writers. the following chapters discuss the general stages before a final work is completed (getting ideas, planning, researching, organizing, drafting, editing and evaluating and some other closing chapters are more motivational than technical. in chapter 10 (getting ideas), for instance, whiteley discusses, among other, that ideas can be found in memories, observations, experiences, encounters, conversations, activities, sensory details, moods and emotions, books and other media, objects, scenery, relationships, weather, fantasy, history – just about everything (2002: 134), adding that the best ideas are often the simplest. the last statement is very true according to my experience teaching creative writing. my students often think too hard about “grand” ideas that hinder them from starting to write though actually they can make great stories out of simple ideas. sulistyawan, i. br: a good start though incomplete for creative writers 209 i would certainly recommend this book especially for the students or anyone in indonesia who are interested in beginning a career in creative writing. carol whiteley’s the everything creative writing book is a self-study book. the way this book suggests us to be a well-informed, well equipped, and organized is valuable. this book is also important for indonesian creative writers as creative writing in indonesia is not given in formal school and universities. the so called “literature” in indonesian curriculum in high schools and universities more focus on the students’ memorizing novels, short stories, and poems along with their authors, while even in the faculty of letters literature is given as something to be discussed and analyzed as they aim to yield graduates who are able to be literary critics rather than literary writers. as for the above mentioned incomplete parts, i think students can learn them from other books or through attending creative writing trainings and discussions. as whiteley put in the introduction of the book, we should set ourselves a goal of becoming an accomplished creative writer. by doing so, we might one day find ourselves in a manhattan bookstore, signing your name on hundreds of copies of your work. iwan sulistiawan_vol 12_no 2_dec 2012 a0_depan_celt dec 2012 a1 ok dec 2012 yoseph p101-120 dec8 emd8-22 24 25 jan 22feb13 a2 ok dec 2012 tengsoe p121-141 dec8 emd822 jan 22feb13 a3 ok dec 2012 lingga p142-159 a4 ok dec 2012 ari p160-179 dec10 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a5 ok dec 2012 cecilia p180 192 dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a6 ok dec 2012 shierly & eka p193-204 dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a7 ok dec 2012 br iwan p205-209dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a8_celt dec 2012 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 89-93 anton a9 blakang_oke a8_celt dec 2012.pdf 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 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(2) to reveal students' competence to write a purposive paragraph. (3) to describe the students' response to the use of the english proverbs in writing skill. the result of the study shows that (1) english proverbs can be considered as statement containing moral values. english proverbs call be used as teaching aids in teaching writing. (2) english proverbs enable lecturers to promote students' writing ability. this fact can be supported by the result of students' writing test that is 74.62. which can be categorized into a good category. such as proposed by hartfiel et. ai's learning esl composition. (3) based on the students' response. generally they have positive attitudes toward the use of english proverbs because it can help them to increase their writing ability. moreover, english proverbs enable students to elaborate their ideas in writing a paragraph. key words: english proverbs. development. writing skill introduction writing can be regarded as one of educated people's activities. writing enables people to disseminate information and new findings. in this paper is a summary of research conducted at a private university in malang, east java. drs. sudiran, m.hum. <sudiran@yahoo.com> is a lecturer at muhammadiyah university ofmaiang in east java. sudiran, the role of english proverbs in the development of writing skill 139 bibliography alwasilah, a cbaedar. "empowering college students writers through collaboration". in tefun journa[vol xii. no.1 february 2001: 2-4. davis, stephen j. "creative writing". in english teaching forum. vol 36 no.4 october.december, 1998. gnoinska. anna. "teaching vocabulary in color". in english teaching forum. vol 36 no.3 july september 1989: 12-13. harris, john. "introduction writing". new york: penguin books ltd., 1993. hartfiel, v. faye et al learning esl composition. rowley, massadmsetts: newbury house publisher inc. 1985. inman, billie andrew and gardner ruth. "'aspect of composition reef. new york: harcomtbracejovanovich, 1979. samekto,ceciliag.popularproverbs. yogyakarta:kanisius, 1994. troyka. lyn quitman. handbook for the writers.. new jersey: prentice-hall inc., 1987. walker, bonnie l. basic english composition. maryland: media material inc., 1983. logo: pamela: a reflection of a new 18th century woman 1 galuh parameswari2, ekawati marhaenny dukut and b. retang wohangara3 abstract: the 18'" century period is oftell collsidered as a period where womell had to live ill men's world. there were 1i0rms, values, and rules, which binded, tied and controlled women's movemellts in every part of life. womell 'were forced' to be ollly as mell 's servallls and slaves who were obliged to be submissive alld servile. through his 'iovel, pamela, samuel richardsoll introduces his maill character. pamela. as a controversially differelll character. she changes the meaning of servitude, in which womell do 1i0t have to be men's properties for being servile. unlike most womerr ill her cemury. she introduces herself as a beillg who ;s able to use her illlelligelice in defending her rights in frolll of men ill a patriarchal society while at the same time she still gives her respect to them. this article, which uses traditiollal, sociological. moral, and femillism approaches. is intended to analyze the new portrayal of the 18'" celltury female characte r by focusing on sanruel richardson's pamela, as she showed new meanillgs of being a woman, a wife. mid a mother to her husband, friends and socief)~ key words: servitude. feminism. patriarchal socief)'. this article is a development of the thesis defended at the faculty of letters. socgijapranata catholic university in july 2003. 2 galuh parameswari, s.s. <inggakoe@yahoo.com> is an alumnae of the faculty of letters soegijapranata catholic university 3 dra. ekawati marhaenny dukut, m.hum. <ekawatimd@yahoo.com> and b. retang wobangara, s.s., m.hum. <wohangara@yahoo.com> are lecturers of the faculty of letters. soegijapranata catholic university of semarang g prameswari, e.m. dukut and b.r. wohangara, pamela 81 pamela's efforts in preserving her own way to defend her rights, pride and dignity in giving service to men, have broken men's dominance over her. her brilliant reasonable reasons, patience, and faithfulness toward people around her make nobody can look down upon her. by keeping her dreams and desires, pamela can change the entire meaning of being servile and become a new portrayal of the islh century english female who is able to freely express her own wants and needs. bibliography abrams. m.h. a glossary 0/ literature terms 611l ed. united states: harcourt brace jovanovich college publishers, 1985. chase. perry et al. western civilization. ideas. politic and society/rom 1600s. 2nd ed. boston: houghton mifflin. 1985. davies. stephen. libertarian feminism in britain 18601910. in http://www. capital. demon.co.ukilaipamphletsllib-fem.html. retrieved on 29 may 2003. eagleton. mary. f emi"ist literary theory. oxford: basil blackwell ltd .• 1986 freeman. jo. (1971). the women s liberation movemellt: its origin. structures alld ideas. 1971. in http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edulwlmlwomlib. retrieved 31 may 2003). friedan. betty. (1963). "the feminine mystique (ch. 5): the sexual solipsism of sigmund freud" 1963. in http://www.marxists.orglreferences/subjectl philosophy/works/usifriedan.htm. retrieved 31 may 2(03). plumb. j .h. england ill the eighteenth celllury ( 1714-1815). great britain: penguin books. ]957. richardson. samuel. pamela. volume i. london: everyman's library. 1969. __ . pamela. volume ii. london: everyman's library. 1969. sarup. madan. an introduction guide to post·structuralism and postmodemism. 2nd ed. united states: the university of georgia press athens. ]993. schorrenberg. barbara b. sophia: british feminism in the mid eighteelllh celllu,)'. in http://www.pinn.net!@sunshinelbiblio/sophia2l.html. retrieved on 29 may 2003). logo: the development of english adjectives from old english to modern english albertus suwardp abstract: this paper discusses the development of adjectives in old english, middle english, and modern english. in the discussion it is found that the old english'adjectives had inflectional modification to indicate numbers, genders, cases, and degrees of comparisons, and there was a distinction of weak and strong declensions. in middle english, most of the declensional distinctions were lost, the general tendency of the language being to drop all suffixes. adjectives in modem english do not change their fomls to show changes in number. case, or gender; and onl), afew adjectives o/the pronominal class possess meanings which indicate number. one, and every, each modify singular nouns while several. few. many modif), only plural substantives. i" modem english no adjective is capable of indicating gender or case. key words: adjective, inflection, declension, gender. case. introduction this paper is intended to discuss about. the development and the changes of the english adjectives, in old english. middle english, and middle english. all languages in the world develop and change. a language is developing from time to time, and from generations to generations. speakers of a certain language cannot prevent the language they speak from developing drs. albertus suwardi, m.hum. <albertus261o@yahoo.com> is a dpk (state) lecturer currently assigned at the english department of the faculty of letters and culture. university of technology yogyakarta. a. suwardi, the development of english adjectives 3s ~_ declensional distinctions were lost, the general tendency of the language is ~~~ ~ j to drop all suffixes. adjectives in modem english do not change their forms ,oerpus1:to show changes in number, case, or gender; and only a few adjectives of the pronominal class possess meanings which indicate number. one, and every, each modify singular nouns while several, few, many modify only plural substantives. in modem english no adjective is capable of indicating gender or case. bibliography baugh, a.c. and t. cable. a history of the english language. new jersey: prentice hall,inc., 1978. crystal, d. the cambridge encyclopedia of the english language. cambridge: cambridge university press,' 1995. frank, marcella. modem english grammar: a practical reference guide. new jersey: prentice hall, inc., 1972. jespersen, otto. essentials of english grammar. london: george allen and unwin ltd., 1960. marckwardt, albert h. introduction to the english language. new york: oxford university press, 1942. o'grady, w., m. dobrovolsky and f. katamba. contemporary linguistics: an introduction. united kingdom: pearson education ltd., 1996. quirk el al. a comprehensive grammarofthe english language. london: longman, 1985. wardhaugh, r. an/ntroduction to sociolinguistics. cambridge: blackwell publisher, 1992. . wright, 1. an elementary old english grammar. oxford: the clarendon press, 1923. ___ . an elementary middle english grammar. oxford: oxford university press, 1928. logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia from picture to text: the use of picture in elt writing class 1ika apriani fata, 2syamsul bahri, and 3 muridhal 1,2,3department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, aceh, indonesia email: 1ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id; 2syb.ina@yahoo.com; 3muridhal@gmail.com received: 12-08-2018 accepted: 29-10-2018 published: 25-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from picture to text: the use of picture in elt writing class 1ika apriani fata, 2syamsul bahri, and 3 muridhal 1ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id; 2s.bahri@unsyiah.ac.id; 3muridhal@gmail.com 1,2,3department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, aceh, indonesia abstract: having students to produce an organized and neat piece of writing has always been the life-long dream and goal of all efl teachers. thus, many studies have been conducted under quantitative study as like experimental research, to fill in this gap this study focused on figuring out the teacher’s point of view toward the use of picture as media, what are the target and how are the students’ participations toward it based by using qualitative design. the instruments applied are interview, observation and field notes, as triangulation data. one english teacher and 36 efl learners participated as informants in this research. it turned out that the findings showed that based on interview of the teacher, it is believed that media as alternative to assist teacher in teaching writing. besides, the teacher seems confident to teach writing by using the picture. furthermore, the english teacher believed that students developed their writing skill by using picture. meanwhile, based on observation and field notes, the efl students seem enthusiast to learn writing especially it is combined with group discussion techniques. as further studies, it is best to look at the students writing assessment process through picture strategies in efl class. key words: media, efl writing, picture, teacher’s perception, belief abstrak: memiliki siswa yang mampu menulis tulisan yang baik dan terstruktur selalu menjadi impian dan tujuan seumur hidup bagi semua guru “english as foreign language”. oleh karena itu, telah banyak riset yang dilakukan terkait topik ini dengan pendekatan kuantitatif atau 298 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 297 – 309 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj metode eksperimental. untuk mengisi gap ini, maka penelitian ini bertujuan melihat perspektif guru dalam menggunakan gambar untuk mengajar kemahiran menulis, apa target belajar dan bagaimana partisipasi siswa dengan pendekatan studi kualitatif. instrumennya yaitu, wawancara, observasi dan catatan lapangan, triangulasi pengumpulan data. satu guru bahasa inggris dan 36 peserta efl berpartisipasi sebagai informan dalam penelitian ini. hasil penelitian ternyata menunjukkan guru menerapkan media gambar sebagai alternatif untuk mengajar ketrampilan menulis. selain itu, guru percaya bahwa siswa akan mengembangkan keterampilan menulis mereka melalui pemaparan gambar dan media yang sesuai. ini menyiratkan bahwa penggunaan media terutama gambar harus dipelajari oleh siswa untuk memotivasi dorongan mereka dalam kelas menulis bahasa inggris. sara untuk pengembangan studi, sebaiknya di kemudian hari diteliti penilaian proses ketrampilan menulis siswa menggunakan media gambar di kelas bahasa inggris. kata kunci: media, pembelajaran bahasa asing, gambar, menulis, pandangan guru, keyakinan. introduction the use of picture in teaching english as a foreign language has important role in the teaching and learning process. pictures can help the students be able to develop some sentences to be a paragraph. in teaching language skill especially writing skill, material and media used by the teacher should stimulate the students’ creativity. it is not enough to rely on the textbook. it is urged because there are many types of visual media aids that suggested in teaching language, namely black board, slip, pocket, chart, mocks up, poster, cartoon, puppet, and pictures (harford & baird, 2009). writing is an activity that arranges the words into a sentence, sentences into a paragraph, and paragraph into a good text. thus writing is combination of process and product. the process refers to act of getting ideas and working with it (linse, 2005). the students have to compose their writing and organize their ideas, so that their writing can be understood by the reader. many students understand the language but most of the students face the problem in writing skill and writing skill is the biggest challenge for many students (adas & bakir,2013). writing is a difficult task and there are large numbers of englishfata, i. a., bahri, s., & muridhal. from picture to text: the use of picture 299 in elt writing class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj language students seems to pose greater problem in writing than other language skill (hedge, 2005). there have been many studies on writing skill; al-khasawneh (2010) also agrees that learning writing is difficult for students; he states that most students face many obstacles in writing especially in organizing their ideas into a composition. on other hand, jahin & idrees (2012) said that although the efl university students in saudi arabia have spent their works to improve writing skill but the result of their writing achievement is still low. pictures can make students more imaginative and get many ideas in writing paragraphs (christine, 2009). it is also supported by gutiérrez, puello, & galvis, (2015) said that picture can increase students’ motivation to improve and practice their writing skills. however, there is yet found a research conducted on teacher’s view of teaching efl writing class through picture media in line with curriculum 2013 in aceh indonesia. thus, this study would fill in this gap. this study is guided by the research question: what is teacher’s view on having media applied in teaching writing skill? how do students receive media applied in writing class? literature review a. picture as media in elt using pictures as media is believed to become a good material in learning english. furthermore, andrzejczak, trainin, & poldberg (2005) also suggest that the use of visual media is beneficial because it serves mainly as a motivational entry-point to reading and writing activities. the procedure of applying picture in classroom shows the better result on students writing (cahyono, 2009). he states there are six steps to get better result in students’ writing by applying the picture. first, distribute and explain the usage of picture. then, divide the students in some groups by asking to count 1 up to 10. the purpose of grouping the students is to help the teacher control each student in doing the given tasks. third, ask the students to write a short descriptive paragraph about the pictures. the following paragraph is given as an example. and then, the teacher asks the students to exchange their writing to other students so it is readable and discussable for them. after that, ask the students to return their classmates’ texts to the writers. the last step is the teacher asked all students to submit their work. 300 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 297 – 309 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj gutiérrez, et al. (2015) stated that, through pictures the students can pay attention to an object or other matters that they have not seen before and pictures also give the students a large experience, understanding, and increase their achievement in writing skill. without any pictures, they will get difficult in writing sentences or paragraphs because the students may need optional period of time to express their idea that is appropriate to the topic. it is why picture help students in getting the ideas easily by looking at the pictures. mansourzadeh (2014) mentioned that there are several functions of using picture. one of them is to attract students’ interest and help them visualize the lesson. using of visual media has several advantages for teaching and learning in descriptive writing. the advantages are: visual media are beneficial in classroom for many reasons. one example is for crowded classroom during a special demonstration in areas, teacher can use visual media classroom to enlarge dissection and experiments in crowded classroom. methodology the research design used in this study is qualitative method. the base of framework employed is rokni & karimi (2013). relating to the design of this study, neuman (2007) asserts that, this research is categorized as field research, in which the researcher goes to people, setting, or site in order to describe and observe their behavior, and record them naturally such as events, social activities, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, people in group or individually. in this study, the researcher takes the data from interviews, observation, and field notes. the researcher uses the method of kvale (2006), in elaborating the data from interview. the field notes guideline adapted from marshall & rossman (2006). findings the teacher gave her perspective about picture media and the way she implemented picture media in the classroom. based on the interview, the teacher told that picture is a good media to use in teaching efl writing class because it can increase students’ writing skill and their motivation in learning writing skill. this statement is in line with the one finding study conducted by rokni & karimi (2013) who say that the use of visual elements like picture media is a good and useful way for teaching. fata, i. a., bahri, s., & muridhal. from picture to text: the use of picture 301 in elt writing class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 1: students’ enthusiasm in writing class (source: muridhal) furthermore, if teachers use visual materials, students’ learning atmosphere was getting better than without visual and media. the teacher said that the students seemed surely enthusiast and active in learning writing skill by using picture media. e1: question: what is the media that you use to help students in writing skill in accordance with the curriculum 2013? why? teacher’s answer: i used picture as media when i taught efl writing class, because the students more interested in learning and enthusiast in writing text. the teacher used picture media in teaching efl writing class and the students’ responses in using picture media were great. based on the researcher observed the teacher use picture as media to make students observed the object in the picture, it means that the teacher use picture accordance with curriculum 2013. the students are more interested and enthusiast in classroom, it means that the positive atmosphere happened in the classroom by using picture media. this view supported theory by rokni & karimi (2013) that using picture in teaching efl class attracted the students for better learning. besides, this data also supported naseer, fata, daud, & isniati, (2016) stating that pictures are attractive for students also using pictures help teacher to overcome the problems of translation. the teacher also told about the references of the picture that she used as media in teaching writing skill. the teacher got the picture from internet, especially in google image by entering the key word. 302 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 297 – 309 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj e2: question: where did you get the picture? teacher’s answer: i got the picture from google image by using word “picture” as keyword based on the data above, we know that the teacher used google image as her references to get the picture. the way she got the picture is by entering the key word in google image. the researcher had checked on google image and he found the picture used by the teacher. nevertheless, there was a picture that did not appear in the first page of google image. the further question saying about curriculum 2013 as mentioned below. e3: question: does the picture as media that you used is in line with curriculum 2013? why? teacher’s answer: picture as media that i used in line with the demand of curriculum 2013. in curriculum 2013 it is required to study by using picture as media. depdiknas (2013) argued that curriculum 2013 emphasizes on modern pedagogical dimensions in learning process, namely adopting scientific approach. scientific approach used five steps in main activity of learning. those activities are observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and networking. the first activity in scientific approach is observing. in this activity, the students observed the objects that learnt by them. the learning activities are reading, listening, and observing. the competence developed is the training of earnestness, precision, for looking information. in this activity the teachers present learning device such as media of learning. in observing activity, the teacher can present the media like a video, picture, miniature, slides, or the real object. in this study, the teacher uses picture as the media of learning for students in teaching writing. in accordance with researcher observation, the teacher used picture in observing and experimenting activities. therefore, it can determine that the teacher statement and her teaching activities using picture as media congruent with the curriculum 2013. e: what are the steps of using picture media in teaching writing? teacher’s answer: i used power point to display the picture and a text based on picture for students. e: what will you do if the electricity is off? fata, i. a., bahri, s., & muridhal. from picture to text: the use of picture 303 in elt writing class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teacher’s answer: i have another material that i have printed, so i can keep going to teach the students by using picture media. based on teacher’s statements above, we know that the teacher uses microsoft power point to display the picture for students. lari (2014) reported that, the use of technology such as power point can be used as a tool to facilitate teaching and learning. it can promote students’ motivation toward learning. this finding is in line with alkash & al-dersi (2013) they argued that teaching and learning of english as a foreign language often poses many difficulties for teachers to present the language instructions. therefore, the power point can be a helping hand in achieving the goal of language instruction in easy yet powerful way. it is the undeniable that the use of technology like power point need the electricity, so what does the teacher do if the electricity is off? the teacher also prepared the printed material. so, if the electricity is off, she can continue teaching by using picture as media to teach writing skill. it is in line with the researcher observation; the researcher found that the teacher set up a printed material. moreover, the teacher also told that the picture media is easy to use in teaching writing skill. e5: question: is picture media easy to use in teaching writing skill? why? teacher’s answer: picture as media is easy to use in teaching writing skill, because when we display the picture to the students they will directly imagine what they see in the picture. for instance, if i display a picture about a cow, they can imagine that the cow has 4 legs and so forth. the teacher said that using picture as media is easy in teaching writing skill. by using picture as media the students can directly image to describe. it will be easy for students to write a descriptive text. this supported the theory of yunus, salehi, & john (2013) using visual media in teaching is easy and enjoyable. mansourzadeh (2014) listed several advantages using picture in teaching; “availability, cheapness, flexibility, and variety”. it means that the picture media is easy to use. e6: question: can the used of picture media in teaching writing improve students’ writing skill? why? 304 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 297 – 309 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teacher’s answer: students’ writing skill increased by using picture media. the students can construct vocabulary by looking at the picture. in other words, visual material can provide understanding well for students in improving students’ writing skill. in regarding to the finding above, the data of interview asserted that the teacher relies on the picture media in teaching writing skill can enhance students’ writing skill. the picture can stimulate students to progress of students’ vocabulary in addition, the main point to support the researcher’s data, the teacher told that using picture media also can increase students’ motivation in learning writing skill. this data also supported the statement of depdiknas (2013) that one of the goals of the curriculum 2013 in writing skill was that students should able to make a simple text. e7: question: can the picture media improve students’ motivation in writing skill? teacher’s answer: by using picture as media, it can improve students’ motivation in learning writing skill. nowadays the students more interested to visual media such as a picture. rokni & karimi (2013) agreed that visual materials such as pictures, and real objects, can motivate students for better learning and make the learning process enjoyable and memorable. it is supported by gutiérrez et al. (2015) who stated that pictures can motivate and help students assimilate their ideas in a way more meaningful and interesting. in addition, picture might encourage students to learn writing ability. according to the teacher’s answer of the interview, she explained the advantages of using picture media in teaching writing skill based on curriculum 2013. e8: question: what are the advantages of using picture media in teaching writing skill? teacher’s answer: advantages of using picture media are, it can improve students’ writing skill, and the students can produce vocabulary by using the picture. rokni & karimi (2013) claimed that using pictures in teaching will help teacher have an interesting class because students are interested in looking at fata, i. a., bahri, s., & muridhal. from picture to text: the use of picture 305 in elt writing class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the pictures and this way is enjoyable for them. pictures are attractive for the students. e9: question: what were the difficulties that you found when you used the picture media? teacher’s answer: the difficulty of using picture media is the students are not familiar with the picture that i showed to them sometimes. i need to explain about who is in the picture. regarding to the data above, we know that using picture as a media teacher found a problem; however, when the researchers conducting observations the issue is not happened. the teacher had deal with the problem by displaying pictures that have been very familiar to students so that the problem mentioned did not happen. prior to start teaching writing using picture media, the teacher reviewed the lesson taught in the last meeting. the teacher showed a picture cr. ronaldo with a descriptive text about him. the teacher asked the students to observe the picture and to read the text in their mind. this is one of steps of scientific approach in curriculum 2013. naseer et al. (2016) revealed that in scientific approach the first step is observation. in this step the teacher ask students to observe about the lesson that they learn. they can observe from their environment, video and from the picture. moreover, the teacher used the picture to be observed by the students. discussion the teacher asked the students what they thought about the picture. this activity is one of core activities in scientific in approach that call questioning. it means that the teacher using picture as media was in line with curriculum 2013. the teacher asked the question one by one to the students in a whole class. in addition, the teacher asked the students what kind of text it is, the definition of text and the function of text. one of the students raised his hand and answered the question. ten minutes later, the teacher started to explain about descriptive text, such as the definition of descriptive text, the function, and etc. the teacher explained about descriptive text by using slide presentation. the teacher explained slides one by one to the students and give the students example of cr. ronaldo picture. then, the teacher asked the 306 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 297 – 309 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students to give example by the one of their friend in their classroom. the teacher mentioned one name and asked students to describe their friend. after the teacher explained and gave them example, the teacher asked the students to review again about descriptive text in order to know whether they have understood or not about descriptive text. then the teacher told the students to describe one of their friends in a paper, it could be their classmate or not. moreover, the teacher gave time to the students about twenty minutes and they should submit their writing to the teacher. the teacher has provided three images of public figures and famous people in indonesia and banda aceh. there are, the mayor of banda aceh illiza sa'adudin djamal, the presenter of program mata najwa on metro tv that is najwa sihab and the president of indonesia joko widodo. then, the teacher called the student's name one by one to select one image that had been provided. each student got one image. after all students got the picture, the teacher asked them to write a descriptive text based on the picture they got. the teacher gave them about thirty minutes and they should submit it to the teacher at the end of the lesson. mansourzadeh (2014), gutiérrez et.al. (2015) and rokni & karimi (2013) revealed that pictures are those kinds of visual instruction materials can be used in teaching and learning language skill. the findings of this study supported those theories of the benefits using picture media in teaching writing skill for students. in teaching writing skill picture media can increase students’ achievements. based on teacher’s interview it is evidenced that told the teacher used picture media in teaching writing, because the students are more interested and motivated in language learning. this finding is in line with rokni & karimi (2013) that using visual material like picture as media in teaching language skill has positive result. in other words, it can improve students’ achievement. in addition, the teacher, surely believes that picture media can improve students writing skill and help students get the idea and vocabulary by using picture media. this supported the theory of carpenter & olson (2011) who examined the effect of teaching new vocabularies through pictures, and their results showed that both the teacher and students who took part in this study had positive attitudes towards using the pictures. according to depdiknas (2013) that curriculum 2013 is adapted scientific approach which used 5 steps in main activity of learning. those activities are, observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and fata, i. a., bahri, s., & muridhal. from picture to text: the use of picture 307 in elt writing class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj networking. teacher’s answer from interview, she said that, the picture media that teacher used in line with the demand of curriculum 2013. based on researcher observation when the teacher taught writing skill, the teacher used picture media in line with scientific approach steps. the teacher used picture as the media in observation activity and experimenting activity. it showed that the teacher’s answer when the researcher did interview is relevant with the teacher did when she taught writing and using picture as the media. in other word, she did what she said in interview session. furthermore, the teacher told that picture media was easy to use in teaching writing and can improve students’ motivation. it is evidenced that all of students were enthusiast in learning writing skill by using picture media. most of students were very active in the classroom and it showed by their response of asking and answering the teacher questions. it means that their motivation in learning writing skill was improved. conclusion from picture to text method is believed a very good way in doing writing for a writing class. the use of picture in teaching writing by the english teacher was found successful. eventhough, the teacher did not implement all procedures of pictures as media, but in general result of using picture in teaching writing was done well. the teacher using picture as a media in teaching writing skill is in accordance with the demand of the 2013 curriculum because the steps of scientific approach has been applied. it can be concluded that the teacher has a positive view toward the use of pictures in writing skill. furthermore, based on observation result, it is proven that the teacher provided the colorful picture instead of black/ white and it was distributed to all of students in efl class. the researcher further suggests that english teacher in efl class use the picture in teaching writing, especially, in writing descriptive text. the teacher should use big and colorful pictures to attract the students’ attention. it is also suggested that look picture as media in teaching english besides writing class. references adas, d., & bakir, a. 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(2014). a comparative study of teaching vocabulary through pictures and audio-visual aids to young iranian efl learners. journal of elementary education, 24(1), 47–59. marshall, c. & rossman g. b. (2006). designing qualitative research. thousand oaks: ca: sage. naseer, c., fata, i. a., daud, b., & isniati. (2016). figuring the context of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under 2013 curriculum. culture, english language teaching & literature (celt) journal, 16(2), 149-162 neuman, w. l. (2007). basic of social research, quantitative and qualitative aproches (2nd ed.). new york: pearson education. nirmala, y. (2013). teaching writing using picture stories as tools at high school level: the movement from other regulation to self-regulation. language in india, 13(2), 1–211. rokni, s. j. a. & karimi, n. (2013). visual instruction: an advantage or a disadvantage? what about its effect on efl learners’ vocabulary learning? asian journal of social sciences & humanities, 2(4), 236–243. swandi,i. s. b. & netto-shek, j. a. (2017). teaching writing at the primary levels. indonesian journal of applied linguistics ijal, 7(1),1-10 wyrick, j. (2011). steps to writing well (11th ed.). los angeles: lachina publishing. yunus, m., salehi, h., & john, d. s. (2013). using visual aids as a motivational tool in enhancing students’ interest in reading literary texts 2. recent advances in educational technologies texts, 5(1), 114–117. 8.pdf (p.1) 008 dec2018.pdf (p.2-14) a book review: feminism andnersus feminity of modern women the female thing: dirt, sex, envy, and vulnerability laura kipnis new york: pantheon books 2006 173 pp. isbn-i0: 0375424172 reviewed by b. retang wohangara l one important theme attached to pop culture is the politics of representation and sub-cultural identity. the pop singer madonna and then the spice girls are frequently regarded as the representation of modern women offering a different face of feminism ideology. successfully entering the market competition, madonna, through her cry of 'material girl', characterizes herself as an independent woman in the still dominating patriarchal world while challenging the burden of b. retang wohangara, s.s., m.hum. <wohangara@yahoo.com> is a fulltime lecturer of the faculty of leners, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. he is currently working his way to being a doctorate candidate in indiana bloomingston, u.s.a. with ford foundation. b.r. wohangara, book review: feminisimlfeminity of modem women 195 ironic way to rouse the consciousness of the inner conflicts and inconsistencies characterizing the modem female condition. the book may be leafed through as an audit of feminism's progress, which is hopefully recognisable to every woman. kiplin does not offer, neither does mean, to offer advices to the ambivalence between feminism and femininity of modem female situation, as she lets her readership to figure them out by stating "a full accounting of the female situation at the moment would need to start roughly here" (2006:163) at the end of the book. in this consumer-driven culture, women progress is challenged by the 'something is missing' notion and it is indeed the huge task of women to (re)construct their personalities and lifestyles without moaning too much about men. in her funny and fierce presentation, she reminds women to look at themselves as worst enemies in the battle for equal rights. bibliography kipnis, laura. the female thing: dirt. sex, envy, and vulnerability. new york: pantheon books, 2006. mandzuik, roseann. "feminists politics and postmodem seductions. in postjeminism. feminism, cultural theory and cultural forms. edited by ann brooks. routledge: london, 1997. swastika, alia. "apakah saya feminist? mengeja girl power dalam majalah gadis". in jurnal perempuan, vol. 34. yayasan jumal perempuan: jakarta, 2004. logo: compliment responses used by indonesians learning english based on the compliment topics and social statuses yustika saril abstract: this article is a study of compliment responses used by indonesians learning english to respond to english compliments based on the compliment topics (appearance and ability) and social statuses of the addressor (higher, equal, and lower). the data were collected using a discourse completion test (dct) and a questionnaire. the results of this study showed that appreciation token was the mastfrequently used in all situations given. the results also revealed that the subjects' background (academic year cohort) did not give a significant effect on the preference of the types of compliment responses. key words: pragmatics, compliment responses, compliment topics, social statuses introduction language plays an important role in communication since it is used as a means to interact with other people. however, people from different communities are affected by social norms or rules characterizing their speech community. thus, it is important to develop a kind of communicative competence. according to yule i yustika sari, s.pd. <yunicks_love06@yahoo.com> is a graduate of the english department, state university ofmalang 144 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 126-149 cohort) did not give a significant effect on the preference of the types of compliment responses. this study only investigated compliment responses based on the compliment topics (appearance and ability) and social statuses of the addressor (higher, equal, and lower). therefore, the same or further studies in relation to compliment responses and with higher quality data are needed to contribute more to the real application of pragmatic theory. a study about other social factors that may influence the preference of the types of compliment responses might be interesting to carry out. acknowledgement special gratitude is given to prof. bambang yudi cahyono, m.pd, m.a., ph.d., a faculty member of the english department of state university ofmalang, for his guidance and support during the writing of my undergraduate thesis and the writing of this article. references ai falasi, h. "just say "thank you": a study of compliment responses". in the linguistics journal. vol. 2, no. 1 2007: 28-42. in http://www.linguisticsjournal.comlapril_2007_voi2_issuel.pdf. retrieved 12 january 2009. brown, p. and levinson, s.c. politeness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1987. cedar, p. "thai and american responses to compliments in english". in the linguistics journal. vol. 1, no.2, 2006: 6-28. in http://www.linguistics-journal.com/tlj june 2006.pdf, retrieved 12 january 2009. chiang, 8., and pochtrager, f. "a pilot study of compliment responses of american-born english speakers and chinese-born english y. 8m, compliment responses used by indonesians learning english 145 speakers". in eric document reproduction service ed 356 649 fl 021. no. 149, 1993: 1-21. in http://www.eric.edgov/. retrieved 24 january 2009. daikuhara, m. "a study of compliments from a cross-cultural perspective: japanese vs. american english". in working papers in educational linguistics. vol. 2, no.2, 1986: 103-134. in http://www.wpel.net/v2/v2n2daikuhara.pdf. retrieved 24 january 2009. ernawati, d. b. "responding to compliments: an interlanguage study of indonesian non-native speakers of english". in b. y. cahyono and u. widiati (eds), the tapestry of english language teaching and learning in indonesia (pp.lll-124). malang: state university of malang press, 2004. gajaseni, c. "how americans and thais respond to compliments". in eric document reproduction service ed 378 840 fl 022. no. 783 1994: 1-35. in http://eric.ed.gov/ericdocs/data/inericdocs2sql /content_ storage _ 01/00000 19b/80/13/9b/4b.pdf, retrieved 1 march 2009. han, c. "a comparative study of compliment responses: korean females in korean interactions and in english interactions". in working papers in educational linguistics. vol. 8, no.2, 1992: 17-31. in http://www.wpel.net/v8/v8n2 _ han. pdf, retrieved 24 january 2009. ibrahim, j. and riyanto, t.j. "a sociolinguistic study of compliment responses among americans and indonesians and its implications for teaching english". k@ta. vol. 2, no.1, 2000: 21-30. patriana, a. w. a study on compliment responses by indonesian speakers of english based on age differences. malang: english department, state university ofmalang, 2005. pristiwi, e.p. the study oj compliment responses by english department students oj state university oj malang based on social distance difforences. malang: english department, state university of malang,2008. 146 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 126-149 urano, k. negative pragmatic transfer in compliment responses by japanese learners of english. unpublished manuscript. manoa, honolulu: university of hawai'l, 1998. in http://www2.hawaii.edul-urano/research/esi660.html, retrieved, retrieved 12 january 2009. varghese, m. and billmyer, k. "investigating the structure of discourse completion tests". in working papers in educational linguistics. vol. 12. no.1, 1996: 39-58 (ed 401 758 fl 024 255). in http://www.eric.ed.goviericdocsidataiericdocs2sqvcontent_stora ge _ 01/00000 19b/80/14/cc/04.pdf, retrieved 12 january 2009. wu, s. a study of compliment responses uttered by senior high school students in taiwan. taiwan: providence university, 1994. in http://www.ethesys.lib.pu.edu.tw. retrieved 26 february 2009. yule, g. the study of language. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1996. yule, g. pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press, 1996. appendix! discourse completion test (dct) this dct will investigate how you respond to compliments. it consists of 6 situations in which you are expected to give responses to compliments based on the compliment topics and social statuses. imagine you were being in those situations. please respond as naturally as possible and try to write your response as you feel you would say in the real life. for each situation, you are asked to give the most complete information possible. please give your answers in english. 1. a compliment on appearance which is said by someone in the higher position than you imagine that you participate in the shakespeare's play of "king lear" in your campus. in that play, you wear so gorgeous costume that your lecturer says, "i like your costume. it's really gorgeous!" your response: y. sari, compliment responses used by indonesians learning english 147 2. a compliment on appearance which is said by someone in the equal position to you. . you come to the class by wearing your new cloth for the first time. suddenly, one of your friends comes approaching you and says, "that's great! you look different. you look more handsomelbeautiful with your new cloth." your response: 3. a compliment on appearance which is said by someone in the lower position than you imagine that you are the top executive in the advertising firm. you tell your administrative assistant that you are wearing your new contact lenses instead of your glasses today. when looking at you, your administrative assistant says, "gee, you really look different with your contact lenses. you look awesome". your response: 4. a compliment on ability which is said by someone in the higher position than you imagine that you work as a new english magazine editor. you have been working very hard to prove your competence. [n the day of evaluation meeting, your boss calls you to hislher office and says, "i've been very pleased with your job performance in this first year. you've proved that you are an excellent worker". your response: 5. a compliment on ability which is said by someone in the equal position to you you got 98 on your final exam. the lecturer reads the result of it in front of the class. one of your classmates congratulates you by saying, "you must have done a great job on your final exam. your grade is so good". your response: 148 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 126-149 6. a compliment on ability which is said by someone in the lower position than you imagine that you are taking a position of senior english tutor in one of the english courses in malang. one day, a new tutor comes to observe the way you are teaching and says, "you are really good at delivering your material. i hope that i could do the same like you did later." your response: appendix 2 questionnaire this questionnaire is intended to obtain the information your backgrounds related to the study of compliment responses. in this questionnaire, you are expected to answer all of the questions correctly. please give a check mark [?] for your answer. choose one answer for each of the questions provided. 1. name: 2. 3. sex major male female __ english education __ english literature 4. academic year: 200812009 __ 200612007 2007/2008 2005/2006 5. have you taken and passed these courses? a. sociolinguistics __ yes, i have taken and passed the course __ yes, but i have not passed the course y. sari, compliment responses used by indonesians learning english 149 b. __ not yet __ i'm taking it this semester pragmatics __ yes, i have taken and passed the course __ yes, butihave not passed the course __ not yet __ i'm taking it this semester   students as producers: a case study of technology-based projects 1cecilia titiek murniati and 2ridwan sanjaya 1english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia 2system information department, faculty of computer science, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia email: c_murniati@unika.ac.id; ridwan@unika.ac.id received: 25-10-2017 accepted: 20-11-2017 published: 21-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students as producers: a case study of technology-based projects 1cecilia titiek murniati and 2ridwan sanjaya 1c_murniati@unika.ac.id; 2ridwan@unika.ac.id 1english department, faculty of language and arts soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia 2system information department, faculty of computer science, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia abstract: the existent literature on the integration of technology in language classrooms has addressed the issues of effective teaching strategies, the types of technologies students use, and teachers’ preparedness in adopting technology for the classrooms. some scholars argue that the effectiveness of technology largely relies on the teaching strategies that teachers utilize. the findings of some studies shed light on the impact of technology on students’ attitude and engagement. despite the unresolved debates about the use of technology in the classroom and its impact on student learning, the author’s current projects using games, youtube, blog, and microblogging services indicated that students benefit from the projects in several ways. the participants of this study were students in the english department in a private university in semarang. the data for this study were collected from interviews, observation, and students’ learning reflective journals that students submitted upon the completion of the projects. the findings indicated that students felt more confident in applying their knowledge in real life situations. interactions with teachers and peers, bridged by technology, contribute to their development as the creator of knowledge. key words: technology, blogging, youtube, microblogging, active learning abstrak: literatur mengenai integrasi teknologi di kelas bahasa telah membahas isu-isu strategi pengajaran yang efektif, jenis teknologi yang digunakan siswa, dan kesiapan guru dalam mengadopsi teknologi untuk 122 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kelas. beberapa ilmuwan berpendapat bahwa efektivitas teknologi sangat tergantung pada strategi pengajaran yang digunakan guru. temuan beberapa penelitian menyoroti dampak teknologi terhadap sikap dan keterlibatan siswa. meskipun ada perdebatan mengenai penggunaan teknologi di kelas dan dampaknya terhadap pembelajaran siswa, project pengarang saat ini dengan menggunakan permainan, youtube, blog, dan microblogging mengindikasikan bahwa siswa mendapatkan keuntungan dari tugas ini dalam beberapa aspek. peserta penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa jurusan bahasa inggris di sebuah universitas swasta di semarang. data untuk penelitian ini dikumpulkan dari wawancara, observasi, dan jurnal reflektif pembelajaran siswa yang disampaikan siswa setelah selesainya proyek. temuan menunjukkan bahwa siswa merasa lebih percaya diri dalam menerapkan pengetahuan mereka dalam situasi kehidupan nyata. interaksi dengan guru dan rekan kerja, yang dijembatani oleh teknologi, berkontribusi pada perkembangan mereka sebagai pencipta pengetahuan. kata kunci: teknologi, blogging, youtube, microblogging, pembelajaran aktif introduction much of the literature on the use of technology in classrooms has attempted to address questions revolving around how technologies affect student learning, what kind of learning technologies students take advantage of, what teaching strategies are the most appropriate, and whether teachers are ready to integrate these learning technologies into their classrooms. new innovations in learning technology and the needs to improve the quality of undergraduate education result in gradual paradigm shifts away from the traditional method of learning and toward active learning techniques. active learners, in contrast to orthodoxal students, are “active creators of knowledge who learn by observing, manipulating, and interpreting the world around them” (alessi, 2001). while scholars have debated whether technology has a profound impact on student learning, existing literature indicates that the effectiveness of technology in the classrooms depends on the teaching strategies that instructors adopt (van horne, murniati, gaffney & jesse, 2012). in technology-infused classrooms, instructors need to create new activities or revamp their current teaching strategies in order to engage students in their classroom (van horne, et.al., 2014). murniati, c.t., & sanjaya, r., students as producers: a case study of 123 technology-based projects https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature on the role of technology to enhance learning uses the term “net generation” to refer to the younger generation (oblinger, 2003). this term is used to describe how well younger generations nowadays adjust to the technological gadgets. research on the use of gadgets in north american universities has shown that university students have positive perceptions of the use of technological gadgets to enhance their learning, but the study also shows that the influence of technology on students’ course engagement is moderate (dahlstrom, brooks, & bichsel, 2014). although more and more students believe that they are more familiar and more prepared compared to their counterparts in the past, students reported that the use of technology should be more integrated to improve the learning process. students reported that in order to take the most advantage of technology to improve learning outcomes, training or guidance is necessary (dahlstrom, walker, & dziuban, 2013). this corroborates the findings of a previous study on learning strategy. brown & volts (2005) found that students preferred a learning strategy which allows them to actively engage and participate in current global issues. this study showed that students felt comfortable in incorporating visual aids and technology to better understand the teaching materials. universities have a vital role in educating students to become a capable individual who can engage in a networked global society where shared knowledge is the most critical issue (lehtinen, hakkarainen, lipponen, rahikainen, & muukkonen, 1999). hence, universities should apply innovative teaching method that enables learners to interact with others in a much more meaningful way. for the past ten years, studies on the role of information technology and communication on education have looked at how technology can be integrated to enhance social interactions between student – teacher and among students themselves. one of the pedagogical strategies that provide ample rooms for students to improve the social aspect of learning and teaching process is collaborative learning. putnam (2008) proposed four affordances of technology in teaching and learning. he posited that technology offers four kinds of support; they are information (information accessibility), automation (tasks automation), representation (knowledge representation) and communication/ collaboration (communication/collaboration with peers and experts). in the classrooms, these four affordances are viable if instructors are willing to design their classroom activities in such a way that students have plenty opportunities to create and share knowledge through interactions with peers. in their study 124 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of active learning spaces in the university of iowa, van horne et.al (2014) found that some learning technologies can be utilized as platforms for sharing ideas. in this kind of environment, students who are less engaged during the beginning of the semester will become more motivated and confident in contributing their viewpoints and ideas to group activities or the classroom as a whole. at the end of the semester, these students showed more positive attitude towards the course and increased engagement. literature review a. technology and student learning friedman (2005) discussed the impact of technology on globalization. friedman used the word “flat” to refer to the leveling of the playing field. in his book, he posited that any individual or country who have better access to technology possess wider opportunities to play a role in the global economy. currently, the access to many forms of technology is already wide open. universities worldwide take advantage of the rapid technology advancement to facilitate the process of teaching and learning. young generations today have different characteristics compared to previous ones. many students own different kinds of gadgets with a variety of programs and applications. almost all young people, especially those in urban areas, to a certain degree, maintain social ties with different circles of people through mobile applications. they are highly engaged with other people around them through the internet and mobile devices (oblinger, 2006). research on the extent to which existing technologies are effective and what kind of technology students possess for their learning show that there is a gap between the technology owned for personal use and their use in the classroom (dahlstrom, walker, & dziuban, 2013). the most recent report on undergraduate education and information technology in 11 countries found that even though millenial students are known as ‘digital natives’ and are said to have better technology literacy than previous generations, slightly less than 50% of the respondents reported that they are not really confident about their technology-related skills (dahlstrom, walker, & dziuban, 2015). however, research on student learning strategies showed that students prefer active learning strategies in which they can play an active role in solving the problems that exist in everyday life. students also are more and more likely to be comfortable with the use of visual aids as a means to understand the material provided. murniati, c.t., & sanjaya, r., students as producers: a case study of 125 technology-based projects https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. active learning prince (2004) defined the term active learning as “any instructional method that engages students in the learning process. in short, active learning requires students to do meaningful learning activities and think about what they are doing” (p. 223). one of the key elements of active learning is thoughtful student participation and engagement to attain the learning outcomes. zayapragassarazan & kumar (2012) identified four types of instructional approaches commonly used in active learning classrooms. they are individual activities, paired activities, informal small groups, and cooperative student projects. the adoption of these strategies largely depends on the class size, course objectives, time availability, and teachers’ level of comfort with the strategy. some studies found compelling evidence for active learning and the types of activities that work in classrooms. in an early study of active learning, bonwell and eison (1991) found that active learning improves student attitudes and thinking skills. active learning methods require students to engage in discussions and use their high order thinking skills (roehl, reddy, & shannon, 2013). proponents of active learning believe that learning takes place when students are in charge of knowledge transmission and construction. teaching strategies in active learning classrooms also center on the idea of collaborative participation and mutual engagement. overview of students’ technology-based projects in my language classrooms, my major role is to create engaging activities that will encourage students to internalize their knowledge and apply what they have learned through meaningful assignments. i want to make students active participants in class dialogues and to mediate the knowledge transfer and knowledge ownership. in most of my language classrooms, i design activities where students have to work in groups and take advantage of the available mobile social media applications such as twitter or facebook and internet-based programs such as youtube and wordpress. a. collaborative youtube projects for the past three years, as the first author, i inform that i have used youtube in my structure and functional communicative speaking classes as a reinforcement of the grammatical rules and speaking functions of english. 126 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj english structure is one of the most challenging subjects for english language learners. despite the fact that english structure is taught from early ages, many english language learners reported that they do not have a good mastery of english structure and have difficulties applying the grammatical rules in real life situations (murniati & riyandari, 2014). therefore, in my structure class, i have assigned youtube video assignments related to the topics being discussed. for example, in the past, i asked students to upload videos in youtube using the theme of central java landmarks: past, present, and future. the goal of the project was to make students apply their knowledge of simple past, present, and future tenses. students had to pick one landmark and describe a brief history of the landmark, current projects/reservations, and the future of the landmark. the pictures below showcase some of the youtube video projects that students submitted. figure 1: historical gedong songo video as shown in figure 1, three students worked on a gedong songo project. to produce the video, they visited gedong songo temple complex and conducted an interview with people who are in charge of maintaining and preserving the temples. the following figure is of a different youtube centered project for english structure class. in this project, three students described the history and the preservation efforts of a buddist temple in semarang. murniati, c.t., & sanjaya, r., students as producers: a case study of 127 technology-based projects https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 2: vihara buddhagaya watugong video 1. individual blog project blogging was a required project for the media and technology in englishpreneurship course. this course is for students specializing in englishpreneurship. the course is designed to familiarize students with some digital technologies that they can use to market their products. in this course, the final project was a blog containing information about products/services. the project required students to include five or more information concepts about their ideas and services, such as “about us”, “products”, “store locations”, “contact us”, “fashion tips”, “make-up tips”, or any other information pertinent to product marketing. in addition, the blog incorporated images, videos, and podcasts to add an element of creativity to their design. the following figures are a showcase some of the blogs that students produced. figure 3 is a blog project whose main objective was to sell korean makeup and cosmetics and provide information about korean beauty tips and tricks. the following figure is a screenshot of a blog homepage. the purpose of the blog was to sell clothes. the contents included fashion tips for women. 128 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 3: beautyalley blog 2. individual twitter project in language learning, microblogging services like twitter can be a perfect tool to learn english outside of class. this popular mobile application allows registered users to post, receive, and read short status messages from their followers. twitter can be accessed from anywhere and is available on different platforms. for language learners, this microblogging tool offers a plethora of opportunities for students to improve their writing skill and grammatical rules. character limitation in twitter is beneficial for elementary language learners because they can stick to simple short sentences. in my structure 1 class, i assigned twitter projects because i wanted students to get accustomed to making short and simple sentences. in structure 1 class, students learn basic sentence structure and the most common tenses. during the twitter project, i asked students to follow me and post their statuses in english using the grammatical rules discussed in the class. they could describe their feelings, whereabouts, on-going activities, or plans. my responsibility as a teacher in this task is to provide feedback on grammar use murniati, c.t., & sanjaya, r., students as producers: a case study of 129 technology-based projects https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and sentence structure. figure 5 below shows a conversation in twitter. a student posted a tweet containing the use of superlative. figure 4: a tweet containing the use of superlatives the following figure shows a tweet containing the application of will (modal). figure 5: a tweet containing the use of will 3. group-based game-making one of the most recent project incorporating technology for language learning is the collaborative learning through game-making. in this project, with my co-author, we taught students to make a role-play game using rpg maker mv software. activities in the game were created through the features 130 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of the software and the templates we provided. to make this game, students had to modify the template, the maps, the characters, and the storyboards. figure 6: game template the following figure is the result of one of the games that students created. figure 7: game result murniati, c.t., & sanjaya, r., students as producers: a case study of 131 technology-based projects https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to create the game, students had to work in groups of three and designed questions so that other people can play the game. to create question items for the role play game, students had to practice their writing and grammar skills as well as their knowledge of a certain topic. in the example above, students created a game on korean drama. players of this game were supposed to answer trivia questions about korean drama and actors. methodology the participants of this qualitative study were the freshmen of english department in a private university in semarang. to find out students’ perception about the technology-enhanced projects, i distributed learning reflection essays that students had to submit upon completion of the project. in addition, i interviewed with several students to obtain more data on their attitude towards the projects, their challenges in completing the projects, and their perceptions about the benefit of such projects. results to assess students’ attitude towards these technology-based projects, students were asked to write a learning reflection. they had to report on their challenges in creating those projects and to what extent those projects helped them in understanding the subject matter. these learning reflections were useful for me in order to redesign or revamp the syllabus or class projects to better suit the needs of the students. from the multiple data sources, three main response patterns emerged. a. the advantages of technology-enhanced projects 1. increased interest and creativity in their learning reflections, students suggested that the projects made them capable of expressing their interests and allowed them to be creative. students liked the project because they were able to work on things they are interested in. for instance, the blog project represented students’ passions. one of the students who liked to grow cactus intended to use her blog to sell her plants and offer promotions for her new plants. another student was into korean beauty products and was very knowledgeable about various kinds of korean makeup and cosmetics. this student used her blog to provide 132 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj information about her business and sell korean beauty products. another student who liked pets used his blog to sell pets and share useful tips about pets. in youtube projects, students were able to hone their creative side in producing their videos. they selected video themes, background songs, and animation carefully. many videos contained deleted scenes or bloopers in order to show audience the process of video making. 2. increased self-confidence after completing their projects, i arranged one or two meetings to showcase students’ projects. in these sessions, i asked students to give responses or feedback for their classmate’s projects. students liked the fact that they received feedback about their sentences and learned which expressions were incorrect. the feedback made them better comprehend the use of grammar and writing mechanics. in their youtube project focusing on comparisons, when i asked them whether the activities helped them understand the rules of english comparative patterns, students stated that their class mates’ comments and the public nature of youtube was a great motivator for them to be aware of grammatical rules during the script writing. in short, students did not want to make many mistakes because there is a possibility that they would receive some negative comments from their classmates or other anonymous people on youtube commenting on incorrect english. being public was likely to increase students’ awareness and self-esteem. this was evident from their multiple try-outs in creating media files. audio and video recordings were conducted multiple times so as to obtain the best materials to be uploaded in youtube or other social media. in addition, students also submitted their drafts before starting recording. in other words, being public increased their awareness of linguistic competence. they were worried if they were seen as linguistically incompetent. students also reported that the public nature of social media increased their confidence. the youtube project requires more detailed attention to presentation and delivery. in order to produce good youtube projects, students said that they had to rehearse several times and dress properly. students stated that they were quite nervous initially, but after they were in front of the camera, they became much more confident. murniati, c.t., & sanjaya, r., students as producers: a case study of 133 technology-based projects https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3. becoming better learners group-based technology-enhanced projects require students to utilize various diverse skills such as collaborating, interviewing, writing, designing, and public speaking. during the completion of these tasks, students reported that in general, they could work well with their classmates despite their hectic schedule. students reported they were able to learn many different aspects of technology and english grammatical rules because they learned them from their classmates. in other words, students maximize their own potential by helping other students or learning from each other. students wrote in their learning reflection that what they did help them tremendously in understanding a concept since at times they were required to explain a concept to their friends. in brief, they stated that they became better learners. they learned a lot by interacting with their peers, receiving and giving feedback from teachers and classmates, sharing their knowledge to other people. b. challenges in accomplishing technology-based projects 1. internet connection students reported no major technical problems aside from the slow internet connection. upon completion of the project, students reported that their digital literacy had improved and they did not encounter any major technical difficulties. prior to their technology-based projects, students had their own social media accounts and had been active users of such account. therefore, uploading youtube videos or creating messages in twitter was not something new to these students. they had no problems tweeting because they had used twitter to maintain connections with their friends. before this project, they already posted messages in english. many of these students stated that they were comfortable using the programs necessary to complete their projects even if they were new users. audacity, for instance, was new to students, but from the observation, students seemed to be able to use it well. creating podcasts for students’ blog projects went smoothly even though students had to make themselves familiar with audacity. one of students’ major complaints in completing their projects was slow internet connection. to accomplish some stages of the projects, sometimes students had to bring their laptops to class and had to be connected to internet. unfortunately, when students were working on the project, the internet connection was unstable and the project became very time-consuming. 134 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj some of the projects had to be completed in the classroom because team members were required to determine the outline, decide the design of the projects, or proofread the script or the storyboard. when many students were accessing the internet at the same time, the connection became very slow. 2. less attention to content technology-based projects almost always incorporate good design. students tried to make their projects look attractive; thus, they spent more time designing. during some of the classes, students put a lot of effort to make their project attractive by trying different themes, templates, images, and fonts. in their learning reflection, students acknowledged that this was done intentionally in order to make a project that had good designs and contents. however, during the writing process, students still made grammatical and spelling errors. sometimes, the mistakes were too obvious that they were distracting. in some of the video projects, the challenges to create good content were bigger. when working with video projects, students were supposed to pay attention to both contents and appearance, but the contents of the videos needed improvement the most. some students addressed this issue as lack of editing time. they said they could have done better in editing if they had more time in completing their projects. discussion from multiple data sources, it is evident that technology-based projects foster students’ sense of creativity and a better understanding of subject matters. by creating contents for their projects, students became more confident in applying their knowledge in real life situations. interactions with peers and teachers, collaborative work among team members, collaborative work with bridged by technology, contribute to their development as the creator of knowledge. the materials that students worked on were not something new, but students were able to present the materials that suited their needs and purposes in a creative manner. the ability to extract information from different sources through interviews, archival documents, and other online materials and combine them in one project made them a creator of knowledge. they were able to show their creative capability by making something new murniati, c.t., & sanjaya, r., students as producers: a case study of 135 technology-based projects https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from existing ideas and available information. students had creative freedom to learn a concept, share it with their peers, and then create a new one. in this way, they enhance their peers and their own learning. being able to create contents through meaningful tasks and share them to the public made them better learners. in this study, the most-frequently cited reason for technology-based projects was slow internet connection. this finding was similar to that in carr at al. (2011). in their study, students’ perceived benefits of technologyenhanced language learning were mostly related to computer-related issues. although they had favorable attitude, the fact that their responses were more related to technology related issue was an indicator that students put more emphasis on technology and less attention to content or the learning process itself. one of the objectives of college education is to create and shape a mindset that promotes genuine interaction and dialogue to solve social issues, economics, and politics that surround us in this world. activities in the classroom should stimulate learners to sharpen their analytical and critical thinking skills. learning activities should open abundant opportunities for students to explore the world around them and to acquire and internalize new knowledge. classroom activities have to provide the opportunities for students to contribute ideas and participate in meaningful discussions with their teachers and peers. young generations adjust better to technology. they own gadgets, use various kinds of applications and tools for entertainment, productivity, and social relationship purposes. the integration of technology in language classrooms, when carefully designed and implemented, can lead to increased engagement and participation and more positive attitude towards language learning. in addition, technological ambiguity gives rise to students’ higher level of adaptability which may come in handy in their future professions. conclusion technology-enhanced projects are beneficial if they are incorporated carefully. the findings of this study indicated that such projects created favorable learning attitude and positive learning experience for the students. 136 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj increased interest and creativity, higher level of self-confidence, and becoming a better learner were some of the perceived benefits. however, technology is not without limits. sometimes technology is unreliable that students had to allocate more time to finish the projects. internet connection was one of the major factors why students’ projects were delayed. another challenge was students’ predisposition to spend more time on design instead of contents. the findings of this study suggested that technology-based projects had potentials to be incorporated to the curriculum even though extra care must be done to ensure that students gain the most from the teaching and learning process. future research should focus on the effect of technology-based projects on certain language skills and what kind of learning models that work best for technology-based projects. acknowledgement this paper was part of a research project funded by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education under the international collaboration grant. references barber, james p., patricia m. king, and marcia b. baxter magolda. 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(2005). elements of effective e-learning design. the international review of research in open and distance learning, 6(1). retrieved on may, 2016 from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/ irrodl/article/view/217/300 carr, n. t., crocco, k., eyring, j. l., & gallego, j. c. (2011). perceived benefits of technology enhanced language learning in beginning language classes. iallt journal of language learning technologies, 41(1). dahlstrom, e., walker, j. d., & dziuban, c. (2013). ecar study of undergraduate students and information technology. dahlstrom, e., walker, j. d., & dziuban, c. (2015). ecar study of undergraduate students and information technology. retrieved on march 10, 2016 from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ ss15/ers1510ss.pdf friedman, t. l. (2006). the world is flat: the globalized world in the twenty-first century (pp. 3-543). london: penguin. lehtinen, e., hakkarainen, k., lipponen, l., rahikainen, m., & muukkonen, h. (1999). computer supported collaborative learning: a review. the jhgi giesbers reports on education, 10, 1999. oblinger, d., & lippincott, j. k. (2006). learning spaces. boulder, co: educause. prince, m. (2004). does active learning work? a review of the research. journal of engineering education, 93(3), 223-231. putnam, r. (2008). affordances of technology for supporting teaching and learning. smu. edu. retrieved from http://centres. smu. edu. sg/cte/innovative-development/affordance-oftechnology/(accessed august 21, 2014). roehl, a., reddy, s. l., & shannon, g. j. (2013). the flipped classroom: an opportunity to engage millennial students through active learning. journal of family and consumer sciences, 105(2), 44. trollip, s. r., & alessi, s. m. (2001). multimedia for learning: methods and development. needham heights, ma: pearson. 138 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 121 – 138 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj van horne, s., murniati, c., gaffney, j. d., & jesse, m. (2012). promoting active learning in technology-infused tile classrooms at the university of iowa. journal of learning spaces, 1(2). van horne, s., murniati, c. t., saichaie, k., jesse, m., florman, j. c., & ingram, b. f. (2014). using qualitative research to assess teaching and learning in technology infused tile classrooms. new directions for teaching and learning, 2014(137), 17-26. wenger, e. (1999). communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. new york, ny: cambridge university press. zayapragassarazan, z., & kumar, s. (2012). active learning methods. nttc bulletin, 19(1), 3-5. 01. 1173-4368-1-pb watermark.pdf (p.1) 001 dec2017.pdf (p.2-19) do international nesb students need an academic language development program? 1 bambang yudi cahyono 2 abstract: this study examined the academic language skills of international students from non-english speaking background (nesb) at the university of melbourne. it aimed to determine whether or not they need an academic language development program. the participants were 158 international nesb students of distinct categories. the students' academic language were measured using the diagnostic english language assessment (dela) test administered before the commencement of their academic study. scores of the test were compared across categories and correlated across academic language skills. the results from this study suggested that. in general. international nesb students need a language development program to improve their academic writing skill. in addition. it was suggested that the development of the academic writing skill of international n esb students be accomplished through a program directly related to academic language writing. keywords: academic language skills. academic language development program. english language proficiency, international nesb students with the increasing number of international students in australian universities, an important issue that needs to be taken into account is whether the academic language performance of non-english-speaking background (nesb) students would ensure success in their academic study. in addition to the academic language performance, it should be noted that academic success also depends on other factors such as financial support, motivation, and adequate study skills. an important step is to examine the international i would like to thank kathryn hill, noriko iwashita, tim mcnamara, joanna tapper, celia thompson. and lucia wong of the university of melbourne, australia, for their comments and help during the preparation and writing of this article. 2 ora. bambang vudi cahyodo, ma is a faculty member of the english department of the state university of malang and currently a ph.d student in the department of linguistics and applied linguistics of the university of melbourne. australia. :1 b. y. cahyono, international nesb students nesb students' academic language perfonnance before they commence their academic study (sawyer, 1999). by using the data on the academic language performance, a decision can be made to provide an academic language development program for students who need it (pantelides, 1999). current statistics indicate that there were 143,788 international students in australia in 2001. out of this number, thirty per cent were international students studying in victoria, making up one-fifth of the university population in this state (auditor general victoria, 1999-2002: 3). a common indicator of english language proficiency (elp) to be considered in the admission process of international nesb students is the scores of the lelts (international english language testing system) test. this standardized test is administered by an international partnership of the university of cambridge local examinations syndicate (ucles), the british council, and the lop education australia (lelts handbook, 2002). the ielts test consists of four subtests, i.e., listening, reading, writing, and speaking. this test has a score for each subtest and a global score, ranging from 0 indicating "no attempt for the test" to 9 suggesting an "expert user" of english. international nesb students that had taken the ielts test received a test report form with scores for each subtest and a global score. a global score is produced by averaging and then rounding the individual subtest scores. although it is not clear, it is determined that the scores of reading, listening, and global score are reported in whole and halfbands, while scores of writing and speaking are reported in whole bands only. leading universities in victoria, for example, require an ielts global score of 6.s for admission (auditor general victoria, 1999-2002: 4 i). this means that a prospective international student should be a "good user" of english. according to the ielts statements describing the elp, being a "good user" means that a student has "operational command of the language, though with occasional inaccuracies, inappropriacies and misunderstandings in some situations" and "generally handles complex language well and understands detailed reasoning" (ielts handbook, 2002: 20). the ielts global scores have contributed to the selection process of international nesb students. however, research studies have shown that the students' elp as measured by the ielts test has a low predictive value toward their academic success. based on data collected in curtin university, it was reported that a high ielts score did not seem to be parallel with celt, volwne 4, nwnber i, july 2004 : i 17 3 success (dooey & oliver, 2002). additionally, in a study comparing ielts and toefl as predictors of academic success in the university of melbourne, it was revealed that there was a low correlation between ielts or toefl scores and achievement as measured by grade average (hill, storch, & lynch, 1999). with little evidence for the validity oflelts as a predictor of academic success, the academic language skills ofnesb students need to be investigated further. the results of the examination would be useful to determine whether a program of academic language development should be recommended for international nesb students. context of the study this study was carried out in the university of melbourne which had 5,839 international students up to 31 august 2000, or 13.45 per cent of the total number of students (international student services, 2001). the international students comprised nesb students and students with english speaking background. a particular proportion of the international nesb students received scholarship from the australian government through the australian development scholarship (ads) program. the ads program which was given to students from developing countries was aimed to "allow people to gain knowledge and skills which will help the development of their home country when they return home after finishing their study" (ads, 2002: i). the program provides opportunities for people in more than 35 selected countries of asia (e.g., indonesia and vietnam), africa (e.g., south africa and zimbabwe), and the pacific (e.g., tonga and vanuatu) to undertake tertiary-level study in australia. given that the language used in the academic context of the university is different from the language background of the international nesb students, these students are advised to take a language diagnostic test. a diagnostic test is "a test designed to provide information about specific strengths and weaknesses of the test taker" (henning, 1987: 191). information gained from an academic language diagnostic test would be beneficial to examine academic language skills requiring improvement so that the learning process in the students' academic field would be reasonably efficient. 4 b. y. cal,yono" international nesb students diagnostic english language assessment the diagnostic test given in the university of melbourne is called the diagnostic english language assessment (dela) test. the dela test measures academic language skills needed for university-level courses of study (language testing research centre, n.d.). this test consists of three subtests, i.e. reading, writing and listening. the reading test assesses the students' literal and inferential skills varying from reading for specific information to reorganizing information from the text in another way. in addition, speed is an integrated part of the reading test. this test contains three reading passages followed by questions. the passages deal with general topics that are considered appropriate in an academic environment such as conservation, natural resources, and energy. the types ofitems in the test include, among others, answering short-answer and multiple choice questions, and completing cloze texts or figures. the time allocated for the reading test is 55 minutes. the writing test requires the students to write an argumentative essay of at least 300 words on a determined topic. the prompt provides input for ideas in the form of a short reading passage or a set of passages. however, the students are encouraged to contribute their own ideas. the writing measures the fluency, content, and form of the students' essays. aspects of fluency include cohesion and coherence. aspects of content include ideas and the arrangements of arguments to arrive at some conclusion. aspects of form cover the range of vocabulary and the accuracy of the sentence structures. the total time used for this test is 55 minutes, including 5 minutes for reading. the listening test measures the students' understanding of a mini lecture. more specifically, the students are assessed on their ability to recall or locate specific information from the lecture, reorganize information to complete a chart or diagram, summarize main points, and to differentiate between main ideas and supporting detail. the lecture is divided into several sections with topics of general interest such as health and education. a brief introduction is given to the students before the lecture to help them get an idea of the topic. following a section of the lecture, questions requiring short answers are given. the listening test takes 30 minutes. with the time needed for administration, the dela test takes about 2.5 hours. the administration and the scoring of the dela were conducted by faculty members of the language testing research centre (ltrc). this celt, volwne 4, nwnber i, july 2004 : 1 17 5 standardized test is ofa high reliability. the band scores of the dela test are similar to the ielts scores which range from 0 as an indication of not taking the test to 9 as the maximum level of performance. a student is considered good at hislher academic language when he/she can achieve a score of7 for each of academic skills (i.e., listening, reading, and writing). the results of the test discussed in this study include individual scores of academic language skills in reading, listening, and writing, and the global performance derived from the average of all of these three skills. the score of writing suggests overall proficiency based on aspects of fluency, content, and form. all of these scores are taken into account when a recommendation is made on whether the students need an academic language d.evelopment program. language development programs various programs have been offered to help international nesb students adjust the linguistic demands of their academic fields. institutions within the university which coordinate the academic language development programs include the horwood language centre, the centre for communication skills and english as a second language (ccs&esl, 2002a), and the learning skills unit (lsu). the horwood language centre (2002) manages the introductory academic skills (las) program for international nesb students. the ads students usually take the las program as a part of their scholarship. the major purposes of this five-week program were to raise the students' awareness of the ways they were expected to study in an australian university and to develop their language skills. the language-skill sessions are designed to develop the students' abilities in listening to lectures and note taking, reading and research skills. more importantly, skills in writing and oral presentation are emphasized. in the writing practice, the students learn to understand more about aspects of writing an essay. in the oral presentation, the students are required to present their essay within 5 to 10 minutes. the centre for communication skills and english as a second language (ccs&esl, 2002a) provides credit subjects for international ness students from various disciplines. these subjects are made up of communication-skill subjects and esl subjects. especially for postgraduate students, a course named presenting academic discourse is offered to develop their skills in critical reading, summary writing, and oral presentation. 6 b. y. cahyana, international ness students in addition to the credit courses, the centre offers international nesb students short courses and individual tutorials. the short courses include development of oral skills such as pronunciation and conversation fluency and written skills. the individual tutorial is intended to give "an opportunity to get one-toone assistance from an esl tutor" to work on the academic language skills, especially writing (ccs&esl, n.d.: i). the learning skills unit fosters independent learning and develops students' potential for success by focusing on "the transferable academic and professional skills necessary for continued learning in a knowledge-based society" (learning skills unit, 2000: 2). this unit offers various activities to enhance the learning of the students in the areas of study and organization, writing. assessment, professional skills, and research involvement. regarding the development of academic language skills, this unit focuses on reading and writing issues which include note-taking, efficient reading and writing. critical reading and writing, tertiruy essay writing, thesis writing, report writing, writing literature reviews and annotated bibliographies, and referencing and citation. this study aimed to analyze the academic language skills of international nesb students of the university of melbourne. the analyses addressed the following questions: • do the levels of academic language skills of the international nesb students differ across course levels? • are there any differences in the academic language skills of international nesb students across streams of academic study? • do the levels of academic language skills of the ads students differ from those of non-ads students? • is there any correlation between one and another academic language skill of international nesb students? the results of analyses were used to investigate which groups of students need language development programs and which academic language skills should be recommended to the international nesb students to undertake. method participants the participants of this research were 158 international ness students of the university of melbourne across distinct categories. based on the celt, volwne4, nwnber i,july2004: 1 -17 7 course levels, the participants comprised 75 postgraduate and 83 undergraduate students. the students were drawn from various academic disciplines, i.e.: 41 participants were from arts and social sciences, 58 from economic and commerce, 16 from medical science, and 43 from physical science and technology. another consideration was whether they received scholarship from the australian government. the participants were 83 ads students and 7s non-ads students. table 1 shows the international nesb students participating in this study. postgraduate undergraduate streams of ac:ademlc .tady ads nonads nontotal ads ads arts and social scienceslass) 29 12 41 economics and commerce (ec) 9 3 6 40 58 medical sciences (ms) 14 i 1 16 physical science and technology (pst) 18 1 6 18 43 subtotal 70 5 13 70 total 75 83 158 table i participants of the study data data for this study were scores of the international nesb students on the dela test administered in february, before the commencement of the first academic semester of 2002. the test for the ads students was administered when they were in the fourth week of the introductory academic skills (las) program, while the test for the non-ads students were administered about three weeks later. after scoring, the dela scores were included in the excel spreadsheet and filed as the document of the ltrc and the ccs&esl.the data included scores of individual subtests of reading, listening, and writing, and the global performance of the three subtests. the writing score comprised separate scores ofthe components of grammar and vocabulary. fluency, and content. in terms of writing, this study concerned the overall writing performance (the average score only) to see, in general, whether an academic language program is needed. the scores of the academic language skills gained from the dela test indicated that the lowest score was for writing and the highest score was for reading and listening. based on the band levels of language performance, the score categories ranged from the "extremely limited user" category (score 3) to the "expert user" category (score 9). in between were 8 b. y. cahyono, international nesb students scores of international nesb students of "limited user" (score 4), "modest user" (score 5), "competent user" (score 6), "good user" (score 7), "very good user" (score 8) categories. analyses data were analyzed in the light of the research questions. the dela scores were grouped into variable categories: academic language skills, course levels, streams of academic study, and involvement with the ads program. in order to select procedures for data analyses appropriately, histograms were made for the scores in all variable categories. the histograms showed that the scores were not normally distributed. it is likely that the distribution of the scores was influenced by the admission process that required students with a minimum ielts score of6.5, a moderately high score in the bands of o to 9. consequently, international nesb students with ielts scores below the cut-off were excluded for admission to the university. this resulted in the distribution of the dela scores skewing in favor of the higher scores. given the distribution, the scores were tested using non-parametric statistical analyses. to compare the academic language skills of the nesb students across course levels and involvement with the ads program, the mann-whitney u tests were used. to analyze the differences in academic language skills across streams of academic study, the kruskal-wallis test was used. finally, to investigate the relationship between each ofthe academic language skills, the spearman s rho correlation coefficients were used. to determine the significance of the data analysis throughout this study, an alpha level was set at .05 which means that a result would be statistical1y significant if its possibility of occurrence by chance alone was less than or equal to five times out of 100 (brown, 1988: 115-116). the quantitative analyses were carried out using minitab (minitab statistical software, 2001). results academic language skills across course levels the first research question was whether the levels of academic language skills of the international nesb postgraduates were different from those of the nesb undergraduates. the descriptive statistics of the academic language skills in reading, listening, and writing, and the global performance by course levels are presented in table 2. the table shows that the means of scores of the graduate students are different from the undergraduate students, 'c·"'\, celt, volwne4, nwnber i,july2004: 1-17 ;, ~'a .:.~:. " • ..(.~.~ i ~:7 ...... : ,~'j while the medians are the same. variability in the scores increases afong,::::":': t& with the course level in all academic language skills. ~~ j ....... a .. academic n meaa mediad sd jan21la2e skids postgraduates reaclidg 83 6.75 7 1.44 llstenblg 83 7.29 7 1.26 writiag 83 6.10 6 1.18 global 83 6.78 7 1.03 undergraduates readblg 75 7.03 7 0.99 listening 75 6.83 7 0.79 writidg 75 6.27 6 0.86 global 75 6.76 7 0.73 table 2 academic language skills across course levels in order to analyze the difference between in the academic language skills of the postgraduate and undergraduates, the medians were compared. the medians indicated that the postgraduate and undergraduate students achieved the "good user" category in the academic reading and listening skills, and the "competent user" category in the academic writing skill. in terms of global performance, the two groups of students were categorized as "good users". the comparison of medians of the academic language skills is presented in table 3. readjnll listeninll wrltinll ghj6aj p lu p lu p lu p lu n 83 115 83 175 83 175 83 175 medialis r7.0 7.0] r7.0 7.01· r6.0 6.01 17.0 7.0j • p < .05 table 3 comparison of medians across course levels table 3 indicates that there was no significant difference in the academic reading and writing skills and in the global performance between international ness postgraduates and undergraduates. it can be examined further that although there was a significant difference between the postgraduate and undergraduate students, these two groups of students were categorized as "good users". the academic language skills of the ness postgraduate students differed significantly from those of ness lob. y. cahyono, international nesb students undergraduate students in terms ofthe academic listening skill [w = 7378.s, df= 1 s6,p < .05]. although the medians are the same, an examination of the means in academic listening skill indicated that the undergraduate students (7.29) outperformed the postgraduate students (6.83). academic language skills across streams of academic study the second area of investigation was the differences in the academic language skills of international nesb students across streams of academic study. the descriptive statistics of the academic language skills in reading, listening, and writing. and the global performance by streams of academic study are presented in table 4. the table shows that the means of scores are different across streams of academic study, while the medians vary from 6, 6.s, to 7. academic n mean median sd lanl!uae:e skills arts and social reading 41 7.15 7 lis sciences (ass) listening 41 7.12 7 0.98 writing 41 6.27 6 1.03 global 41 6.83 7 0.83 economics and reading 58 6.76 7 1.39 commerce (ec) listening 58 7.21 7 1.21 writing 58 6.03 6 1.20 global 58 6.79 7 0.95 medical reading 16 6.50 6 1.32 sciences (ms) listening 16 6.56 6.5 0.96 writing 16 6.56 6.5 0;81 global 16 6.69 7 0.87 physical science reading 43 6.93 7 1.12 and technology listening 43 7.02 7 1.01 (psn writing 43 6.14 6 0.86 global 43 6.70 7 0.91" table 4 academic language skills across streams or academic study the differences in academic language skills across streams of academic study were then investigated using the kruskal-wallis tests. the kruskalwallis results for academic language skills of the international nesb students celt, volwne 4, nwnber i, july 2004 : 1 17 11 by streams of academic study indicated that there were no significant differences in all academic language skills and in the global perfonnance. since there was no significant difference between the academic language skills of the nesb students by streams of academic study, no post hoc comparisons were made. academic language skills of ads and non-ads students the third research question dealt with the difference in the academic language skills between the ads and non-ads students. the descriptive statistics of the academic language skills in reading, listening, and writing, and the global perfonnance by involvement with the ads are presented in table 5. the table shows that except for the academic listening skill, the medians of the other academic language skills and the global perfonnance are the same. the table also shows that in general variability in the scores is more likely to occur in the non-ads students. academic n mean median sd laneuaee skills ads students reading 83 7.13 7 1.05 listening 83 6.78 7 0.78 writing 83 6.30 6 0.88 global 83 6.80 7 0.73 non-ads reading 75 6.60 7 1.40 students listening 75 7.37 8 1.27 writing 75 6.03 6 1.17 global 75 6.72 7 1.05 table 5 academic language skills by involvement with the ads program further analysis was carried out to examine the difference in the academic language skills between the ads and non-ads students. a comparison of the medians indicated that the ads students achieved the "good user" category in the academic reading and listening skills, and the global performance. in the academic writing skill, these students were included in the "competent user" category. like the ads-students, the non-ads students were categorized as "competent users" in the academic writing skills. furthermore, the non-ads students reached the "good user" category 12 b. y. cahyono, international nesb students in the academic reading skill and in the global performance. the same group of students reached "very good user" category in the academic listening skill. statistical analysis indicates that there were no significant differences between the ads and non-ads students in all academic language skills and in the global performance. relationship between academic language skills the last research question was aimed to examine whether there was a systematic relationship between the academic language skills in reading, listening, and writing. given the purpose of the investigation, no classification was made for the dela scores of the international nesb students. therefore 158 scores of each academic language skill were used altogether. the descriptive statistics for the academic language skills of the international nesb students are given in table 6. as the means and medians show, the academic writing skill is the lowest among the three academic language skills. in addition, the academic writing skill has the lowest minimum and maximum scores compared to the other academic language skills. academic language n mean median sd skills reading 158 6.88 7 1.25 listening 158 7.07 7 1.08 writing 158 6.17 6 1.04 table 6 academic language skills of all participants the results of computations of the spearman's rho correlation coefficients using minitab are presented in table 7. readin2 listenin2 writin2 reading -0.56* 0.21· listening 0.56· -0.19 writing 0.21· 0.19 -• i-tailed p < .05 table 7 correlation between academic language skills table 7 shows that there was a significant correlation between the academic reading skill and the academic listening skill [ii = 0.56, df= 314, p celt, volume 4, number i, july 2004 : i 17 13 < .05]. the correlation between these two skills was moderately strong. the table also shows that there was a significant correlation between the academic reading skill and the academic writing skill [ii = 0.21, df = 314, p < .05]. however, the correlation between these two skills was very weak. additionally, there was no correlation between the academic listening skill and the academic writing skill [ii = 0.19, df= 314, n.s.]. discussion as previously mentioned, the university of melbourne requires that an international nesb student has an ielts overall score of at least 6.5 in order to be admitted to study in the university. research studies have shown that there was a low correlation between ielts scores and academic success (as indicated by grade average) (dooey and oliver, 2002; kerstjens and nery, 2000; hill, storch, and lynch, 1999). therefore, data on the dela test were used as a major source of information for a recommendation whether an international nesb student needs an academic language development program. assuming that a prospective student with an ielts overall score of less than 6.5 would not be accepted in the admission process, the dela score of6 on a particular academic language skill would mean that a language development program should be recommended to the student on that skill. therefore, the category of "good user" (or a score of 7 on the dela test) might be considered as the threshold level that would ensure success in the students' academic study. the results from the study showed that international nesb students reached the threshold level in the academic language skills in reading and listening, and in the global performance (as measured by the dela test). it was also found that there was a significant correlation between academic language skills in reading and in listening. since the international nesb students reached the "good user" category (score 7) in these two academic language skills, the development of these two skills was not a priority. the assumption is that with the threshold level of academic language skills in reading and writing, the international nesb students would be able to work more independently to contribute to their academic success. conversely, the international students reached the "competent user" category (score 6) in the academic writing skill. therefore, with the assumption that international nesb students need supports from other people, a priority should be given 14 b. y. callyono, international ness students to the development of the international nesb students' academic language skill in writing. according to dooey and oliver (2002), international students who did not fully meet language admissions criteria had the potential to succeed academically. with regard to these particular students, dooey and oliver (2002: 51) questioned "the extent to which these students sought and found measures to enhance their english language ability during their first undergraduate year". the results of the present study supported dooey and oliver's research findings in that international nesb students, especially those with academic language skill below the threshold level, need a program to develop the weak area of academic language skills. as results of this study show, the development of academic language skill should be accomplished through a program directly related to the development of academic writing skill. such a program would be beneficial for all international nesb students, regardless of their course levels, streams of academic study, and involvement with the ads program. as all international nesb students need the academic writing development program, the supports provided by the institutions in the university of melbourne were likely to be useful. the horwood language centre which provides supports through its five-week introductory academic skills (las) program aims to enable the students to write an essay and present it to audience. the ccs and esl takes a role in this endeavor by offering supports through short courses and workshops such as "academic writing", "editing academic writing", and "plagiarism". individual tutorials with appointments up to 8 times a year would provide a options for the international nesb students. the learning skills unit with its related-towriting supports and drop-in tutorials was likely to be needed by the international nesb students. supports in essay writing, research report writing, and literature reviews are writing genres relevant with tasks assigned to university students (moore and morton, 1999). whereas a variety of academic writing development programs are available for all international nesb students, some programs are provided for postgraduate students. the ccs and esl with its subjects for postgraduate students of particular academic fields (e.g. "presenting academic discourse: engineering stream" (ccs and esl, 2002b) and "presenting academic discourse for health professionals" (ccs and esl, 2002c) would support postgraduate students' need. the role in the provision of academic writing · celt, volume 4, number i, july 2004 : 1 17 15 skill within a particular academic study is in line with results of previous research. a study focussing on strategies for assisting students with language difficulties (logan and barthel, 1998: 107) indicated that language support helps students but "it is most effective when it is incorporated into their professional subjects". since so far "presenting academic discourse" has been limited to the engineering and health professionals academic fields, it would be beneficial if in the future the subject is also offered to international nesb students of other academic fields. international nesb postgraduates could also get supports for the development of academic writing skill from the school of graduate studies (sgs). with its "upskill program" the sgs provides various short courses related to the development of academic language writing such as" academic and thesis writing" and "critical thinking, reading and writing", and "writing, style & grammar" (school of graduate studies, 2002). the existence of the institutions offering various programs related to the development of academic writing skill would be helpful for international nesb students. whilst the results of the study showed that the international nesb students' academic language skill in writing was below the threshold level, there were serious limitations which need to be addressed. first of all, the study used the ielts criteria to interpret the results of the dela test. without information on the correlation of these two measures, the same scores of the dela and the ielts and might not reflect the same meaning. therefore, the interpretation needs to be considered in light of this possibility. additionally, although the study suggested the importance of a language development program in academic writing skill, the academic language writing scores were based on the overall performance. for this reason, it was not possible to identify a writing component more specifically (such as grammar and vocabulary, fluency, or content) which needs to be given an emphasis in the academic language program. conclusion this study has examined the international nesb students' academic language skills in reading, listening, and writing. the results from the study indicated that international nesb students of distinct categories reached the threshold level in the academic language skills in reading and listening as measured by the dela test. this is likely to mean that the students could work more independently in the areas of reading and listening to contribute 16 b. y. cal,yono, international nesb students success in their academic study. it is also revealed that the international nesb students' academic language skill in writing needs to be developed. various programs available to develop academic language skill in writing would be useful for the international nesb students. it is suggested then that an attempt (or a mechanism) be made to ensure that the international nesb students do seek academic language supports through the available supporting institutions. bibliography auditor general victoria. i 999-2002. international students in victoria universities. victoria: government printer for the state of victoria . ads. 2002. australian development scholarship. australia: ausaid. in http://www.ausaid.gov.au/scholar/studyin.cfin. retrieved on june 131",2002, brown, j. d. understanding research in second language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1988. ccs and esl. informationfor students and staff. melbourne: the university of melbourne,2002a __ . presenting academic discourse: engineering stream (145-50 i). reading pack, semester 2, subject reader. melbourne: the university of melbourne, 2002b. __ . presenting academic discourse for health professional (145-50 i}. semester 2, subject reader. melbourne: the university of melbourne, 2002c __ . n.d. individual tutorials for esl stude11ls. melbourne: the university of melbourne,2002d dooey, p., and r. oliver. "an investigation into the predictive validity of the ielts as an indicator of future academic success". prospect, 2002, vol. 17 no.1: 3~54 henning, g. a guide to language testing: development, evaluation, research. new york: newbury house, 1987. hill, k., storch, n., and b. lynch. "a comparison of ielts and toefl as predictors of academic success". in ielts research reports. edited by r. tulloh, 1999, vol. 2: 52-63. horwood language centre. introductory academic skills: course information. melbourne: the university of melbourne, 2002. ielts handbook. international english language testing system: english for international opportunity. an online handbook issued by university of cambridge local examination syndicate, the british council, and idp education australia. in http://www.ieltsonline.com. retrieved may 3,d 2002. ,=~~ celt, volume 4, number i, july 2004 : i 17 l-1;~:·;''-·~· " ft4-'~" international student services. information guide 2002-2003 for internatioj1d'i:f,,;.:!~i::'~~ students. melbourne: international student services, student programs, 20ifli'.pus l~k ~f\.tj kerstjens, m., and c. nery. "predictive validity in the ielts test". in ielts research reports. edited by r. tulloh, 2000, vol.3: 85-108. language testing research centre. n.d. the university test of english as second language: handbook for candidates. melbourne: the university of melbourne. learning skills unit. learning skills unit: informationfor staff. melbourne: the university of melbourne, 2000. logan, p. and a. barthel. "strategies for assisting students with language difficulties". in australian review of applied linguistics. 1998, vol. 21, no.1 : 93.108. minitab statistical software. in best accounting 2002 [gold edition], 200 i. moore, t. and j. morton. "authenticity in the ielts academic module writing test: a comparative study of task 2 items and university assignments". in ielts research reports. edited by r. tulloh, 1999, vol. 2: 64-106. pentilides, u. "meeting the language needs of tertiary nesb students". in the australian journal of language and literacy, 1999, vol. 22, no.1: 60-75. sawyer, w. "ella: please explain". in the australian journal of language and literacy, 1999, vol. 22. no.1: 40-59. school of graduate studies. upskills program for postgraduate students. melbourne: the university of melbourne, 2002. logo: sula: a portrayalofblackamerica.n"woma.~ asheadofthefanuly ekawati marhaenny dukut l abstract: in a world of patriarchy, the head of a family is usua/~v the male. however, under certain circumstances, such as the depression era of the 1930s that the black american family had to face, the mother is forced to become the head of the family. through a brief look at history, actual~v the function of black american woman as the key person of upholding the family ties and sustaining thefamity 's livelihood has been carried out ever since the blacks arrived in america as slaves. 7'hrough one kind of cultural studies approach, i. e. an american studies approach, the article discusses this event through a close analysis of the female characters described in the novel 'sula '. key words: black american women, head ofthefami~v, sula introduction people who apply an american studies approach believe that works ofliterature can be used as a 'mental evidence' of understanding a particular culture of a certain country. the americanists, smith (1980:5) and mcdowell (1948: 82) are of the opinion that works of art and the culture of a society often have a relationship between each other because they function as a 'micro culture' . consequently, a prose analysis of a particular novel enables an overview of the society, histo(y, politics and even the economic situation of the author's origin. similarly, abrams postulates his literary theory as follows: first, there is the work, the artistic product itself. and since this is a human product, an artifact, the second common element is the artificer, the artist. third, the work is taken to have a subject which, ... [to] use the more neutral and comprehensive term, [is the] universe ... for the final element we have the audience ... to whom the work is addressed ... (1979:6). i. ora. ekawati m. oukut, m. hum. is a lecturer of the faculty of letters. soegijapranata catholic university. semarang 81 celt, volume 3, number 2, december 2003 : 80-94 in other words, within a work of literature, there is a relationship between the work of art and its writer, its society, and its reader. just like the analogy of a cloth, which is interwoven from a number of various elements or threads, the analysis of a novel can reveal the multidimensional factors that influence the writing ofthe novel at the time. putting into practice nash, mcdowell and abrams' theories above, the analysis of a novel entitled suia, written by toni morrison, is interesting to discuss because of the outstanding portrayal of a black american culture that tries its best to survive the great depression years. background of the writer the author of suia, toni morrison, was born as chloe anthony wofford on february 18, 1931. she is a black american woman who grew up in loraine, ohio, an area just outside cleveland. it was a growing northern industrial town (new standard encyclopedia, 1996:m536) which most black americans felt was an ideal place to live, in comparison to the southern part of america whose plantation area had forced the blacks to live a life as slaves. history records that there was a great wave of migration in 1915, which peaked during 1916 and 1917. the americans labeled those years as the year of the "great migration" (mcpherson et. ai., 1972: 185). in three years, 300,000 to 400,000 blacks were known to migrate north. much of the impetus for the migration came from the long-standing traditions of slavery injustice and lack of opportunity in the south. the dimensions of the great migration have been shaped by the special economic circumstances of the war years. on the one hand, depression and crop failures arose in the south, and on the other, newfound industrial arenas opened up a great opportunity for blacks to work as 'free' people in the north as a result of the declining immigration from europe and the demands of war. the northern setting of ohio like that described in suia was known as an area that accepted and humanized the free black americans. it is unlike the south, where they were treated like slaves. through reading suia, morrison seems to want her readers to recapture that black american folk heritage, whose sufferings and sorrows made them outcasts or a minority. even though nowadays, a.l} blacks have received their freedom and equality. morrison was the first black american women writer ever to receive a nobel prize for literature (new standard encyclopedia, 1996:338a). as e.m.dukut, sula: a portrayal of black american woman 82 although she received the nobel prize in 1993 for her novel jazz and not sula, this proved that morrison was a person who deserved special recognition. in america, it is not often that a black woman writer can be fortunate enough to be awarded a nobel prize. it is, indeed, a very rare occasion because the american structural society has put black women in the last strata (muhni, 1997). even in comparison to wasp (white anglosaxon puritan) women who are directly underneath the w asp men of america, the black women are positioned in a much lower strata: i" wasp men .0. 2 nd wasp women .0. 3rd black men .0. 4th black women it is, consequently, regarded as extraordinary for a black woman, being in the very last strata like morrison, to receive such a great acknowledgement in literature. being a black woman naturally entails morrison to talk about the condition of the women in comparison to the black men, as well as the general black people's relationship with the wasp or white society. as an example, in sula morrison described that in the great depression era of america, the black men had less opportunity in the work force than the women. one reason was because the women were forced by socio-economic conditions to become the breadwinner of the family. george and barbara perkins support the idea that sula "treats woman as the central characters" (1988:526). consequently, some may see the novel as a feminist castration of black men. 83 celt, volume 3, number 2, december 2003 : 80-94 early as the first chapter, morrison described the relationship between the black and the white societies. we are told that the white master had promised freedom and a piece of bottom land to his slave if he would perform some very difficult chores. on the surface, it seems as though these white masters were very generous, but in fact, they just wanted to trick the blacks into accepting the worst land available. the following quotation shows this: a joke. a nigger joke. that was the way it got started. not the town, of course, but that part of town where the negroes lived, the part they called the bottom in spite of the fact that it was up in the hills ... the nigger got the hilly land, where planting was backbreaking, where the soil slid down and washed away the seeds, and where the wind lingered all through the winter (morrison, 1977: 45) although there are more examples of how the blacks were ill-treated by the whites, this article specifically wants to discuss how and why the black women were forced to become the breadwinners and the heads of the black families. in addition, it tries to see whether this dominant role may show a substantial difference to the up bringing of the black american family of today. the black maternal family of sula before discussing in depth just how dominant is the role of women in sula as well as whether this is also found to be true in reality, i would like to bring the discussion to the structure or format of the novel. this is because morrison uses a peculiar name for the title of her book and a number of specific years for her chapter headings. a. meaning of the title and years as chapter headings the novel sula was published in 1973. it is morrison's second novel. it has a special attraction ·because the title does not refer to an ordinary american name. there is an assumption that the name entails an african heritage, which foreshadows the focus of the novel's discussion, i.e. about a black american woman's experience. in addition to this peculiarity, the use of the years as chapters ofthebook i.e. 1919,1920,1922,1923,1927,1937, 1939,1940,1941, and 1965; suggest a kind of diary, which reflected someone's personal experience. johnson, is of the opinion that morrison's style of using the years is because ofthe fact that she is a member of the "novelist of e.m.dukut. sula: a portrayal of black american woman 84 memory" (1989:382) writers, thus it is not surprising for her to use years rather than names or phrases as her headings. as discussed earlier in this article, mcpherson (1971 :57), however, believed that the years suggested the great migration period. wills also interpreted it in the same fashion. she said that the years suggested the period of the heavy black migration to the cities, especially in the midwest region where the black neighborhoods developed because there was a sizeable surge in the black population. wills (1983: 114) explained that the years depicted the period where the blacks as a social group were first incorporated into the modem capitalist system as soldiers. checking this information with the novel, it is quite interesting to find that one of morrison 's chapters does tell about a character named shadrack who became deranged because he joined the american army. during the great depression years, morrison described the men as ex-soldiers, who were powerless to gain a job and be the breadwinner of their families, thus the black women began to rise in status (wills, 1983: 115). most white employers only needed the women to help with household chores and the raising up of their children. this is the reason why according to scanzoni (1977:30) the years "from 1949 to 1962" show that the proportion of black families headed by women spow an increase from "18.8 to 23.2 percent". consequently, morrison deliberately used the years as chapter headings in sula to show the future generations of the past experience of the black women. according to goldman's theory (1973: 100), the novel is also an illustration of the belief that the social, political, economic and intellectual conditions of a country can undergo a fundamental change. how did morrison capture the black women's experience in sula? the following section will discuss this further .. b. two contrasting black families i) sula's unstable family in the novel, two types of families are described. one is sula's own family, who was described as living in a household, which was constantly in a condition of disarray. sula had hannah, an openly promiscuous mother and rekus, as a father who could not be her male role model because he died before she could even remember him. her mother and grandmother had a constant flow of gentlemen callers and her mother's daily lovers raised her. they ..... simply loved maleness, for its own sake" (morrison, 1973:41) 85 celt, volume3,number2,december2003:80-94 because they could not depend on the men that should have headed the family. thus, sula lived in her grandmother's house" ... where all sorts of people dropped in; where newspapers were stacked in the hallway, and dirty dishes left for hours at a time in the sink ... " (morrison, 1973 :29). sula had an aunt named eva, at times called pearl, who at fourteen married and moved out to michigan. sula' s other relative was an uncle named ralph who was nicknamed plum. he had left to become a soldier but upon his return he made a great mistake in his life (i.e. decides to live on drugs to kill the pain he suffers as a war veteran), so that sula could not have him as her male role model either. the lady of the household, who was the most influential member of sula's family, was her grandmother, eva, who during her young married life, had no other choice but to become the head of the family because her husband, boyboy, left her for another woman. as a husband, boyboy could not find a decent job and became an irresponsible man. he often abused his wife, as he considered that eva's wage as a cook and housemaid for the whites should have been enough to raise their three children as well as provide boyboy with money to buy things he needed. in the depression years, factories and households during that time had more job vacancies for women who could be paid a lot less than their male colleagues. unfortunately, when eva did have the money, boyboy misused it for drinking and womanizing. when boyboy finally left eva, he left her nothing but "$1.65, five eggs, and three beets" (morrison, 1973:32). to overcome this great economical and psychological suffering, eva decided to cut-offher own leg so that she could get insurance money to feed and keep her children alive. therefore, it became clear why sula's family had to be headed by a woman, as well as why eva and hannah only loved men for their 'male' sake. the condition, however, caused negative consequences towards the building of sula's personality. here, scanzoni (1977:41-42) elaborated that a child growing up in a home where the father is absent often fmds difficulty in understanding how the dominant society expects adult males to behave, and how sex-role behavior is developed into highly aggressive behavior. in relation to scanzoni' s criteria above, it becomes clear why morrison decided to develop sula' s character as a tomboy who was unafraid of men, and when finally meeting her sexual partner sula turned into an aggressive woman. this aggression in sex was not a peculiar behavior for sui a because she had her own mother, who earned a living as a prostitute to imitate. she e.m.dukut, sula: a portrayal of black american woman 86 was taught that sex had nothing to do with love or even friendship because it is no more than an act in which two people of the opposite sex engage in order to make each other happy. ii) nel's stable family the other family described in the novel is nel's. she was sula's best friend. nel' s mother was helene, who was taught by her grandmother, cecile, to be ashamed of her prostitute mother, while being raised with religion, "under the dolesome eyes of a multicolored virgin mary" (morrison, 1973: 17). her father was wiley wright, who during his younger years was a dedicated church member. nel's family was described as believing that the church was an important element in keeping a stable family. scanzoni explained the condition that "churches became and have remained until the past twenty years or so, [was] the most important agency of social control among negroes" (1977:49). in contrast to sula's family, nel was brought up by her two parents and considered to live in a more stable family surrounding, even though she barely saw her father who was in port only three out of every sixteen days working as a ship's cook on the great lake lines. thus, as a consequence, most of the household r!les were laid down by her mother who was an active choir member in church. religion taught nel the basic grounding to drive "any enthusiasms" or wild imagination underground. it became the reason why helene disagreed with nel's friendship with sula, who was considered as a "wild" girl. yet, it was because of their differences that nel decided to continue her relationship with sula. because each had discovered years before that they were neither white nor male, and that all freedom and triumph was forbidden to them, they set about creating something else to be. daughters of distant mothers and incomprehensible fathers ... they found in each other's eyes the intimacy they were looking for (morrison, 1973:52). thus, similar to ramaswamy's statement, the two girls needed each other's presence because, "the two halves make a whole"(2003:3). later in the story, however, because nellacked the ability to express herself (which was caused by her conventional upbringing), she lost her husband, jude who left out of embarrassment for being caught making love with his wife's best friend, i.e. sula (morrison, 1973: 1 05). consequently, morrison described nel 's adult life as being the family's financial provider. 87 celt, volume 3, number 2, december 2003 : 80-94 why did morrison elaborate so much on this black woman-headed family in sula? the black american woman-headed family a. historical sketch the black complexion of the black americans in the 1980s used to be the symbol of pride in being the strongest and most masculine race. however, the white americans, as a means for racism later misused that blackness. hence nowadays, they want to be acknowledged as african-americans or afro-americans, because they want to show their pride in their african heritage. during the slavery era, the blacks were termed negroes. they were the largest racial minority in the united states. the new standard encyclopedia (1996:b264), recorded that "the blacks in the united states are descendants of persons abducted in africa and sold into slavery from the early seventeenth century to the early nineteenth century". this slavery system has shaped the society ofthe black family. it was in the slavery time that "the nuclear family was often broken up· by sale"(norton et ai., 1982:78) and because of this, the children naturally became the responsibility of the mother. in other words, it was as early as slavery time that the black mothers had to function as the 'father' of the family as well. it was she who became the provider head of the family and eventually became the key person in maintaining the future of the family. even when the mother decided to marry someone else and had children with this new husband, it was not a guarantee that the white master would not decide to sell the new father of the family, since selling the best farm worker was a way to gain quick money. thus, it would leave the mother the responsibility of taking care of the children from both her ~sold' husbands. consequently, it would be the mother who knew which child was from which father, and a family's record or track of the whereabouts of the grown-up children lay in the mother's hands. in this condition, the black family can be regarded as following a matriarchal system. this is in accordance to the theory of black sociologist, e. frazier below: ... under the impact of slavery, emancipation, and urbanization, some black families managed to develop stable, father-centered structures; others fell into a pattern of matriarchy, illegitimacy, immortality, desertions, and casual family discipline ... (cited in mcpherson et at, 1971 :364). b. socio-economic factors e.m.dukut, sula: a portrayal of black american woman 88 as the black family continued to exist in the world war i and world war ii era, according to schleisinger (1948:29) most of the black men became involved in the army to fulfill a political agenda. their involvement heralded a stage where the mother was consequently forced to take full responsibility for the family's well being. for those fathers who did not join the army, the great depression era did not offer much work for them. factories and companies of all kinds were at their stagnant period due to over production of goods which people"could not afford to buy anyway. because of this, the people of the middle and lower classes of black society suffered insufficiency of food, clothing, and lodging. in relation to this, there is a black folk rhyme found on page ii of new essay on ellison's invisible man, which can be used to refer to the hierarchy of the work force system: if you're white, you're right. if you're brown, step around. if you're black, get back! (o'meally, 1988) which means to say if you are black then you will be the last to be hired and the first to be fired! thus, the black men could obtain no other job but the army. johnson and schwartz also agtt-'ed, "the employment opportunities for blacks were restricted" (1988:99). to add to the dilemma, these men often felt discouraged by the fact thatthe 'american dream' the dream that there would be equal opportunity for work in the urban area had turned into failure. scanzoni (1977:33) reflected on this situation by saying: when the black man migrates, it is most because he is currently unemployed or else works irregularly, and thus "dream" of "something better" in the city .... in reality, the actualization of these dreams is minimal. concurrently, while disillusionment is setting in, the husband's provider-role in the lower-class black family is being undermined. so as a consequence, the black women tended to take up the position as the family's economic provider. this was supported also in the condition whereby the "black females found much greater access into the opportunity structure of work" and that "almost one-fourth of negro families are headed by females" (ibid, 1977:7). in addition, the "negro wife had become accustomed to hold the family together by hard work and responsible decision89 celt, vo)mne 3. number 2, december 2003: 80-94 making" (ibid, 1977:240). consequently, the mother was given a dominant role in establishing a stable family. it is for the above reason, then, that when the black men returned from the war, having only gained a minimal access to any kind of occupation, they became dependent on their wives for financial support. leslie and korman stated that ''the men were not encouraged to assume responsibility for wives and children, and many did not" (1985:251). in liebow's tally's corner it was portrayed that "a mother alone can raise children properly", however, just for the sake of making equality in the household, "the children are better off when there's a man around to provide or threaten punishment" (1967:97). upon this idea, genovese, in his book entitled roll. jordan. roll: the world the slaves made (1976:500) commented that: a remarkable number of women did everything possible to strengthen their men's self-esteem and to defer to their leadership. what has usually been viewed, as a debilitating female supremacy was in fact a closer approximation to a healthy sexual equality than was possible for whites and perhaps even for many postbellum blacks. the man did not play the provider for their families in a fun and direct sense, but they did everything they could to approximate it (1976:500). the black american family was therefore, conditioned to be geared towards a maternal one. however, it does not entail a matriarchal system, it was and still is in a patriarchal one, because ideally, when the situation permits, the father takes on the role as head of thefamily. the establishment of a black woman-headed family has grown out from the black men's lack of opportunity in the work force when compared to the women. because of this, it ha~ become a culture in the black society for the women to be the economic provider. it is unfortunate to note, however, that those men who saw themselves as being hopeless in finding a job, took the situation for granted and as a result tended to lope and hang around a street come; like that shown in liebow's tally's corner as wen as in sula below: old men and young ones draped themselves in front of the elmira theater, irene's palace of cosmetology, the pool hall, the grill and the other sagging business enterprises that lined the street. on stoops, on crates and broken chairs they sat tasting the.ir teeth and waiting for something to distract them. e.m.dukut, sula: a portrayal of black american woman 90 every passerby, every motorcar, every alteration in stance caught their attention and was commented on (morrison, 1973:49). szwed explained this phenomenon as a "personal release [which] is emphasized in this life organization of the individual like polygamy, drinking, and drug taking" (1973: 123). interestingly, morrison managed to also capture the above situation throughout the novel. the example of the black man who took to polygamy and drinking was boyboy, whereas the one who took to drugs was plum. the suffrages and strengths black women find the idea of the black woman as head of the family in today's era where a number of women project their rights as a feminist can be interpreted as successful achievement in having the final decision of the family. after all, within the black society, wife employment is defined as more of a "right" than merely an option (scanzoni, 1977:229). however, if this is referred back to sula' s grandmother's experience in obtaining this position, it actually entails suffrage. first, eva had to leave her children in her neighbor's care so she could find some way out to save her family. second, she had to come back with just one leg because she had to sell the other one to obtain insurance money. next, she had been forced to set alight her only son, because he turned into a junkie and did not grow up to be the man she had hoped he would: eva stepped back from the bed and let the clutches rest under her arms. she rolled a bit of newspaper into a tight stick about six inches long, lit it and threw it onto the bed where the kerosene-soaked plum lay in snug delight (morrison, 1973:47). the reason for killing plum probably entailed that deep in eva's mind she had hoped plum would someday realize a patriarchal role in the family. this is a role that, ideally, the black family ought to have. the suffrage, however, had in tum strengthened the kinship of the black family. in fact, just like that portrayed in sula's family, it is the grandmother that actualizes a system of kinship. scanzoni explains: within the black lower class it has been quite common for 91 celt, volume 3, number 2, december 2003 : 80-94 several generation, or pars of the kin, to live together under one roof. .. a maternal grandmother is the acknowledged head of this type of household [and it is because of her existence that] has givenrise to the term "matrifocal" ... (1977: 134). to leslie and korman (1985 :263), in their book entitled the family in social context; the sufferings brought by the great depression had also brought five characteristics of family strengths: strong kinship bonds, strong work orientation, strong achievement orientation, adaptable roles, and strong religious orientation. the characteristics above enabled the actualization of the stability and survival of the black family. in sula's family the first characteristic i.e 'strong kinship bonds' could be seen in the way her grandmother made an "augmented family" a term coined by leslie and korman (1985 :262), whereby the grandmother extended the family to include relatives as well as nonrelatives as her roomers, boarders, or lodgers of the house on a long-term basis. sometimes, these roomers could be cousins that were just passing through, or stray folks or many newly wed white couples, which shows that as an economic provider, eva was keen to look for financial stability by working. it also shows how she could adapt a changing role from house owner to worker by, for example, receiving the rent money and, at the same time, a payment for washing the lodger's clothes. in the case of'strong achievement orientation', the augmented family has allowed eva to get rid of the loneliness felt at times over the loss of her husband. fortunately, this loss was eventually abolished for good, when she finally met her husband again some years later with his new wife. page 36 of sula (morrison, 1973) proves just how strong eva had become upon the realization that she could no longer wish for boyboy's return let alone depend on him: hating boyboy, she could get on with it, and have the safety, the thrill, and the consistency of that hatred as long as she wanted or needed it to define and strengthen her or protect her from routine vulnerabilities. in the case of 'strong religious orientation', this is more applicable to nel's family whose great-grandmother and mother rested upon the importance of church life to maintain a strong personality and search for a better guidance e.m.dukut, sula: a portrayal of black american woman 92 in life, ever since the many absences ofnel's father could no longer be predicted in the long run. in the case of economic stability, the church was said to also show cooperation among the blacks. the church, scanzoni said, "was the first mechanism to begin to instill economic rationality of the american culture variety" (1977:49) and became a "refuge in living in a hostile white world" (1977: 50). it was also through church teachings that the dominant pattern of a "stable family" was idealized with the "institutionalization ofthe male as head and provider" for the black american culture (scanzoni, 1977:50). because of this, in contrast to sula, nel decided to marry to another church member named jude. although in the end, nel's marriage was not successful in maintaining a dual parent system, from this at least, it could be concluded that actually the black american culture saw a patriarchal system as their ideal family unit. conclusion in conclusion, although seen through the history of slavery and in sula the black family was dominated by the women's role as head of the family, in reality it was not the ideal one. the women, such as sula's grandmother eva and sula's friend nel, had been f"'rced to assume the responsibility as head and economic provider due to the fact that their husbands left them. in fact, scanzoni commented that, "among negro families with a female head, separation and divorce are the most common reasons for the husband's absence"(1977:31). yet, the absence of the father or husband in the black family had consequences towards the personality of the wife or child and entailed suffering to the women as head of the family. this is because the black woman-headed family was actually suffering from three kinds of oppression: being black, being workers and being females (staples, 1987:82). however, although experiencing suffrage, the women had been able to find strength through their strong kinship system, strong work orientation, adaptable roles, strong achievement orientation and strong religious orientation. in the case ofthe children, the personality ofthe child, i.e. sula, was affected and became an aggressive person, especially in sexual activity. the reason for this was because she had often seen her own mother easily have sex with black men. so as a consequence, she did more than her mother, i.e. had sex with a number of single or married black or white men. she never knew how society expected adult males to behave and in reflection she never thought of having a serious relationship with one of them so she just 93 celt, volume 3, number 2, december 2003 : 80-94 fooled around with the men. in the novel, morrison actually dealt with two contrasting families: sui a 's family being a portrayal of an unstable one and nel' s (before she got married) being a stable one. thus, although a male headed the majority of the black families, in sula, it can be seen that under the circumstances of family instability such as in the husband-wife relationship, work opportunity and economic conditions the black family can be geared to a womanheaded one. this condition appeared not for the reason that the mother was 'selfish' but as stated by gatlin, it was so the mother could "give her children a better chance in life, such as a college education" (1987:33). in other words, because of the dominant role the black women were given, the family was considered to have a 'black maternal family' or 'black woman-headed family' and was 'matrifocal'. thus, after carefully analyzing the novel, by first looking at the micro culture of i.e. the biography of the writer, the universe she attempted to create and the audience she wanted to reach, and finally, in comparing it to the real conditions of the black society in the particular years of the early 1920s to 1960s from history books; the macro culture of the black american culture can be learnt after all. in other words, the novel sula, became proof ofa 'mental evidence' of the black american culture. bibliography abrams, m.h. the mirror and the lamp. usa: oxford university press, inc., 1979. bahr, lauren s., bernard johnston, and louise a. bloomfield (eds). collier's encyclopedia, vol. 16. usa: p.f. collier, l. p., 1996. genovese, eugene d. roll, jor.dan, roll: the world the slaves made. new york: fitst vintage books edition, 1976. gatlin, rochelle. american women since j 945. hong kong: macmillan education, ltd,1987. goldman, lucien."'genetic structuralism' in the sociology of literature". in sociology of literature and drama. edited by elizabeth and tom burns. great britain: penguin education, 1973. imam muhni, djuhertati. "african-anerican literature: seminar i". a lecture in the american studies graduate program ofgajah mada university. yogyakarta, february 26, 1997. johnson, charles. "novelist of memory". in "black experience under the domination e.m.dukut, sula: a portrayal of black american woman 94 of bourgeis white society as seen in tony morrison's sula" by tatit hariyani. a paper made for the american literature seminar at hasanuddin university, ujung pandang, december 23, 1996. johnson, louise c. and charles l. schwartz. social welfare: a response to human need. usa: allyn and bacon, incorporated, 1988. leslie, gerald r. and sheila k. korman the family in social context, 6th ed. usa: oxford university press, 1985. liebow, elliot. tally's corner: a study of negro streetcorner men. usa: little, brown and company (inc.), 1967. mcpherson, james m., et al. black in america. new york: doubleday & company, inc, 1971. morrison, toni. sula. new york: new american library, 1973. new standard encyclopedia, vol. 3: b264, vol. 12 : n.338a. chicago: standard education corporation, 1996. norton, et a1. a people and a nation. boston: houghton mufflin co., 1982. o'meally, robert. new essay on ellison's invisible man. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1988. perkins, george and barbara perkins (eds). contemporary american literature, pi ed. usa: random house, inc, 1988. ramaswamy, ravi. "evil and conformity in toni morrison's sula". in http:// www.grade saver.comlclassicnotesltitles?sula1essaysiessay l.html, retrieved on november 12'" 2003. scanzoni, jonh h. the black family in modern society. chicago: the university of chicago press, 1977. schleisingger, arthur m. and dixon ryan fox (eds.) a history of american life, vol. xii. new york: the macmillan company, 1948. stamles, robert. the black family essays and studies, 3rd ed. usa: wadsworth publishing company incorporated, 1987. szwed, johnf. (ed). black americans. usa: voice of america, 1973. wills, susan. "eruption of funk: historizing tony morrison". in fiction by american women. edited by bevilcqua. new york: ass. fac. press, 1983. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj strategies proposed for listening comprehension in pbt toefl: tricks that do not work 1faisal mustafa and 2tomi mandala putra 1faisal.mustafa@unsyiah.ac.id, 2tomiputra@outlook.com 1english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syah kuala, darussalam, aceh, indonesia 2school of language and culture, faculty of humanities and social sciences, university of queensland, brisbane, australia abstract: the longman preparation course for the toefl, written by phillips in 2003, is the most widely used coursebook for toefl test preparation. this book provides 17 strategies for listening comprehension part a. therefore, the current study examines whether the strategies provided in the book are applicable in a real test. the data were obtained from part a of the toefl listening section in nine tests designed by educational testing service (ets). each item in the test was tested against the proposed strategies. the results reveal that many items did not successfully match the strategies. only two proposed strategies had matches of higher than 80%, while others were less than 10%. there are four strategies that did not have a match at all. all in all, very few strategies can be applied to answer the questions correctly without adequate comprehension. with comprehension, test takers can answer the questions without needing to rely on any of the proposed strategies. therefore, the study concludes that most of the strategies proposed by phillips (2003) are not successful in real test. key words: strategies, pbt toefl, listening comprehension abstrak: the longman preparation course for the toefl yang ditulis oleh phillips in 2003 paling banyak digunakan untuk pelatihan persiapan toefl. buku tersebut berisi 17 strategi untuk menjawab 218 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj soal toefp pada part a. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini menelaah apakah strategi dalam buku tersebut dapat digunakan untuk mengerjakan tes toefl yang sebenarnya. data untuk penelitian ini diperoleh dari tes toefl bagian listening part a yang diperoleh dari educational testing service (ets). setiap soal pada tes tersebut dicocokkan dengan strategi yang terdapat dalam buku phillips (2003). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa banyak soal tidak dapat dijawab dengan menggunakan strategi yang dianjurkan. hanya ada dua strategi yang memiliki kecocokan lebih dari 80%, sedangkan yang lain kurang dari 10%. ada dua strategi yang tidak cocok dengan satu soal manapun. secara keseluruhan, sangat sedikit strategi yang dapat digunakan untuk menjawab soal toefl listening part a tanpa pemahaman yang cukup. dengan pemahaman, peserta tes bisa menjawab soal tanpa harus menggunakan strategi-strategi tersebut. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa kebanyakan strategi yang dikemukakan oleh phillips (2003) tidak dapat digunakan untuk menjawab soal toefl asli. kata kunci: strategi, pbt toefl, listening comprehension. introduction listening received little attention in second and foreign language instruction before the 1950s. however, it is now considered a very significant part of language learning because experts have discovered that it facilitates language acquisition (munoz, 2013, p. 3). listening is perhaps the most important language skill to develop (selamat & sidhu, 2013, p. 422). therefore, researchers have shifted their focus strategies that improve listening skills (dong, 2016, p. 150). in order to measure learners’ listening skills, the educational testing service (ets) provides a standardized language test known as the test of english as a foreign language (toefl). the test is regarded highly by academicians since it is one of the admission requirements for most universities in the world (golubovich, tolentino & papageorgiou, 2018, p. 8). paper-based toefl (pbt toefl) tests listening, structure, reading, and writing. among those language skills, listening is the most difficult skill to teach (walker, 2014). this skill requires much practice and adequate exposure to the language (megawati, mustafa & bahri ys, 2016, pp. 352-353). for general listening, many suggest accessing videos such as movies to develop the skill (muthalib, bahri ys, mustafa, 2019; safranj, 2015, p. 172). according to bisson et al. (2012, p. 415), this process takes a long time to improve listening comprehension. to teach listening for toefl, the toefl mustafa, m & putra, t.m., strategies proposed for listening comprehension 219 in pbt toefl: tricks that do not work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj preparation coursebook provides test-taking strategies. the most popular toefl preparation coursebook is longman preparation course for the toefl test: the paper test written by deborah phillips. it provides 17 strategies meant to be learned and practiced by toefl test candidates to help them answer the listening comprehension questions in the toefl test. however, to what extent these strategies are helpful is a question which needs to be answered through research. therefore, the current study analyzed whether the proposed strategies are applicable in a real pbt toefl. the results of this research are significant for both toefl test candidates in planning their test preparation and instructors in designing syllabi for toefl training. literature review a. test of english as a foreign language (toefl) english language ability can be measured in many ways. one way is through the test of english as a foreign language, which was published for the first time in 1960 (ets, 2011, p. 2). the test itself is provided by a nongovernment organization named ets (educational testing service) (elfiondri et al., 2020, pp. 54-55). the test is used all over the world. with more than 4,000 test centers in more than 165 countries, the toefl is used as the primary english standardized test (ets, 2020, p. 4). there are four versions of the toefl: computer-based, internet-based, paper-based, and institutional. the computer-based toefl (cbt toefl), introduced in 1998, consists of four sections, listening, structure, reading, and writing, with possible scores between 0 and 300 (ets, 2020, p. 6). with the discontinuation of the cbt toefl in 2005, the internet-based toefl was introduced (ets, 2011, p. 3). the paper-based toefl (pbt toefl), also a product of ets, has only three sections with possible scores between 310 and 677. the first section in the pbt toefl is the listening comprehension section, which consists of three parts short conversations, long conversations, and short talks and lectures (mustafa & sofyan, 2018, p. 275). the second section deals with 40 grammatical questions divided into two parts incomplete sentences and error analysis (mustafa, 2015, pp. 347-348). the third section is reading comprehension consisting of 5 passages, with about ten questions per passage (elfiondri et al., 2020, p. 55). the pbt toefl, unless it is the institutional pbt toefl, has a writing section called twe 220 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj test of written english (salma, 2018), which is given to the test-takers before the other sections. b. listening comprehension section in pbt toefl listening comprehension in the paper-based test consists of 50 multiplechoice questions that are divided into three sections (kasim, muslem & mustafa, 2019, p. 482). phillips (2003, p. 22) stated that the first section has 30 questions based on a short conversation between two people. the second section is based on two 60-90-second conversations between two speakers in which 4-5 questions come after each of the conversations. the last section is three 60-90-second talks with 3-4 follow-up questions after each talk. nemati, qareqani, & fumani (2016) proposed specific factors which predict item difficulties in listening comprehension of the pbt toefl. they recognize two major factors including infrequent vocabulary and the role of speakers. for the first factor, when unfamiliar vocabulary was used, the number of participants who could correctly answer the question was low compared to when only familiar vocabulary was used. finally, the role of the speaker determines the difficulty of a question in the toefl pbt. when the speaker’s role is not familiar to the participants, the question is significantly more difficult. however, considering the three parts of the listening comprehension test, the first part was predicted to be the least difficult part because one of the problems in listening proposed by nushi & orouji (2020, p. 10), i.e. the problem of difficulty in focusing, is very minimum in this part. it is because the conversation is short, and thus does not require intense concentration. in addition, when the conversations are longer, as in the second and third parts of the test, students feel discouraged and bored (hamouda, 2013, p. 125). c. listening strategies proposed in literature there is some debate about whether listening strategies need to be taught (chen, 2010; fathi, derakhshan & torabi, 2020; lópez, 2017; sharaf, mobaraki & nia, 2018). nation and newton (2009, p. 66) claimed that listening strategies are not applicable for a test taker. however, fathi & hamidizadeh (2019) were convinced that mastering strategies for listening can improve student’s listening skills. some language teachers also favor the idea that listening strategies are helpful for students (golubovich, tolentino & papageorgiou, 2018, p. 5). see table 1 for the listening strategies that was proposed by nation and newton (2009.) mustafa, m & putra, t.m., strategies proposed for listening comprehension 221 in pbt toefl: tricks that do not work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 1: listening strategies proposed by nation and newton (2009) no. strategies examples 1 communication strategies strategies to assist comprehension 1. making prediction before listening 2. listening selectively 3. knowing how to interrupt politely learning strategies strategies for noticing language forms in the input in their independent listening 1. negotiating 2. listening for pattern 3. focused listening the listening strategies proposed in table 1 mostly apply to non-test situations. oxford (1990, p. 49) provided a listening strategy which is applicable in testing situations, i.e. guessing intelligently. oxford (1990, p. 91) listed linguistic clues and other clues as methods of intelligent guessing. linguistic clues include suffixes, prefixes, and word order. other clues which can help learners in making an intelligent guess are provided in the following table. table 2: other clues for guessing proposed by oxford (1990, pp. 92-94) no. clues example 1 form of address relationship between speakers: my dear friend distance or respect: formal vous or lhr (you) status: herr doctor professor (mr. dr. professor) 2 non-verbal items: tone of voice, emphasis 1. tone of voice 2. emphasis 3 what was already said policeman using the word grilling in questioning a suspect does not refer to any act of cooking. 4 perceptual clues background noise 222 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 5 text structure transition: first ….. second … . third … numbers: the two main points are ... structural clues: we will now turn to …… 6 description of people sinister person unknown words used to describe the person relate to sinisterness or cruelty 7 general background knowledge 1. knowledge of the target culture 2. knowledge of the topic under discussion 3. general world knowledge of current affairs, art, politics, and literature previous research has studied the application of listening strategies in language tests. among others, dong (2016) found that listening strategies did not correlate with listening performance among highly motivated learners. however, moradi (2013) found that undergraduate freshmen given listening strategy instruction outperformed those who were not given any instruction in a toefl listening test. furthermore, a research study also discovered that, in terms of listening proficiency, there were no evident differences between those who were given strategy training and those who were not (chen, 2010). gholaminejad (2014) showed that strategy instruction benefits low-proficiency learners less than others. d. listening strategies proposed in phillips (2003) preparation course for the toefl test written by deborah phillips provides strategies for each of the 3 parts of the listening comprehension section of the toefl test as follows: 1. part a. short conversation phillips (2003) proposed 17 strategies termed “skill,” that are categorized into six groups. each strategy is provided with a definition and steps, as in the following example. strategy #1: focus on the second line a. the second line of the conversation probably contains the answer to the question. mustafa, m & putra, t.m., strategies proposed for listening comprehension 223 in pbt toefl: tricks that do not work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. listen to the first line of the conversation. if you understand it, that’s good. if you don’t understand it, don’t worry because it probably does not contain the answer. c. be ready to focus on the second line of the conversation because it probably contains the answer. repeat the second line in your mind as you read through the answer in the text. the complete list of strategies proposed by phillips (2003) for part a is presented in the following table. table 3: strategies for answering the listening comprehension test in part a no. groups strategies 1-3 strategies focus on the second line choose answers with synonyms avoid similar sounds 4-6 who, what, and where draw conclusion about who, what, where listen for who and what in passive listen for who and what with multiple nouns 7-10 negatives listen for negative expression listen for double negative expressions listen for “almost negative” expressions listen for negative with comparatives 11-13 functions listen for expression of agreement listen for expression of uncertainty and suggestion listen for emphatic expression of surprise 14-15 contrary meaning listen for wishes listen for untrue conditions 16-17 idiomatic language listen for twoand three-part verbs listen for idioms 2. part b and part c. long conversation and long talk strategies for part b proposed by phillips (2003) are similar to those of part c. the strategies are divided into two phases, i.e. before listening and while listening. table 4 presents these strategies. 224 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 4: strategies for the listening comprehension test in part b and part c no phases strategies 1-2 before listening anticipate the topics anticipate the questions 3-5 while listening determine the topic draw conclusions about who, what, when, and where listen for answers in order method to collect the data for this research, nine samples of the test published by the educational testing service (ets) were used. the tests were once used for official tests and, therefore, authentic and suitable for the purposes of the study. the tests come in three different publications, as presented in table 5. table 5: list of published toefl test materials for data collection no. name of publication year of publication number of tests 1 toefl test preparation kit volume 1 1998 4 tests 2 toefl test preparation kit volume 2 2000 3 tests 3 toefl practice test volume 1 2003 2 tests this research comprised two stages of analysis. in stage one, each number in each test from all publications in table 5 was matched to the strategies proposed in preparation course for the toefl test written by deborah phillips. this book was popular because it is very easy to use, and the topics presented in the books are systematic. both practice tests in each topic and the complete practice tests provided in the book are relevant to the topics discussed in the book. the earlier version of this book, published in 1989, provided practice tests which are very close to the real toefl designed mustafa, m & putra, t.m., strategies proposed for listening comprehension 225 in pbt toefl: tricks that do not work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by ets from the early to mid-1990s, though only for the structure and reading comprehension sections. in the second stage, the items that have matches in the strategies were analyzed to find out whether the strategies can actually be applied to answer the questions. in the analysis, the writer answered the following questions: 1. will the strategy narrow down the number of potentially-correct options? 2. how many distractors can the strategies eliminate? the questions above were constructed with the consideration that if the strategies are effective, they need to give a high chance of obtaining good scores when the strategies are applied in taking the test. to answer the questions, the authors read the recording script, either the second speaker or both speakers as suggested by the strategies, and the options in the test material. using the strategy, the authors decided which distractors can be eliminated. the strategies were considered to work perfectly when all three distractors could be eliminated. the listening comprehension section in the pbt toefl comprises three parts, i.e. part a, part b, and part c. phillips (2003) did not propose specific strategies for parts b and part c. therefore, the analysis in this study was restricted to the 17 strategies of part a. the results of both stages of analysis are presented via percentages in the following sections. the percentage for applicable strategies was obtained by dividing the number of questions for which the strategies were applicable by the total number of questions, i.e. 270 (30 questions in nine tests). the percentage for distractor elimination was calculated by dividing the number of strategies which can eliminate a certain number of distractors by the number of questions for which the strategies are applicable. results based on the data collected from test materials published by ets, not all strategies proposed by phillips are potentially applicable in completing the real toefl. the results are presented in two tables. the first table reveals how many strategies can be potentially implemented during the test. the latter explains how many distractors that the strategies can eliminate. 226 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 6: strategies applicable for toefl designed by ets no. strategies potentially applicable percentage 1 focus on the second line 237 87.78% 2 choose answers with synonyms 76 28.15% 3 avoid similar sounds 235 87.04% 4 draw conclusion about who, what, where 22 8.15% 5 listen for who and what in passive 0 0.00% 6 listen for who and what with multiple nouns 0 0.00% 7 listen for negative expression 2 0.74% 8 listen for double negative expressions 1 0.37% 9 listen for “almost negative” expressions 0 0.00% 10 listen for negative with comparatives 0 0.00% 11 listen for expression of agreement 2 0.74% 12 listen for expression of uncertainty and suggestion 21 7.78% 13 listen for emphatic expression of surprise 4 1.48% 14 listen for wishes 3 1.11% 15 listen for untrue conditions 3 1.11% 16 listen for twoand three-part verbs 4 1.48% 17 listen for idioms 7 2.59% table 6 shows that the majority of questions can potentially be answered using the strategy of focusing on the second speaker (88%) and the strategy of avoiding similar sounds (87%). two of the strategies can sometimes be applied in the real toefl, i.e. drawing conclusion (8%) and expression of suggestion and uncertainty (8%). however, the other strategies proposed by phillips (2003) can rarely be applied (<3%). regardless of their potential applicability, few strategies can actually be applied to correctly answer the questions in the toefl. these results are presented in table 7. mustafa, m & putra, t.m., strategies proposed for listening comprehension 227 in pbt toefl: tricks that do not work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 7: number of distractors eliminated by proposed strategies no. strategies distractor elimination 0 1 2 3 1 focus on the second line 0% 4% 26% 70% 2 choose answers with synonyms 3% 1% 9% 87% 3 avoid similar sounds 0% 29% 48% 23% 4 draw conclusion about who, what, where 9% 5% 5% 82% 5 listen for who and what in passive 0% 0% 0% 100% 6 listen for who and what with multiple nouns 100% 0% 0% 0% 7 listen for negative expression 0% 0% 0% 100% 8 listen for double negative expressions 50% 0% 0% 50% 9 listen for “almost negative” expressions 67% 0% 0% 33% 10 listen for negative with comparatives 25% 0% 25% 50% 11 listen for expression of agreement 67% 0% 0% 33% 12 listen for expression of uncertainty & suggestion 75% 0% 0% 25% 13 listen for emphatic expression of surprise 50% 0% 0% 50% 14 listen for wishes 100% 0% 0% 0% table 7 shows that when strategies are applicable, the strategies can eliminate all distractors except for negative expression and idioms, none of which can be eliminated. in table 7, some strategies can only eliminate one distractor, which narrows down the chance of selecting the correct answer. other strategies can eliminate two distractors, and the others can eliminate all distractors, leaving only the correct answer. however, regardless of their potential application, many strategies cannot be used to eliminate any distractors. discussion the objective of this research was to find out whether the strategies for answering listening comprehension questions in the pbt toefl as proposed 228 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by phillips (2003) are applicable in taking the real toefl. the data were collected by finding matches between strategies proposed and nine historic listening tests designed by ets. the results show that most strategies are not applicable. some strategies are potentially applicable but they cannot eliminate distractors and thus cannot lead to correct answers. the most potentially-applicable strategy was “focus on the second speaker.” the study found that 88 percent of the questions can be answered only by listening to the second speaker in the conversation of part a. however, this strategy can only be applied when a test taker can comprehend what the speaker says. in the case that the test taker does not completely understand what the second speaker says, the book suggests that he or she select an answer which has the synonym of keywords that they recognized from the conversation. this strategy can be applied to 28% of the questions and all distractors from 87% of those questions can be eliminated. when the test taker does not understand any of the conversations, the book recommends that the test taker avoid choosing the options which sound similar to what the test taker hears in the conversation. this strategy is potentially applicable to 87% of the questions, but all distractors can be eliminated in only 23% of them, two distractors in 48%, and one distractor in 29% (see table 7). the book provides a strategy to answer questions about who, what and where. the test taker is suggested to pay attention to keywords in the conversation in order to draw conclusions about who the speakers are, what they are speaking about, and where the conversation takes place. based on the analysis, this strategy has matches in 8.15% of the questions in the real test. this strategy is very effective because it can eliminate all distractors in 87% of those questions. however, test-takers need to have a wide range of vocabulary to make such conclusions. in fact, wang and treffers-daller (2017, p. 148) found that vocabulary is one of the strongest predictors of listening comprehension. for the strategy of listen for uncertainty and suggestion, the book only provides the way to identify the skill tested. for expressions of uncertainty, the speaker usually uses ... isn’t it (tag), as far as i know, or as far as i can tell. in the real test, however, only two out of 270 questions can be identified by using this strategy. for expressions of suggestion, the book suggests to listen to the expressions why not and let’s because those expressions signal suggestion. however, among 20 questions (7.4%), only 6 of them (30%) use why not and let’s. in short, this strategy is not very useful for a mustafa, m & putra, t.m., strategies proposed for listening comprehension 229 in pbt toefl: tricks that do not work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj test taker. in addition, the strategy does not state how identifying the expressions helps the test taker to determine the answer to the questions. idioms are found in the listening section of every toefl. there were seven questions found in the nine tests analyzed in this research. phillips (2003) provided a list of 48 idioms. however, none listed in her book appears in the actual tests. according to rafatbakhsh & ahmadi (2020, p. 212), there are more than 5,000 idioms in english. therefore, the chance that the idioms in phillips’ list appear in the toefl is less than 1%. however, the meaning of idioms can be determined if the test taker understands the context (rafatbakhsh & ahmadi, 2019, p. 17). therefore, high-achieving listeners will most likely be able to answer the questions about idioms although they are not familiar with the tested idioms. oakhill, cain, & nesi (2016, p. 133) also found that the understanding of idioms is not related to the understanding of the expression, suggesting that learning the meaning of idioms in isolation is not necessary. in short, the list provided by phillips (2003) is not very useful. other strategies proposed by phillips (2003), as presented in table 7, have no better applicability in answering the questions than the above strategies because they have limited matches in the real tests. in addition, most of the strategies that have matches cannot eliminate distractors. for a strategy to work in the test, it should be able to eliminate all the distractors in the tests, leaving only the correct answer. conclusion the research results have found that only two strategies (i.e. focus on the second speaker and avoid similar sounds) have matches in more than 80% of the questions in the real toefl. three strategies (i.e. choosing answers with synonyms, draw conclusion about who, what, and where, and listen for expression of uncertainty and suggestion) have matches between 8% and 28%. the other strategies rarely have matches (<3%). the most successful strategy, which had the most frequent matches in the real test, can only be applied if the test-takers understand the conversation. the second most successful strategy is only applicable if the test takers have sufficient vocabulary. the next three strategies, which have matches between 8% and 28%, can rarely eliminate all distractors. to conclude, strategies proposed by phillips (2003) cannot successfully be applied to answer the questions in part a of the listening comprehension section in the real toefl. however, the decision regarding whether the strategies matched the test items was based solely on the 230 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj researchers’ judgment. no real test takers were involved in confirming the findings. to overcome this limitation, further study should experiment by teaching students the strategies proposed by phillips (2003) and compare their scores before and after they are taught the strategies. as a pedagogical implication, the listening sections in standardized tests such as the toefl and ielts are intended to measure the students’ listening comprehension level. therefore, in preparation courses, students should be taught to improve the level of their listening ability. it is suggested that teachers help improve their students’ listening comprehension by using movies, involving pre-viewing and post-viewing (amalia, kusrini, ramadhani, 2019). movies are also recommended for independent learning (safranj, 2015). another useful technique of improving students’ listening comprehension is through transcribing tasks (shafiee & rahimi, 2012). students are provided with a podcast or other audio and are asked to transcribe it. according to dinmore and gao (2016, p. 198), not only is it useful in forming an awareness and for feedbacks, transcribing authentic texts also improves listening skills through word recognition enhancement. acknowledgment the authors are indebted to anonymous reviewers for their comments on earlier versions of this article which had initially been scheduled for presentation at syiah kuala university annual international conference for social sciences. this research received no specific grant from any funding agency. references amalia, e. r., kusrini, n. r., & ramadhani, p. 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(2015). advancing listening comprehension through movies. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 191, 169-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.513 salma, n. f. (2018). almost everything about toefl pbt. university of lancang kuning: unpublished essay. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/rnkmh selamat, s., & sidhu, g. k. (2013). enhancing listening comprehension: the role of metacognitive strategy instruction (metsi). procedia social and behavioral sciences, 90, 421 – 430. shafiee, d., & rahimi, a. (2012). an investigation of the effect of transcribing listening on iranian efl learners’ listening skill. international journal of applied linguistics and english literature, 1(6), 99-105. 234 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 217 – 234 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sharaf, f. g., mobaraki, m., & nia, m. r. (2018). the effect of listening strategy instruction on iranian pre-intermediate efl learners’ listening ability. international journal of applied linguistics and english literature, 7(3), 188–192. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.7n.3p.188 walker, n. (2014). listening: the most difficult skill to teach. encuentro, 23, 167–175. wang, y., & treffers-daller, j. (2017). explaining listening comprehension among l2 learners of english: the contribution of general language proficiency, vocabulary knowledge and metacognitive awareness. system, 65, 139-150. logo: logo: 10-2.pdf solving the students’ problems in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning lestari setyowati, sony sukmawan and mohamad anan latief english education study program, stkip pgri, pasurunan, east java, indonesia; faculty of cultural studies, unversitas brawijaya, malang, east java, indonesia; faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, east java, indonesia email: lestari.setyowati@yahoo.co.id; sony_sukmawan@ub.ac.id; a.adnanlatief@gmail.com received: 17-06-2016 accepted: 20-07-2017 published: 11-08-2017 solving the students’ problems in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning 1lestari setyowati, 2sony sukmawan, and 3mohamad anan latief 1lestari.setyowati@yahoo.co.id; 2sony_sukmawan@ub.ac.id; 3a.adnanlatief@gmail.com 1english education study program, stkip pgri pasurunan, east java, indonesia 2faculty of cultural studies, unversitas brawijaya, malang, east java, indonesia 3faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, east java, indonesia abstract: most indonesian students who are learning english often consider writing as not only the most difficult skill to master, but also a demanding activity. to help them cope these problems, the application of planning in the writing process seems to be a solution. this study attempts to find out howdifferent planning formats can improve efl students’ writing performance in argumentative essays. the subjects of the studywere the fourth semester students taking essay writing class. the research was conducted from may to june 2015, consisting of three cycles in classroom action research design by using different planning types, namely rough drafting and outlining strategy in which each cycle consisted of two meetings.the students’ compositions were measured by using primary trait scoring rubric for argumentative essay. the result of the study shows that the provision of planning is effective to improve the students’ performance in writing argumentative essay. the effectiveness of different types planningdepends on the students’ preference of which to use. key words: planning, argumentative essay, writing performance. setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 87 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj abstrak: sebagian besar mahasiswa indonesia yang sedang belajar bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing sering menganggap keterampilan menulis adalah satu keterampilan berbahasa yang paling sulit untuk dikuasai diantara keterampilan berbahasa lainnya. hal ini dikarenakan kompleksitas penguasaan keterampilan menulis itu sendiri. untuk membantu mereka mengatasi masalah ini, penerapan perencanaan dalam proses penulisan tampaknya menjadi satu solusi yang patut dipertimbangkan. penelitian ini mencoba untuk mengetahui bagaimana bentuk perencanaan yang berbeda dapat meningkatkan kinerja menulis mahasiswa dalam mengarang esai argumentasi. subyek penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa semester iv yang mengambil mata kuliah menulis esai. penelitian ini dilakukan pada bulan mei--juni 2015. terdapat tiga siklus dalam desain penelitian tindakan kelas ini dengan menggunakan jenis perencanaan yang berbeda yaitu menggunakan draft kasar dan outline.setiap siklus terdiri dari dua pertemuan. hasil karangan mahasiswa diukur dengan menggunakan rubrik primary trait scoring untuk esai argumentatif. hasil penelitian menunjukkan perencanaan menulis mampu meningkatkan kinerja mahasiswa dalam menulis esai argumentasi. efektifitas perencanaan menulis ini tergantung pada kesukaan mahasiswa untuk memilih jenis format perencanan mana yang akan digunakan. kata kunci: perencanaan, esai argumentasi, kinerja menulis. introduction in this era, people are gradually aware that the ability to write has become an important skill to be mastered by those who want to be recognized in the global world.the act of writing makes the thoughts visible and transferable to other people. however, to be able to write well is not easy at all, especially to write in the foreign language like english. it is not unusual to find writing classess which are not engaged. some factors may cause this problem. the first factor might come from the the way the teaching of writing is conducted. it is a common knowledge that in efl writing classess in private universities, the writing lecturerhas difficulties to makethe course challenging as most of the instructions use ‘write-thencollect’activities without giving further information of how to approach and finish the task. moreover, the topic given might not be interesting enough for the students to write. when the topic is not challenging, a student-writer will have problems even before he/she puts the pen on the paper. the 88 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj second factor might come from the complexity of writing itself. from the students’ points of view, writing in english is a challenging activity because they have to make use of almost allof their linguistics skills to write, such as the skill in using vocabulary,the skill in using grammar, the skills in gathering information, and skill in organizing the information to produce a good essay. based on the observation during the preliminary study in stkip pgri pasuruan, the students in this institution often see that a good writing is one that is perfect in grammar and lengthy in the number of words. therefore, if the writing does not use good grammar and is not lengthy, they judge themselves as “not good writers”. this is of course is not totally true. ideas which flow smoothly, logically and communicatively for the intended audience often becomes the characteristics of a good writing. when writing is seen as a means of communication, effective communication becomes a paramount importance. to achieve this, the words and ideas should be ordered well on the page in ways that make sense to a reader. the process of lining up these words and ideas is more complicated than it may seem. as most writers have experienced, the ideas do not necessarily arise in a linear pattern since mostly they are scattered in the writers’ mind. typically through the act of writing, the logical relationship that develops the idea is created into something meaningful. the action of putting ideas into words and arranging them logically helps the readers see, create, and explore new connections. so not only does a writer need to “have” ideas, but the writer also has to arrange them neatly and logically before putting them on paper, that is, to “write” them for a reader, in order for those ideas to be meaningful. to conclude, a good writing should be seen from how the ideas are related, understood, and acceptable by readers. this present study is basically triggered by the students’ problems in efl writing class in stkip pgri pasuruan. most of them have two major problems in learning to write, namely, what to write and how to start. “what to write” problem deals with how to generate ideas whereas the second one deals with how to start writing for a composition. these two problems are basically the problems that most efl learners encounter when they are assigned to write in english. setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 89 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj literature review the term “planning” has several definitions. in the regular definition of planning, the writers work out what to say first then work on expressing their meaning as effectively as possible in the actual writing activity that follows. the regular definition of planning mostly refer to the explicit plan done before the actual writing task (galbraith and torrance, 2004). interestingly, the term planning for galbraith and torrance (2004, p. 64) does not refer only to the explicit plan mostly done before the writing task, but the term planning can also be done during their actual writing activity and in which content may develop over a series of drafts before it finally comes to the end product. galbraith (2004) called this as interactive strategy. the interactive strategy aims at producing the initial draft freely to express thoughts about the topic. thus, it can be concluded that planning can be done before or during the writing task. to date, two widely-known writing strategies are found in the writing research (kieft, et al., 2007), namely planning writing strategy in which writers work out what they want to say before setting pen on paper, and revising writing strategy—start producing a full text once they have worked out what they want to say. torrance and galbraith (2006) call this revision writing strategy as interactive approach (p. 64), while to kellog (1990, 1996), this revision strategy is similar to rough draft strategy. in the planning activity in general, there are many strategies before a writer writes. the strategies called the prewriting activities include brainstorming, cubing, clustering, listing, looping, and freewriting (baroudy, 2008). as stated by kellog (1999), freewriting is the rough version of a drafting activity. since rough drafting and prewriting are both placed in the planning stage in the writing process, they function to generate and organize ideas, to set the goal to reach the purpose of the composition (flower and hayes, 1981, p. 370). in the field of l1 writing, the results of pre-task planning (planning prior to composing) shows consistent effect on l1 writers’ texts. most studies conducted by writing experts, such as kellog (1988, 1990, 1999) yield results that pre-task planning—specifically outlining—is effective in improving l1 writing quality hollistically. similarly, the result of study conducted by kieft et al., (2007) also shows that both strategies are equally effective.having reviewed the literature, the researcher was interested to solve the students’ 90 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj problems in generating ideas for writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning, before and during the actual writing task. on the ground of the background of the study presented above, the present study proposes to solve the students’ problem in writing argumentative essay. thus, the research problem is posed as: “how can the students’ writing performancein argumentative essays be improved through the provision of planning?” ellis (2005) distinguishes two broad kinds of planning; pre-task planning and within-task planning. pre-task planning is a kind of planning which happens before performing the task, whereas within-task planning refers to the kind of planning which occurs during the time of performance of a task. however, there is another term which refers to within-task planning which is called on-line planning. these two terms are often used interchangeably, such as in ellis and yuan’s paper (2003), which refer to similar meaning. pre-task planning and within-task planning are different in terms of when planning is conducted and the format of the planning. in the former, the students have an opportunity to plan what to say and how to write it out before their performance. the strategies for pre-task planning might include cubbing, clustering, and mapping (ojima, 2006), outlining (kellog, 1988, 1990). whereas the strategy for within-task planning is similar to rough draft strategy as proposed by kellog (1999) through its freewriting activity. ellis (2005) further categorizes pre-task planning into two kinds; rehearsal and strategic planning. meanwhile, within-task planning refers to planning done during the actual writing task (ellis, 2005).ellis and yuan (2003) research on pre-task planning and within-taskplanning in written production shows that care within task planning enables learners to write with more syntaxtically complex sentences (complexity) and more correct clauses and verbs (accuracy). whereas ghavamnia et al.’s (2013) study shows that the availability of pre-task planning can produce more complex and fluent writings, whereas the within-task planning enables learners to produce more accurate writing performance. for sla researchers, planning is important because “it links in with the current interest in the role of attention in language learning” (ellis, 2005). one of the most influential model in task-planning within writing setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 91 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj context is the flower and hayes’model (1981). in their article, "a cognitive process theory of writing" (1981), flower, l. and hayes, j.r. report the findings of their study using a new model to observe the processes writers employ in the act of composition. rejecting traditional research methods, they begin the idea of writing as a process, that it comprises of several stages. flower and hayes model (1981) distinguishes three basic systems involved in written text production. first is planning which entails the process of generating ideas with organization and goal settingas components. second is translating which means putting the ideas on the paper (writing/composing). the thirdis reviewing that consists of the act of reviewing under the control of a monitor. the writer evaluates what he or she has written and then changes the text to suit the developing concept of the document. this activity operates based two kinds of information: the task environment, which consists of the writing assignment and the production of the text , and the knowledge stored in the long-term memory, which consists of the topic knowledge, the audience, the plan, the grammar knowledge, and the text knowledge .they argue that pre-writing strategy helps improve the quality of composition by “calling attention to planning and discovery as legitimate parts of the writing process” (flower and hayes,1981, p. 367). they conclude that the source of creativity comes from the writer’s ability to create goals and to generate ideas. and this important part is placed in the planning stage. methodology the study employs classroom action research (car). koshy (2005) defines action research as an enquiry which is carried out in order to understand, evaluate, and then modify educational program to improve educational practice. one of the proposed designs of action research is classroom action research (car). the design is based on the consideration that the teacher as researcher attempts not only to solve the problem in the particular classroom, but also to improve the quality of teaching. one of the distinctive features of car design is the cyclesto be implemented in the research; each of which consist of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting (kemmis and taggart, 2007). a preliminary study was conducted for this research by giving the students a pretest to find out the problems encountered when writing an 92 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj argumentative essay. the students’ compositions were rated by two writing teachers. the students’ compositions in the pretest were scored using jacobs esl composition profile, meanwhile their compositions after each cycle were rated by using primary trait scoring rubric developed by latief (1990).babbin and horrison (1999) said that primary trait scoring is mostly helpful in responding to the students’ draft, and in encouraging and shaping revision.similarly, the criteria of success was determined prior the cycles were excecuted. the success criterion stated was the classroom action research would be stopped if 80% the students showed the ability to choose and defend a position on an issue and demostrate the ability to support their position by giving at least two relevant evidences. intermediate elt students taking writing iii class in their fourth semester at college of teachers training and education (stkip) pgri pasuruan participated in this study. this class was taken because of their low writing achievement as compared to other classes.however, only 18 students were taken as the subjects of the study on the basis of the attendance and papers submitted during the research. three cycles were conducted in which each cycle consists of two meetings, 90 minutes each. the first cycle was conducted on may 26 and may 29, 2015. the second cycle was conducted on june 2, 2015 and june 4, 2015. meanwhile, the third cycle was conducted on june 6, 2015 and june 9, 2015. based on the english language teaching syllabus, the fourth semester students should have the ability to write expository and argumentative essays by using different types of paragraph development. this research, however, focused on argumentative essays. in the first cycle, the students wereasked to write a 250-word argumentative essay with refutation. in the first meeting of the first cycle, the students were taught how to make refutation for an argumentative essay. the topic of cycle 1 was kids and smartphone. in the planning of cycle 1, the students were asked to respond to the a short article taken from an authentic material in the web and to make a plan through freewriting activity in 10 minutes before they started writing their full draft. the purpose of giving the article of a controversial issue was to trigger the students’ knowledge on the topic so that they had a clear purpose to write whether they should agree or disagree. in the implementation of cycle 1, the article was discussed first in the class. after the discussion, the students were asked to plan their writing setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 93 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj by using freewriting activity in 10 minutes. the writing stage lasted for 40 minutes in which they had to write a 250-word essay under the topic should we let kids have smartphones? intheir essay, the students were asked to show at least a refutation. revising and editing then followed.during the observation stage, the researcher observed whether in 10 minutes, the students were able to generate ideas by using freewriting activity to make a rough draft. the researcher also observed the approximate number of sentences made by the students in 10 minutes during the rough drafting. the result of the observation shows that in 10 minutes, the students had problems to make a rough draft by using freewriting activity as they were only able to generate 5 – 8 sentences. in short, the students were not accustomed to write their ideas loosely in 10 minutes. based on the observation, most of the students spent their 10 minutes time day dreaming as if thinking what should be written in 10 minutes. however, few students were able to develop their rough draft into a 250 words essay. the result of the reflection also shows that only 50% of the students were able to reach the criteria of success. based on the data, the researcher decided to continue the cycle to solve the students’ problems in generating ideas by introducing different format of planning. in the second cycle, the students were taught how to open and close an argumentative essay. the topic for cycle 2 was plastic bags and society.in the planning of cycle 2, a new format of planning was introduced, named outlining. similar to cycle 1, the students were given an authentic material of an article taken from the web entitled the use of plastic bags in everyday life. in cycle 2, it was planned that the students should make an outline in 10 minutes before they started their actual writing task. during the implementation, the article was discussed first with the sole purpose of preparing the students’ background knowledge. after that, the students were given an argumentative map to fill. in the outline, the students should state their position whether to agree or disagree. there were three reasons that students should fill, each of which should be completed with three personal examples and details. the last line of the outline asked the students to make a conclusion. to fill the outline, the students were given 10 minutes to generate their ideas. after that, they were given 40 minutes to translate their outline into a composition. in the observation, the researcher observed the students’ activity during the completion of the outline in 10 minutes. however, the result of the observation showed that many of the argumentative maps were not fully filled which meant that the ideas were not fully generated in 10 minutes. when some of the students were interviewed 94 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj about their feeling of using outlining, the students had different answers. some of them said that 10 minutes planning was not enough, and other said they did not know what to fill in the the map. surprisingly, very few students said that an outline eased them to get ideas although the time was not sufficient to fill all the lines. the result of the reflection of cycle 2 showed that only 44.5% were able to reach the criteria of success. there was a decrease in the percentage of the students who were able to reach the criteria of success when it was compared to cycle 1. it was found out that the main problem was time for planning and the preferences of planning format. therefore, the researcher decided to continue the cycle into cycle 3. in the third cycle, the students learned to use at least one type of rhetorical organization to develop an essay, cause and effect, or problem solution. the topic of cycle 3 was money and happiness.in the planning stage, two different format of planning were in the prewriting stage, there was a class discussion which talked about whether mooffered to the students. they may choose the format of planning which they felt comfortable to use before they began writing. the time for planning was also doubled which meant that they had 20 minutes to plan their writing either using rough drafting or outlining. in the implementation stage, unlike cycle 1 and cycle 2, the students were not given an authentic material to read. instead, a class discussion was set up to talk about whether money can/cannot make people happy. the goal of this discussion was to prepare the students’ schemata before writing. after 20 minutes-discussion, the students were asked to plan their writing. in this cycle, they were given freedom to choose whether to use rough drafting or explicit planning. after 20 minutes of planning, new sheets of paper were distributed to the students so that they could performed their actual writing task. revising and editing then followed. in the observation, the researcher observed the students’ activity during the planning. the students who prefered to use outlining, made their own mental map on the paper in the form of lines or circles in which each of these consists of points they would discus in the composition. while other who prefered rough drafting through freewriting, started their composition right away. the result of the reflection showed that 88.9% of the students were able to reach the criteria of success. as the criteria of success had been reached, the cycle was stopped. three instruments were used in this research: direct writing test, observation, and unstructured interview.the final drafts of the students’ setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 95 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj writing in each cycle were collected along with their draft of their planning, either rough drafting or outlining.the students’ compositions produced in the end of each cycle were used as the posttest. to score the compositions collected after each cycle, the writer used primary trait scoring for argumentative essay developed by latief (1990). a five-point scale from 0 to 4 was used as the rubric. writerswould get score 0 if they were not able to state a claim,while those who can show their stand on an issue but do not provide relevant evidence to support the claim would get the score 1. in addition, students would get the score 2 if they could take a claim on the issue and provide only one relevant evidence. score 3 would be given if they can provide two pieces relevant evidence, and score 4 would be given if they can provide three to four pieces of relevant evidence that strongly support the claim. the second instrument was observation. in this case, the researchers were helped by a writing lecturer who acted as an observer. she observed the teaching and learning process with a guide of observation checklist, lesson plan, and field note. she also observed which students seemed to have problems and difficulties during the process of learning. the third instrument was the unstructured interview. the researchers did interviews with some students at random to find out their feelings and opinions about the duration of planning they would like to have, about their preferences of different planning formats, and their reasons why liked particular planning type. the interview was conducted in the end of cycle 2 results prior the cycles were implemented, the researcher had decided to set the criteria of success in relation to the scoring rubric of argumentative essay used. the criteria of success said that the cycles would be stopped if 80% the students fall in the category 3 of primary trait scoring guide for argumentative essay used in the study. although the criteria of success did not use mean to measure the students’ writing , it was interesting to discuss thefluctuation of the mean in each cycle. the mean of cycle 1 is 2.22 with the most frequent score is 3. meanwhile, in cycle 2, the mean increases slightly into 2.44 with the most frequent score is 2. the high improvement of the mean can be seen in cycle 96 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 3 in which it increases to 0.83, which gives the values of 3.27 with the mode of 3. table 1: frequency distribution result rubric scores cycle1 cycle 2 cycle 3 frequency percent frequency percent frequency percent valid 1,00 5 27,8 3 16,7 0 0 2,00 4 22,2 7 38,9 2 11,1 3,00 9 50,0 5 27,8 9 50,0 4,00 0 0 3 16,7 7 38,9 total 18 100,0 18 100,0 18 100,0 from table 1, it can be seen that the criterion of success was not reached in cycle 1 and cycle 2. the criterion of success states that the cycle would be stoped if 80 % of the students were able to state his position on an issue and have the ability to support the claim position by giving at least two relevant evidences. this criterion of success falls in point 3 of latief’s rubric (1990). if table 2 is summed up, in cycle 1, there was only 50 % of the students who were able to reach the criteria of success. suprisingly, in cycle 2, there was a decrese as compared to the previous cycle in the percentage of the students who were able to reach the success criteria (44.5%). only that in cycle 3, the criteria of success was able to be achieved. better yet, the students were able to pass the criteria of success as there was 88.9% of them who were able to show his position on an issue and support his claim with at least two relevant evidences. to have a better view of the students’ development in each cycle, the data are presented in the histogram. figure 1. figure 1 shows the skewedness of the students’ scores in each cyle. it can be noted that there is a shift in each cyle. in cycle 1, the scores tend to be skewed to the left as none of them were able to reach the highest point in the scoring rubric. in cycle 2, the score distribution appears normal, as those who setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 97 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj reached the lowest scores and the highest scores are equal in number, while majority of the students fall in the middle. more promising figure can be seen in cycle 3. in cycle 3, the scores skewed to the right which shows a good sign of the improvement. figure 1: the development in each cycle discussion previous studies have confirmed that planning is beneficial for the learners to improve the quality of their target language production. however, there was no sufficient information in what way planning does help. there are some possible explanations of decrease performance from cycle 1 to cycle 2, and the improvement from the first two cyles to the third cycle, namely the planning time, and the preferences of the format of planning. there is no clear agreement how long students should plan their performance. previous research in planning studies have different length of planning time given to their subjects of study. it ranges from 5 minutes(philp et al., 2006) to 10 minutes (ellis and yuan, 2003; rahimpour and jahan, 2011; ong and zhang,2010). the result of their studies show that 5 to 10 minutes time to plan is sufficient for them. this is understandable since the subjects of their study lived in the area where english is as the first language (philp et al., 2006) or a second language (ong and zhang,2010) so that outside the classroom, the subjects had rich exposure to the target 98 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj language.but for indonesian learners who live in a place where english is as a foreign language, and in which target language exposure is scarce, 10 minutes time might not be sufficient. in this research, it was found out that the students had problems with 10 minutes time to plan their writing, either by using outlining or freewriting. it can be seen from the result of cycle 1 and cyle 2. the difference between cycle 1 and cycle 2 was the format of the planning the students used. in cycle 1, the students were asked to freewrite their composition in 10 minutes, and in cycle 2, they were asked to outline their essay by using argumentative map. the second possible explanation is the students’ pereferences of the format of planning. in the institution, most of the writing classes adopt product approach to teaching writing. as a result, the students somehow were accustomed to ‘write-then-collect’ way of writing.although many students were not able to generate ideas well by using freewriting in 10 minutes, it was not surprising to find out if 50% of them were able to reach the criteria of success in cycle 1. freewriting activity, according to kellog (1999:132) is the “extreme version of rough draft strategy”. during the freewriting activity, the writer translates his ideas at the moment of writing without thinking of how to organize the thoughts. this type of strategy is similar to kieft’s et al., (2007) revising strategy. it is called as revising strategy because after producing the first rough draft, the students had a chance to revise it into the second draft. in this research, after the students did some freewriting activities, they rewrote and revise the second draft before it was submitted. in cycle 2, it was surprising to see that there was a decrease in the percentage of the students’ performance. the decrease of almost 6% was something intriguing. using systematic planning prior composing, theoritically, can help students to write better. some students however, seemed uncomfortable with this ‘plan-first’ strategy. the result of the interview showed that they did not know what to fill in the argumentative map. as a result, their 10 minutes time to fill the argumentative map was not used wisely since many spaces in the map were still empty. based on the data, it was concluded that some students prefered to use frewriting activity to plan their writing, while other felt more comfortable with outlining. setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 99 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj the solution offered in cycle 3, in which the students were let free to choose their own planning strategy, has shown a promising improvement on the students’ writing performance. this is confirming kieft’s et al., (2007) finding which states that effectiveness of planning before writing and the other revising after writing depends on the students’ own writing strategies preferences. in their research, the result also shows that students with a natural tendency toward planning benefit most from instruction that emphasizes planning, while others who had undeveloped strategies, or who had a tendency not to plan before writing, benefitted more from instruction that emphasized revision. taken into this classroom action research context, this seems to be the possible explanation of the improvement in cycle 3. the data from cycle 3 shows that none of the students fall in the category 1 in the primary trait scoring guide, unlike cycle 1 and 2. in short, what ever the format of planning given to the students, they are equally effective to improve the students’ writing performance. however, there are some considerations that writing lecturer need to take into account, namely the time length of planning and the students’ preferences of planning type. there are some limitations in this research. first of all, this research only focuses on the idea development. as a result, other writing aspects were not counted, such as the language, vocabulary, and mechanics. because the problems in the language were not noticed, the students’ problem in the language remains unsolved. to be able to solve this problem, future researchers can use other scoring rubric which is more sensitive than the primary trait scoring used in this study. the second limitation of this study is the instruments used in the study. more in-depht information basically can be taken from the study if only the researcher used more structured interview. the unstructured interview used in the study might not reflect the reality of all subjects of the study as not all students were interviewed. furthermore, this research basically can generate more information on the students’ preferences on the planning strategies they used. to get this data, questionaires can be distributed to the students after the cycle is excecuted. therefore, future researchers can make use of more instruments to get more information so that more understanding on the nature of planning they students use can be provided. lastly, this study employed classroom action reserach in which its main purpose is to solve the students’ problems in writing. if more 100 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj information to be obtained in relation to cause and effect relationship, experimental research design needs to be employed. after all, the result of the study in this research is only applicable to the subjects under this study. conclusion this research is basically triggered by the students’ problem in generating ideas during their writing course. feeling obliged to solve this problem, a classroom action research was conducted in three cycles. the result of the study shows that the provision of planning is beneficial to improve the students’ writing performance in argumentative essay. despite of its effectiveness, there are some considerations that should be taken into account. firstly, the time length of planning and the students’ preferences of the planning strategy format need to be seriously planned `by considering the characteristics of efl learners. based on the result of the study, it was found out that the students needed approximately 20 minutes to plan their writing either by using rough drafting activity or outlining. secondly, the result of the study also shows that when the students were given the freedom to choose their own planning strategy that made them comfortable, they were able to show better performance in their essay. references babbin, e. h & harrison, k. (1999).contemporary composition studies: a guide to theorists and terms. london: greenwood publishing group. ellis, r. (2005). planning and task-based research: theory and research. in r. ellis (ed.), planning and task performance in a second language, pp. 3-34. amsterdam: john benjamins. ellis, r & yuan, f. (2003). the effects of pre‐task planning and on‐line planning on fluency, complexity and accuracy in l2 monologic oral production. applied linguistics , 24 (1): 1-27. flower, l &hayes, rjohn,.(1981). a cognitive process theory of writing. college composition and communication, 32 (4): 365-387. setyowati, l., sukmawan, s., & latief, m. a., solving the students’ problems 101 in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj galbraith, d., & torrance, m. (2004). revision in the context of different drafting strategies. in l. allal, l. chanquoy, and p. largy (eds.), revision of written language: cognitive and instructional approaches (pp. 63-86). dordrecht, nl: kluwer academic publishers. ghavamnia, m., tavakoli, m., & esteki, m. (2013).the effect of pre-task and online planning conditions on complexity, accuracy, and fluency on efl learners’ written production.porta linguarum 20:3143 kellog, r. t. (1988). attentional overload and writing performance: effects of rough draft and outline strategies. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, 14 (2): 355-365. kellogg, r.t. (1990). effectiveness of prewriting strategies as a function of task demands. american journal of psychology, 103 (3): 327-342. kellogg, r.t. (1996). a model of working memory in writing. in c.m. levy & s. ransdell (eds.), the science of writing: theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 57-71). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. kellog, r. t. (1999). the psychology of writing. oxford: oxford university press. retrieved 24 december 2014, from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=se1z eq16v9ac &pg= pa126&lpg=pa126&dq=mental+outline+in+writing&source. kemmis, stephen & mctaggart, robin. (2007). participatory action research: communicative action and the public sphere. (online). retrieved 20 march 2013, fromhttp://www.sagepub.com/upmdata/21157_chapter_10.pdf kieft, m, rijlaarsdam g, galbraith d, & van den bergh h. (2007). the effects of adapting a writing course to students’ writing strategies. british journal of educational psychology. 77, 565–578. koshy, v. (2005). action research for improving practice: a practical guide. great britain: tj international ltd. latief, m.a. (1990). assesment of english writing skills for students of english as aforeign language at the institute of teachers training and education ikip http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=rijlaarsdam%20g%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=17908375 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=galbraith%20d%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=17908375 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=van%20den%20bergh%20h%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=17908375 102 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 86 – 102 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj malang indonesia. unpublished ph.d. disertation. iowa: graduate college of the university of iowa. ojima, m. (2006). concept mapping as pre-task planning: a case study of three japanese esl writers. system.34 (4): 566–585. ong, j. & zhang, l.j. (2010). effects of task complexity on the fluency and lexical complexity in efl students’ argumentative writing. journal of second language writing (19): 218–233 philp, j. oliver, r., & mackey,a. (2006). the impact of planning time on children’s task-based interactions. system 34: 547–565 rahimpour , m & jahan, r. n. (2010). the influence of self-efficacy and proficiency on efl learners’ writing. community college journal of research and practice. 28: 663-675. retrieved 20 june 2013 from www.itdl.org/journal/nov_ 10/article02.htm torrance, m & galibraith, d. (2006). the processing demands of writing. in charles a. macarthur,steve graham,jill fitzgerald (eds). handbook of writing research, pp. 67-82. new york: guilford press. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0346251x http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0346251x/34/4 7 549 cover online lestari.pdf 7 549 lestari p 86-102 depan_celt dec 2012 interconnectivy between the curriculum and the students’ experiences cecilia titiek murniati1 abstract: one of the responsibilities of higher educational institutions is to enhance students’ character building and soft skills. the disjuncture between institutions’ expectation in educating their students and students’ perceptions on the benefit of their teaching and learning processes necessitates a paradigm shift in the college curriculum. given that universities prepare students to be an individual and a member of a society, college curriculum, therefore, should enhance students’ experience both academically and nonacademically. this paper attempts to propose a modest and brief preliminary proposal for curricular change for english departments in indonesia. the proposal includes the proposal for five elements of curricular revision purpose, learner, content, instructional processes, and evaluation and assessment. key words: curriculum, interconnectivity, student experience, character building, soft skills introduction in responding to the increasing demand of accountability and autonomy and in improving the competitiveness of higher 1 dra. cecilia titiek murniati, m.a., ph.d. <c.murniati@gmail.com.> is a lecturer at english department soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. c.t. murniati interconnectivity curriculum and student’s experiences 181 education in indonesia, the directorate general of higher education lays out its strategic plan in basic framework for higher education development. one of the strategies stipulated in the framework is the responsibility for higher education institutions in enhancing students’ character building and soft skills. the framework underlines the importance of the paradigm shift from teaching to learning “in order to produce graduates with immense self-learning capacity” (directorate general for higher education 2003: 8). in the era of global competition, university graduates need to “learn beyond their skills and expertise” (2003: 16). the strategic plans of the directorate general for higher education clearly highlight the importance of students’ academic and nonacademic experiences in college. some of the endeavors of the directorate general of higher education to promote students’ learning are providing funding for student research and community-based projects, training in leaderships, funding for exchange programs, and many other activities that can benefit students in developing their hard and soft skills. universities in indonesia in general open a wide variety of opportunities to get their students involved in academic or extracurricular activities. they respond to students’ need by creating activities that can promote students’ social, psychological, and intellectual development. however, lack of financial support has severely limited students’ activities and organizations (kompas 2006). in addition, students’ participation to such activities is low due to tight class schedule (kompas 2006). most english departments in indonesia in indonesia create a wide range of activities to get students involved inside and outside of class. given the emphasis of the curriculum is to produce graduates who are proficient in oral and written english and have expertise either in the study of language (linguistics) and literature, they create activities that will provide students opportunities to practice and improve their language skills as well as apply their celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 180 – 192 182 knowledge in either linguistics or literature. in murniati and dukut’s study, however, the findings indicated the disparity between the institution’s expectation and the students’ response. their study showed that while students were cognizant of the importance of such activities to improve their skills and, their participation rate was low (murniati and dukut 2005). the findings of the study raise some important issues on the connection between academic plans and non-academic activities. they highlight the salience of students’ perceptions on the meaningfulness of their non-academic experiences for their personal and professional development and the role of the faculty members and staff to improve students’ participation inside and outside classroom. the main arguments that the paper wishes to make are, first and foremost, that interconnectivity between the curriculum and the students’ experiences inside and outside classroom is essential for students’ personal and professional development. the contents and the pedagogy need to be revised in such a way that they put students’ collegiate experience as priority. second, to ensure whether students benefit from the curricular revision, english departments should use multiple ways of outcome assessment. learning is a developmental process. college education is merely a transition to become a full-fledge member of the community. the knowledge, information, and experience that students learn in their college years prepare students to be well-rounded individuals. given that assessment is a vital element in college curriculum, outcome assessment needs to be able to document students’ progress inside and outside classroom. the main purpose of this paper is to propose a curricular revision and non-academic activities that might increase student engagement and improve students’ language skills. this paper is by no means a finished piece. rather, it is intended as a starting point, c.t. murniati interconnectivity curriculum and student’s experiences 183 a developing and open proposal that administrators in english departments in indonesia can use. this paper will present some insights of how and why courses have to be interrelated and how and why administrators and teachers need to connect the contents and pedagogy of the courses to students’ extracurricular activities. the discussion will be limited on sets of courses and types of activities that students think are important for their personal and professional development, in particular the ones related to their language proficiency and their majors. additionally, this paper focuses only on five elements, namely purpose, learner, content, instructional processes, and assessment and evaluation. curriculum and the process of learning mentowski in her article thinking through a curriculum for learning that lasts contends that to foster learning that lasts, higher education, with all its constituents, “should conceptualize, design, practice, experience, evaluate, and improve curriculum” (2005: 336). higher education institutions have to design their curriculum in such a way that students can learn through a multiplicity of modes and opportunities. in real life, students are social agents. they interact in highly diverse social contexts, modes of communication, and people. collegiate experience should reflect students’ social interactions outside of school settings. in other words, skills, information, and knowledge acquired and learned in college must equip students with skills they need as social beings in every aspect of their life. students enter college life with their own unique and distinct past and with a vision for the future. therefore, college education serves as a path connecting the past, present, and future. it is “…fundamentally about making and maintaining connections, biologically through neural networks; mentally among concepts, celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 180 – 192 184 ideas, and meanings; and experientially through interaction between the mind and the environment; self and other; this generality and context, deliberation and action” (aahe, acpa, naspa 2005: 425). it is also “… a cumulative process involving the whole person, relating past and present, integrating the new with the old, starting from but transcending personal concerns and interests” (2005: 424). this suggests the interplay of academic and non-academic practices in college. stark and lattuca (2005:325) suggests that any higher education institutions should view curriculum as “academic plans”.a good academic plan has clear well-planned objectives and well-designed activities and puts emphasis on improving students’ education. they, in addition, point out some elements of a good academic plan. they are purposes, content, sequence, learners, instructional resources, instructional processes, and assessment and evaluation. these elements are keys in designing a good curriculum. from the model, we can see that purposes and content are always connected, and content and sequence are sometimes connected. the seven elements in the academic plan should constantly be revisited, revised, and refined. stark and lattuca (2005) furthermore propose that curriculum should be “integrated with the co-curriculum and the college experience.” (2005:343). therefore, a good curriculum design needs to take into account both academic and non-academic experiences. a proposal for curricular revision the following is the proposal for curricular revision. 1. purpose the purposes remain the same, that is, to equip students with an oral and written mastery of english language and expertise in the study of language and literature. c.t. murniati interconnectivity curriculum and student’s experiences 185 2. learner language comprises both productive and receptive skills. productive skills like writing and speaking are more participatory in nature. in other words, language learners can improve their proficiency when they have (intended) audience and partners to practice their skills. the change is intended to shape participative students who have high motivations to collaborate with other people both within and outside the department, who are capable of engaging in various modes of communication, and interacting with community in which they live. the participative nature of learning is crucial as learning is “…a process of becoming a member of a certain community…from a lone entrepreneur, the learner turns into an integral part of a team” (sfard 2005: 412). consequently, the learners should be active players of their own educational practices. 3. content interconnections among course contents are imperative. it is a common practice for most english departments to establish gradual sequences of language skill courses (speaking, writing, listening, reading, and structure) in terms of the language development. for instance, in the first semester, students learn elementary skills, and then they learn more advance skills in the subsequent semesters. the study of language will would have had a far-reaching effect if it is more applicable and can relate students’ past, present, and future. while learning the rules of language is essential in any language learning classes, overemphasis on language structure without sufficient application for real communication and use is detrimental to students in the long run. the contents of language skills courses will be much more useful for students when they are geared towards more practical applications. the disconnection celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 180 – 192 186 between the classroom assignments and student experience and interests further complicates this problem. for instance, reading texts assignments do not relate to students’ world and background experience. it is of common perception among english teachers in indonesia that assigning popular magazines or books as reading texts are not appropriate as they do not prepare students with appropriate reading strategies for standardized tests such as toefl (test of english as a foreign language) or ielts (international english language testing system). thus, the contents focus more on accuracy rather than meaning. as a result, students are more detached from and less interested in their classroom experience. some studies have suggested the use of popular culture in english classes to connect the curriculum with students’ ways of making meaning (tomlinson 2005). the interactions between one course to another are also of paramount importance. thus far, the language skill courses are the skills that are closely related to one another, even though only in terms of target language functions. other sets of courses such as literature and linguistics courses are very distinct to one another and do not typically relate to language skill courses. therefore, administrators and faculty members need to explore the interconnectivity among those sets of courses. it is very likely that such interconnectivity might become strong language reinforcement and enrichment for students as well as a good practice for language recycling. reading assignments given in the popular culture class, for instance, can be used in speaking and writing classes. students can write reflective logs on their interpretation of the plays or any issues raised from such plays. they can perform the plays during their extracurricular activities and use their compositions for essay contest. such practices will tremendously enhance students’ understanding of the plays, increase students’ proficiency, and c.t. murniati interconnectivity curriculum and student’s experiences 187 do not give more burden for students as they can use the classroom assignments for other activities. 4. instructional processes the paradigm shift on the nature of learners brings about need for pedagogical change. the participatory nature of learners can be achieved when teachers are willing to give up their habitually authoritative style and embrace more dialogic style of teaching. interaction between teachers and students should not mirror the relationship between the oppressor and the oppressed. instead it has to be dialogic and reflects teachers’ eagerness to listen to and value their students. teachers have to recognize and acknowledge student’s individual voices as a key to their development of self-authorship (magolda 2005). she defines self-authorship as the way “one can construct knowledge claims, makes one’s own inner psychological life, and regulate relationship with others to maintain one’s own identity” 2005: 394). in javanese culture, teachers are viewed as the transmitter of knowledge whereas students are the receiver of knowledge. in the field of english teaching, learnercentered approach has been around for the last few decades. many workshops and seminars introduce teaching strategies and methods using learner-centered approach. however, the implementation of this approach is challenging partly due to the javanese culture, in particular the javanese ethics of harmony, which is indelibly etched in teachers and students’ personality. in javanese culture, it is people’s responsibility to sustain harmony in life. the disruption of harmony will bring about misfortune and bad luck. this idea of sustaining harmony in all aspects of life is indicated by the people’s attitude to always pay respect to elders and avoid conflict. in the classroom, students are reluctant to express their disagreements as it indicates their lack of respect for teachers. similarly, teachers will be offended if students argue and question their knowledge celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 180 – 192 188 as it indicates lack of respect (nal 2007). to successfully implement learner-centered approach, both teachers and students should alter their attitude and recognize that questioning, discussing, and arguing each other’s viewpoints do not constitute lack of respect; rather they are constructive practices for teaching and learning process. according to bakhtin, recognizing and valuing diverse voices in the classroom is essential for a person’s growth. bakhtin distinguishes two discourses: authoritative and internally persuasive discourses (bakhtin 1981). authoritative discourse is that of the authorities, like administrators’ and teachers’ whereas the internally persuasive discourse is a common discourse, it is how students perceive themselves and others. when teachers and students interact in the classroom, the voices come into contact. these voices ultimately influence the way students perceive themselves and become internally persuasive for them. unlike the authoritative discourse, the internally persuasive discourse constantly changes as students make contacts with other people (ball and freedman2004). recognizing and valuing these discourses, therefore, is essential for a person’s intellectual growth. while creating activities using learner-centered approach in language skill courses is not as challenging as that of in linguistics or literature courses, it is by no means impossible. even in courses with dense concepts such as syntax and morphology, teachers can modify the lecture-type delivery to a more interactive one. for instance, teachers can use problembased method. students are required to solve problems in sentence structure or word formation and generate rules from those problems. problems related to the use of language in real communication are abundant as and authentic texts are available for resources. if teachers use problems that students commonly encounter in their daily interactions inside or outside c.t. murniati interconnectivity curriculum and student’s experiences 189 classrooms, the concepts they learn will become more meaningful. 5. evaluation and assessment outcome assessment is an integral part of the learning process because it reflects not only students’ performance but also the relationship between the curriculum and students’ development, the effects of college curriculum on students, and to evaluate whether the curriculum achieves its purposes. the goal of outcome assessment should be more holistic and integrated, encompassing not only learning achievements such as test results and grades but also informal learning through extracurricular activities. the typical outcome assessments in most english departments are tests, comprehensive exam and senior thesis. while one might argue that comprehensive exam and senior thesis are types of assessments that reflect students’ ability to apply what they have learned in college, it does not allow learners for selfreflection. one of the major tenets in outcome assessment is the opportunity for students to observe their own progress, look for their own strengths and weakness, and take actions to maintain their strengths and improve areas in which they are weak. one of the most common types of assessment that shows a student’s progress is portfolio assessment. portfolio assessment allows students and teacher to monitor the learning progress and reflect on the results. teachers can observe students’ potential through collected samples of students’ works whereas students can make use of the portfolio to document their extracurricular activities through photos, samples of their writing, journal entries, diplomas or certificates for their participation in various events, and many other artifacts. those artifacts inform teachers, administrators, and even employers celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 180 – 192 190 about students’ personality, style, and most importantly, their cognitive, interpersonal and intrapersonal growth. implementing portfolio assessment requires additional preparation because it is complex. it entails factors such as setting up objectives, scoring system, control group, and more importantly, it calls for student commitment (courts and mcinerney 2005). they further point out that in portfolio assessment the key factor is student perception on whether the assessment is related to their own learning and growth. when students view the assessment as being useful, they take it very seriously. the challenge in implementing portfolio assessment, nevertheless, should not discourage administrator and faculty members from putting it into practice. student portfolio items should include their work samples, test scores, samples of their participation outside classroom activities (such as their essays, videos of their plays), and their reflective journals. in the reflective journals, students describe their works and self-evaluate their performance in their works. they judge how well their progress is and comment on what aspects need improvement. conclusion learning takes place throughout a student’s life, through formal and informal context, through interactions with peers and adults, in a myriad of activities and events. college education is the one that assists students for their own growth as an individual and as a social being, to prepare students as a member of community. college education is, as angelo puts it, “...an active, interactive process that results in meaningful, long lasting, changes in knowledge, understanding, behavior, disposition, appreciation, belief, and the like” (2005: 454). in that manner, college c.t. murniati interconnectivity curriculum and student’s experiences 191 curriculum should relate and enhance students both academic and non-academic experiences. references angelo, t. a. “a 'teacher's dozen': fourteen general, research-based principles for improving higher learning in our classrooms”. in college and university curriculum: developing and cultivating programs of study that enhance student learning. editted by l.r. lattuca, j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad. boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2005: 452 – 459. aahe, acpa, and naspa. “powerful partnerships: a shared responsibility for learning”. in college and university curriculum: developing and cultivating programs of study that enhance student learning. editted by l.r. lattuca, j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad. boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2005: 427 – 437. bakhtin, m. the dialogic imagination: four essays. austin: university of texas press, 1981. freedman, s.w. and a.f. ball. “ideological becoming: bakhtinian concept to guide the study of language, literacy, and learning”. in bakhtinian perspectives on language, literacy, and learning editted by a.f. ball and a.w.freedman. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2004: 3 – 33. masih terkendala jadwal perkuliahan. in kompas, 16 may 2006. retrieved from http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0605/16/ jabar/2135.htm, 27 november 2007. magolda, m. b. “the developmental nature of self-authorship: the world of students”. in college and university curriculum: developing and cultivating programs of study that enhance student learning. editted by l.r. lattuca, j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad. boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2005: 393 – 408. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 180 – 192 192 murniati, c. t. and e. m. dukut. a survey of student engagement at the faculty of letters soegijapranata catholic university: a research report, 2005. nal, ayse. “the relationship between teachers and students at gadjah mada university, indonesia: a comparison between three faculties”. in freiburger ethnologische arbeitspapiere working paper. retrieved from http://www.freidok.unifreiburg.de/volltexte/ 3160/ pdf/fea006.pdf, on 28 november 2007. olahraga mahasiswa terkendala: pemberian bantuan dana tidak merata kompas, 16 may 2006. in http://www.kompas.com/kompascetak/ 0605/16/jabar/2134.htm, retrieved on 27 november 2007. phenix, p. realms of meaning. new york, ny: mcgraw-hill, 1964. sfard, a. “on two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one”. in college and university curriculum: developing and cultivating programs of study that enhance student learning. editted by l.r. lattuca, j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad. boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2005: 409 – 423. stark, j. s. and lattuca, l. r. ”defining curriculum: an academic plan”. in college and university curriculum: developing and cultivating programs of study that enhance student learning editted by l.r. lattuca, j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2005: 323 – 335. tomlinson, b.“the future of elt materials in asia”. in electronic journal of foreign language teaching, vol. 2, no. 2, 2005: 5 – 13. cecilia titiek murniati_vol 12_no 2_dec 2012 a0_depan_celt dec 2012 a1 ok dec 2012 yoseph p101-120 dec8 emd8-22 24 25 jan 22feb13 a2 ok dec 2012 tengsoe p121-141 dec8 emd822 jan 22feb13 a3 ok dec 2012 lingga p142-159 a4 ok dec 2012 ari p160-179 dec10 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a5 ok dec 2012 cecilia p180 192 dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a6 ok dec 2012 shierly & eka p193-204 dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a7 ok dec 2012 br iwan p205-209dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a8_celt dec 2012 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia deviation of meanings with homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study 1mochamad ighfir sukardi, 2sumarlam, and 3 sri marmanto 1,2,3 descriptive linguistics program, graduate school, sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia email: 1mochamadighfir@gmail.com, 2sumarlamwd@gmail.com, 3 marmanto@staff.uns.ac.id received: 09-09-2017 accepted: 11-09-2017 published: 11-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj deviation of meanings with homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study 1mochamad ighfir sukardi, 2sumarlam, and 3sri marmanto 1mochamadighfir@gmail.com, 2sumarlamwd@gmail.com, 3marmanto@staff.uns.ac.id 1.2.3descriptive linguistics program, graduate school, sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia abstract: the purpose of this study is (1) describe how the use of homonymy for deviation of meaning as an effort to build humor in meme. (2) describes a pattern of deviations of meaning that utilize homonymy in memes. this research is a descriptive-qualitative research. the data were collected using the method of simak and technique of notes. data analysis in this research use method of match referential and connecting techniques to support codification, reduction, display, and interpretation in accordance with qualitative research framework. the results of this research, found the use of relations of homonymous meaning include the word base, derivative, foreign, and slang. also found a deviation of meaning by utilizing homonymy that occurs due to euphemism, naming, and awarding pause. in addition to homonymy also found the use of homophony and then homography of word abbreviation. there are three patterns used to make deviations of meaning by utilizing homonymy. (1) the abused word is accompanied by text as explanatory. (2) the abused word is accompanied by the picture as explanatory. (3) the abused word does not appear in the language symbol but the image with the text as explanatory. the holder of the important role of deviation of meaning in the meme is the image and the use of collocation. the right collocation is capable of tricking the reader before finally being startled by a second meaning. collocation can determine the successful use of homonymy to build humor in a meme. if the meaning of collocation fails to deliver the reader to the meaning presented, then the meaning of the surprise fails to show. key words: deviations of meaning, homonymy, humor, meme 132 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah (1) mendeskripsikan bagaimana penggunaan homonimi untuk penyimpangan makna sebagai upaya membangun humor dalam meme. (2) mendeskripsikan pola penyimpangan makna yang memanfaatkan homonimi dalam meme. penelitian ini termasuk penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. data-data dikumpulkan menggunakan metode simak dengan teknik lanjutan catat. analisis data pada penelitian ini menggunakan metode padan referensial dengan teknik hubung banding untuk mendukung kodifikasi, reduksi, penyajian, dan intepretasi sesuai dengan kerangka kerja penelitian kualitatif. hasil dari penelitian ini, ditemukan penggunaan relasi makna homonimi meliputi kata dasar, bentukan, asing, dan slang. ditemukan juga penyimpangan makna dengan memanfaatkan homonimi yang terjadi karena eufemisme, penamaan, dan pemberian jeda. selain homonimi ditemukan juga pemanfaatan homofoni dan homografi singkatan kata. ada tiga pola yang digunakan untuk melakukan penyimpangan makna dengan memanfaatkan homonimi. 1) kata yang disimpangkan didampingi dengan teks sebagai penjelas. 2) kata yang disimpangkan didampingi dengan gambar sebagai penjelas. 3) kata yang disimpangkan tidak muncul dalam simbol bahasa melainkan gambar dengan teks sebagai penjelas. pemegang peran penting penyimpangan makna dalam meme adalah gambar dan penggunaan kolokasi. kolokasi yang tepat mampu mengelabuhi pembaca sebelum akhirnya dikejutkan oleh makna kedua. kolokasi bisa menentukan keberhasilan pemanfaatan homonimi untuk membangun sebuah humor dalam meme. saat makna kolokasi gagal mengantarkan pembaca pada makna yang disajikan, maka makna kejutan gagal untuk dihadirkan. kata kunci: penyimpangan makna, homonimi, humor, meme introduction meme is defined as an idea, thought, habit or style that spread from person to person in a culture (diaz, 2013, p. 84). furthermore, buchel (2012, p. 29) explains memes are writings that are often accompanied by certain images, photographs, and characters. memes tend to have an element of humor or satire on a social and political issue. the development of the means of communication leads us to a change of style in reveal something. one of the new tools in reveals something is meme. memes become very popular in the virtual world because of its ability to pack information, messages, ideas, thoughts, criticism, and even humor in a brief and dense. sukardi, m. i., sumarlam, & marmanto, s., deviation of meanings with 133 homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj humor is a spontaneous stimulus that provokes a smile and a person's laughter. humor can be both verbal and nonverbal (wijana, 2003, p. 3). in memes, nonverbal humor is usually a funny picture or photo, whereas verbal humor is short text or a short dialogue. humor grows in all walks of life and evolves over time. according to wijana (2003, p. 3) humor can free human self from the burden of anxiety, confusion, cruelty, and misery. humor becomes one of the things that people are so fond of. unconsciously, humor is always close to the community and become part of society. practical consumption demands make the meme with humor should use short and simple text, but contain absurd logic that tempts the connoisseur to think. humor in a meme has a different point of cuteness. there is a meme whose point of humor is be in the cohesiveness image and text. in this case if the picture or text appears alone can not produce humor, because the point of funny this meme be in the relationship of images and text. some memes have a point of funny on the picture. text in such memes only serves as an addition. in the sense that the picture has been able to stimulate the audience to laugh even without the presence of the text. last is the meme with the humor on the text, the picture position is just as an extra. the humor in this meme uses the language aspect as an important capital to build cuteness. most research on humor has been based on psychological theory that pivots on the concept of incongruity, conflict, and relief (wijana, 2003, p. 5). something abnormal on at one time can cause humor and at other times can be not funny. things that are considered funny by certain societies can be not funny for other societies (pradopo, maharto, & hariyono, 1987, p. 5). verbal behavior that is considered funny usually depends on several things. first, the sounds of the words chosen, the meaning of the words, the veiled meanings, and even the contrast or misappropriation of a rule, custom or culture (suhadi, 1989). relationship between meanings is called relation of meaning. the relation of meaning is the semantic relationship held between the lingual unit one with the other lingual.the lingual unit in question can be a word, phrase, or sentence. while semantic relation can be interpreted as the similarity of meaning, the contradiction of meaning, the inclusiveness of meaning, the multiplication of meaning or also the advantages of meaning. such relations are often also referred to as synonyms, antonyms, polysemics, homonyms, hyponim, and ambiguity (parera, 2004; leech, 2003; ullmann, 2012). 134 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the relationship that will be discussed more deeply and become a reference in this research is the relation of ambiguity of meaning, especially homonym. ambiguity of meaning or meaninglessness is defined as a state in which there are two or more meanings in different contexts (ullmann, 2012). actually, the emergence of ambiguity of meaning becomes a separate problem in conducting a conversation. nevertheless, in the world of poetry, obscurity and coercion of new meanings are used to enrich the ideas conveyed by a poet (aminudin, 2003, p. 19). whereas in humor lexical ambiguity is used as a capital to build humor by distorting meanings. this study focuses on memes that utilize homonymy to distort meaning. according to ulman (2012) every word has the potential to have more than one meaning. the meaning of a word can refer to something different according to its usage environment. one of the manka relations that belongs to this type of lexical ambiguity is homonymy (ulman, 2012). departing from the description, this study will hold on to homonymous theory to study the deviation of meaning as an effort to build humor in meme. literature review a. deviation of meaning the two main concepts in humor are incongruity and resolution (attardo, 1997, p. 395). the concept explains that a humor can be felt humorous if the reader or listener of a humor can feel the incongruity or weirdness that is in humor. then the incongruity will be resolved by connecting it to the hidden meaning of the word game. however, this did not rule out the incongruity that will be ignored without resolution. based on the joke making techniques, there are two techniques for making humor that are techniques of metaphor usage and symbolization techniques. the technique of using metaphors is an attempt to attract the attention of the listener or reader and encourage a new interpretation. while the technique of symbolization is how to insert or imply a second meaning based on the first meaning. the two meanings of words in humor should be at different levels (clause or sentence context) (attardo, 1997, p. 395). the first meaning is the obvious meaning of 'the meaning that is presented'. second is the meaning of 'new' that overlapping with the first meaning that will appear when re-interpretation or also called 'meaning of sukardi, m. i., sumarlam, & marmanto, s., deviation of meanings with 135 homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj surprise' (husen, 2001, p. 356-357). humor can cause laughter when it is something that is which is strange, wrong, or defective. our events or experiences of the world conveyed through humor are strange, odd, and distorted object. in addition, to cause laughter humor must suddenly awaken us to the mismatch between the concept with the real reality (husen, 2001, p. 357). humor arises from finding unexpected things from being delivered. sentences that give rise to two kinds of associations. first called the unexpected turns technique and the second is double association (husen, 2001, p. 35). b. homonymy homonimi comes from the latin word “homo” meaning the same and “nomos” means name. homonymy are two or more lexem of the same shape and sound, but have different meanings (subroto, 2011, p. 81). example: between the word “bisa i” which means 'poison' and the word “bisa ii” which means 'able'; between the word “mengurus” which means 'interfere with people' and the word “mengurus” which means 'become thin'. pateda (2010, p. 211) explains that homonymy is the same name for different things. further parera (2004, p. 81) explains that homonynames are two utterances in the form of the same word pronunciation or the same spelling or writing. the words “bisa i” and “bisa ii” are two different lexem, so their morphological and semantic behavior is also different. lexem “bisa i” can be morphologically formed into: “berbisa” which mean 'venomous', while syntactically can join with other nouns (“bisa ular” which mean poison of snake). both words also have different word classes, this happens because the two words are uptake from another language. “bisa i” is an uptake word from malay which means poison and “bisa ii” is the uptake from the java language which means able. the polysemy difference with homonym, homonym is not a word (of the same lexeme) which has several meanings, but two or more words of the same form. of course, since this homonym is not from the same word, the meaning is different. therefore, the word homonymized is listed as different entries in the dictionary (leech, 2003). conversely, the word polysemy is a word that has more than one meaning. this polysemic originates from the same lexeme and in the dictionary is listed as a single entry. there is another difference between homonymy and polysemy, the meaning of word homonymy has no connection or relationship at all between 136 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj one another (leech, 2003). the meaning of the word polysemy is still related because it is developed from the components of the meaning of the word itself. the descriptions may have confirmed the polysemic differences with homonym. however, the difficulties faced by the linguists are not just to distinguish the lexemes alone. experts find it difficult to trace the historical traces of a word. given the concept of polysemy always question whether the ambiguity of meaning comes from the same word. furthermore, polysemics also demand to know the relation of meaning from the meanings that arise. as leech (2003) declared that polysemic should be viewed historically and psychologically. what if two meanings are derived from the same word historically, but we can not psychologically decipher the relation of meaning between them, because the relation of meaning can only be understood by the speakers of the language of on a given time. from that opinion, it should be emphasized the pedestal of homonymy in this study. when the relationship of meaning from a word is hard to find then it includes homonymy. although historically the origin of the word may well prove to be polysemic. however, the purpose of this study not to trace the origin of a word to ascertain polysemy or homonym. the determinant of a polysemic or homonymous word in this study is the context surrounding the word used in a meme. homography are two or more lexem of the same writing and different pronunciations, have different lexical meanings, including in different lexemes. an example of the word homography is "apel i" and "apel ii", "apel i" is pronounced [apel] (e: read e pepet), while "apel ii" is pronounced [apel] (subroto, 2011, p. 84). lexem "apel i" is included in the noun (the type of round fruit and often eaten by humans) and the apple's own referent. lexem 'apel ii' includes verbs and the lexical meaning is a neatly marching action in groups (for tni, police, security guards, and the like). homophones are two lexem or more who have the utterance of same, but the written form is different. homophones have different lexical meanings, including in different lexemes. an example of a homophonic word is "bang" and "bank". both words have the same utterances, the writings are different, the meanings are different so they enter in different lexemes. the word "bang" means (brother) including a greeting or word to greet someone, while "bank" means (the institution that deals with the traffic of money) including the noun. as described earlier, each different lexeme is likely to exhibit different morphological and syntactic behaviors (subroto, 2011, p. 85). sukardi, m. i., sumarlam, & marmanto, s., deviation of meanings with 137 homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology some of the things that are key in research methods, namely the scientific way, data, purpose, and usability. research methods are needed in achieving research objectives because the methods that formulate ideas and thoughts are based on a scientific approach. the method used in this research is descriptive qualitative method. this is because the data analyzed is not in the form of numbers, symbols or coefficients about inter-variable relationships. qualitative method as a research procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of written or oral words of the people and behavior that can be observed. this approach is directed to the background and the individual holistically (sugiyono, 2014; aminudin, 1990; moleong, 2013). data and sources of data in this study are determined based on the needs in the research problem. the data in this research is a meme text that contains deviations of meaning by utilizing homonym. sources of data in this study are memes taken from meme comic indonesia web (mci), accessible at www.memecomic.id. data is taken within 4 months, starting from january to april 2017. the data were collected using the method of simak and technique of notes. the use of the method of simak and technique of notes in the provision of data is not a separate process (mahsun, 2014). further the data analysis in this research use method of match refrential and techniques to support codification (mahsun, 2014). it compares deviations of meaning with the referent to support codification, data reduction, data display, and interpretation in accordance with the qualitative research framework (sugiono, 2014). results and discussion a. homonym 1. homonym basic word the deviation of meaning by utilizing the basic word homonyms can be observed in some of the data shown below. a) kenapa kamu diam saja? padahal kamu tahu. (dengan gambar tahu sebagai penjelas). jan/17.g 138 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj why are you silent? but you know. (with picture "tahu" as explanatory). b) hemat pangkal kaya. rajin pangkal pintar. enak pangkal paha. mar/7.t thrifty base of the rich. diligent base of smart. delicious base of the thigh (favors groin). c) mengandung unsur pornografi, angin puting beliung disensor kpi (dengan gambar sensor sebagai penjelas). feb/26.g contains elements of pornography, kpi censored tornado winds (the wind of pickaxe nipple). (with the picture of sensor as explanation). in the data (a) the text appears in the form of questions ending in clarification. the meaning of collocation presented by the text requires that the word "tahu" contains the meaning of 'understand'. however, there is a distortion of the meaning of the word "tahu" by presenting the picture of food "tahu" which is in the same linguistic form. utilization of homonymy on data (a) deviate of meaning implies irrationality or absurdity in the experience conveyed through language. the strangeness is a testament to the effort to build humor in the meme. at (b) there is the word "pangkal" three times, but the word "pangkal" that last experience a deviation of meaning. "hemat pangkal kaya. rajin pangkal pintar." is a proverb that the word "pangkal" in the saying has the meaning of 'beginning or base'. while the word "pangkal" on "enak pangkal paha" has the meaning of 'favors the groin'. in addition to utilizing homonymy of data (b) also utilize something taboo to build humor. last data (c) utilizes the homonym "puting" to deviate meaning. "puting" has the meaning of 'base or besic' and there is also the word "puting" with the meaning of 'nipple or clitoris'. the humor in the data (c) is built by utilizing the deviation of meaning and the discussion of something taboo. 2. homonym derivative the deviation of meaning by utilizing the derivative homonyms can be observed in some of the data shown below. sukardi, m. i., sumarlam, & marmanto, s., deviation of meanings with 139 homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d) uda kayak martabak manis aja dikacangin terus (dengan gambar martabak sebagai penjelas). apr/15.g like a sweet martabak given peanuts (with martabak pictures as explaners) e) jangan bangga jadi atasan. karena dipasar atasan 10 ribu dapat 3 kalau lagi obral bisa 5. jan/9.t do not be proud to be a boss. because in the upper clothing market the price is cheap. in the data (d) deviations of meaning make use of the homonym of the derivation "di-kacang-in" with the meaning of 'given or sprinkled with nuts'. the word "dikacangin" in the text refers to the meaning 'ignored'. the text in the data (d) uses a martabak image sprinkled with nuts to explain its deviation. last data (e) begins with a suggestion not to be proud to be a "atasan" (boss). the text presents the word "bangga" (proud) in an attempt tolock the interpretation of the meaning of the reader to the word "atasan" (boss). thus the reader will interpret the word "atasan" with 'leader or boss'. furthermore, the text suddenly distorts the meaning of "atasan" with reference to 'upper lingerie of women'. the deviation of meaning done in memes brings irrationality or absurdity in the experience conveyed through language. it is an attempt to build humor in a meme. 3. homonym foreign of word the deviation of meaning by utilizing the homonymous foreign of word can be observed from of the data shown below. f) katanya diskon all item, tapi barangnya ga da yang item. apr/2.t he said discount all items, but the goods are not black. data (f) begins with information on the existence of discounts all item. then ends with a deviation of the meaning of the word "item" in english which means 'goods'. in the indonesian language the word "item" means 'black'. the deviation of meaning occurs in data (f) presents an error in understanding. it happens as an effort to build humor in the meme. 140 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 4. homonym word of slang the deviation of meaning by utilizing the homonymous word of slang can be observed from of the data shown below. g) ngelem sepatu yg rusak karna nanti mau dipakai. eh.. malah ngefly tu sepatu. mar/18.t gluing shoes that are broken because it will be using that. eh.. the shoes were drunk. in the data (g) deviation of meaning utilizing homonymous word "ngelem" with the meaning of 'gluing using glue'. however, the word "ngelem" in the data (g) its meaning is distorted to 'drunk using glue'. the word "ngelem" is a new word that comes after many cases of hangovers using glue. data (g) uses homonymy to distort meaning by generating the word "ngefly" (drunk) as an explanation of the existing deviation. the deviation of meaning that occurs in the data (g) seeks to surprise the reader with the second meaning raised. this is done as an effort to build humor in meme. 5. homonyms happened because euphemism the deviation of meaning by utilizing the homonymous that happened because euphemism can be observed from of the data shown below. h) mengusir burung. mengundang burung. (data dalam meme ini membandingkan gambar orang-orangan sawah yang diberi teks “mengusir burung” dengan gabar wanita seksi yang diberi teks “mengundang burung”). feb/11.g repel birds. inviting birds.the data in this meme compares the scarecrow's picture with the text "mengusir burung" (casting out birds) with sexy women who were texted "mengundang burung" (inviting birds). in the data (h) deviations of meaning take advantage of homonimi the word "burung" with the meaning of 'two-legged animals, winged, hairy, and usually able to fly'. however, the word "burung" in data (h) experiences a deviation of meaning became 'male genitalia'. data (h) uses homonymy to distort the meaning of words by comparing images capable of make the word of "burung" different meanings. the deviation of sukardi, m. i., sumarlam, & marmanto, s., deviation of meanings with 141 homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj meaning that occurs in the data (h) attempts to present a much different comparison. the picture in the meme serves to support the comparison and explains the location of the deviation of its meaning. this is done as an effort to build humor in meme. 6. homonyms happened because naming the deviation of meaning by utilizing the homonymous that happened because naming can be observed from of the data shown below. i) jangan membalas budi, karena belum tentu budi melakukannya. jan/28.t do not returning the favor, because not necessarily budi do it. in the data (i) begins with the prohibition to repay the favor. this prohibition presents discrimination to the reader, for “mem-balas budi” (repayment) is norms that exist in society. furthermore the data (i) suddenly distorts the meaning of "budi" by reference 'goodness or service' to be came 'person's name'. data (i) uses homonymy that occurs because of personalized naming to distort meaning. the deviation of meaning that occurs in this data brings irrationality or absurdity in the experience conveyed through language. this is done as an effort to build humor in meme. 7. homonyms happened because of giving pause the deviation of meaning by utilizing the homonymous that happened because giving pause can be observed from of the data shown below. j) awas korban kb merajalela. berhati-hatilah dengan kb. keluar ga berencana. mar/4.t watch out for kb victims rampant. be careful with kb. exit is not planned. in the data (j) "kb" is the abbreviation of the word of the family planning. in this data a deviation of meaning utilizes homonymy that occurs due to the giving of pauses in a word. the word "keluarga" of a lexeme with the meaning of 'family or relatives' turns into two lexemes because the giving of pauses of "keluar" means 'exit' and “ga” meaning 'no' (including slang). this distinction results in distorting the meaning of the extension "kb" that is already known by the public. the deviation of 142 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj meaning that occurs in the data (j) makes "kb" which originally had a positive impression to be negative. this is done as an effort to build humor in meme. 8. homography the abbreviation of word the deviation of meaning by utilizing the homography abbreviation of word can be observed from of the data shown below. k) udah cantik, jago ml. (dengan gambar gadis cantik yang sedang bermain game ml). april/30.g besides beautiful also ml experts. (with a picture of a beautiful girl playing ml game). in the data (k) deviation of meaning utilizing homography of word abbreviation "ml" that meaning 'making love'. however, the abbreviation of the word "ml" in the data (k) suffers irregularities into 'mobile legend'. "mobile legend" is an online game that is in favor of smartphone users. data (k) uses a homography to distort the meaning of a word abbreviation by displaying a picture of a beautiful girl playing mobile legend as a descriptor of the abbreviation of the word "ml". the deviation of meaning that occurs in the data (k) seeks to attract the reader's attention. "ml" in the data (k) has a poor impression when observed from the meme context and the meaning of collocation presented. the picture in the meme serves to surprise the reader with the second meaning raised. this is done as an effort to build humor in meme. 9. homophones the deviation of meaning by utilizing the homophones can be observed from of the data shown below. l) sebenarnya yang melahirkan uang adalah mpok indonesia. bank indonesia cuma bisa menanam benih. feb/12.t actually, who gave birth to money is mpok indonesian. bank of indonesian can only plant seeds. (mpok is a call for sister and bang is call for brother). in the data (l) the text begins with a claim to a fact different from that known in general. claims against the facts at the beginning will make the sukardi, m. i., sumarlam, & marmanto, s., deviation of meanings with 143 homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reader think because of the awkwardness presented. furthermore, the text provides a resolution by presenting a deviation of meaning to the word "bank". this deviation of meaning utilizes the homophone of sound similarity from the words "bank" and "bang". the deviation of meaning is explained by text which presents the word "mpok". b. patterns deviations of meaning in memes 1. patterns deviations of meaning with text as explanation deviation of meaning with homonymy is found with a pattern of presentation of the first meaning is clearly visible. furthermore, the meaning of surprise is brought to disrupt the first meaning presented. the presentation of the first meaning is supported by appropriate collocation so that the meaning presented is accepted by the reader. the right collocation will make a word that is not consciously consonant with its consonant. after the meaning presented is accepted by the reader, then the meaning of surprise is presented to end the text. the right collocation will create a word that the homonym does not realize as a homonym. after the meaning presented is accepted by the reader, then the meaning of surprise is presented to end the text. this pattern can fool the reader and make the reader think. then the reader of shock with the weirdness presented to stimulate the laughter of the reader. m) jangan suka ngurusi orang lain, karena belum tentu orang itu ingin kurus. feb/3.t dont like to interfere with the lives of others, because not necessarily the person wants to be skinny. data (m) shows how a pattern of deviations of meaning with homonym was created. collocation plays a very important role to give a second surprise and meaning to the reader. without the proper collocation the word "ngurusi" can fail in presenting the meaning of the target and the meaning of surprise ("ngurusi" can mean 'interfere people life' and 'make a thin'). 2. patterns deviations of meaning with picture as explanation deviation of meaning with homonymy is also found with the pattern of text relations and pictures. the meaning to be distorted is presented in the text. the picture serves to explain where the deviation of its meaning. 144 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in this pattern, there are two things that are used to present the first meaning. first, the proper use of collocation (as described earlier). the second is utilizing the word's closeness with the community. when a homonymous word appears without a context, the society tends to interpret the word and rule out that it is a homonym. this is what the word proximity means to society. when one of the meanings of a homonymous word is used more frequently in society, other meanings will be ignored. if the word appears without context and other words, then people will use a meaning that is closer to them. n) pencitraan (dengan gambar seorang wanita yang sedang menggunakan produk kecantikan ‘citra’) mar/23.g imagery (with the picture of a woman who is using 'citra' beauty products) data (n) shows the use of the picture as an explanation of the distorted meanings. when the word "pencitraan" is displayed on its own without any other words, "pencitraan" will tend to be interpreted as 'imagery'. this happens considering the political issues that develop in indonesia is very close to "pencitraan" with the meaning of 'image building efforts'. the function of the picture in the data (n) to explain and shock the reader by presenting the second meaning of "pencitraan". the word "pencitraan" refers to 'using citra beauty products'. 3. patterns picture as targets and text as explanation the pattern of deviation with homonyms exists that using the picture as a distorted target. so the word that homonym does not appear in the form of language, but appears in the form of picture. the text that appears serves as an explanation of deviations of meaning. o) biasanya ada di toples. ada jg yg di leher. (dengan gambar ikan cupang) mar/10.g usually there in the jar. there is also a neck. (with picture of betta fish). data (o) shows the use of the image pattern as the target of the deviation and the text appears as an explanation. the homonymous word in this data is "cupang". the word is not shown with the language code or symbol, but with the picture. in the first data (o) the "cupang" refers to the sukardi, m. i., sumarlam, & marmanto, s., deviation of meanings with 145 homonymy as an effort to build humor in meme: a semantic study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 'fish name (betta fish)', while the second "cupang" refers to a 'hickey or the mark red bite '. c. deviation of homonym meaning in meme deviation of meaning by utilizing the relation of homonymous meaning includes the basic word, derivative, foreign, and slang. also found a deviation of meaning by utilizing homonyms that occur due to euphemism, naming, and giving pause. in addition to homonyms was also found the use of homophones and homographs of the word abbreviation. there are three patterns used to make deviations of meaning by utilizing homonyms. first, a word being abuse is accompanied by a text as explanatory. second, the word being abused accompanied by the picture as explanatory. third, the word being abused does not appear in the language symbol but the picture with the text as explanatory. the holder of the important role of deviation of meaning in the meme is the picture and the use of collocation. the right collocation can fool the reader before finally being struck by a second meaning. collocation can determine the successful use of homonyms in building a humor in memes. when the meaning of collocation fails to bring the reader to the meaning presented, the meaning of the surprise fails. conclusion from the research that has been described previously, it has been known how homonyms are used to distort meaning for the purpose of building a humor in memes. images and collocations hold a very important role in deviating meaning. utilization of homonyms that include the basic word, derivative, foreign, and slang, and homonyms that occur due to euphemism, naming, and giving pause, and homophonic and homographic of word abbreviations require different patterns of presentation. the deviations of meaning with homonyms in memes are shown using three patterns: (1) abused word is accompanied by text as explanatory, (2) the word abused is accompanied by the drawing as explanatory, and (3) the word abused do not appear in language symbols but images with text as explanatory. the success of these patterns in establishing humor depends on the accuracy of picture selection and the accuracy of its collocation. 146 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 131 – 148 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references aminuddin, e. 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(2012). asas-asas linguistik umum [the principles of general linguistics]. yogyakarta: ugm press. 07. 1109-4570-1-pb.pdf (p.1) 008 jul2018.pdf (p.2-19) a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia beyond essay structure: competence and literacy 1mister gidion maru, 2ekawati marhaenny dukut, and 3nihta liando 1,3english department faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, indonesia 2english department faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia email: 1mrhekang@yahoo.com; 2ekawati@unika.ac.id; 3nihtaliando@unima.ac.id received: 28-11-2017 accepted: 04-03-2018 published: 23-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj beyond essay structure: competence and literacy 1mister gidion maru, 2ekawati marhaenny dukut, and 3nihta liando 1mrhekang@yahoo.com; 2ekawati@unika.ac.id; 3nihtaliando@unima.ac.id 1,3english department faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, indonesia 2english department faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia abstract: this paper intends to share the making of the students’ competence and literacy awareness in the teaching of essay writing using jeremiad approach, which is so-called t-ex, approach in efl class. the approach suggests three aspects namely text explanation which prescribes the identification and presentation of a certain challenging issue. it is followed by the step of text examination that underlines the presence of possible solution toward the issue by referring to related knowledge and technology, socio-cultural values, and outstanding figures. it is concluded by the text expectation that proposes the hope of recalling the acquired knowledge and sharing it for future anticipation. all of the steps rely upon the language competence since they use language as a media of constructing and recognizing as well as negotiating the message(s). as a qualitative research, this study involves students as the respondents to be interviewed. students’ intellectual diaries and essay drafts were also regarded as data. the students were assigned to write an essay on the topic of corruption. the data are interpreted in the way of the grounded theory. the results imply that the students are encouraged and driven to search for relevant knowledge, to recall related values and figures, and to construct the future awareness. these aspects summarize the potential of combining the language competence and literacy in the classroom activities. key words: jeremiad approach, essay, literacy, competence maru, m.g., dukut, e.m., & liando, n.. beyond essay structure: compe283 tence and literacy https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: makalah ini bertujuan membagikan pembentukan kompetensi mahasiswa dan kesadaran literasi dalam pengajaran penulisan esai dengan menggunakan pendekatan jeremiad, yang juga disebut pendekatan t – ex dalam kelas bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing. pendekatan ini menyarankan tiga aspek yakni, pertama, eksplanasi teks yang mengharuskan identifikasi dan presentasi suatu isu atau topik yang menantang dalam sebuah teks. langkah selanjutnya, eksaminasi teks atau pemeriksaan mendalam atas aspek – aspek yan terkait dengan situasi dalam teks yang dapat dilihat sebagai solusi atau isu yang dibahas dengan merujuk pada pengetahuan, teknologi, nilai – nilai sosial budaya, nilai sejarah, moral dan tokoh – tokoh panutan. langkah ketiga atau terakhir dari pendekatan jeremiad adalah ekpektasi dalam teks yang menganjurkan makna prakmatis teks yaitu harapan akan perubahan sebagai hasil yang diperoleh dari pengetahuan yang diperoleh dilangkah kedua diatas, dan menyerukannya sebagai antisipasi masa depan. setiap langkah ini bergantung pada kemampuan bahasa sebab bahasa didudukan sebagai alat menyusun, mengenal, dan menegosiasikan pesan atau makna. sebagai studi kualitatif, penelitian ini melibatkan mahasiswa sebagai responden yang diwawancarai secara mendalam. catatan harian dan draft esai mahasiswa juga dimanfaatkan sebagai sumber data. dalam studi ini, responden diberi tugas menulis esai tentang korupsi. data dianalisa dengan cara penelitian grounded theory. hasil penelitian mengungkapkan bahwa dengan menerapkan pendekatan jeremiad atau t – ex dalam penulisan esai, mahasiswa didorong dan dituntun 1) penelusuran pengetahuan yang relevan, 2) menggali nilai dan figure – figure teladan, 3) merekonstruksi kesadaran akan masa depan. temuan ini menyiratkan peran kontribusi pendekatan jeremiad atas pembentukan kompetensi dan kesadaran literasi dalam kelas bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing. kata kunci: penulisan esai, pendekatan jeremiad, kompetensi, kesadaran literasi, grounded theory introduction essay writing has always been a challenge for college students. most of the assignments are required to be submitted in the form of essay. in that sense, bacha (2002) synthesized that writing in the academic community is “paramount; a student cannot be successful without a certain level of academic writing proficiency” (p.15). it places an essay writing as one of the instrument for assessing students’ competence in the academic world (maru, 2016). the production of the essay is regarded to be the signal for students’ ability to 284 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 282 – 296 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj process knowledge and share it through language expressions. this assumes to involve two crucial aspects in the body of knowledge that is the reflection of process and product. teachers may have the opportunities to frame students’ needed feedbacks in the level of writing process, and to assess students’ competence in the product part. hence, there is commonly an intensive call for college students to engage with essay writing in terms of communicating complex information and idea to academic world and general audience (welsh et al., 2017; jandciu, stewart, stoodley, birol, han, & fox, 2015). it may serve as evaluation instrument for teachers and idea dissemination for students. as an argumentative writing, essay further can be used to measure not only the writing performance but also critical thinking skill (indah, 2017; rahim et al., 2008) however, essay writing is not easy. some learners even see it as a difficult language skill (ardriyati and hartono, 2014). the assignment in the form of essay remains “a constant complaint” (silva, 2001) for students in any level especially in the context of english as second language or foreign language. since “being a bit different from speaking skills in terms of the demand for the accuracy, essay writing demands comprehensive ways in the sense of the grammatical construction, the choice of the words and the punctuation use as well as the potential of analytical ability (maru, 2016)”. this suggests that the quality of an essay relies upon the linguistics competence for the reason of expression accuracy and the knowledge acquisition for the purpose of the content complexity and comprehensiveness. an essay summarizes students’ knowledge as it comes from analytical ability and critical thinking, and language competence as it involves the proper use of language in its idea elaboration. that means that the challenge of essay writing lies in developing of language competence and enriching content knowledge. the lack of the competence and knowledge define the source of students’ problem in producing an essay. unsuccessful writing, according to ardriyati and hartono (2017), is due to “student may not know how to structure and sequence ideas with logical consistency, and how to use linguistic creativity, and how to write a text that shows coherence”. some students sometimes are trapped in focusing only on following the structure, yet ignoring the quality of the shared idea. some merely emphasize on the content with incoherent structure. in line with such tendency, this study intends to share the implication of jeremiad approach in essay writing in terms of proposing a learning breakthrough to develop students’ language competence particularly for english learners and knowledge which is viewed as the reflection of students’ critical thinking that later shape their literacy. this reasoning gains its advocacy maru, m.g., dukut, e.m., & liando, n.. beyond essay structure: compe285 tence and literacy https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj relating to current challenge in indonesian education that is in search for critical thinker (indah, 2017; emilia, 2010) in solving national problem such as corruption, radicalism and terrorism as well as anti-pluralism. moreover, referring to the more challenging and competitive world today, critical thinking may contribute to equip students’ basic literacy (reading, writing, arithmetic) with reasoning which is crucial for facing the complexity of present economic, social and cultural life. therefore, this study takes essay writing as the focus to explore the implication of the jeremiad approach in terms of detecting the shaping of students’ literacy as a reflection of critical thinking and language competence. the implementation of the jeremiad approach was in fact a part of the study supported by the scheme of the competence grant of the directorate of research and community outreach of the ministry of research and higher education, indonesia. it was carried out as the academic and scientific response toward the phenomena that, in english language education, “the backdrop of global change has made teaching greatly complex, requiring alternative approaches of envisioning, innovating, and negotiating multiple pedagogical methods for new generations of students” (bui, 2016; darling hammond, 2009; hellot & o’laoire, 2011). in indonesia, the new curriculum of 2013 prescribed the need of text-based learning in order to achieve three main components of learning outcome namely knowledge, skill and attitude (maru, 2014). further, english learning is attached with the competences built out of the materials which emphasize on the use of english as a tool of communication for expressing ideas and knowledge, the habit of reading, understanding, summarizing and reproducing a passage, and the habit of composing a text and the awareness to its rules (kemendikbud, 2013). such global and national circumstances characterize the grounds for the conduction of the study as whole. the jeremiad approach, which is so-called t-ex approach, is the newly proposed learning approach in the english as a foreign language class. being rooted in the american rhetoric tradition, the jeremiad turns to be potential approach for language learning and text analysis. the emphasis of this study upon the contribution of the jeremiad approach to the making of competence and literacy was intended to define the application and implication of the approach in the area of language learning. therefore, it took the case of teaching essay writing for students as it leads to an alternative for teaching writing skill particularly academic writing. 286 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 282 – 296 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method this study was undertaken at the english education department in a university in north sulawesi, indonesia where students are commonly taught to structure their essays into conventional structure; introduction, body, and conclusion but faced by the high demand to develop literacy as well. employing a qualitative research design, this study involved 26 students of the advance writing class who voluntarily agreed to take part in the study. they were considered as the subjects. the subjects responded to open recruitment to participate in this research. the students were interviewed in natural setting. the students were asked to respond to the main question; what was your experience with the implementation of the jeremiad approach in essay writing and how it influenced your competence and literacy awareness. this study obtained the data in the forms of words taken from the students’ commentaries to the given questions and its elaboration, and notes as well. the notes were part of their intellectual diaries in every meeting. the intellectual diary was part of weekly assignment. it contained the students’ perception, feeling, and experience of every class meeting. thus, it constitutes students’ self-report of their own progress. their essays were also regarded to be complimentary data. the essays were those of the first assignments to the last essay as the final product of the implementation of the approach. the students were assigned to write an essay with the given topic namely the corruption issue. the essays were viewed to be final after having series of feedback in order to be in line with the frame of the jeremiad approach. all of the data were then coded in the frame of thorberg’ the informed grounded theory prescribing “a product of a research process as well as to the research process itself, in which both the process and the product have been thoroughly grounded in data by grounded theory methods while being informed by existing research literature and theoretical frameworks” (2012, p. 8). this implies that the data both obtained from the process and product were analyzed and interpreted in the way of open, axial and selective coding. discussion essay writing mostly falls into the act of following the structure of introduction, body and conclusion. students are encouraged to follow the given structure from which teachers design a test for the reason of providing maru, m.g., dukut, e.m., & liando, n.. beyond essay structure: compe287 tence and literacy https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj “feedback during the process of acquiring writing proficiency and of assigning a grade or score that indicate the level of the written product” (bacha, 2002). that implies that the goal of the essay writing seems to be narrowed down into technical matters with some linguistics rubric. students view an essay as response toward a certain frame of paragraphs. meeting a well-planned structure of an essay has to be followed by the interpretation and analysis on certain issue or given focus giving. hence essays are viewed as the combination of the skill of presentation and the exploration of language use. in developing and supporting an argument, students experience the challenge of putting ideas into a topic and learn to make it reasonable and acceptable with an appropriate language expression. it may occur through different strategies for prewriting, drafting and rewriting as well as revising. in other words, a good essay goes beyond the format or structure (maru, 2016). it has to provide an insight mirroring the mastery of knowledge on a given topic or discipline. the success in writing in essay leads to the success in academic assessment and dissemination. teachers apparently pay less attention in advising students how to put their ideas and transfer their knowledge down on paper in the form of an essay. a. the essay writing using jeremiad approach jeremiad approach prescribes broader scope of an essay structure than that of traditional structure. as it is so-called t-ex approach, it promotes three phases of teaching which emphasize upon the stages such as text explanation, text examination, and text expectation. (maru, 2014), the t-ex approach suggests that an essay must be commenced with the explanation step which concerns with the identification or presentation of an issue or problem and its possible cause(s) as it is adapted from the idea of the lamentation of the present in jeremiad rhetoric (elliot, 2002, maru, 2013), and be followed by the examination step that relates to the attempt to offer solutions to the problem which refers to the tendency to gain inspiration and reference to the values, figure, historical events, philosophy and even religious teachings. it is concluded by the expectation which reflects the demands for renewal after addressing the solution for the issue of topic. it is a calling for the betterment or attitudinal changes in the future. within this study, the jeremiad approach or t-ex approach is implemented in the following practices; 1. the explanation at this stage, the classroom activity was addressed to start of addressing the given topic for students’ essay, in this case corruption. the topic was 288 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 282 – 296 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chosen due to the flourish of the corruption nowadays. in fact, other issue such as radicalism, antipluralism, drug abuse and violence can serve as given topics. teacher in the interaction with students built up the context of the topic. the teacher encouraged short class discussions on the issue of corruption including its background and related aspects. the familiarity and understanding of the given topic served to be the first activity to be done before beginning writing the essay. here, teachers may suggest the questions of what, why, when, who, and how as triggers to write. the information of what was happening contextually, what problem was faced both values/norms and textual, and what was the cause as well as the commentary (lamentation) on it. thus, the essay would bring the points of the jeremiad that is the attempt to give the meaning to the situation faced by the society and the identification of its cause(s) (maru, 2013). these activities surely underline the communicative and inferential functions of the learnt language, in this case, english. the assignment was then given. writing an essay begins with this frame of thought. the paragraph and essay structure remained applicable yet it was added with the requirement to elaborate not only the definition of the given issue or topic but also to detect the cause and its context as well. this means that students begin to recall their knowledge and transfer it with their language competence. despite it was individual assignment but the students were also helped by the idea and insights obtained during the class opening discussion. 2. the examination the basic proposition for this stage derives from the dogma in the second structure of a jeremiad which urges the discussion of the issue has to reveal the needs to reconcile the past with the present situation for the possible resolution. the past is reclaimed as the model for the attempt to solve the present perils. the past values are evoked to bring the enlightenment to face the decline of the present society. the values could be in the form of knowledge of the spirits, perspectives, attitudes and even moments or event of the past as well as the religious and cultural precepts that may inspire the revelation of the solution for the ongoing problems (maru, 2014; elliot, 2002). such formulas were suggested to be the content of students’ essay structure. maru, m.g., dukut, e.m., & liando, n.. beyond essay structure: compe289 tence and literacy https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students made their own effort to discover references, knowledge, past lessons, history records, sublime values and attitudes, readings, and expressions of the great figures or founders, heroic deeds and events, and verses of holy books as well as the lessons from their environment or other disciplines. it defined the deep examination of the issue. the essay was extended to provide solution for the discussed topic. therefore, students realized that the body of the essay is more than just elaboration and description of the topic. it goes beyond that perspective. the body of the essay mirrored students’ stock of knowledge of figures, dogmas, values and norms, culture, law, and social practices. further, it expounds. 3. the expectation having presenting the solution, the essay was attached to the purpose of the call for renewal constitutes as jeremiad usually did (murphy, 2009, p.9; maru, 2013). here, the essay seemed to be pragmatic in its message and conclusion. it prescribed the need to voice and to inspire a particular attitude or change. thus, conclusion of the essay does not only summarize the topic but also engage readers with response and change. the essay, after elaborating the corruption issues with its causes and showing the lessons of the past and figures to learn. the students had the opportunity to state their stance and expectation. when an essay is accomplished in this pattern, it is regarded to be jeremiadiac essay. it delineated the awareness of what has been the crisis befalling upon the society, what brings it to happen and what had been taught by the past to overcome it as well as the question of what should be done in the future. it is important to note that, in this process of essay writing, revision was essential since students got feedbacks either from the teacher or peers. the teacher viewed the completion of the assigned essay to be finished after having several revisions. both oral and written corrective feedbacks bridged the aims at increasing the students’ language competence, in one side, and knowledge on the other side. written corrective feedback, in particular, can be more beneficial for students as learners have greater processing time to compare their output with the corrections they received (manchón, 2011; maru, 2017). further, written corrective feedback is “a complex construct due to the multiple options available for correcting students’ writing, as well as the different ways in which learners can respond to it” (peres-nunez, 2015; maru, 290 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 282 – 296 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2017). the teacher had the chance to suggest necessary aspects in terms of the betterment of the essay; whether it is related to the language aspects or topic elaboration. the students were then led to experience the improvement in their linguistic knowledge and the comprehensive understanding of an issue as well as the personal development. the application of the jeremiad or t-ex approach to help developing students’ essay writing skill revealed the situation that students experience. by coding the interview results, diaries and essay drafts following the approach implementation, the writing of the jeremiadic essay had given students the opportunity to explore their ideas on the given issue, and accelerate their capacity as language learners. being assigned to write about the issue of corruption, students found themselves to be challenged by perfecting their works through the attempts that characterize two advantages of teaching essay writing using the jeremiad approach. b. the growth of critical literacy the demand of the essay in the frame of jeremiad approach has stimulated students to the habit of gaining knowledge from the sources outside the classroom. they were challenged to enrich their understanding of the topic background and scope in order to deal with the explanation phase. their identification of the topic; the reason for its rise and the circumstances that surround it, colored the commencement of long and wide journey of reading and searching for the sources. the other two phases urged similar requirements. the essay is not merely designed to meet the conventional criteria of introduction, body and conclusion but also indicated the need of having comprehensive understanding. apparently, this embodied what is meant by literacy as the ability to access, comprehend, and use information intellectually. in other words, the essay writing created the habit of digging information related to certain topic and sharing through a composition. bui (2016) synthesized that students have the potential to capture “the complexity of certain issues, identifying problems, offering solutions, and considering their own previous conceptualization” (p.249). these potentials could be practiced as long as they have enough stock of knowledge which is believed to be gained by reading a lot. in so doing, the literacy habit determines the quality of the essay written. students grew to realize that the process of writing particularly an essay requires more knowledge to chip-in. one of the respondents acknowledged, maru, m.g., dukut, e.m., & liando, n.. beyond essay structure: compe291 tence and literacy https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the feedbacks given to my essay in several meetings until my essay was considered being done really drove me to active searching of information from many sources both printed and online. it was not fun until i realized the joy of knowing many things related to my topic (student 7). by the help of feedbacks, students shape their literacy awareness as they made the attempts to acquire information and ideas from multiple readings. this is, of course, followed by the ability to gather and select most relevant information for the subject matter. at this point, students develop and perform their heuristic intuition which is actually that of literacy awareness. in writing their essay, students actually performed data collection and categorization for elaborating the topic which constitute the gain of knowledge and the meeting with critical thinking propensity. this implies that the implementation of the t-ex approach in the essay writing engages students with the recalling and cultivating of knowledge based their own repertoire which is resulted from their reading habits. the literacy awareness got clear by the activity of writing itself. since literacy does not solely relate to reading habit but also to the writing to share. the t-ex approach accustomed students to focus on elaborating the given issue. the complexity of topic was responded by the process of selecting of the most relevant knowledge. they searched for information, selected, categorized, interpreted and transferred it into their essay. it is obvious that at the moment the students saw themselves not as simply receiving an assignment of writing or receiving teachers’ knowledge transfer but also exposing themselves to the core activities of learning as they enriched themselves with variety of literacy activities such as accessing information, doing readings and writing as well. being framed not only to explain and examine but also call for change, students were driven to combine all of the gathered information into detail knowledge of the issue. it was noted in following students’ diary comment, “my resources were needed to be used to enrich my essay” (student 24). this portrays a logical impact of following the thought of the jeremiad approach. when the students’ literacy had been awakened, they created their own space ‘establish background knowledge and improved skills” (bui, 2016). they would bring more diversity of perspectives to the topic. their familiarity to the academic readings would shape the academic taste of their essay. some of religious fondness tended to extend their topic to the attachment to the factors 292 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 282 – 296 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of religious dogmas. in other words, there is seemingly a mutual relationship between essay and the shaping of literacy. the need to gain a good essay in the perspective of jeremiad approach had made students to develop literacy awareness while literacy habit determined the quality of the essay. that means that the more students involve in essay writing, the more they develop their literacy awareness. moreover, the topic of the essay does not stand in vacuum. the elaboration of the topic both in terms of explaining and examination or expectation is not apart from context. students began to focus on the corruption issue, for example. it was not zero contexts. the definition of ‘corruption’ itself may vary according to who writes the essay. one of the respondent pointed out, the information then enables me to comprehend the topic or the given subject matter, the focus on the subject matter guides my search and broaden my knowledge on it, i get the substance of the matter, for example, once i just knew that corruption is not only about money (student 3). as their literacy developed, students were able to put the issue in a context and to recall other multiple perspectives. as the respondent constructed the corruption, it relies upon the previous knowledge obtained in the knowledge search process. it is literacy. later, it emphasized that literacy awareness itself is “culturally embedded and socially constructed” (lai, 2005). it means that students in the efforts to elaborate the given topic, in this case the issue of corruption, put the perspective on corruption on the basis of their closest environment and of their most familiar circumstance. the students construct values and norms for the topic in accordance with those of the society and culture in which they live. their sociocultural background selected the ingredients of their literacy to share in their writing. the references that had been encountered during the journey of finding relevant sources for the given topic would be naturally in line with their sociocultural tendency. it can be drawn a proposition that although essay in the frame of jeremiad approach proposes the structure of thought to write, it goes beyond that tendency; it develops the critical literacy as students selected the sources, accessed and processed, and later shared them in the essay. within this context, students’ own interpretations of the supporting material were dominant in the essay. they tended to evolve a coherent view on the topic maru, m.g., dukut, e.m., & liando, n.. beyond essay structure: compe293 tence and literacy https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from their reading, which determined their use of evidence and the organization of their essay. “they were focused on making meaning, and developing an individual view of the topic based on a firm empirical foundation” (hounsell, 1987, p. 1997). such practice defines the shaping of the literacy awareness among the students and characterizes the impact of using the jeremiad approach in essay writing in elt class. however, it implicitly uncovers that the scope and width of students’ literacy undeniably depend upon the availability and comprehensiveness of the resources provided by institutions both printed and digital ones. the body of knowledge obtained by the literature for the attempt to organize the ideas and to make meaning of it designates more helps required for students that go beyond merely feedback and teaching materials. c. the acquiring of language competence essay is designed to be read and understood. it is not written for vacuum. it carries message in all its possible forms. at this point, the jeremiad approach makes its way by emphasizing upon the pragmatic aspect of essay writing. an essay shall express identification of problem, solution, and call for change. it leads to the need for the clarity the message which further portrays the clarity of language expression and other linguistics features used. as a basically student-center approach, the jeremiad approach assigns the exploration of the language competence in negotiating meaning and message, not to ignore the role of the comprehensive written corrective feedbacks during the writing process and the product assessment. such process helps students to recall their language knowledge. the students picture such experience in the following citation, every time i submitted my essay (before final submission), teacher gave notes on the mistakes that i made. the feedback came in the form of underlined words and phrases or construction. the jeremiadic structure required more references and language knowledge. suggestions related to some linguistic knowledge helped me to recognize my mistakes and drove me to learn, it was tiring but a bit fun, and moreover we knew that others did the same. (student 24) it is inferred from the citation that in fact the jeremiad approach for an essay includes the corrective feedbacks. it shapes students’ efforts to improve their language knowledge not solely on grammatical construction but also on its pragmatic sense. the process of the writing seemed to serve as the self294 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 282 – 296 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj assessment opportunities for students. they were diagnosed and informed about their mistakes from which they gained competence. the ability to choose for proper expressions and extend the use of sentence or clause as well as combined multi-types of conjunction or markers equipped students for conveying ideas and setting the arguments. in other words, the attempts to state writers’ standpoint, to argue using examples, or to conclude and to define the subject matter recall students’ need for higher competence of language. it can be stated that the challenge of establishing point of view on the given topic, making the subject matter understood, and crafting the voice to be heard energize the process of language exposure and acquisition in the essay writing. the students may transfer the feedbacks into the advantage of overcoming the language hindrances. the challenge of language forms and structures in negotiating meaning and conveying message flourishes the accumulation of language knowledge. yet, considering the jeremiad approach underlines the independence of students as learners to develop their essay, it is important for teachers to follow the writing process as an alert observant who cares for students’ individual creativity and needs; seeing them as the signs for progress. giving feedbacks and reminding the focus of the essay frames the duty of the teachers of engaging the language and content. that conceptualizes that the improvement of language competence, in this case, has to be in purpose of working the points of the jeremiad structure. hence, the language competence grows as the critical thinking on the given topic grows. it works simultaneously; the notions are elaborated and explored, at the same time, the language competence is in need to be enhanced for the totality of the jeremiadic essay. conclusion in terms of jeremiad approach, students’ essay reflects the intellectual development as they experience dialectic interaction with references and knowledge for accomplishing the content frame of the approach. it implies the literacy process working within the process of the completion of the essay. the pragmatic nuance of the stages in the essay writing drives students to pursue more knowledge in which they insistently develop their critical thinking in managing and analyzing baseline for the arguments and expectation. similarly, the approach generates the need for language competence in terms of enabling students to convey their ideas. the language improvement may occur since following the structure is not merely the aim of writing maru, m.g., dukut, e.m., & liando, n.. beyond essay structure: compe295 tence and literacy https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj jeremiadic essay but also the sequence of intellectual capacity in presenting problem identification and solution presentation and the expectation for renewal or change that requires the sequence of well-structured expressions and contructions. yet, these blessings beyond structure are challenged by the availability of resources and students’ tendency to view an essay as an academic assignment, not critical thinking ability. references antoro, b., & muldian, w. 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(2006). the basics of essay writing. london: routledge. 7.pdf (p.1) 007 dec2018.pdf (p.2-16) a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the classroom sudar english education program, faculty of teacher training and education purworejo muhammadiyah university, purworejo, indonesia email: rofiqsdr@gmail.com received: 21-11-2017 accepted: 23-11-2017 published: 15-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the classroom sudar rofiqsdr@gmail.com english education program, faculty of teacher training and education, purworejo muhammadiyah university, purworejo, indonesia abstract: this study aims to describe how is the performance of speech acts and discourse makers in the classroom of senior high schools of purworejo, central java. the study used qualitative descriptive. the sample of this study is the three english teachers and their students from three senior high schools. data taken by recording teachers and students in the classrooms. the findings show that transaction of agreement is highly developed by teachers. for example: ok, ya. questions and follow up exchange performed by teachers. further, negotiate outcome, argumentation, and describing adjacency pair created by teachers. elicitation acts and information acts are performed by teachers and students. directive acts is mostly developed by teachers. students performed directive acts when they are in group discussion. key words: classroom, discourse makers, speech acts, students, teachers, abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendiskripsikan penggunaaan tindak tutur dan simbul wacana di dalam kelas sekolah menengah atas kabupaten purworejo, jawa tengah. penelitian ini menggunakan kualitatif deskriptif. sampel penelitian ini adalah tiga guru bahasa inggris dan siswanya di tiga sekolah menengah atas. data diambil dengan cara merekam guru dan siswa di dalam kelas. hasilnya mengungkapkan bahwa transaksi yang menunjukan persetujuan digunakan oleh guru. contohnya; ok, ya. perubahan tindak tutur dilakukan oleh guru dengan cara bertanya dan memberi jawaban. selanjutnya, percakapan berpasangan mengenai negosiasi hasil, argumentasi, dan pejelasan digunakan oleh guru. tindak tutur 150 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj meneyebabkan dan tindak tutur memberi informasi disajikan oleh guru dan siswa. tindak tutur perintah selalu disajikan oleh guru. tindak tutur perintah digunakan oleh siswa ketika mereka dalam diskusi kelompok. kata kunci: ruang kelas, simbul wacana, tindak tutur, siswa, guru. introduction in this study, i discuss the language use from discourse perspective. the field of discourse actually covers many disciplines of knowledge, such as: anthropology, communication, cultures studies, psychology, and also education (johnston, 2008, p. 1). furthermore, johnston said that discourse is the study of language in everyday sense in which most people use the term, then when they use a language, it means that they produce talks of communication and discourse (2008, pp. 2-3). based on this ideas, the utterances that developed by english teachers and their students in the classroom interaction are includes the discussion of discourse. in this study, i focus on analyzing the utterances of fundamental acts and discourse features performed by english teachers and their students in the classroom. in this section, i present the philosophical value about discourse. there are many experts who argue on the terms of discourse. the description of the notion of discourse is necessary to describe in order that the readers of this study understand the meaning of discourse. miles (as cited in coupland, p. 2) said that discourse is the domain of language system or signs and enter into another universe, that is language as an instrument of communication, whose expression is discourse. furthermore, the word ‘discourse’ the researcher believes, it has a fact added to its meaning: treating it sometime as the general domain of all statement, sometimes as an it is individual able group of statements, and sometimes it is an regulated practice that account for a number of statements. foucault and miles (as cited in coupland 1999, p. 3). fowler said that literary studies have the aim to change or even deconstruct the notion of literature so that a very wide range of discourse is actively used by individuals in their conscious engagement with ideology, experience and social organization, fowler (as cited in coupland 1999, pp. 3-4). sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 151 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review fairclough said that discourse is more than just language use, it is language use, whether speech or writing, seen as a type of social practice (fairclough, 1995). discourse constitutes the social practice, three dimension of the social practice related to the discourse. they are distinguished knowledge, social relations, and social identity. these correspond respectively to three major function of language. discourse is shaped by relations of power, and invested with ideologies (fairclough, 1995). according to lee it is an uncomfortable fact that the term “discourse” is used to cover a wide range of phenomena, to cover a wide range of practices from such well documented phenomena as sexist discourse to ways of speaking that are easy to recognize in particular texts but difficult to describe in general term competitive discourse, discourse of solidarity, etc., lee (as cited in coupland, 1999, pp. 2-3). discourse refers to language in use, as a process which is socially situated. however, we may go on to discuss the constructive and dynamic role of either spoken or written discourse in structuring areas of knowledge and the social and institutional practices which are associated with them. in this sense, discourse is a means of talking and writing about and acting upon worlds, a means which both constructs and is constructed by asset of social practice within these worlds, and in so doing both reproduces and construct a fresh particular social discursive practices, constrained or encouraged by more macro movement in overarching social formation (candlin as cited in coupland, 1999, pp. 2-3). discourse is language above the sentence or above the clause (stubbs as cited in coupland, 1999). the study of discourse is the study of any aspect of language use, fasol (as cited in coupland, 1999, p. 2). the kind of language, language in use for communication is called discourse: and the research for what gives discourse coherence is discourse analysis (cook as cited in nunan, 1993, p. 6). discourse is a stretch of language consisting of several sentences which are perceived as being related in some way (nunan, 1993, p. 5). further, discourse is a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit, such as a sermon, argument, joke or narrative, crystal (as cited in nunan, 1993, p. 5). another scholar said that discourse stretches of language perceived to be meaningful, unified, and purposive (cook as cited in nunan, 1993, p. 6). further nunan said that, discourse refers to the interpretation of the communication event in context. 152 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discourse is also used in a wider sense by linguist who tries to analyze the communication function of language (sinclair and coulthard; widdowson; & riley as cited in yule, 1993, p. 5). discourse more narrowly than social scientists generally do to refer to spoken or written language use (fairclough, 1995, p. 11). further, fairclough, said that discourse is regarded as the language use as a form of social practice, rather than a purely individual activity or a reflex of situational variables. this study is related to the speech acts and discourse markers of spoken discourse performed by english teachers and their students in the classroom. charthy (1993, pp. 50-54) said that there are three discourse features of spoken discourse; they are transaction, exchange, and adjacency pair. the first is transaction: the term transaction is here used broadly in the sense that sinclair and coulthard (1975) use it, to label stretches of talk identified by certain types of activity at their boundaries. for example, in the classroom, teachers will typically divide the business of a lesson up by marking the transitions to new phases with some sort of conventional marker (right, okay, now, so, etc). around these markers, metalinguistic activity may also take place, for example in a phone-call: ‘okay, well, that is the main thing the researcher is ringing about, but there is one other thing’ (attested). the transaction, like the paragraph in written language, has no pre-defined length, and is only recognizable by its boundaries. the transaction as a unit of discourse may present us with a problem on two distinct levels. on the first, there may be a problem of awareness, among both teachers and learners, that transaction signaling is an important part of behaving linguistically in the target language for example; there is evidence that in certain types of more formal talk, lack of metalinguistic signaling can affect comprehensibility (mccarthy 1993, pp. 5051). the second structural feature of spoken discourse is the exchange. the exchange is the minimal structure units of interaction, consisting of an initiation and response (for example, a question and its answer, or a greeting and a return greeting). learner repertoires often range from only performing the response function (especially in early stages or in the traditional, teacherfronted classroom, where the teacher commands both l and f slots), to initiating but still not making any follow-up. the follow-up very frequently has a relational/ interactional function, where social, cultural and affective meanings are encoded in relation to responses, in addition to acknowledge the responses and its information, and where key conversational processes such as convergence are affected. the reactions encoded in the follow-up are often formulaic, and can be viewed as a lexical problem across languages (compare sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 153 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the british english reactive really!, oh, right, that’s nice!, you don’t say!, i guessed as much! and how interesting awful!) the third structural feature of spoken interaction is adjacency pair. adjacency pair typically concerned with how participants behave in interaction in term of alignment (i.e. how they position themselves socially in relation to their interlocutor(s)), achieving goals, negotiating outcomes, and etc. speaker naturally orientate themselves to bring together in the discourse utterances that mutually condition one another (mccarthy 1993, pp. 52-54). further, talking about discourse markers is close to the spoken discourse. schifrin (as cited in alami, 2015) stated that discourse markers is developed as theoretical model in an attempt to perform how discourse markers contribute to the coherence of conversation discourse by creating link between unit of talks. fraser (as cited in alami, 2015) identify the discourse markers into four classifications. the first is contrastive discourse markers, this discourse marker signal that the utterance is in contrast to the prepositional meaning of the preceding utterance. the examples of contrastive markers namely; but, however, still, yet, etc. the second is elaborative markers. elaborative discourse markers is the utterances which is function to refinement of some sort on the preceding discourse. the example of this discourse markers are as follows; and, above all, also, in other words, in fact, moreover, etc. the third is inferential discourse markers. it is a markers signal that the force of the utterance is a conclusion which follow from the preceding discourse. for examples; so, after all, therefore, thus, etc. the fourth discourse markers is topic-change markers. this marker signal that a departure from the current topic. the examples of the topic-change markers namely; by the way, before i forget, as far as i, etc. this research also analyzing the speech acts performed by english teachers and their students in the classroom. speech acts is common and basic element of using language. it means that any people use a language consciously or unconsciously they perform speech acts. what speech acts is? the researcher describes the philosophy of speech act in this section. speech acts is linguistics acts that intend to influence the reality of communication, (akram, 2013). language is not only used to talk about, but also used to do something. because of this speech acts have an important role in relation to conduct an effective communication. akram, (2013) states that in the real communication, speech acts classified into three categories they are metainteractive acts, turn-taking acts, and interactive acts. the first, meta – interactive-act is an acts that concerning with the organization of the conversation itself. this act is usually used for marking the beginnings and 154 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj endings of conversation. for examples, the expression of ‘now, right’ hello, bye. the second is turn-taking acts. this acts is used by speakers to pass on, hold or to obtain the floor in public speaking. the examples of this acts, “what do you think? could i come in on this? etc. the third is interactive acts. interactive acts is acts that used by the speakers to elicit, to ask the linguistics response for examples; asking information, making decision, expressing an agreement or clarifying or repetition of an utterance. further, the other linguist supported the description of speech acts particularly used in the spoken discourse. coulhard (1998, p. 14) identify speech acts into three classifications they are elicitation acts, directive acts, and informative actsand they appear in classroom discourse as the heads of initiating moves. an elicitation is an act whose function is to request a linguistic responselinguistic, although the response may be a non-verbal surrogate such as a nod or raised hand. a directive is an act whose function is to request a non linguistic response: within the classroom this means opening books, looking at the blackboard, writing, listening. an informative is, as the name suggests, an act which functions to pass on ideas, facts, opinions, information and to which the appropriate response is simply an acknowledgment that one is listening. elicitations, directives and informative are very frequently realized by interrogatives, imperatives, and declaratives respectively, but there are occasions when this is not so. spoken discourse is produced in real time and our descriptive system attempts to deal with the ‘now-coding’ aspect of speech. speakers inevitably make mistakes, or realize that they could have expressed what they intended much better. methodology it is a qualitative research. there are four types of research traditions, namely: psychometric, interaction analysis, discourse analysis, and ethnography. psychometric tradition belongs to quantitative research, while interaction analysis, discourse analysis, and ethnography are close to qualitative research, (chaudron, 1998, pp. 13-14). this research belongs to discourse analysis. it belongs to qualitative field research. the research is conducted in the english classroom interaction. the population of this research is the english teachers and their students of senior high schools in purworejo. this research is conducted in the three state senior sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 155 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj high schools, purworejo. the three of senior high schools are senior high school 3, senior high school 5 and senior high school 7 purworejo. the main data are the utterances produced by the english teachers and their students in the classroom interaction. the utterances as the source of data will be about speech acts and discourse features. to get the data, the researcher used video shooting. it is for recording the classroom interaction between english teachers and their students in three different senior high schools. to take an interview, the researcher used mp4 recorders, or tape recorder. the interview is in-depth interview, in order that the researcher is able to get the additional information about english teachers and their student’s competences on speech acts and discourse features. results based on the research question: how is the implementation of discourse features and fundamental acts developed by english teachers and their students in english classroom? the researcher analyzed discourse features and fundamental acts of spoken discourse that developed by the three english teachers and their students from different classroom interaction as a sample. they are senior high school 3, senior high school 5 and senior high school 7 purworejo. the findings of the data analysis related to the discourse features and fundamental acts of spoken discourse are as the follows: figure 1: the chart of english teacher and his students’ performance on transaction of senior high school 3 purworejo the transaction developed by english teacher of senior high school 3 purworejo is simple. there are four types of transaction developed by him. it 156 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj is identified into two classifications; the first is expressing an agreement. it is in form of “ok”, “right”, “yes all right”. among of these transactions, the familiar one developed by him is “ok”. the second type of transaction is expressing regretting. it is in form of “e “. further, students of senior high school 3 purworejo never develop the transaction in the classroom interaction. the transaction developed by english teacher of senior high school 5 is complicated. there are eleven types. these transactions identified into six classifications, the first is expressing an agreement. it is in form of “ ya”, “oke”, “ya ok”, “ ok now”. the second transaction is expressing surprising. it is in form of “oh”, “ah”. the third is transaction in form of conjunction. it is in form of “so”. the fourth is transaction expressing checking. it is in form of “finish”. the fifth is transaction of expressing to encourage. figure 2: the chart of english teacher and his students’ performance on transaction of senior high school 5 purworejo. it is in form of “come on”, “ ayo”. the six is the transaction of rejecting an idea. it is in form of “no”. among of theses transaction the highest performed by english teacher is the transaction of “ok” and “ya”, both of these are related to an agreement. furthermore, students of senior high school 5 purworejo never perform the transaction in the classroom interaction. the performance of teacher’s transaction of senior high school 7 is the following: ok is twenty-five, well ok is one, next is five, so is three, ya good is one, may be is one, and is four, and then is one, diperhatikan is two, no question is one, sudah is one, oh good is two, tidak ada is one, oh is one, ya ok is two, for example is two, ok next is one. sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 157 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 3: the chart of english teacher and her students’ transaction in english classroom interaction of senior high school 7 purworejo. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 the example of transaction ok: ok…i will check your attendance first… the example of transaction well ok: well…ok…let’s start our class … іі(7). the example of transaction next: next… can you make an example of positive degree, іі (297). the example of transaction so: so… this pattern can be concluded that іі (49). the example of transaction ya good: ya…good…іі (54). the example of transaction may be: maybe, there is something behind him. іі (78). the example of transaction and: and the second…?іі (80). the example of transaction and then: and then who is the most diligent in this class…?іі (125). the example of transaction diperhatikan: diperhatikan ya, bentuknya…іі (127). the example of transaction no question: no question…? іі (133. the example of transaction sudah: sudah…? іі (138. the example of transaction oh good: oh…good, іі (139). 158 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the example of transaction tidak ada: tidak ada…іі (143). the example of transaction oh: oh…ke belakang. іі (284). the example of transaction ya ok: ya…ok…іі (299) (302). the example of transaction for example: for example, i prefer to swim rather than to run. іі (246). the example of transaction ok next: ok…next…іі (303) there are six types of exchanges developed by english teacher of senior high school 3 in purworejo and his students. the highest exchange developed by english teacher of senior high school 3 in purworejo is exchange of teacher’s follow-up. it is 48% from total number of utterances, and the exchange of teacher’s question is 27%. meanwhile, the students’ answer exchange is 15%. the student’s response exchange is 6%. then, the teacher’ greeting and student’s greeting exchanges are 2% from the utterances performed by english teacher and his students in the classroom interaction. figure 4: the chart of english teacher and his student’s exchange of senior high school 3 in purworejo. tf 48% tq 27% sa 15% sgr 2% sr 6% tgr 2% teacher's and students' exchange of senior high school 3 the exchange developed by the english teacher of senior high school 5 and his students is presented in the chart. they are as follows: the first is teacher’s follow–up. it is 54% from total number of utterances. further, student’s response exchange is 20%. the teacher’s question exchange is 7% sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 159 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj utterances. the teacher’s greeting exchange is 2%. then, the student’s greeting exchange and other student’s greetings are 6% from the total number of utterances. figure 5: the chart of english teacher and his student’s exchange of senior high school 5 purworejo. the exchange of teacher’s follow-up is the highest developed by english teacher of senior high school 7 purworejo. figure 6: the chart of english teacher and her student’s exchange of senior high school 7 purworejo tf 61%sr 13% tq 16% sa 10% tgr 0% srgr 0% teacher's and students' exchange of senior high school 7 it is 61% from the total number of utterances. further, the exchange of teacher’s question is 26%utterances, and then student’s response exchange is 13%. furthermore, student’s answer exchange is 10% from the total number of utterances. the last exchange performed by english teacher of senior high 160 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj school 7 is teacher’ greeting, it is 0% and student’s response greeting is 0%. it meant that teacher’s greeting and student’s response greeting are limitedly developed by teacher and students in the classroom interaction. the opening exchange is performed by english teacher of senior high school 3 purworejo. the number of (ou) is one utterance or it is in the level scale of one. the example of opening exchange is the following: good morning student….. іі (1). achieving goal exchange is performed by english teacher of senior high school 3 purworejo,. the number of achieving goals exchange (agu) is forty-eight utterances, it is similar to the level scale is mostly forty. the example of achieving goals exchange is in the following: e…do you know, іі (3) do you understand what did pak anton say? іі (4) how is he…іі (6). negotiates outcome (nou) is developed by the english teacher of senior high school 3 purworejo. the number of negotiate outcome exchange is twenty-six utterances; it is similar to the level scale of mostly twenty. the example of negotiate outcome exchange is in the following: thank you very much іі (2) sedikit…okіі (5) yes of course…іі (8). figure 7: the chart of english teacher adjacency pair of spoken discourse in the classroom interaction of senior high school 3 purworejo the teacher describing the exchange is also performed by english teacher of senior high school 3 purworejo. the teacher described the topic to the student’s trough discussion. the number of teacher’s describing (tdu) is seventeen, or it is related to the level scale of fifteen. the example of teacher sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 161 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj describing exchange is in the following; he comes from semarang…іі (21) he is handsome іі (26) he is handsome. іі (27). the last exchange in this classroom interaction is teacher’s closing (tcu). teacher developed the closing exchange when the topic of discussion is complete. the number of teacher’ closing is one, or it is at the level of zero. the example of teacher’ closing exchange is the following; walaikumsalam wr. wb. (all the students answer the teacher’s greeting) іі (25+). figure 8: the chart of english students’ adjacency pair of spoken discourse in the classroom interaction of senior high school 3 purworejo in the classroom interaction it is not only the teacher to position him or her but also how the students position themselves. in the classroom interaction of senior high school 3 purworejo, the chart of analysis related to the student’s adjacency pair is the following; there is no student’s adjacency pair of opening (ou). it is only one adjacency’s pair of achieving the goals (agu), or it is the scale of zero. the example of achieving the goal’s adjacency pair is in the following, datagood morning (1+) yes…a littlea little…іі (2+) sedikit…іі (3+) the next student’s adjacency pair is negotiated outcome, (nou). the number of the negotiates outcome adjacency pair is eighteen, or it is in the scale of fifteen. student’s adjacency pair of describing is five utterances (du), or it is in the scale of five. the last adjacency pair is closing adjacency pair, it is one utterance performed by student in the classroom. the example of this adjacency is in the following data; walaikumsalam wr. wb. (all the students answer the teacher’s greeting) іі (25+). 162 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the following is the chart of data analysis of teacher’s and student’s adjacency pair in senior high school 4 purworejo. firstly, the researcher presented the chart of data analysis of teacher’s adjacency pair. the teacher’s adjacency pair of opening is one utterance. (ou). the example is in the following data: good morning students… .іі (1) figure 9: the chart of english teacher and his students’ adjacency pair of spoken discourse in the classroom interaction of senior high school 5 purworejo 0 20 40 teacher's opening teacher's achieving goals teacher's negotiates outcomes teacher's describing teacher's closing teacher's adjacency pair there is one utterance of teacher’s adjacency pair of opening. the teacher opens the classroom interaction by developed the adjacency pair of opening. (ou). the number of this adjacency pair is one utterance, or it is in the level scale of zero. the example of opening adjacency pair of opening of this classroom interaction is the following: good morning іі (1) further, teacher’s adjacency pair of achieving the goals are developed by english teacher and his students in the classroom interaction. the number of achieving goal’ adjacency pair (agu) in this classroom interaction is forty utterances. it is similar with the level scale of thirty. the example of achieving goals adjacency pair is in the following: how many students are there…? іі (2) thirty two…іі (3) so, please you divide into 8 groups. іі (4) dibagi menjadi 8 kelompok ya…ok, іі (5) the english teacher of senior high school 5 purworejo also developed the adjacency pair of negotiates outcomes (nou) in his classroom interaction. the number of negotiates outcome adjacency pair is teen utterances, or it is in the level of teen. the example of negotiates outcomes adjacency pair is in the sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 163 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj following data: thirty two…іі (3) ya malin kundang…іі (12) ok…each group will read one narrative text іі (7.) the english teacher of senior high school 5 purworejo performed the adjacency pair (tdu) in the classroom interaction. the number of this adjacency pair is six utterances, or it is in the scale level of one. the example of adjacency pair of describing is in the following data: ok…now i would like you to present the text of lyric of the songіі (53), ya…i think the summary of the song, іі (54) there is a man want to divorce girlfriend and girl friend said іі (55). the last adjacency pair is developed by the english teacher of senior high school 5 is closing utterance. the example of teacher’s adjacency pair of closing is in the following; (the bell is ringing) assalamu’alikum wr.wb. іі (61). figure 10: the chart of english students’ adjacency pair of spoken discourse in the classroom interaction of senior high school 5 purworejo 0 5 10 15 20 students' opening students' achieving goals students' negotiates outcomes students' describing students' closing students' adjacency pair the students of senior high school 5 purworejo developed the adjacency pair in the classroom interaction. the first adjacency pair developed by the students is opening utterance. the students of senior high school 5 purworejo developed adjacency pair of opening (ou) at the time of presents themselves in from of the classroom interaction to talk about the topic of discussion with their classmate and their english teacher. in this event, the students are able to perform their adjacency pair of opening. the number of student’s adjacency pair of opening is five utterances, or it is at the level of one. the following are the example of student’s adjacency pair of opening. 164 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (wiwik come in front the class to present her group) hello friend…іі (9+) hello guys good morning….іі (16+ ) (ismawati come in front the class) good morning….іі (21+) there is no adjacency pair of achieving goals (agu) performed by students, it meant that the students initiate the classroom interaction; they posited themselves as the hearer. it meant that the level scale of this adjacency pair is zero. the following adjacency pair presented by the students of senior high school 5 purworejo in the classroom interaction is negotiates outcome adjacency pair, the students negotiates the interaction when they interact with their english teacher in the classroom. the number of (nou) negotiates outcomes adjacency is fifteen utterances. it is at the level of fifteen. the example of the negotiates outcome adjacency pair (ocu) is in the following: malin kundang….іі (3+), thirty two (one student answer) іі (2+), good morning (all students answer) іі (1+) figure 11: the chart of english teachers’ adjacency pair of spoken discourse in the classroom interaction of senior high school 7 purworejo 0 100 200 teacher's opening teacher's achieving goals teacher's negotiates outcomes teacher's describing teacher's closing teacher's adjacency pair students in the classroom interaction developed two utterances of describing adjacency pair. it is at the level of one scale level. the students performed the adjacency pair of closing (cu) in their classroom interaction. the number of adjacency pair of closing is twelve utterances, or it is in the sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 165 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj scale level of teen. the students developed the closing adjacency pair a different from previous classroom interaction, the students performed the closing adjacency pair not only concerning with their english teacher, but also when they interact with their classmates to discuss the topic that they described together in the classroom. there is one utterance of adjacency pair of opening performed by english teacher. it is at the level scale of zero. the example of (ou) is in the following; good morning students…іі (1) the highest adjacency pair developed by english teacher of senior high school 7 is achieving goals of (agu), which is a hundred and three utterances or it is at the level of a hundred. the negotiates outcomes performed by english teacher is at the level of twenty or it is thirty-eight utterances, the example of adjacency pair of negotiate out come in this classroom interaction is: ok…i will check your attendance first…(teacher inviting/ calling the students one by one) іі (2) he want to observe our teaching english in our class. іі (5) well…ok…let’s start our class …іі (7). figure 12: the chart of english students’ adjacency pair of spoken discourse in the classroom interaction of senior high school 7 purworejo 166 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the english teacher also developed the adjacency pair of describing (td) at the level of fifty or it is seventy-four utterances. the example of adjacency pair of describing is in the following: ok…i would like to introduce our guest this morning, together with me. іі (3) he is pak sudar from semarang state university. іі (4) because my uncle at that time is passed away or die іі (15). the english teacher did not close the interaction; it meant that the english teacher did not perform adjacency pair of closing. the student’s adjacency pair also developed by the students of senior high school 7 purworejo, the chart of the analysis is the following chart: figure 13: the charts of fundamental acts developed by english teachers and their students of senior high school 3, purworejo there is one adjacency pair of opening in this classroom interaction, (ou). the student opening utterance is developed when the responded the teacher’s adjacency pair of opening. it is only one utterance or it is at the level scale of zero. further, there is two utterances to reflect the adjacency pair of achieving goals (agu). it is similar to the level of scale level of zero. the adjacency pair of negotiate out comes is the highest developed by the students of senior high school 7 purworejo in the classroom interaction. it is at the level of eighty or it is thirty-one utterances. samples are: good morning…іі (1+) , (all students respond) yes…іі (2+), it’s about text…іі (3+) while there is no adjacency pair of describing and closing developed by the students of senior high school 7 purworejo. sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 167 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the english teacher of senior high school 3 purworejo developed elicitation act at the level of thirty-five. while the students developed elicitation at the level of twenty. the english teacher of senior high school 3 purworejo developed directive act at the level of eleven, while the students never developed the directive act in the classroom interaction. the teacher’s informative act is at the level of thirty-two and the students never performed the informative acts in the classroom interaction. elicitation act developed by english teacher of senior high school 5 purworejo and his students is at the level of fifteen. the english teacher never developed the directive act in the classroom interaction. the students developed directive act at the level of twenty-five, students have high chance to address the direction to their classmate in the discussion. figure 14: the charts of fundamental acts developed by english teachers and their students of senior high school 5, purworejo 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 teachers' and students' fundamental acts of senior high school 5 the informative act is at the level of five developed by teacher, and the informative act developed by students is at the level of teen. the english teacher of senior high school 7 purworejo and her students in the classroom interaction developed an elicitation acts in equal level. it is at the level of sixty. furthermore, the informative acts also developed by english teacher and her students at the same level. it is at the level of a hundred and forty. 168 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 15: the charts of fundamental acts developed by english teachers and their students of senior high school 7, purworejo 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 elicitation acts elicitation acts directi ve act directi ve act informative act informative act teachers' and students' fundamental acts of senior high school 7 it is seen here that the english teacher, who developed directive act in the classroom interaction is higher than her students. she performed the directive act at the level of thirty while her students performed the directive act at the level of zero or the students mostly never performed the directive act in the classroom interaction. conclusion this study concludes that the type of transaction highly developed by english teachers of senior high school 3, 5 and 7 in purworejo is the transaction reflecting an agreement. the familiar of conventional marker of agreement is in form of “ok”. the other forms of conventional marker (transaction) are: well, right, ya, ok well, yes, ok and then, well ok, good, ok next, oh, i think, ya ok, oh ya, well ok, all right, yes, ya wah, ya ok. further, the transactions developed by english teacher are not completely in english word, some of the transactions performed in indonesian language: for example; ya., ya wah. the familiar indonesian transaction is “ya”. sudar, speech acts and discourse makers by teachers and students in the 169 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj most english teachers of senior high school performed the discourse feature, particularly the exchange is not completely the exchange of english, and some of exchanges are performed in the indonesia language. for example; the exchange of “ya”. students of senior high school never develop the transaction (conventional marker) in the classroom interaction. based on the chart of analysis, english teachers of senior high school 3, 5, and 7 in purworejo developed the “follow-up “exchange in the classroom interaction. it meant that most the english teachers giving explanations about the topic that they discussed together. the second highest exchange developed by english teachers is question exchange. it meant that the teachers often giving questions related to the topic of discussion. the question’s exchange is not performed by english teacher of senior high school 5. the student’s response exchange, student’s answer exchange, the teacher’s greeting exchange and students’ response greetings are the types of exchange developed by english teachers not as many as exchange of follow-up, and question exchange. the limited exchange is student’s initiation’s exchange. the conclusion of adjacency pair development performed by english teachers and senior high school students of senior high school 3, 5, and 7 in purworejo are as follows: the english teachers of senior high schools mostly developed adjacency pair of negotiate outcome, argumentation, describing. students of senior high school 3, 5, and 7 in purworejo developed adjacency pair related to student’ negotiate outcome, student’s argumentation, student’s describing. basically, in this study, the researcher presented the conclusion of teacher’s and student’s performances of fundamental acts in the classroom interaction. most the english teachers and their student developed elicitation acts in the classroom interaction. then, teachers and students developed information acts in the classroom interaction. directive act is mostly developed in the english teachers’ classroom interaction. yet, this study also finds that the students of senior high school seldom perform directive acts in the classroom interaction. instead, the students developed directive acts when they discussed together with their classmate in the group discussion. 170 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 149 – 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references alami, m. (2015). pragmatic function of discourse markers: review of related literature. international journal on studies english language and literature, 5(3), 110.retrieved from www.arc.journals.org. akram, m. (2013). speech acts: contrastive study of speech acts in urdu and english. asian efl journal 10(4). retrieved from www.asian journal.org. coupland, n. (1999). the discourse reader. london: routledge. chaulthard, m. (1992). an introduction to discourse analysis. london: longman. chaudron. (1998). second language classrooms: research on teaching and learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. retrieved from http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk. fairclough. (1995).discourse and social change. oxford: blackwell publishers ltd. johnston, b. (2008). discourse analysis. oxford: blackwell publishing ltd. mccarthy, m. (1993). discourse analysis for language teachers. london: cambridge university press. nunan, d. (1993). introducing to discourse analysis. london: pinguin. group. sinclair, j., & coulthard, r. m. (1975). toward an analysis of discourse: the english used teachers and pupils. london: oxford university press. yule, b. (1993). discourse analysis. london: cambridge university press. http://www.arc.journals.org/ http://www.asian/ http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk/ 9.pdf (p.1) 1218-144-165 009 jul2018.pdf (p.2-23) logo: a joint construction practice in academic writing course in indonesian university context aunurrahman, fuad abdul hamied, and emi emilia english education program, faculty of language and art education, institute of teachers training and education – teachers association of the republic of indonesia pontianak, indonesia; english education program, school of postgraduate studies, indonesia university of education, indonesia email: yarrha@gmail.com; fuadah@indo.net.id; emi.emilia.upi@gmail.com received: 27-04-2016 accepted: 20-07-2017 published: 11-08-2017 a joint construction practice in an academic writing course in an indonesian university context 1aunurrahman, 2fuad abdul hamied, and 2emi emilia 1yarrha@gmail.com; 2fuadah@indo.net.id; 3emi.emilia.upi@gmail.com 1english education program, faculty of language and art education, institute of teachers training and education – teachers association of the republic of indonesia pontianak, indonesia 2english education program, school of postgraduate studies, indonesia university of education, indonesia abstract: this research aims to explore the students’ writing and critical thinking capacity in a joint construction practice in an academic writing course. the course applied a genre-based approach in teaching academic writing and critical thinking to first-year english as a foreign language students of a private university in pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia. a combination of explicit teaching, group discussion, and online review sessions was employed in the joint construction practice for three meetings. the source for the data collection was a jointly constructed text. the text was selected from thirty-six students who worked in groups. every group consisted of low achievers, medium achievers, and high achievers in writing. the text was analyzed using functional grammar. the analysis shows that the students had gained a good control of the exposition genre with its linguistic features. thematic progression and logical connectors at the text level and circumstances (adverbs) at the clause level had realized critical thinking skills and dispositions. several grammatical mistakes and improper lexical choices were identified but did not interfere with the purpose of the text. the findings suggest that having more classroom meetings will make explicit teaching and group discussion work effectively before the students begin to write independently. moreover, online review sessions can support the students' learning but with limitations. 28 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 27 44 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj key words: a genre-based approach, joint construction practice, academic writing, critical thinking abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengeksplorasi kapasitas menulis mahasiswa pada tahap latihan konstruksi bersama dalam menulis teks akademik. pendekatan berbasis genre diterapkan dalam pengajaran menulis teks akademik dan berpikir kritis kepada mahasiswa tahun pertama program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris dari suatu perguruan tinggi swasta di pontianak, kalimantan barat, indonesia. kombinasi pengajaran eksplisit, diskusi kelompok, dan sesi reviu daring digunakan dalam latihan konstruksi bersama selama tiga pertemuan. sumber data penelitian ini adalah teks dari latihan tersebut. teks tersebut diseleksi dari tiga puluh enam mahasiswa yang bekerja dalam kelompok. setiap kelompok terdiri dari mahasiswa dengan kategori berprestasi rendah, sedang, dan tinggi dalam menulis. teks kemudian dianalisis menggunakan tata bahasa fungsional. analisis teks menunjukkan mahasiswa memiliki kendali yang baik atas genre eksposisi dengan fitur linguistiknya. progresi tematik dan konektor logis di tingkat teks dan penggunaan fitur sirkumstansial di tingkat klausa merealisasi kemampuan dan disposisi berpikir kritis mahasiswa. beberapa kesalahan tata bahasa dan ketidaktepatan pilihan kata diidentifikasi namun tidak berpengaruh pada tujuan teks yang dianalisis. temuan ini menyarankan untuk menambah pertemuan di kelas agar pengajaran eksplisit dan diskusi kelompok dapat bekerja lebih efektif sebelum mahasiswa mulai menulis secara independen. kemudian, sesi reviu daring mendukung pembelajaran mahasiswa namun terbatas. kata kunci: pendekatan berbasis genre, latihan konstruksi bersama, menulis ilmiah, berpikir kritis introduction university students around the world are required to learn academic writing. it involves a particular set of knowledge and skills that are necessary for the students to master. apart from the particular set of knowledge and skills, an important feature that is also considered in this research is critical thinking (emilia, 2005; widodo, 2012). critical thinking is more than just skills. it also has dispositions that act as guidance in constructing an academic text (ennis, 1996; siegel, 2010). aunurrahman, hamied, f. a., & emilia, e., a joint construction practice 29 in an academic writing course in an indonesian university context https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj first-year university students should already have the knowledge and skills in academic writing and critical thinking as many academic assignments are assigned to them, starting with essays, then, term papers or research papers. in order to achieve this particular set of knowledge and skills, an academic writing course should be equipped with a practical approach. an approach that deals with different text types is a genre-based approach under systemic functional linguistics (derewianka, 1990, 2012; emilia, 2012). the genre-based approach has been developed in australia (hyland, 2007; swales, 2012) and has been applied around the world including in indonesia (derewianka, 2003; emilia, 2005). in indonesia, the genre-based approach used commonly has four teaching stages (emilia, 2012), which is also has been used in a university context (aunurrahman, hamied, & emilia, 2016, 2017). the stages are building knowledge of the field, modeling, joint construction, and independent construction stages (emilia, 2012). from the four stages, this research aims to explore the students’ capacity in academic writing and critical thinking in the joint construction stage of an academic writing course in an indonesian university context. the research involved first-year efl students of a private university in pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia. the concept of academic writing this section will discuss the concept of academic writing that consists of a particular set of knowledge and skills. the discussion of the concept of academic writing will be related to the concept of critical thinking (hereafter ct) as both concepts share a common ground. academic writing consists of a particular set of knowledge and skills. in brief, knowledge is about what to write. it deals with selecting and limiting a topic that the students want to write about. in order to select a topic, the students should grasp ideas and arguments from any relevant references. after searching for ideas and arguments, the students should limit the ideas and arguments that will be used in his or her writing (irvin, 2010). certainly, using relevant reference and selected ideas and arguments involve the application of dispositions of ct that guide the students not only in performing ct but also in constructing an academic text. the relevant references are part of relevance, a disposition of ct, where ideas should be grasped from references that are relevant to the topic that will be written 30 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 27 44 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj (elder & paul, 2010, 2013). then, selected ideas and arguments that the students want to use in their writing involve dispositions of ct in terms of clarity, accuracy, and precision where in constructing a text, the students should use clear, accurate, and precise information and evidence (elder & paul, 2010, 2013). in this study, dispositions used are also called as intellectual standards. other dispositions or intellectual standards are depth, breadth, logicalness, and fairness (elder & paul, 2010, 2013). this research also considers respect as a disposition of ct (bailin & siegel, 2003; siegel, 2010), which mainly involved in the practice of the ethics of academic writing. the ethics of academic writing fall under the term of how to write that will be elaborated in the following paragraphs. after considering about what to write, the students should also master the skills of academic writing. in this research, the skills are about how to write (irvin, 2010) that involves a genre with its linguistic features (bruce, 2008a, 2013), which is also known as discourse competence (bruce, 2008b). in university contexts, argumentative writing is considered important (coffin & donohue, 2012; emilia, 2010; promwinai, 2010; wingate, 2012) as it can develop the students’ critical thinking (dasbender, 2011; nesi & gardner, 2006). argumentative writing under the systemic functional linguistics genrebased approach (hereafter sfl gba) consists of two genres. the genres are an exposition genre and a discussion genre. both genres have 'persuading that' and 'persuading to' functions (see coffin, 2004; schulze, 2011). this research, however, will only explore the exposition genre. an exposition genre, like any genre under systemic functional linguistics (hereafter sfl), has a social function, structure or stages, and its linguistic features (martin, 1992, 2010). the social function of an exposition genre is “to present arguments in favour of a position that needs to be argued for” (halliday & martin, 1993, p. 216). then, the schematic structure of an exposition genre consists of three elements. the elements are a thesis − a main topic that will be argued; arguments − supporting details of the main topic; and reiteration of thesis − a summary of the topic conveying the arguments and a recommendation if necessary (martin, 2006). the structure of an exposition genre can be a realization of information-organizing skills of ct (lipman, 2003). the latter element that plays an important part in writing an exposition genre is linguistic features. to mention a few, the linguistic features of an exposition genre are: (1) generalized participants that deal with aunurrahman, hamied, f. a., & emilia, e., a joint construction practice 31 in an academic writing course in an indonesian university context https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj abstract issues, (2) timeless present tense when communicating a position or a point of an argument; (3) passive voice; (4) nominalization to make an argument sounds more objective; (5) logical connectors to create a logical order of a writing; and (6) a hedged language such as modalities, mental processes, and circumstances, which is a form of a cautious language in communicating a position or a claim (derewianka, 1990, pp. 76–78; gillett, 2017). another main focus of this research is the ethics of academic writing, which has been mentioned earlier under the term what to write. the ethics of academic writing is about how to provide factual evidence or supporting details that are relevant to the arguments and the topic of the students’ writing in an ethical way that realizes respect as a disposition of ct. the practice of the ethics of academic writing also can realize the students’ academic honesty where the students learn to use someone’s ideas in their writing that can build credibility of their writing (jones, 2011). the ethics of academic writing cover quoting exact words from other texts, paraphrasing and summarizing ideas of other texts or references by using one’s own words, and writing a reference list under apa style, which is commonly used in academic writing (bailey, 2006; oshima & hogue, 1999; paiz et al., 2014). up to this point, the concept of academic writing of this study consists of a particular set of knowledge and skills that share a common ground with the concept of ct. the concept would be learned by the students through the application of a genre-based approach under sfl gba that consists of four stages. this research, however, will only explore the students’ capacity in academic writing and ct in a joint construction stage of an academic writing course. methodology this research aims to explore the students’ capacity in academic writing and ct in a joint construction stage in an academic writing course. it involved the first-year efl students of a private university in pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia. the students agreed to participate in this research as they had signed a consent form. the academic writing course used four stages of a genre-based approach that has been applied in indonesia (emilia, 2012) with the implementation of a combination of explicit teaching, group discussion, and online review sessions. 32 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 27 44 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj a diagnostic test was conducted in the first session to see the students' prior performance in academic writing and ct. after the diagnostic test, the students had introductory sessions to ct and sfl gba as an overview of the concept of ct and academic writing under sfl gba that has been elaborated in the literature review above. the teaching practice began with building knowledge of the field where the students built their knowledge of a topic (feez, 2002). the second stage was modeling stage. the researcher acted as a lecturer provided model texts of an exposition genre. then, the students learned to identify the schematic structure and linguistic features of an exposition text, intellectual standards or dispositions of ct, and in-text citations as part of the ethics of academic writing (adapted from feez, 2002). the third stage was a joint construction stage. the students constructed their texts for the first time in groups (feez, 2002). each group consisted of low achievers, medium achievers, and high achievers. the categories assigned to the students were based on a diagnostic test conducted before the course. to assist the students, the lecturer guided the students to organize their arguments that had been built in the previous stage. the lecturer also guided the students to practice the ethics of academic writing that included quoting, paraphrasing, summarizing, and writing a reference list under apa style. the joint construction took three meetings. however, the lecturer realized that the students still had many things to learn before they constructed their own text. accordingly, the lecturer conducted two online review sessions. the students submitted their texts via e-mail to the lecturer to be given feedback. the online review sessions were necessary to prepare them for more practices that were limited in the independent construction stage as they began to work independently with limited explicit teaching from the lecturer and peer feedback was much encouraged. in order to achieve the aim of this research, a document or a text was selected from a group of students in the joint construction stage. the group consisted of three students with different levels of writing performance. they were sari − a low achiever; erick − a medium achiever; and rendi − a high achiever (their names are in pseudonym). the functional grammar was used in the text analysis that covered the textual metafunction, ideational metafunction, and interpersonal metafunction of the students’ text (fontaine, 2013; halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the analysis also included the application of intellectual standards or dispositions of ct and in-text citations. the following section will report the results of the text analysis. aunurrahman, hamied, f. a., & emilia, e., a joint construction practice 33 in an academic writing course in an indonesian university context https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj findings and discussion this section will describe the text analyzed using functional grammar. before that, this paper will show an example of the lecturer's feedback in the online review sessions. the online review sessions employed by the researcher as the lecturer provided feedback on the students' texts, as the three meetings were not sufficient to cover academic writing along with its ethics and ct. the text selected for the example was jointly constructed by sari − a low achiever; erick − a medium achiever; and rendi − a high achiever (their names are in pseudonym). in order to save space, the example is taken from the first online review session, which was communicated by e-mail. the example of the lecturer's feedback is in table 1. table 1: lecturer’s feedback on the jointly-constructed text line first draft of the jointly constructed text 1 5 10 15 20 a good teacher a good teacher is not difficult to find. however, it does not mean everyone can be a teacher and not all teachers is are good teachers. at this point, it is better to say that a good teacher should have at least three important criteria. first, a good teacher inspires his/her students. an inspiring teacher means that a teacher is not only teaching, but also motivates his/her students to be better. a good teacher also means that a teacher who can make a difference in the lives of his/her students by making the students to see things differently (gonchar, 2015). second, a good teacher is an entertainer in the positive sense not the negative sense. it means that a good teacher is not only giving his/her students knowledge seriously during the class but also make them comfortable in the class, although in the serious learning situation (harmer, 2001). third, a good teacher has good classroom management skills. it means that a teacher should keep the balance of his/her students’ performance in the class (harmer, 2001). for example, a quite student should be given the opportunity to answer the question and speak up in the class as the attractive one does. in conclusion, a good teacher should be able to inspire his/her students, also an entertainer classroom in the a positive sense, and must have an effective classroom management skills. however, a good teacher should not be limited by these criteria. a teacher must find more criteria to 34 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 27 44 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj become not only a good teacher but also a better teacher to make a better student. references gonchar, m. (2013, april 1). when has a teacher inspired you? the learning network. retrieved from http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/04/when-has-a-teacherinspired-you/ harmer, jeremy. (2001). how to teach english (1st ed). new york: cnnlongman. notes:  bold words or expressions show suggestion from the lecturer  strikethrough words or expressions show words or expressions that are considered to be omitted in the text table 1 shows that the lecturer informed explicitly any missing information or parts as indicated in line 4 where the lecturer suggested a thesis statement. suggestions for proper grammar, spelling, lexical choices, and a reference list under apa style as part of dispositions of ct and ethics of academic writing were also communicated in the text. the function of explicit teaching is to provide clear guidance to the students. it should also enable the students to focus on any parts of the text that have not been well developed (feez, 2002; hyland, 2007; martin & rose, 2008). still, there are limitations. first, the lecturer did not show every mistake in the text as the lecturer expected the students to find out on his or her own. however, it did not happen. later, in the text analysis, the text still has a few mistakes that the students were not aware of. it seemed that the students took the lecturer's feedback for granted without developing it any further. second, the lecturer was unable to monitor every group work until they submitted their texts. after the second online review session, the students submitted their final texts by e-mail. a jointly constructed text was selected from a group of students for the text analysis. the students were sari − a low achiever; erick − a medium achiever; and rendi − a high achiever (their names are in pseudonym). the text is in table 2. in the analysis, the text consists of three elements of an exposition text with each clause numbered. table 2: final draft of the jointly constructed text a good teacher aunurrahman, hamied, f. a., & emilia, e., a joint construction practice 35 in an academic writing course in an indonesian university context https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj thesis element 1. a good teacher is not difficult to find. 2. however, it does not mean everyone can be a teacher a 3. and not all teachers are good teachers. 4. it can be said that a good teacher should have at least three important criteria. argument element 5. first, a good teacher inspires his/her students. 6. an inspiring teacher means that a teacher is not only teaching 7. but also motivates (motivating) his/her students to be better. 8. a good teacher also means that a teacher who can make a difference in the lives of his/her students by making the students to see things differently (gonchar, 2015). 9. second, a good teacher is an entertainer in the positive sense not the negative sense. 10. it means that a good teacher is not only giving his/her students knowledge seriously during the class 11. but also make (making) them comfortable in the class including in a serious learning situation (harmer, 2001). 12. third, a good teacher has good classroom management skills. 13. it means that a teacher should keep a balance of his/her students’ performance in the class (harmer, 2001). 14. for example, a quite (quiet) student should be given the opportunity to answer a question and speak up in the class. reiteration of thesis element 15. in conclusion, a good teacher should be able to provide inspirations, entertainment in a positive sense, and must have effective classroom management skills. 16. however, a good teacher should not be limited by these criteria. 17. instead, a teacher must find more criteria to become not only a good teacher but also a better teacher for his/her students. references gonchar, m. (2013, april 1). when has a teacher inspired you? the learning network. retrieved from http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/04/when-has-a-teacherinspired-you/ harmer, jeremy. (2001). how to teach english (1st ed). new york: longman. note:  bold words or expressions show grammatical mistakes and improper lexical choices followed by suggestions in parentheses. table 2 shows that the final draft of the jointly constructed text is 36 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 27 44 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj currently much better than the first draft (see table 1). still, several grammatical mistakes were identified in the text but did not interfere with the purpose of the text. a further text analysis will cover textual metafunction, ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction, and identifications of dispositions of ct and ethics of academic writing. textual metafunction describes the organization of the text realized by theme system. this also involves logical metafunction realized by conjunctions, which is a part of ideational metafunction, that describes how language provides a connection in a sentence to a text (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the description will begin with thematic progression. the text used derived themes that commonly utilized in an exposition text (emilia, 2014). the thematic progression of the text is presented in table 3. table 3: the thematic progression of the jointly constructed text macrotheme: it can be said that a good teacher should have at least three important criteria. hyperthemes: first, a good teacher inspires his/her students. second, a good teacher is an entertainer in the positive sense not the negative sense. third, a good teacher has good classroom management skills. macronew: in conclusion, a good teacher should be able to provide inspirations, entertainment in a positive sense, and must have effective classroom management skills. note:  the underlined expressions are logical conjunctions which introduce the hyperthemes or arguments table 3 shows that the macrotheme or main idea of the text is three criteria of a good teacher. in relation to dispositions of ct, the main idea reflects clear, accurate, and precise information where the students limited the arguments into three arguments. the hyperthemes are considered as arguments as logical connectors precede the hyperthemes: first, second, and third realize textual theme and logical metafunction. the hyperthemes, in relation to intellectual standard or disposition of ct, reflect relevant aunurrahman, hamied, f. a., & emilia, e., a joint construction practice 37 in an academic writing course in an indonesian university context https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj arguments as the hyperthemes used topical themes that are pertinent to the macronew, which is, a good teacher. the latter part is macronew. this is a summary of the text signaled by a logical connector with a summative function: in conclusion. the macronew is also relevant to the thesis and argument elements as it uses a relevant topical theme as well. at the clause level, the argument element will be presented to see arguments with their elaborations. an example of the argument with its elaboration is presented in table 4. table 4: an example of an argument from the jointly constructed text 1. first, a good teacher inspires his/her students. 2. an inspiring teacher means that a teacher is not only teaching 3. but also motivates (motivating) his/her students to be better. 4. a good teacher also means that a teacher who can make a difference in the lives of his/her students by making the students to see things differently (gonchar, 2015). note:  bold words or expressions show grammatical mistakes and improper lexical choices followed by the suggestion in parentheses. table 4 presents an argument that a good teacher inspires his/her students. there is no textual theme or logical connector that signals an elaboration (see clause no. 2). instead, a topical theme is used as a point of elaboration: an inspiring teacher. the topical theme itself derived from the rheme in the earlier clause: inspires his/her students. this, concerning dispositions of ct, reflects relevance between the argument with its elaborations. at the end of the elaboration, there is a citation that indicates the elaboration is based on a reference, which makes the argument credible. another function of the citation is to signal a realization of the ethics of academic writing and a form of respect under ct dispositions. the citation is followed by a reference list (see table 2) in apa style (2010) that had been introduced by the lecturer. having a reference list strengthens the credibility of the argument as long as the reference is a valid one (jones, 2011). concerning ideational metafunction, as logical metafunction has been delineated along with textual metafunction, only experiential metafunction will be presented. experiential metafunction describes a process or experience along with its participants and circumstances that occur in the text and realized by transitivity system (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the 38 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 27 44 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj text uses several types of processes along with their participants and circumstances effectively. for example, in table 4, a clause (no. 4) realizes an identifying relational process followed by a causal relational process: a good teacher [token] also means [pr: identifying] that a teacher [[who [token] can make [pr: causal] a difference [value] in the lives of his/her students [circumstance: location: place] by making the students to see things differently [circumstance: manner: means]] [value]. the participants in the text are mainly a good teacher with different roles as the main idea of the text is a good teacher. the circumstances also have several functions. in the passage provided, two circumstances have location and manner functions. these circumstances reflect dispositions of ct in terms of clarity, accuracy, and precision of information in a clause. the next metafunction is interpersonal metafunction. it describes the language used in interaction with the reader realized by mood system (thompson, 2014). the text mainly uses declarative mood in elaborating arguments of the issue under discussion (see emilia & hamied, 2015). then, the text employed epistemic modality and deontic modality. an epistemic modality signals a probability (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). for example, it is realized by can in a good teacher also means that a teacher who can make a difference in the lives of his/her students by making the students to see things differently (gonchar, 2015). the level of can is medium and as the clause supplies a citation, it creates a stronger possibility of the meaning of the clause. then, a deontic modality functions as an obligation (halliday & matthiessen, 2014) is realized by, for example, should in it means that a teacher should keep a balance of his/her students’ performance in the class (harmer, 2001). should signals a suggestion with a medium level of modality with a paraphrase projected in the clause to strengthen the suggestion. another feature identified in the text is an impersonal passive voice in the thesis element: it is said (see clause no. 4 in table 2). impersonal passive voice, which is a form of academic language, helps the text to focus on the issue as it removes agency and it signals an objective statement (pullum, 2014; schleppegrell, 2009). up to this point, the jointly constructed text shows the students had gained a good control of the schematic structure of an exposition text with various linguistic features. dispositions of ct such as clarity, accuracy, precision, and relevance were identified in the text. respect was also identified in the text in the form of in-text citations with a reference list under apa style. grammatical mistakes and improper lexical choices were identified but they did not interfere with the purpose of the text. this finding is in line with several previous research on a genre-based approach in aunurrahman, hamied, f. a., & emilia, e., a joint construction practice 39 in an academic writing course in an indonesian university context https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj teaching academic writing and ct to tertiary efl students in indonesia (emilia, 2005; emilia & hamied, 2015). moreover, the finding also shows that explicit teaching and group discussion were not in maximum performance. limitations of the online review sessions should be addressed to improve explicit teaching and group discussion practices ensuring a better preparation before the students construct their writing independently. conclusion this research aims to explore a joint construction stage of an academic writing course that involved efl students of a private university in pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia. the research confirms the previous research that a genre-based approach can develop tertiary efl students' academic writing and ct in indonesia. still, the text analysis found a limitation, that is, several grammatical mistakes and limited lexical choices were identified in the jointly constructed text, but they did not interfere with the purpose of the text. online review sessions can support the students' learning. however, it cannot replace classroom meetings. having more classroom meeting for the joint construction practice is necessary especially when the academic course is for the first-year efl students. certainly, explicit teaching and group discussion should be improved by addressing the students' difficulties in academic writing and ct. it will provide a better preparation for the students before they work independently. future research should seek another combination of teaching strategies for a joint construction practice of an academic writing course. references american psychological association (ed.). 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(2012). a text and its commentaries: toward a reception history of “genre in three traditions”(hyon, 1996). ibérica: revista de la 44 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 27 44 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj asociación europea de lenguas para fines específicos (aelfe), (24), 103– 115. thompson, g. (2014). introducing functional grammar (3rd ed.). new york: routledge. widodo, h. p. (2012, february 26). five key issues in academic writing: writing scholarly articles in english. golive indonesia. retrieved from http://goliveindonesia.com/2012/02/27/five-key-issues-in-academicwriting-writing-scholarly-articles-in-english/ wingate, u. (2012). “argument!” helping students understand what essay writing is about. journal of english for academic purposes, 11(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2011.11.001 4 516 cover online aunurahman.pdf 4 516 aunurrahman p 27-44 logo: a book review: china on screen: cinema and nation reviewed by g.m. adhyanggono i china on screen cinema and nation chris berry and mary farquhar new york chichester, west sussex: columbia university press 2006, 313 pages 313 pp. isbn: 0-231-13707-9 i g.m. adhyanggono, s.s, m.a. <adhyanggono@yahoo.com> +6281228029666 is a lecturer at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university (scu) and a research fellow of java institute in the same university. his research interest is in literature, film, and folklore. logo: depan_celt dec 2012 the strategy of translating pun in english – indonesian subtitle of austin powers: goldmember ari natarina1 abstract: this paper concerns about the translation of pun in comedy movie’s subtitle. the data is taken from a comedy movie austin powers: goldmember. there are three problems that are being discussed in this paper. the first problem is the effect of different types of pun to translatability. second, the strategies in translating different types of pun are discussed. the last is the assessment of translation using register analysis in evaluating the extent of loss and gain occurred in the translation process. key words: pun, translatability, translation strategy, register theory introduction pun is found in everyday life. as what gottlieb said, pun (wordplay) can be found frequently in „real english‟ (cited in delabatista 1997). however, many people thought that pun is untranslatable because of its linguistic aspects. it is known that every language has different linguistic aspects. if we take the word boreocracy as an example, which plays on words bureaucracy and bore that was used by mary daly in her book gyn/ecology in 1978 (von flotow 1997), it is very difficult to find the equivalence of 1 ari natarina <ari-natarina@uiowa.edu>is a graduate student in the department of linguistics, the university of iowa, iowa city, iowa. natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 161 that word in other languages, particularly indonesian. translating this pun into another pun in other languages is also difficult since other languages do not have the same phonemic structure with english. joseph addison (cited in delabatista 1997) even believed that pun is unique compared to other forms of humor and speech because of its untranslatability. however, newmark (1988) stated that any types of speech in a language can be translated into another language. he said that a translator must not take the easy way by saying that something cannot be translated. his argument is supported by davis (cited in delabatista 1997) who argued that “pun refers not to individual words or ideas, but to the systemic operation of a particular language, it comprises the self-referential signature of that language which may at first seem untranslatable”. davis was trying to say that pun is not consisted of only ambiguous words, but also a system in a language that has its own characters. these unique characters of a language are the reasons why pun appears untranslatable. hence, we can conclude that pun can be translated, because there are many aspects that should be considered in a language, such as the contexts, culture, linguistics features, etc. definition of pun pun, or as it is also known as wordplay, is the clever or humorous use of expression that has more than one meaning, or of words that have different meanings but sound the same (oxford 1995). according to alexieva (cited in delabatista 1997), pun is “being based somehow on a confrontation or clash of two meanings”. the funny side of pun is in the ambiguity of the words‟ meaning. gottlieb (cited in delabatista 1997) mentioned that there are two types of wordplay, namely vertical wordplay and horizontal celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 162 wordplay. the meaning of vertical wordplay can be understood by the viewers at once, whereas the meaning of horizontal wordplay can be revealed through repetition in a context portraying the other „meaning‟. whereas, ausmann (cited in delabatista 1997) classify pun (wordplay) into the following typology: types of wordplay defining characteristics central features at play example lexical homonymy two expressions pronounced and spelt in the same way single-word ambiguity our social studies teacher says that her globe means the world to her. (taken from: http: //volweb.utk.edu/s chools/bedford/har risms/puns.htm) collocational homonymy two expressions pronounced and spelt in the same way word-incontext ambiguity i used to be twins. my mother has a picture of me when i was two. (taken from: http: //volweb.utk.edu/s chools/bedford/har risms/puns.htm) phrasal homonymy two expressions pronounced and spelt in the same way clause ambiguity i recently spent money on detergent to unclog my kitchen sink. it was money down the drain. (taken from: http://volweb.utk. edu/schools/bedfo rd/harrisms/puns. htm) homophony two phonemic sir lancelot once natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 163 expressions pronounced in the same way ambiguity had a very bad dream about his horse. it was a knight mare. (taken from: http://volweb.utk. edu/schools/bedfo rd/harrisms/puns. htm) homography two expressions spelt in the same way graphemic ambiguity you can tune a guitar, but you can‟t tuna fish. unless of course, you play bass. (taken from: http://en.wikipedi a.org/wiki/pun) paronymy two expressions pronounced and spelt in nearly the same way phonemic or graphemic ambiguity i‟d love to have some chocolate ass cream. (taken from: austin powers) table 1: hausmann‟s typology translating pun in movie subtitle unlike translating pun (wordplay) in written discourse, translating pun (wordplay) in the subtitle can be helped by several non-verbal elements, such as intonation in the dialogue, non-verbal visual information that accompany the dialogue, and written text on the screen e.g. displays (headings, street signs, etc.) or captions (titles, verbal graphics, etc.). therefore, a theory that concerns linguistic features as well as context is required in analyzing the translation of pun to help the translator translating the pun. “register theory describes the impact of dimensions of the immediate context of situation of a language event on the way celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 164 language is used” (eggins 2004:9). therefore, register theory would help in explaining the context in which the pun is uttered so that people could grasp the humor. moreover, understanding register could help the translator in translating pun by applying house‟s theory of translation quality assessment which compares the register of sl text with the register of tl text. register is comprised by mode, tenor, and field, which will be explained more thoroughly in the following. a. mode mode is 'the role language is playing in the interaction' (eggins 2004:98). there are two types of distance in the interaction related with language and situation: 1. spatial/interpersonal distance. spatial and interpersonal distance concerns the space between interactants and also immediate feedback between the interactants. 2. experiential distance. „experiential distance ranges situations according to the distance between language and social process occuring‟ (eggins 2004: 91). language as action is being used to accompany social processes; the example is performative utterances, like thanking, making promises, apologizing, etc., whereas language as reflection is being used to constitute social happenings such as telling a story, giving opinion, and recounting experience. mode is realized through the theme of the discourse. these textual patterns are patterns of foregrounding and continuity in the organization of the clause (eggins 2004: 110). mode is indicated by the use of language markers of co-presence such as “here you natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 165 go…” the language markers would show whether the mode of the discourse is spoken or written. b. tenor according to eggins (2004:99), tenor is 'the social role relationships played by the interactants'. as suggested by cate poynton (cited in eggins 2004:99), tenor can be divided into three dimensions: 1. power. the power continuum concerns the power role of the interactants, whether it is equal or unequal, e.g. students-teacher has unequal role and friends has equal role. 2. contact. contact continuum defines the situations in terms of whether the interactants make frequent or infrequent contact. 3. affective involvement. affective involvement schematizes situations where the interactants ranges from emotionally involved and committed or not at all. tenor is realized through patterns that is called mood. mood refers to variables such as types of clause structure, degree of certainty or obligation expressed, the use of tags, vocatives, or attitudinal words, expressions of intensification and politeness markers. tenor divides situation into formal and informal situations. c. field field can be defined as situational variables that are related to the activity in which one is engaged. it is realized through some parts of the grammatical system, namely patterns of processes (verbs), participants (nouns), and circumstances (prepositional phrases). field divides situations into technical situation and celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 166 everyday situation. the indication of technical situation and everyday situation can be seen from its choice of words. strategies in translating pun there are some strategies that can be used in translating pun. these translation strategies can be applied for different types of pun. a specific strategy might be the best to use in translating a particular type of pun, resulting in equivalent translation. these strategies of translating pun were proposed by delabatista (cited in spanakaki 2007): 1. pun = pun this translation strategy renders the pun in the source language subtitle into a pun in the target language. this strategy can be applied for closely related languages, such as english and danish, which are culturally similar. danish humor resembles english humor. that is why it is possible to translate an english pun into a danish pun. however, for languages that are not closely related, e.g. english and indonesian, it will be a little difficult to apply this strategy for translating pun. it is because both languages have very different cultures and linguistics aspects. 2. pun = non pun if the pun can not be translated into another pun in the target language, then it can be translated into a non-punning phrase, which maintains the senses of the source language pun, and a non-punning phrase that only portrays a part of the senses of the source language pun. 3. pun = related rhetorical devices pun can be translated into other rhetorical devices such as repetition, alliteration, rhyme, referential vagueness, irony, paradox, assonance, etc. the purpose is that another rhetorical device in the target language can help to transfer the meaning and sense of the pun in the source language. natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 167 4. pun = zero this strategy omits pun in source language subtitle from the target language subtitle completely. this strategy must be applied when there is no equivalence in the target language and the translator considers that the pun is not important or s/he expects the audience to get the humor from the movie scene. 5. pun sl  pun tl this strategy transfers the source language pun into target language pun. in other words, the pun is not translated. it is adopted as another pun in the target language. 6. non pun = new pun the translator might add another pun in the target language in translating phrase, clause, or sentence in the source language, as a compensation for the loss occurring elsewhere. it is expected that the new pun would replace the source language pun that is not translated before. 7. zero = pun this strategy does not translate a source language text, instead the translator adds a new material which contains pun as compensation for the previous loss. 8. editorial techniques this editorial techniques mean that the translator add explanatory note or endnote, comments in translator‟s forewords, „anthological‟ presentation of different, complementary solutions etc. result of the study there were 30 puns found in the movie subtitle of “austin powers in goldmember”. those thirty puns were then grouped based on its typology and the strategy used in translating it. the percentage of puns based on its typology and translation strategies can be seen as follows: celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 168 types of wordplay translation strategies amount total lexical homonymy pun = pun 2 (6.67%) 6 (20%) pun = non pun 3 (10%) editorial techniques 1 (3.33%) collocational homonymy pun = pun 2 (6.67%) 2 (6.67%) phrasal homonymy pun = pun 3 (10%) 5 (16.67%) pun = non pun 2 (6.67%) homophony pun = non pun 2 (6.67%) 4 (13.33%) pun = zero 1 (3.33%) editorial techniques 1 (3.33%) paronymy pun sl  pun tl 6 (20%) 13 (43.33%) pun = non pun 5 (16.67%) pun = zero 2 (6.67%) homography total pun 30 table 2: puns based on typology from this analysis, it can be perceived that one type of pun, that is homonymy, can be translated into another pun in the tl. paronymy pun mostly rendered as a pun in the tl without being translated, commonly the pun that has a function as proper names. moreover, it is clear that homophony pun cannot be translated into a pun in tl because of its linguistic features. other strategies that commonly used in translating pun in english are literal translation which resulted in a non pun phrase of the tl subtitle, the omitting of sl pun in the translation process, and the use of editorial techniques in the tl subtitle. natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 169 figure 1: the frequency of puns in “austin powers: goldmember” from this pie chart, we can see that paronymy is the type of pun that occurs the most in the movie subtitle austin powers: goldmember. however, if the lexical, collocational, and phrasal homonymy were added together, the number is even with paronymy pun. the least pun found in the data is homophony. an example of homography pun cannot be found in this movie subtitle. gottlieb, in his research findings of pun translation in carrot’s commercial breakdown, also found out that homonymy is the type of pun that occur the most, followed by paronymy. homonymy is commonly found, probably because every word has tendency to have more than one meaning, especially when it is being used in different contexts. paronymy is frequently used in everyday life also because it is a mixed use of words that have almost the same pronunciation or spelling. any word can be transformed into a pun. to create humor, people could use a word that is being mixed with another word which is resulted in ambiguity and in the creation of a slightly different meaning for that word, for example the mix of word “psychedelic” and “shag” into “shagadelic”. on the other hand, the use of homophony and celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 170 homography pun is less found in the data, probably due to the limited number of homophones or homograph existed in a language. to create homophony and homography pun, one must know different homophones and homographs in a language and is able to put it in such context so that both meanings of the homophones or homographs could be exposed to create ambiguity. in other words, it is more difficult to create homophony and homography pun compared with homonymy and paronymy pun. figure. 2: translation strategy used in translating puns from the bar graph above, it can be seen that the translation strategies used most in translating pun was by translating pun into non pun. the reason of this might be because the translator wanted to, at least, maintain the meaning, although the humor is lost. it is better to have the meaning maintained and loss the humor rather than to omit the pun completely, which will result in a complete loss. on the other hand, editorial technique was the least technique used in translating pun in movie subtitle due to the time and space constraints faced by translator in subtitling. if a translator uses editorial technique, it means s/he has to consider the length of the notes, because it can affect the appearance of the subtitle. because of these many considerations, the use of editorial note in translating natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 171 subtitle is limited.there are 8 strategies in translating pun. however, only five strategies were applied in translating pun in movie subtitle of austin powers: goldmember. 'compensatory language play' (schröter, 2005:145), such as pun = related rhetorical devices, non pun = pun, and zero = pun, were not applied. according to schröter (2005:145), these strategies are difficult to be applied due to “the interplay between picture and soundtrack, and the presence of the original dialogue in subtitled versions”. it is difficult to add a pun in the target language, particularly pun that can be connected with the dialogue and the plot of the story. the strategy of adopting the sl pun as the tl pun is mostly used in translating paronymy puns that have a function as proper names. schröter (2005: 146) mentioned some good reasons for not translating proper names. “if a story is set in the real world, unchanged names preserve some of the cultural flavor of the original version and fit the setting better.” it is true that we would never translate our own name when we go to other countries. therefore, proper names are best not to be translated. the translation of pun in sl into a pun in tl could be employed in translating homonymy pun. below are the graph of frequency of homonymy puns which are translated using pun = pun strategy. figure 3: pun = pun strategy celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 172 from this graph, we can see that only homonymy puns can be translated into a pun in tl. from six lexical homonymy puns, two were translated into a pun in tl. the other four, could not be translated into another pun because the lexical meanings of the word might be very different from one another. therefore, the translator chose to translate them into non-pun by using one of the word‟s meanings. whereas all the collocational homonymy pun were translated into pun in tl. the reason is that the ambiguity of collocational homonymy pun depends on the context of situation. consequently, the ambiguity and humor can still be maintained by translating it literally. while three out of five phrasal homonymy pun were translated using pun = pun strategy. it is possible because the context of situation, the non-verbal elements, like the background and the setting, really helped in translating the sl pun into tl pun. other puns, such as paronymy and homophony, that employs linguistic features are difficult to be translated into tl pun because, unlike homonymy puns, the ambiguity of the word and the humor does not depend on the context of situation. examples of data analysis a. phrasal homonymy pun translated into pun in the target language subtitle female teacher :“don‟t forget mr. powers, later you have a brief oral exam.” (jangan lupa nanti ada ujian oral singkat.) austin : “well i hope it‟s mostly oral and not too brief, baby. you know brief and oral exam…” (kuharap sebagian besar oral dan tidak terlalu singkat.) natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 173 1. register analysis a. field: this scene was taken in a dormitory room. the language used is related to educational field, as the setting is in a school. there was educational term mentioned in this conversation, such as oral exam. however, the pictures shown the woman fixing her cloth and the man (austin) is still naked in the bed. based on this situation, it can be seen that an affair was happening between the teacher and the student. because the field of this discourse is in school and there was an affair happening between the interactants, the language being used is the formal language that occurs in everyday situation. b. tenor: 1) power. the power between the interactants is unequal, because the interactants are teacher and student, as illustrated by the sentence “don‟t forget mr. powers, later you have a brief oral exam”. the formality is marked by the use of formal vocative by one of the interactants, e.g. “mr. powers”. however, the power between the interactants was also influenced by their relationship. the affair was marked by vocative „baby‟ said by austin. they were teacher and student, who were also lovers. 2) contact: in this scene, it was shown that the interactants had just engaged in sexual intercourse. they had frequent physical contact during the sexual intercourse, and even when the woman was going to leave the room, they still kept eye contact while they were talking. 3) affective involvement. other than having a formal relationship as teacher and student, the interactants were also emotionally involved because they were having an celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 174 affair. their affective involvement is indicated by the vocatives „baby‟. c. mode: 1) spatial/interpersonal distance. the interactants were in the same room, therefore they were talking face to face, although the space between them was quite large as the woman was standing near the door and the man was still in bed. they had visual and aural contact during the conversation which resulted in immediate feedback. 2) experiential distance. from the sentence “don‟t forget mr. powers, later you have a brief oral exam”, it can be deduced that the language is used as verbal action, that is as a reminder of an action that is going to happen in the future. 2. translation analysis no. subtitle english indonesian type of pun translation strategies 132 don‟t forget mr. powers, later you have a brief oral exam. jangan lupa nanti ada ujian oral singkat. phrasal homony my pun = pun 133 well i hope it’s mostly oral and not too brief, baby. you know brief and oral exam… kuharap sebagian besar oral dan tidak terlalu singkat. phrasal homony my pun = pun table 3: register analysis natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 175 from the register analysis done above, we know that the interactants‟ relationship were teacher-student who were having an affair. from her accent, it was clear that the female teacher is french and she might teach french subject in that school. her expression of „a brief oral exam‟ could mean speaking test for the subject that she taught. however, the phrase become ambiguous because of the situation in which they were in (as explained in the register analysis). moreover, as austin stated “well i hope it‟s mostly oral and not too brief, baby.” the ambiguity revealed. from austin‟s facial expression and the state he was in (naked in bed), the phrase could also mean that they were going to have oral sex instead of oral examination. moreover, austin emphasized his statement by saying “you know, brief and oral exam.” this sentence stressed the double meaning of the phrase. this type of pun can be classified into horizontal pun. the strategy used in translating this phrasal homonymy pun is pun to pun translation. however, there were some important points that are not being translated into the indonesian subtitle. first, the vocatives „mr. powers‟ and „baby‟ were deleted. this particular point is important in translation to show the relationship between the interactants, so that the audience could get the humor. however, in indonesia, teachers usually address their students by their name only. therefore, the word „mr. powers‟ does not have to be translated into tuan powers because a teacher would never call his/her student tuan. „powers‟ only would be sufficient in the translation to show the relationship between teacher and student. second, the word „exam‟ is translated into ujian. another equivalent for „exam‟ is tes. tes is better than ujian in this context because it means could mean exam or trial. as the word „exam‟ has ambiguous meaning, so it will be better to use the equivalence that also has double meaning. tes makes more sense to be used in talking about sexual intercourse rather than ujian. third, the translator omitted the next sentence completely. it is important to celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 160 – 179 176 be translated because it emphasizes the double meaning that the pun intended. suggested translation is given as follows: sl tl suggested translation don‟t forget mr. powers, later you have a brief oral exam. jangan lupa nanti ada ujian oral singkat. jangan lupa powers, nanti ada tes oral singkat. well i hope it‟s mostly oral and not too brief, baby. kuharap sebagian besar oral dan tidak terlalu singkat. kuharap sebagian besar oral dan tidak terlalu singkat, sayang. you know brief and oral exam… kau tahulah, tes oral yang singkat. table 4: suggested translation conclusion a more idiomatic translation could be made by comparing the register of both sl and tl text, from the analysis of register and strategy in translating pun found in english and indonesian movie subtitle of “austin powers: goldmember”, it can be concluded that different types of pun have different level of translatability. the extent of loss and gain during the translation process of pun varies. when the pun can be translated into another pun in the target language, the meaning and humor can be rendered, therefore there is no loss in the process. when the pun is translated into non pun phrase in the target language, the meaning is maintained but the humor is lost. if the pun is translated with the help of editorial technique, the meaning is rendered but it depends on the viewers to grasp the humor. when the sl pun is adopted to tl pun, the humor and the meaning of pun can only be revealed if the viewers understand english. therefore, the loss and gain really depends on the viewers. if the strategy used in translating pun is to omit the natarina, a. the strategy of translating pun in english 177 pun, the meaning and humor intended by the pun will be lost completely. references balci, a. “a comparative analysis of different turkish translations of alice in wonderland by lewis carroll on pun translation”. a master‟s thesis, dokuz eylül university, 2005. in www.deu.edu.tr/uploadedfiles/birimler/14655/ balci_ma_thesis.pdf, 2005, retrieved 28 june 2009. baumgarten, n. “the secret agent: film dubbing and the influence of the english language on german communicative preferences: towards a model for the 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice the development of english lexicon as the influence of social changes a1bertus suwardi1 abstract: this paper describes and explains the development of english in general and especially the english lexicon as the influence of social changes from time to time. we know that english can be divided into three periods; the periodfrom 450 to 1100 is known as old english,from 1100 to 1500, is known as middle english, and the last, from 1500 up to now is known as modern english. from the three periods it is found that english always develops and changes. the english of each period is different from the english of other periods. key words: old english, middle english, modern english lexicon. introduction this paper is intended to describe and explain the development of the english in general and specifically the english lexicon as the influence of the social and cultural changes from time to time. discussing the lexicon development and changes we cannot separate it from the development and changes of the language in general. so before the discussion of the development and changes of english i albertus suwardi, m.hum. <albertus261 o@yahoo.com> +628122964600 is a full time lecturer ofuniversitas teknologi yogyakarta 192 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 182-192 linguistic levels such as: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic, and lexicon. among those changes semantic and lexicon are the most common and easily seen. lexicon change can be: the addition of new words, the lost of old words, and the change of the meaning of words. the addition of new words comprise: the new word formation and word borrowing. the lost of the old words can be permanent or may come into use in a certain period. whereas the meaning change can be: broadening, weakening, ameliorative, pejorative lexical meaning. and all those happen because of the influence or the effect of social and cultural changes in the society. references baugh, a.c. and t. cable. a history o/the english language. new jersey: prentice-hall inc, 1978. chaer,a. andagustina, l. sosiolinguistik: perkenalanawal. rineka cipta, 1995. hudson, r.a. sociolinguistics. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1985. hymes, d. foundation in sociolinguistics. pensylvania: the university of pen press, 1979. o'grady, w., dobrovolsky, m,. and katamba, f. contemporary linguistics: an introduction. pearson education ltd. edinburgh gate, harlow, united kingdom, 1996. spolsky, b. sociolinguistics. oxford university press, 1998. trudgiu, p. sociolinguistics: an introduction to language and society. auckland: penguin book ltd, 1987. wardhough, r. an introduction to sociolinguistics. oxford: basil blackwell ltd, 1990. 10-2.pdf logo:   interactional metadiscourse markers in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level 1yunik susanti, 2fabiola d. kurnia, and 3suharsono 1,2,3english department, faculty of language education and literature, state university of surabaya, surabaya, indonesia email: 1 yuniksusanti@unpkediri.ac.id, 2 fabiolakurnia@gmail.com, 3suharsono@unesa.ac.id received: 11-09-2017 accepted: 13-11-2017 published: 07-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interactional metadiscourse markers in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level 1yunik susanti, 2 fabiola d. kurnia, and 3 suharsono 1yuniksusanti@unpkediri.ac.id, 2fabiolakurnia@gmail.com, 3suharsono@unesa.ac.id 1,2,3english department, faculty of language education and literature, state university of surabaya, surabaya, indonesia abstract: following the interactional concept of metadiscourse by hyland and tse (2004) then developed by hyland (2005), this content analysis aims to find the use of interactional categories of metadiscourse in the introduction sections of two dissertations written by more and less proficient writers graduated from doctorate program. the interactional metadiscourse markers were categorized into booster, hedges, attitude markers, engagement markers, and self-mention. the results of analysis showed that the more proficient writer used more in number and variations of interactional metadiscourse markers than those of the less proficient writer did. for the most frequent interactional metadiscourse markers, the more proficient writer used engagement marker, while the less one used self-mention as the most frequent marker in introducing the study and reviewing related research. it means that the more proficient a writer, the more number and variations of interactionaal metadiscourse to be used. then the writers tend to include the readers and show their presence more in presenting the arguments without being so assertive. it is suggested for the english teacher/lecturer to teach explicitly the use of interactional metadiscourse especially in the aspect that can show the writers’ presence in presenting their arguments on their research reports. key words: interactional metadiscourse markers, introduction section, dissertation abstrak: mengikuti konsep tentang model interpersonal dari penanda metadiscourse yang telah dikemukakan oleh hyland dan tse (2004) susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 271 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj yang kemudian dikembangkan oleh hyland (2005), penelitian analisis isi ini bertujuan untuk menemukan penggunaan penanda metadiscourse interaksional pada bab pendahuluan dari dua buah disertasi yang ditulis oleh penulis yang baik dan penulis yang kurang baik mahasiswa lulusan s-3 pascasarjana. penanda-penanda metadiscourse tersebut dianalisa menurut lima kategori; “booster”, “hedges”, “attitude markers”, “engagement markers”, dan “self mention”. dari hasil analisa data ditemukan bahwa penulis yang baik menggunakan lebih banyak dan lebih bervariasi penanda-penanda metadiscourse interaksional dari pada penulis yang kurang baik. untuk penanda interaksional yang paling sering digunakan fekwensinya, penulis yang baik menggunakan penanda “engagement” dan penulis yang kurang baik menggunakan penanda “self mention”. jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa semakin terampil penulis semakin banyak dan bervariasi penanda metadiscourse interaksional yang digunakan. penulis cenderung melibatkan pembaca dan menunjukkan kehadiran mereka secara lebih dalam mempresentasikan pendapat mereka tanpa menggunakan katakata yang tegas..jadi disarankan pada guru/dosen bahasa inggris untuk mengajarkan secara ekplisit penggunaan penanda metadiscourse terutama dalam penggunaan yang dapat menunjukkan kehadiran mereka dalam mengemukakan pendapat merekan dalam penulisan karya tulis ilmiah. kata kunci: penanda metadiscourse interaksional, bab pendahuluan, disertasi introduction the categories of metadiscourse markers has been developed by several researchers; kopple (1985) categorized them into two broad categories; textual and interpersonal types. this classification were not clear and ambigious, so it was difficult to be applied in practice. then it was developed and evaluated by crismore, markkanen, & steffensen (1993) and hyland (1998). this research uses the recent and practical metadiscourse categories propossed by hyland and tse (2004) and then developed by hyland (2005), called as an interpersonal model of metadiscourse. this type classifies metadiscourse into two categories such as; interactive and interactional metadiscourse markers. the interactive categories consists of; transititions, frame markers, endhophoric markers, endophoric markers, evidentials and code glosses. the interactional categories consists of; hedges, boosters, attitude markers, self mentions, and engagement markers (hyland, 2005, p.49). 272 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hyland and tse (2004) stated that metadiscourse is interpersonal because it considers the reader’s background knowledge, textual experiences, and the ability understand the content. it facilitates writers with aspects to achieve these functions. although it is stated that all metadiscourse is interpersonal because of the relationship between the writer and the readers, metadiscourse are categorized into two aspects: first, the organizational choices that are referred to the interactive resources, while the evaluative and engagement features that are referred to the interactional metadiscourse. in this study the interpersonal model of metadiscourse classification is used to analyze the use of metadiscourse markers in academic writing. as we know that in academic writing, writers are hoped to be able to present their knowledge and show their proficiency with certain skills of thinking, interpreting, and presenting ideas. those idea related to a specific discipline that have their own key concept and language for describing the important ways of understanding. those key concept employed in each dicipline can be illuminated by the existence of metadiscourse. nasiri (2013, p.72) explains the main roles of the metadiscourse markers in terms of academic writing; first, the use of metadiscourse markers can help the academic writers learn content better. by using the metadiscourse markers a writer can adjust the level of personality in his/her texts, to offer a representation of him/herself and him/herself arguments. these functions reveal writer’s understand of the readers and their need for explanation, clarification and guidance. dissertation writing is a high achievement of writing that students’ make at the end of their study in post graduate program, so the use of metadiscourse are varied in numbers and types. by having rich number and variation of metadiscourse in this section it is possible to get the example of metadiscourse for the purpose of this study. hyland (2004, p.12) states that dissertation show the writer’s ability to write in high standard of writing in the different language. dissertation is an advanced level piece of academic writing produced by the students who considered in advanced english proficiency. in a high standard piece of writing the use of metadiscourse markers is in a greater number and variety. it is supported by the result of a research conducted by gholami (2014) that revealled that the writer’s language ability has a positive relationship with the uses of metadiscourse and the quality of their writing. by having greater number and variation of metadiscourse, it can be identified easily the example of the use of metadiscourse in its context of use. susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 273 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj another research conducted by intaraprawat and steffensson (1995) stated that good writer showed a greater variety of metadiscourse markers than the poor one, then the skilled writers have an understanding of readers needs and control the way how to make their texts are easier to be read and understood by the readers. in addition, hidayati, muhammad, & dallyono (2008), who has investigated about the use of hedging (one of the five categories in interactional metadiscourse markers), the students’ ability to write appropriately, and the students’ awareness toward the use of hedging in the theses written by english department graduates students of bandung education university (upi) bandung, found that all types of hedging were used with some inappropriateness and the students’ education level influences the awareness toward the use of hedging. the use of hedging and other metadiscourse markers in doctorate graduates is essential to be investigated because there would be potential variation in terms of the distribution and their reasons for using them in their works, resulting from their doctorate education background. so, the focus of analyzing the use of metadiscourse markers in theses or dissertation is still open to be discussed and it is also acts as the development of the previous research. one of the consideration of conducting this research is as what hyland (2005) suggested to the further researcher to conduct a research on the use of metadiscourse in another cultural academic as metadiscourse research can contribute to the important work conducted by hinkel (2002), mauren (1993) and others into intercultural discourse variation, exploring the expectation for particular metadiscourse form and interpersonal practices of different first language groups in the target contexts. in addition, hyland (2005, p.250) also states that research into the ways metadiscourse is typically used by different discourse communities can help seeing more clearly about how texts are the result of interactions, and how discourse practices which involve engagement in a web of professional and social associations. by revealing the interactional and interactive preferences of writers in different communities, it can be learnt more not only about the approved rhetorical practices but also about the values, norms, understandings and institutional structures which they reflect. by revealing the ways interpersonal practices depend on discourse domain and context, metadiscourse research can help learners attend to features that are used differently in their own discourses. finally, it can be stated that the focus of this research is an open discussing point due to the fact that there has been no other research taking this problem so it can develop the previous research. 274 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this study investigates the introduction section of the dissertations written by two writers, more and less proficient writers, graduated from english department of a doctorate program. the importance of analyzing the introduction section of the dissertation is based on some considerations that can be explained as follows; firstly, it is a development of the previous research conducted by letsoela (2013) who investigated the metadiscourse markers in national university of lesotho undergraduate students’ academic writing in discussion section only. he suggested to conducting further research in the use of metadiscourse markers in other sections of the research report on postgraduate students’ writing so it will be found the similarity or the differences of the use of metadiscourse markers between undergraduate and graduate research report writing and also might reveal the interesting observations. furthermore, the reason of choosing the introduction section of the dissertation that is because this section is known to be rich context for metadiscourse features. swetnam (2004, p.74–75) states that the introduction section functions to explain thinking, break the ice, establish a style and provide a basis for a tutorial. it should explain in general, what the purpose of the research: whether it searches for new knowledge, policy change or evaluation. then it goes on to state concisely what it is intended to do, the research questions, and the location of the research. it is scholarly in style, clear and direct in style with several references, general texts that deal with the basic theories. so it is important to write a coherent and acceptable text, with several quotations from sources to help establishing the right tone. all of those aspects can be illuminated by the use of metadiscourse especially in the use of the interactional categories that consists of hedges, booster, attitude markers, self-mention and engagement markers. the use of interactional metadiscourse can make the writer engage with their reader as participants in the ongoing discussion. literature review it is not easy to categorize and to identify the metadiscourse markers. hyland (2005) states that metadiscourse can be seen as open category to which writers are able to add new items according to the needs of the context. the focus of metadiscourse studies is on explicit textual device items which can be identified in the text. there are two realizations of the devices, called as metadiscourse markers, first non-verbal signals and the other is susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 275 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj verbal signals. crismore et al. (1993, p. 48; see hyland, 2005, p. 28) categorized nonverbal metadiscourse markers into two broad aspects; oral and written aspects. in oral nonverbal metadiscourse, the examples of metadiscourse markers are paralinguistic aspect which accompany spoken messages, such as; tone of voice and stress, proximity such as physical distance, and kinesics such as gesture, and facial expression. in written texts, various forms of punctuation and typographical marks such as; underline, capitalization, exclamation marks, etc. this research focuses on verbal metadiscourse markers as it analysis the words or phrases functioned as metadiscourse in the students’ dissertation writing. in the verbal potential metadiscourse markers, there are a number of different ways which these features have been categorized as the breadth of meaning realized by these markers. most taxonomy are closely based on that proposed by koople (1985), whose categorization consists of seven kinds of metadiscourse markers that are divided into textual and interpersonal types. the textual metadiscourse consists of text connectives, code glossess, validity markers, and narrators. the interpersonal metadiscourse consists of illocution markers, attitude markers, and commentaries. some researchers have used these classifications, such as crismore and farnworth (1989, 1990) intaraprawat and steffensen (1995), then cheng and steffensen (1996). the terminology and these functional categories are based on systemic functional grammar’s textual and interpersonal metafunctions of language as explained by halliday (1973). thus, the text organizing and interpretive aspects of metadiscourse are labelled textual metadiscourse while the evaluative, attitudinal and engagement aspects are labelled as interpersonal metadiscourse. thus, other researchers, hyland and tse (2004) stated that metadiscourse is interpersonal. it is called as interpersonal because it consider the reader’s needs, textual ability, and processing needs. it suggests writers with many rhetorical choices to reach the functions. so, the last theory which devided metadiscourse into textual and interpersonal types is not relevance anymore. because all metadiscourse is interpersonal because there is continous dialogue between the writer and the reader. in the interpersonal theory of metadiscourse, metadiscourse are divided into interactive and interactional metadiscourse.. the organizational aspects are referred to as interactive metadiscourse while the evaluative and engagement features are referred to as interactional metadiscourse. 276 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in writing dissertation, the writers are hoped to be able to provide contribution of knowledge through their research. it is more than just reporting the previous research, but they are hoped to analyze and to take a side, state their arguments by challenging the existing arguments, idea and theories. in addition, in writing the dissertation, there are some chapter and sub-chapter that must be written in clear and brief structure (wallace and wray, 2009). according to swetnam (2004, pp. 46-47) a typical dissertation has between five or eight chapter such as introduction, literature review, research methodology, data analysis, conclusion, bibliography, and appendixes, they can be explained as follows: the first chapter is introduction. the introduction sets the scene. it introduces the question/problem and explains the purpose and focus of the paper. it also provides some background information, for instance on previous work in the area, and on research gaps. if necessary, it provides definitions of the key term(s). finally, the introduction outlines in summary form how the writers are going to deal with the topic, and the various stages that will be taken before reaching the conclusion. if it is needed it is also possible to state here why the topic is relevant, for instance in relation to the writers’ professional context. in short, the `introduction chapter presents the (1) background and (2) the aim and objectives of the study, i.e. the relevance of topic; the reasons for the writer interest in it, and (briefly, because this will be dealt with in more detail in the literature review) the current knowledge of the topic. the writers may ‘frame’ their own research here, stating that is a need for doing that research to fill knowledge gaps. at this point, the writers may want to point out what the research is going to contribute to existing knowledge. leading on from (1) and (2), the writers may state the (3) research questions. next, provide an (4) outline of the dissertation with a brief overview of the following chapters. in short it can be said that the introduction chapter should answer the following questions: what is going to be done? why is it to be done? who is likely to be interested in it? what exatcly is the hypothesis or problem? what is the possible use of the research? what is the locus and focus? (swetnam, 2004, pp. 46-47). some researchers have conducted studies about metadiscourse markers. the following are the review of those researches; intaraprawat and steffensen (1995) conducted a research entitled “the use of metadiscourse markers in good and poor esl essays”, they found that good essays showed a greater variety of metadiscourse markers within susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 277 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj each categories than the poor essays. they also stated that skilled writers have an awareness of the needs of their readers and control the strategies for making their texts more considerate and accessible to the readers. on the contrary, poor writers are not able to generate considerate texts. in more advanced writers, hyland (2004) conducted his research in the post graduate level entitled “disciplinary interaction: metadoscourse in l2 postgraduate writing”. he found that the use of metadiscourse markers vary across the master and doctorate writers and also vary across the disciplinary communities. the doctorate writers used more metadiscourse markers than those the master’s writers. in the disciplinary communities, the more ‘soft knowledge” / social science disciplines, the more metadiscourse markers used. in investigating further about the use of the interactional metadiscourse markers, hedging and boosters, in research article, salichah, irawati, & basthomi (2015) conducted a research entitled “hedges and boosters in undergraduate students’ research article”. they found that there were five types of hedges used and three types of boosters in the articles. however, the students overused and misused hedging devices of ‘can’, as ‘can’ is the most familiar hedge typically taught to and digested by indonesian efl learners. in using the boosters, the students overstated and exaggerated in the use of universal pronoun. furthermore, in investigating the use of hedges and booster in english academic articles, takimoto in his research “ a corpus-based analysis of hedges and booster in english academic articles” (2015) found that hedges exceed booster, and the natural sciences were underrepresented in the number of hedges and booster. it was also found that choices the writers made were influenced by the discourse norms and rhetorical styles of each discipline and reflect the nature of different disciplinary characteristics. methods the data of this study are words or phrase functioned as interactional metadiscourse in introduction of two dissertations written by more and less proficient writers of post-graduate students. in this study, the variety under investigation refers to the three categories of graduation such as; cum-laude, very satisfying and satisfying categories. those categories are determined based on the grade point average (gpa). the range of gpa categories for doctorate students are as follows; first; gpa 3.814.00 is cum laude, if the 278 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj study can be finished in or before 4 years, then gpa3.51 -3.80 is very satisfying, and the last is, gpa of 3.00 – 3.50 is satisfying. from all of the population, there are 3 writers who got cum laude, then there are 22 writers with very satisfying categories and there are 3 writers with satisfying one. this research selects one (1) dissertation from cum laude and satisfying categories, so in total there are two (2) introduction section from two dissertations becomes the sample of this research. the chosen sample from each category such as: the dissertation written by cum laude category writer with gpa 3.88 in a 3-year study duration, and the dissertation written by satisfying category writer with gpa 3.26 in a 7-year study duration. in this content analysis the research becomes human instrumentation, as she collects, analyses and interprets the data. here, the introduction sections of the dissertation are carefully read word by word with specific attention to the function and meaning of the words functioned as metadiscourse. in identifying and locating the interactional metadiscourse, this study uses the most recent taxonomy of metadiscourse markers by hyland (2005). the interpretation depends on the human judgment to determine the function of the expressions in the contexts of use. the next instrument is documentation, in the documentation process, a coding scheme, which is developed based on hyland’s (2005) potential metadiscourse markers list, is used. this model is used because it is recent, simple, clear, and comprehensive categories. the list about three hundred (400) lexical items are used for the mater of analysis. then the manual frequency count is used to have a record of the specified interactional metadiscourse in the examined dissertations. as the size of the introduction section these two dissertations is unequal across the different gpa categories and to make the length of the text consistent, it is decided to calculate the frequency of metadiscourse markers per three thousand (3000) words as the shortest length of the introduction srction of the two dissertations is 3000 words. after determining the type of interactional metadiscourse employed in introduction sections of the dissertations sample, the collected data are counted their frequency then analyze using frequency formula. then the word or phrase functioned as interactional metadiscourse is described qualitatively in order to explain the variation of the words or phrases functioned as interactional metadiscourse in the introduction section of the dissertation writing. susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 279 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj findings and discussion interactional metadiscourse markers are used to show the writer’s position about the presented information and also to engage the readers as the participants of the dialogue process of using the language. by using these markers, the writer tries to involve the reader to the communication process. the following are the data about the use of the interactional metadiscourse markers in the introduction section used by the more proficient writer. a. the use of interactional metadiscourse markers in the introduction section dissertations written by more proficient writers in the introduction section, there are some items used by a good writer that can be categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers. the following are the data about the use of the interactional metadiscourse markers: 1. boosters boosters are words that facilitate writers to close alternatives, face conflicting views, and express their certainty in what they say. they emphasize certainty or close dialogue. in the introduction section, the booster markers are used four times. the following are three examples and the analysis of the use of those markers: a) these qualities of existentialism are clearly seen in the life story of orhan pamuk and in his ways of life. b) undoubtedly, it has also made him a great fortune in his writing career. during an interview after winning the international dublin literary award. c) both novels have indeed explored a great number of the major themes in the philosophy of existentialism. in the first example the word “clearly” functions as booster as it indicates the writer’s certainty about the existence of the existentialism in the author that he chose as the object of the study. in the second sentence again the writer was very confident toward his opinion by using the word “undoubtedly”. he hopes that the readers have the same opinion as his. furthermore, in the last example, the word “indeed” also emphasizes the good writer certainty about his argument. 280 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. hedges hedges are tools used by the writer to decide the point of view and complete commitment to a proposition. they express commitment and open dialogue. the hedges markers are used eleven times in the introduction. the following are the three data on the use of the markers: a) he claimed that human beings first exist with nothingness and only after they exist that some essence may develop. b) a novel may have one or more philosophical schools of thought along its story, depending on the intentions of its author. c) the theme, characters and plots of a novel, for instance, may actually represent its author’s philosophical views of life and even his own personal life experiences. in the first sentence, the word “claimed” is categorized as hedges because it expresses the writer point of view about the existence of the time certain essence of life developed. in the second sentence, the word “may” function as interactional metadiscourse markers as it implies the writer opinion about his doubt whether or not a novel contains a philosophical thought. finally, the third sentence the word “may” also expresses the writer opinion rather than fact whether the theme, character and plots of a novel reflected the author’s philosophical idea and personal life or not. 3. attitude markers attitude markers indicate the writer's affective and attitude to propositions. attitude markers convey surprise, agreement, importance, obligation, and frustration. the attitude markers are used four times in the introduction. the following are the data on the use of the markers: a) most popularly, sartre (1946, p.22) stated that man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world, and then defines himself afterwards. (importance) b) and most importantly, the journey to discover the philosophy of life is beginning. c) most importantly, he has exhibited the greatest virtues in him as a man who was once lost in the wilderness of uncertainty, emptiness, downfall and failure but then again and again he kept susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 281 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj trying to seek and find his true self until today he has created his own meanings to his life. in those three examples, the phrase “most popularly”, “most importantly” are used to express the writer attitude toward the main information. in those sentences the writer shows the agreement and the importance of the statements. 4. engagement markers engagement markers are devices used to address readers directly in order to get the reader attention or to include them as discourse participants, they explicitly, build a relationship with reader. the engagement marker is used nineteen times in the introduction section. the following is the sentence that contains the engagement marker: a) therefore, good literary works must have both beauty and utility. more than two thousand years ago, the roman poet….” b) every person may at times feel the loss of self-identity during which we become uncertain of what to be and where to go to find the purposes and meanings of life. c) we all construct our own ways of understanding in the first example, the obligation modal “must” function as engagement markers because it functions directly to guide the readers to interpret the writer’s idea as what the writer’s want. in the second and third example, the words “we” and “our” (inclusive), function to include the readers in the discussion. 5. self-mention self-mention refers to the level of explicit writer presence in the text. they explicitly refer to writers. the self-mention marker is used four times in the introduction section. the following are the example of the use of selfmention: a) it is based on this standpoint that the researcher is interested in conducting a research to analyze and discover the thoughts of existentialism as one of the philosophies that attracts his most attention within orhan pamuk’s novels, snow and the museum of innocence. 282 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b) another reason that the researcher has considered in choosing orhan pamuk for this study is the author’s extraordinary achievement in his literary works. in the above example the writer tries to explicitly express his presence by using the third singular person “the researcher”. the function of the word “the researcher” in the first and second example is to explicitly express the existence of the writer. from the data above it can be clearly counted that there are 42 items that can be categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers. all of the types of the interactional metadiscourse markers can be found in this section. so, in order to make it clearer, the use of each interactional metadiscourse markers can be seen in the following table: table 1: interactional metadiscourse markers in introduction section of more proficient writer (per-3000 words) category f p booster 4 9.5 hedges 11 26 from the table above, we can figure out that that the most frequent number is engagement markers, there are total of 19 items per 3000 words or 45.2%. the high degree of engagement markers means that the good writer tries to take the readers to be involved in the discourse as an active participant, in order to make their idea clearer. as swetnam (2004, p.47) stated that in introduction the writers form their own research, state that is a need for doing that research to fill knowledge gaps. the writer may want to point out what the research is going to contribute to existing knowledge. so it is important to get the presentation of the information can be well presented and comprehended. it is followed by hedges with the total of 11 items per 3000 words or 26%, the next is booster with the total of 4 items in 3000 words or 9.5%. the number of hedges that was more than the number of booster indicates that the writer wanted to be more subjective and attitude markers 4 9.5 engagement markers 19 45.2 self mention 4 9.5 total 42 100 susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 283 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interpretive, it is suitable as the characteristic of the social and humanities subject that is more subjective and interpretive (takimoto, 2015). however, the good writer tries to be firm in stating the idea but at the same time considering that the readers will be at his superior position or at the same level, so he used hedges to soften it. the last two markers, attitude markers and self-mention have limited number there were only 4 or 9.4 % for both attitude markers and self mention. there are variations on the items used by the more proficient writer that has been categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers. the following table explains those items: table 2: items identified as interactional metadiscourse markers in introduction section of good writers category f p booster 4 9.5 well known indeed clearly undoubtedly 1 1 1 1 hedges claimed argued can may 11 1 1 3 6 26 attitude markers most importantly most popularly 4 3 1 9.5 engagement markers must we our us 19 1 7 10 1 45.2 self mention the researcher 4 4 9.5 total 42 100 in this table, among the items categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers, the word “our” becomes the most frequent marker 284 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to be used, followed by the word “we” as the engagement marker category. the use of the possessive pronoun “our” and the first pronoun, plural personal pronoun “we” were used to make the readers participate in the discussion. by using these words, the good writer tries to take the readers to the discussion about the background knowledge of the research, so the idea that the current research gives an advanced knowledge toward the current one can be comprehended well. the word “may” becomes the next frequent items to be used as the hedging marker. b. the use of interactional metadiscourse markers in the introduction section of dissertations written by less proficient writers in introduction section, it can be found items used by the less proficient writer that can be categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers. the following are the data about the use of those interactional metadiscourse markers: 1. hedges hedges are used to express the writer commitment and to open dialogue with the readers. here, hedges markers are used eleven times in the introduction. the following are the data on the use of that marker: a) madurese should be learned by elementary school students as it is the potential source of culture b) in general, the study is to evaluate the english teaching materials for the fourth grade elementary school in bangkalan. c) ....the materials in the book should be compatible with the curriculum. in the first and third example the word “should” function as interactive metadiscourse markers because it let the reader to be active in the discussion about the importance of teaching madurese in elementary school and also about the importance of the materials in the book to be compatible with the curriculum. 2. engagement markers engagement marker is used by the writer to explicitly build relationship with the readers. the engagement marker is used four times in the introduction section. the following is the sentence that contains the engagement marker: susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 285 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a) the main assumption underlying the teaching of english at elementary school seems to be related to the age of the learners b) student books as the supporting process must also be standardized. c) esb needs to be evaluated. this study is to evaluate the english teaching materials for the fourth grade elementary school in bangkalan especially the english student book published by the becs. in the first example the word “seems” functions to invite the readers to discuss the matter of the teaching of english at elementary school. in the second example the word “must” means the writer point of view about the standardized of the students’ book, and in the last example again the writer opens a discussion with the readers about his opinion about the importance to do evaluation to the book. 3. self-mention self-mention used by the writer to develop relationship with the readers by address the readers as the text participants. in the introduction section the poor writer used self-mention marker thirteen times. the following are the example of the use of the self-mention: a) the writer uses the national standard of evaluation which has certain criteria. b) the writer pays attention to the teacher and the learners’ activity. c) from the content, the researcher evaluates the teaching materials in esb and the compatibility of the materials with the competence standard and the basic competence in the 2006 english curriculum. in the first sentence and second sentences, the phrase “the writer” used as self-mention device, they function to take the readers into the discussion and treat the readers at the same position as the writer. in the third example, the phrase “the researcher” is used instead of “the writer”. from those data presented above, it can be clearly counted that there are 28 items that can be categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers. there were only three categories of interactional metadiscourse markers used 286 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by the less proficient writer, the two categories, booster and attitude markers, were not used. it means that the less proficient writer did not use all of the categories of the interactional metadiscourse markers. so, in order to make it clearer, the use of each interactional metadiscourse markers can be seen in the following table: table 3: interactional metadiscourse markers in introduction section of less proficient writer (per-3000 words) category number of terms mean % of total booster 0 0 0 hedges 11 0.3 39.2 attitude markers 0 0 0 engagement markers 4 0.15 14.2 self mention 13 0.5 46.4 total 28 1 100 from the table above, it can be known that the most frequent number is self -mention, there were 13 items or (46.4%). it is followed by hedges with the total of 11 items per-3000 words or 39.2 %, the next is engagement markers with the total of 4 items in 3000 words or 14.2%, then there were no attitude markers and booster can be found. in order to make the description of the use of the interactional metadiscourse markers clearer, in the following data, the use of the items that categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers are presented. in table 4, which is about the words or phrase that can be categorized as interactional metadiscourse markers above, we can see that the word “should” is the most frequent word to be used as hedges marker. it is followed by the word “the writer” as the interactional metadiscourse marker in self -mention marker. table 4: items identified as interactional metadiscourse markers in introduction section of less proficient writer (per-3000 words) category f p booster 0 0 susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 287 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hedges can should in general 11 2 7 2 39.2 attitude markers 0 0 this result showed that the writer avoided using first person pronoun because it is thought that using the first person make writing sound more objective, so the third person “the writer/the researcher/ he as the most common point of view in academic writing is used (pope, 2011). table 5: interactional metadiscourse markers in introduction section of more and less proficient writer (per-3000 words) category good writer poor writer total percentage % booster 4 0 6 hedges 11 11 32 attitude markers 4 0 6 engagement markers 19 0 27 self mention 4 13 24 total 42 28 100 from table 5, we can notice that there are more interactional metadiscourse markers used by the more proficient writer. there were also more variations on the use of the interactional metadiscourse markers. this result supported the study conducted by intaraprawat and steffensen (1995) who found that good essays showed a greater variety of metadiscourse markers within each category than the poor essays. they also stated that skilled writers have an awareness of the needs of their readers and control the strategies for making their texts more engagement markers seems must need 4 1 1 2 14.2% self mention the writer the researcher he 13 6 4 3 46.4% totals 28 100 288 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 270 – 291 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj considerate and accessible to the readers. this result also supported the result of the research conducted by simin and tavangar (2009) who found that the more proficient learners are in second language, the more they use metadiscourse markers. conclusion at this stage, we have discussed about the use of the interactional metadiscourse markers in introduction section of the dissertation written by two different writers who have different english proficiency. form the result of the research described above, it is obvious that the better writer the more interactional metadiscourse markers used. in using those markers, the more skillful writer use more variation on the use of words and phrases functioned as interactional metadiscourse markers. as the sample of the more and less proficient writer in this research is limited in two dissertations, it is suggested for the future research to conduct a research in the research report written by more writers in the broader universities in indonesia and in all section of the dissertation, so the more comprehensive data will be reached. furthermore, in order to get more complete data, it is suggested to use not only documentation but also interview and srm (stimulated recall methodology). by using these instruments, the respondent point of view will be able to collect. it is also found that the less proficient writer uses less interactional markers both in number and variation, so it is suggested for the lecturer/ teacher to introduce and give explicit practice to the students about the use of interactional metadiscourse markers. acknowledgements parts of this paper have been presented at the 5th celt international conference in semarang, indonesia during 9-11th september 2017. the conference was a project funded by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education. susanti, y., kurnia, f.d., & suharsono, interactional metadiscourse markers 289 in the introduction of dissertations: differences across english proficiency level https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references crismore, a. & farnsworth, r. 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(1981), style: ten lessons in clarity and grace. boston: scott foresman. 9.pdf (p.1) 009 dec2017.pdf (p.2-23) the realization of ideational meanings in the students' recounts! sri mulatsih2 abstract: english department students of faculty of languages and letters of dian nuswantoro university usually have difficulties in writing english texts. those difficulties deal with the way to organize ideational meaning in their texts. based on that fact. this study was conducted to know the realization of ideational meaning in the students' texts. especially recounts. the data were taken from the students' recounts. andfor the sake of this study. 10 recounts were chosen as the data. to analyze the data. halliday and matthiessen 's framework (1999) was applied to get a deep understanding of ideational meaning. the result shows that in organizing the ideational meanings in their recounts. the students used sequences. figures. the elements of figures: process. participant, and circumstances; and the realization of those elements in lexicogrammar. kinds of sequences (clause complexes) the student mostly made in their recount are enhancement, and extension. elaboration, locution or idea have lower portion compared to the two sequences mentioned above. four kinds offigures arefound in the students recounts. those are figure of doing (material and behavioral processes), figure of sensing (mental process). figure of saying (verbal process), and figure of being (relational: attributive. identifying) process. and existential process). among the four figures mentioned above, figures of doing (material processes) with actor and goal as the key participants dominate in all texts. 112 circumstances (circumstances of time, place. manner, matter, and accompaniment) are found in the students' recounts. those a case study conducted at the english department of the faculty of languages and letters of dian nuswantoro university, semarang. dra. sri mulatsih, m.pd. <asihpnrg@yahoo.com> is a lecturer of the faculty of languages and letters of dian nuswantoro university, semarang. s. mulatsill, the realization of ideational meanings in the students'recounts 155 four kinds of figures are found in the students recounts. those are figure of doing (material and behavioral processes), figure of sensing (mental process), figure of saying (verbal process), and figure of being (relational: attributive, identifying) process, and existential process). among the four figures mentioned above, figures of doing (material processes) the actor and goal become the key participants that dominate all texts. it means that the clauses in their recounts are centrally concerned on actions and events. 112 circumstances (circumstances oftime, place, manner, matter, and accompaniment) are found in the students' recounts. those circumstances are realized in simple and macro circumstances. the number of macro circumstances is higher than that of simple ones. it shows that the students can produce circumstances in more than one word in which there is a participant in it. since personal recount is a text, telling someone's past experience, the realization of participants in their recounts are mostly conscious simple things like /, you, we, linda, etc. simple qualities only exist in relational (attributive) process. the processes are mostly realized in polar non-phasal verbs in past tense and the students rarely made polar phasal verbs in their recounts. bibliography arikunto, suharsimi. prosedur penelitian: suatu pendekatan praktek. jakarta: pt. rineka cipta, 1996. but, david et. al. using functional grammar: an explorer's guide. second edition. sydney: national centre for english language teaching research. macquire university, 200 i. derewianka, beverly. exploring how text work. newtown: primary english teachingassociation, 1995. eggin, suzanne. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: printer publishers, 1994. eggin, suzanne and diana slade. analyzing casual conversation. london: casell, 1997. fairclough, norman. language and power. london and new york: longman, 1989. 156 celt, volume 7, number 2, december 2007: 143 157 gerot, l. and p. wignel. making sense of functional grammar. cammeray, new south wales: antipodean educational enterprises, 1994. guion, lisa a. triangulation: establishing the validity of qualitative studies. university of florida: extension. institute of food and agriculture scienes, 2002 halliday, m.a.k. and r. hasan. language, context. and text: aspects of language in a social semiotic perspective, melbourne: deakin unibersity press, 1985. halliday, m.a.k. learning how to mean. london: edward arnold ltd., 1975. ___ language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. london: edwardarnold, 1978. ___ . spoken and written language. geelong, victoria: deakin university press, 1985. ___ . an introduction to functional grammar. second edition. london: edwardarnold, 1994. halliday, m.a.k. and c.m.l.m. matthiessen. construing experience through meaning: a language based approach to cognition. london: continuum, 1999. isaac, stephen and william b. michael. handbook in research and evaluation. sandiego: edits publishers, 1971. kress, j.r. halliday: system and function in language. london: oxford university press, 1976. le compte and praissle. ethnography and qualitative design in educational research, red. california. academic press. inc., 1993. lewitt, p.j. "how to cook a tasty essay". english teaching forum. vol. 26, 1990: 1723. malmkjaer, kriste. the linguistic encyclopedia. new york: routledge, 1995. martin, j.r., c.m.i.m. matthiessen, and c. painter. working with functional grammar. london: arnold, 1997. martin, j.r. and d. rose. working with discourse. meaning beyond the clause. london: arnold, 2003. matthiessen, c.m.i.m. lexicogrammatical cartography: english system. tokyo: international language science series, 1995. miller, tom. functional approach to written text: classroom application. washington, dc: english language program united states information agency, 1997. puspitasari, florentina unggul. "transitivity analysis of 'my lost love found" short story". unpublished thesis semarang: dian nuswantoro university, 2005. s. mil/alsill, the realization of ideational meanings in the students'recounts 157 randaccio. some notes on systemicfunctional linguistics. www.public.iastate. edu-carolc/llng 511/sfl.html, retrieved on october 2006 schriffin, d. approaches to discourse. oxford: blackwell, 1995. ventola, eija. the structure of casual conversation in english. in journal of pragmatics. 1979: 267 298. logo:   reduplication of mongondow language 1donal matheos ratu, 2mister gidion maru 1,2english department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia email: 1donalratu@unima.ac.id, 2mrhekang@yahoo.com received: 02-11-2017 accepted: 04-12-2017 published: 15-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reduplication of mongondow language 1donal matheos ratu and 2mister gidion maru 1donalratu@unima.ac.id, 2mrhekang@yahoo.com 1,2english department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia abstract: this study aims at describing the reduplication of mongondow and its meanings. the method used in this research is descriptive method in taxonomy that is an elaboration by classifying elements of language according to hierarchical relationship. data were obtained through primary and secondary data sources. primary data were collected through interviews with five informants chosen from tutuyan region, of tombolikat village, who are active speakers of bolaang mongondouw language. secondary data were gathered through a text study. the results show that the formation of mongondow words can be done by reduplication, either whole or complete reduplication and partial reduplication consisting of reduplication of deletion on the word base, reduplication of initial syllable and affixed reduplication. the reduplication of mongondow language has the following meanings: (1) to declare uncertain plurality, (2) to declare reciprocal meaning, (3) to declare collective and distributive meaning, (3) to declare command or advice, (4) to declare the tool, (5) to declare the place (6) to declare about superlative, (7) to declare about more quality, and (8) to state the meaning of an action done with pleasure or comfort. key words: reduplication, language, bolaang mongondouw abstrak: studi ini bertujuan menggambarkan reduplikasi bahasa mongondow dan maknanya. metode yang digunakan adalah deskriptif dalam taksonomi berupa elaborasi dengan mengklasifikasikan elemen – elemen bahasa sesuai dengan hubungan hierarkisnya. data didapatkan dalam bentuk sumber primer dan sekunder. data primer diperoleh melalui wawancara dengan lima informan kunci dari wilayah tutuyan, dalam hal ini desa tombolikat. hal ini dilakukan karena sebagian besar penutur di wilayah tombolikat masih aktif menggunakan bahasa mongondow. data sekunder dikumpulkan melalui studi pada teks yang telah dikumpulkan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pembentukan kata – kata ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 209 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj mogondow dapat dengan cara reduplikasi baik secara keseluruhan maupun sebagian yang terdiri dari reduplikasi penghilangan akhir kata, reduplikasi suku kata awal dan reduplikasi imbuhan. makna reduplikasi bahasa mongondow antara lain; 1) menyatakan jamak yang tidak tentu, 2) menyatakan makna resiprokal, 3) menyatakan makna distributive dan kolektif, 4) menyatakan perintah atau saran, 5) menyatakan tempat atau alat, 6) menyatakan makna superlative, 7) menyatakan kualitas, dan 8) menyatakan aksi yang dilakukan dengan senang hati kata kunci: reduplikasi, mongondow, deskriptif, makna, pembentukan kata introduction culture of a region is strongly influenced by its language users. regional language or also known as the mother tongue, is a symbol of the identity of a region, community, family, and environment. local language users can also create a warmth of familiarity, as todd (in alwasilah,1993, p. 27) puts it "bahasa ibu diasosasikan dengan perasaan, kehangatan, keakraban dan spontanitas." cultural preservation is very important, as stated in the uud 1945 about language preservation and maintenance. uud 1945 mandates that "daerah daerah yang mempunyai bahasa yang dipelihara oleh rakyatnya dengan baik akan dihormati dan dipelihara juga oleh negara, bahasa bahasa itu pun merupakan bagian dari kebudayaan indonesia yang hidup". bolaang mongondow regency is one of the areas in north sulawesi that has its own local language. the bolaang mongondow language speakers in 2011 are estimated to amount of around 400,000, scattered in a number of bolaang mongondow district settlements, kota mobagu, east bolaang mongondow, south bolaang mongondow. mongondow language is actively used in communications among fellow members of the community and becomes a local content in teaching local languages in schools that exist in the majority areas of mongondow language users. this language is a marker of the identity of existence as a socio-cultural group and a distinctive feature that distinguishes it from other social groups in north sulawesi. language can be studied from several aspects. one of the most important aspects of the study in language is reduplication or word repetition. samsuri (1985, p. 66) asserts that reduplication is a frequent process in the language of the world and has certain types. similarly, verhaar states, that reduplication is commonly found in languages in southeast asia including indonesia (1988, p. 63). reduplication can be used in the language 210 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to express things of a plural nature, explanation, or intensity that goes on and on (sapir, 1994, p. 98); this applies also to mongondow language. thus, reduplication is one form in the language of a large role. some of the above statements indicate that reduplication needs serious attention including reduplication in mongondow language. another reason that is quite essential is the greater influence of malay manado on mongondow. in communicating activities, the community began mixing the use of malay manado language in mongondow. in its usage pattern, the bolaang mongondow language participates in indonesian language especially in formal (formal) situations such as lectures, sermons and meetings in the villages. not infrequently mongondow language is used with the intent to emphasize or explain something that is considered important. although on the other hand also used manado malay language, the occurrence of things like this is because the people of indonesia are multilingual, which means that the people use more than one language (mackey, 1970, p. 12). according to mulyana, indonesian and other languages in indonesia as one group, has also become the basis for researching this issue (1982, p. 17). he further said that the austronesian languages have a similar reduplication system. this statement implies that both bolaang mongondow and indonesian have similarities in the form of reduplication. this view is the basis for researching the such problem in mongondow. from the results of initial observations, researchers got a description of the reduplication of bolaang mongondow language, for example: (1) tondok = fence (n) tondo-tondok = fences-fences (n), (2) pomasol = hoe (v) pomaso-masol = hoe-hoe, (3) anto? lots = moanto moanto? = at most. the examples show the reduplication in bolaang mongondow. example (1) shows, that the reduplication of the word base produces an indeterminate plural meaning. then, example (2) is a reduplication that gives the meaning of qualitative intensity. finally, example (3) is the reduplication, which shows the most meaning. nevertheless, these examples and explanations have not represented the matter of reduplication in mongondow language for detail. from the reasons above, researcher is interested to raise the issue of reduplication. the problem of reduplication in mongondow language, according to the researcher, has been never conducted by anyone. that is why researcher tried to reveal the reduplication of bolaang mongondow language since the problem of language shift is so strong that it is predicted that one day this will ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 211 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lead to language death if it does not get serious attention from the people who have the language. as a regional language preservation effort, the government has also programmed the teaching of regional languages in schools, nowadays known as muatan lokal (mulok). this is one of many educational programs in which the content of the delivery media is linked to the surrounding natural environment and the culture and needs of regional development that need to be taught to the students (ibrahim & karyadi, 1996). thus the local language has been contained in the school curriculum. in this case the curriculum will be used is kbk curriculum. competencybased curriculum (kurikulum berbasis kompetensi) is a tool of plans and arrangements on the competencies and learning outcomes that learners, assessments, teaching and learning activities need to achieve, and the empowerment of educational resources in the development of school curricula. based on the existing descriptions, the researcher conducted a research with the object of bolaang mongondow language study with scientific paper in the form of thesis entitled: "reduplication of mongondow language (a contribution toward indonesian learning). within this context, this research paper addresses the question how the form and meaning of reduplication in mongondow language are. therefore, the paper is intended to describe the form of mongondow language reduplication and describe its meanings. theoretical bases a. geographical location bolaang mongondow is located on the north peninsula of sulawesi island extending from west to east and flanked by two other districts, namely gorontalo (now a province) and minahasa. geographically this area lies between 100.30 " lu and 0020" as well as between 16024'0 "bt and 17054'0" bt. the north is bounded by the sea of sulawesi and the south with the maluku sea.bolaang mongondow is a landscape that stands alone and selfgoverning and is still a closed area until the end of the 19th century. foreign relations are merely trade relations held through contracts with the ruling kings of the time. with the influx of foreign governments (dutch) around 1901, the administrative area includes onderafdeling bolaang mongondow which includes the binatuna landschap, bolaang uki, kaidipang from afdeling manado. 212 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj coastal boundary with gorontalo region by two rivers, i.e. north of andagile river and south by taludaa river. with the minahasa area also two rivers that are north of the river poigar and in the south by the buyat river. the widest field is about 66 km distance between the river poigar and the cape of flesko. the narrowest one is between the village of sauk in the north and the village of popodu in the south. the leader of the bolmong community in the past was called bogani which is now in bolaang mongondow area, there is a bogani statue located in kotabangon village of kotamobagu sub-district. b. definition of morphology to know the morphology definitions, the following are some opinions from linguists. first, kridalaksana states that morphology is a linguistic field that studies the morphemes and their combinations (1983, p. 11). second, badudu states morphology is the science that talks about the morpheme how morpheme forms (1983, p. 66). third, keraf states morphology is a study of the ins and outs of the word and the influence of changes in the form of the word to the class and meaning of the word, or in other words can be said that morphology learn the ins and outs of words and changes in the form of words that is, both grammatical and semantic functions (1984, p. 51). from all the definitions described above, it can be concluded that morphology is the study of the morpheme and its function of both grammatical and semantic changes. each unit of words in language has a form and body. the following linguist opinions about the definition of word are quoted. according to ramlan the word is the smallest free unit or any one free unit is a word (1987, p. 33). meanwhile, chaer argues that the word is a unit of language that has one sense in other words is a series of letters flanked by two spaces and has meaning (1994, p. 62). so, the word is a free form that stands alone. in indonesian the word form can be divided into two parts, (1) single or simple form is a form or unit that has a smaller unit again, and (2) the complex form is the form of a unit that consists of units that are smaller again, ramlan (1987, p. 28). c. definition of reduplication in traditional grammar, repeated words are often called reduplications. according ramlan the process of repetition or reduplication is the repetition of grammatical units either entirely or partially either with variations of the phoneme or not (2001, p. 63). meanwhile long before kridalaksana states ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 213 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj that reduplication is a process with the result of repeating the language units such as phonological or grammatical tools (1986, p. 143). in contrast, chaer states that reduplication is a morphemical process that repeats the basic form, either whole, partially, or by sound change (2002, p. 182). from some opinions mentioned above can be concluded, that reduplication is the process of repeating the form whether the shape is intact or some even sometimes phonemic changes. according to verhaar, reduplication occurs in many languages of the world in connection with this statement (1988, p. 63). keraf states that to examine reduplication in a language should be viewed carefully and adapted to the conditions of the language related (1987, p. 120). d. function and meaning of reduplication according keraf reduplication can be studied in terms of kinds, functions and meanings (1987, p. 120). 1. kinds of repetition based on its kind, the form of looping in indonesian according to keraf (1987, p. 120) can be divided into four types: a) deuteronomy over the initial syllable, or also called dwipurwa. in this form of repetition, the vowels of the initial syllable are weakened and shifted to the middle position into e (pepet). for example: tatanaman> tetanaman, tatangga> tetangga, luluhur> leluhur this deuteronomy even though is determined in indonesian, the examples are not many. b) repeat of entire basic form. this is called a complete repetition. there are two kinds of repetitions, namely repetition of the basic form of the word base and called dwilingga, and a repeated basic form of word with affix. for example: rumah> rumah-rumah, perbuatan> perbuatan-perbuatan, buah> buah-buah,kejadian>kejadian full replication is found in many languages, including indonesian and highly productive. 214 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c) next, replication occurs over all syllables, but on one lingga there is a change of sound on one or more phonemes. this kind of repetition is called dwilingga salin suara. for example: gerak-gerak> gerak-gerik, sayur-sayur> sayur-mayur, porak-porak> porak-porik although this form is not too much in language, but often appears in the activities of speech. d) the fourth deuteronomy is repetition with affix, both on the first part and on the second part. this type of replication is called repetition with affix. for example: bermain-main, memukul-mukul, berpukul-pukulan, main-mainan seeing this description means that a complete initial syllable repetition, repetition of phonemic changes and replicated affixes are the kinds of repetitions that are often found in the indonesian language. 2. function determining the function of the repeated word here will be very difficult, because according to keraf, the functions and meanings are tightly connected, cannot be separated from each other (1987, p. 120). but if we only see the function as a tool for forming the word type, then it can be said that the repetition of a word will decrease the same type of word as if it were not repeated: mainan, the same type as main-mainan, tali is the same as tali temali and so on. so it can be said that the function leads to the kind of word produced after the word is repeated. 3. meaning more clearly we can classify based on the meaning, but there is no denial in it already established the function of repetition. or it can be said in another way, that it has a function to produce a certain meaning (keraf, 1987, p. 121). although here the different functions of the meaning are difficult to recognize, but in general the distinction is clearly visible. the meaning that can be supported by the repetition that according to keraf (1987, p. 121) is: a) repetition first of all means a lot that are indeterminate. to declare a lot that are determinate, the indonesian language does not require ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 215 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a reshape. consider the following example: di padang terdapat 3 ekor kuda (a lot that are determinate), kuda-kuda itu berkejar-kejaran (a lot that are indeterminate). another example is: ayah membelikan saya sepuluh buah buku (a lot that are determinate) and buku-buku itu telah kusimpan dalam lemari (a lot that are indeterminate). b) besides a lot that are indeterminate, the form of repetition contains another meaning, which is bermacam-macam (diverse). for example: tanam-tanaman = many and diverse plants, buah-buahan= many and diverse fruits the repeated word in this case is usually completed with the suffix -an. c) another meaning that can be derived from a word that resembles or imitation of something. for example: kuda-kudaan, anak-anakan, orang-orangan d) close to the third meaning is to weaken the meaning, in this case can be interpreted with agak. for example: apa-apa yang dilihatnya diambilnya, sifatnya kekanak-kanakan, orang itu sakitsakitan, gadis itu kemalu-maluan melihat pemuda itu. e) expressing the intensity, either the intensity of quality (qualitative intensity), both about quantity (quantitative intensity), or about frequency (frequency intensity). for example: pukullah kuat-kuat, belajarlah segiat-giatnya, gunung itu yang setingg-tingginya di pulau jawa. i) quantitative intensity. for example: kuda-kuda, rumah-rumah. buah-buah, anak-anak, etc. ii) frequency intensity. for example:m ia menggeleng-gelengkan kepalanya, ia mondar-mandir saja sejak tadi. f) deuteronomy on the verb can decrease the meaning of mutual, or reciprocal work (each other). for example: terjadi tawar-menawar dalam proses jual beli, ia berpukul-pukulan dengan si dul, keduanya bersalam-salaman. another example is: dalam perkelahian itu terjadi tikam-menikam antara kedua orang itu. 216 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj g) the repetition of the numerical word has a collective meaning: dua-dua, tiga-tiga, lima-lima, and others. e. form of reduplication based on the way of repeating the basic form, repetition can be classified into four groups: 1. the entire repetition the entire repetition is the repetition of all basic forms, without any phonemic changes and not in combination with the affixing process. for example: sepeda = sepeda–sepeda, buku = buku-buku, kabaikan = kabaikan-kabaikan based on the above example it can be said, that the whole iteration underlines that the whole existing word is repeated. 2. partial repetition partial repetition is a partial repetition of its basic form. almost all the basic forms of this type of repetition are complex forms. a single form is a word lelaki formed from the basic laki, also tetamu being formed from the basic form tamu, beberapa which is formed from the berapa, pertama-tama formed of the basic form pertama, and segala-galanya from the basic form segala. the word pertama and all are singular because in the morphological sequence there is no smaller unit of the two words. indeed, in addition to the first word, there is word utama, but the two words cannot be inserted into a single morphological sequence. although both have a form affinity, both of which contain the element tama, but they have no coherence of meaning so that the word pertama is defined as a morpheme, the word utama as one morpheme as well. f. function of reduplication there is process of repetition which serves to change the class of words, and there is repetition which does not. in repeated words like karangmengarang, cetak-mencetak, potong-memotong, jilid-menjilid, the process of repetition has the function of forming the nominal word of the verb, and also in the function of repeated words such as sekuat-kuatnya, the process of repetition serves as the former of the adverb from the adjective, but on the ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 217 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj repeated words binatang-binatang, rumah-rumah, pembangunan-pembangunan, kuda-kudaan, anak-anakkan, berteriak-teriak, memukul-mukul, pandang-memandang, surat-menyurat, cepat-cepat, kecil-kecil, the process of repetition does not change the word class. g. meaning of reduplication the process of repetition has several meanings: 1. stating the meaning of 'many'. let us compare the word rumah to the word rumah-rumah in two sentences such as: rumah itu sudah sangat tua, and rumah-rumah itu sudah sangat tua. the word rumah in the phrase ‘rumah itu sudah sangat tua’ declares ‘sebuah rumah’, while the word ‘rumah-rumah’ in the sentence ‘rumah-rumah itu sudah sangat tua’ declares 'banyak rumah’. this is the same with: binatang-binatang = banyak binatang, pembangunanpembangunan = banyak pembangunan. (keraf, 1987, p. 121) 2. state the meaning of 'many' in contrast to the meaning mentioned above, here the meaning of ‘banyak’ is not related to the basic form, but rather relates to the "explained" word. the word 'explained' at the phrase level occupies a function as a central element, for example the word ‘rumah’ in rumah besar besar. clearly, the repetition of the ‘besar-besar’ expresses the meaning of ‘banyak’ to the 'explained' word, in this case the word ‘rumah’. other examples, are: mahasiswa yang pandai-pandai mendapat beasiswa, mahasiswa itu pandai-pandai, pohon yang rindang-rindang itu pohon beringin, pohon di tepi jalan itu rindang-rindang. 3. stating the meaning of 'unconditional' (keraf, 1987, p. 123) example: duri-duri diterjang = ‘meskipun duri diterjang’, darah-darah diminum = ‘meskipun darah diminum’ 4. state the meaning 'that resembles what is on the basic form'. in this case the repetition process combines with the change process of affix -an. for example: kuda-kudaan: 'that resembles ‘kuda’, gununggunungan: like ‘gunung’. similarly, sepeda-sepedaan, mobil-mobilan, orang218 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj orangan, kereta-keretaan, and so on. the meaning of 'resembling' is also present in repeated words such as: kebarat-baratan = resembling ‘western people’, kemuda-mudaan = resembling ‘the youth’. 5. stating the meaning of 'action on the basic form done repeatedly'. example: berteriak-berteriak = ‘screaming for several times, memukul-mukul = ‘hitting for several times’, memetik-metik =‘plucking for several times’, menyobek-nyobek =‘ripping off for several times’ (ramlan, 2001, p.181). in addition, the meaning, the actions which are mentioned in the basic form done repeatedly and this is numerous and often found in indonesian language. for example, to declare the meaning of 'the act in which its basic form is done casually, intentionally, or with pleasure', the following samples are found: berjalan-jalan = ‘walking with pleasure, membaca-baca = ‘reading with pleasure’, tidur-tidur = ‘sleeping with pleasure’ or ‘not really sleeping.’ meanwhile, to declare the meaning of 'action on the basic form is done by two parties and mutual concern'. in other words, the repetition expresses the meaning of 'mutual'. examples are: pukul-memukul = ‘hitting each other’, pandang-memandang = ‘looking at each other’ (ramlan, 2001, p. 182). such meaning exists only in the repetition of the verb, stating that it is reciprocal (keraf, 1987, p. 123). methodology this study aims at describing the reduplication of mongondow language which contributes to the teaching of regional languages in bolaang mongondow schools. to obtain data related to the above problems, the researcher uses descriptive-qualitative research method. that is, in descriptivequalitative research, data collected in the form of words, images, not numbers (moleong, 1991, p. 6). data were obtained from primary and secondary data source. primary data were got from interview to five informants chosen from tutuyan, particularly tombolikat village, considering the majority of people in tombolikat still actively use bolaang mongondouw language. secondary data was taken through collected text study. data collection techniques used in this study refer to the methods or techniques offered by mahsun (2005, pp. 126-135), namely: listening method and direct talking method. ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 219 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to avoid errors or mistakes of data that have been collected, it is needed to check the validity of data. checking the validity of the data is based on the criterion of degree of trust (credibility) with triangulation technique (moleong, 2004). triangulation is a technique of checking the validity of data based on something outside the data for checking purposes or as a comparison of existing data (moleong, 2004). triangulation used is triangulation with source, data of result of text study and interview result. the stages of data analysis refer to the two methods offered by mahsun (2005, pp. 117-122), namely intralingual method, and extraordinary padan method result a. the form and meaning of reduplication of mongondow language based on the results of existing data analysis, mongondow's form of reduplication is having: (1) complete or whole reduplication, (2) reduplication of the coda on the word base, (3) reduplication of initial syllables, (4) reduplication affixed. the following are the details about each. 1. complete or whole reduplication whole or full reduplication in mongondow language can be found in the verbs, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, and numeric words. examples are: /garab/ = throw, garab-garab = ‘lempar-lempar’. the context can be imilar to: [ba ko ontoŋan pira garap-garap kayu tana?a] supaya kelihatan baik, lempar-lempar kayu ini. other examples are: (a) / mεa?/ =‘jalan’, mεa-mεa?, ‘jalan-jalan’, [oaidanňa tonga? mεa-mεa mako] = pekerjaannya hanya jalan-jalan terus.; (b) /kayuon/ ‘hutan’, kayuon-kayuon ‘hutan-hutan’, [mo anto? pa kayuon-kayuon kon lipu?] = masih banyak hutanhutan di kampung. a) full reduplication of adjective. example: /dalom/ ‘dalam’, dalom-dalom ‘dalam-dalam’, [parigi kon bulut dalomdalom] = sumur di pegunungan dalam-dalam. b) full reduplication of pronouns examples: 220 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (i) /iko/ ‘kau’, iko-iko ‘kau-kau’, [iko-iko don tεn tunduon momalui keňia] = kau-kau saja yang ditunjuk menggantikan dia (ii) /sia/ ‘dia’, sia-sia ‘dia-dia’, [dika sia-sia turus tεn ogεan doit] = jangan dia-dia terus yang diberikan uang. c) full redupliction of numeric words examples: (i) /tolu/ ‘tiga’, tolu-tolu ‘tiga-tiga’, [aka tumo?ot tolu-tolu] = kalau mau masuk harus tiga-tiga. (ii) /topili?/ ‘sedikit’, topili-topili? ‘sedikit-sedikit’, [biar topili? topili? nokouli? dait] = walau sedikit-sedikit semua dapat. d) full reduplication of adverbs example: /bagu/ ‘baru’, bagu-bagu ‘baru-baru’, [bagu-bagu na?a sia nobui ko lipu] = baru-baru ini dia pulang ke kampung 2. reduplication with deletion of coda in the base word a) reduplication with deletion of coda in verb examples: (i) /gakod/ ‘ikat’, gako-gakod ‘ikat-ikat’, [tali tana?a po gako-gakod kon sapi] = tali itu untuk ikat-ikat sapi. (ii) /giris/ ‘iris’, giri-giris ‘iris-iris’, [sosilad tatua poŋiri-ŋiris kon tεa?] = pisau itu untuk mengiris-ngiris ikan. b) reduplication with deletion of coda in noun (i) /baloy/ ‘rumah’, balo-baloy ‘rumah-rumah’, balo-baloy tatua moŋo gaga. = rumah-rumah itu bagus-bagus. (ii) /tondok/ ‘pagar’, tondok-tondok ‘pagar-pagar’, [tondo-tondok tatua warna mopura] = pagar-pagar itu berwarna merah. c) reduplication with deletion of coda in adjetives ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (i) /ropot/ ‘kuat’, ropo-ropot ‘kuat-kuat’, [mo sia taua mo ropo-ropot maŋoy] = mereka itu kuat-kuat. (ii) /darag/ ‘kuning’, dara-darag ‘kuning-kuning’, [sia tatua no dara-darag] = dia itu kuning-kuning. d) reduplication with deletion of coda in numeric words (i) /opat/ ‘empat’, opa-opat ‘empat-empat’, [mosia opa-opat dait nobali’ guru] = mereka empat-empat menjadi guru. (ii) /baroŋ/ ‘banyak’, baroŋ-baroŋ ‘banyakbanyak’, [aka mo bogoy musti baroŋbaroŋ] = kalu memberi harus banyak-banyak. e) reduplication with deletion of coda in adverbs (i) /bio?/ ‘diam’, bio-bio? ‘diam-diam’, [aka tu mo’od baloy mosia bio-bio?] = kalau masuk rumah mereka diam-diam. (ii) /ampal/ ‘pelan’, ampa-ampal ‘pelan-pelan’, [aka mo cerita ampaampalai pa] = kalau bercerita pelan-pelan. 3. reduplication in initial syllable a) reduplication in initial syllable in numeric words (i) /tobatu/ ‘satu’, totobatu ‘satu-satu’, [aka mo gama ko kombiloy totobatu?] = kalau mau ambil mangga satu-satu. (ii) /dεwa/ ‘dua’, dεdεwa ‘dua-dua’, [aka tumo?ot baloy dεdεwa] = kalau masuk rumah dua-dua. 4. reduplication with prefixes a) verb base form prefix mo (i) tarap/ ‘lihat’, motara-tarap ‘melihat-lihat’, [sia tatua motara-tarap mangoy] = orang itu melihat-lihat saya. (ii) mais ‘tulis’, momai-mais ‘menulis-nulis’, [o aidannya toŋa? momai-mais kon buk] = kerjanya hanya menulis-nulis di buku. prefix mon 222 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (i) /dagum/ ‘jahit’, mondagu-dagum ‘menjahit-jahit’, [olat pa topili’ aku oi mondagu-dagum lambuŋ tana?a] = tunggu sebentar, saya mau menjahitjahit baju ini. (ii) /pahis/ ‘tulis’, momahi-mahis ‘menulis-nulis’, [olat pa topili? aku oy momahi-mahis ko buk tana?a] = tunggu sebentar, saya mau menulisnulis buku ini. prefix po (i) /garab/ ‘lempar’, pogara-garap ‘melempar-lempar’, [o aidanmu toŋa? bi pogara-garab bango?] = pekerjaan kamu hanya melempar-lempar kelapa. (ii) /radat/ ‘gosok’, porada-radat ‘menggosok-gosok’, [ki papa porada-radat lima] = ayah menggosok-gosok tangan. b) noun base form (i) /pasol/ ‘cangkul’, pomaso-masol ‘mencangkul-cangkul’, [o aidanňa toŋa? pomaso-masol kon goba?] = kerjanya hanya mencangkul-cangkul di kebun. (ii) /simpat/ ‘sapu’, monimpa-nimpat ‘menyapu-nyapu’, [o aidanňa toŋa? bi monimpa-nimpat kobonu baloy] = kerjanya hanya menyapu-nyapu di dalam rumah. c) adjective base form (i) /yayu?/ ‘jauh’, moyayu-yayu? ‘menjauh-jauh’, [dika moyayu-yayu? aka mea?] = jangan menjauh-jauh kalau pergi. (ii) /ompa?/ ‘pendek’, moumpa-ompa? ‘paling pendek’, intau tatua moumpa-umpa? maŋoy = orang itu yang paling pendek. d) numeric word base form /anto?/ ‘banyak’, moanto-anto? ‘paling banyak’, [kon baloyňa moantoanto? intau] = di rumahnya paling banyak orang. 5. reduplication with infix a) verb base form reduplication infix -um ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 223 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj /gotup/ ‘meletus’, gumotu-gotup ‘sudah meledak-ledak’, [bulud tatua gumotu-gotup] = gunung itu meletus-letus. infix -im (i) /tindok/ ‘berdiri’, timindok-tindok ‘sudah berdiri-diri’, [intau tatua timindok-tindok ko muka baloy] = orang itu sudah berdiri-diri di depan rumah. (ii) /kosiŋ/ ‘tertawa’, kimosing-kosing ‘sudah tertawa-tawa’, [bagu dolodolom intau tatua kimosing-kosing] = masih pagi-pagi orang itu sudah tertawa-tawa. infix -in (i) /lopot/ ‘potong’, ilopo-lopot ‘dipotong-potong’, [bango’ tatua ilopo-lopot nobali dε?εwa] = kelapa itu dipotong menjadi dua. (ii) /losi/ ‘belah’, linosi-losi ‘dibelah-belah’, [kasubi tatua linosi-losi i papa] = ubi itu dibelah-belah oleh papa. combination between in + um, -inum (i) /gakod/ ‘ikat’, ginumakod-gakod ‘sudah diikat-ikat’, [intau tatua ginumakod-gakod sandiri] = orang itu mengikat-ngikat dirinya sendiri. (ii) /kuak/ ‘teriak’, kinumuak-kuak ‘sudah berteriak-teriak’, [ki fikri kumuak-kuak no ko?ontong kon ulag] = si fikri sudah berteriak-teriak melihat ular. b) adjective base form infix -umthat can be placed in adjectives (i) /loben/ ‘besar’,lumoben-loben ‘menjadi semakin besar’, [sio?olňa totok lumobe-loben] = kakinya semakin menjadi besar. (ii) /limbuŋ/ ‘bulat’, lumimbu-limbuŋ ‘menjadi semakin bulat’, [biapong tatua pi nomia lumimbu-limbuŋ] = bakpao itu dibuat menjadi bulat. 6. reduplication with suffix a) verb base form suffix -don 224 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (i) /litu/ ‘duduk’, litu-litudon ‘duduk-duduklah’, [litu-litudon kon buta?] = duduk-duduklah di tanah. (ii) /siug/ ‘tidur’, siug-siugdon ‘tidur-tidurlah’, [siug-siugdon kon tu?otku] = tidur-tidurlah di kamarku. (iii) /kaday/ ‘pegang’, kaday-kadaydon ‘pegang-peganglah’, [kaday-kadaydon limaku] = pegang-peganglah tanganku. suffix –pa (i) /gitog/ ‘kucak’, gito-gitokpa ‘kucak-kucaklah’, [gito-gitokpa lambuŋ tatua bamobali’ mo budo] = kucak-kucaklah baju itu supaya menjadi putih. (ii) /bakut/ ‘bungkus’, baku-bakutpa ‘bungkus-bungkuslah’, [baku-bakutpa kacaŋ minta taňiun] = bungkus-bungkuslah kacang itu. (iii) /luai/ ‘keluar’, luai-luaipa ‘keluar-keluarlah’, [lua-luaipa moiko ambε koňion] = keluar-keluarlah kalian di situ. suffix –an (i) /litu/ ‘duduk’, litu-lituan ‘tempat duduk’, [awas pakonion si litu-lituan bi’ guraŋa nion] = keluar dari situ sebab ini tepat duduk orang tua. (ii) /tiug/ ‘tidur’, tiu-tiugan ‘tempat tidur’, [sia motiug kon tiu-tiugan tatua] = dia tidur di tempat tidur itu. suffix –ai (i) /inalap/ ‘ambil’, inalap-inalapai ‘ambil-ambilkan (kemari)’, [inalapinalapai pindan tatua] = ambil-ambilkan piring itu. (ii) /radat/ ‘gosok’, rada-radatai ‘gosok-gosokkan’, [rada-radatai pa sianku takin lana buta] = gosok-gosokkan perutku dengan minyak tanah. b) adjective base form suffixes that can be placed: (i) /lantud/ ‘tinggi’, lantu-lantudai ‘tinggi-tinggikan’, [lantu-lantudai pa tukan tatua.] = tinggi-tinggikan tangga itu. ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 225 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (ii) /ompa?/ ‘pendek’, ompa-ompa?ai ‘pendek-pendekkan’, [ompa-ompa?ai tali tatua] = pendek-pendekkan tali itu. (iii) /raru?/ ‘jauh’, raru-raru?ai ‘jauh-jauhkan’, [raru-raru?ai pa kami kon bahaya] = jauh-jauhkan kami dari bahaya. (iv) /ropot/ ‘kuat’, ropo-ropotai ‘kuat-kuatkan’, [ropo-ropotai kami kon perjalanan] = kuat-kuatkan kami di perjalanan. (v) /ga’at/ ‘kurang’, ga?a-ga?atai ‘kurang-kurangkan’, [ga’a-ga’atai pa bogat tatua] = kurang-kurangkan beras itu. 7. reduplication with a base form of verb with affix combination ko-an (i) /tintak/ ‘angkat’, kotinta-tintakan, [mεja tatua kotinta-tintakan] = meja itu dapat diangkat-angkat. (ii) /gama?/ ‘ambil’, kogama-gama?an ‘dapat diambil-ambil’, [buŋai kon paŋkoy tatua kogama-gama?an] = buah di pohon itu dapat diambilambil. kino-an (i) /gobi?i/ ‘malam’, kinogobi?-gobi?ian ‘kemalam-malaman’, [sia nobui ko baloy kinogobi?-gobi?ian] = dia pulang ke rumah kemalam-malaman. (ii) /tumbuk/ ‘tusuk’, kinotumbu-tumbukan ‘tertusuk-tusuk’, [siolňa kinotumbu-tumbukan dugi] = kakinya tertusuk-tusuk duri. mo-an (i) /garab/ ‘lempar’, mogara-garaban ‘saling lempar-lemparan’, [adi? dεwa tatua mogara-garaban] = dua anak itu saling lempar. (ii) /gakod/ ‘ikat’, mogako-gakodan ‘saling ikat-ikatan’, [adi’ dewa tatua mogako-gakodan] = dua anak itu saling ikat. mosi-an (i) /ondok/ ‘takut’, mosiondo-ondokan ‘saling menakuti’, [ki fikri bo ki aŋgi mosiondo-ondokan] = si fikri dan si anggi saling menakuti. 226 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (ii) /domok/ ‘tangkap’, mosidomo-domokan ‘saling menangkap’, [ki fikri bo ki anggi mosidomo-domokan bal] = si fikri dan si anggi saling menangkap bola. (iii) /bumbun/ ‘timbun’, binumbu-numbunan ‘ditimbun-timbuni’, [bubu? tatua binumbu-numbunan in batu] = lubang itu ditimbun-timbuni bebatuan. in-ai (i) /polok/ ‘pendek’, impolo-polokai ‘dipendek-pendekkan’, [bulu tatua impolo-polokai simpomiaan tondok] = bambu itu dipendek-pendekkan untuk dibuat pagar. (ii) /bobat/ ‘basah’, inbobat-bobatai ‘dibasah-basahi’, [lambuŋňa inbobabobatai sin mo patu] = bajunya dibasah-basahi karena panas. b. mongondow language reduplication in terms of meaning based on the result of analysis, it is able to be stated here that the reduplication of mongondow language in terms of meaning such as: 1. describing uncertain plurality a) /radat/ ‘gosok’, rada-radat ‘gosok-gosok’, [siolku irada-radat kon siolnya] = kakiku digosok-gosok pada kakinya. b) /laig/ ‘gubuk’, lai-laig ‘gubuk-gubuk’, [lai-laig kon lipu? totok noanto?} = gubuk-gubuk di kampung banyak sekali. 2. describing superlative degree a) /garab/ ‘lempar’, mogara-garaban ‘saling lempar-lemparan’, [adi? dεwa tatua mogara-garaban] = dua anak itu saling lempar. b) /domok/ ‘tangkap’, mosidomo-domokan ‘saling menangkap’, [ki fikri bo ki aŋgi mosidomo-domokan bal] = si fikri dan si anggi saling menangkap bola. 3. describing collective and distributive meaning a) /tobatu/ ‘satu’, totobatu ‘satu-satu’, [aka mo gama ko kombiloy totobatu?] = kalau mau ambil mangga satu-satu. ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 227 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b) /dεwa/ ‘dua’, dεdεwa ‘dua-dua’, [aka tumo?ot baloy dεdεwa] = kalau masuk rumah dua-dua. 4. describing commands or advice a) garab-garab ‘lempar-lempar’, [ba ko ontoŋan pira garap-garap kayu tana?a] = supaya kelihatan baik, lempar-lempar kayu ini. b) /loboŋ/ ‘tanam’, loboŋ -loboŋ ‘tanam-tanam’, [aka iko mea? loboŋloboŋ komintan toigu tatua] = kalau kau pergi tanam-tanam jagung itu. 5. describing continuous intensity a) /garab/ ‘lempar’, pogara-garap ‘melempar-lempar’, [o aidanmu toŋa? bi pogara-garab bango?] = pekerjaan kamu hanya melempar-lempar kelapa. b) /radat/ ‘gosok’, porada-radat ‘menggosok-gosok’, [ki papa porada-radat lima] = ayah menggosok-gosok tangan. 6. describing tools/place a) /duŋkul/ ‘bertemu’, poroduŋku-dungkulan ‘tempat pertemuan’, [ko baloy tatua poroduŋku-duŋkulan mosia] = rumah itu tempat pertemuan mereka. b) /rodomok/ ‘berkelahi’, pororodomo-domokan ‘perkelahian’, [mosia nodapot don ko pororodomo-domokan] = mereka sudah sampai di tempat perkelahian. 7. describing ‘the most’ a) /lunat/ ‘cantik’, molunat-lunat ‘paling cantik’, [bobay tatua molunatlunat kon sekolahňa] = gadis itu paling cantik di sekolahnya. b) /lobεn/ ‘besar’, molobεn lobεn ‘paling besar’, [intau tatua totok moloben-loben kon baloyňa], orang itu yang paling besar di rumahnya. 8. describing ‘becoming more’ a) /lobεn/ ‘besar’, lumoben-loben ‘menjadi semakin besar’, [sio?olňa totok lumobe-loben] = kakinya semakin menjadi besar. b) /luas/ ‘lebar’, lumuas-luas ‘menjadi semakin lebar’. [sekolah tatua pinomia lumuas-luas] = sekolah itu dibuat semakin menjadi luas. 228 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 208 – 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 9. describing meaning of action done with pleasure and comfort a) /siug/ ‘tidur’, siug-siugdon ‘tidur-tidurlah’, [siug-siugdon kon tu?otku] = tidur-tidurlah di kamarku. b) /litu/ ‘duduk’, litu-litudon ‘duduk-duduklah’, [litu-litudon kon buta?] = duduk-duduklah di tanah. conclusion and suggestion the research concludes that mongondow language is found to have (1) complete or whole reduplication, (2) reduplication of the lid on the word base, (3) reduplication of initial syllables, and (4) reduplicated affixed. based on the analysis result, the reduplication in mongondow language has meanings that (1) state the plural indeterminate, (2) state the meaning of each other, (3) state the meaning of collective and distributive example: / tobatu / ‘satu’ totobatu 'satu-satu’, (4) describe command or advice, (5) describe the continuous intensity, (6) describe the tool / place, (7) describe ‘the most’, (8) describe ‘becoming more’, and (9) describing meaning of action done with pleasure or comfort. as a conclusion, this research has shown to support the authors’ argument that one day, most regional languages in north sulawesi, especially mongondow, will lead to a shift in language that could result in the extinction of this language. the strong influence of the presence of manado malay language is present in every corner of the village including tombolikat which strongly influences the existence of mongondow language. therefore, it is suggested that readers, especially the younger generation people of tombolikat should continue using mongondow language either in formal situation or informal wherever and whenever, so that the sustainability of mongondow language can always be maintained. the preservation of mongondow potentially provides input or contribution to the perfection of indonesian dictionaries which are full of vocabulary derived from regional languages in the indonesian homeland. references badudu, j. s. (1983). pelak-pelik bahasa indonesia [the difficulties of indonesian language]. bandung: pustaka prima. chaer, a. (2002). lingusitik [linguistics]. bandung: angkasa. ratu, d.m., & maru, g.m, s. reduplication of mongondouw language 229 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ibrahim & karyadi. (1996). pengembangan paket pembelajaran muatan lokal [the development of local content learning packages]. jakarta: depdikbud. kembuan, et al. (1993). struktur bahasa tontemboan [structure of tontemboan language]. unsrat manado. keraf, g. (1984). tata bahasa indonesia [indonesian grammar]. ende flores: nusa indah kridalaksana, h. (1986a). fungsi bahasa dan sikap bahasa [function and attitude of language]. jakarta: pt gramedia. kridalaksana, h. (1986b). kelas kata dalam bahasa indonesia [word classes in indonesian}. jakarta: pt gramedia. mackey, w.p. (1970). the description of bilingualism in fishman 1970. mahsun, m. s. (2005). metode penelitian bahasa: tahapan strategi, metode dan tekniknya [language research methods: stages of strategy, methods and techniques]. jakarta: pt raja grafindo persada. mulyana. (1982). kaidah bahasa indonesia [indonesian grammar rules]. jakarta: djambatan. ramlan, m. (1987). morfologi sebagai tinjauan deskriptif [morphology as a descriptive review]. yogyakarta: karyono ramlan, m. (2001). morfologi: suatu tinjauan deskriptif [morphology: a descriptive review]. yogyakarta: cv karyono. samsuri. (1985). analisis bahasa: memahami bahasa secara ilmiah [language analysis: understanding language scientifically]. jakarta: erlangga. sapir, e. (1949). language: an introduction to the study of brace speech. new york: harvest book, harcourt & world inc. verhaar, j. w. m. (1988). pengantar linguistik [introduction to linguistics]. yogyakarta: gajah mada university press. 6.pdf (p.1) 006 dec2017.pdf (p.2-23) cohesive device recognition skillbuilding exercises: a way to help students improve their reading comprehension achievement stephanus sukamto1 abstract: this study was designed to investigate the possibility that there might be a signijicallt improvemem 011 the studellts' reading comprehensioll achievemellt following the treatmem through cohesive device recognitioll skill-building exercises. it was conducted ullder the principles of the one group pretest-posttest (repeated-measures) design. 4 j students of economics education of fkip-ullila attending english as a general subject were chosen as the subjects. these studellts were introduced andtrailled with the skill and encouraged to firstly recognize the cohesive devices employed in the texts, then classify their types andfimctions across the sentences and paragraphs, alld finally to check their comprehe1lsion about the texts on hand. as the design suggests, this research admillistered pretest and posttest as the main instruments in collectillg the data. the data were analyzed using repeated measures-matched t-test. the result shows that t-observe (6./79) is higher thall hable (2.704) which means that there is a significant improvement on the students' reading comprehellsion achievement following the treatment. this seems to suggest that this technique wor.ked well and was found effective in this stud)~ since the study was c01lducted to an intact class and even though the test allows us to generalize, the design of the study precludes such generalization. therefore, further study illvolving randomly selected and ra1ldomly assigned subjects would certainly provide more i1l1eresti1lgfindings. key words: recognition skill, cohesive devices, reading comprehellsion. drs. stephanus sukamto, m.a. <stephanus_sukamto@yahoo.com> is currently a lecturer at the english study program offkip(teachertraining and education faculty), university of lampung. he got his m.a. from the university of newcastle upon tyne. uk. s. sukamto, cohesive device recognition skills-building exercises 49 education study program. they constituted a class. in other words, the study was conducted to an intact class, meaning that the subjects of this study were not randomly selected and randomly assigned. this would also mean that even though the test allows us to generalize, the design of the study precludes such generalization. therefore, further study involving randomly selected and randomly assigned subjects would certainly provide more interesting findings. nevertheless, it could be suggested that those who are interested in applying this cohesive device recognition skill-building should be encouraged to make use of more varied activities and exercises in order to get more significant and convincing findings. furthennore, considering that mastery of textual features (including cohesive ties) is crucial in reading comprehension, it could also be suggested that reading teachersl1ecturers should include classroom instruction on the cohesive devices of english (grammatical and lexical cohesive devices), and their functions across sentences and paragraphs. such instruction can make students aware of how ideas in a text are unified by the cohesive elements. bibliography anthony, h.m., p.o. pearson, and e. raphael. "reading comprehension: a selected review". in linguistics/or teachers. by l.m. cleary and m.d. linn (eds.). new york: mcgraw-hili, 1993. chapman, l.j. "confinning children's use of cohesive ties in text: pronouns". in the reading teacher. 1979: vol. 33, no.3: 317 322. cohen. a .• et al. "reading english for specialized purposes: discourse analysis and the use of student informants". in tesol quanerly, vol. 13, 1979: 551 564. cooper. m. "linguistic competence of practiced and unpracticed non-mature readers of english". in reading in a foreign language. by j.c. alderson and urquhart (eds.). 1984: 122-135. dallmann, martha, roger l. rough, lynette y., c. chang. and john j. deborer. the teaching o/reading. 4'" edition. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. inc .• 1974. goodman, kenneth s. "psycholinguistic universals in the reading process". in psycholinguislics and reading. edited by frank smith. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. 1973. so celt, volume7, number i, july 2007: 37-50 halliday. m.a.k. and r. hasan, cohesion i" english. london: edward arnold. 1976. hatch. evelyn and anne larazaton. design and statistics for applied linguistics. boston: heinle and heinle publishers, 1991. lougheed. lin. regetlts pretltice hall toefl prep book. new jersey: regents prentice hall. englewood cliff. 1992. steffensen. margareth s. "changes in cohesion in the recall of native and foreign texts". in interactive approach to second language reading. edited by patricia carrel. et, al. cambridge: cambridge university press. 1988. susser. bernard and thomas n. robb. "efl extensive reading instruction: research and procedure". in jalt journal, vol. 12, no.2. november 1990. william. r. ''teaching the recognition of cohesive ties in reading a foreign language". in reading in a foreign language. vol. i. no. i. 1983: 35 53. further readings brown, g and yule, g discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press. 1983. mccarthy, m. discourse analysis for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1991. mccarthy, m. and r. carter. language as discourse. london: longman, 1994. sajkie. r. text and discourse analysis. london: routledge. 1995. sukamto, stephanus. "a comparison ofgrammaticaj and lexical cohesion in british and indonesian english-language newspaper reports". unpublished dissertation. newcastle upon tyne: the university of newcastle upon lyne, 1997. sukamto, stephanus. "identifying cohesive devices in authentic & simplified texts and its implication for language teaching". in aksara. vol. 2. no.2. oktober 2001. logo: depan_celt dec 2012 women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burungburung rantau: a critical discourse analysis tengsoe tjahjono1 1 dr. drs. tengsoe tjahjono, m.pd. <tengsoe@gmail.com> is a lecturer at indonesian language education, faculty of language and arts, surabaya state university. abstract: according kundera, a novel is not convention but is a writer’s investigation of experience in the pitfalls of life. a novel can be used to discuss the issues of women and gender. one novel that explores the issue of women is burung-burung rantau by yb mangunwijaya. there are three social processes in the formation of women's realities, namely: construction, deconstruction and reconstruction. burungburung rantau successfully portrays the practice of construction, deconstruction and reconstruction of the reality of women. yuniati reflects the female construction of a mature woman, while anggraini and marineti undergo the process of deconstruction and reconstruction. anggraini is hesitant in making decisions, while marineti tends to be confident in her choices. the practice of construction, deconstruction and reconstruction of speech acts can be seen in the dialogues of the characters in the novel. they are also evident in the choice of words, figure of speech, and sentence structures used in the frame of discourse, power, inequality, and gender perspectives. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 122 key words: discourse analysis, construction, deconstruction, speech acts introduction many topics can be raised from the issue of women. women are not just men’s opposite sex. women have a plurality of dimensions, namely physical-biological, socio-cultural, psychological, political, and religious dimensions. the complexity of these dimensions will inevitably shape the behavior of women in everyday life, both in relation to the creator, others, nature, and themselves. fakih distinguishes the concept of sex (gender) and gender. according fakih (1997: 8) sex is the division based on biological differences between man and woman. for example, men have a penis and produce sperm, while women have a reproductive organ (uterus) and produce eggs. biologically these tools cannot be exchanged and are natural and permanent. on the contrary, gender is the inherent nature of men and women and is socially and culturally constructed. for example, women are gentle and nurturing; men are considered strong, rational, and powerful. these traits can be exchanged because they are formed through the process of socialization and culturalization. it may be that in a given day, a woman can be rational while a man can be emotional. traits that can be exchanged between women and men, change from time to time, and vary from one place to another, is a gender concept. fakih (1997) furthermore states that gender differences between women and men are formed, socialized, reinforced, even socially and culturally constructed, through religious and civics education. according to abdullah (1997:8), there are three social processes in the formation of women's realities, namely: t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 123 construction, deconstruction and reconstruction. a novel, as one type of literary work, raises the issue of life and human life, or at least, presents as a vehicle to discuss gender issues through the characters and the conflicts. a novel can present the reality of women's issues, including construction, deconstruction, and reconstruction. kundera (2002) asserts that a novel is an investigation of human life in facing the pitfalls of life in this world. one novel that explores the issue of women is the y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau. burung-burung rantau explores the cultural problems in a family of colonel lieutenant wiranto and serafin yuniati. the couple has five children who are swept away by globalization. anggraini or anggi is a business-oriented widow. her mind is filled with only loss and profits. laksono wibowo or bowo, a researcher at the european laboratory for particle physics nuclear cern (switzerland), marries agatha, greek girl. he has a global life style and mindset. the third child is sucipto alias candra. candra is a pilot and even a trainer of pilots. the aircraft is his very close friend, then his wife and children. meanwhile, the fourth child is marineti dianwidhi or neti. neti who holds a bachelor’s degree is willing to be a teacher of less privileged children because she feels guilty of his brother eddie who died because of drug overdose. she wants to repent his brother’s sins by dedicating herself for children who are in need. amid the swift current of globalization, the issue of women, whether it is related to value, position, personality, and role, is inseparable from the life, thoughts, and behavior of the seven characters in the novel. it is evident through the characters’ dialogues. the diction, style, and sentence structure reflect the characters’ views on women’s issues. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 124 critical discourse analysis and novel systems critical discourse analysis should not be seen simply as a linguistic issue but as a contextual issue. therefore, fairclough (1989) considers that a discourse, whether speech or verbal, is a form of social practice. van dijk (in wetherel et al. 2001) further explains that critical discourse analysis examines the relationship between discourse, power, dominance, and social inequality in every social relationship. in addition, he asserts that texts consist of three tiers / important structures, namely: the macro-structure, superstructure, and microstructure (van dijk in eriyanto 2001). the macro structure is the meaning of a text that can be seen from the advanced theme. superstructure is related the systemic framework of a text whereas the microstructure is the meaning of a text that can be seen from the choice of words, sentence structure, figure of speech, style, even the pictures that accompany the text. the novel as a text also has a system that is relatively similar to van dijk’s discourse structure models. according to abrams (1976:6) there are four essential elements in copyrighted arts. a novel as copyright art also has four important elements. the four key elements are the works of art, the artist, the universe, and connoisseurs of art. texts in a novel, then, are works of art. they have certain characteristics that distinguish them from those of short stories, poems, and dramas. in other words, a novel has a certain system. according to boulton (1975), a novel at least has to possess verisimilitude, the point of view, plot, character, conversation, and background scene, and dominant themes. the novel is the superstructure level, whereas the elements of authors, readers, writers, and language used are micro-level structure. diction, sentence structure, and the authors used a figure of speech, presuppositions, reference, inference and implicature are also micro-level structure. the macro structure of a novel is the t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 125 universe, a place where an author obtains the sources of his/her writing. the relationship of discourse structures in a literary work can be described through the following diagram: diagram 1: van dijk’s discourse structure relations and abram’s literature systems characters’ kinship structure burung-burung rantau is about wiranto’s family. therefore, before analyzing the novel, we need to understand the kinship structure of the figures contained in the novel. the structure of kinship will inform us the position and the condition of each discourse structure van dijk’s model macro structure literature system abram’s model diction sentence speech act reference inference implicatures truth point of story plot characters dialogue theme/topics writer structure super structure texts universe celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 126 character. understanding each character’s position and condition is important because they determine each character’s view and attitude towards women. the structure of kinship in the novel can be summarized in the following chart. diagram 2: wiranto’s kinship structure as previously mentioned, burung-burung rantau tells about the problems faced by wiranto’s families. wiranto marries yuniati and they have five children, namely: anggi, bowo, candra, neti, and edi. wiranto is a retired lieutenant general who now serves as commissioner of central bank of the republic of indonesia. he once was a military commander, an ambassador, and a chairperson letjen wiranto retired military commander, central indonesian bank commissioner yuniati 3. candra suripto lietenant colonel, a pilot 5. edi deceased 4. marineti a student 2. wibowo laksono astrophysicist, a researchers in 1. anggraini businesswoman, widow t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 127 of yuyitsu associations. raising 5 children, wiranto realizes that being a military commander is a less challenging task compared to being a father. he says: ah, ternyata toh lebih mudah menjadi komandan teritorial melawan pemberontak yang setiap malam membakar desa-desa daripada menangani anakanaknya sendiri…tetapi coba jawab: apakah lebih baik punya neti yang badung binal itu, ataukah punya anak semut yang taat berbaris dan berjalan terbalik dengan kaki di atas pun tidak jatuh? (mangunwijaya, 1992:13-14) [translation: ah, it is easier to become the territorial commander and fights against rebel groups who burn villages rather than dealing with her own children… but answer this: is it better to raise a naughty and wild neti, or obedient ants marching and walking upside down with his feet on top but do not fall?] his wife yuniati is a modest figure who embraces life with gratitude. therefore, yuniati still looks beautiful in his old age. maklumlah, begitu mendalam penghayatan garwo sigaran nyowo yuniati dengan suaminya itu. boleh jadi kuno, bolehlah, tetapi yuniati bahagia dan damai dalam hati, dan karenanya ia awet cantik.... rahasianya yang paling dalam ialah, ia bahagia punya wiranto sebagai suami, dan bahagia dengan anakanaknya (mangunwijaya1992:344-345). [translation: yuniati is so profound in her appreciation of garwo sigaran nyowo. the concept is old-fashioned, but yuniati is happy and feel peaceful, that is why she still looks beautiful. her secret is that she is thankful to have wiranto as a husband and to bear his children] celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 128 in such a condition, wiranto and yuniati raise their children. they grow and absorb the values not only from their own family but also from the social world including the social life and the books. their five children have their own personalities, attitudes, outlooks, and the purpose of life different from each other. therefore, they interpret women’s issues differently. there are three women in wiranto’s family. they are yuniati, anggraeni, and marineti. in the following section, i will analyze these women from gender point of view. yuniati: a woman of post construction yuniati is a woman of post construction, which means that she will not change, both culturally and socially. such construction is not deemed as a sign of stagnation, but rather of stability. yuniati’s construction as a woman emerges due to the forging of culture, social, and life history that she truly embraces. to see a female figure yuniati we consider the following quotation. ...elegan lincah berkat darah jingga kawanua yang rupa-rupanya toh mendominasi darah biru surakarta dalam raga maupun jiwanya, bu yun, begitu panggilan akrabnya, tanpa melalaikan hormat jawa kepada suaminya namun juga tanpa mengekang gaya bebas manado, mendudukan diri pada sandaran kursi di muka suaminya; kaki selonjor… “maaf, mas, neti sekarang harus kauolah secara lain, tidak bisa begini terus; bisa jadi puing segalagala nanti. yang mampu hanya ayahnya, aku sudah tidak punya wibawa. aku tahu, mas, angka-angka yang kauhadapi itu sangat penting dan memiliki arti nasional, tetapi apa guna karier gemilang, mas, bila anak kita kacau berantakan?” (mangunwijaya 1992:14-15). t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 129 [translation: ...elegant and vivacious, thanks to the orange blood of kawanua which apparently dominates her surakarta royal blood both mentally and spiritually, bu yun, her nickname, without neglecting javanese’s sign of respect to her husband but also without restraining her manado carefree attitude, seats herself in front of her husband; her legs straightened… "sorry, mas, you should deal with neti in a different way. it can’t go on like this forever, she will be in ruins. you are her father and you are the only one who can deal with her. i have no authority over her. i know that those numbers you are working on now are important, but what is the use of successful career, mas, if our daughter is in a mess? "] these quotations reveal yuniati’s aristocratic background. yuniati is a mix of javanese and kawanua aristrocrat. yuniati is 'obedient to her husband' and 'respect her husband', but at the same time she shows her independence by sitting in her husband with her legs stretched, a body posture that might be considered impolite in javanese culture. understanding of the background is very useful to see yuniati’s unique feminine characteristic. the dichotomy of javanese-kawanua within yuniati is also manifest in her choice of pronouns. she uses mas (a javanese pronouns for older people and implies respect) and kau (an indonesian pronoun that implies familiarity). the pronouns she uses seem very contradictory. mas connotes respect, while you have the egalitarian connotation. the use of pronouns implies an egalitarian attitude and gender equality. yuniati uses a declarative sentence: “you are her father and you are the only one who can deal with her. i have no authority over her." as a directive speech. yuniati is expressing her inability to influence neti but she is actually trying to share her disappointment and asking her husband wiranto to take a greater celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 130 role in guiding her daughter. gender equality between wirantoyuniati in certain contexts could produce power in yuniati. as a housemaker, she has legitimate and referent powers (see carli 1999). the directive speech emerges because of the power. in another part yuniati also uses a rhetorical phrase, ".... i know that those numbers you are working on now are important, but what is the use of successful career, mas, if our daughter is in a mess?" this sentence is actually not a rhetorical question, but rather a representation of speech. it contains truths that have been tested in everyday human life; truth is born out of yuniati’s accumulated experience. such indirect expression can only be produced by speakers who are in the position of power, or at least by those who are in an equal position to their partners. from the quotation, it is apparent that yuniati’s feminism in certain contexts does not preclude the presence of power, even when a man presents. the possessive pronouns our in the phrase our children in her rhetorical sentence implies that raising children is not only the duty of a woman or the mother but also of a man or fathers. in other words yuniati wants to show that both mothers and fathers are responsible for any problems in the family. what she does is against the ideology of familialism. abdullah (1997) points out that traditionally a good woman is a woman who can produce good offsprings, and raise good children. thus, a woman is the one who is fully responsible if their children are not well-behaved. such ideology is entrenched in society. consider the following quotation: “maumu apa sih, berpakaian provokatif saru begitu, ikut mode sok internasional ya, merendahkan diri itu namanya heh, jengkel aku.” (mangunwijaya 1992:10) t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 131 [translation: "what do you want by dressing up provocatively? are you trying to follow the international fashion, you are humiliating yourself, i am upset."] the quotation above is a piece of yuniati’s conversation with her daughter neti. socioculturally, yuniati is more dominant than her daughter because a child is essentially her parents’ subordinate. therefore, parents may use their power legitimacy over their children. however, in the relationship between yuniati and neti, the mother-child position has greatly shifted. young teenagers, like neti, have deconstructed the sociocultural barriers. therefore, the relationship evolves into a friendship. the conversation becomes the discourse of two close friends. the deconstruction was able only to establish a form of social relationships that are no longer top-bottom, but was unable to convert yuniati’s feminism postconstruction. there are interesting points to discuss in yuniati’s sentences “what do you want by dressing up provocatively? are you trying to follow the international fashion, you are humiliating yourself, i am upset." in this sentence, there is an interrogative and declarative sentences. the interogatifnya structure is "what do you want by dressing up provocatively? are you trying to follow the international fashion, huh", while the declarative structure is: "you are humiliating yourself, i am upset." both structures reveal yuniati’s politeness values and accumulated experiences about appropriate dressing codes in indonesia. another interesting point is yuniati’s idea of nationalism. phrases such as "follow the international fashion" and "you are humiliating yourself" are expressions of a person who upholds national moral values. it is evident that the construction of nationality yuniati is unwavering and thus, it forms a fixed and celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 132 finished entity. a good indonesian woman is a woman who wears decent outfits and behaves politely. “sudah, jangan banyak bela diri, aku sudah kenal kamu, setiap kata, satu saja, dariku kaubalas dengan kuliah seribu kalimat. yang aku minta sekarang hanya satu, one thing only, pakailah beha, jangan seperti itu; pakai itu pun kamu sudah kelihatan membusung, kok masih ditambah-tambah mengundang bahaya. katanya bercita-cita jadi sosiawati, lha kok memberi contoh yang buruk. silakan kalau di swedia atau los angeles, tetapi di sini tidak, malu ibumu.” (mangunwijaya 1992: 10) [translation: "that’s it. don’t be defensive. i know you well. i say one word and you reply back with a thousand words. what i want you to do is just one thing. wear a bra. don’t be like that; you have big breasts, there’s no need to invite dangers. you said you want to be a social worker, so why do you give bad examples. you can do it when you are in sweden or los angeles but not here. i am ashamed."] the quotation, in addition, portrays yuniati’s insights about anything foreign. this is evident through her use of borrowed words: provocative, one thing only, swedish or los angeles. her familiarity with those borrowed words and cities in the world shows merely yuniati’s social status but do not represent yuniati’s behavior and moral attitudes a post-construction indonesian woman construction. anggraini and marineti: reconstruction of women in two opposite poles of a continuum yuniati or mrs. wiranto is a woman of post-construction. she has two daughters: anggraini and neti. these two adolescents are, t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 133 because of the context of generation and culture, deconstructing the reality of woman. the deconstruction process is evident through this quotation: “ah, cinta, ya saya sudah mendengar beberapa kali. cinta, yang tidak bisa dikalkulasi, yang spontan, yang tidak dapat dikerjakan dengan taktik-taktik. aah, pap, itu kan rumusan sederhana untuk kaum sederhana dunia agraris. …dunia kita sudah canggih, cinta pun ada sistemnya, mosok hanya membabi buta. saya tidak percaya kepada cinta yang buta. itu kan kata lain dari kebodohan atau nafsu, bukan cinta dalam arti yang sejati. cinta itu menyertakan unsur perhitungan juga, misalnya usaha mengolah mata pencarian yang tepat dan pantas untuk menghidupi keluarga, ikhtiar untuk mengatasi kecemburuan yang tidak rasional, contohnya lagi. jadi, pap, apakah papi masih percaya bahwa cinta itu buta?” (mangunwijaya 1992:106). [translation: "ah, love, yes i've heard it many times. love, which cannot be calculated, spontaneous, and which cannot be done with tactics. aah, pap, it's a simple formula for the simple agrarian world. our world has advanced, love has its own system, and not just random. i do not believe love is blind. that's another word for ignorance or lust, not love in the true sense. love also includes elements of the calculation, such as efforts to find proper livelihoods to support the family, endeavors to overcome an irrational jealousy, for example. so, pap, do papi still believe that love is blind?"] culturally a woman’s love is constructed to satisfy a man’s need. humm (2002) points out that in the feminism consider love is socially constructed. in reality women were constructed in such a way that they are emotional, romantic, and affectionate. humm celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 134 argues that such construction is actually not inherent in women but is a product of social and cultural construction. anggraini tried to dismantle the myth. she deconstructed. according to anggraini, love is 'a simple formula for the simple agrarian world.' she thinks that modern women should not consider love a mystery and should not be viewed as calculated trade-offs. why does anggraini use the agrarian world to refer to love? because the farmers live in a natural cycle: the season. for farmers, love is based on a myth which says that it is a natural thing. thus people should follow the natural rhythm; people should not avoid love or rebel against love. such love grows without a purpose, without a strategy, without system, and without planning. according anggraini 'our world has advanced.' the diction 'our world' can bear different interpretations. first, 'our world' can refer to 'our universe'. secondly, 'our world' can refer to ‘wiranto’s family'. third, 'our world' can also refer to the 'universe of women'. it is somewhat challenging to determine which diction. it is somewhat challenging to really determine what anggraini actually means without knowing the context of the whole text. but apart from the question of whether or not our interpretation of the diction is correct, literary texts are always multi-interpretable. if we take, for instance, the third interpretation, we know that for anggraini, modern women view love differently. the deconstruction of women’s perception of love results in the reconstruction of the meaning of love: love also includes elements of the calculation, such as efforts to find proper livelihoods to support the family, endeavors to overcome an irrational jealousy.' awareness is also apparent in neti’s self-deconstruction. consider the following quotation. “tetapi mami itu sudah dari dulu benci t-shirt, padahal seluruh dunia sudah mengenakannya. kan saya sudah bilang, marineti bukan biarawati, bukan t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 135 biksu, saya kan tidak memilih jadi perempuan ketika lahir. siapa yang salah sampai perempuan ditumbuhi sepasang pepaya seperti ini, kan saya tidak pernah minta. apa tuhan ya yang salah. mami itu sering tidak logis.” (mangunwijaya 1992: 25-26). [translation: "but mami hates t-shirt in the first place, even though people in the whole world are wearing it. i've told you, marineti is not a nun, not a monk, i did not choose to be born as a female. whose fault is this that women have papayas (she means breast) like these, i never ask for them. is this god’s fault? mami is often irrational.”] the phrase 'hates t-shirt' also contains a deep meaning. indeed, according to his mother neti does not hate t-shirt as an inanimate object but hate people who choose and wear t-shirts. it means that yuniati does not like her daughter wearing her favorite t-shirt as t-shirts are too tight and will show women's breasts. the clause ‘even though people in the whole world are wearing it ' contains totem pro parte figure of speech which means a whole is used to refer to a part. in fact the clause is indeed hyperbolic. 'the whole world' could mean 'the whole world of women', and 'the whole world of women' could simply mean ‘some women’ not 'most'. neti uses that utterance because nat wanted to show that he was not alone (in not wearing bras). women have deconstructed the fashion culture. culturally, women are supposed to be gentle, polite, and refined, but neti’s personal traits are contrary to this cultural notion of a good woman. in her personality, the reality of women is deconstructed. therefore, she asks rhetorically. "i've told you, marineti is not a nun, not a monk, i did not choose to be born as a female. whose fault is this that women have papayas (she means breast) like these, i never ask for them. is this god’s fault?" the speech she uses is called representative speech because it exposes celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 136 the truth in an argumentative manner. in addition, it contains expressive speech to express disappointment, dissatisfaction and dissaproval. what neti does is parallel to the idea of simone de beauvoir that a person is not born as a woman, but to become a woman "(humm, 2002:426). the word 'to become' means that the women are born to have a particular mission, and not as a subordinate to men. the phrase: "mami is often irrational." implies "in fact mami could have been rational". the implicature of the speech act is that "women could use a reason to act or take decisions". these phrases show neti’s deconstruction of women’s reality. she thinks that women should use not only their emotion but also their brain. although anggraini and neti deconstruct the reality of women, they are on two opposite poles in the continuum. this is evident through this quotation: untuk anggi mencari uang dan menumpuk kekayaan sama sekali bukanlah pelampiasan hawa nafsu pada taraf simbok kampung yang menabung atau berutang untuk membeli baju baru idul fitri, melainkan suatu penghayatan asasi, sejenis kenikmatan yang tiada terperi, boleh dikatakan hobi apabila istilah hobi ditafsir benar sebagai ekspresi kesenangan, bukan keharusan, bukan kebutuhan mencari nafkah, atau dengan istilah kasar, mata pencaharian. menjadi kaya untuk anggraini sama dengan menjadi sempurna seperti yang dicita-citakan oleh sekian juta rahib dan biarawan dan biksu dan kiai dan ulama dan pencandu zikir; ya, semacam religi, sebentuk agama yang masuk tulang sungsum, sulit dimengerti oleh orang yang belum merasakan the mystical joy of being rich (1992: 124). [translation: for anggi making money and accumulating wealth is by no means similar to how t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 137 villagers save or borrow money to buy new clothes for ied, but rather a right, a kind of immense pleasure, or can be called a hobby when it refers to pure enjoyment, and not a necessity or a need to make a living. for her, being rich is similar to being perfect as aspired by many millions of monks and friars and scholars and clerics and addicts; yes, a sort of religion, so inherent in one’s body that it is difficult to understand, especially for those who do not feel the mystical joy of being rich.] contrary to anggi, neti is someone who aspires to help others who suffer. neti bukan maniak yang harus karier, bukan pula pemberontak fanatik antilelaki yang memberi perlakuan terlalu tidak adil dan kejam terlalu sering….selama ini neti belum berniat “diganggu” oleh suatu tali pengikat yang dapat menghambat daya juangnya untuk berbuat sesuatu yang berarti dan pribadi (1992: 93). [translation: neti is neither a career maniac nor an anti-men rebel who often gives unfair treatment or behaves cruelly…although neti has not intended to be committed to any kind of bond that might prevent her efforts from achieving something meaningful and personal. reading these two quotes, we clearly see anggraini and neti’s contrasting personalities. anggraini is obsessed to accumulate wealth and she views this as her right, immense pleasure, and selfperfection. on the contrary, neti positions herself as a person struggling to achieve something meaningful for others and for herself. that's why anggraini and marineti choose different life paths: anggraini enters the business world, while neti immerses celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 138 herself in the world of social work. surprisingly, anggraini is strongly against, and even cynical about neti’s reconstruction of women’s reality. she says: “orang miskin itu kantong bolong,” begitu selalu sanggah kak anggi.” mana mungkin ditolong, tidak mungkin kantong kaum kumuh akan berisi, percuma saja! (manguwijaya 1992:104). [translation: "poor people are similar to perforated bags," argues her sister anggi. "how could we help them, it is not possible to fill out their pockets, it is useless!] anggraini’s argument is driven by the power of the logicalrational mindset. many indonesian women do not have such mindset. women generally are easily moved and carried away when they witness the suffering of others. apparently such trait is absent in anggraini. she even cynically says that "poor people are similar to a perforated bag." her utterance is an expressive act, the expression of aggravation and dissatisfaction. an expressive utterance is often non-analytical, and thus more emotional. anggraini is emotionally logical. anggraini is a business woman, and she sees herself as independent. this is evident from the following quotation saya dengar promotornya, kok sialnya si petruk baridjo itu; namanya saja sudah nama dusun, dapat diharapkan apa dari orang macam itu? ah, kan kita tahu dia itu pawiro-bakiak, kalah total di bawah perbudakan istrinya, mana mungkin dapat memberi input yang betul pada neti. pap, mengapa dulu papi tidak jadi menyekolahkan dia di cambridge saja? (manguwijaya 1992:105). [translation: i heard that her promotor, unfortunately, is petruk baridjo; his name is a t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 139 village name, what can we expect from him? we all know that he is pawiro-bakiak, a man who is under his wife’s slavery, how come he gives input for neti? pap, why didn’t you send her to study at cambridge?] when criticizing professor baridjo he said that baridjo is subordinate to his wife. it is evident that anggraini position herself equal to men. it implies that anggraini does not want any kind of subordination. zillah eisenstein (in humm, 2002:181) states that gender gap reflects two opposing realities simultaneously. these two opposing realities are raging inside anggraini. seeing neti’s dedication as a social worker, she considers her life choice a futility. in fact, as the sister who has a legitimate power, she uses an utterance: "why not getting married." this directive speech act shows that anggraini applies the expressions of men, the patriarchal culture she opposes. the speech act implies anggraini’s hesitancy in deconstructing women’s reality. neti does not have such hesitancy. this is clear in the following quotation. seluruh galih kalbu neti memberontak dan menangis marah bila menghadapi penderitaan para miskin, teristimewa si anak. bukan karena dia perempuan, ikut kelamin yang konon perasa dan peka hati. tak ada sangkut pautnya dengan perangai lelaki atau sifat perempuan (mangunwijaya, 1992: 364-365). [translation: neti’s heart cries for the suffering of the poor, especially the poor children. not because she was a woman, who is supposed to be emotional and sensitive. nothing to do with the temperament of a man or a woman.] celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 121 – 141 140 neti’s sympathy and empathy are not because of her destiny as a woman. for neti humanitarian work is not gender specific tasks. the statement " neti’s heart cries for the suffering of the poor, especially the poor children." implies that social work does not involve physical activity only, but also spiritual activity. this means that neti is aware of poor people’s plight and suffering and that she has a strong motivation to dedicate herself as a social worker. conclusion the practice of construction, deconstruction and reconstruction of the reality of women takes place in burungburung rantau. female post-construction is evident in yuniati’s character whereas anggraini and marineti show the process of deconstruction and reconstruction. however, anggraini seems to be nervous in deconstructing the reality of women. on the contrary, marineti is more secure in her making up her decisions. the speech acts, dictions, figures of speech, and sentence structures reflects how these three women construct, and deconstruct the reality of women. references abdulah, irwan (ed.). sangkan paran gender. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar, 1997. abrams, m.h. the mirror and the lamp: romantic theory and the critical tradition. new york: oxford university press, 1976. boulton, marjorie. the anatomy of the novel. london and boston: routledge and kegan paul, 1975. brown, gillian dan george yule. discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1983. t. tjahjono, women in y.b. mangunwijaya’s burung-burung rantau 141 carli, linda l. “gender, interpersonal power, and social influence (social influence and social power: using theory for understanding social issues”. in http//www.findarticles.com, retrieved on 10 july 2011. eriyanto. analisis wacana: pengantar analisis teks media. yogyakarta: lkis, 2001. fakih, mansour. analisis gender & transformasi sosial. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar, 1997. fairclough, norman. language and power. london: longman, 1989. humm, maggie. ensiklopedia feminisme. translated by mundi rahayu. yogyakarta: fajar pustaka baru, 2002. kundera, milan. art of novel. translated by nuruddin and husni munir. yogyakarta: jalasutra, 2002. mangunwijaya, y.b. burung-burung rantau. jakarta: gramedia. 1992. wetherel, margareth, stephanie taylor, and simedu j. yates (ed.). discourse theory and practice: a reader. london: sage publication, 2001. tengsoe tjahjonovol 12_no 2_dec 2012 a0_depan_celt dec 2012 a1 ok dec 2012 yoseph p101-120 dec8 emd8-22 24 25 jan 22feb13 a2 ok dec 2012 tengsoe p121-141 dec8 emd822 jan 22feb13 a3 ok dec 2012 lingga p142-159 a4 ok dec 2012 ari p160-179 dec10 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a5 ok dec 2012 cecilia p180 192 dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a6 ok dec 2012 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice   gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century rhetoric shawn d. ramsey department of english and philosophy, college of humanities and social sciences, arkansas state university, arkansas, u.s.a. email: ramseys@bgsu.edu; sramsey@astate.edu received: 17-10-2017 accepted: 19-11-2017 published: 11-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century rhetoric shawn d. ramsey sramsey@astate.edu department of english and philosophy, college of humanities and social sciences, arkansas state university, arkansas, u.s.a. abstract: in the latest edition of the present state of scholarship in the history of rhetoric, lynne lewis gaillet (2010) laments the continuing broad absence of work on nineteenth-century continental theory: “[donald] stewart predicted that the next edition of the present state would include works by and about continental european rhetoricians,” and she then notes that despite “headway made by scholars in other rhetorical periods, the nineteenth-century has not made great strides toward this goal” (p. 169). one such continental european rhetorician, gustave le bon, has indeed been largely displaced in histories of rhetoric, despite evidence that he influenced not merely the rhetoric as an intellectual discipline but the rhetorical practices of important historical figures. this article is an attempt to place le bon in the continuum of rhetorical history between the 19th and 20th century. key words: rhetoric, le bon, history abstrak: dalam edisi terbaru the present state of scholarship di history of rhetoric, lynne lewis gaillet (2010) menyesalkan tidak adanya karya yang begitu luas pada teori kontinental abad ke-19: “[donald] stewart meramalkan bahwa edisi berikutnya dari the present state akan termasuk karya oleh dan tentang retorika benua eropa, "dan dia kemudian mencatat bahwa meskipun" kemajuan yang dibuat oleh para sarjana dalam periode retoris lainnya, abad kesembilan belas belum membuat langkah besar menuju tujuan ini "(hal. 169). salah satu retorika eropa kontinental, gustave le bon, memang telah banyak salah meletakkan dalam sejarah retorika, meskipun ada bukti bahwa ia tidak hanya mempengaruhi retorika sebagai disiplin intelektual tetapi ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 231 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj praktik retoris dari tokoh-tokoh sejarah yang penting. artikel ini adalah upaya untuk menempatkan le bon dalam rangkaian sejarah retoris antara abad ke-19 dan ke-20. kata kunci: retorik, le bon, sejarah introduction describing le bon as a rhetorician is not mere reaching by definition. the foremost scholar of le bon’s life and work has stated that le bon’s intent when writing his most influential work, psychologie des foules, was to instruct a hypothetical statesman how “crowds are moved by ‘images, words, and formulas’” and offered “a short lesson in the art of persuasion through rhetoric” (nye, 1975, p. 77). le bon himself confirmed that this was his intent, and psychologie reads like a conceptual manual for mass communication at a time when the technological means to effect this was limited mostly to print and public assemblies. further proof of psychologie’s intent as a rhetoric becomes clear in le bon’s rhetorical theories in a 1917 essay, “la persuasion,” which is only available as a manuscript, but is essentially a restatement of his theories of persuasion in digest form. although psychologie has long been identified as a rhetorical treatise, it remains largely neglected by historians of rhetoric, in spite of its demonstrable role in shaping the rhetoric of the modern era until recently. in jay childer’s article, “fearing the masses: gustave le bon and some undemocratic roots of modern rhetorical studies”, childers (2014) explains that le bon “popularized the notion that the masses were like a psychological crowd devoid of reason and the ability to deliberate” (p. 76). childers (2014) has provided valuable connections to le bon’s persistence in the discipline of speech communication well into the 20th century. this article will demonstrate that his influence on continental cultural practice was even more significant, and that he represents a bridge between 19th century scientism in rhetorical theory and the re-emergence of the rhetorical tradition in the 20th century, where conventional histories have left him largely unmoored and under-historicized. building on the work of childers (2014), we will explore le bon’s rhetoric as having its roots in the prevailing medical and biological theories from le bon’s time. these scientistic theories shaped not only the rhetorical manuals and theories of the nineteenth century, but shaped totalitarian oratory and politics quite directly through benito mussolini and (in strong likelihood) the third reich, thereby affecting – however indirectly –burke 232 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (2006), at least in terms of his reaction to hitler’s mein kampf. this article extends the analysis of le bon’s rhetoric by examining mass persuasion as contagion (as contagion was understood before 1896) and ultimately addresses le bon’s significance as a figure bridging the history between 19th and 20th century rhetoric. le bon, contagion theory and the historical trajectory of 19th century rhetoric the theory of persuasion as social contagion was never fully articulated by most 19th century intercontinental rhetorics, and indeed, at first blush one might regard le bon, his theories, and influence as a sort of freakish anomaly. on closer examination, le bon should be studied because precisely because he fits within certain trends in the development of 19th century rhetoric, and serves as an explanation for 20th century rhetorical theories and practices which have not been fully historicized—or characterized as existing “outside” conventional rhetorical history. his omission is likely owing to nan johnson’s most salient critique of 19th century rhetoric as it was previously historicized, which, she explains, conflated 19th century rhetoric with writing instruction (1991, p. 13). as walzer and beard aptly summarize, such histories “fallaciously assumed that a history of how writing was taught constituted a history of rhetoric as a discipline” (2009, p. 18). in le bon, we find a rhetoric theoretically and practically tailored to civic discourse, (though not, as childers points out, democratic civic discourse). ferreira-buckley (1996) has observed that 19th century rhetoric exhibited emerging trends such as scientism and phrenology, of which le bon was a leading advocate. in fact, le bon invented the “pocket cephalometer” (with which he used to measure the skulls of unsuspecting persons). in many transcontinental rhetoric written prior to le bon, rhetoric was described as a “science” with many notable examples in widespread circulation in classrooms. johnson’s thesis (1991) that 19th century rhetoric was essentially synthetic, and one essential component was its “epistemological approaches to rhetoric as a ‘science’ closely related to the study of the ‘mental faculties’” is demonstrated in these rhetoric (p. 14). explaining the more basic components of the “new rhetoric” of the 19th century, johnson (1991) explains that “the study of rhetoric” was viewed as “a science” capable of revealing the “basic principles of nature” (p. 67). we see in le bon an extension of these approaches but deriving mass psychology and epidemiology, such as it was in 1896. ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 233 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hill (1877) in the science of rhetoric defined rhetoric as “the science of the laws of effective discourse” (p. 37) which was loosely based around field psychology. bascom (1866) in philosophy of rhetoric described rhetoric as a “mental and moral science” (p. 15). as a very first principle, hart (1882) explains in manual of composition and rhetoric that “rhetoric is the science which treats all discourse” (p. 17). true to the tendency in rhetorical theory of his day, le bon promises at the outset of his work to examine the “problem” of crowds in a “purely scientific manner”, and explains that his theories, which may go against the grain of prevailing crowd theories, should nevertheless be accepted as more wholesomely scientific than the alternative (v). hauntingly, he states “a man of science bent on verifying a phenomenon is not called upon to concern himself with the interests his verifications may hurt” (vi). le bon finally bridges the gap between rhetoric and science when he offers a cue, as to the rhetorical intent of his work: “the art of those who govern, as is the case with the art of advocates, consists above all in the science of employing words” (p. 105). in the writings of le bon, 19th century scientism (specifically medical science relating to contagion) became writ large as a central means of persuasion in his overall schema. le bon’s rhetorical theories, grounded in physiological processes, are not more novel than alexander bain’s (1867). bain's theories, too, emerged from “forging the link between physiology and psychology” which synthesized an “analytic structure” for his rhetoric. le bon’s rhetoric extrapolates his conclusions from the emerging science of both mass psychology and cellular physiological processes, and thus fits in this continuum of scientific thinking. a final reason le bon should be a subject of inquiry for historians of rhetoric is that his rhetoric functions as a widely influential bridge between the scientism of the 19th and 20th centuries, while also explaining a great deal about rhetorical practice in the public sphere not accounted for in other early rhetorician’s work like burke and richards. as connors (1991) critique of the dearth of scholarship in 19th century rhetoric pointed out, many years ago, conventional rhetorical histories left off with “campbell, blair and whately” and picked up again in the “1920s, with i.a. richards and kenneth burke” (p. 50). le bon’s theory, grounded in both the social and biological science of his day – such as it was – creates a much more clearer and influential continuum that was not scholarly, but civic, and often had terrifying consequences. 234 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj le bon and the totalitarian state for those unfamiliar with le bon in the context of his historical milieu, a fundamental factual introduction might be useful. psychologie was an overt rhetorical manual with not only broad influence but a demonstrable influence on the modern period’s rhetorical praxis. not only is his rhetorical theory a natural extension of scientistic psychological principles found throughout the 19th century, but le bon was a vital link between 19th century rhetoric and scientistic public discourse in the decades after psychologie’s publication in 1896. his treatise functioned as a means for emerging totalitarian states to form rhetorical policy, mainly through speechifying, display, and ultimately propaganda. though a physician by training, le bon (1841-1931) had a long career and wrote over twenty books, and his most notable success and influence came with his rhetorical treatise which synthesized and repurposed french crowd psychology to persuasive. le bon’s theories in psychologie were printed hundreds of thousands of times and translated into seventeen languages. while le bon has been mostly uncontextualized in discussions of nineteenth-century continental rhetoricians, he has not been entirely ignored. robert a. nye (1975), the leading scholar of le bon’s work, attaches two causes to his neglect: le bon and the french academy had a mutual antipathy to one another during his lifetime, and the academy steadfastly refused to study his works. this was likely exacerbated posthumously, due to his rather direct connection to fascism in the early twentieth century and an ambient cultural stigma in france toward vichy sympathizers, real or ideological. but just as in american scholarship, le bon has had academic attention from scholars such as marpeau (2000), largely in the context of cultural and biographical studies1 before childers, only nye, himself a historian, traced le bon’s influence in nations such as turkey, rumania, japan, and most notably, many nations of western europe (nye, 1975, pp. 165-167). one of the early adaptors of le bon’s theories, and possibly the most notorious, was none other than benito mussolini, with whom le bon became friends with later in life. in an interview with pierre chanlaine, mussolini claimed, “much that le bon wrote in his psychologie des foules had been useful to him in addressing crowds. speaking directly and forcefully to the crowd itself, and establishing a rapport based on foreknowledge of the composition of the group were 1 see generally gustave le bon. parcours d’un intellectuel 1841-1931, paris, cnrs éditions, 2000. ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 235 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj important elements which mussolini claimed to have found in le bon’s book” (nye, 1975, p. 178). chanlaine further reported that “mussolini related to him his satisfaction with le bon’s principle of ‘affirmation’… he laughed with satisfaction as he told of how he could vigorously state a principle to the crowd, then ask them ‘isn’t that so?’ to which they would reply ‘si duce, si duce’” (chanlaine as cited in nye, 1975, p. 179). perhaps even more noteworthy is the argument – only speculative originally posited by stein (1955), that a translation of le bon’s book was formative to hitler (1939, p. 179). other scholars, without drawing a direct connection to le bon, have noted the influence of massenpsychologie on the oratorical practices of the third reich (see generally bosaijman; iezzi, 1959). while recognizing that the assertion would be difficult to prove, nye (1975) points out that hitler’s statements on the nature of his oratory in relation to his audience share haunting conceptual ground with the theories of le bon. surprisingly, however, it was not only fascist states that found lebon’s work useful. in 1914, theodore roosevelt asked specifically to meet le bon during a visit to paris (barrows, 1981, p. 179). there is a long history of rhetorical analyses of fascist rhetoric, going back at least as far as kenneth burke’s 1941 essay “the rhetoric of hitler’s ‘battle’” in which he analyzed mein kampf in order to “discover what kind of ‘medicine’ this medicine-man has concocted, that we may know, with greater accuracy, exactly what to guard against, if we are to forestall the concocting of a similar medicine in america” (2006, p. 149). indeed, nazi rhetoric led many to question and study the ethical problems inherent in rhetoric. there have been numerous analyses of totalitarian rhetoric analyzing its internal strategies. this approach continued with corbett’s “rhetoric of the closed fist” (1969). katz (1992), too, has noted an ethical rhetorical problem evidenced in nazi memos, where he claims that through an “ethic of expediency, rhetoric was made to serve the holocaust” (p. 257). yet the era of fascism was certainly not the first time rhetoricians noticed the propensity of rhetoric to be used for unethical ends. indeed, long before hitler, mussolini, and other twentieth-century fascists, cicero (2001) noted this dangerous aspect of rhetoric: “eloquence is one of the supreme virtues; and the stronger this faculty is, the more necessary it is for it to be combined with integrity and supreme wisdom, and if we bestow fluency of speech on persons devoid of those virtues, we shall not have made orators of them, but shall have put weapons into the hands of madmen” (p. 55). the possibility of rhetoric’s ill-use has led some as far as to claim rhetoric entirely vacuous and useless in an age of scientific inquiry, but le bon, himself a physician, used 236 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj scientific ideas as a key component of his theory of rhetoric and contagion. this concept is the least explained of his rhetorical theory, and the bulk of this article investigates the connections between rhetoric and contagion. le bon’s theory of persuasion is a clear expression of scientism in 19th century rhetoric and was consistent with others in his day. we will return to le bon’s future influence later, but first this article shows how le bon’s scientism shaped his rhetorical theory in the 19th century. le psychologie des foules and the contagion of ideas le bon was trained as a physician and attempted to enter the academe by studying race theory, anthropology, and phrenology. he was so convinced of the racial superiority of europeans that much of his work operated on the assumption that the various races of humanity were arranged hierarchically, with europeans being at the top (see generally les lois psychologiques de l'évolution des peuples). as a physical scientist, he believed in the existence of the aether, “black light” and mesmerism as an instrument of social control. his racism, elitism, racism, nationalism, and pseudo-scientific beliefs put him squarely in line with many components of fascist ideology. his exclusion from social scientific circles in his own historical milieu only served as further impetus for the development of his political thought—a thought marked by antipathy for democratic institutions and processes. his belief in the organization of audiences as a subhuman organism with cellular integrity is central to a contextual analysis of his rhetorical theory. le bon’s training as a physician was formative to his theory of social contagion, a theory which had rhetorical dimensions; the three principal means of persuasion cited by le bon was “affirmation, repetition, and contagion” (p. 117). although contagion is perhaps the least-discussed element of these means of mass persuasion in psychologie, it is safe to assume that a physician’s understanding of contagion in 1896 would be significantly at variance from our own, but also significant for the further examination of le bon’s theories. le bon’s stated intent in composing psychologie was not merely to write a popularizing rhetoric but to clinically offer this advice to control and manipulate the social “sickness” of crowd behavior with medical theories of control which operated by contagion. it should be said that le bon expressed genuine antipathy for rhetoric in an academic sense or in the sense of public oratory. no less, le bon’s work is noted for the rhetorical utility of his theories and instructions for an orator who might utilize them. for example, he wrote, ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 237 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj “to know the art of impressing the imagination of crowds is to know at the same time the art of governing them” (92). le bon, separating himself from the rhetorical tradition in both its educational tradition and its civic tradition, drew on the scientism of the nineteenth-century sociological and anthropological currents of human “science” in his day. le bon sets forth both rhetorical precepts, a description of an ideal orator, and strategies to appeal to audiences (which he terms crowds) based on assumptions about their nonrationality: “the laws of logic have no action on a crowd. to bring home conviction to crowds it is necessary first of all understand the sentiments by which they are animated, to pretend to share these sentiments, then to endeavor to modify them…” (pp. 112-113). in le bon’s rhetorical schema, the goal of the ideal orator is to manipulate words and concepts, which is based in a theory of language that presumes a non-rational relationship between the signifier and signified, and accordingly theorizes the ideal means of nonrational persuasion through image, symbol, analogy, association, and repetition which has as its final component contagion to form, or more precisely control, the illness of mass psychological bodies. contagion is perhaps the least defined of these components, and so we must turn to theories of contagion in the medical ideas of his day. le bon’s rhetorical treatise had its conceptual foundation in the language of french mesmerism, racial theory, and, most significantly, the thought of “l’ecole de paris”, whose main interests have been defined as broadly embracing “mental activity” concretely manifested, “the life of and the transformation of mental images, the relationship of emotion to organic rhythms,” (nye, 1975, p. 65). in sum, le bon was synthesizing a rhetorical theory based on early scientific ideas of non-rational behavior as exemplified in biological, involuntary processes, and collective psychology. to know the title of his restatement is enough to drive home the point: psychologie’s purpose was to present a rhetoric aimed at social control based on the premise of biological automatism, and the agent of infecting and curing biological automata was contagion. this could be described based on contemporary theories of contagion in vogue in his time, which led him to conceive of persuasion as a form of pathogenic psychological warfare. rhetoric as pathogenic psychological control le psychologie des foules, then, was highly influenced by le bon’s disgust for the general public and democratic institutions. in the mid-twentieth 238 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj century, hannah arendt (2007) explained, “if the few are the wisest, then they are according to plato those who cannot persuade the multitude and must rule over unwilling subjects through violence” (p. 943). le bon presented his theories first by investigating the “general characteristics” of crowds and then with chapters on the remote and immediate factors of the opinions and beliefs of crowds and the limitations of crowds. then, finally, with chapter 9, le bon presents “the leaders of crowds and their means of persuasion.” in this chapter, which we will focus on, he identifies the qualities of successful leaders and their use for affirmation, repetition, and most importantly contagion as the biological weapon of ideological infections that are the primary means of rhetors. it is this latter concept that is our focus, but we must first explicate le bon’s understanding of the crowd as organic body. le bon begins le psychologie by explaining that he is not simply referring to a mass of people when he uses the word crowd but “a provisional being formed of heterogeneous elements, which for a moment are combined, exactly as the cells which constitute a living body form by their reunion a new being which displays characteristics very different from those possessed by each of the cells singly” (p. 30). this bears careful contextual understanding as not a mere metaphorical utterance but a comprehension of cellular theory as le bon, the physician, understood it. l. wolpert’s study of cell theory before 1895 explains that vegetable cellular theory had been limitedly observed and understood since robert hooke’s study in 1665 (wolpert, 1995, p. 265). cellular theory however went through various phases until approximately 1833 when such theories began to connect the animal and cellular theories of tissue and cohesion, with various arguments that they were connected fibrously or in a ‘globular’ manner (p.229). but in any case, the history reveals that well into the time of le bon’s clinical training in the mid-nineteenth century, however it was styled, there was a belief in a kind of “vital force” or unifying energy that was responsible for cellular action and cohesion (p. 229). it was in 1889 that the cutting edge of cellular study still believed cellular material was “protoplasmic” but had still not accounted for individual cells possessing membranes that separated and differentiated them from one another (p. 230). it had still not been established until a year before the appearance le psychologie. in terms of le bon’s rhetorical theory of pathogenesis and the cellular nature of rhetorical subjects, it must be understood that he regarded an audience as a mass of undifferentiated tissue, much like a protoplasmic mass of cells in one organism. if such a mass had no delineation or cellular wall between one and the other, then a pathogen could suddenly and with astonishing rapidity infect the organism entirely not merely by transfer ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 239 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj between distinct units but through the aether itself; indeed, le bon believed that the mere presence of a pathogenic persuasion could change the minds and actions of mass audiences. the cellular audience is heterogenous, as he explains, regardless of functional differences, and can be collectively controlled by virtue of its collective presence. as a physician, the undifferentiated tissues of the body of the crowd should be treated like cells, without differentiating and separating structures, indeed, the paradox of the part and the whole that derived from the 19th century medical theory of organic unity, from which he derives one of his earliest rhetorical “laws”. more commonly referred to today as “mob mentality,” le bon’s crowd, further, does not require that all members of the crowd be in a single place together: “thousands of isolated individuals may acquire at certain moments … the characteristics of a psychological crowd” (p. 3). he further explains that crowds have an organic mental unity, centrally characterized by “impulsiveness, irritability, incapacity to reason, the absence of judgment and of the critical spirit, the exaggeration of the sentiments”, in sum, susceptibility to illness and infection (p. 17). when multiple people gather together, le bon explains, they become a “single being” and are subject to “the law of the mental unity of crowds” (p. 2). le bon was attempting to articulate a theory of persuasion based on medical research in vogue since the 1880s, in which scientists were attempting to argue against the “mechanistic” explanation of biological processes on prior centuries. edmund montgomery, who has been called a "pioneer of organicism," argued in 1880 to further the logical foundations of organic unity, and probably influenced le bon’s rhetorical conceptions of cellular unity. as philips (1970) explains, “in his article ‘the unity of the organic individual,’ published in 1882, [montgomery] mentioned his studies on cells and stated that he had come to the conclusion that the fundamental entity is not the individual cell, but the organism as a whole” (p. 426). thus, to le bon, the objects or bodies to be persuaded are aggregate cells with whole functions, and not a set of individuals. because organicism, though logically flawed, was high science in the years preceding psychologie, le bon’s theories of rhetoric and the scientism associated with them stemmed not from a mere contempt for assemblies of people acting in concert but from what he perceived as the bleeding edges of the science of life. montgomery summarized that “the organism is prior to its tissues, the tissues prior to their supposed elements. the centralised organism is not, as universally assumed, a multiple of ultimate units, but is, on the contrary, itself one single individuality” (p. 326). the idea that audiences (“crowds”) functioned as an organic unit, an idea that implicates biological 240 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj systems theory, finds a conceptual corollary in 19th century medical science which posits that “processes occurring in living things could be understood only when the features of the whole organism were considered. the organism was a functioning unit, and it was this unit which determined the characteristics of the constituent parts, not vice-versa. the piecemeal examination of the parts, they were suggesting, would not lead to an understanding of the whole” (philips, 1970, p. 427). thus, le bon’s examination of the rhetoric which affected crowds as an organic whole, and not their constituent parts, was a logical step in his attempt to create a synthetic theory of mass persuasion. thus, to le bon, the mental unity of mass audiences is such that when an individual becomes a member of a crowd: “the mere fact that he forms part” of a biological organization that when isolated, “he may be a cultivated individual; in a crowd, he is a barbarian—that is, a creature acting by instinct” (p. 13). the biological “law” in le bon’s rhetorical theory is not mere metaphor but had very real intellectual antecedents, as it took little time and few logical steps for thinkers such as haldane (1883) to extend biological and cellular organicism to social groupings: “when we have reached a standpoint from which we refuse to separate the individual organism from its surroundings and from its relation to other individuals, we see how the species may itself be looked upon as a compound organism” (p. 58). from organic units to pathogens having explained the foundation of rhetorical contagion theory, the next logical piece of le bon’s puzzle as to the means of the transmission of ideas is contagion theory itself. the precise meaning of this term as le bon the physician might have understood it while writing psychologie in 1894-1895 bears theoretical historical analysis. rudolph virchow, an early pathologist in europe, preceded pasteur and laid the groundwork for the theory of contagion as le bon would have come to understand it. in 1858 he published a famous text, “cellular pathology,” which according to santer “contained the theoretical basis for his disease theory” (p. 239). virchow used microscopic research “to establish the principle that all tissues in the body were composed of cells. he promulgated the axiom that ‘every cell comes from another cell: from it [the cell] emanate all the activities of life both in health and sickness’” (p. 239). building on cellular theory, louis pasteur, “fundamentally opposed a living agent theory of disease and fermentation” (p. 246). the alternative theory ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 241 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj was that microbes were somehow spontaneously generated, but around 1859 pasteur showed microbial life itself could exist in air and this discovery gave rise to his most influential lecture, in which he extended the idea of contagious causation to larger social issues of his day – much like le bon later did. pasteur underscored the importance of his research by explaining it as a building block to solving the questions of his day—confronting the nineteenth century theological imagination, which might explain “the unity or multiplicity of human races; the creation of man several thousand years or several thousand centuries ago; the fixity of the species or the slow and progressive transformation of one species into another” (geison, 1995, pp. 110-111) pasteur’s lecture was generally aimed at combating the theory known as “spontaneous generation” of microbial life which was still under some debate through the work of cohn in lebon’s lifetime. if cohn’s work was accepted for purposes of le bon’s rhetorical theory, it would theorize that audiences form their opinions spontaneously and without the intervention of a living agent. huxley (1886) dispelled this idea in the field of biology with his influential essay, “on the physical basis or the matter of life.” the ideas contained in this seminal essay were a powerful argument against a theory of spontaneous generation. he argued for the interconnectedness of all living creatures, arguing that “a unity of power . . . a unity of form, and a unity of substantial composition; does pervade the whole living world” (p. 451). this unity gives life to the protoplasmic theory of cellular cohesion (still in vogue in the time of le bon) which le bon extended to the notions of cellular groups of people. a further relevant scientific theory could further explain le bon’s understanding of contagion as a rhetorical principle. in the british medical journal, simon (1879) offered a theory of contagion in “an essay on contagion: its nature and mode of action”. he opened the essay by asking the crucial question: what is the nature of the contagious matter? on this date, if this question had been put to pasteur, or other later and more influential microbial theorists, they would have designated the cause as a living agent. but to simon, “disease was not simply a catalytic process leading to breakdown of organic matter”; it was instead a constructive process (santer, 2015, p. 269). we must remember that rhetorical action, too, is a constructive process conducted by living agents. by the late 1870s, it was generally conceded and expanded by the work of robert koch that infection was not merely causal but necessary to contagious action (p. 270). to le bon, social action and the rhetoric that it was predicated upon must therefore bear similitude. without more exhaustive scientific history, it might suffice to say that after the 242 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj experiments of cohn and by the time of the composition of psychologie, the living agent theory had been conceded at least in part as one cause of contagion. this of course brings us to a more central question: what is the role of the living agent of persuasion (the vector of pathogenic ideas) in le bon’s scientistic schema of persuasion? le bon’s argument relating the process of contagion and therefore the process of persuasion would seem to stem from a false analogy, namely that humans, socially, are analogous to cellular complexes in social groupings. but historically, his assertions as to the results possible through his pathogenic rhetorical theory proved to be entirely possible. emerging totalitarian states were so convinced of the viability le bon’s theory of the bio-psychological control through infection and subsequent contagion that, as le bon had asserted was possible, they adopted it in practice to persuade audiences to kill millions of other people: “making part of a crowd, he is conscious of the power given to him by number, and it is sufficient to suggest to him ideas of murder … for him to yield immediately to temptation” (p. 15). le bon cites historical examples where such suggestions render casualties in the millions (p. 111). for historical reasons and genuine anti-democratic sentiment, le bon believed that morbidity and destruction as a result of crowd action were inevitable and that the rhetor’s role should be similar to that of a physician: to control and curtail the process of disease. le bon presents contagion as a part of the organic model of crowd persuasion he outlined earlier in the book claiming, “ideas, sentiments, emotions, and beliefs possess in crowds a contagious power as intense as that of microbes” (p. 12). he spends the most time discussing contagion, yet despite this lengthy discussion it is unclear how contagion works. rather, le bon implies that this is a natural phenomenon resulting from the very psychology of a crowd. “contagion is a phenomenon of which it is easy to establish the presence, but that it is not easy to explain. it must be classed among those phenomena of a hypnotic order” (p. 10). le bon goes on to say that repetitive suggestions are such that “every sentiment and act is contagious, and contagious to such a degree that an individual readily sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest” (p. 10). despite this lack of explanation, it is clear that through repetition and affirmation a rhetor can prompt an idea or belief to become contagious. le bon, rather than suggesting a “cure” for a contagion, offers an instruction in the introduction of these contagions to treat the body of the audience. to le bon, the contagion is immediate and based in the brain and spinal cord of the audience, and uniform in spite of individual temperaments (pp. 18-22). the very presence of ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 243 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a crowd limits the individual’s logical faculties so that when prompted with affirmation and repetition the idea presented by the leader (whether logical or not) will become contagious. further, le bon argues that it is contagion that allows members of the crowd to accept ideas that are contrary to their own best interest. contagions begin with special human-produced “illusions” which can even induce hallucinatory states, as “brain disorders, like madness, are themselves contagious. the frequency of madness among doctors who are specialists for the mad is notorious” (p. 128). the orator inducing madness in crowds contagiously can thus himself become mad. leaders of crowds: the vector of contagion these crowds, so suggestible and instinctual, need something (rhetoric) and someone (a rhetorician) to move them to action. le bon explains, “notwithstanding all of its progress, philosophy has been unable as yet to offer the masses any ideal that can charm them; but, as they must have their illusions at all cost, they turn instinctively, as the insect seeks the light, to the rhetoricians who accord them what they want” (p. 109). perhaps surprisingly, le bon does not find leaders and rhetoricians to be men of great intellect, but rather men of action, “especially recruited from the ranks of those morbidly nervous, excitable, half-deranged persons who are bordering on madness. however absurd may be the idea they uphold of the goal they pursue, their convictions are so strong that all reasoning is lost upon them” (p. 119). despite recognizing the leader’s importance—“a crowd is a servile flock incapable of ever doing without a master” (p. 118)—, he claims these rhetorical leaders are just as irrational as the crowd: “hypnotized [sic] by the idea, whose apostle he has since become. it has taken possession of him to such a degree that everything outside it vanishes, and that every contrary opinion appears to him an error or a superstition” (p. 118). clearly, both mussolini and hitler fit this description, so entranced by their beliefs as to lead their countries with the misplaced idea that they could conquer the world. while le bon sees faith as an essential characteristic of a leader, these leaders cannot have great power unless “they acquire in time that mysterious force known as prestige” (p. 132). he further explains that: prestige in reality is a sort of domination exercised on our mind by an individual, a work, or an idea. this domination entirely paralyses our critical faculty, and fills our soul with astonishment and respect. the sentiment provoked is inexplicable, like all sentiments, but it would appear to be of the 244 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj same kind as the fascination to which a magnetized [sic] person is subjected. prestige is the mainspring of all authority (p. 133). le bon further explains that acquired prestige can result from fortune, position, titles, or even uniforms while personal prestige, possessed by the great leaders of crowds, seems to result from a person’s ability to fascinate those around him or her. le bon goes as far as to claim that those with this personal prestige can “ill-treat men as you will, massacre them by millions, be the cause of invasion upon invasion, all is permitted you if you possess prestige in a sufficient degree and the talent necessary to uphold it” (pp. 140-141). le bon further argues that prestige “constitutes the fundamental element of persuasion” (p. 144). rather than a physician whose function, traditionally is to heal, the rhetorical physician of le bon could himself be the agent of mass destruction using a kind of rhetorical epidemiology calculated to divide and destroy by contagion, or to quarantine ideological illness by inoculation with a different kind of contagion. social control is effected by biological weapon of thought and division. having illustrated the affective dimensions of le bon’s theories and their foundation in 19th century biology, we now turn to the enduring scientistic metaphor of contagion as persuasion in a brief illustration of how it was manifested in civic rhetorical discourse in the 20th century. le bon between 19th and 20th century rhetoric as previously mentioned, the connection between le bon and the totalitarian oratory of figures like mussolini have been so thoroughly established that they do not bear further examination. but an intriguing connection remains to be fully established between le bon and the third reich, and in turn kenneth burke’s reaction to the rhetoric of the third reich. we offer the following analysis not as scholars of critical texts written by figures such as hitler to show this direct connection, but to show how le bon’s theories of contagion and persuasion pervaded continental totalitarian discourse. it is possible a direct influence to hitler’s rhetoric may never be conclusively established, but the following is offered as evidence that le bon’s ideas, perhaps through italian fascism, were in general circulation and provided many of the rhetorical strategies in at least one foundational totalitarian document, namely mein kampf. we will not rehash the common knowledge of its pivotal influence and formative place in the ideology of the third reich but instead look only to the elements of persuasion and contagion ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 245 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj that echo the theories of le bon. at the center of hitler’s strategy for offering his political philosophy lies a metaphor of illness and cure, implicating contagion, a nuance which was not lost on burke. hitler’s metaphorical discursive language regarding the “jewish question” and likening groups of ethnic minorities to parasites has been the subject of previous arguments (perry, 1983). but fascist rhetoric and its foundational documents are shot through with the state being “sick” and totalitarianism as “the cure.” this was not lost on burke. throughout hitler’s discourse on his prospective political plans for germany in mein kampf, there is a recurring argumentative metaphor for the problem, and proposed solution, couched in the term kranheit (disease). he explains that the only hope for germany is a diagnosis of its disease: “just as bodily ailments can be cured only when their origin has been diagnosed, so also political disease can be treated only when it has been diagnosed” (p. 181). the loss of the war was a kind of good fortune, he concludes and that the “disease would have become chronic; whereas, in the acute form of the disaster, it at least showed itself clearly to the eyes of a considerable number of observers.”, likening the collapse of germany to a death by plague, instead of a slow death by tuberculosis (p. 185). he argues that the disease must be arrested in its course: “the longer the germs of disease remain in the national body and the longer they are allowed to become an integral part of that body” (p. 186). hitler blamed the free press for the spread of the rhetorical contagion, “this poison was allowed to enter the national bloodstream and infect public life without the government taking any effectual measures to master the course of the disease” (p. 194). a similar indictment was offered in the creative arena: “everywhere we find the presence of those germs which … bring about the ruin of our culture” and “in almost all the various fields of german art and culture those morbid phenomena may be observed” (p. 204). these examples illustrate hitler’s belief in ideological contagion transmitted through rhetoric and public communication, or that the popular beliefs of the masses are spread like a contagion. the central failure of state rhetorical policies as a failure during wartime is summarized in hitler’s brief reflection on the nature of propaganda and the nature of crowds: “the receptive powers of the masses are very restricted, and their understanding is feeble… effective propaganda must be confined to a few bare essentials and those must be expressed as far as possible in stereotyped formulas. these slogans should be persistently repeated” (p. 148). the masses were “a vacillating crowd of human children” (p. 149). le bon’s theories in the context of morbidity, contagion, and the nature of communication are far too many throughout the work to number here. 246 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj burke’s reaction to the mobilization of these scientific metaphors is telling. burke (2016) initially describes hitler’s text as “nauseating” and likens hitler to a “medicine man” (p. 191). “hitler found a panacea, a “cure for what ails you,” a “snakeoil,” that made such sinister unifying within his own nation possible” (p. 192). he describes the “’medicinal’ appeal of the jew as scapegoat” as a proposed “’medicine’ for the aryan people” (pp. 195-196). hitler’s anti-semitism, explains burke, is not merely a medicine for germany but for hitler himself (p. 199). germany’s parliamentary problems are a “symptom” of an illness in the nation, and hitler’s racism is the “medicine” (p. 201). in conclusion, he observes hitler’s rhetorical strategy to have a major component of “endless repetition,” noting one strategy expressly advocated by le bon, while his whole critique is thematically constructed around the repetitive metaphor of sickness and cure in mein kampf. though well beyond the scope of this article, it would be worthwhile to investigate just how familiar burke was with le bon. what is clear, in any case, is that the scientistic rhetoric of hitler and his tropes of repetition, held together throughout with the idea of contagion and cure, are hauntingly reminiscent of the theories of le bon, and serve as merely a narrow proof of le bon’s historical influence between the 19th and 20th century. it is more than plausible that without le bon’s rhetorical theory, this interchange would never have been written. this analysis is offered to show that le bon’s scientistic, 19th century rhetorical theory was a vital bridge between the rhetoric, for good or ill, that would shape modern discourse in the early 20th century (and arguably persists to this day). perhaps le bon’s neglect until recent times is partly political, but also partly due to the fact that he is nearly unbearable to scrutinize from our historically-advised positions of privilege some 120 years after the publication of psychologie. if we measure the importance of a given rhetoric based on its historical influence, dissemination, and social effects – that is, factors quite apart from how tidily it fits into our pseudo-narrative of a rarefied “rhetorical tradition” – a very different picture of rhetorical history emerges. if we seek to know what rhetoric is in our time and how it is being deployed either for or against us, we might be well-served to look to the past with more clinical scrutiny. ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 247 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references aley, s. 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(2014). fearing the masses: gustave le bon and some undemocratic roots of modern rhetorical studies. advances in the history of rhetoric, 17(1), 76-87. cicero, m. t., may, j. m., & wisse, j. (2001). cicero on the ideal orator. new york: oxford university press. connors, r. j. (1991). writing the history of our discipline. an introduction to composition studies, 49-71. corbett, e. p. (1969). the rhetoric of the open hand and the rhetoric of the closed fist. college composition and communication, 288-296. ferreira-buckley, l. (1996). nineteenth-century rhetoric. in t. enos (ed.). the encyclopedia of rhetoric and composition: communication from ancient times to the information age (pp. 468-473). new york: garland publishing, inc. 248 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 230 – 249 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj gaillet, l. l. (2010). the nineteenth century. the present state of scholarship in the history of rhetoric: a twenty-first century guide, columbia and london: the university of missouri press. geison, g. r. (1995). the private science of louis pasteur. princeton university press. haldane, r. b. and haldane, j. s. (1883). the relation of philosophy to science. in a. seth & r. b. haldane (eds.), essays in philosophical criticism (pp. 41-66). london: longmans, green and co. hart, j. s. (1882). a manual of composition and rhetoric: a text-book for schools and colleges. philadelphia: eldredge and brother. hill, d. j. (1877). the science of rhetoric: an introduction to the law of effective discourse. new york: butler, sheldon and company. hitler, a. (1939). mein kampf. london: hurst and blackett, ltd. huxley, t. (1886). on the physical basis or the matter of life. select works of thomas h. huxley (pp. 451-462). new york: john b. alden. iezzi, f. (1959). benito mussolini, crowd psychologist. quarterly journal of speech, 45(2), 166-170. johnson, n. (1991) nineteenth-century rhetoric in north america. carbondale and edwardsville: southern illinois university press. katz, s. b. (1992). the ethic of expediency: classical rhetoric, technology, and the holocaust. college english, 54(3), 255-275. marpeau, b. (2000). gustave le bon. parcours d'un intellectuel 1841-1931. paris: cnrs éditions. montgomery, e. (1880). the unity of the organic individual. mind, 5(20), 465489. montgomery, e. (1882). are we" cell-aggregates"?. mind, 7(25), 100-107. mosse, g. l. (1964). the crisis of german ideology: intellectual origins of the third reich. new york: grossett and dunlap. nye, r. (1975). the origins of crowd psychology: gustave le bon and the crisis of mass democracy in the third republic. beverly hills: sage. ramsey, s.d., gustave le bon, rhetoric as mass contagion, and 19th century 249 rhetoric https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj perry, s. (1983). rhetorical functions of the infestation metaphor in hitler's rhetoric. communication studies, 34(4), 229-235. phillips, d. (1970). organicism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. journal of the history of ideas, 31(3), 413-432. santer, m. (2015). confronting contagion: our evolving understanding of disease. oxford: oxford university press. simon, j. (1879). an essay on contagion. british medical journal, 2(990), 973. stein, a. (1955). adolf hitler und gustave le bon. geschichte in wissenschaft und unterricht, 362-368. stewart, donald. (1990). the nineteenth century. in w. b. horner (ed.), the present state of scholarship in historical and contemporary rhetoric (rev. ed.). columbia, missouri: university of missouri press. walzer, a. e., & beard, d. j. (2009). historiography and the study of rhetoric. in a. a. lunsford, k. h. wilson, & r. eberly. (eds.), the sage handbook of rhetorical studies (pp. 13-34). los angeles: sage publications. wolpert, l. (1995). evolution of eukaryotic cellular process. philosophical transactions: biological sciences. 349(1329), 227-233. 7.pdf (p.1) 007 dec2017.pdf (p.2-21) 11-2.pdf 10-2.pdf 11-1.pdf 10-2.pdf 11-2.pdf dms darla, the structure of the myth in pramoedya 133 (the object), it is opposed by calon arang and helped by empu babula and ratna manggali. the ones who receive the action are the king and the people of daha. although there are some minor structures within the main structure, the minor structures function to give meaning to the text as a whole. the structure of myth found in the analysis is a common structure within the javanese culture. it is believed that an evil thing will always be defeated by the good one. no matter how powerful the evil is, the good will find a way to reveal the weakness of the evil and fmally use it to defeat the evil. conducting an analysis under the approach of structuralism with the help of greimas' actantial model is somehow rather 'dry' for some literature students. it is because the analysis is not complete. some analyses only stop at showing the division based on the model, while in fact the result of the model can be used as data for further analysis. combining this theory with cultural study can be an alternative to put a "slut' to the analysis. this study uses the pattern found as data to see further. it results on conftrming the existence of myth in javanese culture, especially in relation to good and evil. this shows that the culture influences the creation of literary works. references abrams, m.h. a glossary of literary terms, 7th edition. usa: heinle & heinle, thomson learning inc, 1999. hebert, louis. "the actantial model". in louis hebert, signo [online], rimouski (quebec), http://www.signosemio.com, 2006. 134 celt, volume 11, number 2, december 20 ii: 117-134 __ . tools for text and image analysis: an introduction to applied semiotics, texto!, [online]. http://www.revue-texto.netiparutions llivres-elhebert _ aslhebert _ tools.html, 2006. kenan, slomith rimmon. narrative fiction. london: routledge, 2005. kirzner, l.g. and s.r. mandell. literature: reading, reacting, writing. usa: harcourt college publisher, 2000. pickering, james h. and jeffrey d. hoeper. concise companion to literature. new york: macmillan publishing co. inc, 1962. rivkin, julie and michael ryan. literary theory: an anthology. oxford: blackwell publishing, 2004. scholes, robert. structuralism in literature, an introduction. new heaven and london: yale university press, 1974. tyson, lois. critical theory today: a user friendly guide. new york: routledge, 2006. celt 2011 dec [117-134]sri darta 179-374-1-ce.pdf cover + daftar isi.pdf deta maria.pdf penutup.pdf 179-374-1-ce.pdf cover + daftar isi.pdf deta maria.pdf penutup.pdf 10-2.pdf 11-1.pdf towards teachers’ communicative competence enhancement: a study on school preparation for bilingual programs heny hartono, mursid saleh, warsono, dwi anggani english department, faculty of language and arts, sogijapranata catholic university, indonesia; english education program, post graduate study, universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia email: hartonoheny@gmail.com received: 03-01-2017 accepted: 20-07-2017 published: 11-08-2017 towards teachers’ communicative competence enhancement: a study on school preparation for bilingual programs heny hartono1, mursid saleh2, warsono2, and dwi anggani2 hartonoheny@gmail.com 1english department, faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia 2english education program, post graduate study, universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia abstract: this research is a preliminary study of an empirical research aimed to develop an english training model to enhance teachers’ communicative competence in bilingual schools. this preliminary study aims to give a description of the schools’ background and preparation to run bilingual programs, teachers’ background and experience in teaching using english, and the challenges related to communicative competence which are faced by teachers inside and outside the classrooms. this study was a qualitative study and the data were collected using semi-structured interview, open-ended questionnaire, and focus group discussion. this study involved 54 teachers and 5 school principals. the results of the study revealed that the schools under this study were under the category of additive bilingual education; the teachers in the bilingual programs were english and non-english department graduates; and the challenges faced by the teachers were mostly related with their teaching experience and educational background. the findings of this study will be useful to recommend teacher trainings as a part of teachers’ professional development. key words: teachers, communicative competence, bilingual program abstrak: penelitian ini merupakan bagian awal dari sebuah rangkaian penelitian empirik yang bertujuan untuk mengembangkan sebuah model pelatihan bahasa inggris untuk meningkatkan 2 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 1 12 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj kemampuan komunikatif guru-guru sekolah dwibahasa. penelitian awal ini bertujuan memberikan gambaran tentang latar belakang sekolah dan persiapan sekolah untuk membuka program dwibahasa; latar belakang dan pengalaman guru dalam mengajar dengan bahasa inggris; serta tantangan berkaitan dengan kemampuan berkomunikasi yang dihadapi para guru baik di dalam maupun di luar kelas. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif dan data dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan teknik wawancara semi terstruktur; kuisioner terbuka, dan focus group discussion. 54 guru dan 5 orang kepala sekolah terlibat dalam penelitian ini. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sekolahsekolah subyek masuk kategori additive bilingual education; guru-guru di sekolah dwibahasa adalah lulusan program bahasa inggris dan jurusan lain; tantangan yang dihadapi para guru terutama terkait dengan pengalaman mengajar dan latar belakang pendidikan mereka. hasil penelitian ini akan bermanfaat untuk memberi rekomendasi pelatihan guru sebagai bagian dari pengembangan profesionalisme guru. kata kunci: guru, kemampuan komunikatif, sekolah dwibahasa introduction the increased number of bilingual schools especially in big cities in indonesia has raised a question of the readiness of the schools to give their best educational services through the facilities, curriculum, teaching materials, and the human resources (hartono, 2016). teachers as the main human resources of educational institution play an important role as both language model provider and the source of knowledge. therefore, teachers in bilingual schools have double burdens; they have to provide good language model for the students and at the same time, they have to transfer the knowledge to the students. on the other hand, parents who send their children to bilingual schools also have high expectations toward their children’s success as bilinguals. again, in this point, teachers are lso expected to help those children grow as bilinguals. to meet the parents’ expectations, schools and teachers should give their best educational services. hence, a concern needs to be given to the quality and the quality maintenance of the teachers as the main human resource. since most bilingual schools in indonesia use english as one of the instructional languages, teachers at bilingual schools are supposed to be competent in english language. specifically, in order to be able to deliver hartono, h., saleh, m., warsono & anggani, d., towards teachers’ commu3 nicative competence enhancement: a study on school preparation for bilingual programs https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj different subjects in english, teachers should be communicatively competent. in other words, teachers’ communicative competence to enhance classroom discourse should be given attention. communicative competence itself is defined as the ability to use language appropriately according to the setting, social relationships, and communicative purposes (celce-murcia, 2007). nevertheless, in reality, not all teachers are capable of doing so because not all teachers involved in bilingual program have good capabilities in both target language and the field of the knowledge. this research was a preliminary study of an empirical research aimed to develop an english training model to enhance teachers’ communicative competence in bilingual programs at primary schools. this preliminary study aimed to give a description of the schools’ background and preparation to run bilingual programs, teachers’ background and experience in teaching using english, and the challenges related to communicative competence which were faced by teachers inside and outside the classrooms. the results of this study will be useful to recommend teacher trainings as a part of teachers’ professional development. literature review a. bilingual education according to anderson, boyer, & southwest educational development laboratory (pprc, 2010), the use of instruction in two languages as medium of instruction for any part, or all, of the school curriculum can be identified as the main feature of bilingual education. schools which only teach the target language as a “subject” are not included as bilingual program (cummins & hornberger, 2008). meanwhile, stephen may (2008) puts bilingual education into two kinds of programs which are recognized as subtractive and additive programs: a program is considered subtractive if it promotes monolingual learning in the dominant language, either losing or replacing one language with another. a program can be considered additive if it promotes bilingualism and biliteracy over the long term, usually by adding another language to the student’s existing repertoire. 4 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 1 12 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj in bilingual education, students are taught in two languages of instruction. in indonesia, commonly the language of instructions used are indonesian and one other target language. most of the educational institutions which run bilingual program include english as one of the instructional languages. therefore, the teachers of bilingual programs are supposed to master both of the languages of instruction. burn and richard (2009) describe the possible conditions of teachers who teach at bilingual schools in this following figure: figure 1: continua of target language proficiency and professional preparation proficient in the target language professionally prepared as a language teacher 1 3 not professionally prepared as a language teacher 2 4 not proficient in the target language (burn and richard, 2009) there are four groups of teachers: a. teachers who are professionally prepared as language teacher and proficient in the target language b. teachers who are professionally prepared as language teacher but not proficient in the target language c. teachers who are not professionally prepared as language teacher but proficient in the target language d. teachers who are not professionally prepared as language teacher and not proficient in the target language b. communicative competence competency is a highly valued qualification that accounts for the effective use of one’s knowledge and skills in a specific, usually complex context (westera, 2001, p.79). the competence can be observed from the performance. therefore, if someone is labelled as a competent person, his hartono, h., saleh, m., warsono & anggani, d., towards teachers’ commu5 nicative competence enhancement: a study on school preparation for bilingual programs https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj performances are supposed to come up to a standard (barnett, 1994 in westera, 2001). one of the competencies demanded in every professional field is communication competency. considering the fact that communication is a complex process which involves some aspects, communication itself can be seen as some dimensions as the following: a. communication as information exchange, b. communication as mental-state reading and influencing, c. communication as interaction, d. communication as situation management for teachers of bilingual schools, the ability of handling a discourse in english is very important. this ability includes all the dimensions of communication competencies above. in fact, it is the core of communicative competence model as suggested by celce murcia, dornyei and thurrel (1995). in 2007, celce-murcia revised her 1995 model and proposed communicative competence model for language teachers. the communicative competence consists of: a. sociocultural competence which refers to the speaker’s pragmatic knowledge that is how to express messages appropriately within the overall social and cultural context of communication (celce-murcia, 2007). b. discourse competence that refers to the selection, sequencing, and arrangement of words, structures, and utterances to achieve a unified spoken message. there are four areas within this competence : i. cohesion which includes the use of conventions to use reference (anaphora/cahaphore), substitution/ellipsis, conjunction and lexical chains (halliday and hasan, 1976 in celce-murcia, 2007) ii. deixis which is the use of pronouns, spatial terms, temporal terms, and textual reference. the ability to use deixis supports teachers’ professional role both in and outside the classroom. 6 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 1 12 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj iii. coherence refers to the ability to manage old and new information through the conventions recognized and used by the target language users. iv. generic structure is the ability to identify oral discourse segment such as narrative, conversation, lecture, report, etc. c. linguistic competence which includes the knowledge in phonology, lexicon, morphology, and syntax. in short, this is the competence that enables target language users to use the language correctly according to the rules of the language. d. formulaic competence celce-murcia (2007, p. 47) refers this competence to “those fixed and prefabricated chunks of language that speakers use heavily in everyday interaction”. a speaker of a language can be called as fluent speaker when he or she has and uses formulaic knowledge as much as he or she has systematic linguistic knowledge. e. interactional competence covers three components : i. actional competence that is the competence to perform action through speech acts. target language users with actional competence can perform interactions and express opinions and feelings in the target language ii. conversational competence which is the ability to handle conversation including how to open, close, interrupt, and backchannel iii. non-verbal/paralinguistic competence which includes the use of non-verbal language to support an interaction in the target language. f. strategic competence which refers to the ability to sustain smoothly in a communication. methodology this study was a qualitative study which aimed to find out: hartono, h., saleh, m., warsono & anggani, d., towards teachers’ commu7 nicative competence enhancement: a study on school preparation for bilingual programs https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj a. how the schools prepared the bilingual program b. the teachers’ educational background and experience in teaching using english c. the problems faced by teachers in their role as teachers of bilingual schools inside and outside the classroom the data were collected using semi-structured interview, open-ended questionnaire, and focus group discussion. creswell (2008, pp.178-192) mentions that qualitative interviews can be conducted through face to face interviews or telephone with participants or through a focus group discussion. the interviews involved a few number of questions which aimed to elicit views and opinions from the participants. the questionnaire used in this study was open-ended questionnaire to confirm the data gotten from the interviews. meanwhile, the respondents of this research were teachers and school principals who were purposively selected from five private bilingual schools in semarang, central java province, indonesia. there were 54 teachers and 5 school principals involved in this study. the qualitative reliability of this study was accomplished by documenting every step of data collecting and detail of respondents and setting. triangulation was done to support the validity of the study. it was conducted by interviewing different sources using several kinds of instruments such as face-to-face interviews, open-ended questionnaire, and focus group discussion with the participants. results a. how the schools prepared the bilingual program all the schools under this study were additive bilingual education. it can be seen from how the schools prepared the bilingual programs. from the results of interviews with school principals and senior teachers at the bilingual schools, it was found out that the main purpose of the bilingual program was to prepare students to be bilingual with english as the target language. four of the schools opened the bilingual program as companion to regular program and two of them preferred to use special names for the program. they were called as “immersion program” and english program”. 8 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 1 12 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj meanwhile, in one of the schools, the bilingual program was applied to all students from the first to the last grade. seen from how the schools prepared the bilingual programs, there were some schools which prepared the bilingual program as companion to the regular program. what made it different from regular program was that english taught as “subject” in regular program while in bilingual program english was used as the language of instruction in most of the curriculum. basically, the launching of bilingual program had more to do with the schools’ effort to get more students. the use of english as the language of instruction was a great attraction for parents to send their children to this program. among five schools under this study, one of them was prepared as bilingual school since its establishment. this school did not have regular program and it used english as the main language of instruction. indonesian language was used only in indonesian language class and in the preparation class for the national exam. despite the use of mixed language (english and indonesian) in lower grades, in almost all subjects, english was used in the interaction among teacher and students inside and outside the classroom. b. teachers’ educational background and experience in teaching using english the results of the questionnaire revealed that 50% of the respondents taught at the bilingual program because they were assigned by the schools to teach in the program. the other half of the respondents taught at the bilingual program because of their own will. 59,3% of the respondents were english department graduates and 40,7% were non-english department graduates. the teachers were selected to teach at the bilingual program through a selection process which started from the recruitment of the teachers. the process of recruitment were for totally new teachers or teachers from regular program who were assigned to teach at the bilingual program and those who with their own initiative applied for the position. teachers who were involved in the preparation of the program as steering committee were those who graduated from faculty of language or english teacher education. they particularly had previous experiences as english teacher at regular programs whereas new teachers may come from english department or non-english department. for the new teachers, they had to undergo a series of recruitment process such as having micro teaching, interview in english and doing english proficiency test (toefl hartono, h., saleh, m., warsono & anggani, d., towards teachers’ commu9 nicative competence enhancement: a study on school preparation for bilingual programs https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj test). some of the new teachers had got previous experiences in teaching using english in national plus schools, international schools or other similar bilingual schools. meanwhile, there were also schools who assigned their non-english subject teachers to teach in english because the schools offered bilingual classes for the students. this group of teachers did not have any experience in teaching using english. from the result of the interviews and focus group discussion, the teachers admitted that they hardly received any training related to their english competences for teaching. if they got trainings, most of the trainings were more about teaching techniques and how to use certain books in the class. the trainings were usually given by book publishers. some schools held short training on how to teach in english before or even after they launched the bilingual program. the short training was to give teachers basic skills to teach in english including how to open the class, how to deliver lessons, and how to close the class. c. the challenges faced by teachers of bilingual programs inside and outside the classrooms referring to the continua of target language proficiency and professional preparation (burn and richard, 2009) outlined in the previous section, the four groups described in figure 1 above were also found among the teachers in this study. in fact, each group of teacher had its own problems. there were teachers who were professionally prepared as language teachers. this group of teachers graduated from english department or from english education institutes. in general, these teachers did not have problems with the use of english in their daily interaction with students. the common problems faced by these teachers were their unfamiliarity with some terms in non-language subjects. as teachers of bilingual schools, they had to teach all subjects in english. sometimes they found it hard to explain new concepts in science or math because they were not prepared to teach science or math. to solve this problem, the teachers prepared themselves before class by learning the materials or consulting with their colleagues who taught those subjects in native language or in indonesian. although there were only some, but there were some teachers who were professionally prepared as language teachers but did not have good proficiency in english. commonly, these teachers did not have problems in delivering their lessons in english but the problems occurred when they had 10 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 1 12 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj to handle unprepared discourse especially when their students asked questions out of the materials prepared before or when the teachers have interaction with their students outside the classroom. meanwhile, there were teachers who were not professionally prepared as language teachers but they were proficient in english. this group of teachers commonly had previous teaching experience at international schools or immersion programs. none of the teachers who became respondents of this study had experience living abroad. they learned english at schools and the active or passive use of english was more influenced by their own motivation and personalities. for non-english graduate teachers, the ability to use english was a plus point for them as a professional teacher. there was also a group of teachers who were not professionally prepared as language teachers and they were not proficient in english. these teachers were assigned by schools to teach in english although they were not prepared as language teachers. as a result, they had to struggle with english to teach and deliver their materials. the worse thing was that sometimes their students’ english proficiency was better than the teachers’ english proficiency. this condition was psychologically threatening the teachers. they did not feel secured and they tended to be anxious with their english while delivering their subjects. the more anxious they were, the harder for them to express ideas in english. from the above description of teachers, it could be sum up that in general, all groups were confronted with professionalism as teachers. in general use, the term ‘professional’ refers to a trained and qualified specialist who displays a high standard of competent conduct in their practice (leung in burn and richard, 2009, p.49). teachers of bilingual schools need to improve all aspects of communicative competence. they have to continually upgrade their knowledge of linguistic systems as well as the formulaic knowledge. they also need to improve their sensitivity of appropriate language use. from the results of the interviews and focus group discussion, the teachers admitted that they hardly had professional training to improve their communicative competence which included the aspects explained above. the trainings they received were more related with teaching techniques and how to use bilingual books. therefore, the bilingual schools are encouraged to conduct trainings for teachers to improve their communicative competence. the teachers also need to be given a chance to have experience staying abroad. hartono, h., saleh, m., warsono & anggani, d., towards teachers’ commu11 nicative competence enhancement: a study on school preparation for bilingual programs https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj conclusion from the research conducted by the writer, it can be concluded that: a. the launching of bilingual programs can be in the form of pure bilingual schools or a program opened as companion to the regular program with a purpose to get more students. b. there are some teachers of bilingual schools who are experienced in teaching with english but do not master the subject matters. commonly, these teachers are english department or english education program graduates. c. there are some teachers of bilingual schools who master the subject matters but they have very little or no experiences in teaching with english. it is due to the fact that english is a foreign language in indonesia. d. schools do not provide continuous trainings to improve teachers’ communicative competence. considering the great expectation of parents to make their children bilingual by sending them to schools which use english as the delivery language, bilingual schools need to give more concern on the quality maintenance of the teachers through professional development trainings. one of the most crucial training for the teachers is english training to improve and develop teachers’ communicative competence. references burns, a., & richards, j. (2009). second language teacher education. london: cambridge university press. celce-murcia, m. (2007). rethinking the communicative competence in language teaching. in e. a. soler, & m. p. jorda, intercultural language use and language leraning (pp. 41-57). dordrecht: springer. celce-murcia, m., dornyei, z., & thurrell, s. (1995). communicative competence : a pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. 12 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 1 12 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj retrieved november 1, 2013, from http://www.zoltandonyei.co.uk/ uploads/1995-celce-murcia-dornyei-thurrell-ial.pdf center, p. p. (2010). successful bilingual and immersion education models/programs. honolulu: kamehameha. cresswell, j. w. (2008). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 3rd edition. california: sage publication. cummins, j., & hornberger, n. (2008). bilingual education. 2nd edition. new york: springer. hartono, h. (april 2016). communicative competence assessment for teachers of bilingual schools in indonesia. asian efl, 46-62. may, s. (2008). bilingual/immersion education: what the reserach tells us. in j. cummins, & n. hornberger, encyclopedia of language and education. 2nd edition. vol. bilingual education. (pp. pp.19-34). berlin: springer science and business media. westera, w. (2001). competencies in education : a confusion of tongues. journal of curricullum studies. vol.33 (1), pp.75-81. 2 800 cover online heny.pdf 2 800a heny p 1-12 11-2.pdf   kwentong pambata: an interactive storybook for teaching filipino fables, legends, parables and short stories 1marivic r. mitschek, 2maureen joy m. nolasco, 3maria cristina dc pindot, and 4romina j. sy computer studies department college of science and computer studies, de la salle university dasmariñas, cavite, philippines email: 1mrmitschek@dlsud.edu.ph; 2jnolasco@dlsud.edu.ph; 3mcpindot@dlsud.edu.ph; 4rjsy@dlsud.edu.ph received: 12-10-2017 accepted: 3-11-2017 published: 21-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kwentong pambata: interactive storybook for filipino fables, legends, parables and short stories 1marivic r. mitschek, 2maureen joy m. nolasco, 3maria cristina dc pindot, and 4romina j. sy 1mrmitschek@dlsud.edu.ph; 2mjnolasco@dlsud.edu.ph; 3mcpindot@dlsud.edu.ph; 4rjsy@dlsud.edu.ph 1,2,3,4computer studies department, college of science and computer studies, de la salle university dasmariñas, cavite, philippines abstract: this paper focused on the development and evaluation of a mobile application in which children could interact, be entertained, and especially be educated at the same time. it was mainly designed for children, parents/guardians, and teachers as well. the interactive storybook which was created was different from those available in the market. kwentong pambata is a children’s storybook application designed for android devices that features filipino legends, fables, parables and short stories designed for filipino children and children all over the world. it portrays filipino values, traditions and character which contains moral lesson at the end of each story that would educate children’s view in life, their characters, moral uprightness, and values. it is a storybook which contains fun pictures, texts, and sounds that kids will truly enjoy. the goal of the study is to develop an android application that children could interact, learn, read, be entertained, improve and develop children’s imagination and comprehension skills at an early age, and to promote filipino stories and moral values. kwentong pambata application was developed using actionscript 3.0. and adobe flash cs5.5. the application has 3 different language translations such as filipino, english, and mandarin. the proponents used addie model for the development of the application. after the development, the application was evaluated. the total number of 40 respondents which were selected through probability sampling is used for the evaluation process. the application was evaluated according to its usability, reliability, efficiency and graphical user interface (gui). the evaluation questionnaire showed that the application mailto:mcpindot@dlsud.edu.ph 140 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 139 – 153 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj was rated as very satisfactory with the help of the respondents and was improved throughout its revisions. key words: android, mobile, application, cai, fables, storybook, software abstrak: makalah ini berfokus pada pengembangan dan evaluasi aplikasi mobile dimana anak-anak dapat berinteraksi, dihibur, dan terutama dididik pada saat bersamaan. ini terutama dirancang untuk anak-anak, orang tua / wali, dan guru juga. buku cerita interaktif yang dibuat berbeda dengan yang tersedia di pasaran. kwentong pambata adalah aplikasi buku cerita anak-anak yang dirancang untuk perangkat android yang menampilkan legenda, dongeng, perumpamaan dan cerita pendek filipina yang dirancang untuk anak-anak dan anak-anak filipina di seluruh dunia. ini menggambarkan nilai, tradisi, dan karakter filipina yang berisi pelajaran moral di akhir setiap cerita yang akan mendidik pandangan anak-anak dalam kehidupan, karakter, kejujuran moral, dan nilai-nilai mereka. ini adalah buku cerita yang berisi gambar, teks, dan suara yang menyenangkan yang benar-benar dinikmati anak-anak. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengembangkan aplikasi android agar anak-anak dapat berinteraksi, belajar, membaca, menghibur, memperbaiki dan mengembangkan kemampuan imajinasi dan pemahaman anak-anak di usia muda, dan untuk mempromosikan cerita dan nilai-nilai moral filipina. aplikasi kwentong pambata dikembangkan dengan menggunakan actionscript 3.0. dan adobe flash cs5.5. aplikasi ini memiliki 3 terjemahan bahasa yang berbeda seperti bahasa filipina, inggris, dan mandarin. para pendukung menggunakan model addie untuk pengembangan aplikasi. setelah pengembangan, aplikasi dievaluasi. sebanyak 40 responden yang dipilih melalui probability sampling digunakan untuk proses evaluasi. aplikasi dievaluasi sesuai dengan usability, reliability, efficiency dan graphical user interface (gui) nya. kuesioner evaluasi menunjukkan bahwa aplikasi dinilai sangat memuaskan dengan bantuan responden dan diperbaiki sepanjang revisi. kata kunci: android, aplikasi digital, cai, fabel, buku cerita, software introduction it is important for children to have an access to an application that is suited for their age. an application that would make them learn, be creative and imaginative, and at the same time make learning fun for them. kwentong mistchek, m.r.,nolasco,m.j.m.,pindot,m.c.d.c.,& sy,r.j.,kwentong pambata: 141 interactive storybook for filipino fables, legends, parables & short stories https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pambata is a children’s storybook application designed for android devices that features filipino legends, fables, parables and short stories designed for filipino children and children all over the world. it portrays filipino values, traditions and character which have moral lessons that would educate children’s view in life, their characters, moral uprightness, and values. it is an application that would surely make children feel the fun with their whole family especially with their parents since it is interactive and enjoyable. it is a storybook with fun pictures, texts, and sounds that kids will enjoy. the world, as we know it, is contracting with the growth of mobile phone technology. every day, the number of users is increasing, thereby, also changing are the facilities. this starts with regular handsets which the primary use as just for texting and making phone calls, mobility has changed the lives of people and have become a crucial part of it. now, these gadgets have countless uses and can be used as a camera, music player, tablet personal computer, television, web browser and with these new technologies, fundamentally, new software such as operating systems are required. the most widely used mobile phone software platform these days is android. android does a software bunch which comprise not only an operating system but also as middleware and key applications. the fact that android has become a prime target for mobile malicious software is no secret. this fact is alarming to consumers, but it should also be just as troublesome for application developers. it is most commonly-targeted mobile operating system when it comes to malware (fullstop solutions, 2012). "when a user allows your app to access some aspect of their phone, they're trusting you with it.” – larimer. applications role are very important in the device development that embody maintenance, business, entertainment, weather, games, and multimedia entertainment. android has been one of the most widely used mobile operating system all over the world especially here in the philippines (king, 2012). according to smart communications, smartphone users said to rise sharply in 2012. google's mobile operating system, android, with a 300% spike tallied the highest, blackberry operating system coming in second with 66%, and apple's ios with 62%. this only shows how wide android is being used by the people. android has become a popular operating system because it is free, open source, and available for customization. android has been available for free since its launch and the company who made it possible, google, made it clear that it will still be free in the future. manufacturers around the world adopted 142 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 139 – 153 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the said operating system for their low cost smartphones. unlike its existing operating system counterparts available in the market which are protected by a lot of copyrights, google chose android be open to all. in doing so, many programmers from around the globe were able to develop applications, while keeping its liabilities to a minimum. with more people pooling ideas into the system, more innovative ideas are included which helped android the operating system of choice. furthermore, device manufacturers have the freedom to modify the android according to their needs. this flexibility and ease of use is much enjoyed by users because manufacturers are now able to modify anything and everything that they need to make an experience a satisfying one. literature review a. animated folktales edutainment software to motivate socio-cultural awareness according to n. a. m. zin & n. y. m. nasir (2007) swift development in the field of technology has influenced the landscape of education and entertainment. instructions can now be conveyed using well designed interactive multimedia application software (which will fall under edutainment). instructional delivery through effective learning strategies such as storytelling through 2d or 3d animation, animated storybooks, simulation and digital games are just few examples of multimedia tools. edutainment (which means educational entertainment) is designed to educate in order to keep children interested and engaged while learning. mostly developed with an entertaining flair as well as documentaries aimed at adults that are either humorous or fascinating in their execution. b. game-based mobile learning system for campus on android platform mobile technologies could be applied on a number of devices, such as mobile phones, smartphones, pdas, netbooks, tablet pcs and so on (wang, l., wang, x, ju, li, q, li, m. & zhang, 2011. the google-led android platform becomes a major application developer as its fascinating open-source software stack compared to other platforms, such as apple. the system is applied in android platform and the sdk used is android 2.1. mistchek, m.r.,nolasco,m.j.m.,pindot,m.c.d.c.,& sy,r.j.,kwentong pambata: 143 interactive storybook for filipino fables, legends, parables & short stories https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. promoting the reading comprehension of engineering freshmen students through an interactive approach of content-based materials morales (2010) informs that the primary apprehensions of reading education which is to develop appropriate pedagogies that will suit the needs and encourage abilities of second language learners today. the study reveals that reading should be taught in a more interactive and communicative manner rather than the traditional approach. the study sought to test the effectiveness of a content-based interactive reading pedagogy to enable first year engineering students develop significant levels of reading comprehension of science texts and develop compensatory strategies to help in improving their attitude and motivation towards reading. the quasi-experimental approach was used in the study. methods this research uses a model often used for instructional system design (isd), which is the addie model that provides a step-by-step approach for designing a model. as can be seen in figure 1, the addie design model revolves around the five phases such as analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. it forms a roadmap for the entire teaching and learning events. figure: 1 addie model 144 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 139 – 153 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj during analysis, the designer identified the problem, the goals, and objectives, the audience’s needs, existing knowledge, and any other relevant characteristics. in designing, there is a systematic process of specifying learning objectives. in this phase, the design of the user interface such as controls and its content whereas images, audio and animation are included, the look and feel, graphic design and user interface were made as well as the content is determined. development involves the actual creation or production of the content and learning materials based on the design phase made by the application developers. during implementation, the plan is put in place and a technique for training the learner and teacher is developed. after delivery, the training materials are evaluated. in the evaluation, it consisted of tests designed for criterion-related referenced items to provide opportunities for feedback from the users. this model was used for this study because it is appropriate for providing a means for decision making in order to determine who, what, when, where, why, and how of a learning program. it is suitable for learning aid and for training for a specific subject as well. figure 2: ipo diagram mistchek, m.r.,nolasco,m.j.m.,pindot,m.c.d.c.,& sy,r.j.,kwentong pambata: 145 interactive storybook for filipino fables, legends, parables & short stories https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the ipo or input-process-output diagram demonstrates the relationship between input and output elements that makes up the system and defines the processing steps that transform the input to output. it is a visual representation of the system’s process that would provide a basic process knowledge needed to move forward with the project. the different controls built in the application such as language (options), sound setting, download books and story are the inputs. answers for the quiz and the game moves also serve as an input. the language that is used in the story depends on the user’s choice. the application supports three languages; english, filipino, and mandarin. when a user selects a language option, the story script and the menus will be in the chosen language. sound setting is where the user can choose between read it to me which enables voice / dubbing and read it myself which disables voice / dubbing. download books option provides access to download the books available from the market. the available books that can be downloaded are displayed in the book selection page (library) with a ―get it‖ label. the downloaded book will then be added to the library. the story selection is about selecting the story which the user wants to read. it will be retrieved from the database and the output will be the story illustration which is composed of drawings, scripts, sound settings chosen, corresponding quiz, and corresponding game. the answers for the quiz and the game moves will be a user input. the application will check if the answer for the quiz or the game move is correct or accurate. in the quiz feature, the inputted answers will be checked and the correct answers will be counted. the output of the quiz will be the remarks which are poor, fair, and perfect that will be based on the number of correct answers. in the game feature, if the user’s move is correct or accurate, the user will get a sticker that signifies a perfect score / move, and if the user’s move is not that accurate, s/he will get a sticker that signifies an inaccurate score / move. the installation of tools and platforms performed was for the development of the application. the proponents identified the stories that they would feature in the application for them to go on with the next processes such as identifying the game types and quizzes, and scriptwriting; which was translated and dubbed into three languages, and move to the next process which is prototyping. system design was done next using the controls as the input. the next process will be system testing wherein the proponents tested and checked if all the functionalities specified were fulfilled by the system. the 146 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 139 – 153 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj application was uploaded in the android market so that users may be able download it. findings the total number of respondents is 40 which were selected through probability sampling. the evaluation questionnaire comprises of 4 major criteria in which the application could be evaluated. these criteria are usability, reliability, efficiency, and the graphical user interface. each of these criteria would be discussed using tables and percentage results. a. usability usability can be defined as making applications and systems quick and easier to use, cultivate trust and easy to remember. it is a measure of an output’s potential to accomplish the goals of the user effectively and efficiently. table 1: usability of the application usability question weighted mean remarks easy to learn and use 4.98 very satisfied the application developed is suitable for all ages 4.58 very satisfied the application can be used without instructions 4.35 satisfied storybooks are interesting to read because of moral lessons, comprehensive questions and mini games provided 4.9 very satisfied the languages provided are written correctly and clearly. 4.98 very satisfied overall mean 4.758 very satisfied the respondents rated the application as very satisfactory with the overall mean for all the five questions in the survey form of 4.758. this means that the respondents find the application easy to use because it is suitable for all ages, they can understand it without the instructions because it was written correctly and clearly. mistchek, m.r.,nolasco,m.j.m.,pindot,m.c.d.c.,& sy,r.j.,kwentong pambata: 147 interactive storybook for filipino fables, legends, parables & short stories https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. reliability a good application must be operationally reliable. reliability is simply the consistency of an application or system. one could consider the result reliable if one gets the same one repeatedly. in other words, reliability is the quality of an application or system to consistently perform its intended or required function or mission, on demand and without degradation or failure. table 2: reliability of the application reliability questions weighted mean remarks the application functions without error or problems 4.45 satisfied the supplied information from the application is trustworthy 4.7 very satisfied the application attained its edutainment (educational – entertainment) goal for the users 4.88 very satisfied the storybook application is recommendable to others 4.65 very satisfied overall mean 4.67 very satisfied the application was rated 4.67 out of 5 which means that the respondents were very satisfied in terms of the application’s reliability. this means that the application was able to run without error or problems, it was able to achieve its intended goals and it is very recommendable to others. c. efficiency an application must possess efficiency. efficiency is defined as performing tasks in an organized and capable way. it is the ability to function without waste of time and capable of achieving the desired result with the minimum use of resource or time. table 3: efficiency of the application efficiency questions weighted mean remarks the application optimizes the speed and memory requirements 4.45 satisfied the developed application is efficient in doing 4.5 very satisfied 148 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 139 – 153 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj job for the parents who are guiding their children. overall mean 4.525 very satisfied the application was rated as very satisfactory with a weighted mean of 4.525 by the respondents. in terms of its memory and speed requirements, the application was able to perform efficiently regardless of the device it was downloaded and installed, following the minimum hardware requirements. d. graphical user interface (gui) graphical user interface is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices using images rather than text commands. it represents the information and actions available to a user through graphical icons and visual indicators. table 4: graphical user interface of the application graphical user interface questions weighted mean remarks the application portrays graphics and interaction suitable for children of all ages. 4.9 very satisfied user-friendly 4.95 very satisfied overall mean 4.925 very satisfied the storybook contains a lot of animation and age-appropriate drawings and respondents found it very easy to use. this may be the reason that they rated the application as very satisfactory with a weighted mean of 4.925. conclusion nowadays, many people have an access to different kinds of technology. children in this generation are also engaged in such modern era of technology. it is important for them to have an access to an application that is suited for their age. this is the reason for the creation of an application which is applicable for them and also for the parents / guardians and teachers. an interactive children's storybook android application, kwentong pambata is the solution mistchek, m.r.,nolasco,m.j.m.,pindot,m.c.d.c.,& sy,r.j.,kwentong pambata: 149 interactive storybook for filipino fables, legends, parables & short stories https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj that features filipino legends, fables, parables, and short stories designed for children all over the world. it portrays values, traditions, and character which have moral lessons that would educate children’s view in life, their characters, moral uprightness and values, and surely children will find it fun as they do it with their whole family. since filipino children these days are not familiar with our own legends and stories, the purpose of the study is to develop an android application that children could interact, learn and develop their imagination, and comprehension skills at an early age, and to promote filipino stories and moral values. these objectives were met and were able to gather relevant data and studies regarding the development of the said application. the above discussions have evaluated the applications’ usage and features. through the research instruments and techniques and data gathering procedure, it was concluded that the application would help the parents, teachers, and especially the children in doing combination of educating and amusing oneself. the evaluation questionnaire showed that the application was rated as very satisfactory with the help of the respondents and was improved throughout its revisions. acknowledgement parts of this paper have been presented at the 5th celt international conference in semarang, indonesia during 9-11th september 2017. the conference was a project funded by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education. references adobe. 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(2007). edutainment animated folktales software to motivate socio cultural awareness. undergraduate. universiti kebangsaan malaysia. 02. 1389-4367-1-pb.pdf (p.1) 002 dec2017.pdf (p.2-16) 11-1.pdf a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia evaluating teachers’ performance: a need for effective teaching 1siti aimah and 2bambang purwanto 1english education department of foreign language and culture, universitas muhammadiyah semarang, indonesia; 2english department, universitas negeri semarang, indonesia email:1siti.aimah@unimus.ac.id;2bambangpurwanto@mail.unnes.ac.id received: 19-01-2018 accepted: 02-05-2019 published: 31-07-2019 mailto:2nonibasalama@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj evaluating teachers’ performance: a need for effective teaching siti aimah1, bambang purwanto2 1siti.aimah@unimus.ac.id;2bambangpurwanto@mail.unnes. ac.id 1english education department, faculty of foreign language and culture, universitas muhammadiyah semarang, indonesia 2english department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri semarang, indonesia abstract: this article reports a study, which aims to evaluate the efl teachers’ performance of teaching in the english education department of universitas muhammadiyah semarang (unimus). the study was conducted to find out how competent the english lecturers/university teachers in the department are in conducting their english language teaching ((elt) program in the classroom. a case study was employed to five teachers who taught the fifth-semester students in the academic year of 2017/2018. through an observation during their teaching and learning process by involving four observers and through a questionnaire distributed to the 13 students in the fifth semester. the study shows the different results of teachers’ performance from both the teachers’ and students’ perspectives. based on observation, it is revealed that the teachers’ performance in elt program does not show a satisfactory result yet. the teachers tend to use unvarying methods and focus on certain students without knowing that some of them have learning problems. meanwhile, from the questionnaire distributed to the students, it shows that the teachers have good competencies in conducting an elt program in the classroom in which one of the indicators is seen from the personality of the teachers. key words: elt program, teacher’s performance, effective teaching, evaluation 158 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 157 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengevaluasi performa mengajar dosen pendidikan bahasa inggris di universitas muhammadiyah semarang. selain itu, penelitian tersebut bertujuan untuk mengetahui sejauh mana kompetensi yang dimiliki oleh para dosen di program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris dalam melakukan pembelajaran bahasa inggris di dalam kelas. desain penelitian ini adalah studi kasus dimana 5 orang dosen yang mengajar di semester v terlibat dalam penelitian ini. data diambil melalui observasi di dalam kelas dengan melibatkan 4 orang observer, dan kuesioner yang didistribusikan kepada 13 mahasiswa di semester v. hasil penelitian menunjukkan terdapat perbedaan pandangan antara dosen dan mahasiswa terhadap performa dosen dalam mengajar. data yang diperoleh melalui observasi menunjukkan bahwa performa dosen dalam mengajar bahasa inggris belum menunjukkan hasil yang memuaskan. terdapat beberapa kecenderungan yang dilakukan oleh dosen selama kegiatan pembelajaran berlangsung seperti penggunaan metode pembelajaran yang tidak bervariasi, perhatian yang hanya mengarah pada mahasiswa tertentu, dan tidak dapat memahami permasalahan belajar mahasiswa. sementara itu, dari hasil kuesioner menunjukkan bahwa dosen memiliki kompetensi yang bagus dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran bahasa inggris dimana indikator yang digunakan mereka untuk melihat bagus tidaknya kompetensi tersebut adalah melalui kepribadian yang dimiliki oleh dosen tersebut. kata kunci: pembelajaran bahasa inggris, performa mengajar, pengajaran efektif, evaluasi introduction teachers’ performance has an important role in determining the quality of teaching. the quality of teaching is also influenced by the existence of good teachers in managing and handling the teaching and learning process in a classroom so that it creates effective teaching. there are some previous studies about teachers’ performance conducted by researchers. first, ndungu, et al. (2015) and jones (1998) found that the success of teachers’ performance is determined by lesson preparation prepared by the teachers before performing in the class which also determines the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process in the classroom. meanwhile, other studies were conducted to know the qualification of good teachers from the students’ perception. the research results arnon & reichel, 2007; beishuizen et al., 2001; bullock, n.d; ida, 2017 revealed that most students siti, a. & purwanto, b., evaluating teacher’s performance: a need for 159 effective teaching https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj believe that good teachers are seen and considered from the teachers’ personalities rather than teaching competences. this study aims to evaluate the teachers’ performance of the teaching and learning process in the classroom, with regards which kinds of qualities and competencies of the teachers in elt program, particularly in universitas muhammadiyah semarang, are the best. the evaluation is needed in order to create effective teaching that is important for building the quality of education. literature review teachers are critical in raising the standard of education (santiago & benavides, 2009; shukla, 2014; syahruddin, et al., 2013) because knowledge, skills, and experiences are important elements in determining whether or not the teachers are categorized as good and/or professional teachers (arnon & reichel, 2007). without having those elements, the teachers cannot counter with the problems of teaching and learning in the classroom. the problems that usually emerge in the classroom, for example, are the 1)tendency to focusing on the activity rather than on the students’ needs, 2) communicating in inappropriate levels, 3) teaching on what students do not really need to learn, 4) having inadequate preparation, 5) racing through the textbook, and 6) providing little communication in class. there are some views to measure and describe the teachers’ skills which viewed from whether the teachers are trained or untrained, and whether they are novice or experienced teachers (richards, 2001). for the qualification of an experienced teacher, the judgment lies in the teaching and learning process, which covers of not only how to prepare the needs for teaching materials that are based on students’ needs, but also on how to face the obstacles of learning from both the teacher and the students, so they may cope with the problems that arise. experienced teachers are generally those who are categorized as good teachers can compensate for deficiencies in the curriculum, materials, or sources they make for the betterment of their teaching (richards, 2001). thus, teachers need to address the learning goals in which they need to analyze, modify, and enact curriculum materials for effective teaching (schwarz, et al., 2007). 160 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 157 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj according to catano & harvey (2011), there are nine competencies for effective teaching covering availability, communication, conscientiousness, creativity, feedback, individual consideration, professionalism, problem-solving, and social awareness. those competencies could not be separated from the teachers’ needs in teaching, because those are required by the teachers to create effective elt teaching in the classroom. thereby, to achieve the goal of effective teaching, shian-yun (2012) mentions that in teaching english as a foreign language, an efl teacher must have good teaching skills, know quite a lot about the english language systems including how the english language works and how people learn and use it, and have good english proficiency. without having them, the goal of learning could not be achieved well. therefore, in order to measure effective teaching, the teachers’ performance in the classroom needs to be evaluated. the evaluation is required to measure what the teachers do in the classroom rather than how well the teachers will do in the classroom (darling-hammond, 2009; goe, et al., 2008). in the process of evaluation, jabbarifar (2009) proposes some aspects of teaching and learning that need to be considered. those are the use of textbooks and instructional materials, student achievement, and the whole of the instruction programs. evaluating teachers’ performance in which it is also a part of effective teaching could be seen from three different dimensions: measurement of inputs, processes, and outputs. inputs refer to teacher quality covering background, beliefs, expectations, experience, and pedagogical and content knowledge. processes focus on the interaction that occurs in a classroom between teachers and students. outputs represent the results of classroom processes, such as the impact on student achievement, graduation rates, student behavior, engagement, attitudes, and social-emotional well-being (goe, et al., 2008). the evaluation of the teachers’ performance is essential to know the strengths of the teachers and the aspects of their practice which could be further developed. methodology a case study was employed in this study by involving five teachers who taught in the fifth-semester students of the english education department of universitas muhammadiyah semarang in the academic year of 2017/2018. there were four observers who were involved in this study. in observing the teachers’ performance of teaching, observation checklist adapted from brown siti, a. & purwanto, b., evaluating teacher’s performance: a need for 161 effective teaching https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (1994) cited in richards (2001) was prepared to cover five elements to be observed: preparation, presentation, execution/methods, personal characteristics, and teacher/student interaction in which each element contained some aspects to be evaluated by the observers. the range of the likert-type scale used was to make the observers easier in rating the teachers’ performance of teaching on a scale point of 1 to 4 with the category 1. unsatisfactory, 2.average, 3.above average, and 4.excellent. to support the data, the questionnaire which was adapted from murdoch (1997) cited in richards (2001) was also distributed to 13 students in the fifth semester. however, only nine students participated and returned the questionnaire. the questionnaire was about the qualities and the competencies of a good english teacher which contained the aspects of elt competencies and general teaching competencies. the criteria of likert-type scale in the category of 1 to 5 were also used in order the students who could rate their teachers’ performance with the most closely reflected reaction to the statements. the data from both the observation and the questionnaire were then analyzed quantitatively. the numerical data were presented in the tables to see the result of the evaluation from both the observers, and the students and they were supported with the explanation of representing each elements of the instruments used. results a. teachers’ performance of teaching to know and evaluate the teachers’ performance, there are some common views of teaching which could be seen from whether the teachers are trained or untrained, and whether they are novice or experienced ones (richards, 2001). novice and experienced teachers could be seen from the classroom experience they have in elt program. it could not only be seen from how long they have experienced in classroom teaching, but also in how relates to the competencies that have to be mastered including pedagogical, professional, personal, and social (the regulation of the minister of national education no. 6 year 2007). pedagogical competence that must be mastered by the teachers to support their performance of teaching and learning process needs to be built through teaching practices in the classroom by facing students’ learning problems with different characteristics (aimah, et al., 2017). to measure 162 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 157 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj their pedagogical competence, it could be seen from their ability in managing teaching and learning process from planning to evaluation stages (syahruddin, et al., 2013). according to brown (1994) cited in richards (2001), to evaluate the teachers’ performance in conducting elt program, it could be considered from some aspects: preparation, presentation, execution of methods, personal characteristics, and teacher/student interaction in which each aspect are comprised with certain indicators. the following is the result of the observation of the teachers’ performance of teaching in the classroom. table 1: the teachers’ performance of teaching no. aspects score category 1. preparation 2.54 good 2. presentation 2.40 fair 3. execution/methods 2.44 fair 4. personal characteristic 2.62 good 5. teacher-students interaction 2.68 good average 2.54 fair based on table 1, it shows that the teachers’ performance of teaching is not satisfactory yet. it could be seen from five aspects observed (preparation, presentation, execution/methods, personal characteristic, and teacherstudent interaction) where the average of 2.54 is within the category of fair. from the five aspects observed, the lowest score is on the aspect of presentation (2.40). there are some criteria used for the aspect of it. it relates to the way of the teachers in explaining the materials, the clear directions given to the students, the teachers’ ability in answering the students’ questions, the appropriate methods chosen based on the students’ ability, the teachers’ ability in understanding the students’ problems of learning, the ability of the teachers in simplifying the materials, and the teachers’ enthusiasm and interests in teaching (richards, 2001). based on the observation during teaching and learning process in the classroom, among five teachers (four females and one male), in the aspect of the presentation, the male teacher has the lowest score with the amount of 2.0 (fair). the way he explained the materials to the students was not supported by simple analogies to help the students’ understanding. from here it learned that it becomes an important point for the teachers to siti, a. & purwanto, b., evaluating teacher’s performance: a need for 163 effective teaching https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj simplify the materials and give the analogies needed to achieve the success of teaching and learning. even during teaching and learning, he did not know that some of his students had some problems in understanding the materials. asking the students whether or not they have difficulties in comprehending the materials by moving around to them is actually effective for the teacher in understanding learning problems. in choosing the methods of teaching, the tendency to use the monotonous method enables the students to become bored and not enthusiastic for joining the class. this condition is contrasted with the female teachers in which the average score of their presentation is around 2.5 to 2.7 which is within the category of good. it reveals that female teachers tended to prepare their teaching well by choosing and simplifying the materials to be delivered to the students. giving some examples to support the materials was chosen in order to help their students’ understanding. besides that, female teachers tended to be creative in using a different simple method of teaching to be presented to them. the method used-even though was not optimum yet-made the students more excited in joining the teaching and learning process in the classroom rather than the male teacher did. through the selected method used, it has enabled the teachers to make sure whether or not the students had learning problems in the classroom and or to give appraisal to them. female teachers were also more enthusiastic for teaching the students in the classroom. it could be seen from the directions given, which were clear and concise so that the students did not find difficulties in understanding them. the second-lowest score from the observation is the execution/methods in which the average score is 2.44 with the category of fair. in this aspect, it relates to the way of the teachers in making the students understand the materials through some methods and equipment used in teaching. it is in line with syahruddin (2009), who believes that activities/methods in the classroom refer to the ways in which materials and equipment are used. he also believed that how the content is to be taught of what the students are doing; how the students are grouped; and how the activities are organized in the classroom. in the study, it is found that some teachers unfortunately did not involve the students maximally in the activity of teaching and learning in the classroom because the class was centered on the teacher. lecturing still became their choice to convey the material given even though the rest tried to offer other methods of engaging them to be active, for example group discussion. the use of lecturing model potentially made them stuck in a certain place without moving around to all the students because they only focused on their own explanation to the students. 164 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 157 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj furthermore, with the varying knowledge and ability that the teachers have, the result of the observation shows that some of the teachers were not able to adapt to the unanticipated situations in the classroom. for example, when there was a student who asked a question that was out of the context of the material, the teacher showed her objection expression rather than answered the question. preparation aspect also has a low average score in the teachers’ performance of teaching. it could be seen that the average of it is 2.54. only three components used for evaluating the aspect of preparation. they are the teachers’ readiness in preparing and organizing the class, reviewing the previous materials, and determining learning goals/objectives of learning (brown (1994) cited in richards, 2001). from three components used, the tendency of the teachers in starting their class was reviewing the previous materials and looking ahead to new material. it is understandable by considering the students’ ability and knowledge made the teachers would do that in order to help them comprehend the material given. however, the teachers were not ready with their lesson plan including to determine the learning objectives and design the pedagogical activities based on the students’ needs (knowledge, problem, learning style, etc.). that is why it made the observers difficult in observing the lesson plan that they have prepared with the activities of teaching and learning in the classroom and knowing the learning objectives to be reached. meanwhile, the aspects of personal characteristics and teacher-student interaction get the average scores of 2.62 and 2.8 which is within the category good. generally, the teachers did not have the problem with a personal characteristic and the interaction with the students. in the aspect of personal characteristic, each teacher got a good result. the criteria used to measure the personal characteristics are patience in eliciting students’ response; clarity, tone, and audibility of voice; personal appearance; initiative, resourcefulness, and creativity; pronunciation, intonation, fluency, and appropriate and acceptable use of language (brown (1994) cited in richards, 2001). the same view comes from ida (2017) who mentions that the basic personal characteristics that should be had by the teachers are unconditional acceptance, self-acceptance, and empathy, full attention to the student, emotional sensitivity, and credibility. in the aspect of teacher/student interaction, each teacher also gets a good category as well. it is supported with the average score of teacher/student interaction achieves 2.68. teacher/student interaction is siti, a. & purwanto, b., evaluating teacher’s performance: a need for 165 effective teaching https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj important to build the harmonious atmosphere because it could influence the students’ motivation, engagement, and performance in the classroom (hughes, 2011). it is also related to the role of the teachers to the functioning of them in a social group and social responsibility (ciascai & vlad, 2014). it means that the teachers need to encourage the students to be involved actively in the teaching and learning process in the classroom. the lecturers need to know what the students’ learning problems are and how to cope with (arnon & reichel, 2007). it should be done in order for the teachers could optimally keep the interaction with the students. therefore, giving a chance to the students for asking some questions, expressing their own opinions, conveying their objection also was parts of the components to be observed by the observers during teaching and learning process in the classroom. even though some teachers focused on their own lecturing model which enabled the class to be centered on the teacher, they tried to invite the students to be active through the activities built in the classroom. yet, only some students who participated actively in the classroom. some of them-even though had been appointed to participate-tried to avoid the teachers’ question. it happened because of the different background knowledge that they had in which not all of them felt comfortable and relaxed atmosphere to have the question. some of them were also afraid to make some mistakes. to anticipate this condition, the teacher should not shame or blame the students when they make errors (sieberer-nagler, 2016) because it will influence their next performance. b. qualities and competencies of a good english teacher according to beishuizen et al. (2011) skills, knowledge, and experience of teachers as crucial factors in good teaching. good teaching needs not only to motivate the students to learn, but also to teach them how to learn in a manner that is relevant, meaningful and memorable (sieberer-nagler, 2016). the teachers’ ability in explaining the subject matter well, giving many examples to support their explanation, improvising their teaching, adapting their explanation to the students’ needs, and understanding the students’ learning problems become the important points for the achieving the criterion. to support good teaching, it is needed two important components: professional knowledge and an appropriate personality. it means that the teachers have to master the subject matter that they would like to teach and they become good models for the students in terms of patience, modesty and politeness, simplicity, punctuality, paying attention to the students, being warm to the students, and providing good relation to the others (arnon & 166 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 157 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reichel, 2007). it is in line with bullock (n.d) mentions that an experienced teacher put more emphasis on personal characteristics. to present the extent to which the qualities and the competencies of the english teachers of unimus, the questionnaire was distributed to the students of the fifth semester. the result of the questionnaire could be seen in table 2. table 2. the qualities and competencies of a good english teacher no. aspects score category 1. elt competencies 4.00 excellent 2. general competencies & knowledge 3.65 excellent average 3.82 excellent there are two aspects used to measure the competencies of the teachers in teaching english as a foreign language (efl). those aspects are elt competencies and general competencies of teaching covering pedagogical, professional, social, and personal domains. in the aspect of elt competencies, the average score is 4.00. it is contrasted with the result of the observation done by the observers during the teaching and learning process in the classroom in which the average score is 2.54 with the category fair. it means that between the observers and the students have different perception in evaluating the teachers’ performance. the students admitted that the teachers have good qualities and competencies in elt program. based on their viewpoint, their teachers’ performance is excellent. it could be seen from the elements rated covering the clarity in using language, the varying techniques used during the class, setting up the students in group activities, providing activities to develop language skills, giving sufficient time to respond the questions, encouraging the students to ask questions, being a good model for the students, making the students to self-correct mistakes, and maintaining a dialogue with the students. as stated by catano & harvey (2011), teachers serve as role models inspiring their students and stimulating their intellectual curiosity by engaging them in and out of the classroom to develop intellectual intelligence. they set goals and expectations for their students and motivate them to meet those challenges. referring to that point, most students gave the range of 4-5 for filling the questionnaire. it means that the students siti, a. & purwanto, b., evaluating teacher’s performance: a need for 167 effective teaching https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj admitted the teachers’ competencies. thus, it is not surprising that the average of elt competencies is 4.00, is within the category excellent. it is not much different from the result of general competencies in which the average score gets 3.65 (excellent). for general competencies, there are some criteria used including pedagogical and personal competencies. those competencies are really needed by the teachers for supporting their ability in conducting elt program in the classroom. without having them, the teachers will have some obstacles in facing learning problems from either the students or themselves. from both aspects measured, the average score of the qualities and the competencies of a good english teacher is 3.82. it means that the teachers’ competencies in conducting elt program could be categorized as excellent. it is totally different from the evaluation of teachers’ performance done by the observers in which the score is 2.54 (fair). the different point between them happened because the teachers were not ready yet so that the observers saw the process of elt program as unnatural. the condition caused some obstacles of learning in the classroom which influenced the teachers not to perform optimally. meanwhile, the students who filled the questionnaire about teachers’ competencies was not only evaluating on the same day the observers observed their elt program. students were evaluating their teachers’ performance from the first halfsemester. that is why the students’ and the observers’ judgment did not match because different conditions and considerations were applied. furthermore, there are some different points of view dealing with the indicators used to evaluate them. the observers who are the teachers’ own colleagues and whose background knowledge is at the same level as the teachers had different perceptions in evaluating their performance of the teachers’ observed. the indicators that the observers emphasized the teachers’ performance were based on the pedagogical competence and experience of teaching in the classroom rather than personal characters. the teachers’ ability in designing their lesson plan including the way they choose the method and the media, simplify the materials, improvise their teaching, communicate with the students becomes the main point of consideration. whereas, for the students, they were evaluating based on what they consider as good teachers with good personality. a good personality is considered as an important characteristic of an “ideal teacher”, but teaching competencies, the importance lies more on the increase of professional knowledge that is experienced in the classroom 168 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 157 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (arnon & reichel, 2007). while the students looked at ideal teacher having the characteristics of being patient, helpful, humor, kind, which is in line with beizhuizen, et al. (2001). the observers were instead evaluating on the teachers’ knowledge or ability in increasing the students’ competence. thus, as informed above, the conditions for evaluation were not a perfect match. conclusion this article reported a research that has dealt with the teachers’ performance of elt program in the classroom seen from a different perspective from both the teachers and the students. from the teacher observers’ perspective, the emphasis is laid on the elements that should be owned by the teachers covering good knowledge and skills of delivering their teaching materials, as well as showing a teaching experience of being openminded for discussion when teaching students. meanwhile the students tend to emphasize on the teachers’ personal characteristics. dealing with those points, the teachers’ performance under observation in teaching their students, thus shows an unsatisfactory result. from five aspects rated, i.e. in presentation, execution of methods, and preparation; the teachers under observation received the lowest score. among the teachers observed, four female teachers are actually well-prepared and well-organized rather than one male teacher. however, most of them tend to use a teacher-centered learning in which it does not give much chance for the students to be active in the classroom. seen from their personal character and teacher-student interaction, like evaluated by the students through a questionnaire, the teachers evaluated for the research got good result. references aimah, s., ifadah, m., and bharati, d. a. l. 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(retrieved from http://www.smcm.edu/mat/wpcontent/uploads/sites/73/2015/06/b ullock-2015.pdf catano, v. m., & harvey, s. (2011). student perception of teaching effectiveness: development and validation of the evaluation of teaching competencies scale (etcs). assessment & evaluation in higher education, 36(6), 701-717. darling-hammond, l. (2009). evaluating teacher effectiveness. how teacher performance assessments can measure and improve teaching. center for american progress. www.americanprogress.org. (retrieved from https://scale.stanford.edu/system/files/teacher_effectiveness.pdf) goe, l., et al. (2008). approaches to evaluating teacher effectiveness: a research synthesis. national comprehensive center for teacher quality: washington, dc (retrieved from https://gtlcenter.org/sites/default/files/docs/evaluatingteacheffectiv eness.pdf) hughes, j. n. (2011). longitudinal effects of teacher and student perceptions of teacher-student relationship qualities on academic adjustments. the elementary school journal, 112(1), 38-60. ida, z. s. (2017). what makes a good teacher? universal journal of educational research, 5(1), 141-147. jabbarifar, t. (2009). the important of classroom assessment and evaluation in educational system. proceedings of the 2nd international conference of teaching and learning (ictl 2009) inti university college, malaysia. jones, j. (1998). lesson planning: towards purposeful learning and effective teaching. universidad de alcalá: servicio de publicaciones. 170 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 157 170 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ndungu, b. w, allan, g., & emily, b. j. (2015). influence of monitoring and evaluation by principles on effective teaching and leraning in public secondary schools in githunguri district. journal of education and practice, 6(9), 10-17. richards, j. c. (2001). curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge university press: cambridge. santiago, p., & benavides, f. (2009). teacher evaluation. a conceptual framework and examples of country practices. presented at the oecd-mexico workshop towards a teacher evaluation framework in mexico: international practices, criteria and mechanisms, held in mexico city on 1-2 december 2009 (retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/school/44568106.pdf) shian-yun, b. (2012). evaluation of teaching effectiveness in taiwan’s efl context. selected papers from the twenty-first international symposium on english teaching. retrieved from https://www.lttc.ntu.edu.tw/tlresource/evaluation_of_teaching_effectiven ess_in_taiwan2012.pdf sieberer-nagler, k. (2016). effective classroom-management & positive teaching. english language teaching, 9(1), 163-172. shukla, s. (2014). teaching competency, professional commitment and job satisfaction-a study of primary school teachers. iosr journal of research & method in education (iosr-jrme), 4(3), 44-64. syahruddin, et al. (2013). teachers’ pedagogical competence in schoolbased management. journal of education and learning, 7(4), 213-218. the regulation of the minister of national education no. 16 year 2007 on teacher academic qualification standard and competency. jakarta. films: climbing into culture's backyard stuart a. bruce i abstract: learners of a second language must also learn ab~#!lfl;:~~ culture of that language, not just as a way of supportin t!~jl!.:·~~l\?~. linguistic competence, but as a way of understanding the rol ~~!~.) language in individuals and in society. cultural studies cours "'t:e~~/ a way of providing support for this need. and moran (1992) s~~a1-"t-~ a useful framework for the learning/teaching of culture. film is commonly used as a medium in teaching. and is an excellent resource for imerculturalteaclling because it is seen as being 'more than just a text. a case study at soegijapranata catholic university showed that films were preferred to other teaching methods, and were considered the best medium with which to teach culture. provided that discussion time was also provided. student responses were ovenvhelmingly positive. the course was enjoyable. the film selections were regarded as useful sources of culture, and the course format and syllabus were considered effective. however. offence couid be caused by sexual or violent contellt of films and suggestions are given to overcome this problem. ways to support this teaching method include the introducing of cultural themes and backgrounds to students before films are presented. and the careful selection offilms that are limited to one imercultural 'heme. cultural studies should be taught without any teacher-oriented preconceptions. also. the medium of films should be includell in a syllabus to improve the teaching/leaming process and not for any other reason that could be seen as a misuse of this medium. keywords: cultural studies. film. source culture. target culture introduction as language teachers we must be interested in the study of culture not because we necessarily want to teach the culture of the country but because we have to teach it (politzer 1959: 1 00, cited in brooks 1986: 123). stuart alan bruce, b.a. is a guest lecturer at the faculty of letters. soegijapranata catholic university. semarang. 138 celt, volwnes,number2,december200s: 137 -154 there are many definitions of the word culture. many of them are applicable to the use of the word as i intend it here, so let me choose one, from commager, which defines culture as "a bundle of patterns of behavior, habits of conduct, customs, laws, beliefs, and instinctive responses that are displayed by a society" (commager 1970: 161, cited in blatchford 1973). the need for culture to be taught alongside a foreign language has been well documented and i do not intend to elaborate on that here. it is already established that teaching a language will involve teaching the culture of that language, even if this just means the culture that is implicit in the linguistic forms of the language. the teaching of culture to the second language learner may be viewed as this: a secondary consideration that is forced upon the teacher as a necessity in the teaching of a language. for example, in a speaking class a teacher will need to explain the cultural associations that differentiate between the requests close the window and would you mind closing the window, and within what societal context each utterance is appropriate. however, what i would like to focus on is the teaching of culture much more explicitly in the form of cultural studies classes that are taught in parallel to the main body oflinguistic and literary courses offered to students of second languages. moran's framework for learning/teaching culture moran (1992, cited in griessen 1998) produced a framework for the learning and teaching of culture that divided the field into four areas: j. knowing about (gelling information) giving students facts 2. knowing how (developing behaviors) teaching students what to say and how to say it in a culturally appropriate manner 3. knowing why (discovering explanations) students use powers of analysis and intuition to draw conclusions about cultural information 4. knowing oneself (personalizing knowledge) looking at a students own values and reactions to those of the culture while the second of these areas is the focus of cultural application in skills classes (for example, how to apologize in certain situations) and to a lesser extent in cultural studies, the other areas should form the basis of any class studying culture. s. a. bruce. films: climbing into culture's backyard 139 film as 'more than a text' "television, videotape and film are more frequently used in [american] high school classrooms than any other media resource" (hobbs 1998), and have already proved more than adaptable to a second language learning application. this format is usually used in listening classes, speaking classes, and also in literature classes to supplement the reading of a particular novel because "movie renditions can introduce and help students comprehend these works" (frieden and elliott 2004). film is also an increasingly viable option in the cultural studies class, providing "students an opportunity to witness behaviors which are not obvious in text[book]s. film is often one of the more current and comprehensive ways to encapsulate the look, feel, and rhythm ofa culture" (peterson and coltrane 2003). it is this idea of being 'more than a text' that shows the benefit offilm as a method of teaching culture. books can only give a reader so much, and in a static manner, leaving much to the imagination ofthe reader. the presence of a native speaker in the role of teacher still falls short of being able to recreate in the classroom the cultural norms and values employed within the physical or geographical boundaries of that culture. a native speaker does have a lot of cultural values that can be observed by, or shared with, the students; two native speakers conversing together even more so. foreigner-watching the observation of members of the target culture within the students' geographical limits can provide further insights. students can notice a lot by merely observing or even communicating with foreigners, for example, in the malls or hotels of jakarta, or at tourist attraction sites (borobudur temple) and resorts (kuta, bali). but these are marginalized representations of that culture, always affected either consciously or subconsciously by irregular contexts and surroundings and second culture influences. to really view a culture in action is to climb into its backyard, to see it in its natural habitat. just as zoologists can learn about the lives of elephants by studying those groups living in zoos and parks, so they can learn much more by observing elephants living wild and naturally in africa. as it is with zoology, so it is with culture. being able to fly language students to the united states, to china, to spain or anywhere else, is more often than not an unrealistic goal for second language teachers as it is limited by time constraints, economic restrictions or simple logistics. this is where film champions itself. film can offer us a way of 'climbing into the backyard' 140 celt, volwnes, number 2, december 2005 : 137 154 of the target culture without leaving the safety of our own seats; it can take us there while we remain here. film-based cultural studies: a case study at soegijapranata catholic university of semarang the case study with which i will demonstrate the value of film in cultural studies was undertaken in the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia, from august to december 2004. the participants were forty-five second year (third semester) undergraduate students taking cultural studies as a compulsory component of a four-year english degree. the lesson material was heavily based on film. the selected films were grouped together under five cultural themes: youth attitudes; ethnic minorities in the uk; personal freedom and civil rights; fame and the media; and marriage and relationships (see table 1). there are of course any number of themes that could substitute anyone of those used such as politics, working class life, school and education and so on, depending on the thematic aims of a selected course. lesson selected film theme: youth attitudes 1 thirteen 2 friends i mtv explained theme: ethnic minorities in the uk 3 bend it like beckham 4 east is east theme: personal freedom and civil rights 5 the people vs. larry flynt theme: fame and the media 6 edtv 7 natural born killers 8 my little eye theme: marriage and relationships 9 four weddings and a funeral 10 wonderland table 1: cultural studies lesson schedule aug dec 2004 s. a. bruce, films: climbing into culture's backyard 141 ten ofthe fifteen classes were devoted to watching eleven films. all films were feature length, being at least 1 hr 1 smins long, with the exception of friends (30 mins) and mtv explained (so mins). the remaining third of the schedule, denoted by blank spaces in table i, were classes set aside for discussion time. the discussions provided a chance to talk about the films, as well as introducing supplementary sources to support the learning process. viewpoints were shared, questions and details discussed, group and class activities were undertaken. tire people vs. larry flynt shown in lesson eight was the only film that was allocated no discussion time. this is because this film was used as the source for the mid-semester examination. a. case study results after the completion of the course, students filled in questionnaires. the questionnaire contained closed questions relating to each individual film, and also open questions with a more general nature about the course as a whole. 1. would you prefer cultural studies to 'film based' or 'regular-class based'? film-based: 93% class-based: 2% balanced: 5% t bl 2 .~.ri";;>", a e : , ... ;.;;' ... ~~~'" question one results . ,'5}x .~ r t\fj~:~£~ ~ it can be seen in table 2 that 93% of students prefer a fi\ii~# syllabus for cultural studies. reasons cited for preferring a film-b~odej'!~ included: students felt the lessons were clearer and easier to understand; they thought the lessons were more interesting and did not feel bored; they found the lessons enjoyable and felt they could relax more which helped them in the learning process; they felt that they received more information from a film than they would from a teacher or text based lesson. two interesting concepts that emerged were a) the use of students' individual perceptions and b) the perceived difference of theory and reality. students felt they could interpret and analyze the film using their own perception (personalizing knowledge) without the bias of an author or teacher to influence them. they valued this independent role of comprehension and evaluation. they also felt that books gave theories of culture, but films gave 142 celt, volwne 5, number 2, december 2005 : 137 154 them an actual view (albeit from a director's viewpoint) of reality: a moving and living glimpse of a culture rather than the purely lexical view from the two-dimensional pages of a textbook. 2. is film the best medium to learn about culture. if not, what mediums would you suggest? yes: 89% no: 11% table 3: question two results table 3 shows that 89% of students felt that film was the best medium in which to learn about culture. two popular reasons supported this result: first, students felt film could show cultural realities in a way other sources would struggle to match. second, students highlighted the unlimited available choice of movie titles and themes as a supporting feature. the 11 % who felt other mediums could better serve cultural studies provided three altematives. the most popular and predictable alternative was books. these are usually a~cepted as the bulk source material of any university-level course. what was interesting was the close relation between film and the other two alternatives suggested. 40% of the total 'no' respondents suggested the internet (itself a visual medium, often using moving pictures) or reality shows (television programmes as opposed to cinematic motion pictures). it is apparent that seeing a culture in action is regarded as the optimal method for learning about a target culture. 3. how would you change the fonnat/syllabus of this course, if you could? no change: 93% more explanation/discussion: 7% table 4: question three results table 4 seems to show that nearly all students were satisfied with the format and syllabus of the course. it should be taken into account that it is possible that some students counted in that 93% were actually dissatisfied with the course, but had no suggestions to make about how to change or improve the course. and the 7% wanting more explanation or discussion time? s. a. bruce, films: climbing into culture's backyard 143 first, time constraints, for example, the length of a lesson, do not have to be constraints. films that do not fill the allocated lesson time can be discussed in the same lesson period. second, in indonesia, the popular format of visual media is vcn. feature-length films using this format comprise two compact discs. this offers a guaranteed break in the playing of the movie that can be utilized as a good time to air opinions, ask questions, and provide clarifications. these intervals can be further developed into activity intervals ofthe 'what will happen next' or the 'what would you do in this sin'ation' variety. it is also possible using a two-disc format (or just a • stop' button on a video or dvd) to split the viewing of a film over two sessions so fully maximizing possible discussion time. however, this time lapse could be detrimental to the student at the least, the sense of atmosphere that the film had built up will be lost, and at worst the student will forget some or all of the events in the section of the film viewed previously. other suggestions noted were to hold a 'student poll' to decide which film title to watch in the lesson. while this might please the students immensely, it has the obvious drawback of a film being chosen for its popular appeal rather than its cultural content, so this method is not recommended. a teacher could explore the possibility of a compromise: providing two or three titles based on a particular cultural theme and letting a student poll decide which of these films is played. caution should be taken with this method the teacher's aim is to educate rather than entertain and this option gives the students the chance to vote for the film that is most appealing to them. teachers should understand that it is their position and experience as teachers that allow them to make considered judgments about which films are suitable for the requirements of their course, much more so than most students can. another suggestion was for the film selection to change each semester or term in which the course was offered. due to the huge choice of cultural themes, and the equally large choice of suitable film titles within these themes, this is a viable prospect. this would be particularly useful in education systems that allow for 'repeat students', those students who take the same course more than once. this repeating of a course may be by choice (for example, to improve on the grade received the first time of taking the course) or may be enforced (students must obtain set minimum grades in a course, and those failing to do so are required to repeat the course until they can achieve the necessary minimum mark). the revising of course content would prevent 144 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : 137 -is4 a repeat student from literally repeating film-for-film the content of the course, thus ensuring higher levels of motivation and higher levels of exposure to the target culture. this in tum should lead to higher levels of intercultural irnowledge. -i 4. what are your general comments about this cultural studies course? only positive comments: 83% positive and negative comments: 10% only negative comments: 0% no comments given: 7% tables: question four results it was very encouraging that while 83% of students had only positive comments, no students gave only negative comments about the cultural studies course (see table 5). however, some students expressed that they wanted to see films that were "more modem", "easier to understand", or "more exciting". . b. sex and violence in tbe cultural context most negative comments given by students (see table 5) were concerned that there was too much violence andlor sex in the selected films. this is a very important criticism and one worth paying attention to as it is these two areas of film that most commonly cause offence throughout the world. the objections could be related to the source culture. indonesian culture considers sex as a taboo, and nudity and sex scenes, as well as certain depictions of violence, are censored in all media forms. a way to overcome this that was applied in this case study was to purchase the films within the territory of the source culture. nine of the eleven selections in this case study were indonesian produced and therefore already met local standards permitted by law (this practice of course is also extremely advantageous in that locally bought media resources tend to include source language subtitles to accompany the original audio track). thus tile people vs. larry flylll, a true story of a pornographic magazine owner's court battles to protect his individual right to freedom of speech and the nation's right to a free press, can be shown with it's cultural context intact but without any of the nudity or sexually related scenes ofthe original version that could cause offence to some students. s. a. bruce. films: climbing into culture's backyarr:l 145 often a teacher cannot find the desired films in the source culture. and indeed two of the films in this study (four weddings and a funeral and natural born killers) were originally purchased in the uk. but were deemed relevant to the aims of the course. with the advantage of hindsight. natural born killers will be removed from any future 5yllabus. the comments :lnd opinions towards this film muke me reaiize that lh'?r,,~}qi~nt cont~nt onhe film was inappropriate for the indcnedan culture. ~1egjief.. should be wary of any gratuitous violence that appears in a fii~' ,~~ .. have selected for a classroom showing: ~; :': :.,,¢-~ (;'''.~s\.. i :--..._...§~---4 • ''"' ,2>~rpt~7;.;: ~.' graphic violence in a film desensitizes the viewer not only to the victim's pain but also to the l!ebasement of the perpetrlltor. in many instances, these films glorify vio!ence and tbe per!)ons who commit it. \\lien parcl!ts or teachers bring violent films into the home or t!ie c1r.:;sltlo!ll tlley encourage the viewing ofbllltaiity for ·en~::rta·jnment and implicitly endors~ 11::: £.c::eptance ai::j celeb .. hio.l of ~avagery. signilicantly, ad'.ll~~ who p:llpose the vi~wing of graphically hiu~:ll mnls liso lose the oppo!tun!!"j' to show by exampie :l:3t in all but 'he most l'xtreme cases the use of viol~ilcl.". e'/en viewing it forpleasuro!, is intolerable. lhis less ofmonl stature by ~rusted adults is detrimental !:l the ~hjld:el1 they seck!o raise or tear-h. (frieden and ellior. 2004) while my primary intention (the cultural context required for ,hat parlicular lesson) was to show the clements of celebrity-worship in the media that appear throughmlt this film, this could have been done using a different film and thus without resulting in the ofiending of students. a prerequisite for any film selection is it's viewing by the teacher before it is pbyed to the dass (as opposed to rdying on the memury of having watched it ~ome time in the past), just to ascenair. how useful (or not) a film will be. ii: doing this i had noted the violent con;cnt of natural born killers. but felt ;t could also aid intercultural under~t~nding. on a secondary it:vel. student!> ~ou!d realize to what levels violencl.! is toleruted within the media of the target cultllre. students could consider the' dmnbin!.;-do\\n· of violence in western society. primarily, the film seemed to be a veri strong example ofthe power of celebrity in the target culture and ho'v that magnetism can be prioritized o\-er and above ull 146 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : 137 154 other concerns, even that "fbeing wanted criminals. howevcf, i now realise that these advantages are small in comparison to the potential damage such a film could cause. if a film, any film, causes offence to the students, then it should be immediately removed from the syllabus. teachers, particularly nati ve speakers who may be less aware or naive of local custom, must be receptive to, and also respectful of, the source culture. film choices s!lould be thoroughly scrutinized before any fmal decision by the teacher. is the cultural point you want to make necessary? do other films show this point cqua ily weil but with inoffensive material'! remember, even the !loll-selection of 3 film can itself become a starting point for an intercultural discussion in the classroom without having to resort to showing the film. c. further results the students provided many ideas for films that could be added or substituted i!lto the course. suggestions induded talk shows (e.g. the oprah wil?/i·ey show), situ:ltiond comedies (e.g. mr. bean, sex alia the city) ana ii1ms (c.g. billy elliot, falmml:dt 9/1 j}, ali cfwhich could contribute to cult.lj1l1 studies. indonesi~n films were also suggested such as virgin, a recent ioeal release about the lives of th:ee 'modem' teenage girls, which could complement the showing of thirteen, a similarly themed american film used in this case study, creating intercultural dialogue in the comparison and contrast l)fthe two films. many' hol!ywood blockbus!ers' were suggested, but generally these tend to have little i.lsc in the classroom. again. it is the role ofthe teacher to c:iistinguish between t!ntertaimnent and t!ducation. there is not enough cultural value in the average action-thriller, horror movie, comedy and so on. while useful exami>les can be found in these genres (american fie ofiers a good insight into young american relation~hips and dating), it is often the more "serious'or 'art-culture' end of the market thttt will offer a better quality of titles for the teacher to select from. it emerged that stuc::n,s could di ffercntiate between . good' entertainment and 'good' t'duc,~tive material. six of the films had some ~tudents responding that the~· did not enjoy the film but they felt that it was s!i11 a useful source of culture and should remain in any future course syllabus. conversely, each movie also h:td students who had cnjoyed their viewing fxperience but felt the film should not be part ofa cultural studies syllabus s. a. bruce. films: climbing into culture's backyard 147 because it lacked educative value. this suggests that students are able to recognize. understand and appreciate the educative context of a film irrespective of its entertaining qualities. a prime example of this was wonderland. this film could be labeled 'arty' due to its non-standard cinematic techniques, lack of plot (while at the same time aiming for a high standard of realism) and image-laden photography. one respondent commented that it was 'too dark,' and another 'the most boring film i have ever seen,' yet both respondents agreed that it should remain on the syllabus as 'that's showing the real life of western.' overall responses were very positive: some enjoyed the change it brought to the structure of the lesson 'i've never had class like this before; cool;' some wanted to see the process repeated elsewhere 'please make it again in another lesson if it's possible;' and some found it increased their motivation to learn 'the only class that i've never been absent from.' did you enjoywas this filmusewould you keep watching ful to helpyou this filmin the thisfilm? learn about culturalstudies culture? syllabus? thirteen yes-s6% yes-9s% yes-7s% friends yes-sl% yes-ss% yes-60% mtv explained yes-s2% yes-s6% yes-sl% bend it like beckham yes-loo% yes-loo% yes-9s% east is east yes-s3% yes-93% yes-71% the people vs. larry yes-6s% yes-91% yes-66% flynt edtv yes-s3% yes-ss% yes-73% nalural bom killers yes-33% yes-s2% yes-24% m)' little e)'e yes-64% yes-s8% yes-41% four weddings ••• yes-9s% yes-95% yes-s3% wonderlalld yes-43% yes-90% yes-si% table 6: selected questionnaire results as can be seen in table 6, nine of the eleven films received positive responses from 85-100% of students when asked if they felt that the film was useful to help them learn about the target culture. even the two exceptions still registered over 50% positive responses. 148 celt, volumes, number 2, december 2005 : 137-154 more than half of the films were enjoyed by 81-100% of students. there are possible factors that could contribute to the lower number of positive responses to the other films: the people vs. larry flynt was the only film that was allocated no extra time for discussion; my lillie eye belongs to the horror genre so is by its very nature is defined as not being 'enjoyable' in the traditional sense of the word; mtv explained was the only documentary included in the selection of films and may have been considered 'less exciting' than a film; natural born killers was the least enjoyed film one factor could be that this was the only film shown that did not have subtitles to aid listener comprehension. wonderland, like natural born killers, was considered too 'arty.' on the other hand, wonderland was the only film where the number of students suggesting that it should remain as part of the syllabus was greater than the number of students who actually professed to liking the film. d. conclusions of the case study films without subtitles were much less effective in the teaching of culture than films with subtitles. students complained of being confused and bored if there were no subtitles. the student's understanding is essential to any cultural studies exercise. only after students have understood a message can they then analyze or evaluate it. introducing themes and films to the students before a film show is important. this can facilitate student interpretation and analysis of the material. if a student knows what to look for in a source, it should be more easily recognized. introducing the cultural context of a film before it is shown to the students can focus their concentration and awareness. it can also provide useful background knowledge that will aid interpretation. the film east is east is set in the manchester, north-west england of the 1970s. this fact is quickly picked up on by the briton visual clues within the opening credits of the film include fashion, transportation, background settings (e.g. a windowposter of a politician who was popular at that time) and even the music of the film soundtrack. these cultural markers and icons are often less obvious to foreign students and may not be recognized at all without some priming from the teacher before the film is presented. students appear to gain much more intercultural knowledge if the cultural context of a film is obviously limited to a single theme. the three films consistently gaining the highest number of positive responses in each s. a. bruce, films: climbing into culture's backyard 149 category in table 6 were thirteen (this deals with the lives of young teenagers in an american city), bend it like beckham (this film follows the lives ofa firstand secondgeneration indian family living in london) and four weddings and a funeral (this film shows four weddings and a funeral within one social network of british friends). each of these films was very detailed in their portrayal of each cultural context, but at the same time they did not cross thematic boundaries. this results in the student getting a huge amount ofinformation, but all within a specific and relevant area. each theme was multi-layered, resulting in a richness and density of knowledge available to the student, and the determined focus on one singular theme meant that students were not distracted from the cultural theme by other obtrusive cultural elements of the film. the importance of removing bias in cultural studies in the use of films, and indeed any materials that are used as aids to teach culture, "the cultural information should be presented in a nonjudgmental fashion, in a way that does not place value or judgment on distinctions between the student's native culture and the culture exposed in the classroom" (peterson and coltrane 2003). cultural studies should be looked upon not as a door, but as a window. a teacher is not opening the door of another culture and inviting a student to come inside and 'join' this culture, nor should a teacher force a certain cultural viewpoint on the student. the teacher can bring neither cultural preconceptions nor bias to the cultural studies class. teachers (especially native speakers) often do this, and are unaware that they do this, often in their belief that a certain practice in the target culture is better than or more worthy than, is more logical than or more understandable than, a different practice in a similar social context in the source culture. the teacher's role is not to push a student through the door into the target culture, but instead their role is to draw back the curtains and reveal the practices and values of the target culture, give the student something to look at rather than something to be swallowed up in. this 'looking at' should not of course persuade or dissuade a student's judgment, but should just present the target culture to the student. this idea is supported by mckay, who equates culture with the term ethnography or "the study of the world of people" (yates 1986:61, cited in mckay 1992:51). she recommends that in ethnographic research, cultures 150 celt, volume5,nwnber2,december2005: 137-154 should be studied from the viewpoint of members of the culture rather than from the viewpoint of those studying the culture. this perspective is labeled emic, and in contrast to its antonym elic (which studies cultures from an external perspective), tends to minimize the interference of ethnocentricity. as darnen (1987:52) states, cited by mckay (1992:53): any efforts aimed at understanding another culture should be guided toward the identification of salient cultural patterns and themes, that all efforts should be made to overcome ethnocentric bondage and blindness, that the internal 'logic' of given cultural systems provides a unique 'world view' or their bearers, that this world view is best conveyed by reference to the perceptions of those who share these patterns, and that no cultural group should be judged as being inherently superior or inferior to another. there is no better way to try and understand a culture than to see it from this 'native' view, for any external view will undoubtedly b tarnished by judgment and comparison. in this way, the teaching of culture can foster various aims. among these aims are the ideas of international understanding, the possibilities to motivate students, facilitating the students' possible future visits to foreign countries (mckay 1992:56) or their local interactions with foreigners in the workplace, the education institution or the social arena, and the development of knowledge levels that support second language acquisition. the misuse of films as a cultural material the use of film is a great way to promote cultural awareness and discussion in the class. however, the teacher should be aware of the relevance and context of each film within the parameters of a syllabus and the goals of both the institution and the students themselves. despite the requirements involved in teaching culture, each theme must be carefully considered within the value system of the source culture. griffith points out that it is possible to choose a topic that seems neutral and interesting to the teacher (who considers it an essential part of the target culture), yet this topic is controversial, and therefore unsuitable, to students from the source culture. for example, a class on british pub culture may not be well received in saudi arabia; a feature on colonialism could prove uncomfortable to aborigines; or "asking s. a. bruce, films: climbing into culture's backyard 151 questions about foreign travels would be tactless in many places where few will be able to afford international travel" (griffith 1999: 119). it is very easy for the use of a film in class to replace other materials for all the wrong reasons. hobbs (1998) suggests five misuses of media resources that should be avoided in the classroom: j. students view videotape wilh 110 opportullity to discuss, ask questiolls. pause or review material. if time is limited in a classroom (the classes in the above case study were 1 hour 40 minutes in duration), and a teacher is worried that time spent on discussion will simply not be available if a complete film is to be shown, then time should be allocated in other ways. in the case study above, two films were shown in two classes while the third class was used as an opportunity to ask and answer questions, and to discuss ideas and opinions. this time allocation can also provide an opportunity to bring in supporting materials in the form of new texts (e.g. handouts) or other secondary materials that can enhance or further the cultural context of the film. 2. teacher mentally disengages while the tv is oil ill order to get "real work" done. a teacher should always view the film together with the students. first, it offers teachers a chance to re-familiarize themselves with the content of the film. second, the teacher is usually regarded as the figure of authority in the class, and therefore an example to be followed. students may feel more inclined to be inattentive if a teacher is also seen to be uninterested in following the film, or has even left the room altogether while the students' get on' with watching the film. 3. teacher uses tv viewing to reward the class. students are more often than not conditioned to see films as entertainment. teachers must also show students that films are equally valid as texts (davis 1998). the use of tv as an incentive hinders this process, merely strengthening the pre-conditioning of the students. it is also unimaginative, using up valuable teacher-student time that could be used for other equallyor morerewarding activities such as games. it is recognized, however, that 'having fun' can, according to many teachers, be an acceptable motive for any teaching tool, and that watching a film can have benefits in relation to group dynamics and bonding achieved via shared, informal pleasures. 152 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : 137 154 4. teacher uses media only to get students to pay attention to the subject matter this may not necessarily be construed as a misuse exactly, but suggest a teacher's beliefthat the students cannot or will not learn unless they choose to focus their attention to a particular activity, i.e. they wil1 not read the chapter set as homework, deeming it boring or too long, but they will happily watch a movie, considered fun and an 'easy' cognitive activity. films should be chosen only because they are the best available material for the planned lesson rather than for any other reason. 5. teacher uses video to keep students quiet and under control. again, the goals and aims of a media resource used in this fashion are inconsistent with those of the teaching-learning process. conclusion film is an authentic and effective resource in the teaching of culture to second language learners. films show a richness and density often lacking in other source areas, and can quickly create an interesting and enjoyable learning environment. a certain onus, as always in any teaching-learning process, is on the teacher to integrate these resources successfully in the classroom. a teacher will provide suitable films with clear but detailed cultural contexts, as well as the chance to discuss, comment upon and review (both before and after). cultural studies should always, whether based on film or not, use a communicative approach. only through thought and discussion can intercultural knowledge be shared and learned. the choice off urns, like any selection of materials, is vital. compatibility of the resource and the cultural context within it should be considered in regard to the goals of the lesson, the student, the institution, and the source culture itself. the films must be useful in presenting or highlighting the chosen area/theme of the target culture that is being studied. harry potier does not show a regular british high school situation, but a fantasy setting. sean penn's i am sam would not be a good selection to introduce one-parent families even though this is the relationship that the two main characters find themselves in, but it could be used as an excellent source to show the legal and social view in america toward people with mental disability. tea with mussolini is not the best film to present a class studying the world war two, but it could prove useful if the focus ofthe class is to look at the posts. a. bruce, films: climbing into culture' s backyard 153 empire attitudes of the british. american beauty does not portray the average american family, and could not be presented in this context. however, it could spark discussion based on the different perspectives it offers concerning the western embrace of capitalism and consumerism, and happiness and human desire. a teacher who is prepared to consider carefully the context of a film choice in these wider roles, and who is prepared to spend an appropriate length of time developing the students skills of critical analysis, reasoning and communication in the context of viewing a film, can indeed have a very rewarding experience teaching cultural studies using film as the major source of materials. bibliography commager. h.s. 1970. cited in c.h. blatchford. 1973. "newspapers: vehicles for teaching esol with a cultural focus". in culture bound. edited by j.m. valdes. cambridge: cambridge university press, ] 986 damen, l. 1987. in teaching english overseas: an introduction. by s.l. mckay. oxford: oxford university press, ] 992. davis, l. "learningl teaching culture". in http://www.teflchina. org/teach/culture/, 1998. ellisafny. c.a.p. 'the use of video in foreign language teaching". in lembaran sastra. edited by d.k. latar. semarang: universitas diponegoro, 1997. frieden, j. and d.w. elliott. "about gratuitous violence". in http: /i www.teachwithmovies.comlviolence-statement.html.2004. griffith, s. teaching english abroad. 4'· ed. oxford: vacation work, 1999. hobbs, r. "the uses (and misuses) of mass media resources in secondary schoo]s". in http://interact.uoregon.edulmedia litlmlr/readings/articlesl hobbsluses.html, 1998. lafford, b.a. and p.a. lafford. "the use of internet techno]ogies integrate the national foreign language standards in a cultural learning scenario format". in http://clear.msu.eduinewsletterlspringollmain.html, 2001. mckay, s.l. ]992. teaching english overseas: an introduction. oxford: oxford university press, 1992. 154 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : 137 -154 moran, p. 1992. cited in c. griessen. "teaching american culture". in http:// teflchina.orglteachlculturel, 1998. peterson, e. and b. coltrane. "culture in second language teaching" in http:// www.cal.orgiresourcesidigestl0309 peterson.hbnl, 2003. politzer, r. 1959. cited in n. brooks. "culture in the classroom". in culture bollnd. edited by 1.m. valdes. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1986. valdes, j.m. (ed.) culture bound. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1986. logo: 10-2.pdf (eastern) sumba and its genres of oral tradition b. retang wohangaral abstract: this paper provides some information on the island of sumba and its people. as a cultural community not possessing a writing system, the sumbanese people preserve and transmit their tradition-based creations such as language, literature, music, games, mythology, and rituals, for generations through oral communications. the people s oral traditions, taking forms in some genres, have become inseparable parts of their lives. though the vocabularies in daily usage are the same as the ones used in 'special' occasions, for instance, in rituals, the metaphorical construction of language of the laller demands 'special' attention. key words: oral tradition, folklore, genre introduction the term 'oral,' meaning "uttered in spoken words; transacted by word of mouth; spoken, verbal," (oed) frequently appears in combinations such as oral literature, oral narrative, oral testimony, and oral tradition. in this context, 'oral' is understood as 'using speech only,' and thus is contrasted with 'written/literate. ' oral tradition, which is our topic in question, is simply defined as any kind of unwritten tradition transmitted through words (finnegan, 1996:6). vans ina proposes a more elaborating definition by stating that "[oral traditions] are 'unwritten' sources couched in a form of suitable for oral transmission, and that their transmission, and their preservation depends on the power of memory of successive generations of human beings" b. retang wohangara, 5.5., m.hum. is a lecturer of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 2 celt, volume 6, number 1, july 2006: 1-16 (1973: 1). the traditions are still alive among the 'unlettered' folks, and continue to exist "at the very heart of the environment that gave rise to it" (1973:2). another tenn used to cover all forms of 'orally transmitted tradition' and referring to a discipline of study as well as its subject matter is folklore. finnegan defines folklore as the totality of tradition-based creations of a cultural community, expressed by a group or individuals and recognized as reflecting the expectations of community. its standards and values are transmitted orally, by imitation or by other means. its forms include, among others, language, literature, music, dance, games, mythology, rituals, customs, handicrafts, architecture and other arts (1996: 12). based on its type, brunvand divides folklore into three main groups, those are, verbal folklore, partly verbal folklore, and non-verbal folklore. verbal folklore includes among others folk speech, traditional idioms, riddles, and folk poetry. partly verbal folklore includes beliefs, folk games, dancing, customs, and rituals. non-verbal folklore covers architecture, handicrafts, diets, andjewelries (1978:3). wby is folklore worthily studied? as quoted by oanandjaja (2002: 19), william r. bascom, a folklorist of california university at berkeley proposes the functions of folklore: a) as a projective system mirroring collective fantasies of a particular society; b) as a means of justifying the existing social structures and cultural institutions; c) as pedagogical devices; d) as a coercive tool in enforcing the existing norms in society. as a discipline, the study of folklore in indonesia is relatively new. danandjaya, a prominent figure pioneering the study offolklore in indonesia, points out that indonesian folklore indeed has been studied especially by the dutch researches from various disciplines such as philology, musicology, anthropology, and theology. even though providing abundantly 'raw' materials for further and deeper study on indonesia folklore, they are fortunately not folklorist (2002: i 0). citing dundes, danandjaya claims that the method applied by the researchers are called "a method based on the philosophy of collecting butterflies or foreign objects ... " (ibid.) this is because they only compiled the lore while did not have sufficient knowledge on its folk. as a result, their studies were speculative in nature for analyzing the lore by means of another social folk. a serious effort on writing an annoted bibliography of indonesian folklore has been pioneered by oanandjaja (1972), followed by other scholars such as arintonpudja (1973) and dakung (1973) and kalangie-pandey (1978). b.r. h'ohangara, (eastern) sumba and its genres ororat tradition 3 fortunately, the studies, except of oanandj aj a, have not been published. in order to celebrate the international book year 1973, sponsored by the government ofindonesia and unesco, oanandjaya organized a project to compile indonesian folklore, especially of the javanese and sundanese.along with the increasing concern with the indonesian folklore, the government encouraged to the establishment of the archives of indonesian folklore. however, all the efforts in fact do not really trigger the extensive and deep study on indonesia folklore. the recent institution dedicating to develop studies on indonesia folklore, asosiasi tradisi lisan indonesia (the association ofindonesian oral tradition), struggles very hard for survival due to its lack of support and financial problems. the studies ofsumbanese folklore can be found, for instances, in the works of o.k. wielenga (1909 and 1913), l. onvlee (1925), oembu hina kapita (1977, 1979, 1987) marie jeanne adams (1970 and 1971), janet hoskins (1988), christine forth (1982), and joel c. kuipers (1998). unfortunately, their valuable writings can be hardly accessed in indonesia. taro goh (1991) wrote a sumba bibliography containing all the writings on sumba, which are accessible in the libraries ofthe university of lei den and other foreign universities. this paper is a brief introduction on the social contexts ofthe (eastern) sumbanese people and a preliminary investigation on genres of their oral traditions. the classification of oral tradition hopefully will pioneer further and extensive researches on the rich and abundant cultural expressions of the given people. [the lesser sunda islands ""-.. fl.· ...... ~t .. map of lesser sunda islands (jfreeman 1996) 4 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 1 -16 there seems to have been no record on sumba before the 141h century. the 14th century javanese chronicles, negarakertagama, apparently considered sumba as one of javanese's (majapahit) depedencies (kartik 1999). however, it is unknown if there was a direct contact between the island and java at this time. in the 171h century, the sultan ofbima considered sumba to be within hisjurisdiction, but the evidences ofbima's actual control were also lacking. dutch east india company made an agreement with the ruler of mangili (one of the former sub-districts of east sumba) in 1756, though no direct or regular involvement in sumba's affairs. in 1800, the netherlands indies government took over the company's interest in the region, and started posting its officials in the island in 1866. in order to succeed its campaign of pacification, the dutch established an effective colonial administration in 1912 (forth 1981 :58). sumba, one of the three big islands (flores, sumba, timor) of the nusa tenggara 1imur province, lies to southeast of bali, west of timor and south of flores. however, sumba is often confused with the island of sumbawa, which in fact sits to its northwest. sumba island covers an area of 12,297 km sq. (forth 1981: 17), and consists of two districts, i.e., east sumba (sumba 1imur) and west sumba (sumba barat). the capital of east sumba is waingapu, and of west sumba, waikabubak. sumba, now is populated by about 350,000 people has been noted for its sandalwood horses breeding, thus known as sandalwood island, impressive megalithic graves (ret i), hand woven textile, and still untouched, and white-sandy beaches. the east sumba district with a total area of7,711 km sq. and now populated by 201,394 people consists of15 sub-districts (kecamatan), and 143 villages (desa) with waingapu as the main gateway to sumba island. a. subsistence and economy the nobility (maramba) still has a good deal of gold items, horses and other livestock. however much of their wealth has been decreased in recent years, due to a number factors, such as, external trades, the decreased demand for horses, plagues of locusts, and a series of epidemic diseases affecting livestock. the rest of population, for the most part, have always been and still relatively poor. the majority of them were farmers, though even the poorest own several horses or cattle and all households keep pigs and chicken. b.r. wohangara, (eastern) sumba and its genres ororal tradition 5 eastern sumba is dry and infertile land. maize is still the main staple product. rice is also an important crop, since it is considered a superior foodstuff. rice is used on ceremonial occasions and for ritual offerings. other crops include green and root-vegetables, various sort of fruits and gourd, sorghum and millet, tobacco, and of course betel and areca, which are universally chewed and extremely important in social relationships. animals, such as, pigs, chickens, and buffalos are slaughtered for ritual purposes, so that eating meat is relatively restricted to those occasions. besides for ritual occasion, horses especially are used as prestations (wili tau) in transaction between affinal groups, as transport, and for trade. the notable handcraft is the weaving of decorated textiles, which used to be entirely in the hands of women, but now men are also involved for accelerating productivity of traditional cloth. the textiles (hinggi): loincloth, shoulder cloth (hinggi duku) and headcloth (tiara) for men and tubular skirt for women (lau) are dressed out in the special/important ceremonial occasions, used mainly as prestation in transactions between affinal groups, and as the shrouds of corpse. the traditional form of internal trade is tenned mandara in which a man seasonally exchanges with people in other parts of the island surplus products for items in short supply in his own area. now only few people still practice mandara since the introduction of paranggang (weekly markets), the general stores owned by chinese and of money as the modem exchange. cash slowly takes over the exchange based on barter. b. house and village organization the basic pattern of traditional house is built of wood and thatch on piles some two feet above the ground. the center of the house is occupied by the hearth (au) or cooking area, flanked on the right (from a position facing the front of the house) by the great floor (kaheli bokulu) in which the major liturgical speeches (hamayangu) to the ancestors are performed, where the corpse is placed before burial, and where males guests are formally received on ceremonial occasions. the area on the left of the hearth is the informal as the domestic area of the house where food is prepared and female guests are received. running along the front and back of the house are open verandahs (bangga) shaded by the thatched roof. if the back 6 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 1-16 verandah is an additional domestic area where daily activities take place and the household tasks are perfonned, the front verandah, like the kaheli bokulu, is a fonnal area largely reserved for ceremonial occasions. the floor of the house is constructed of slats with spaces between, through which food waste is dropped to the ground below where chickens and pigs scratch and root. a few houses are high enough off the ground to the house horses beneath them. some houses are additionally provided with a high peak housing a loft. it is consecrated to a clan ancestral deity (marapu) and serves as a residence and a clan temple (umma marapu). sacred relics and effigies are placed there. the spirit of deity is said to present there in the peak. therefore it is restricted area, which may be entered only by senior members of the clan. smaller houses are built near the agricultural lands (wuaka) some distance away. in the traditional fortified village (paraingu) consisting of thirty or more houses, every clan would nonnally maintain at least one house. subsidiary villages and hamlets (kuataku) would be nonnally smaller. the houses are built close together and arranged in a straight row, and even two or more rows facing one another and the central, cleared, flat are known as village square (taluara). if there is only one row of houses, the graves of deceased villagers are placed opposite the houses on the other side of the village square, and where there are two or more rows, the graves are placed between the rows. the paraingu functions as the capital village and religious center, while kuataku tend to be largely functional units of residence, located close to rivers and other water sources and to areas of wuaka. the number of paraingu has decreased significantly, and it is caused by some factors such as the conversion ofthe marapu believers into major religions (mainly into christianity), the migrations caused by the lure of'modemity' in the city, the cost of rebuilding the old and big umma marapu. the uncultivated areas beyond the fields and villages are called marada (the plains) and are used as grazing ground horses, buffalos, and cattle. marada is considered as the outside characterized as an important boundary between inside and outside. c. religion and religious organization the traditional religion centers on the cult of marapu that refers to the ancestors of clans (kabihu), of which tunggu estimates as more than b.r. wo/,angara, (eastern) sumba and its genres of oral tradition 7 227 in eastern sumba alone (2000:20). although many 'natives' of eastern sumba have converted into five 'approved' religions (islam, catholic, protestant, hindu, and budha), the marapu followers, who believe that the dead ancestors continue showing "an interest in the welfare and conduct of their living descendants ... " (hoskins 1988:30), still form about 65 percent of the total population (sumba in figures, 2004). each clan has its own marapu, propitiated with offerings and liturgical speeches. it is regarded as protector of clan members and clan interests. appeals to marapu are made by the priest (ama bokululmahamayangu) on the behalf of the clan members as a whole. normally, each clan has its own priest, who is the eldest living male in the clan, wise and experienced in religious matters, and an expert in the symbolic and often indirect ritual language used in liturgies. they do not undergo any formal training. their knowledge comes naturally with the wisdom and experience of old age and many years of listening to and observing rituals. d. stratification three basic classes in the society are the nobility (maramba) , commoners (iau kabihu), and slave (ala). ala class belongs to nobility, but certain of the large and wealthy commoner clans and lineages also own some. the classes are ideally endogamous, but intermarriage between nobility and commoners, and between commoners and ala may occur. marriage between nobility and slaves is formally impossible. ala is also classified into two: ala bokulu and ala kudu. ala kudu is the lowest and humblest group in eastern sumba, and derived mainly from captives of war. they can be bought and sold. ala bokulu can be characterized rather as a class of retainers or hereditary servants. they can't be bought and sold. ala bokulu are better treated than ala kudll, and many attain considerable influence as advisors and companions to their masters. unlike ala klldll, they often live in the same house with their masters and form a strong bond of affection and loyalty. female of ala bokulu serves as ala ngandi, those are, slaves brought along, who accompany their lamu rambu (mistress) when marrying and serving her in her husband's house. 8 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 1-16 e. alliance eastern sumba is characterized by the operation of a system of asymmetric prescriptive alliances. the mother's brother's daughter (anana i tuya) is the most preferred spouse, while marry with the father's sister's daughter (ana-na i mamu) is absolutely forbidden. as typi'cal to societies practicing prescriptive alliance, the relationship between alliance groups, that is wife-givers (yiara) and wife takers (ana kawinni) are paired in a relation of complementary opposition. the wife-givers are classified as 'masculine' and superior and the wife-takers as feminine and inferior. when both parties for instance meet on the occasion of marriages and funerals, prestations are exchanged. the prestations given to wife takers such as horses and metal ornaments) are referred as masculine goods (banda mini), in contrast to the class of counter-prestations given by wife-givers to wife-takers (textiles and non-metal jewelry) are called feminine goods (banda kawinni). genres of oral tradition of eastern sumba the indigenous language used in everyday life by the majority of the eastern sumbanese people (approximately 150,000 speakers) is kambiara. kambiara is classified as belonging to the central malayo-polynesian (cmp) subgroup (klamer) 998: i citing blust). though bahasa indonesia is the formal language and language of instruction, for instance, in education and government, kambiara is spoken and understood in the large part of eastern sumba. while there are certain variations in custom and beliefs, and dialects, the culture of eastern sumba, particularly of the kambiara speaking parts is sufficiently homogenous. the genres of oral traditions in eastern sumba can be roughly classified as follows: a. li ndai (old/ancient tale) or li marapu (matters concerning with marapu/the ancestor tale) li ndai is a form of ritual speech narrated by ratulwunangu marambalwunangu bokulu (religious leader) concerning with the creation of the earth, the history of the ancestors and certain locations, or clans. for instance, some myths generally describe that the first inhabitants ofsumbanese people" ... arrived by boat, or sometime from heavens, at the northernmost b.r. wohangara, (eastern) sumba and its genres of oral tradition 9 peninsula (cape sasar), and dispersed into kabihu, which migrated and populated the remainder of the islands" (forshee 2001: 16). umbu hina kapita (1979), a very productive sumbanese writer on sumbanese folklore, wrote a book on the history of some clans (kabihu) in eastern sumba. here is an example of texts on the history of the kabihu maru, watu bulu, and matualangu (kapita 1979:7-32). due to the impossibility of presenting the complete and very long text in this short paper, on ly some lines are quoted for the purpose of showing the characteristics of eastern sumba's li ndai. na ina mangu lanangu the mother who owns the land na ama mangu lukungu the father who owns the river na matanangu haupu who own a heap of soil namarumbangu hawalla who own a stalk of grass na matimba wai kahingiru who take water from a clear spring na hullu rumba muru who burn the green grass na mataka wungangu lana paraingu who are the first comers in fortified village na mataka mangilungu luku mananga who firstly arrive in the mouth of the river ba dahal/aka papanjajarangu njarada when they have made their horses dancing [ umbu ndilu buru [ umbu jara tangga, [the one who is] umbu ndilu buru, [the one who is] umbu jara tangga [ umbu nggada ndilu i umbu ndilu huru; [the one who is] umbu nggada mdilu [the one who is] umbu ndilu huru 10 celt, volume6,number i,july2006: 1-16 ba dahallaka papawilikungu rambahuda: when they have shown their whips i umbu lu i umbu jinga lara, [the one who is] umbu jinga lara i umbu kaka manau; [the one who is] umbu kaka manau ba da pangga ndedi ndukapa when they walk before being delayed ba da laku ndedi ndadikupa when they depart before being stopped la ruhuku la mbali in ruhuku in mbali la enda la ndau in enda in ndau ba da ngiangupa la ruawa tiana [at first] they live in the stomach of the boat ba da ngiangupa la lumbu iiru they live under the shade of their sails ba da lindipa wai ma wurra they go over the foaming sea ba dangadupa wai mamuru they look at the blue sea ba da maradangupa tehiku the sea is their open field ba da landulangupa ngalingu, the waves are their mountains ba da limangupa iiru sails are their hands ba da wihingupa buhi oars are their feet pangga hi da ,akka and then they walk and arrive laku hi da lundungu they turn up and get to b.r. wo/tangara, (eastern) sumba and its genres of oral tradition 11 la tana hupu haranguda [at] the land they are able to reach la mananga hupu hiwida [at] the estuary they are able to dock [their boat] la kataka lind; watu in kataka lindi watu la haharu malai in haharu malai the ritual speech is characterized with complicatedly figurative ways of speaking so that most of its audience does not understand most of the speeches. li ndai narratives are considered sacred, and thus need many prescriptions and conditions. children and young people are forbidden from being present during their narration. they may normally only be narrated in the marapu house. the procedure is so shaped with secrecy, danger, and the risk of causing the wrath of the clan ancestor. animals, such as fowl, pig, or buffalo, must first be slaughtered for the ancestors and invocations are performed to 'win' the ancestors' hearts. in a field research in 2004, the writer ever faced the reluctance of an informant asked to tell the histories of some kabihu, and only wanted to proceed his story until a 'proper' ritual, that is, slaughtering a pig, was carried out. b. lawiti luluk (parallel with sayings or proverbs) a compilation of lawiti luluk is done by kapita (1987). lawit; luluk appears in religious verses, everyday speech, in fixed expressions, and in narratives. here are some examples of this genre: na mapandoi pamanandangu he who creates beautifully na ma/ala pakaworingu he who makes completely this couplet refers to the creator of human beings ngia papata tibu mcnvalla the right place to take full-grown sugar cane ngia papunggu kalu maihhi the right place to cut down ripened banana 12 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 1 -16 this couplet refers to the wife-givers (yiara) who are supposed to give a bride to wife-takers (ana kawinni) na wallahu-ndakka lunggi he/she has spread out hislher hair na bata-ndakka kajia he/she has turned hislher back to us this couplet refers to someone who has just passed away. karuduku ndakku pitti i bow but get nothing pajualangu ndakku tuama i extend my hands but reach nothing meanwhile, this following couplet refers to someone who expresses his/her powerlessness ngaru mapahamangu mouths that speak the same [words] limma mapamiarangu hands that are parallel [to one and another] this couplet refers to a discussion in which the participants are looking for an agreement. c. li pangerallgu (tales) there are mainly two kinds of ii pangerangu. the first type is ana lalu (orphan tales). ana lalu are stories about orphans characterized by the interruptions of songs in the course of the stories. the central characters in ana lalu are the eastern sumba folkhero and heroine, umbua title of respecting a male but is also used as a mark of respect for all class of people, and a term for a grandfather and forbearndilu and rambua title of respecting female but is also used as a mark of respect for all class of peoplekahi. there are other min')r characters such as mada (usually younger brother to ndilu) and apu kammi. the second type of ii pangerangu are fables and which often adopt the archetypal names in ana lalu, but are distinguished from ana lalu due to their spontaneity, and therefore allowing #.,,-;,,\, /~,~t'''a''~ b.r. wol,angara, (eastern) sumba and its genres ororal traditr.t~)~;§ 'il"'-,-""-.. \-",;' addition and subtraction. wielenga (1913) compiled tales such as'i.·.qqd:.'·~~,.. karoboe toenoe. karoboe hamoe. maka ihi naoe, and na woeya. a missionary linguist, onvlee (1925) recorded some eastern sumbanese's tales such as i oembu mada dangu i mili kami. i oembu ndilu buti, i ramboe and kahi wai kakalakoe. in a field research in sumba on june 2005, the writer himsel f recorded some other tales such as i umbu miata. i kapilandu, i rambu kahi kapuala. i tara tibu, and i umbu buti dangu i umbu kapaki. d. lawiti ludu (songs lyrics) there are several kinds of lawiti ludu, songs, for instances, to accompany dancing (/udu rianja), to give spirits in dragging tombstones (ludu yila watu), to harvest paddies (/udu parinna), to celebrate harvest time (ludu kanduku wuaka), and to express feelings of sorrow, dependency, humility, when one (usually male) loses his beloved, families, or family members (iudu pahangu). the following ludu pahangu was recorded by kapita (1977:145). a jiaya hi kuhi that's why i cry kuhi-ka nyungga eri. i do cry my lover lalu mijanguna i parandaingu [because] the promise has been broken muda nda namuda it is too easy to forget la paimbu la i hama hada-mu [since] you want to find someone else who suits you better tawurru la kawana-mu the ring on your right finger mbadda ninya la wunggu iimma-mu it has already been in your grip tiara hapulanga the handkerchief [i gave you] daingu ninya nggi la hakumu is it still there in your pocket? 14 celt, volume 6, number 1, july 2006: 1-16 e. dikangujpadikangu (riddles) samples of riddles are as follows: ba anakiada-ya na hau lau, ma na-malua na-iwlulu. when she was a child, she wore tubular skirt, but when she was grown up, she was naked. solution: bamboo tree. jak/w na he la pingngi iwkuru i umbu ndilu. ndanna he-a weli la pingngi-na, na he weli la iwpuklw-na. if umbu ndilu climbs a coconut tree, he doesn't climb it from its trunk but from its tip. solution: a ring nda paila-aya na pinggii-na. nda pa-ila-aya na iwpulw-na its stem is invisible, its top is invisible. solution: the wind f. piapaku (word-games). here are three examples: apu ku luala la wualw. ku lua fa wualw. ku papu lora. ku papu lora. kujulu wangu. kujulu wangu fa lumbu mbuamangu. la fumbu mbuamangu la hupu bangga. la hupu bangga la ru hawindu. la ruhamvindu la kilimbuanga. la kilimbunnga ai la laluara. indaka-indalw wanna i labu limbi ngaru. jia duklw i dukku i marau iwmbu fumbu ndakku fuppa inda-ya. jajjalw-jajjalw wanna ilwbeli langa mengilu. jia dukka i dukku i ana mbuti mburungu ndakku luppa jajja-ya. happalw-happalw wanna i kuamalu malumbu. jia dukka i dukku i winnu muru maja ndakku luppa happa-ya. conclusion in eastern indonesia, including the island of sumba, where literacy has still been limited to certain amount of people, oral traditions are lively and diverse. the indigenous languages in the region do not merely function as a means of education, but have become the essential vehicles for the preservation and transmission of cultural knowledge. the peculiar way of b.b. wohangara, (eastern) sumba ~nd its genres of oral tradition 15 using vocabularies, for instance, in ritual and social communication/speech, and religious invocations calls for further and extensive studies on the cultural expression of the given people. (eastern) sumba alone possesses 6 (six) genres of oral traditions. first, li ndai/li marapu concerning with the history of the clans and the tales of and the invocation to the ancestors who are believed as directly affecting the lives of the living, second, lawiti lulukused in religious rituals, in narratives, and in everyday speech, third, li pangerangu referring to folktales, fourth, lawiti ludu (songs) performed in various occasions, fifth, dikangu/padikangu (riddles) practiced as recreational activity, and sixth. piapaku (word-games) which are sung or recited in staccato rhythms. bmliography adams, marie jeanne. myths and self-image among kapunduk people of sumba. indonesia 10, 1970. ---. "history in a sumba myth". in asian folklore studies vol. 30, no.2, 1971. arington-pudja, i gusti ngurah. "bibliografi beranotasi folklore bali". skripsi sarjana sastra bidang antropologi. fakultas sastra universitas indonesia, 1973. brunvand, jan harold. the study of american folklore: an introduction. new york: w. w., norton & co. inc., 1978. dakung, sugiarto. "bibliografi beranotasi folklore sunda". skripsi sarjana sastra bidang antropologi. fakultas sastra universitas indonesia, 1973 .. danandjaja, james. an annoted bibliography of javanese folklore. center for south and southeast asia studies. california: university of berkeley, 1972. danandjaja, james. folklore indonesia: llmu gosip. dongeng. dan lain-lain. jakarta: grafit~ 2002. finnegan, ruth. oral traditions and the verbal arts. london and new york: routledge, 1996. forshee, jill. between the folds: stories ofeloth. lives. and travelsfrom sumba. honolulu: university ofhawai'i press, 2001. forthrgregory. rindi: an ethnographic study of a traditional domain in eastern sumba. leiden: the hague-martinus nijhoff, 1981. 16 celt, volume6,number i,july2006: 1-16 forth, christine. an analysis of tradilional na"alives in sumba. unpublished phd thesis. oxford university, 1982. goh, taro sumba bibliography. the australian national university: canberra, 1991. hoskins, janet. "etiquette in kodi spirit communication: the lips told to pronounce, the mouths told to speak." in to speak in pairs: essays on the ritual languages of easlern indonesia. edited by james j. fox, cambridge: cambridge university press, 1988. kalangie-pandie, a.a.b. etnomedisin di indonesia: sualu bibliografi beranolasi. skripsi sarjana sastra bidang antropologi. fakultas sastra universitas indonesia, 1978. kapita, oembu hina. ludu humba pakanguluna. naskah-naskah kebudayaan daerah sumba, gereja kristen sumba: waingapu, 1977. ---. lii ndai: rukuda da kabihu la pahunga lodu. naskah-naskah kebudayaan daerah sumba, gereja kristen sumba: waingapu, 1979. ---. lawili luluku humba: pola peribahasa sumba. lembaga penyelidikan kebudayaan selatan tenri, 1987. kartik, kalpana. "the monumental stone tombs of sumba." in arts of asia 1999. http://www.indonesiaphoto.com/article233.html. retrieved 15 june 2004. klamer, marian. a grammar of kambera. berlin and new york: mouton de gruyter, 1998 kuipers, joel c. language, identity, and marginality in indonesia: the changing nature of ritual speech on the island of sumba. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1998. onvlee, l. eenige soembasche verlellingen: grammalische inleiding. leksl vertaling. aanteekeningen. leiden: a. vros, 1925. tunggu, nggodu. lintasan budaya sumba (sumba timur): etika moralitas. unpublished manuscript, 2000. vansina, jan. oral tradition: a study in historical methodology. middlesex: penguin books, 1973. wielenga, o.k. soembaneesche spraakkusnt. batavia: landsdrukkerij, 1909. ---. soembaneesche verhalen. bijdragen tot de taal-landen volkenkunde. 1913. logo: students' perspectives on motivation to learn english nihta v. f. liando1 abstract: improving learning outcomes has always been the target of the foreign language learning practices. the central role of students in the learning process had attracted researchers to conduct research in order to increase students' success in learning. student motivation is considered one of the factors contributing to students' success in learning aforeign language. although there is a large body of research on motivation in secondlforeign language learning, most studies were undertaken in western contexts. there is still only a relatively small amount of research on motivation in second/foreign language learning in asian contexts, particularly in the indonesian context. this study investigated the motivational factors that influence first year university students' performance studying english as a foreign language i nihta v.f. liando, m.a., ph.d. <nihta02@yahoo.com>at+6281356606617 is currently a lecturer at the english deparbnent and the head of language centre, manado state university (unlma), indonesia. she is also teaching at the postgraduate program at unlma where she serves as the secretary of the master of indonesian language education program. she completed her phd at the school of education, the university of queensland and obtained her ma degree by research at the university of adelaide. she was the recipient of fulbright scholarship teacher summer institute in amherst, massachusetts in 2003. she has presented in various national and international conferences. her interests are in the field of tefl, motivation, language planning, and sociolinguistics. 166 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 150-169 accommodates activities in and out the classroom in order to stimulate students' motivation to learn english. these findings supported as well as extended many previous research studies in motivation and second language learning (gardner 1990, 1991; gardner and clement 1990; gardner and lysynchuk 1990; gardner and tremblay, 1994; gardner, tremblay, and masgoret 1997) as the findings strengthened the information related to the role of motivation in second language learning. these findings also showed a significant correlation between motivation and academic achievement which made motivation a more substantial factor to successful english language learning. references abu-rabia, s. "gender differences in arab students' attitudes toward canadian society and second language learning". in the journal of social psychology. vol. 137, no.1, 1997: 125-128. bacon, s. m. and m.d. finneman."a study of the attitudes, motives, and strategies of university foreign-language students and their disposition to authentic oral and written input". in the modem language journal. vol. 74 no.4, 1990: 459-473. ball, s. "student motivation: some reflections and projections" in research on motivation in education. edited by c. ames and r. ames. boston: academic press, inc., 1984: 313-327. belmecbri, f. and k. hummel. "orientations and motivations in the acquisition of english as a second language among high school students in quebec city". in language learning, vol 48, no 2, 1998: 219-244. canagarajah, a. s. "critical ethnography of a sri lankan classroom: ambiguities in student opposition to reproduction through esolf!. in tesol quarterly, vol. 27, no.4, 1993: 601-626. n. v,f. litlndo, students' perspectives on motivation to learn english 167 chou, a.-l. ''factors affecting the learning of english: a study of the attitudes toward and motivations for learning english as a foreign language among university students in taiwan". unpublished 3178313, texas a&m university kingsville, united states texas,2005. clement, r., r. c. gardner, r. c., and p.c. "motivational variables in second language acquisition: a study of francophones learning english" in. canadian journal of behavioral science, vol. 9 no.2, 1977: 123-133. csizer, k., and z dornyei, z. "the internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort". in. the modern language journal, vol. 89 no.1, 2005:.9-36. dornyei, z. "understanding l2 motivation: on with the challenge". in. the modern language journal, vol. 78 no.4, 1994: 515-523. dornyei, z. "attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: advances in theory, research, and applications". in language learning, vol. 53 no.1, 2003: 3-30. ely, c. m. "language learning motivation: a descriptive and causal analysis". in the modern language journal, vol. 70 no. 1,1986: 2835. gan, z., g. humphreys, and l.hamp-lyons. "understanding successful and unsuccessful efl students in chinese universities" in the modern language journal, vol. 88no. 2, 2004: 229-244. gardner, r. c. integrative motivation: past, present and future". in distinguishedlecturerseries, vol.27, 2001 (february 17 and 24). gardner, r. c., and w.e. lambert. "motivational variables in second language acquisition" in canadian journal of psychology, vol. 13, 1959: 266-272. gardner, r. and w.e. lambert. attitudes and motivation in secondlanguage learning. rowley, ma: newbury house, 1972. 168 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 150-169 gardner, r. c., a.m. masgoret" 1. tennant, and l. mihic (2004). "integrative motivation: changes during a year-long intermediate level language course". in language learning, vol. 54 no.1, 2004: 1-34. hsieh, c. "relationships between non-linguistic variables in second language acquisition and the attained english language proficiency of taiwanese university student".unpublished 3171608, lynn university, united states florida, 2004. kang, d. h. "motivational constructs and changes in efl classroom (pilot study)". retrieved september 23, 2002, from http://www.eric.edgoviericwebportal/home.portal?_nfpb=true& ericextsearch_ search value_ o=kang%,2c+d.h&erlcextsearc h _ searchtype _ o=au& ""pagelabel=ericsearchresult., 1999. kyriacou, c., and n. benmansour. "motivation and learning preferences of high school students learning english as a foreign language in morocco". in medite"aneanjoumal o/educational studies, vol. 2 no.1, 1997: 79-86. lai, e. f. "motivation to learn english in hong kong". in language. culture and curriculum, vol. 12no.3, 1999:280-284. laine, e. j. "foreign language learning motivation: old and new variables". a paper presented at the 5th congress ofl'association intemationale de linguistiqueappliquee, montreal, 1978. macaro, e. and u. wingate. "from sixth form to university: motivation and transition among high achieving state-school language students" in. ox/ord review o/education, vol. 30 no.4, 2004: 467-488. mantle-bromley, c. "positive attitudes and realistic beliefs: links to proficiency." in the modern language joumal, vo1.79 no. 3,1995: 372-386. niederhauser, j. s. "motivating learners at south korean universities". in forum, vol. 35 no.1, 1997: 8-11. ramage, k. "motivational factors and persistence in foreign language study". in language learning, vol. 40 no 2, 1990: 189-219. n. vof. liando, students' perspectives on motivation to learn english 169 svanes, b. "motivation and cultural distance in second-language acquisition". in language learning, vol. 37no.3, 1987: 341-359. teweles, b. "motivation as a two-sided coin: motivational differences between college-level chinese and japanese learners of efl". in texaspapersinforeignlanguageeducation,vo1.2no.l, 1995: 1631. ushida, e. "the roles of students' attitudes and motivation in second language learning in online language courses". an unpublished thesis, carnegie mellon university, 2003. watkins, d., d.m. mcinerney, c.lee, c., a. akande, and m. regmi . "motivation and learning strategies: across-cultural perspective" in. d. m. mcinerney and s. van etten (eds.), research on sociocultural influences on motivation and learning. vol. 2,2002: 329-343. 11-2.pdf celt 2011 dec [135-148]didik murwantono conferencing: an interactive strategy in teaching academic writing wienny ardriyatp and sri murtiningsih2 abstract: writing plays (iii essential role ill o"r personal al/(i proft'ssiotuli ui'es. it becomes one of the important components in . learning anc! teaching english for academic p"rposes (eap). this q'''';:;;'jij:''.:~;o\' article sholl's that teaching writing by "sing a conference technique p:r~ a,\:i is (//1 effectil'l' way for collllllllllicaril'e interaction p"rposes. in this \"~~"" >~:';~) coli text, the teaching of writillg for tht' .\'t"de/lls in their widely 1> ':~.;;:i~ i'(/r),illg persollal iieeds and goals call bt, ill tht' form ofcoi!ferencil/g, ;<:-rptjsta~r>-~'" a .\'llort muting between the stlle/ellts and the t('ache,: teachillg writing thro"gh cmiferencing gil'!'s sml/e bel/ejits. for instal/ce, it enables the teacher to modify and at/apt instrllctionallllethoc!s and approaches according to the sllldents' /leeds. academic writing implies (l sllccessflll tr(ii/sliiis,.ion ofideasjrol/l the il'riter to cl reacler thm"gh (l text. becallse there! is (11/ exchallge of ilifol"llwtioll. \i"h"ch becomes a powe,flll means to en col/rage the del'elopment this lclllglla,~t' skill. key words: olle-on-one cof,j"erencing. di.\'col/r.h'. int('l"(lctil"e. introduction writing is a very individual skill. with each person having his or her own particular feelings. ideas and even problems can express them in it. each person will also have different means of expressing ideas and how (0 organize these ideas in the form of writing. writing teachers have acknowledged these problems and have provided individual feedback to their students. the common form of feedback in the past has been written comments on the students' final paper, pointing out problems and giving suggestions for improvement of future papers. dra. wienny ardriyati, m.pd. is a lecturer hi stie stikuhank. scmarang. she received her m.pd. from state university of semarang. dra. sri murtiningsih is a lecturer at stie stikubank. semarang. 100 celt, volume 5. number 2. dcccll10er 2005 : 99· 109 since writing has become one of the essential components for academic purposes, writing teachers should know that its multifarious pedagogical purposes range from reinforcement, training and imitation [0 communication, fluency and learning style. writing teachers should favor a process approach to teaching writing skills through conferencing from the outset. since traditional classroom methods cannot provide students with all the instructional assistance that is needed to become professional writers. the social orientation becomes visible and highlights the writer-text-reader interaction. therefore, purpose and audience are all important in the production of discourse while the functional dimension of communication is reinforced. students need to he familiarized with specifying discursive conventions and constraints. the writing teachers also adhere to a genre approach to teaching writing (swales 1990). the social purposes of a communicative event exert a powerful influence on the textual choices a writer makes and. for this reason. the students should be made aware of the sets of schemata which determine both the content and the form of tht: texts they will be asked to produce. so preparation for the tasks will comprise exposure to authentic material plus a thorough discourse analysis of the different genres before they begin to develop their own texts. the implementation of a discourse-oriented writing approach will make the students acquire an effective command of the foreign language in a range of familiar situations. by generating and encouraging interactive writing. not just texts per se to be read and graded by the teacher. the students will obtain self-confidence. fluency, and they will be stimulated to express their own authentic voices in the process of text production. discourse approach to writing the discourse approach to writing follows a task-based framework which aims to encourage d'l'isroum interaction so as to maximize opportunities for students to pol their language to genuine use and to create a illore effective learning environment (willis 1996: 19). the focus of the tasks can vary, ranging from an emphasis on discursive skills (selection of topic, disposition of the information, complexities ofullerances,lexical choices of the text according to the students' development stages) to a more functional focus (informing. persuading, convincing, entertaining, and so on). w. ardriyati and s. murtiningsih, confcrcncing: 101 the combination of skills is fostered. depending on the task and its complexities, so that along the drafting-writing-revision procedure, listening. speaking. reading. and writing will overlap. involving thinking. talking. consulting sources. doing research. peer editing. interacting in groups and the like. for certain cases, cultural aspects are important and students may need some help to get familiarized with specific conventions and constraints in the target culture. different cultural background may cause some writers (in this case students) to feel uncomfortable with personal or shared writing. (leki 1992. as quoted from http://web.ics.purdue.edu/-magits/ kairoselect/ hteoryoutline.htm). in all cases. the situation has to be made clear to students. so that they can determine roles. conditions. effects on the interlocutor and standards to be achieved. in other words. the teacher gives a task. the teacher outlines the activities in the real world that the students typically do in their first language lives and reflect some canonical genres in particular discourse formats. academic writing talking about academic writing. the writers/students must know about the audience and purposes. they must also learn about writing conventions. writing conventions includes patterns expected by the academic reader in such areas as (a) overall organization, (b) functions of paragraphing, (c) the amount and kind of evidence (d) the appropriate use of word-signals to help direct the reader. and (e) the use of citations. in general. academic writing assignments share similar writing conventions in their overall organization. the length of the p.lrts of the paper depends on the actual assignment. "many academic assignments usually contain an introduction, three body paragraphs and a conclusion. an academic essay is u series of purugraphs ubout one topic: each paragraph has a specific t'liih.:tion'· (reid 2000: (6). the first is introduction. it is the first paragraph in the essay. it orients the audience by giving a little background information about the topic. it states the thesis of the essay. the body of the essay hus the functions to explain. define. clarify, and illustrate the main idea of the essay and to explain to the audience that the writer's ideas and opinions are worthwhile. the last is conclusion. it completes the essay by summarizing the muin ideas by providing solutions to the problems discussed in the essay. 102 celt. volumc 5. number 2. deccmber 2005 : 99 109 almost all academic essays require the writers to explain ideas and opinions, and often persuade the audience that the ideas are worthwhile. to get good results from academic writing essays the writing teacher should explain about what the writing conventions arc. after that the teacher can use the interactive techniques to teach writing to gain good results from the students' writing. the interactive techniques used can be conferencing or group research. after using this technique, the students should know how to write good academic writing, characteristics of good writers good writing in any language involves knowledge of the conventions of written discourse in that culture as well as the abilities to choose words that convey one's meanings. select a variety of syntactic structures those that transmit one's message most precisely, and adopt a style that will have most positive rhetorical effect. obviously, such expertise will not develop merely from pnlctice exercises in grammar and vocabulary at the sentence level. exercises in paragraphing. including the writing of topic sentences and the use of supporting detail of various types. as well as activities promoting the development of discourse skills beyond paragraph level are also important elements to include in writing. krashen (as cited in omag~io. 1986: 221-226) reviewed research on the composing process in the native language that good writers differ from poor writers in at least three ways: i. plallllillg. good writers show some evidence of planning or organizing before they sit down to write the first draft. they tend to have flexible plans and do not feel compelled to stick to their original ideas if they sec a reason for changing the course of their thinking while in the process of composing. 2. resell/millg. good writers often stop to reread what they have already written before continuing to compose 3. rel'ising. good writers make more changes in content ami try to find the line of their argument in the finished draft in order to see if revisions arc necessary. one additional characteristic of good writers is their awareness of their audience and their concenls for the reader's point of view. they are reader-centered and use words with special meanings and organize an exposition of ideas that characterizes good work of writing. w. ardriyati and s. murtiningsih, conferencing: 103 interactive writing writing is an interactive process by nature since it develops the symbolic.; interplay between writers. text and reader. by making situations more 'authentic.;' than the ones in the traditional classroom tasks, awareness of audience, purpose and intention is reinforced. while planning a written piece. the writer is constrained to consider the audience and to adopt a readeroriented approach so as to achieve a persuasive. emotive or objective function. interact.ivity can be promoted in. the writ~ng class by implanting soi~~".",: ~ suggesllons. such as the conferenclilg techmque. .»;1:~. :)~~'i~;~; ~ ~b,'~~ i) a. confe~enc~ng technique . . ~;;::~.,~~,1 conferenclllg iilvolves a short meetlllg of about 10 to 15 mla;llx~~ "'~ between the student and the teacher. it is one-on-one teaching. students a~'sta\(" helped by verbal cues and the teacher gives them freedom to work on a task with a small amount of guidance, an experience which can be achieved through conferencing. conferencing provides the leaner with an opportunity to learn how to avoid errors. it allows the student to ask questions and allows the teacher to ask the students their perceptions of what they arc doing. both student and teacher will face the most significant technique used in writing class. the purpose of conferencing is to provide an opportunity for the students to learn about the process of writing; to focus attention on their own work from a fresh perspective: to generate and clarify their ideas and audiences; to model writing: to provide support with editing skills: to assess the students ongoing process: to identify areas of writing that need to he developed and to establish future goals in writing. let's take a look of an example developed by marshall (1986). she developed in her classes around her conferencing sessions. in which she addressed meaning in the composition first. and then the forms. ai the beginning of the conferencing. students disclissed their ideas for papers. in the next conference. students brought their first drafts and discussed them with the leader. she planned class lessons based on the students' needs that were shown in the conferences. she found this method to be more effective for the teacher and more effective for the students. other forms of conferencing include collaborative conferencing. small group conferencing, third person conferencing, group research, journaling and so on. 104 celt, volume 5. number 2. december 2005 : 99 109 b. a small group confcrcncing in this group conferencing. the teacher meets students in groups of three or ten. often the teacher divides the group according to their needs or writing weaknesses. the writing process may focus on the introduction. modeling or reinforcement on a specific writing skill. small group conferencing takes less time and offers students more feedback than regular classes. group dynamics sometimes help students speak up and find out their writing problems. c. peer conferencing in peer conferencing students independently listen and give feedback to their fellow student-writers. using what they have learned in the teacherstudent individual conferences. the peer will comment on various predetennined aspects of writing. in peer conferences, students need to know how to maintain a helpful and supportive relationship. since collaboration among student writers does not occur spontaneously, teachers need to take time to model good responses and set some ground rules such as the following: j. be positive. respond to what the writer is trying to say and what the writer does well. 2. be iielpflil. do your best to make comments that will be useful to the writer. 3. be specific. talk about specific words, phrases, or paragraphs. the tone of the response should be positive. it should emphasize what is going well and how to make things even better. peer conferencing needs to be in a quiet area away from others. confercncing takes place every time teachers and students meet to give requested ,md teacher-initiated feedback: to respond to revisions. and to provide support for final editing. while the students are writing independently. the teacher is able to conference with an individual student of a group about their writing (cited from hllp:llwww.webpagcsfoi1eachers. com/thewritersou rcelconf erenc i ng. ht ill). d. thtoring this is third-person conferencing. in tutoring, the teacher meets students in groups of three to ten. it looks like a small group conferencing.1t takes place in writing class when students ask their tutor to check or edit w. ardriyati mid s. murtiningsih, conlcrcncing: 105 their papers. sometimes. in writing class before editing their papers. the students can ask former teachers or peers they trust to check their papers. in the writing center setting. students bring their papers to tutors to di~cuss. tutors are instructed first to deal with content before they deal with form. even though most students will ask questions. then to check their grammar. according (0 harris (1986) tutorial instruction differs from traditional classroom learning. in tutoring. it introduces a middle person (tutor) between student and teacher. e. collaborative technique in collaborative counseling. the teacher works individually with students in developing their papers. the students work together to write a previously agreed text. they read the text construction and compose on the bom'd in front of the class. in class writing. the students can consult each other and co-construct texts while the teacher moves around listening to their comments. providing feedback. lexical items. the validity of an argument. the order of presentation of the information. organizational aspects in writing. and so on. the teacher keeps track of their progress and works out u record of most frequent questions, doubts and inaccuracies for a future error analysis session. f. text topic or group research the writing teacher divides the students into groups. each student has rt!sponsibility fordifferent aspects of the information gathering stage on a certain topic. then they pool their results and work together to plan a text that may be collective or individual. students exchange their first draft of a text and point out changes which are needed to help the reader. for example. bctlerorganization. paragraphing. sentcncc variety. vocabulary. choices. etc. they can aci as each other's edilors spotting vocabulary rt!petilion. grammatical infelicities. spelling mistakes and so on. for tht! purpose of sjlecific analysis aspt!cts. tht! teacher displays on an overhead projector one hy one tht! whole class examination of texts produced by the students with names removed. (these could also be photocopied). the aspects checked can be the adequacy to content. development ideas. text structure, cohesion or grammar. 106 celt, volume 5. number 2. december 2005 ; 99 109 g. journaling in joumaling. teachers and students carry on "written conversation" with one another and might continue for any length of time during the course (ommagio 1986:254) teachers talk with students by responding to theirjoumal entries. some writing teachers ask their students to focus their journal on development of essay topics and on writing problems. journaling allows the teacher and student to enter into dialogue. moreover. students can have essential control over what they wish to discuss. for example. the teacher can ask the students to make a dialogue journals using email. it shows effective interactive between student and teacher. for teachers. this technique does not demand as much of their time as conferencing does. it has many of the drawbacks of written communication. including long lead times question and response. interactive writing becomes communicative and purposeful at the same time. since it enables the students to pernmnently challenge their current language practices and gain the most from the experience. implementation teaching writing using conferencing techniques can be formal or informal and can be conductcd in a special writing task. the teacher of writing can use open-ended questions and allow plenty of time for students to think before they answer. the purpose is to get them to tcll the teacher their thinking. it is important to ask questions that lead the students to discover what they have to say and want to communicate: and that encourage them to talk about their work. the teacher needs to develop a list of questions for her/his first conference. which arc open-ended and allow the student to do the questioning once the conference begins. while the teacher poses the first questions. she illay ask students tn add questions they may have about the subject she tea,hes or asks thelll to give spe,iric answers about why they are feeling uncomfortable with the course. for example if you teach american literature. the first questions might be: j. what is your main purpose or goal for being in the literature class? (mention more than one if you like) 2. why are you required to take literature class? 3. whal do you expect to take away from this class? w. ardriyati and s. murtiningsih, confercncing: 107 4. as a teacher. what can i do to help you realize your goals for this class? 5. as a student. what can you do to achieve your goals? 6. are you willing to do what it takes to realize your goals? at first. those questions may not seem like american literature questions. but they open the way for students to express their frustration with the subject matter, or their excitement of the subject matter. however, the teacher should remember that conferencing takes many directions and be time consuming. so as the instructor. the teacher must be prepared so that he can make use of the time efficiently. advantages and disadvantages of conferencing technique conferencing techniques have merits for the students who learn english. it is one on one conferencing. whether it is student teacher or third pm1y conferencing. the students who have three or more conferences in a tenn not only improve their writing ability. but also significantly improve their listening and speaking skills (brender 1993). in face-to-face conferencing. teachers can often see whether students understand what they arc saying by reading their faces. and can respond accordingly. moreover. teachers can also learn to be more sensitive to their students by carefully paying attention not only to what they say but also how they say it. this face-to-face conferencing can be used as one of effective ways for both of teaching writing and listening. conferencing allows students to ask questions which they may not ask in front of the rest of the students. it also allows one-to-one learning that increases the student's helief in her/himself. teachers can listen to what is suid: students can listen to wh.\i is said; the teacher has a chance to respond to what isn't said. and students h.,,'e a chance to give feedback to the teacher. teaching any subject is a matter of learning to move ahead onestep at a time: conferencing helps students see one step at a time. fritts ( 1977) said the conferencing technique significantly showed better writing achievement for a group of students who had attended is-minute conferences each week for thirteen weeks as compared to a control group. conferencing involves instructions directly so that the teachers can talk and respond to students at all stages of their writing about essential 108 celt, volume 5. number 2. december 2005 : ')9· 109 elements of the process rather than the relatively superficial problems. the teacher or tutor should be aware of the special needs of the students. one problem that often happens in conferencing is that teachers and tutors talk down to their students. other problems in which students are at a disadvantage in one-on one discussions include types of questions asked. the length of questions, tum-taking, and the proportion of time each speaks per turn, ways of negotiating meanings, and ways of wielding power. in this case teachers and tutors need to listen to students more attentively and become more adept at a certain kind of listening and give a non-judgmental setting where there is no punishment for trying out new ideas. conclusion one way of teaching academic writing is through conferencing. it constitutes interaction strategy of teaching writing and can involve discourse approach following a task-based framework aiming to encourage classroom interaction. to gain a good result of students' academic writing. the students must know about the audience and purposes. good writing can develop the symbolic interplay between writer. text and reader. to promote interactivity of writingteacher can implement conferencing techniques such as small group conferencing. peerconferencing. tutoring. collaborative techniques. text topic and joumaling. conferencing techniques may give advantages for students with some reasons. such as: i. conferencing gives direct feedback to a student. it is a method of reducing student frustration and allowing students to improve their work before a final assessment of their study. 2. conferencing is one of the techniques for teaching writing that is not a monologue but a dialogue between the student and the teacher. 3. conferencing improves class meetings: students hecome interactive with techniques lised in class and see the teacher a~ ,ill individual committed to her/his sllccess. bibliography brender. a. "an ethnography of second language student motivation for atlending writing center tutorial". paper presented at the first national writing center confercnce.neworlean.1993. w. ardriyati and s. murtillillgsih, conferencing: 1 ()9 frills. m. tht' effect of!ndil·idlltll teacher conferences oil the writillg achiel't'mellt and selj:co/u"'pt of de\'e1upmel/wl jllllior colleg(· i\',.ili;/g stiit/ellts. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 138988). 1977. harris. m. '{,'achillg one·to·one. 711e lvliting conference. urhana 1l: national c9\~~-:"~;, teachers of english. 1986. ££~. '~~ ''f~, ; ':;',e.~ i : harmer. j. how to teach ellglish ai/ !tltrodllctioll to the practic,' of . ~,,,-l':'~~~j umgllll.r:t' teaching. harlow. england: addison wesley longman lt1; l,~~l ~ilpusta",~f.t­ http://www.wcbpagcsfol.leachers.com/thewritersoun:c/conferencing.htm. retric"c(.1 ill june 2005. ht t p;l/www.darkwing.uol.cgun.edu/clkranclconfcrencingphyl(lsophy.ht m. retricvcd in julle 2005. hllp://wch.ics.purdue.edu/·magitijkairoselecl/htcoryoutlinc.htl1l rctrieved in june 2005. marshall. m. writing without fear: at/mllced writil/g/or t\c(/(/('mic .mcass. (eric document reproduction service no ed 211962). 1986. omuggio. a.c. tc'"cl/illg llmguage ill coll1ext. boston. massachusetts. usa: heinle & heinle publisher inc. 1986. reid. j.m. til(' pmc,'.u o/composition, 3,,1 edition ny: addison wesley longman. inc. 2000. swales. j. c"'ii-eai/"lysis. english in academic and research settings. c.u.p .. 1990. will is. j. a fmlllell·ork.!ijr task-.based lt·aming. ny: longman. 1996. logo: establishing "good morning program" to promote english for young learners bambang hannanto· abstract: the teaching english to young children has become important in indonesia in recent years. it means that the role and importance of english has got serious attention. parents and educational leaders see early english education as a necessary prerequisite for children's later success. the underlying assumption is that learners will be more successful if they begin studying english at early age. as a result, now days there are many teachers find themselves teaching in primary school even though they have no english background or been trainedfor this level. most of the english graduates are only well equipped to teach junior or senior high scllools. therefore, when they have to teach them, the challenge is how to create the quality of teaching and learning programs that match to the needs for young learners. one of the hardest things about working with young learners is that often they are preliterate. when you are working with them, you can'/ just write letters and words on the board and expect them to able to read what you have written. however, they can orally learn a large amount of language before they learn to read and write. i bambang hannanto, s.pd., m.pd <bambange.unmuhpo@gmail.com> +623527119437 was an esp lecturer at mllbammadiyah university ofmalang (19962001). eversince 2001 (till now) he becomes a lecturer at muhammadiyah university of ponorogo for teaching english to young learners and also a teacher of the english integrated muhammadiyah elementary schools ofponorogo (sdmt) (2003 -now). b. harmanlo, establishing "good morning" program 177 the students who get difficulties in understanding the questions or failing to answer the questions. the reports are given directly after the program finished. the reports are important for the english teachers to revise the question fonns or recourse the students' problem. conclusion the good morning program for young learners has been extremely success for several reasons. first of all, it was developed based on local needs and condition. second, realistic goals were formulated that could be met with available resources. based on the conditions and resources in sdmt the goal of young learner is to motivate to like english and to help children develop a positive attitude towards the english language. the best way to achieve the goal was by establishing good morning program. third, the program was not developed and implemented under pressure. good morning program is an alternative to the traditional classes that focus on the teacher-centre. there is obviously a lot more learning to be done, students can feel confident that they have strong base on which to build in the future references afia, jawida ben. english clubs: introducing english to young learners. english teaching forum. vol. 44, no.2, 2006: 60 67. curry, dean. dialogs for everyday use. washington: english teaching division of us infonnationagency, 1983. halliwell, susan. teaching english in the primary school. london: longman, 1992. nunan, d. does younger = better? tesolmatters. vol. 9, no.3, 1999: 2-9 ur, penny. a course in language teaching: theory and prcatice. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1995. 178 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 170-181 scott, w., and l.h. ytreberg.1990. teaching english to children. london: longman shin, joan knag. ten helful for teaching english to young learners. english teaching forum. vol. 44, no.2, 2006: 1-13 yusnanto, s. and bashiron habib. 1999. new speaking concept in english. jakarta: yayasan pendidikan new concept, 1999. appendix: basic ouestions topics questions responses personal what's your name? ahmad zulfikar umar information where are you from? i i'm from ... ponorogo where do you come from? i come from ... ponorogo what's your surname i umar family name? what's your first name? ahmad what's your address? j1. raden katong 21 ponorogo where do you live? i live in singosari. what's your (tele)phone 0352-7119347 number? how old are you? twelve. i'm twelve years old who is your father/mother? yusuf / zujaikah topics personal information b. harmanto, establishing "good morning" program 179 questions what's your name? where are you from? 1 where do you come from? what's your surname 1 family name? what's your first name? what's your address? where do you live? what's your (tele)phone number? how old are you? responses ahmad zulftkar umar i'm from ... ponorogo i come from ... ponorogo umar ahmad n. raden katong 21 ponorogo i live in singosari. 0352-7119347 lwelve. i'm lwelve years old yy uu ii» ?,uur liluiccf uluul~f ( i ul»ul i when 1 where were you i was born in 19911 born? babadan u.n..i. .i .• '" j ~. -~ j~--~ what's your job? yy oere wlu you go! what will you do? ti. .i. 1 wlll go \0 me class i want to study where were you yesterday? i was in alon-aloon. have you got an english lesson.? can you speak english 1 arabic.? yes, i've already got one yes, i can speak english. 180 celt, volume 9, number 2, december 2009: 170-181 topics questions responses can you play tennis i yes, i can play volley volley ball i football i etc.? ball. introducing how do you do? how do you do. yourself i pleased to meet you. saying hello how are you? fine, thanks. and you? prices how much does it cost? i it's rp. 45.000,how much is it? asking what's that? it's a cat something specific what time is it? it's nine o'clock. can i may i open the certainly. it's hot here! window/door? what is the nearest market the nearest market is from here? songgolangit market who brings that bicycle? 8agus is there any homework yes, there's a lot of i • uuau"''''u.a is this your book i ball i no, i think it's his book. house i etc.? whose is this i that? it's eko's. questions with what do you like? i like playing football, 'like' and listening to music. b. harmanto, establishing "good morning" program 181 topics questions responses what are you going to do i'm going to visit tomorrow i this evening i some friends next next week i etc.? weekend. suggestions what shall we do this let's go see a film. evening? why don't we go out i yes, that sounds play tennis i visit friends i like a good idea. etc. this evening? chicana experience in denise chavez's face of an angel: a feminist perspectivei ni luh putu rosiandanil abstract: this study is an attempt to examine the experience of three generations of chicana. women of mexican descent in the united states. which is viewedfromfeminist perspective. the purpose of this study is to reveal the changing perspective of chicanas toward their feminine identity that has been established by patriarchal mexican and catholicism cultures. the result of the study shows that the awareness onfeminism existing in each generation stimulates the changing perspective toward the constructed feminine identity. key words: chicana. chicano. feminism identity introduction chicano people in the united states are well recognized for their characteristics in relation to their inherited mexican traditional culture and catholicism. both traditional chicano culture and catholic tradition are considered to be significant aspects of the mindset fonnation of this society. sociologically, traditional culture and religion are institutions as well as forces that shape the awareness and experience of society (andersen 1997:50, 224). thus, values, nonns and beliefs of chicanos are shaped on the basis of the heritage of mexican culture and catholicism. this article is a part of the thesis the witer writes for her master's degree in american studies. ni luh putu rosiandani, s.s., m.hum, is a full-time lecturer of the english department, faculty of letters, sanata dharma university. she receives her master's degree from the american studies graduate program ofgadjah mada university in 2006. 18 celt, volume 6, number 1, july 2006: 17 -29 in relation to gender issues, the inherited mexican culture and catholicism are believed to be the source of the patriarchal culture which creates as well asjustifies the patriarchal mode of living of chicano people. patriarchy is seen to be a manifestation and institutionalisation of male dominance over women and children in the family and over women in society in general (carmody 1989:237), and is the means by which "men's dominance is constructed and maintained" (kafka 2000:xix), thus, the awareness and experience of women of chicano society, called as chicana, is determined and controlled by men-chicano, this male power is rooted in chicano and catholic culture. in its real manifestation, the controlling system set in chicano society is found in the form of restrictions, rules, or norms derived from chicano traditional culture and catholicism, and socialized effectively through social institutions namely family, church, and school. historically, the annexed part of mexico was grafted into an oppressive situation in the united states because it was placed in a racially discriminative situation. of the two genders, women have experienced the most oppressive and difficult situation since they experience both racial and sexual discrimination. dealing with sexism, chicanas face two layers of gender discrimination, both from white men and from their chicano men. this study is intended to explore a novel of denise chavez entitled face of an angel (1994) that exposes the gender inequality experienced by chicanas of three generations. as found, the discriminative and oppressive conduct is mainly focused on the gender inequality within the chicano community. the issue identified within the novel not only deals with a discriminative and oppressive reality, yet more importantly, it deals with the chicana struggle to free themselves from the oppressive conditioning . . chicanas strive to free their mindset from the established patterns of thinking, values, and beliefs as well as to reconstruct their determined feminine identity, which is later manifested in the decisions they make for their life. discussion a. machismo and marianismo as explained previously, the mindset and identity of chicano people is constructed on the basis ofthe inherited mexican culture and catholicism. n.lp. roslandanl, chicana experience in face of an angel 19 therefore, their mode of living, including the pattern of male-female relationships, is determined based on these two significant aspects. in chicano community, patriarchy or male power is represented by the term machismo. alfredo mirande explains that machismo, both in mexico and in the united states, is often associated with "exaggerated masculinity, male chauvinism, or an extreme male supremacist ideology" (1997: 149). elena (cited in ruiz 1999: 15) adds that in the idiomatic usage of contemporary mexico, machismo deals with a social relationship that promotes male superiority over the female in all aspects oflife (ruiz 1999: 15). considering that the male is a "privileged being in his family and in larger society from birth to death" (ruii 1999: 16), machismo thus is identical with male power which creates the unequal male-female relationship. to be more specific, andersen states that "machismo in latino families has been assumed to encourage aggressive, violent, authoritarian behavior in men, and saintly, virginal, submissive behavior in women" (1997: 171). thus. machismo has prescribed the idea of the masculine and feminine identity of both genders. in a practical context, machismo is marked by the following traits as explained by de la torre and aponte. (2001 :58-59) for latinos, to be a man, a macho, implies both domination and protection for those under them, specifically the females in the family. the macho worldview creates a dichotomy in which men operate within the public sphere that is, the overall community while women are relegated to the private sphere, specifically the home. the family's honor is augmented by the ability of the macho to provide for the family. the wife who works becomes a public testament then to the macho's inability to be a good provider. while family honor is achieved by the macho, shame can come to the family via the women. in the mind of the macho, the possible sexual infidelity of the women in his household makes his honor susceptible, thus their banishment to the home. by confining women to the private sphere, the macho protects "his" women from their supposed sexual urges. yet, the macho's own sexual urges 20 celt, volume6,number i,july2006: 17-29 require no protection. in fact, his actions of infidelity only enhance his machismo. thus, it is explained that machismo is not merely about men's superiority, instead, it is also about the exploitation of men's power through customs, traditions, and norms designed to create restrictions over women. it has been stated that machismo is equal to superiority; therefore, it requires an inferior object. within chicano culture, the concept of marianismo, recognized as the ideology that shapes and controls women's way of thinking and conduct, fulfils the requirement to be inferior as required by the concept of machismo. as machismo is derived from mexican traditional sexist culture, marianismo is rooted from the religious myth figure, our lady of guadalupewho is believed to be a representation of the virgin mary. this lady is widely known as the patron saint as well as the role model for chicanas. historically, the virgin of guadalupe appeared on december 9, 1531, on the spot where tonantzi, the aztec goddess known as our lady mother, the good mother appeared (madsen 2000:9). tonantzi is a powerful figure and a representation of all aspects of a dual nature and cyclical figure who was worshipped by the nahuatl (madsen 2000:59). due to the interest of religious mission to convert the natives, catholic missionaries accommodated the need for the existence of deity in mexican indian's lives by creating a manifestation of the existing goddess. according to madsen, tonantzi is easily translated in christian terms as guadalupe, the maternal protector of the people with her marianismo traits which later shaped the feminine identity of chicana. our lady of guadalupe represents the image ofideal or good women. chicanas are expected to identity themselves with the image of the virgin, whose traits are believed to be the basic elements of chicana feminine identity. rebolledo and rivero state that the personal intervention ofthe virgin mary and the cult of marianismo, which refers to the process of emulating the virgin by internalizing her characteristks of faith, self-abnegation, motherhood, and purity, deeply influenced hispanic women (chicana) in their daily lives (1993: 189). moreover, bidegain explains that marianismo shapes an ideal by which latinas are expected to live () 989:2) ). n.l.p. rosiandani, chicana experience in face of an angel 21 due to the dichotomy between the virgin and eve, which represents the dichotomy between good women and bad women, our lady of guadalupe is then, oppositional to two cultural mythical figures namely la malinche and la llorona (rebolledo and rivero 1993: 191). historically, la malinche is a mistress of hernan cortes, a spaniard conquerer. her being a mistress is unknown, however, the history that has been created states that she is considered as a traitor to her people. as described by madison, la malinche is equal to betrayal and treachery since she is regarded as the one who causes the downfall of her people (1994: ii). referring to a different story, la llorona is famous as a woman who killed her children due to her anger towards her unfaithful husband and her desire for revenge. the emphasis of this version is to expose the quality of being a mother, regardless of her true condition. both mythical figures have been set to provide women with clear models of bad women. religious justification comes to underline this quality by identifying these figures as the eve who caused trouble for adam or men. in the novel face of an angel, denise chavez depicts both machismo and marianismo as representations of masculine and feminine identity through the description of and experience of male and female characters. face of an angel emphasizes the experience of chicana ofthree generations through the eyes of the narrator, soveida. the first generation is represented by the grandmother, mama lupita, whose function is as gatekeeper of the culture. despite the suffering she experienced, she properly fulfils her role to maintain the established values and norms within the context of patriarchal culture. the second generation is represented by the mother, dolores, whose pattern of thinking is somewhat similar to the previous generation. from a patriarchal point of view, she has been an appropriate role model for her daughter. this is indicated by her teaching of service directed especially toward men in the family. the third generation, soveida, is initially described as a good girl as identified by male culture, however, her meditation and actions in the course of her womanhood indicate an opposite image. the suffering and oppressive situation is rooted in the manifestation of machismo in all aspects of life. machismo as seen in the forms of the exclusion of women and aggression toward women is identified from male domination patterns as defined by sanday (1993:88). this division helps to 22 celt, volume 6, number 1, july 2006: 17-29 identity machismo found in the novel. in the novel, machismo is embodied in male characters-the husbands of the three chicanas-in the frame of marriage or the family. the exclusion of women is especially found in the area or domain of work. all the husbands are described as breadwinners who work outside the home, whereas, women of the first and the second generations are housewives. the third generation initially experiences being a housewife in order to fulfil the requirement of being a good wife. this situation indicates the superiority of men over women in terms of restricting women from becoming more independent economically so that men have more control over women. the exclusion of women defines the status as well as the role of women. instead of including women as bread winners and decision makers, women are set as wives and mothers with certain obligations as defined by the society. as explained previously, ideal wives and mothers are those who make themselves inferior to men, who are considered passive, obedient, and silentwhich means repressing their freedom in 'voicing' their needs and desires. ideal women have the ability to do household work and have the quality of service, especially that of serving men. soveida defines the meaning of being a woman through the "service creed" which reflects her meditation on the experience of the previous generations and on her own. the dictionary defined serve as: to render assistance, to be of use. to answer the purpose. to go through a term of service. to render obedience and homage. to perform duties. to contrihute, to promote, to serve a cause. to treat in a specified manner. to gratify. to mate with. iy/wever wrote this dictionary had it right. also called "divine service, .. the service of god by piety, obedience, etc. (chqves: 171). n.l.p. rosiandani, chicana experience in face of an angel 13 thus, the quality of their service determines women's quality. the necessity to fulfil the requirement to serve implies that women are placed in an inferior, passive, and obedient position. the internalized value of service is also seen in the three women's services in their duty as wives. despite their hidden objections and sufferings, the three women attempt to give their best service to their husbands and to other men in the family in order to fulfil the criteria of either being good wives or mothers. regarding aggression against women, humm explains that the term aggression covers physical, verbal, and psychological attacks as well as physical attacks (1990:5). to be more specific, within a family context, sanday states that male aggression against women is marked by the expectation that males should be tough, brave, and aggressive; the presence of quarrelling, fighting, and wife beating; the occurrence for rape, and raiding other groups for wives (1993 :87). forms of aggression found in the novel are primarily physical and sexual attacks. a psychological attack is considered as a form of aggression that may come along with physical or sexual abuse. soveida, the third generation of chicana, overviews the false treatment directed against women in her family as a common phenomenon experienced by women. she states, "abuse was rampant, and it was mental, emotional, physical, spiritual, and sexual" (chaves 1994:318). in the novel, sexual abuse is a form of aggression found in every generation, whereas physical abuse occurred against women of the first and second generations. physical abuse is most commonly found in the form of wife beating or hitting. this type of abuse is reflected io the action of husbands of pre-third generations. this is obviously seen through the experience of mama lupe and dolores. regardless of the wives' mistakes or lack of them, beating or hitting became part of their husbands' expression of power over these women. sexual aggression is manifested in the form of rape-including marital rape. feminist theory defines rape as "an act and a social institution which perpetuates patriarchal domination and which is based on violence" (i-iumm 1990 : 185). concerning sexual aggression towards women, humm explain that under patriarchal culture women are defined as sexual objects, due to their being sexually passive and receptive_ 24 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 17-29 in the novel, the action of rape is conducted by luardo against his niece, mara when she was a child. concerning his false conduct, luardo was not found guilty; instead he was 'protected' by his own mother and wife. this phenomenon indicates that male domination over women is justified by both men and women themselves. regarding of marital rape which often occurs within a marriage is defined as a "forced sexual activity demanded of a wife by her husband" (andersen 1997: 177). however, the "forced sexual activity" is often considered a normal action since sexual activity is an inseparable part of marriage. more importantly, the inferior position of women and the expected obedience of women have shaped the awareness that marital rape is a normal action. denise chavez shows this continual phenomenon through description of the sexual relationships within three generation of marriage. the three chicanas experience marital rape regardless of their unavailability. this condition reveals the pattern ofthe male-female relationship which underlines the presence of machismo within chicano society, and at the same time, it reveals the 'acceptance' of women of this unequal and oppressive relationship. b. chicana feminism of three generations of chicana madsen defines chicana feminism as a distinct feminist consciousness and theory that is meant to resolve practical issues concerning birth control, domestic violence and abuse, poor working conditions, poverty, family dysfunction, illness and any matters faced by chicanas in the united states (2000: 10). gloria anzaldua, a chicana feminist, states that chicana feminism is not merely a reaction against the cultural imperialism of the united states, it is also a rejection of "the cultural imperialism of the male-dominated, patriarchal, misogynistic chicano culture" that enforces silence-a basic component of chicana femininity-upon women (cited in madsen 2000:24). in her essay, "la conciencia de la mesti=altowards a new consciousness," anzaldua otters an alternative way to realize the expected result of feminism. she offers to set up a new consciousness of chicana by reinterpreting history, shaping new myths and changing the perspective of chicana self-identity (cited in madsen 2000: 19). thus, chicana feminism is chicana feminist consciousness as well as its manifestations in real life which emerge in order to create a significant improvement. nevertheless, among n.l.po rosiandani, chicana experience in face of an angel 25 chicana feminist issues, the examination and reconstruction of chicana's own identity is regarded as a central issue. denise chavez offers a shifting paradigm of chicana feminine identity through the depiction of her female characters. the stories of chicana within the range of three generations provide chicana's experience in dealing with patriarchal culture in chicano community. the shifting of the established perspective which indicates the reaction against patriarchal culture can be clearly seen through the characters of the three chicanas. as quoted from an interview with denise chavez, it is revealed that in relation to the shifting perspective, "the breaking of the ancestral bread" is significant to "empower women to break the legacy of self-persecution" (kevane and heredia 2000:42). as observed in the novel, chicana feminine identity is manifested in the form of chicana feminine role and feminine sexuality. as chicana feminine identity is inseparable from the presence of chicana feminine role models, it is important to discuss the existence of our lady of guadalupe, la malinche, and la llorona. the changing perspective toward the image of these three mythical figures, consequently brings chicanas to revise their understanding of the established feminine role and sexuality. chicana feminists view the image of our lady of guadalupe differently from that ofthe constructed image. chicanas refuse the established traits of lady guadalupe which have been used to justify patriarchal culture. the unselfish giving, the willingness to endure suffering, the acceptance of reality are all perceived as superiority since these traits imply women's strength and power. furthermore, this role model inspires chicanas in defining their implied power as reflected in their efforts and survival strategy in facing the hard realities of life. similarly, chicanas attempt to reinterpret the existence of la malinche and la llorona who have been regarded as negative images. instead of viewing these figures as betrayers, evil, or even as whores, chicanas seek their worth and strive to undercover the untold interpretations given to them. the conduct of these figures, as described from generation to generation, is seen in terms of their efforts to survive within the context of an unfair and oppressive patriarchal culture. thus, they become symbols of power as well as of the strength of chicanas. '. 2'6 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 17 -29 in relation to the chicana feminine role, it is explained that women within the marital bond or family of a larger context-the extended familyare demanded to hold the role as dutiful, obedient wives and mothers. as observed from the novel, the feminine role can be identified in the form of the inferior status of wives within marriage which keeps women from their right to be decision makers and from any other privileges owned by men. it is the domestication of women which consequently creates economic dependence upon the head of the family, and ties them to the function of cultural gatekeepers. thus, the redefinition of the feminine role is an effort to revise the perspective and stereotypical role of chicana. in other words, it is an effort to break the structure of the traditional role that has confined and burdened women. denise chavez offers some forms of feminine role through her representation of female characters and their experiences. the effort of redefining the feminine role covers the criticism and refusal of the subordinated status and domesticity of women, an evaluation of women's role models as represented by the older generations, the effort to gain education, and economic independence. the following is the depiction of the shifting understanding ofthe feminine role as found in the novel. as defined, mama lupita, the first generation of chicana, manages her role as carefully as expected by her society. regardless of her husband's infidelity and abusive conduct, mama lupita, as a wife and a mother, has tried to give the best service to her husband and her children. however, as she evaluates her own experience and compares her life to dolores and soveida, she learns that she should have had the strength to gain her freedom and chose life for herself, by leaving her husband to free herself from the oppressive situation. this state of mind is revealed in the meditations of her old age. dolores, the second generation of chicana, takes a similar role that of women of previous generations. the successful indoctrination of giving "service" has shaped dolores to be a stereotypically 'good' wife and mother. regardless of luardo 's abusive conduct and infidelity, dolores makes the same choice as mama lupita's to keep her marriage and her status as a wife. however, she more openly expressed her anger about and disagreement with her husband's actions. yet she knows that she is not able to fulfill her dreams and expectations. dolnrps' dilemmatic situation is seen through her n.lp. rosiandani, chicana experience in face of an angel l1~~. ~ •• ~~~# ,i < ,. /~rr \~o~.:,.'! :.) ib:'?;i1-;'~'~" -;,,; / confusion whether to accept the established value of marriage or to di~'i<::~: . .' .. ,., at the age of fifty. however, eventually, she has the courage to create a ,,' . better life of her own by divorcing luardo and getting married to another man. unlike the previous generations, the effort of redefining feminine role is mostly shown by soveida. she is initially shaped into a person who regards passivity and inferiority as part of the cult ofa good woman. however, the complex and complicated reality she experiences and witnesses, distorts her established perspective and stimulates her to be critical. the redefinition of the feminine role undertaken by soveida is found in her disobedience, in her demand to be treated equally in the marital relationship, in the fact she has access to education and in her gaining economic independence by working outside the house. in dealing with feminine sexuality, chavez attempts to show that the construction of feminine sexuality is closely related to the dichotomy between the virgin and eve. furthermore, feminine sexuality is manifested in the form of a system controlling women's sexuality, and leading to women's objectification. the main purpose of this definition is inseparable from the fulfilment of machismo as the realization of male domination in chicano culture. the redefinition of chicana feminine sexuality is closely related to the attempt to free women from such restrictions and stereotypes. in her novel, chavez tries to expose her intention to alter women's perspectives on the established understanding of sexuality. especially through soveida's state of mind and her witness of the older generation's experience, questions about and criticism of sexuality are presented. the attempt to redefine feminine sexuality is undertaken by breaking the taboo discussion on sexuality or bodily functions, by refusing men's control over women's bodies and sexuality which is found in the form of marital rape and in all other forms of sexual abuse, and by gaining more freedom in expressing sexuality. thus, the redefinition of feminine sexuality is an attempt to fulfil the condition concerning sexuality as expected and defined by women themselves. above all, despite all forms of suffering and oppression experienced by the chicanas of three generations, it can be noted that each woman 28 celt, volume 6, number 1, july 2006: 17 -29 already has the so called feminist consciousness in their minds. yet, the established values, beliefs, and norms regarding feminine identity have been deeply internalized and ingrained in chicanas' lives so that the redefinition of chicana feminine identity requires a long process and a prerequisite condition that should be met by both genders. thus, the voice of chicana cannot be heard and the following questions, as reflected through soveida's meditation, gain an uncertain response. my grandmolher s voice was rarely heard, il was a whisper. a moan. who heard? my mother s voice cried out in rage and pain. who heard? my voice is strong. it is breath. new life. song. who hears? (chavez, 1994:1). conclusion through the exposure ofa variety of aspects of chicana's lives, chavez attempts to reveal the internalized values, beliefs, as well as norms that have been established and that shape chicana's experiences, especially within the scope of chicano community. this study proves that there has been an effort to redefine the constructed chicana feminine identity. the redefinition of chicana feminine identity is revealed through the experience of chicanas ofthree generations. the first redefinition is closely related to the interpretation of three mythical figures that represent the dichotomy between the virgin and eve. instead of accepting the given interpretation, chicanas view these images differently. chicanas regard them both as sources of power and strength. the second redefinition is based on a reshaping of the accepted feminine role. chicanas consider the established role as restrictive and oppressive, therefore, the redefinition is conducted to release the burdens of chicanas and to make available to them more opportunities to determine their own roles. the third redefinition deals with feminine sexuality. refusing to be confined and controlled by male power, chicanas attempt to define feminine sexuality as the equal opportunity to gain more freedom in expressing their sexuality, and controlling their own bodies. chavez, through her novel, face of an angel, makes a significant contribution to the redefinition of the chicana feminine identity. however, n.lp. rosiandalli, chicana experience in face o/anangel 29 chicanas still struggle to gain total freedom to determine their own lives and identities. as observed earlier, the effol, to redefine chicana feminine identity involves a long process and requires a prerequisite condition in order to gain the expected result. bibliography andersen, margareth l. thinking about women: sociological perspectives on sex and gender, boston: allyn & bacon, 1997. bidegain, ana maria. women and the theology of liberation in through her eyes: women s theology from latin america, new york: orbis books, 1989. carmody, denise lardner. women and world religions, new jersey: prentice-hall, inc., 1989 chavez, denise. face 0/ an angel, new york: warner books inc., 1994. de la torre, miguel a. and edwin david aponte. latino/a theologies. new york: orbis books, 200 i. humm, maggie. the dictionary a/feminist theory, columbus: ohio state university press, 1990. kafka, phillipa.(out) classed women: contemporary chicana writers on inequitable gendered power relation. connecticut: greenwood press, 2000. kevane, bridget and juanita heredia. latina self-portraits: interviews with contemporary women writers, albuquerque: university of new mexico press, 2000. madison, d. soyini, ed. the woman that i am: the literature and culture 0/ contemporary women o/color, new york : st. martin's press, 1994. madsen, deborah l. understanding contemporary chicana literature, columbia: the university of south carolina press, 2000. mirande, alfredo. hombres y machos: masculinity and latino culture, boulder: westview press,. 1997 rebolledo, tey diana & rivero, eliana s. cds. infinite divisions: an anthology 0/ chicana literature, tucson: the university of arizona press, 1993. ruiz, vicky l. from out of the shadows: mexican women in twentieth-century america, new york : oxford university press, 1999. san day, peggy reeves. female power and male dominance: on the origins of sexual inequality. women s studies: a reader. teri brewereds., new york : harvester wheatsheaf, 1993 logo: the changing sense of politeness in female characters in margaret mitchell's gone with the wind rendra bening prakoso i abstract: sense of politeness in language is an important aspect in human interaction. since it is dealing with society, this makes politeness something flexible based on place and time. it means that what is meant by word "polite" is different from one place to another place or even politeness in a particular area changes from time to time. one of literary works that gives a clear description about a society including sense of politeness is margaret mitchell's story of the old south gone with the wind. though it is an old story we still are able to learn somethingfrom it about sense of politeness. gone with the wind novel took old southern united states society in american civil war era (1861-1865) as the setting of the story, which still adopted patriarchy system. this society had a tendency to clearly polarize men and women's role in the family and society, in which the women should be kind, polite, and gracious. while on the other hand, men, who held the superior position in the society. could express their feeling more freely. this politeness changes when the civil war comes through this process, there are many changes in the society that influence the rapport. from the beginning when women must speak soft, gracious, and, politely, until the coming of the war, in which i rendra bening prakoso, s.s., m.pd.<rendra_bening-prakoso_tegal @yahoo.co.uk>+6281325755126 is a lecturer at stmik ymi tegal. itb prakoso, politeness in margaret mitchell's gone with the wind 203 eternal. i t changes from one time to another based on the situation experienced by the society itself. whenever most people living in one society agree that one politeness norm is not suitable for any longer with their situation they can change it instantly. otherwise if there is no a significant change in the society then the change in the politeness norm tends to be slow. finally, this result shows that there is a strong interrelation between society and politeness norm inside it. references arivia, gadis. filsafat berperspektij feminis. jakarta: yayasan jumal perempuan, 2003. ----, feminisme: sebuah kata hati. jakarta: penerbit buku kompas,2006. clinton, catherine. the plantation mistress. new york: pantheon books, 1982. collins, gai i. america ~ women. new york: harpercollins publisher, 2003. elgin, suzette haden. genderspeak men, women, and the gentle art of verbal self-defense. united states of america: john willey & son. inc, 1993. fairclough, nonnan. discourse and social change. cambridge: polity press, 1992. handayani, trisakti and sugiarti. konsep dan teknik penelitian gender. malang: umm press, 2002. handayani, christina s and ardhian novianto. kuasa wanita jawa. yogyakarta: lkis yogyakarta, 2004. holmes, janet. men and politeness. essex: pearson education limited, 1995. hymowitz, carol and michaele weissman. a history of women in america. new york: bantam books inc, 1978. implementing learner-centered teaching in an english as a foreign language (efl) classroom ardi marwan politeknik negeri pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia email: ardirini@yahoo.com received: 06-12-2016 accepted: 20-07-2017 published: 11-08-2017 implementing learner-centered teaching in an english foreign language (efl) classroom ardi marwan ardirini@yahoo.com politeknik negeri pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia abstract: this research was initiated following the widespread claim regarding the success of learner-centered teaching approach across all disciplines. it seeks to examine whether such a claim is true by implementing a theoretical framework of learner centered teaching in an efl classroom. a qualitative design involving a teacher of english and a number of learners from a vocational higher institution was used. the findings of this study overall proved that the implementation of this learnercentered teaching framework could make a difference in students’ learning. their learning became more meaningful, interesting and democratic. apart from this positive change, it was identified that teacher’s understanding of implementing this framework was still limited resulting in the inconsistency of implementing all aspects of learner centered teaching approach. this study could highlight issues unique to the context of this research but were not covered in the framework. it, therefore, produced an extended framework. findings from this study can be used for teachers who are interested in implementing the learner-centered teaching approach. key words: english, learner-centered, approach, framework. abstrak: penelitian ini dilaksanakan karena adanya klaim terkait dengan susksesnya pembelajaran (pada semua bidang ilmu) yang menerapkan pendekatan pembelajaran berfokuskan pada siswa. berkaitan dengan hal tersebut, penelitian ini bermaksud melakukan pengujian terhadap kerangka pengajaran yang berfokuskan pada siswa sebagai pembuktian terhadap klaim dimaksud. penelitian ini menggunakan desain kualitatif melibatkan seorang guru bahasa inggris dan beberapa mahasiswa pada sebuah institusi pendidikan vokasi. 46 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 45 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj secara keseluruhan, hasil penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa implementasi kerangka pengajaran berfokuskan pada siswa dapat memberikan sebuah perbedaan yang berarti terhadap pembelajaran siswa dimana pembelajarannya jadi lebih bermakna, menarik dan demokratis. namun demikian, selain dari hasil positif ini, penelitian ini juga membuktikan bahwa tingkat pemahaman guru terhadap kerangka pengajaran ini masih terbatas sehingga mengakibatkan terjadinya inkonsistensi terhadap penerapan seluruh aspek yang ada pada kerangka pengajaran ini. selanjutnya, penelitian ini juga berhasil mengidentifikasi isu-isu yang unik dimana isu-isu tersebut tidak termaktub di dalam kerangka yang ada. oleh karenanya, penelitian ini berhasil membuat kerangka baru sebagai ekstensi dari kerangka yang sudah ada. temuan dari penelitian ini dapat digunakan oleh guru yang tertarik untuk menerapkan pengajaran berfokuskan pada siswa di dalam kelasnya. kata kunci: bahasa inggris, focus pada siswa, pendekatan, kerangka. research background the world of education including the arena of english learning and teaching (elt) has long shifted the focus of its teaching approach from mostly teacher-centered classroom atmosphere or often claimed as conventional way of teaching to a more learner-centered teaching. the main reason for this change is mainly due to a belief that the latter teaching approach can accelerate the process of knowledge and skills gain. putting it into an elt setting, it is strongly believed that in a learner-centered classroom, students will “become committed to improving their english” and more importantly “different learning styles can be accommodated and students can help each other to develop their skills” (jones, 2007, p. 40). considering the benefits that students will gain from the application of learner-centered teaching, it is no longer a choice for english teachers particularly those working in the context of english as a foreign language not to apply this approach. research looking into the use of this teaching approach in esl/efl settings is also enormous (horst, 2003; jambor, 2007; nakamura, 2005; nonkukhetkhong, baldauf k, & moni, 2006; nunan, 1988; tudor, 1996; zohrabi, torabi, & baybourdiani, 2012) and many looked into the issue within the school and academic university setting. in many countries marwan, a.,implementing learner-centered teaching in an efl classroom 47 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj vocational higher education is now getting a momentum. in indonesia, for example, the government is now promoting the development of new vocational higher institutions or called polytechnic across all the provinces. however, research looking into the application of learner-centered approach in the efl classrooms is still rare. in short, the success often claimed in the literature usually comes from school or university system. this paper seeks to bridge this gap by presenting information from research looking into the use of this teaching approach in a higher vocational education system. the first part of the paper highlights the study background followed with the presentation of literature related to learner-centered teaching approach and methods used in this research. then, findings of this study are presented under the aspects of learner-centered framework and are discussed in light of the learner-centered teaching literature. the last part of this paper presents the framework resulting from this study. review of literature a. learner-centered teaching framework a decision made by an educational system or a teacher to shift the teaching mode from mostly teacher-centered to learner-centered requires adjustment to most pedagogical aspects including “balance of power, function of content, role of the teacher, responsibility for learning, and purpose and processes of evaluation” (schiller, 2009, p. 370). schiller citing saulnier, landry, longenecker, and wagner (2008) and weimer (2002) provides a framework outlined using each pedagogical aspect mentioned above which can be referred to by whoever interested in implementing learner-centered teaching in their classrooms. figure 1: learner-centered framework (in schiller, 2009, p. 370) balance of power: power is shared by faculty and students. faculties do not make all decision for students without student input. power is usually redistributed to students in amounts proportional to their ability to handle it. function of content: content plays a dual function in learner-center teaching: establishing a knowledge base and promoting learning. faculty should develop course content not to cover everything, but to develop learning skills and learner awareness. 48 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 45 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj role of the teacher: instructors guide and facilitate learning, not forcing the learning, by sometimes stepping aside from the center of classroom activities and empowering students to discover knowledge and learn from each other in an encouraging but controlled learning environment. responsibility for learning: faculty should aim to create environments with fewer rules and requirements, which are conducive to learning, to encourage students to learn effectively, and to support the learning efforts of others. students are motivated to build autonomy and responsibility in learning and receive timely feedback from faculty. purpose and processes of evaluation: learner-centered methodology deploys a variety of assessment items. instead of using a single grade as the sole evaluation tool, faculty should use evaluations to enhance students’ potential to promote learning and to give them opportunities to develop selfand peerassessment skills. evaluations and assessment should be less stressful and motivate students to reinforce their knowledge. having seen the framework, it can be argued that the overall focus of teaching is on giving a lot of opportunities to learners to experience learning. such a teaching approach is seen by meece (2003) as a way to help learners become an active knowledge constructor. in short, the underlying belief is that this approach enables learners to achieve their learning objectives. b. teaching english using learner-centered approach jones (2007) highlights some descrpitions as to how to teach english four skills using this approach. in teaching reading for example, teachers can facilitate students to comprehend reading text through discussion activities where they can help one another and share ideas. but, jones reminds that when teaching reading, teachers are suggested to instruct learners to read the text before the start of the lesson. by doing this, much time can be saved and discussions can run more effectively and enjoyably. then, teaching listening too needs to be directed towards learner-centered activities. while a few of listening-related activities such as listening to the tape, as jones asserts, can only be done as an individual activity, many can be done within the pair or group work context. in other words, individual activities should be minimized. by so doing, teachers can facilitate learners to perform active learning (e.g., through exchange of views with peers). marwan, a.,implementing learner-centered teaching in an efl classroom 49 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj as for listening, writing can also be best learnt by learners through this learner-centered teaching approach. in jones’ views, the actual writing (e.g. writing an essay, a paragraph, etc) should take place at home or should be given as homework. the classroom activities for writing should again be carried out in the form of discussion activities. such activtivities can include such things as brainstorming and mapping ideas.”the big advantage of this student-centered approach to writing is that each writer knows who his or her reader will be, and can write to please them” (jones, 2007, p. 34). lastly, speaking is the skill which takes most of english learning activities in this learner-centered environment because, as jones noted, speaking actvitities of “discussions are typical of any student-centered classroom” (p. 30). such activities are, of course, not only limited to only question and answer (qa) activity but also can include tasks like role play, problem solving, pair work and group work. overall, teaching english should be directed to enable learners to experience active and enjoyable learning. nonkukhetkhong et al., (2006) performed a case study looking at the implementation of learner-centered teaching approach at five thai public secondary schools. five english teachers in these schools were observed and interviewed about their experiences in teaching english using this approach. reseachers of this study concluded that the pratices of learner-centered approach were not as successful as expected. teachers experienced confusion about how they should properly apply this teaching approach in their classrooms. it was found out that the root of the problem was due to the absence of professional development that could support teachers attain necessary skills to effectively deliver learner-centered teaching in their english classrooms. overall, having learnt the case, nonkukhetkhong et al., then put forward an understanding that, there are contextual factors that directly impacted on the implementation of the learning reform policy that illustrate that what may be appropriate to implement in other global contexts may not be equally successfully in particular local situations. (p. 8) methodology this study was carried out using a qualitative research design in which the aim was to answer the following research questions: 50 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 45 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 1. how well can learners study english speaking skill in a learner-centered classroom? 2. what are the challenges faced by the teacher in implementing five aspects of learner-centered framework? 3. how do learners perceive their learning of english with and without the use of learner-centered approach? a. research site and participants the study took place at an indonesian polytechnic where the reseacher currently works as an english teacher. one class of students consisting of 25 people majoring in information and technology (it) currently sitting at semester 4 were involved as the participants. these students learn english for four semesters from the total of six semesters they have to complete throughout their diploma 3 study. a fellow english teacher handling the class was also invited to become the participant of this research. b. procedure this study tried out the use of lctf for enhancing students’ speaking skill. so, all learning activities were directed towards this productive skill. four times teaching were performed where the teaching time was around 90 minutes. the researcher strictly followed the framework of learner-centered teaching as cited in schiller (2009). with regard to function of content for instance, the teacher collaborated with the participants. prior to teaching, the teacher showed the materials to the participants and asked them if they were happy with the materials particularly in terms of the topics to be discussed and level of difficulty. then, concerning the role, the teacher acted as a facilitator to ensure that effective learning where the focus is on learners would take place. principally, the processes of teaching and learning were undertaken in accordance with learner-centered teaching paradigm. c. techniques for collecting and analyzing data observation and semi-structured interviews were used as the means for data collection. teaching and learning activities happening during this action research study were video-taped for detailed check. all activities were carefully observed and analyzed using the five aspects written in the learnercentered framework (see figure 1). notes were made while observing or viewing the video for the purpose of accurate analysis. marwan, a.,implementing learner-centered teaching in an efl classroom 51 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj then, interview questions which were developed by considering the aspects in learner-centered framework were also used to hear the voices of the participants concerning their teaching and learning experiences in a learnercentered classroom atmosphere. five participants were carefully selected from around 25 students involved in this study. the selection was based on the results of the video view on action teaching. participants showing unique actions (e.g. showing enthusiasm, lack of interest, etc.) were considered to be recruited for interview. the english teacher performing teaching with learner-centered teaching framework (lctf) was also observed and interviewed. all the participants were notified that their participation was voluntary and their credentials would not be disclosed in the research report as codes would be used. to analyze the interview data, the transcripts were carefully checked and observed to search for common themes. findings and discussion this study reported the findings from speaking classroom activities and discusses them in light of the literature. to manage the analysis work, the five aspects of learner-centered teaching framework (lctf) (balance of power, function of content, role of the teacher, responsibility for learning, purpose and processes of evaluation) were used as the main themes. a. balance of power data from observation and interviews suggest that learners of this study could feel the benefit of teacher’s use of lctf for maximizing their english speaking learning. it could be well seen that they dominated most of the classroom activities. this is, as the literature suggests, the atmosphere that they should be provided with because only through which they can undergo an effective learning (jones, 2007; nakamura, 2005; nunan, 1988). with regard to the first aspect of lctf (balance of power), it could be argued that the english teacher of this study was quite successful in managing the sharing of power with their students. prior to delivering the lesson, he informed the students about what they would learn in the next 90 minutes. a number of possible topics (education, friendship, jobs, hobby, and sport) and activities (pair work, small group discussion, role play and class presentation) were brought into students’ attention and they were given the opportunity to choose their preferred topics and learning activities. the interview data, however, revealed that the teacher found this part of teaching was so 52 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 45 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj challenging because very often students came up with different topics of preference. as he said: inviting my students to decide what topic to be discussed and what type of learning activity to be performed in a classroom is a challenging one. when doing this, i rarely found that all students could agree on one topic or activity only. so, it is rather difficult to entertain all students’ expectation. jones (2007) does not see the case experienced by the teacher of this study as something that should be worried about. it is the art of applying this approach where teachers need to be sensitive towards students’ learning needs. but, jones may consider the approach undertaken by the teacher is a bit off track. he could have done other ways in identifying learning needs of his students and he is right that it is not possible to entertain individual student’s topic preference. as jones asserted: a student-centered classroom isn’t a place where the students decide what they want to learn and what they want to do. it’s a place where we consider the needs of the students, as a group and as individuals, and encourage them to participate in the learning process all the time. (p. 3) obviously, the underlying philosophy of learner-centered approach is to make effective learning happens and students can acquire the language being learnt successfully (jones, 2007; meece, 2003; nakamura, 2005). despite the improper way used by the teacher when trying to hear from his learners regarding the topic they wanted to discuss in the classroom, the students saw it as a brilliant way of teaching. they could feel that they were well respected by their own teacher in a sense that they could say their words in a decision making process. the learning of english could be so democratic and the picture of an authoritative teacher was no longer there. unlike before particularly when learning english at schools, teachers were so unfriendly. they were coming to the class for transferring the content of the textbooks to them through one way communication approach where they talked most of the time in the class. in other words, students were not regarded as teachers’ learning partner and they argued that if they had been exposed to the learner-centered approach, they would have spoken an excellent english by now. marwan, a.,implementing learner-centered teaching in an efl classroom 53 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj b. function of content this study proved that this part of lctf was quite problematic for the teacher since he was dealing with students with different level of english proficiency. a few of his students could demonstrate a quite fine level of english or equivalent to the score of 450 in paper-based toefl, while many others were in the range of 310 – 380. he was often confused when it came to a point where he should make a decision about the course content that should be brought into the classroom. he argued that the case would be different if his students possessed a similar level of english proficiency. but, he pointed out that despite the matter, he should not leave the essence of introducing lctf to their students, that is, to make them become active learners of english. for this reason, rather than spending so much energy on thinking about the most appropriate learning materials for all their learners, he preferred to deal with such a matter through learning activities which could engage all learners. the observation note also highlighted some good work of this teacher when trying to make all their learners get involved in almost all learning activities. he particularly paid attention to students who tended to be passive in their learning. often, he invited this type of students to give their ideas or share their answers to the given questions or tasks. realizing that the content of course materials was not easy for some students in his class, the teacher mix-grouped his students where he placed one or two good students in a group with a few other poor students. for instance, one of the topics agreed between the teacher and students was education. the teacher then asked each group to discuss the chosen topic for 20 minutes. below are some excerpts noted during a discussion performed between two students (a smart student, james and an average one, brown). james : hi all, is education important in your life? brown : important james : so, for you, it is important. brown : yes, it is important james : can you tell me your reasons, brown? brown : i think without good education, i will not life well. 54 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 45 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj james : do you mean you will not live well brown: yes, that is what i mean. narratives of the interview with the teacher confirmed that such an approach was meant to help passive learners (i.e. usually those with poor english) to be more active in their english learning. the observation data indicated that this approach was successful in making his students engaged actively in learning activities. however, there was a unique atmosphere which could be noted during the conduct of small group activities. it could be identified that students with good english often played a role as a learning facilitator for the less able students. but, they spent little time for their own learning in accordance with their level of english. apart from this, overall the mission to make most learners become actively involved in learning activities could be achieved through mixing good students and less able ones in small group works. in spite of this little problem, assigning students to do a group work is a good way of teaching as it allows them to talk in english more frequently (nunan, 1988) and in frank’s views (in richards & rodgers, 2001), learners can acquire a language effectively if they are given the chance to use it actively in the classroom. c. role of the teacher the role the teacher plays can be partly seen from the teaching approach he performed in the sections of balance of power and function of content above. it could be seen that he was striving to limit his talking time by making his students dominate the class activities, for example, through small group discussion. this also means that he was trying to be an effective classroom manager whose task is to engage all learners in classroom learning activities, for example by grouping smart learners with other less smart ones, and avoid the class being dominated by a few learners only. when interviewed about this matter, he explained that the only main thing that he had in mind when teaching his class with the learner-centered framework was to make sure that all his learners could engage in active learning. he also added that: english is a language in that it can only be mastered through frequent practices. obviously, if learners are not given the opportunity to frequently use it, their good mastery of english will only be a story. in other words, it will never be a reality. marwan, a.,implementing learner-centered teaching in an efl classroom 55 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj when asked about the concept of teacher’s role in learner-centered framework which says that “instructors guide and facilitate learning…and empowering students to discover knowledge and learn from each other in an encouraging but controlled learning environment” (in schiller, 2009, p. 370) the teacher explained that the concept could be well materialized through group activities. for example, “when asking the less able students to work in small groups with the smart ones, i could make the usually passive learners be more active in their learning with the help of their smart colleagues”. however, when questioned about the unique atmosphere identified during the observation regarding the chance for smart learners to experience learning suitable with their level of english, the teacher admitted that this was something he did not anticipate prior to his teaching using this framework. he also pointed out that his teaching could only be benefitted mostly by the less smart learners and little for the smart ones in terms of the addition of new knowledge for them. nunan (1999) is not in agreement with the teacher of this study with respect to the idea that smart learners will only gain little knowledge from this learner-centered approach. they will certainly gain a lot if the teacher is sensitive to their learning need. as he argued, “key decisions about what will be taught, how it will be taught, when it will be taught, and how it will be assessed will be made with reference to the learner” (1999, p. 11). obviously, in the context of this research, the teacher should also consider the learning need of those smart learners in that there may be a time given to them to stay as a group and provided with a task suitable for their level of english. the key issue here is clear then that teachers have to play a role as a learning facilitator for all learners. d. responsibility for learning the teacher admitted that this lctf teaching approach could work well (in terms of the responsibility for learning) in his class mainly because the autonomy given to him to manage his class starting from the planning to the evaluation of learning. in other words, the institution does not provide a certain level of achievement that students should acquire. this, however, does not mean that the management does not care with the students’ learning attainment. they do so partly because a six-year english learning experienced by learners (from lower to upper secondary school) does not give a positive significant impact to their english proficiency despite the fact that all the students can successfully pass the nationally held english exam. many 56 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 45 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj of them even could not converse using simple english when they started their education in this vocational higher education. he, however, claimed that such an autonomy was put in place with a consequence. teachers should be creative in their teaching. being creative also means that they need to optimize their students’ learning because only through which learners can acquire english well. he added that although the management did not require students to undertake a standardized english test to assess their learning progress and achievement, they could still check if the learners succeeded in their english learning through speaking in english with some of the randomly selected students. thus, the pressure to perform a quality teaching was still there. when applying this last aspect of learner centered framework into his class, he contended that all his learners were so enthusiastic. the class was so busy with talks and discussions in english. even the ones with low english level could show off their english. e. purpose and processes of evaluation data of this study showed that this is the aspect of learner-centered framework that the teacher was so good at doing. he did not use a single assessment tool to evaluate the learning outcome. instead, he evaluated it through a variety of assessment tools. in one occasion, for example, he used peer-assessment approach where he asked the certain students, while doing a group activity, to ask other students questions (in english) about the topic being discussed. he was making some notes about the strengths and weaknesses of students’ speaking while observing them doing the question and answer activity. when questioned about the reason for doing so, he claimed: i particularly like this type of assessment since it allows me to monitor the progresses of my students’ learning effectively. the good thing about it is that the students do not realize that they are being evaluated so they can act naturally. in other words, they not like in a tense condition just like in an actual test situation. in another occasion, he requested his students to do a pair work talking about their own chosen topic. each pair should speak for about 15 minutes and have their conversation recorded. knowing that such an activity would create noisy if done in the class, the teacher then asked the students to do it outside the class. he instructed them to do it in a quite area around the marwan, a.,implementing learner-centered teaching in an efl classroom 57 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj campus. then, the students were requested to briefly talk to the class about their conversation activity and hand in their recording to him for assessment. “this activity allows me to accurately assess the students’ speaking progresses because i can replay the recording as often as i want” he said during an interview. despite the strength of this type of assessment, he admitted that he sometimes had a problem with the time that he had to spend to assess the students’ recordings. he said that he required more time for this one than the time he would spend for another type of assessment. f. issues identified during the fieldwork but uncovered in the current theoretical framework issues which could be identified in the data that seem not to have a direct link with the five aspects of learner-centered framework include the importance of professional development for teachers, the provision of quality teaching and learning resources, regular monitoring, and commitment from management. the first three issues were addressed by both the teacher and students during the interviews while the last one was mentioned by the teacher. figure 2: the extended framework for implementing learner-centered teaching approach 58 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 45 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj the emergence of these context-specific issues generates the creation of new learner-centered framework meaning that the current investigated vocational higher institution may not attain success in implementing the learner-centered teaching approach if it only uses the above said theoretical framework. the new framework, therefore, should contain the aspects of professional development, quality resources, monitoring, and commitment from management (see figure 2). conclusion the present study examines a learner-centered framework into an english classroom at a vocational higher institution in indonesia. although such a theoretical framework is used as a tool to implement learner-centered teaching, information identified during the fieldwork which has an influence on the success of teaching and learning with this approach is well regarded in this study. as a result, an extended version of framework is produced and is more suitably used by this vocational higher institution. this process of new framework creation shows that this study is not driven entirely by the theoretical framework. rather, it also takes into account other data-based emerging issues which could significantly impact on the implementation success. so, this research is powerful as it links theory to practice and vice versa. this study overall concludes that a theoretical framework may be used as a guideline or reference in implementing change in an organization but its use should not close the opportunity for the individuals involved in the change process and whose voices are being investigated in a study to disclose issues which they think to have a significant impact on the change outcome. this is necessary to be done since the framework may be produced as a result of investigation of a case happening in an organization of a certain system and thus it may not consider issues existing in another system. references horst, s. (2003). using student-centered activities to increase english language learners’ involvement and achievement in literacy. retrieved 13 march 2014, from www.gse.gmu.edu/assets/ docs/lmtip/.../s.horst.doc marwan, a.,implementing learner-centered teaching in an efl classroom 59 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj jambor, z. p. (2007). learner attitudes toward learner centered education and english as a foreign language in the korean university classroom. (ma dissertation), the university of birmingham, birmingham. jones, l. (2007). the student-centered classroom. cambridge: cambridge university press. meece, j. l. (2003). applying learner-centered principles to middle school education. theory into practice, 42 (2), 109-116. nakamura, k. (2005). creating a learner-centered communicative classroom for student teachers. the journal of the institute for language and culture, 9(1-20). nonkukhetkhong, k., baldauf k, r., b., & moni, k. (2006). learner centeredness in teaching english as a foreign language. paper presented at the 26 thai tesol international conference, chiang mai. nunan, d. (1988). the learner-centred curriculum: a study in second language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. nunan, d. (1999). second language learning and teaching. boston: heinle and heinle publishers. richards, j., & rodgers, t. (2001). approaches and methods in language teaching cambridge: cambridge university press. schiller, s. z. (2009). practicing learner-centered teaching: pedagogical design and assessment of a second life project. journal of information systems education, 20, 369-381. tudor, i. (1996). learner-centredness as language education. cambridge: cambridge university press. weimer, m. (2002). learner-centered teaching: five key changes to practice: jossey-bass. zohrabi, m., torabi, m. a., & baybourdiani, p. (2012). teacher-centered and/or student-centered learning: english language in iran. english language and literature studies, 2 (3), 18-30. rev 5 766 cover online ardi.pdf rev 5 new 766 ardi p 45-59.pdf 2 3 nov 2006 los.c,?> is iii/of.l--__ ~+~~_·-~=_-~_-_··~l a thousand firefues in manhattan: translationintheshortstoriesofumar kayam harry aveling 2 abstract: tllis papa tli,\('iisst's the ti'clliiiqlles 1i.\'(,ti h\' ii/ajor ind()liesiall allliror vii/ar kayall/ /01' presclllil/g repre.\'('lifl1lioils (~r aii/ericall eliglish llllel ial'(lllc.h' lallgllagi' alld cllltllre ill his early /ildollt'sian-lallgllage sh()rl stories. pllblis"ed as sri sumarah dan ccrila pcndck lainnya ill /975. vsillg villay l/ild darbelllel \ iisl (if 1i'l1ll.l'!lil;oil slraleg;es. i"e paper jliggl'sis ihat kayall/ ii/lli/i' c'x/('i/.i'ii'(' 1i.i'e of e1ircct lral/s/atiol/, especially /ilel'a/ ir{//h/alioll i\'illl borrowillgs ./iml/ ellg/i.~", a//{//wr/'{lll'illgs \i'it" /1/{!olll'jiclii g/osws /01' jal'lllles(' tel'ii/s. he a/so iises ca/qlles alit! ac/aptaliolls ill a l'ci:\, /l'\i' iilcitl('iicl',f. key words: uiii"r kci,hiiii. lralls/m;oll. ca/qllo' clld ai/aplatiolls introduction umar kayam is widely recognisl!d in indonesia as a major realist fiction writer of thl! i!arly new ordl!r period. in 1975 kayam published his american and posl-1966 stories logl!ther as sri 511111((/'{/1i clc/1i caitll pelldek f.ail/llya'. in ihis paper i would like to explorl! the process of linglllstic and cultural translation which occurs \vithin the original indonesian texl or ihe short storil!s ihl!ll1:-.d\\:~. th.~ papcr.~ ha~ed \111 .. kelll!'c rre~clllcd to thc dcpa.1i1k·1l\ "i' liil~ui~tk~ (if f •• kuha!iimu budaya. lini\cr'lta, indllnc~la. :\1'iri:h ::!x ," ::!005. for the ilriglllallllllllnc,"l1llcxt!refcrrcd to here ~l'c sri suii/omh d(1ii c,'i'il(l 1'l'iidd l(liililyo. pustaka jaya 1975, l';'ly english tran,i.llion, c'111 he found in s,.i s",uomh iilid ()thn si/1";i''\, hcinel1l.1n educational hooks (asi'l). kuala lumpur 19xo, harry a\'eling, ph,d. rccci\cs his ph.d, in 1'.lalay lllcraturc from thc nation .. 1 university of singapore :l11d a doctorate in cn:ativc art~ (dc a) fro iii the universily oftcchnlllllgy. sydney. in late 200-t he was a visillng professor oftran~lation studies within the school of language :lild translation. univcrsiti saim malaysia. penang, pustaka jaya. jakarl,\ 1975: reprintcd wilh addiliolls 191(6, 88 celt, volume 5, number2, december 2005: 117 97 umar kayam u~ar kayam wus born in ngawi. central lava. on 30 april 1932. in the family of a his school teacher. "a primary school for the children of priyayi nobles. who were preparing to be government administrators under dutch colonial rule" (rahmanto 2004: i). after attending school in yogyakarta. he is trained as a teacher at universitas gajah mada (sarjana muda ugm. 1955). after teaching for a few years. he then undertook postgraduate studies in america. completing the degrees of master of education at new york university in 1963. and doctor of philosophy at cornell university in 1965. on his return to indonesia. he was appointed as the director general of radio. television and film for the ministry of education (1966-1969). then as head of the lakartaarts council (1969-1972). following this. he went on to serve as the director of the pusat latihan iimu-iimu sosial universitas hasanuddin. ujungpandang (1975-1976), and of the pusat penelitian kebudayaan. ugm (1977-1997). he was appointed a professor at ugm in 1989 and retired in 1997. umar kayam began writing short stories in new york: these were published after 1966 in the i iterary magazine horisejii. and later collected as seribll klltlang-kllluliig eli mallhattall (1972). he wrote four longer stories around the events of 1965: two of these ap'leared as sri s"marah elm, bawlik (1975). his complete short stories appeared as sri s"maj'{lh elall cerira pelldek laillllya (1986). during the i 990s. he also wrote two novels: para priyayi (1992) and }a/(/ii me/likllllg: para priyay; 2 (1999). other short stories. appearing sporadically throughout this decade. were gathered as partci kranui in 1997. in a collection published in honour of his retirement. and republished in a more complete form as lebaral/ di karer. eli kal'et ... (2002). his other books included collections of his weekly newspuper columns: mal/gall ora mallglll/ kliillpli/ (1990); s"gih tallp(/ ball"(/ ( 1994): madhc'p nga/or sligih. mac/ilc'p ngidl// si/gih (1998) and sardo pillillgir illg k(/mplii'g pillgir (2000). his studies of juvanese culture were selli, tl'lidisi. mci,\'.\'al'clkar ( 1981 ): selllclilgclr 'llc/ollesia, slillfll pc'rjcl/clllclii (1985); and an analysis of w .. yang. kelir tcmpa bafcis (200 i). he passed away on 16 march 2002. translating kayam, kayam translating andre lefevere has stated: "texts are not written in a vacuum. like language. literature pre-exists its practitioners. writers are born into a certain h. aveling, a thousand fireflies in manhattan 89 culture at a certain time. they inherit that culture's ~~~*l\ traditions (its poetics). its material and conceptual characteristics and the ideas of sigmund freud in twentieth-century chamber-pots and the ideas of the enlightenment in eighteenth-century england) in a word its 'universe of discourse' and its standards."~ in studying translations we arc interested in words. but we must also consider the cultures which shape and determine those words. kayam's stories are set. as i have noted above. firstly in america. then in java. their poetics are that of the modem indonesian story, with some influence from americjil authors such as carson mccullers, hemingway, faulkner, steinbeck. salinger. bellow and updike (see mllsim cugur di collnecticut). they tend to revolve around indirect conversations between two characters and move to clear (although often understated) climaxes. this avoid of obvious conflict is perhaps an indonesian value. the stories also feature indonesian literary values relating to loneliness (sepi) and nostalgia (rind,,). their universes of discourse range over middle class in mid-town manhattan and the experiences of the priyayi class of java during the twentieth century; while their ideologies relate to moral laxity and uprightness. responsibility. faithfulness, obedience. political struggle and arbitrary human destiny. kayam's short stories show that he was very sensitive to different language registers. in a few places kayam describes speech styles explicitly he refers to the jakarta accent of sri's customer in sri sulllaralt; the ungainly rapid speech of pak carik who seeks to remarry sri. <llso in sri sumllralr; the "ketertlsterllllgllll serl(/ kl't(~iall1ol1 pikirall" of hasan. bawuk's husband. in the story "bawuk:: and the obvious javanesencss of wandi's coarse "di(//lcuk~" in "kimollo him imclt islai". in "kimollo him imal isler"". sri sumarah also notes a significant difference between the directnes!-o of indonesian and the al\usivenc:-.s of javanese. when she comments: "/.:(,lili/,(/ ii/esti ciije/as/.:lil/ tllitllm bahasa h/(iol/('sill l{'//long hlll-fllil yllng his(/ dil(li/gkll/) dll/cllll t}{lill/sa j(/\m?" " andre lefc"ere: trtllljltli;lig lil(,nlllln'. mla. ny 1992. p. 86. note: ldevcre expla\o~ "the standards for acceptahle hchavior" within a culture as its "ideology", p. 87. all underlining added. in order not to overburden my te ... !.1 would ask m}' readers to consult the texts themselves lor the sources of words and sentences quoted. assuming a readership familiar with imlonc!>ian, i have also left these words and sentences untranslatcd into english. 90 celt. volume 5. number 2. december 2005: 87 97 most of kayam 's representations of these other languages and cultures use a fluent standard indonesian. apart from making an extensive analysis of kayam's indonesian, there is not a lot that need be said about this. one begins the task of translating them into english by seeking an equivalent standard english, but one that is based (for the american stories) on an american conversational style." i would like to spend my time here not on discussing how one might translate kayam's stories into english but on a different issue. if kayam's stories are themselves also translations of the language and culture of america and java, how does he translate these into the indonesian which he writes? our focus is on kayam translating other languages and cultures into indonesian. translation strategies a useful starting point for a discussion of kayam's translation techniques is vinay and darbelnet's more general list oftranslation strategies: i. direct translation 1borrowing (taking the sl term) 2-calque (borrowing an expression from another language, but translating literally each of its elements) 3-literal translation (direct transfer) 2. oblique translation 4transpositions (replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message) in her book amol/.~ 11r", whil(' mo!1l,{clcc's: melllo;rs i~r ci n.i'iii/."ci fi·m;l/;sl. times books inlernmional. singapore 1996. major malaysian author shirley geok-lin lim writes: "in 1974 ... i returnelltn malaysia for the summer. seconll brother was te.li:hing at universiti silins malaysia in pellilng ... a \ i\iting ausimiian professor. rell-haired .mll rell-skinnctl from the tropicul sun. inviled ille in leach 1i cre.llive wriling cuurse wilh him. a schulm uf inllnnesiun lileruture. hlirry 'llitlresselllhe stullelm in iluelll bahasa. for ihe national language of inllonesiil cmne from ihe same malay linguistic s luck as the ~alaysian national language. i hall not usell bahasa malaysia since stullying illlt seventeen for ihe precollege examinations. so i lecturell in english. it was ililother of those internationul cultural ironies that befuddle simple identity equations. harry had just translated a collection of stories set in new york city by an indonesian writer. "if you could read this and check the american idioms." he saill. "i would be ever so grateful." he hud never been to manhattan, had to guess at the speech of new yorkers from old american movies. and thought of me as american." (p. 263. 265-266) h, aveli"c, a thousand fireflies in manhattan 91 5modulation (variation in the form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view) 6equivalence (rendering one and the same situation by using completely different stylistic and structural methods) 7adaptation (creating a new situation that can be considered equivalent to that referred to in the sl message),7 beside kayam's consistent use of literal translation, i would like to point to the other categories which are most relevant to the nature of translation in kayam's writing: borrowing, calque and adaptation. of these, the most important category by far is borrowing. borrowing english words we may consider kayam's nuent indonesian as representing a dynamic use of vinay and darbelnet's third category, literal transfer from american and javanese languages and cultures beyond literal translation, kayam also makes extensive use of borrowing. vinay and darbelnet's tirst category. in the american stories. kayam simply retains many original english terms in his indonesian without translating them at all. in the story seribu kw/{liig-kwuliig t/i manhattan, for example. we find such items as "scotch", "martini", "gin", "vermouth". "darling", "empire state building". "new york times", "central park zoo", "medium large (pyjamas)". and a song, "deep blue sea, baby ...... in the story "sybil", we find: "please?". "ok?", "toas(", "fish" (a card game), "iolly" (for candy?), "subway", "supermarket", "cafeteria", "hot dog", "hamburger", "pizza", "coke", "root beer", and the film title "curse of the werewolf'. the other american stories confirm that the borrowings without translations mainly refer to the categories which relate to akohol. foods, pluces. song and film titles. s"/lil also includes the semi-calque ".\"('g('/(/.\ gill elall tollic". usually the borrowings are single words woven gramll1aticully into indonesian sentences. seribu ki/ii(/lig-klllllll/g di mall/wlilili, begins: "merekll dllduk berfllalas-lilll/as(1i/ di sofa. mama dellgall segelas scotch dall jalle del/gall segelas liiart;lii". on a few occasions, kayam lean-paul vinay ;md jcan darbclnct (1958): coii/paratil"(' styli.~tic:; (!f f,.('//ch {//i(ll:.irgiijh. pp. 30-41. (abridged version in halim <lnd munday: tnlllsiation: an <lliv,mecd resource book. pp. 148-151.) 92 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : h7 • 97 represents whole sentences within an indonesian language setting: "bapak mabllk lagi semalam. ibu dipukuli. p/icls, tu(iii? now get out! out!" (secallgkir kopi dall sepotong doli lit). borrowing english sentences we should note, however, that when kayam borrows whole sentences, he most commonly has specific socio-iinguistic purposes in mind. isteriku, m(ldame schlitz. dan sang raksasa represents madame schlitz thick austrian accent as follows: "interezting, interezting. i' zink your husband's name is also interezting. h-h-omar kay-yyamm. berterus-ter(lilg sajcl kclrellcl tertarik ak(lll 11(1111(1 sllclllli nyonya "",ka (iku ke mill'i. just curious, you know." (kayam comments: i think my wife was embarrassed half to death at that time by my wife.) part of the point of the story is that madm schlitz' accent is false: when alone, she is discovered to speak with a normal mid-town manhattan accent. the story there goes tall/ill describes a confrontation with an afroamerican thief. some of the thief's sentences are presented in "black english": "mistuh, gimme fifty cents, please", "there goes tatum", "that's a good boy. thank you, mistuh". in the same story we also find borrowed words and sentences set in indonesian: "fifty cents. dellgem mmg itll "ku bisa beli sall/ hero-scllldwich salclllli sebesc/i' gulillg." (note that "herosandwich salami" is actually an indonesian calque, in which the adjective follows the noun.) had kayam decided to rigorously translate this dialect of american english. he may have felt it difficult to choose an appropriate subdialect of indonesian. the question, of course. is which one would he have used: jakarta dialect? prokem? none would have been suitable. so the choice 10 represent the thief's speech in this particular english seems reasonable enough and not misleading for the reader. borrowing javanese words the most frequent translation stmtegy used by kaymn in the post 1965 javanese-based stories is also borrowing. some (but not all) of these borrowed words and phrases come from javanese, as one might expect given the background of the characters in the stories. in musim gugur di connecticut, we find only the kinship terms "lnels" and "mb~kylt", and the weekday "rebo". these kinship terms recur in be/wllk, together with "tayubcm" and "iedek". the social categories of "y. 'l-~ h. aveling, a thousand fireflies in ma£nht~~~-{ "pr(vayi" and "aballgall" are crucial to understanding the story a "~,: jl __ ~, ) motivations in particular. the text of "bal\'lik" tends to~ ... [~·uwte=un -".~ '"' understanding of these sociological terms.x pi'~":'!( r. r· sri slimarah is heavily loaded with single untranslated javanese words embedded in indonesian sentences. these words tend to be emotional words "ngenes". "bekti". "roso sellallg. krasall dall tenteram "; female hygiene -"ball (liiyir dan (linis"; food "glldeg", predictably, and "mallggo"; conventional greetings "kulo nuwun', "iiyiiwiiij p(lijgestll"; and a few others. as in the american stories, the use of a word from a second language such as javanese indicates that the sentence should not be read as an indonesian sentence. when the soldiers tell sri sumarah "anak sampeyall dall .wamillya itll ikw berolltak", we are meant to understand that they are speaking javanese. similarly when bawuk attempts with some difficulty to teach the servants dutch songs she has learnt at school, she says: "ayo mbok. ayo pall. ik bill em kleille officier ... l!w. jangan kelelle opisi}: kle; ... ill'. of ... fi. .. cieieiern: ayo mbok. (/.\'0 pall. l*uuwh bodo ya kliliclll." we must assume that she speaks to them in javanese. the servant girls' comment in "kimollo bim imat isteri" "slit/air ditlinggll-liil1gg11 dllri tadi. kok bal'll rawiii!. tllalle sallla nyollyae slidah liar bopen sejak s;allg tad;" is explicitly described as "ga)'a mula j(/tellg yang tebal dan kelltai", again an indication of kayam's sensitivity to various registers. it is interesting to speculate why kayam considered his readers to be potentially fluent in english but not in javanese. perhaps this was a recognition of the diversity of his educated modern indonesian readership. borrowing with explication in ihese storks, kayall1 develops ihree further strategies involving the use of borrowed terms. the firsl of these is to add a translation of the javanese into indonesian in a footnote: for example, text "di kama/" ((;li ((iko/l " , footnote ':iallgcfii tanya"; and text "glisf; ".r1ll1'1i1 iigapllra", footnote "tii//(//1 moholl all/plili". this strategy is also list!d for song titles (interestingly he never translates english song titles). see the chlssic study hy clifford geertz: till' religion of li11·c/. free press. glencoe 1961. 94 celt, volume 5. number 2, december 2005: 87 97 the second is to add a translation immediately next to the word or phrase. in sri sumarah. some of these relate to the life cycle: "jodoll yang slidah tersedia jodoll sing wis pillasti kata orang ja~m". "lakusatu perja/anan yang pllnjang mellghadap tuhall ", "keloll, tic/lir hersama allaknya. menge/us-ellis rambur"ya. menyanyikclii tembang sambi! menggrayangi kuru". others are terms for ascetic practice: "nyekar. menaburbunga ke makam", "tidurkekadar. di luar, malamnya", and "wisik, bisikan mereka yang sudah ada di atas sana". these two terminological usages (untranslated borrowing. glossed borrowing) are often used to frame movements within the wider story. the third strategy is to add an explanation, rather than a translation of the term. within the main text. sri slil1ia/"(/1l begins with a long explanation of sri's name and that of her husband, at various stages in their lives. in the same story, we find kunti glossed as "kllnti, ibu palldau-a" and "sembadra, alias lara [reng, adik kreslla d(m ba/ac/elll(l, isteri arjwul, laki-iaki dari sega/a /aki-/aki. dialah isleri yallg sejati. pawh, sahm; mengerti (ikan kelemalulii shami, mange/gllm; akall kekllatall"ya." borrowings from other languages kayam's borrowings in the javanese post-1965 stories relate to more than the javanese language and culture. they cover a time span which not only includes the world of the wayang-shadow theatre and traditional javanese society, but also one in which javanese society and culture was influenced by dutch colonialism, the indonesian revolution. the 1965 coup. and indonesian engagement with japanese business during the early i 970s. therefore. we find dutch words and phrases in bml'llk. reflecting the colonial priyayi world of the i 930s: "jli/trou\\' duksma ", .. o"de,. ... "disip/ill. patllll, serills (llid efi.\'('''''. "/i/(;swerk" nnd the folktnles roodkapje, slieellll"wioe. and hails ell grie(je. there are again song titles and the greetings of conventional society: "illggi" ", "cia/am lit/oro". even as adults, thirty years later, bawuk's brothers and sistel's still use words and sentences in dutch: "kok whll s{(jaju? " ... war wil je dcwrmee zeggen, me/s siiii?" prior to the coup, dutch and english terms are most often used in political discussions: "ianderejorm ", "diskusi if, "aksi if. there are also a host of unglossed indonesian political abbreviations from the guided democracy era: btl, gerwani, lekra, tni, cia (bawuk); cgmi, btl. korlim, cpm, pgri. ansor (sri sumarah); his, nu, pni, h, aveuiig, a thousand fireflies in manhattan 95 pki, gestapu (musim gugur di connecticut), it is not clear why kayam does not explicate these terms, finally, in musim gugur di connecticllt, set in tokyo, there are a very few, highly conventional japanese terms: "kimono ", .. kawahara ", "domo arigato-gowimasllta" and ""ai!" for once, the fact that th~~!'l~"" un translated indicates their alien and incomprehensible natufc. r~"<;:.~ borrowing from arabic . . . \~~j there are only a few words from arabic in any of the stortef,~~ '~~", .. are extremely significant. the use of the word ""alai" in sri slimarah throws a sudden unexpected light on the american stories in which absence of the religious values of moral decency (especially with regard to sexual and family relations, and the drinking of alcohol) present an implicit indonesian sub-text to these stories and suggest why the stories are clearly lighter and more trivial than those set in java. the quotation from the alfatilwh at the end of bawllk clearly marks the behaviour of the members of the communists and their sympathisers as belonging to the "way of those who go astray". bawuk's behaviour, however much it is justified by her loyalty to her husband, must not be followed by her children, who need to learn proper religious values. oblique translation in comparison to kayam's regular use of direct translation devices. including borrowing, there are perhaps only a few places where he lises oblique translation. the most obvious creation of a new situation thut can be considered similar to thut referred to in the sl message (adaptation) occurs in "killlollo bim imat isleri": " ... fil.w~/{ii klfllo yllllg iiii111gkin sekllllo i ching. bllilyilly": ullilfk melllllllcillg ikall kakap dilmwhklll/ lempal'llll wi/fu/ji ikall leri. (terjl'li/u/illll bebas balll/.w illdollesill jodi kim-kim aka" balmllyi: ulltllk fill'lililigkap rolls royce lii priok dihlllllhkall filii 125)". we might also argue for cultural adaptation when sri identifies herself with first sembadra then kunti; and when mus, successful at last in buying the kimono for his wife, compares himself with "a/juna. alias janaka, alias dallalljaya. alias premadi" and his role: "mendatangkllll game/all lokanallfa hllat semhadra dari kayallg llll " . 96 celt, volumc 5. number 2. dc(;cmber2005: x7 97 a thousand fireflies in manhattan in conclusion. i would like to suggest that umar kayam's story serilm klllumg-klil/allg di mal/hatta" provides us with an interesting metaphor for the act of translation. in this story, marno looks out of the window of jane's apartment and suddenly sees what he imagines to be a myriad of fireflies. jane cannot see them. at first he describes them as "iampu hijall ked/-kedl sehesar iiok/a"." when she is finally able to visual them perched on a tree by the side of the road, an equivalent image presents itself, like the lights on a christmas tree. in translation, we are creating images for readers who cannot know the linguistic object referred to and its cultural significance. kayam translates as much as he can by writing a language which the reader will understand. then he goes further, by borrowing terms, especially english terms. which he does not translate (therefore assuming them to be somewhat familiar to the reader). in the javanese-based stories. he goes does the opposite to the earlier american stories (thereby assuming many indonesians not to be familiar with this "regional" language). he frequently glosses meanings in footnotes or in the text itself. his methods throughout, therefore, are "i most entirely those which vinay and darbelnet categorise as direct translation, in the form of literal tnmslation with extensive borrowing. only in a very few places do we find a use of calque, and of oblique translation in the form of adaptation. he wants the reader to see the fireflies, even in manhattnn. bibliography atkinson. p. t"e £lllilogral'''i( [/1/t/giilolioll: tc.\fllli/ coli.l'll'iidioll.l' i~r rct/lily. london: routledgc. 1990. clifford. j. ;lild gc. e. marclis (cd.) wrili"g cii/illr/': t"e po/'/in alld polilin 0/ £//liiogral'liy, bcrkclcy:univcrsity iifcalifornia prc~~, 19x6, inglis. f. ciill/lre. polity: cambritlgc. 200-l (monash ,\06.0 i 152c 20(4), kayam. u. sri suii/amfl. jakilrta: pustaka jaya. 11)75. para pr;yayi. jakarta: grafiti. 1l)l)2. __ . ja/all mcllikllllg: para priyay; 2. j;tkarta: graliti. 1999. __ ,1.('/)(/1'(11/ di karl'!. di kan" .... kompas. jakarta. 2002. __ . sri sl/liiar(l!z (il1d o,her stories. trnllslated by harry aveling. kuala lumpur: heinemann educational books (asia). 1980. h. avelillg, a thousand firellies in manhatum 97 lakoff. r. t./..lliigllage alld womall :\" placl'. (1975). edited hy mary bucholz. new york: oxford university press. 2004. rahmanto. b. villar k(l),(llll: kar)'li cia" diii,itilly .• jakarta: grasindo. 2004. salam. a. (cd.). villa,. kaytllii dllll jar;"g scmiotik. yogyukanu: pustuk<l pelajur. 1998. tymoczko. m.: trallslatio" ill (i postcolollial cmrtext manchester: st jerome publishing, 1999. logo: title of the article: collaborative video project in english online learning: challenges and benefits contact details of the corresponding author: maryani, ss, ma maryani@lang.maranatha.edu taman holis indah e2/50, bandung, indonesia 082126173167 details of the authors for the article: 1maryani, 2lewinna c. aguskin 1maryani@lang.maranatha.edu, 2lewinna.ca@lang.maranatha.edu 1,2english department, faculty of languages and cultures, universitas kristen maranatha, bandung, indonesia a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia representing multicultural semarang through gambang semarang’s narrative 1rona cita azizah, 2susan edelweis, and 3angelika riyandari 1,2,3english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia email: 1ronacita67@gmail.com; 2susan.edelweis@gmail.com; 3a.riyandari@unika.ac.id received: 19-01-2018 accepted: 24-06-2018 published: 23-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj representing multicultural semarang through gambang semarang’s narrative 1rona cita azizah, 2susan edelweis, and 3angelika riyandari 1ronacita67@gmail.com; 2susan.edelweis@gmail.com; 3a.riyandari@unika.ac.id 1,2,3english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia abstract: dance is usually perceived as a structured movement done by a person or more and accompanied by music and in some cases songs. the attention on physical movement often neglects the narrative which may exist behind a dance. dances often have stories which frame the sequence of movements done by the dancers. the stories in a dance have elements of literature such as theme, plot, characters, and setting. this paper which is part of an on-going research on semarang traditional dance discusses the story told through the movements and costume of gambang semarang dance. gambang semarang is traditional performing arts from semarang which originally consists of music, vocal, dance, and comedy. gambang semarang dance was a small part of gambang semarang performance, but it is often performed separately from the complete performance now. the dance is commonly accompanied by gambang semarang music which combines javanese music instruments, gamelan, and chinese music instruments. in some occasions, songs such as gambang semarang and gado-gado semarang are presented along with the music. gambang semarang dance itself is often considered as semarang’s identity as the dance tries to embrace the multicultural society of semarang which are javanese, chinese, and arabs through the dance movements and the costume worn by the dancer. data were collected through interviews with key informants. the results of the interviews then were analyzed to find out the stories represented by gambang semarang. the findings show that dance movements and costumes of gambang semarang indeed represent multicultural semarang. azizah, r.c., edelweis, s. & riyandari, a., representing multicultural sema 255 rang through gambang semarang’s narrative https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: dance, narrative, multicultural society, gambang semarang abstrak: tari biasa diartikan sebagai gerakan terstruktur yang dilakukan oleh satu orang atau lebih sambil diiringi oleh musik dan kadang-kadang diiringi oleh nyanyian. perhatian pada gerakan fisik tari sering mengesampingkan naratif yang mungkin ada dibalik sebuah tarian. tarian sering memiliki cerita yang membingkai rangkaian gerakan yang dilakukan oleh para penari. cerita dalam suatu tarian mempunyai unsir-unsur yang ada dalam sastra seperti tema, alur cerita, karakter, dan latar belakang. artikel ini merupakan bagian dari penelitian yang sedang berjalan tentang tari tradisional semarang yang meneliti cerita yang disampaikan melalui gerakan dan kostum tari gambang semarang. gambang semarang adalah pertunjukan tradisional dari semarang yang menampilkan kombinasi musik, nyanyian, tarian, dan komedi. tarian gambang semarang adalah bagian kecil dari pertunjukan gambang semarang, tetapi sering dipertunjukkan secara terpisah. tarian ini biasanya diiringi oleh musik gambang semarang yang menggabungkan instrumen musik jawa, gamelan, dan instrumen musik cina. dalam beberapa pertunjukan, nyanyian seperti gambang semarang and gado-gado semarang digunakan sebagai iringan bersama dengan musik gambang semarang. tari gambang semarang sendiri sering dianggap sebagai tarian identitas semarang karena tari ini menggambarkan masyarakat multikultural di semarang yang terdiri dari suku jawa, cina, dan arab melalui gerakan tarian dan kostum yang digunakan oleh penari. data dikumpulkan melalui wawancara dengan beberapa informan utama. hasil wawancara kemudian dianalisa untuk menemukan cerita yang terkandung dalam tarian gambang semarang. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa gerakan tari dan kostum gambang semarang menggambarkan masyarakat semarang yang multikultur. kata kunci: tari, narratif, budaya multikultural, gambang semarang 256 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 254 266 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction semarang is a city in the north coast of java island and the capital city of central java province, indonesia which is inhabited by a mix background of people such as javanese, chinese, arabs. the variety of semarang inhabitants’ backgrounds is represented by gambang semarang, a traditional performing art which is considered as the identity of semarang (puguh, 2000). gambang semarang originally consists of music, vocal, dance, and comedy. only later, gambang semarang dance is performed separately. this dance is commonly accompanied by gambang, semarang traditional musical instruments, which combine javanese gamelan, chinese music instruments like tehyan, kongahyan, sukon, and western music instrument such as trumpet (puguh, 2000). in many occasions, the dance is accompanied by songs such as gambang semarang song and gado-gado semarang song. as an identity of semarang, information on gambang semarang dance is supposedly easy to find, however, it is not the case as information found in sources on gambang semarang dance only mentions gambang semarang dance as a traditional dance of semarang and nothing more. there is no satisfying information on what the background is, who the dancers are, what the dance symbolizes, and how it is danced. inadequate information on gambang semarang is probably caused by the history of gambang semarang itself. puguh et al (2000) write that in its early years, gambang semarang was popular among particular group of people, then in its development, gambang semarang became more popular. the popularity of gambang semarang during 1970-1980 was proved by the record of its performance in many events including night market (pasar malam), indonesian independence day events, religious events like ramadhan and ied, government offices events, and personal events like wedding party. post 1980s, the popularity of gambang semarang is decreasing. the decrease was noticed by the government of semarang municipality who at that time released a political agenda to revive gambang semarang. one of the way to revive gambang semarang, according to puguh et al was by way of collaboration between government institutions and higher educations (universities) to develop new versions of gambang semarang. whether the government policy mentioned above is successful or not is unknown. in the researchers own experiences, gambang semarang performance in public becomes less and less frequent. the decreasing popularity of traditional performance is a common phenomenon in java. hughes-freeland (2012) writes, “performance venues in indonesia and elsewhere in asia nowadays azizah, r.c., edelweis, s. & riyandari, a., representing multicultural sema 257 rang through gambang semarang’s narrative https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj normally include hotels, heritage shows, arts-and-culture festivals, national and religious holidays, carnivals, and documentation and revival projects.” hughesfreeland’s opinion shows that traditional arts no longer belong to public as part of their life but mainly as an entertainment for ‘tourists.’ the facts above motivate the researchers to conduct a study on gambang semarang. it is true that the researchers’ academic background is english literature. yet, the researchers decide to take gambang semarang dance as the object of study. following the definition proposed by mcrae (1991), literature should no longer be narrowly defined as merely a study of literary works, which is often narrowed down to the study of texts written by literary writers. literature with small ‘l’ argued mcrae may include non-canonical texts such as advertisements, comics and cartoons, or songs. mcrae bases his idea on the concept of representational language, a language which needs imagination of the receivers to get a potential meaning. mcrae explains that “the representational materials do not necessarily have to be verbal although the responses intended to be spoken or written (1991, p. 9). dance, therefore can be categorized as representational language. the movement of the dance and the costumes worn by the dancers are believed by the researchers to possess certain meanings which indeed need receivers’ imagination to decode. another reason for conducting this study is that the researchers feel responsible to preserve the record of gambang semarang, semarang local culture with the expectation that the next generation will still be well informed of its existence. dance movements have meanings as they help to deliver message from the dancers to the viewers. for example, the movements in ronggeng dance as explained by raffles (1817) in his book the history of java. in raffles’s perception, the movements in ronggeng dance are distorted because, according to raffles, the dancers bended their hands and arms unnaturally. raffles described further that the handkerchief carried by the dancer was thrown over the dancer’s shoulder and the fan that was on the hand of the dancer was often used to cover half of the dancer’s face to imitate the movement of a huntsman. raffles also mentioned that ronggeng dance often did disgraceful postures and motion which he interpreted as the dancers’ effort to attract audience to dance with them and give them money. like dance movements, dance costumes also have meanings. bonds (2008) in her study about beijing opera costumes says that chinese beijing opera performers wear rich costumes and props. she explains that during the 258 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 254 266 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 19th century, the costumes worn by the characters in the opera depend on types of story and gender. social class and the age of the character also influence type of costumes worn. bonds gives example of the robes worn by the dancers. bonds records four types of robes. the first one is mang (court robe), the second one is pi (formal robe with central opening), the third one is kao (stage armor for high – ranking general) and the fourth one is xuezi (informal robe with asymmetric opening). the previous brief explanation gives idea to the viewers on who the actors represent in the performance. the way costumes help the viewers to understand the characters’ characteristics and roles in the performance as explained by bonds is also employed by the researchers to explain gambang semarang dance. methodology the type of research used in this study is qualitative research. the research consists of collecting data by using form, emerging questions to the informant to generate responses, gathering word or image data and collecting information from the individual (creswell, 2003) data for this study were collected in two ways. the primary data were obtained through interviews with key informants, while the secondary data were acquired from books, journals, and internet sources. john w. creswell mentions that data collection methods include observations, interviews, and documentation as well as recording (creswell j. w., 2009). in this study, the researchers used observation, interview, and documentation. the first method done was observation. observation was done to collect data about the dance movements and costumes of gambang semarang’s dancers in their live dance performance. the aim of this method is to see how the dancers move and what the dancers wear as their costumes a real performance. the second method was interview. interviews were conducted to collect data on the narratives of gambang semarang’s dance movements and costumes from key informants. during interview, the researchers questioned respondents, in this case the key informants, to get deeper information. in this study, the researchers interviewed a gambang semarang dancer, a dance choreographer and owner of a dance company in semarang, a gambang semarang researcher, and a gambang semarang dance teacher. the third method was documentation. documentation was done to record the data at azizah, r.c., edelweis, s. & riyandari, a., representing multicultural sema 259 rang through gambang semarang’s narrative https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the time of interview by means of voice recorder, still picture camera, and video camera. the purpose of this method is to have more accurate, more trusted, and more reliable data. then, researchers collected written data from journals, books, or internet sources to support data obtained from observation and interview. in order to find information on the narrative of gambang semarang’s dance movements and costumes, the researchers needed to decide reliable key informants. yet, in this research, finding key informants was a challenged. the initial contact met by the researchers proved unable to supply researchers with the needed information on the narratives of gambang semarang’s dance movements and costumes from key informants. fortunately, this contact provided the researchers with potential key informants and a research report written by previous study of gambang semarang art performance. this type of method to find key informants is called snowball sampling method. it is used when the interviewer asks the informants to recommend other person who could contribute or participate in the research (bienacki & waldorf, 1981). at the end, the researchers were able to collect data from a gambang semarang dancer, a dance choreographer and owner of a dance company in semarang, a gambang semarang researcher, and a gambang semarang dance teacher. the data collected was analyzed using qualitative method by making interpretations (creswell j. w., 2009). in this study, the writer made interpretations of results obtained from interviews with the support of theories provided by journals, books and internet sources. lastly, the writer wrote the report of the result. findings and discussion the findings and discussion of this study will be divided into two, the first one is on dance movements and the second one is on costumes. a. gambang semarang dance movements the first part of the findings and discussion is gambang semarang dance movements. based on the interview done, the key informant, who is a gambang semarang dancer, revealed that the movements of gambang semarang dance consist of two groups of movements: main movements and supportive 260 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 254 266 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj movements. the main movements are ngondhek, ngeyek, and genjot, while the supportive movements are sikap, lenggang, ngadhang, ngembat, ngombak, sorong, mendhak. for the purpose of this paper, the movements explained will only be the main movements. figure 1: ngondhek position (edelweis, own photo, 2017) the first main movement is ngondhek. ngondhek is a movement of hips resembling number 8. the dancer said that according to her coach, ngondhek movement imitates the movement of a catfish, wriggly but subtle. the dancer claimed that hip movements are special feature of gambang semarang dance. ngondhek is not one uniformed movement since it has variation of style. one other variation is by putting both hands on the hips and swinging the hips from left to right and reverse. the second main movement is ngeyek. similar to ngondhek, ngeyek is also a hip movement style. the difference is that when ngondhek movement is subtle, ngeyek movement is fractured. ngeyek movement is done in two ways, with the dancer standing still in her place or with the dancer making steps to the right and to the left. while the dancer is doing ngeyek, she bends both arms and places her hands in front of her, with the back of her palms facing her. the movements are done repetitively. the third main movement is genjot. genjot’s movement, stated the dancer, is another hip movement, only this time, the dancer does a tiptoeing movement alternately between her left leg and her right leg.when the movement is done, the right hand palm and the left hand palm are azizah, r.c., edelweis, s. & riyandari, a., representing multicultural sema 261 rang through gambang semarang’s narrative https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj positioned to face each other and flipped alternately showing the front and the back of the palms. these main movements are performed at the first part of gambang semarang dance and repeated at least 6 times. all movements of gambang semarang dance should be done firmly, not delicately. the firm movements, based on the dancer’s statement, represent the strong character of semarang people. the meaning of the movement is best understood when it is analyzed using the entry point of the songs accompanied gambang semarang dance. the first song is gambang semarang song in which its first lines of two verses go: empat penari kian kemari jalan berlenggang aduh [four dancers amble here and fro subtly by moving their hands] sambil menari jongkok berdiri kaki melintang aduh [(the dancers) dance by squatting and standing one leg crosses other leg] the movements of gambang semarang dance are vividly presented in the song. the first verse shows how the dancers move around following the rhythm of the music. the second verse shows the dynamic of the movements in which the dancers shown of doing squatting and standing movements (repeatedly) and of putting one leg across the other leg. those two verses combine with the explanation of the dancer about the gambang semarang dance movements represent the characteristics of semarang people, which are strong and dynamic. being strong and dynamic is a typical representation of north coast area people in contract to being gentle and well-measure, a typical representation of inland people. the same strong and dynamic movements are performed accompanied by other song, gado-gado semarang, which first verse goes: semarang yo yu kuta pesisir akeh uwong manca kang pada mampir ana koja kok jarene encik dhandanggula dicengkok cara mandarin 262 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 254 266 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj [semarang is a coastal area where many foreigners come to visit there are kojas (gujarat descendent) who are called encik (an indian is usually called encik).) dhandanggula (one of javanese traditional songs) is sung in chine style] this particular song acknowledges the existence of foreigners, koja (the descendent of people coming from gujarat), and chinese. add up with javanese people who originally inhabit the area of semarang, these people form a multicultural society. that semarang is a harbor city supports the development of its multicultural society. the harbor enables people from places near and far come to semarang to trade. some of the visitors then stay permanently in semarang. these new settlers definitely bring their own habits and customs. b. gambang semarang dance costume the second part of the finding and discussion is gambang semarang dance costume. the result of the interview with a gambang semarang dancer reveals that there is no uniformity in gambang semarang dance costume worn by gambang semarang dancers. so, basically, the costume worn by dancers from one dancing company or one dancing group can be different from that of other company or group. the dancing costume is also flexible within a dance group in which one group may modify their costumes for each performance. since the dancer interviewed for this study is a dancer from gsac (gambang semarang art company), then the costume discussed will be costume worn by gsac dancers. basically, costume worn by gambang semarang dancer comprises two main part, the upper part costume and the below part costume. based on the interview, the researchers found out that the upper part gambang semarang dance costume consists of body wrap (kemben), kebaya, long scarf (sampur), and belt. the upper part costume of gambang semarang dancer is typically related to costume worn traditionally by most javanese women. however, the details are different. the first detail is the kemben or the body wrap (see figure 2). traditionally kemben or body wrap is made of batik cloth which is actually wrapped around the body. in the costume above, it can be seen that the body wrap has been modified to a ready use body wrap in color matched to the azizah, r.c., edelweis, s. & riyandari, a., representing multicultural sema 263 rang through gambang semarang’s narrative https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kebaya color. the second detail is the kebaya (see figure 3). kebaya worn by gambang semarang dancer is not a traditional javanese kebaya but kebaya encim. kebaya encim is a modification of javanese kebaya worn by tionghoa peranakan and indo belanda (lukman, amir, & sunarto, 2013, p. 15).” tionghoa peranakan was a term used to describe descendent of a mix marriage between chinese (usually the father) and a javanese, while indo belanda was a term to describe descendent of a mix marriage between dutch (usually the father) and javanese. figure 2: kemben (azizah figure 3: kebaya (azizah own photo, 2016) own photo, 2016) kebaya encim, as explained by lukman et al. (2013), features more luxurious fabric than kebaya fabric worn by javanese women. lukman et al. (2013) explains that earlier, tionghoa peranakan worn the same type of kebaya as indo belanda which was a white expensive fabric kebaya with lace (p. 15). then, the tionghoa peranakan modified their kebaya into kebaya kerancang where the lace was substituted with perforated fabric embroidered to look like lace. later, the tionghoa perananakan substituted the white fabric with a more colorful thin fabric embroidered with china’s ornament design (p. 15). figure 3 shows a kebaya encim with thin material and bright red color. this kebaya is also embroidered with ornaments. unfortunately, the ornament in kebaya encim worn by gsac dancer cannot be clearly defined. in addition, to make the kebaya encim look more luxurious, it is decorated with beads, golden beads. the third part of the upper part costumes, which is a long scarf (sampur) is a typical costume worn by javanese women with the modification of beads in the two end parts of the long scarf for the dancers (see figure 4). the last part 264 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 254 266 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of upper part costumes is the belt (see figure 5). according to the key informants, the head of the belt (timang) shows european influence on the costumes. figure 4: sampur (azizah figure 5: belt (azizah own photo, 2016) own photo, 2016) in short, the upper part costumes of gambang semarang depict multicultural semarang which is influenced by javanese, chinese, and european people. the below part costume of a gambang semarang dancer is a long cloth (jarik). from the interview, the researchers found that gsac dancers wear skirt with special batik with chinese pattern (see figure 6). figure 6: jarik (long skirt) (azizah own photo, 2016) looking at the color and the pattern of the long cloth worn by gambang semarang dancer, the dancer obviously wears pesisiran (coastal area) batik. the azizah, r.c., edelweis, s. & riyandari, a., representing multicultural sema 265 rang through gambang semarang’s narrative https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj bright color batik and ornaments portraying animals or plants are typical of pesisiran batik. pesisiran batik is said to represent chinese culture in terms of color and to represent coastal area culture in terms of the plant pattern which is usually algae pattern (ganggeng). the explanation about the long cloth worn by gambang semarang dancer shows the mix of at least javanese culture and chinese culture. conclusion the discussion on the findings and discussion section above definitely shows that gambang semarang dance contains narratives which represent multicultural society of semarang. the dance movements represent strong and dynamic characteristics of coastal area people. the song accompanied gambang semarang dance clearly describes multicultural backgrounds of people living in semarang. they are javanese, kojan, and chinese. the song also mentions that semarang is visited by foreigners who stay in a short term to trade. furthermore, gambang semarang dance costumes both upper and below part obviously represent mix of cultures of those living in semarang in terms of costume design, costume color, and costume patterns. the cultures represented in the costume are javanese, chinese and european. references bienacki, p., & waldorf, d. (1981). snowball sampling. sociological methods and research, 10(2), 141-163. bonds, a. b. (2008). beijing opera costumes: the visual communication of characters and culture. beijing: university of hawai‘i press. creswell, j. w. (2003). research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. lincoln: sage publications. creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. london: sage publications, inc. hughes-freeland, f. (2012). movement on the move: performance and dance tourism in southeast asia. in h. n. kringelbach, & j. skinner (eds.), dancing cultures: globalization, tourism and identity in the anthropology of dance (pp. 100-120). new york, oxford: berghahn. 266 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 254 266 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lukman, c. c., amir, p. y., & sunarto, p. (2013). kebaya encim as the pehnomenon of mimicry in east indies dutch colonial culture. arts and design studies,13, 15-22. mcrae, j. (1991). literature with a small 'l'. new york, london, toronto, sydney, london, singapore: prentice hall. puguh, d. r. (2000). penataan kesenian gambang semarang sebagai identitas budaya semarang [the arrangement of semarang gambang art as semarang cultural identity]. semarang: universitas diponegoro semarang dikti indonesia. raffles, t. s. (1817). the history of java. yogyakarta: penerbit narasi. 5.pdf (p.1) 005 dec2018.pdf (p.2-14) 11-2.pdf pot luck: culture, food and the marijuana effect sudipto sanyall abstract: this paper is an auempt to open up discussions on marijuana as a psychoactive substance that engages with food and the act of eating in very complex and discursive ways. this study conducts numerous interviews that demonstrate that. frequently, marijuana is not the countercultural drug it is commonly supposed to be if analysed in its relations to food habit~ and the act of consumption. it also brings to light the surprising ways in which marijuana affects attitudes towards certain kinds of foods. thereby open up a space for a kind of psycho geographical tourism within the self. key words: marijuana,food. ethnography, cultural variations. introduction it was close to 3 a.m. one midsummer morning when a couple of friends and i decided to cook an elaborate meal. we had been smoking hashish continually for the past few hours, and 'the munchies' were beginning to set in. so we went downstairs to the kitchen in my calcutta home, raided the refrigerator for supplies, and went about cooking a very large crack-of-dawn snack, if it can be called that, consisting of a huge pot of reggano brand spaghetti swimming in i sudipto sanyal,b.a., m.a. <ssanyaj@bgsu.edu> is currently an american cultural studies doctoral student at bowling green state university, ohio, usa. he obtained his b.a. and m.a. in english literature from jadavpur university, calcutta, india. s. sanyal, pot luck: culture, food and the marijuana effect 125 marijuana makes us want to have chocolate. we have this on good authority. references belasco, warren 1. appetite for change: how the counterculture took on the food industry, 1966-1988. new york: pantheon books, 1989. benjamin, walter. on hashish. massachusetts: belknap press, 2006. di marzo, vincenzo, sravan k. goparaju, lei wang, jie liu, sandor b!tkai, zoltan jarai, filomena fezza, grant i. miura, richard d. palmiter, takayuki sugiura, and george kunos. 'leptin-regulated endocannabinoids are involved in maintaining food intake.' nature 410, 822-825 (12 april 2001), http://o-www.nature.com.maurice. bgsu.cdulnature/journal/v4101 n6830/fulv41 0822ao.html. grujic, ana. 'the urgency of fantasizing: saving lady sackville-west.' unpublished research paper, 2008. kirsch, adam. 'the philosopher stoned.' the new yorker, december 17, 2008, http://www.newyorker.com/archivel2006/08/211060821crbo_ books?currentpage=5. kirshenblatt-gimblett, barbara. foreword to culinary tourism, ed. lucy m. long, xi-xiv. kentucky: the university press of kentucky, 2004. pollan, michael. the botany of desire: a plant's-eye view of the world. new york: random house, 2001. ray, krishncndu. the migrant's table: meals and memories in bengaliamerican households. philadelphia: temple university press, 2004. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in children’s literature translation project mozes kurniawan english language education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen satya wacana, salatiga, indonesia email: mailbox.mezeskurniawan@gmail.com received: 28-10-2017 accepted: 18-12-2017 published: 22-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in children’s literature translation project mozes kurniawan mailbox.mozeskurniawan@gmail.com english language education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen satya wacana, salatiga, indonesia abstract: translation is important in preparing children's literature, especially in children's education. when a prospective teacher does not correctly translate teaching materials, children will be impacted by such inaccuracies such as learning confusion, improperly instilled socio-cultural values and even inadequate intellectual development. the disturbances mentioned are under these two condition such as: interlingual interference (also known as transfer between languages) and intralingual interference (also known as transfer in one language) which is reflected from the translation of english-language teaching materials. this research was a descriptive research aiming to find out, describe and explain the interlingual and intralingual interference found in children’s literature translation project. participants of this research were students who joined in english language learning class of early childhood teacher education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen satya wacana salatiga. by using translation task/project and semi-structured interview, the research data was collected. the result showed that students still encounter interlingual and intralingual interference especially in some categories. this finding triggered english language practitioners to cope with translation disorder in order to produce the best translated material for children’s education. key words: children’s literature, interference, interlingual, intralingual, translation abstrak: penerjemahan merupakan hal yang penting dalam mempersiapkan children’s literature (bahan ajar berbahasa asing/bahasa 230 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj inggris) terutama dalam pendidikan anak. ketika seorang calon guru tidak dengan tepat menerjemahkan bahan ajar, anak-anaklah yang akan menerima dampak dari ketidaktepatan tersebut seperti kebingungan dalam belajar, tertanamnya nilai sosio-kultural yang kurang tepat bahkan pengembangan intelektual yang tidak optimal. gangguan yang dimaksud yakni gangguan interlingual (dikenal juga dengan gangguan antar bahasa) dan gangguan intralingual (dikenal juga dengan gangguan dalam satu bahasa) yang namppak dari hasil terjemahan bahan ajar berbahasa inggris. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif yang hendak mencari tahu, menguraikan dan memaparkan hasil penelitian terkait dengan gangguan interlingual dan intralingual dalam penerjemahan bahan ajar anak. responden penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa yang tergabung dalam kelas pembelajaran bahasa inggris di program studi pendidikan anak usia dini, fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas kristen satya wacana salatiga. data dalam penelitian ini diperoleh dengan mengunakan teknik penugasan penerjemahan kepada mahasiswa dan dilengkapi dengan wawancara semi terstruktur. hasil dari penelitian ini yakni masih ada mahasiswa yang mengalami ganguan penerjemahan interlingual dan intralingual pada beberapa kategoorinya. temuan penelitian ini diharapkan dapat menjadi dasar bagi praktisi bahasa inggris untuk dapat mengatasi permasalahan penerjemahan guna memproduksi bahan ajar terbaik bagi pendidikan anak. kata kunci: bahan ajar anak, ganngguan, interlingual, intralingual, penerjemahan introduction translation is not a new thing applied to various fields of life in order to facilitate the understanding of reading materials, written messages or oral communication in a certain foreign language. prior to the 19th century, translations have also been applied in the educational world to help education practitioners translating literatures supporting education process (akbari, 2012). the literature can be in the form of teaching materials, educational sources, stories that can be used to enrich learning topic and various readings used by those involved in the education process. to have a sufficient and understandable material, educators should fit it into a language understood by students in a particular country. moreover, in this global era, various educational literature and sources from various countries with various languages are available and can be easily and quickly accessed (sas, 2010). educators can easily download materials that kurniawan, m., the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in 231 children’s literature translation project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj can be adapted to improve the learning materials. students can search for complete and up-to-date learning materials in seconds because so many sources are available. these materials are fully presented for those involved in education from young to adults. nowadays, there is a lot of foreign languagebased teaching materials, especially english, which is widely used as a reference to enrich learning materials especially for children’s education. from these sources, it is ensured that there are various ways of translation even those sources are translated by different people with the uniqueness and errors that can arise from each of them. however, akbari (2012) revealed that after the 19th century, the functions of literature and sources, especially children's literature, began to neglect the elements of education. it seemed from the way in which teachertranslator begins to ignore the procedures of translation and the purpose of translation itself. the ignorance might be the omission of certain important words, missing particular structure changing author’s message and intention and any similar miss-translated parts of educational literature. slow but sure, insufficient translation leads to negative impact from the area of intelligence, socio-culture and language education since the way human processes information as input differ between children to adults. vid (2008), explained that translating literature especially for children's education is not as easy as translating literature for adults. errors that arise in translation of children's learning materials can disrupt the children’s learning process. errors arising can be caused by various types of interference such as the influence of source language (commonly first language/l1/mother tongue) which characterizes interlingual interference and lack of understanding of the principles of target language (commonly second language/l2/foreign language) which characterizes intralingual interference (falhasiri, tavakoli, hasiri, & mohammadzadeh, 2011). therefore, it is important to know how far the prospective teachers can translate children’s teaching materials that are appropriate to the needs and culture, understandable and fit to children’s learning objectives. they need to know what interference they made in translating children's literature and seek possible solutions to the problems they encounter in order to improve their translation capacity as prospective teachers, produce good translation materials that can be provided for children’s education and gain pedagogical professionalism. as what kurniawan (2016) said that teacher’s professionalism is related to personal development in a specific field, attitude to be a better teacher and well-prepared action. knowing personal problem in preparing, 232 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj translating and delivering suitable and sufficient literature for children’s education becomes some early ways to be a professional teacher. grounded by those ideas and background, this research aims to find out how far college students can translate children’s english literature and describe potential interlingual and intralingual interference occurred in children’s literature translation project. those research questions become a guideline for this article to be able to give the readers especially early childhood educators and language education practitioners additional insight from empirical practice. literature review a. general translation concept etymologically, translation consisted of two latin words i.e. ‘trans’ and ‘latum’ meaning ‘carrying across’ or ‘bridging across’. in other words, translation is defined as carrying messages from one person to another, from one circumstances to another and from one code to another. the process of carrying or bridging was also called by ‘the art’ of translation itself (nayak & agrawal, 2016). in a broader scope, translation is labeled as cross-cultural communication where there are more than one culture and there are requirements in adopting the target culture and code in order to be understood by persons within a certain culture. in a brief, this is a process of exchanging the message among different communication system aiming to provide a clear message and/or value transfer (deepak, 2013). generally, there are three kinds of translation. first, interlingual translation which means that the message delivery is happened from one language to another different language. in this kind of translation, there are two terms introduced namely source language (sl) as a raw code before translation process and target language (tl) as a comprehensive code after translation process. interlingual translation is characterized by having at least two languages whose linguistic code is different. the other kind of translation is intralingual translation. it is defined as translation within one language. the focus of this kind of translation is to provide more understanding in a certain language due to lack of comprehension or language features. the last one is intersemiotic translation meaning that the translation process is occurred between different language symbol. the obvious example is translating nonverbal language to verbal one (deepak, 2013). kurniawan, m., the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in 233 children’s literature translation project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj since translation is carrying or bridging message, it is always interpretative of the nature of the documents (nayak & agrawal, 2016). the term nature, here, can be explained briefly as the context seen, felt or caught from source materials (written or oral). therefore, there are three phenomena happened in translation such as: 1) process of transferring things (message, value, intention) from source language to target language, 2) written process to produce translation result regarding to the characteristic of target language, and 3) integration of cultural, linguistics, and ideological aspects within translation process (deepak, 2013). hence, a good qualified of translation should consider the identity of source language and analyze it to get understandable target language for intended receiver (certain culture, age, circumstances, etc.). b. translating children’s literature as mentioned in the previous section that translating children's learning materials is not as easy as translating adult literature (vid, 2008). there are various considerations and knowledge that need to be possessed in order to produce a good translation for children’s education. nabokov (in vid, 2008) pointed out that in translating a literary work from one language to another requires an understanding of both languages. further emphasis is also that the translator should be able to 'copy' the writing style and ideas of the author of intended literature. ottinen (in vid, 2008) also wrote similar idea as follows: translating as rewriting for target-language audiences we always need to ask the crucial question: 'for whom?' hence, while writing children's books is writing for children, translating children's literature is translating for children. the interests of the readers, in this case of children, should be considered even more seriously than when one translates for adults. thus, the translation process should consider the objectives and intention of the translation material (asiain, 2016). in this case, the target of translation is children, so college students as prospective teachers who want to do the translation need to understand children’s characteristics. children tend to accept almost things taught by teacher or elderly. the ability of children to understand the general knowledge of the world is also not as good as adults so that translators of children's learning materials need to adjust the content, language and values mentioned in teaching materials according to the abilities and needs of the children (vid, 2008). in 234 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj general, it can be divided into two children’s needs in using translation material. those are socio-cultural and intellectual need. 1. children’s socio-cultural need wei lou (2010) asserted that translation needs to take into account the social needs and demands. these social needs and demands evolve when a gap is found. here, translation can be an alternative to fill the gap. those can be children’s characteristics and literature from source language, children’s social need and literature norm value delivery, and some others. as mentioned before that in this global era, many readings especially teaching materials can be fully and quickly accessed by everyone wherever and wherever they are (sas, 2010). surely, prospective teachers who want to provide the best children’s education need to adapt the latest complete sources that can be used as a complement in the preparation of children's teaching materials. in addition, translation also needs to take into account the social and cultural conditions of the target language associated with the existing source language. many of the foreign language literature has a strong local culture. lou (2010) provided an example of the socio-cultural goals of translation in china in the early formation of the people's republic of china (prc) to enhance chinese cultural traditions, enlighten people's minds and raise awareness of chinese nationalism. thus, the context of translation will focus on these things and not lead to other areas such as education, community life and so forth. likewise, in english literature devoted to children's learning, socio-cultural values need to be considered so it will not contradict to indonesian values and culture such as etiquette, communicating culture, behavior, learning content and even other local wisdom. those issues become the basis for the establishment of translation objectives, which are reflected in the selection of translation styles, translation methods and techniques, and even language and cultural style adjustments to obtain good translated materials for indonesian children’s education. 2. children’s intellectual need lathey (in sas, 2010) expressed that "a translator has to make a transition to the child's mindset through the medium of the original writer's style". in other words, the translator of a children’s learning material needs to kurniawan, m., the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in 235 children’s literature translation project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj retain some of the original language that is necessary or eliminate some things that are not necessary to be used as part of the translation process. coilie (in sas, 2010) confirmed that there are some of the things that need to be in the subject of child translation namely emphasising on the value of goodness that develops intelligence toward positive outcomes. the sense of humor also need to be maintained to make children feel comfortable and safe when learning the translated material. the sense of humor and fun side of the materials make the children focus on the lesson they want to implant regardless of inappropriate elements such as bad behaviour (mocking, torturing) and sad story. as occurred in the story of cinderella, in some parts of the story, she was treated rude and unkindly by her stepsisters, it will not be stressed as the main focus of learning when they have other interesting things to pay attention to. furthermore, it is emphasized that children love reading texts that are easy to read and easy to follow. children's intelligence is not yet developed as adults so it is better to consider the number of characters highlighted, the simple plot, and the simpler vocabulary given (lou, 2010). therefore, if the translator of children’s learning material experiencing interlingual and/or intralingual interference, they need a way out to solve problems that arise in the process of translation. c. interlingual and intralingual interference in the use of more than one language, the disturbances are likely to occur. chomsky (in chelli, 2014) stated that disorders are inevitable in the use of languages. there are various types of disorders that may arise as classified by brown (in abusaeedi & borooman, 2015), such as: interlingual interference/transfer, intralingual interference/transfer, context of learning, and communication strategies. however, in the context of translating children’s material, the discussion will be focused on two types of disorders that often occur that are interlingual and intralingual interference. 1. interlingual interference brown (in abusaeedi & borooman, 2015) defined interlingual interference as a negative influence of a single language toward another. in other words, the disorder happened between, at least, two languages. it can be l1 (mother tongue) while studying or using another language or it can also be l2 (foreign language). the interference occurred because the language user is 236 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj too dependent on one language so that the language rules used affects the use of other languages (al-khresheh, 2010). in this case, the translator of children's literature might be accustomed to use l1 and will experience a phase of confusion between the rules of l1 and l2 that occur accidentally or out of consciousness during the translation process. this is supported by the behavioral learning theory which stated that the formulation of old habits will hinder the smoothness of new habits (chelli, 2014). the systematic rules that exist in l2 are finally determined by l1 (falhasiri et al., 2011) for various reasons such as the lack l2 vocabulary mastery so the translator refers to l1 resembling l2 even though the vocabulary does not exist in l2 rule. the lack understanding of expression or idiom from l2 also makes the translator uses l1 inappropriately in translating instructional material. in his presentation, falhasiri et al. (2011) disclosed some kind of interlingual interference that can arise in the use of two languages. the types of interlingual interference can be categorized as follows: 1) general misuse of word, 2) structural mistaken (error), 3) misplacing of word, and 4) omission. 2. intralingual interference brown (in abusaeedi & borooman, 2015) defined intralingual interference as a negative influence in one language. the effect generally occurs on the target language (commonly l2) used by the translator. the interference is also a mistake made by the language practitioner because of lack of knowledge of the l2. lack or incomplete knowledge of l2 makes the disorder appear in the use of language skills. moreover, it is explained that intralingual interference can occur because the language practitioner tries to make a tentative conclusion or hypothesis against l2 with a lack of knowledge about l2 itself (falhasiri et al., 2011). hence, when the translator attempts to translate a literature from a foreign language (l2) to the mother tongue (l1) or from the mother tongue (l1) to the target language (l2), the lack of understanding of the foreign language becomes the potential for this disorder to happen. whereas, richard (in chelli, 2014) divides intralingual interference into four division: (1) overgeneralization, (2) ignorance of rule restriction, (3) incomplete application of rules, and (4) false concept hypothesized (incorrect concept conclusion) kurniawan, m., the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in 237 children’s literature translation project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology this research is a descriptive qualitative research aiming to know and describe the phenomena encountered by the participants. in this case, problems identified was analyzed and categorized based on theoretical categories derived from the main idea of this research. the categorized description will be presented qualitatively as an empirical data condition or to be a basis to formulate alternative solution to the problems. participants of this research were 10 college students joining in english language learning class of early childhood teacher education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas kristen satya wacana, indonesia. there is a similarity in choosing research participants for this study namely similar level of study. students participating in this research came from pretty similar study background and no one has a special english language education background. thus, the data gathered tend to be balance and objective from one participant to others. the data was collected from the participants by using some techniques. before collecting the data, researchers ensured the reliability of data collection by putting a standard of using the same translation tools. by doing so, it is restricted the dynamics of students’ production that is likely to happen. after ensuring the reliability, the researcher put two instruments and phases in collecting the data. first, the instrument used was students’ translation task/project which was done by giving the students similar book to translate. the result of the translation will be the raw data to be analyzed further. second, students will be interviewed after doing translation task/project. this phase was done to give broader perspective to translation process and become additional data for deeper analysis. the data collected, then, was analyzed by using corder’s analysis method (in, amara, 2015). there are three steps of analysis as follows: (1) collection of sample, (2) identification of error, and (3) description of error. results in accordance with the introduction that has been described at the beginning, translating children’s literature required accuracy during the translation process. if there is a fatal mistake, children will misunderstand the teaching materials and gain insufficient knowledge such as linguistic grammar, 238 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj expression and even improper socio-cultural values. based on the data analysis adopting corder’s analysis model, there will be some findings presented in a form of theoretical categories of interlingual and intralingual interference. the findings presentation was divided into three theoretical categories namely frequency of interlingual interference, frequency of intralingual interference and language interference that commonly occur in translating children’s literature. a. frequency of interlingual interference in students’ translation project during children’s literature translation project, college students found various mistakes or language disorder (interference). this section presented the frequency of interlingual interference in a single translation project. as well known, interlingual interference is a disorder between two or more languages due to the influence of one language against another language in the process of translating a form of language. another reason is lack of understanding related to characteristic, relationship or equivalence between two languages (or more). in addition, there are also errors of choosing and using certain words in translation (general misuse of word), errors of grammatical structure (structural mistaken), misplacing of word and loss of meaning or language element in translating particular materials (omission). figure 1: frequency of interlingual interference in students’ translation project based on four categories of interlingual interference, figure 1 showed the frequency of interlingual interference occurred in translating children’s literature by the participants of this research. this presentation was derived from 10 students’ error during translation project. figure 1 presented that the most common interference occurred was the ‘general misuse of words’. student, in his translation project, generated the most errors in this category. kurniawan, m., the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in 239 children’s literature translation project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the mistakes made by students was in average of 5 to 6 errors each student. in ‘omission’ category, the errors made were between 2 to 3 errors each student. in this section, the students’ mistakes are uneven. some made 1 to 2 mistakes but there were some who made up to 6 mistakes in a project. this section is the second category of linguistic errors that are also commonly happened. furthermore, there were some errors appearing in ‘structural mistaken’ categories. students who experienced errors in this section were made an average of 2 errors per person. however, in this category, the mistakes made by students are also uneven. in other words, there were students who did a little mistake (and even no mistake at all) but there were some who made mistakes quite often. the last category which have the least number of errors is ‘misplacing of word’. there were only 4 errors made by students in this category during the process of translating children’s literature. the average of error was relatively the same i.e. one error made by some students and free error for most of the students. b. frequency of intralingual interference in students’ translation project another form of the interference that can be experienced by students in translating teaching materials is intralingual interference. this disorder is related to a person's understanding within one language (source or target language, but often associated with l2). this disorder is divided into four categories: overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restriction, incomplete application of rules and false concept hypothesized. figure 2 showed the frequency of language disorders in terms of intralingual interference experienced by students in children’s translation project. similar to the previous section, this frequency was derived from the total of respondents' errors according to the existing categories. among four categories of error in intralingual transfer, ‘false concept of hypothesized’ category was the most common error occurred during students’ translation project. there were 25 errors made by the participants of this research. each student made mistakes in an average of 2 to 3 during the project. this category was the most frequent error happened compared to the other three categories whose errors did not reach 10 times in a single translation project. in addition, there were 9 errors made by students in the category of ‘ignorance of rule restriction’. an approximate of 1 error was made by each student although there were also some with error-free in this category. for the category of 240 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ‘incomplete application of rule’, students made an average of 1 error during the translation project. figure 2: frequency of intralingual interference in students’ translation project the total interference in this category is 8 errors. the last category which has the smallest error was ‘overgeneralization’. in this category, students made 6 mistakes done by only 4 students while six others were free from error. c. common categories of language interference in translation in accordance with the results of data analysis, it is noted that the highest number of errors found in children’s translation project is interlingual interference. there are 4 categories in interlingual interference and each category has larger number of errors compare to categories in intralingual interference. in general, it can be said that students as prospective teacher tends to encounter difficulties in delivering the message from english to bahasa indonesia because of lack understanding of vocabulary of the two languages. the tendency of eliminating particular meaning of the words also occurs in childrens’ literature translation project. in interlingual interference especially ‘general misuse of word’, it appeared that there were still students who need to improve their vocabulary understanding. an example of error that frequently happened was the misuse of the phrase 'had tricked'. students were commonly defined it as ‘someone who has a trick’ while the right meaning is ‘someone who has done a certain trick to others’. the misuse of certain words expressing different senses brings children to the confusion toward the story. here, this is the full sentence of the errors discussed. "though stuck in the cave, abu had tricked jafar and kept the magic lamp for aladdin". the sentence lied in the context that aladdin and his monkey named abu were in the cave where they found a magic lamp. at that time, there was an evil man kurniawan, m., the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in 241 children’s literature translation project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj who wanted to take the magic lamp but abu had successfully trick him and keep the magic lamp for aladdin. from the existing context, the phrase 'had tricked' is less precise and improper if it was defined as 'having a trick' (had  past form of have: tricked  past form of trick). this is the full translation of the sentence in bahasa indonesia. "meskipun terperangkap didalam gua, abu memiliki trik jafar dan menjaga lampu ajaib tersebut untuk aladdin" the translation seems illogical because abu as protagonist is positioned to have a jafar’s trick that was an evil one. it is understandable that the translation pattern of the sentence is not in line with the context in which the sentence is located. in other hand, it will be different if students translated it into this sentence. "meskipun terperangkap didalam gua, abu telah menipu jafar dan menjaga lampu ajaib tersebut untuk aladdi ". the use of target language and meaning is correct and suitable to the intended context. abu who is a fellow of aladdin and an enemy of jafar delivered a trick to jafar to keep the magic lamp that was about to be stolen from aladdin. when the second pattern is exposed to the child, they tend to understand it more easily than the first pattern. a fairly common mistake in student translation is also ‘omission’. omission or elimination of the words’ meaning leads to incomplete understanding of the teaching material. the incompleteness of meaning can be fatal for children whose characteristic is capturing directly what they hear and see. one example of omission is removing the details of character in the translation process of story of aladdin. "deep in the arabian desert, princess jasmine lived with her father, sultan of agrabah, and her tiger, rajah." the sentence was translated by some students as follows: “di arab, hiduplah putri jasmine dan ayahnya sultan dan menjadi pemimpin di arab” (s5). “didalam padang pasir arab, putri jasmine tinggal dengan ayah, dia sultan dari agrabah, dan macannya” (s6). “didaerah padang pasir, puteri jasmin tinggal bersama ayahnya, sultan agrabah, dan macannya” (s7). “di arab, hiduplah jasmine dan ayahnya sultan dan menjadi pemipin di arab” (s8). those four results of students’ translation showed that omission resulted in incomplete messages to be conveyed to the reader. the translation made by student 5 (s5) removed the details of location which is desert. the sultan's identity (sultan of agrabah) was also omitted. moreover, student did not mention one last character namely rajah, jasmine's tiger. the second translation (s6) eliminated the identity of rajah that should be listed in the translation. the third translation (s7) eliminated the name of region where the 242 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj desert take place i.e. arabian and the identity of rajah. the fourth translation (s8) eliminated the detail of arabian desert, the identity of the sultan (agrabah) and omitted the character of rajah. the loss of detail and figures will affect the reader's comprehension especially for early children who are still dependent to the input given by the teacher or parents. in addition to interlingual interference, there are also intralingual interference experienced by students in translating the story of aladdin. the most frequent error occurred is ‘false concept hypothesized’. this category is an interference experienced by the translator because of a lack of understanding of the concept and meaning of conditions in a language (source or target language but the tendency in l2) where one or more words are located. the following errors appeared most frequently in students’ translation project. " i run away and i'm not going back, "said jasmine." the sentence, especially in the phrase 'run away', was translated by some students 4 (s4) as ‘someone who run, leaving far from a certain point’ and by student 6 (s6) as 'someone walking further from where s/he is before’'. they do not understand the concept of the verb 'run' combined by the prepositions of 'away' in english. the context of the sentence is that jasmine felt uncomfortable living in the palace then decided to leave the palace and plan not to return. the verb 'run away' was correctly interpreted as 'escape' and not just running or even walking at a certain distance. translator’s mistake in capturing the concept and meaning of certain words leads to the different perspective which if given in children's learning will result in children’s misconception. the children will understand that jasmine is just running instead of escaping from the palace. from the data collected in the second phase, it was found that students (is: interviewed student) experienced the highest level of difficulty when translating or finding for words between english and bahasa indonesia. "another difficulty is to translate a single english word into indonesian" (is1). "a lot of english vocabulary ... still unfamiliar (is2), hard to find the appropriate vocabulary (is3)". "difficulties encountered ... choosing the right vocabulary ... according to the picture ... as well as the plot (is4), do not understand the actual context (is6)". those interferences arose because students were still difficult to develop a correct hypothesis of message intended by the author. some of them need to improve the knowledge of english vocabulary as well as the definition in bahasa indonesia in order to make an understandable translated material for children. the difficulties of translating kurniawan, m., the analysis of interlingual and intralingual interference in 243 children’s literature translation project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj children’s literature need to be overcome so that education practitioners have adequate competence of english as a foreign language. conclusion based on the literature review, data collection and analysis, it is found that in translating children’s literature, there were various language disorders experienced by students. there are two main disorders such as interlingual and intralingual interference. each of the interference has four categories as the classification. interlingual interference has these categories, ‘general misuse of word’, ‘structural mistaken’, ‘misplacing of word’ and ‘omission’. besides, intralingual interference has four categories namely ‘overgeneralization’, ‘ignorance of rule restriction’, ‘incomplete application of rules’ and ‘false concept hypothesized’. the most frequent errors occurred was interlingual interference where the students still encountered difficult to find the equivalent of words between two languages. specifically, in the ‘general misuse of word’ and ‘omission’, students were still often making translation errors. whereas in intralingual interference, ‘false concept hypothesized’ category was the most common mistakes appeared in children’s literature translation project. those interferences have the potential to disrupt children's understanding and lead children to the misconception and insufficient knowledge development. therefore, knowing the types of language interference and examples of the most frequent disorders can be a reference for college students as prospective teacher as well as for education practitioner to improve their awareness of english language education and principles of a good interlingual and intralingual translation. this study descriptively presented the potential of language interference in college students’ translation projects as a trigger to develop more knowledge and supportive teaching learning method in the area of teaching english to the speaker of other languages (tesol). it is hoped that through this research, there are people capturing the ideas and develop further research. references abusaeedi, r. a. a. & borooman, f. (2015). a quantitative analysis of iranian efl learners’ sources of written errors. international journal of research studies in language learning, 4(1), 31-32. 244 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 229 244 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj akbari, m. (2012). structural shifts in translation of children’s literature. internatinal journal of linguistics, 4(2). al-khresheh, m. h. (2010). interlingual transfer in the english language word order structur of jordnian efl learners. european journal of social science, 16(1). amara, n. (2015). errors correction in foreign language teaching. the online journal of new horizons in education, 5(3). chelli, s. (2014). interlingual or intralingual errors in the use of prepositions and articles: a case of first-year students of english at biskra university. algeria: university of m’sila. deepak, b. (2013). english translations of select modern marathi poems a study in interlingual and intercultural transfer. retrieved on october 3, 2017 from http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/8601. falhasiri, m., tavakoli, m., hasiri, f., & mohammadzadeh, a. (2011). the effectiveness of explicit and implicit corrective feedback on interlingual and intralingual errors: a case of error analysis of students’ compositions. english language teaching journal, 4(3). kurniawan, m. (2016). developing teacher professionalism: a study on senior to junior supervision. satya widya, 32 (1), 29-40. lou, w. (2010). cultural constraints on the selection of literary translation text in modern china. journal of language teaching and research, 1(4), 492-497. nayak, a. & agrawal, s.d. (2016). certificate on translation: nature, scope of translation. odisha state open university. sas, i. (2010). the treacle triplets: a functional approach to the translation of children’s literature. south africa: stellenbosch university. vid, n. (2008). the challenge of translating children’s literature: alice’s adventures in wonderland translated by vladimir nabokov. elope: english language overseas perspectives and enquiries, 5(1-2), 217-227. 3.pdf (p.1) 003 dec2018.pdf (p.2-17)   developing english job interview skill by self-access language learning of audio podcast-based learning media 1aloysius soerjowardhana, 2raden arief nugroho english department, faculty of humanities, universitas dian nuswantoro, semarang, indonesia email: 1donyswardhana18@gmail.com; 2arief.nugroho@dsn.dinus.ac.id received: 29-10-2017 accepted: 2-11-2017 published: 05-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj developing english job interview skill by self-access language learning through audio podcast-based learning media 1aloysius soerjowardhana and 2raden arief nugroho 1donyswardhana18@gmail.com; 2arief.nugroho@dsn.dinus.ac.id 1,2english department, faculty of humanities, universitas dian nuswantoro, semarang, indonesia abstract: in the era of asean economic community (aec), indonesian job seekers must have english competency. without mastering english language, they will be defeated by foreign readyto-use job seekers. it can be detected in the job interview that their english competency is low. it is caused by a serious condition that they have no effective time to learn english in formal or nonformal english schools. hence, an effort to improve their english speaking skill is needed. one of the ways to improve english speaking skill is by self-access language learning (sall) through audio podcast-based learning media. by using audio podcast-based learning media, the job seekers can practice their english speaking ability by themselves anytime and anywhere. this research conducted an action research to investigate the improvement of english job interview skill of an interviewee with intermediate level of english, which was focused on the improvement of the interviewee abilities to answer the interviewer’s questions. to assess the quality of the english job interview, the researchers used an interview quality parameter designed by overseas programming and training support (opats) peace corps (2005). it is based on the assessment of function and content. the result shows that after two treatments, the job seeker (interviewee) improves her english job interview skill. the improvement can be seen from the changes according to the functional ability; it is shown from the change of answer style from descriptive into narrative way and the changes according to the content; it is shown from the change of answer content from daily routine into professional rational. therefore, the researchers recommend the indonesian job seekers to use audio podcast-based learning media by sall to develop their english job interview skill. soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 179 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: audio podcast, english job interview, self–access language learning (sall) abstrak: di era masyarakat ekonomi asean (mea), pencari kerja indonesia harus memiliki kompetensi bahasa inggris. tanpa kompetensi tersebut, pencari kerja indonesia akan kalah bersaing dengan pencari kerja asing yang memiliki kemampuan berbahasa inggris. dari pengamatan di berbagai wawancara kerja, penulis dapat mengidentifikasi bahwa kemampuan bahasa inggris pencari kerja indonesia rendah. hal tersebut disebabkan karena mereka tidak memiliki waktu belajar bahasa inggris yang efektif di sekolah formal atau nonformal. oleh sebab itu, sebuah cara dibutuhkan agar kemampuan wawancara kerja bahasa inggris mereka meningkat. salah satunya dengan menggunakan metode pembelajaran self-access language learning (sall) berbasis audio podcast. melalui cara tersebut, pencari kerja indonesia dapat berlatih meningkatkan kemampuan wawancara bahasa inggrisnya di mana pun dan kapan pun. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian tindakan (action research) yang bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi peningkatan kemampuan wawancara kerja bahasa inggris dari seorang pencari kerja dengan atribut kemampuan bahasa inggris tingkat menengah. penelitian ini difokuskan pada peningkatan cara menjawab dan konten jawaban pencari kerja indonesia di sebuah wawancara kerja bahasa inggris. untuk menilai kualitas jawaban wawancara kerja, para peneliti menggunakan parameter kualitas wawancara yang dikembangkan oleh overseas programming and training support (opats) peace corps (2005). penilaian itu berdasarkan pada aspek fungsi dan konten. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa pencari kerja indonesia mampu meningkatkan jawaban dari wawancara kerja bahasa inggrisnya. peningkatannya dapat dilihat dari segi: 1) perubahan aspek fungsi yang terlihat dari pergeseran pola jawab dari deskriptif menjadi naratif; dan 2) perubahan aspek konten yang terlihat dari pergeseran konten jawaban dari sesuatu yang bersifat rutinitas menjadi sesuatu yang bersifat profesional. dengan demikian, para peneliti merekomendasikan para pencari kerja indonesia lainnya untuk menggunakan metode pembelajaran self-access language learning (sall) berbasis audio podcast untuk meningkatkan kemampuan wawancara kerja bahasa inggrisnya. kata kunci: audio podcast, self–access language learning (sall), wawancara kerja bahasa inggris 180 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction to get success in a job interview, a job seeker should master the job interview skill. he needs to improve his speaking skill more than the other three language skills such as listening, reading and writing. mastering english is very important for an indonesian job seeker who wants to get a job in a foreign or multinational company. most of the foreign or multinational company requires job interviews in english. indonesian job seekers who do not master english language will definitely be defeated by foreign ready-to use job seekers. to improve their english language skills, especially speaking, they need to learn and practice a lot. one of some ways to improve english speaking skill is by selfaccess language learning through audio podcast-based learning media. by using audio podcast-based learning media, the job seekers can practice their english speaking ability by themselves anytime and anywhere. online media world offers many programs which can be downloaded and one of them is the audio podcast. this issue has encouraged the researcher to conduct a research entitled “developing english job interview skill by self-access language learning through audio podcast-based learning media”. literature review a. self-assess language learning (sall) self-access language learning (sall) is a learning method which emphasizes selflearning or autonomous learning (autonomy). it requires autonomy, learning, and dependence (diaz, 2010, p. 45). in this case, the adult learners, especially job seekers, can be called as autonomous learners because they prefer to learn by themselves instead of being instructed. they tend to not having much time to study because they are busy with their daily activities. by autonomous learning, they can identify their weaknesses which are needed to improve or correct. some benefits offered by sall refer to the usage of learning technology which can be used by the learners independently because of its time and space flexibility (diaz, 2010, p.32). b. audio podcast according to merriam-webster dictionary (“podcast,” n.d.) “a podcast is an episodic series of digital audio files which a user can download and listen to. it is often available for subscription so that new episodes are automatically downloaded via web syndication to the user's own local computer, mobile soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 181 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj application, or portable media player”. audio podcast has more benefits than video podcast since it can be operated without using vision sense. it means that audio podcast can be used while doing another activity such as driving car or cooking. so a blind person can also get positive benefit by using this audio podcast compare to video podcast. methodology a. research design the primary objective of this study was to investigate the improvement of english job interview skill of an interviewee with an intermediate level of english. the objective could only be accomplished through action research involving action and reflection. according to mcdonough (in varasarin, 2007, p.50) “the initial conception of action research emphasized its potential to empower and emancipate participants through cycles of reform based on reflection and action”. the study was conducted in two cycles in which each cycle had four steps: plan, act, observe, and reflect (kemmis and mctaggart, 1988). the cycles of the study are illustrated as follows: figure 1: cyclical action research (zuber-skerrit, 1995, p.13) firstly, plan step was done to identify what difficulties dealt by the interviewee in english job interview situation and what possible improvement could be made possible to solve the difficulties. next, act step dealt with the implementation of plan step to learning situation. during learning situation, the subject of research was asked to perform sall through audio podcastbased learning media. then, observe step was conducted by the researchers to observe and record all activities happened and outcomes of the action during 182 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the research. lastly, reflect step coped with the evaluation and reflection toward the effects of action step. this last step was utilized in order to create improvements in the next cycle. b. research subject and site there was one research subject in this study. the research subject involved was a job seeker who recently graduated from the english department of universitas dian nuswantoro, semarang. she was a graduate with intermediate level of english. it was proven from her 542 toefl score. the researchers identified that 542 toefl score was categorized into threshold (intermediate) level (www.ets.org). the research took place at dinus career center (dcc) where students or alumni of universitas dian nuswantoro can improve their professional skills required in the job field and to find information about job opportunities. in this study, the research subject was asked to learn english job interview (structured conversation) with sall through audio-podcast based learning media for four weeks (two learning cycles). c. data collection the data collection of this study was composed of two instruments, namely oral test and observation sheet. 1. oral test oral test was used to measure the progress of research subject’s english job interview skill. it was conducted in the end of each cycle after sall through audio-podcast based learning media was being conducted. the test was recorded with audio recorder and its result was transcribed. the research subject answered interviewer’s questions pertaining to five interview topics; namely personality assessment, professional motivation, career development, working experience, and knowledge about the employer. 2. observation sheet the observation was carried out during the realization of action research. it was used to gain data concerning the learning process of english job interview skill using sall through audio-podcast based learning media. the researchers acted as observers and they conducted the observation by completing the observation sheet and taking observation notes required for reflect step. soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 183 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. data analysis all qualitative data were gathered from the oral test and observation sheet. from the aforementioned instruments, the researchers analyzed the linguistic pattern of research subject’s english job interview. to assess its quality, the researchers used an interview quality parameter designed by overseas programming and training support (opats) peace corps (2005). it was based on the assessment of function aspects below: table 1: function (overseas programming and training support (opats) peace corps, 2005, p.34) level description superior handles abstract topics and situations, support opinions, hypothesizes advanced can get into, through and out of situations with a complication, narrates, describes, explains, compares, and discusses in past, present, and future time/major aspect frames intermediate creates with language and maintains simple conversations, asks and answers questions, can get into, through and out of simple social and/or transactional situations novice produces formulaic utterances and lists, but shows no functional ability the assessment based on the content adheres with the aspects like shown in table 2. table 2: content (overseas programming and training support (opats) peace corps, 2005, p. 34) level description superior 1. expression and defense of opinions about current events and other topics 2. practical, social, professional, and abstract topics 3. particular interests and special field of competence advanced concrete topics going beyond self and community, family, extending to work, community, and current events intermediate 1. everyday topics, such as self, home, family, interests, and leisure or recreation 184 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. daily routine, familiar surroundings 3. routine travel needs novice minimum courtesy requirements and high frequency, formulaic, mostly memorized expressions, basic objects, months, body parts, numbers, situations, colors, time, clothing, weather, date, weekdays, family members, year, foods based on these parameters, the researchers analyzed and compared the linguistic pattern occurred in the first and second cycles. here, the researchers marked any discrete function and content parameters and concluded the relationship of sall through audio-podcast based learning media and improvement of english job interview skill. e. research procedure in implementing action research (ar) in this study, the researchers employed two cycles in which each cycle consisted of eight 45 minute meetings lasted in two weeks. ar involved four stages including planning, acting, observing, and reflecting described as follows: 1. planning time: cycle 1 & 2: meeting 1 and 2 description: it was planned prior to acting stage. after finding out research subject’s english job interview skill problems, important items were then prepared, such as a sall-based learning instruction for the subject of research, audio-podcast, and observation sheet. 2. acting time: cycle 1 & 2: meeting 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 description: it was the implementation of planning stage. it was comprised of a series of activities conducted by the research subject herself. here, the researchers acted as observers. 3. observing time: cycle 1 & 2: meeting 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 description: it was conducted when the acting stage was running. it aimed to collect the data and information about the learning process. soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 185 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 4. reflecting time: cycle 1 & 2: meeting 8 description: in this stage, the researchers conducted an oral test. it aimed to analyze, examine, evaluate, and conclude the result of the observing stage. its results served as the basis for improving the learning process within the next cycle. results this section contains the results of cycle one and two of the ar. thus, the section’s presentation follows four stages: planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. 1. cycle 1 a) planning in this stage, the researchers designed an english job interview simulation with the subject of research as the interviewee. the researchers developed several questions based on five topics of interview. the greatest problems for the research subject were the inability to develop appropriate answers and to comprehend interviewer’s questions. this incapability lessened her confidence to speak. furthermore, based on the answers, the researchers identified research subject’s answer pattern. the pattern can be seen in figure 2. in figure 2, the researchers identified three answer types. the highest finding was the type of answer showing inexperienced personality. this type of answer could be found in all five interview topics asked to the subject of research. one of the examples was answering the question “what do you need from working here?” with “i need an experience”. the question belongs to professional motivation question. it functions to identify the interviewee’s inner motivation. however, the answer blatantly emphasized her lack of experience in working context. it occurred because the research subject felt that she had nothing to offer due to her being fresh graduate. however, in the real english interview setting, most employers seek for a prospective employee who is able to cope with demanding task. this ability can be shown by either fresh 186 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj graduate or experienced person. in order to express this ability, normative answers must be avoided. figure 2: answer pattern 5 3 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 answer showing inexperienced personality no anwer customary answer answer pattern the next problem occurred was the no answer. this type of answer was identified in three interview topics, namely personality assessment, professional motivation, and career development. here, the research subject expressed her inability to understand interviewer’s questions by using standard formulaic expression, such as “i don’t know the answer” or by paralinguistic gestures, head shake, for instance. this manifestation must be heavily avoided by interviewees should they want to succeed in an interview. lastly, the research subject also dealt with customary answers during the interview simulation. this type of answer occurred in two interview topics, namely personality assessment and career development. customary answers are: (i) simple answers that highlight the inability to develop answers, for example answering the question “how good are you in this field?” with “very good”. in order to impress employers, developing answer appropriately is highly recommended. this kind of question is in reality not a close-end question, therefore a detailed answer pertaining to interviewee’s strength must have been shown to the interviewer. (ii) answers that only express familiar surroundings, for example answering “what is your biggest weakness?” with “i am afraid of dark place and spiders”. this answer is not a professional answer. it reflects a shallow understanding to the question asked. this question intends to explore interviewee’s personality soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 187 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and its relationship to future work. thus, it must be answered by explaining interviewee’s limitations in working context and ways to overcome them. from this observation, the researchers were able to identify english interview problems faced by the research subject. these findings served as the basis to develop sall through audio-podcast based learning media. b) acting and observing based on the result of planning stage, the researchers developed an audio-podcast based learning media that contained deliberate answer structures. the answers for the interview about the personality assessment are structured as follows: table 3: answers for personality assessment question*: “what do you have to offer?” (sample question, questions were varied) condition although i am a fresh graduate, strength i have the ability to adapt to the environment quickly. real example for example, i was the youngest head of student board. modesty however, to push myself forward, i need to work at a bigger company like yours. the answers for the interview about the professional motivation are structured as follows: table 4: answers for professional motivation question*: “how much salary do you want?” strength i believe i have the capacity to achieve the targets. modesty i have not only the ability, but also the company that supports me. real example i think 5 million rupiah will not be that much to hire potential candidate. consequence i will be 100% committed to all targets set by the company. if i fail to achieve them, i will also be committed to all consequences. 188 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the answers for the interview, which assess the career development are structured as follows: table 5: answers for career development question*: “what are your major accomplishments in your career to date?” condition i know that i am still a fresh graduate. strength but, i started gaining experiences as a community member and student representative at the earliest of time. justification i need to gain them because i am sure that i will compete with millions of job seekers. i have to be different. i have to develop my leadership and independence as early as possible. real example and it finally loomed. i was the youngest head of student board being elected. moreover, i was also the head of youth association in my neighborhood. organizing hundreds of youth was not an easy task. it needed leadership skill and perseverance. modesty however, i realize that these accomplishments are nothing without faith shown by lovely people around me. and i believe, this company has excellent support system that can trigger someone’s potential. the answers for the interview, which assess the working experience is structured as follows: table 6: answers for working experience question*: “how long have you been seeking work?” condition as a graduate from reputable university, the pressure of quickly being hired is high. strength but, i am confident that i have the strengths i already told you. real example as soon as i found the announcement two weeks ago, modesty i am sure that i am not going to miss a chance working in one of the biggest companies in indonesia. soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 189 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the answers for the interview, which assess the knowledge about the employer are structured as follows: table 7: answers for the knowledge about the employer question*: “why do you want this job?” strength i am a social butterfly with high determination. i know that this job highly requires that attributes. contribution with the attributes, i will be able to attract more connections to the company. modesty i realize this company’s image can attract connections easily. contribution but, i will also do my best to maintain and improve the connections that have already been made. based on the answers as structured above, the research subject was then asked to learn independently through audio-podcast based learning media. she was instructed to learn the answer structure and important keywords. the key words that need to be kept in her mind include words expressing professionalism (attributes, determination, potential, etc.), conjunctions (moreover, but, etc.), and collocations (support system, social butterfly, etc.). the research subject realized and evaluated her initial inaccuracies after the introduction of sall and audio-podcast learning media. she was eager to improve all of the mistakes by using sall through audio-podcast based learning media. c) reflecting in this stage, the researchers conducted an oral test. after that, we brought together data from the result of english interview simulation in the planning stage, observation, and oral test result. based on the collected data in the first cycle (planning, acting, and observing stages), the research subject had these attributes: table 8: the attributes of research subject in cycle 1 level description english interview simulation (eis) intermediate function creates with language and maintains simple conversations, asks and answers questions, can get into, through and out of simple social 190 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and/or transactional situations intermediate content 1. everyday topics, such as self, home, family, interests, and leisure or recreation 2. daily routine, familiar surroundings 3. routine travel needs acting-observing stage (aos) intermediate function creates with language and maintains simple conversations, asks and answers questions, can get into, through and out of simple social and/or transactional situations advanced content concrete topics going beyond self and community, family, extending to work, community, and current events based on the result of eis in the planning stage, research subject’s level was of intermediate function and content. but, during the aos, the researchers identified that she improved her answers and reduced customary answers. this proved that by following the answer structures, the subject of research succeeded to develop ideas and increased her content level into advanced. meanwhile, the oral test result (otr), as shown by figure 3 in cycle one has some minor differences. the answers, which show inexperienced personality and no answer still occurred: figure 3: otr in cycle 1 5 3 2 3 2 1 3 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 answer showing inexperienced personality no answer customary answer eis aos otr the former took place in three interview topics and the latter in two topics. only customary answer could be completely abandoned by the research subject. this result was brought as suggestion for cycle 2. soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 191 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. cycle 2 just like cycle 1, cycle 2 also has three stages to go through, i.e. planning, acting and observing; and reflecting. a) planning from the result of reflecting stage in cycle one, the aims of cycle two were to eliminate answer showing inexperienced personality and no answer. to achieve them, the research subject was advised to develop her listening skill and vocabulary, particularly on words expressing professionalism, conjunctions, and collocations. therefore, the sound adjustment and material addition on the audio podcast were unavoidable. the quality of podcast itself was made better through the addition of stereo recording, speed rate adjuster panel, and answer samples. b) acting and observing the subject of research spent five meetings in cycle two to improve her vocabulary mastery and listening skill. she enjoyed the new format of audio podcast. she said that the new format enabled her to self-correct each interview practiced. the learning was focused on three interview topics that needed improvement, namely personality assessment, professional motivation, and career development. in the second cycle, the research subject learnt the materials for personality assessment and motivation as follows: table 9: key words for personality assessment question*: “what do you have to offer?” condition fresh graduate, minimum working experience strength discipline, enthusiastic, young spirit real example head of youth organization, cum laude, seminar participant modesty guidance, good support system, best company table 10: key words for personal motivation question*: “how much salary do you want?” strength capacity, target oriented 192 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj modesty company support, trusted company real example 5 million rupiah consequence consequence, penalty, reward wheras, the materials for career development are as follows: table 11: key words for career development question*: “what are your major accomplishments in your career to date?” condition a graduate from reputable university, the oldest child, challenge strength leadership, character, responsibility, fair justification oldest child → responsibility, a graduate from reputable university → challenge real example head of organization, member of sporting club modesty direction, supervision, acknowledged company the researchers were able to identify that the research subject recognized the importance of learning the structure and key words of each topic. she was certain and convinced that sall through audio podcast-based learning media helped improve her english interview skill. c) reflecting in the last stage of cycle 2, again, the researchers conducted an oral test to the research subject. it aimed to identify the improvement she made. based on the otr of cycle 2, the subject of research successfully eliminated all the negative remarks in cycle 1. she did not produce answer showing inexperienced personality and no answer in the oral test. to support this claim, below is the transcription of her oral test taken from the personality assessment topic. table 12: oral test for personality assessment question*: “how do others describe you?” condition 1. as a recent graduate from reputable university, 2. i am also still young, soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 193 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj strength 1. people see me as a competitive person. to enter the university was hard. to graduate from was harder. 2. i am like a sponge, i can absorb and study many things with enthusiasm real example i was an active follower of many motivation and education seminars. i was also trusted by my lecturer to be his lab assistant. modesty however, to uplift my real potential, i still need guidance from outstanding figures who i massively found in your company. the subject of research revealed that the interview answers were developed from the key words she had learned before. based on the collected data in the oral test, the research subject had these attributes: table 13: the attributes of research subject in cycle 2 level description advanced function can get into, through and out of situations with a complication, narrates, describes, explains, compares, and discusses in past, present, and future time/major aspect frames advanced content concrete topics going beyond self and community, family, extending to work, community, and current events initially, the research subject’s level was of intermediate function and content. after she used sall through audio podcast-based learning media in cycle 1, she improved her content level into advanced one, while her function level was still the same. however, in cycle 2, she increased her function and content level into advanced ones. this increase happened because she made a shift of function and content of interview answers. from the function point of view, initially, the research subject used descriptive answers to answer the questions. these answers were not well-developed. the subject of research never explained, compared, or discussed any major aspect frames in her answers. after she learned about the interview structures and key words, in the last oral test in cycle 2, she finally managed to use narrative answers which highlighted the use of explanation, comparison, and discussion in past, present, and future. from the content point of view, the improvement could already be seen in the first cycle. initially, the research subject used answers that contained substances that were closely related to her life, i.e. 194 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 178 – 195 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj everyday topics and daily routines. after she used sall through audio podcast-based learning media in cycle 1, she instantly improved her content level into advanced one. it seemed that the ability to improve content lied on the mastery of vocabulary indicating professional context rather than the answer structures. apart from that, the researchers found a positive result in this study. sall through audio podcast-based learning media made a direct impact to the improvement of english job interview skill. conclusion the result shows that after two treatments, the research subject (interviewee/job seeker) improves her english job interview skill. the improvement can be seen from: (1) the changes according to the functional ability, it is shown from the change of answer style from descriptive into narrative way; and (2) the changes according to the content, it is shown from the change of answer content from daily routine into professional rational. it can be identified that there is a direct correlation between the use of sall through audio podcast-based learning media and english job interview skill improvement. therefore, the researchers recommend the indonesian job seekers to use audio podcast-based learning media by sall to develop their english job interview skill. acknowledgement the researchers of this study express sincere gratitude to the directorate of research and community services (drpm), ministry of research and higher education. this article is the research result funded by the directorate under hibah penelitian dosen pemula (pdp) research scheme 2017 and has been disseminated in iclt conference at grand candi hotel on september 14, 2017. references herrera díaz, l. e. (2012). self-access language learning: students' perceptions of and experiences within this new mode of learning. profile issues in soerjowardhana, a. & nugroho, r.a., developing english job interview skill 195 by sall through audio podcast based learning media https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teachers professional development, 14(1), 113-127. retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1051651.pdf https://www.ets.org/toefl_itp/research/performance-descriptors/ podcast. (n.d.). merriam-webster online. in merriam-webster. retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/podcast. mctaggart, r., & kemmis, s. (eds.). (1988). the action research planner. melbourne: deakin university. overseas programming and training support (opats) peace corps. (2005). language proficiency interview: manual for testers. washington d.c.: peace corps information collection and exchange publication no. t0130. retrieved from https://fsi-languages.yojik.eu/languages/ peacecorps/englishtefl/t0130_english_lpi.pdf varasarin, p. (2007). an action research study of pronunciation training, language learning strategies and speaking confidence (doctoral dissertation, victoria university). retrieved from vuir.vu.edu.au/1437/1/varasarin.pdf zuber-skerritt, o. (1992). action research in higher education: examples and reflections. london: kogan page limited. 4.pdf (p.1) 004 dec2017.pdf (p.2-19) the importance of students' collaboration in the e-learning implementation ridwan sanjaya1 and henny putri saking wijaya2 abstract: e-learning. as in the use of tec/molog)' for teaching alld learning purposes. has bem promoted in indonesia to be an alternative of learning process. although it was late ifit;s compared with other asian countries. it is a step forwardfor a leaming process in indonesia. however. many of the e-learning practices involve the uploading of digitized content materials to a learning managemelll system. in the preselll. the activity of student is downloading the . content materialsfrom his/her lecturer only. it makes the e-leaming website have no competitive advantage compared with the commoll website. the e-learning website should be a medittmfor the stttdents 10 interact. discuss. and collaborate ill their project work. a collaborative leaming can increase better quality of learning because there is a unity of thinking and learning skills. there are several kinds of software which provide the leaming managemelll systems (lms) but not all of them can give media for collaboration. a ttttor is one of the lms that can give a media for the studellls to create a draft tlsing its virtual room. each studelll can give inputs or revise the draft to improve the quality. then. the final report can be shared to other students using the virtuallibrar), after the draft is finished. key words: e-leaming. e-collaborative. collaboration. learning. internet. ridwans8i\iaya,se,s.kom, ms.iec <rldwan.sanjaya@gmail.com> is a lecturer at the faculty of computer science soegijapranata catholic university, semarang whose interest is in the internet technology. henny putri saking wijaya, s.s, ma-elt <hennyputru i o@yahoo.com> is a lecturer at the faculty of letters, petra christian university. surabaya. 12 celt. volume7.number 1.july2007: 1-13 conclusion building a web-based learning includes not only the activities of uploading and downloading materials, but also the active participation of the users. therefore, the media for students to communicate and participate are needed. these media can be in the form ofwiki, forum, b log, and chat. by using wiki, every student can have the same opportunity to participate in sharing various knowledge that he or she masters. the ability of wiki to record inputs, adapt or even revise can guarantee the accuracy 0 information given. this media can increase students' trust to share their experiences and knowledge they have. forum media can be used by e-learning users to do online discussions which are recorded in the database. meanwhile blog enables students to criticize, give suggestions and opinions on the information or experiences written by the teachers in the blog. as a result, the teachers and students' abilities in analyzing will improve. chat media enables teachers and students to communicate although they do not meet physically. in order to improve the learning quality by adding the element of teamwork in the web-based learning, a room for students to gather is needed. this room is used to make draft of report. in this room students can revise"or add information. atutor has the facility for this need. in acollab, students can share documents and make draft in a group until at the end the file is saved in a group library that can be accessed together as the final report. this collaboration should be supported by mediator who is able to stimulate his or her members to make draft actively. e-ieaming supported by the facilities to collaborate will improve the learning quality although physical face-toface communication does not happen. bibliography computing services. "cms glossary". 2004. in http://www.bath.ac. uklintemauwebl cms-wp/glossary.html, retrieved 30 july 2007. chew, lim kin. "e-collaborative projects for better learning". in special issue of the international journal of the computer, the iliiernel and management. bangkok: assumption university of thailand, vol. 14, no. sp i, august 2006: 9.1-9.5. sanjaya, ridwan. "e-learning bukan scmata upload dan download". 15 october 2006. in http://ridwansanjaya.blogspot.coml2oo6l1 o/cleaming-bukan-semataupload-dan.html, retrieved 20 july 2007. r. sanjaya and h.p's. wijaya, students' collaboration in e-learning 13 techtarget. "elearning software". in euaming software while papers, webcasts and it downloads. 2007. in hllp:llwww.bitpipe.com/tlistl elearningsoftware.html, retrieved 1 may 2007. wahono, romi satrio. "pengantar e-leaming dan pengembangannya". in iimu kompuler. 200s. in http://www.ilmukomputer.orglwp-contentluploadsl2006/ 08/romi-eleaming i.zip. retrieved 20 june 2007. wikipedia. "collaborative learning". 2007a. in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ collabomtive_leaming, retrieved is may 2007 wikipedia. "electronic learning". 2oo7b. in http://en.wikipedia.orglwikile-leaming, retrieved ismay 2007. logo: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the power of kalang woman in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) 1prabani setio hastorahmanto, 2sugiono soetomo, and 3agung budi sardjono 1student of doctoral program of architecture and urban science, diponegoro university semarang-indonesia; 2department of urban and regional planning, faculty of engineering diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia; 3departement of architecture, faculty of engineering diponegoro university of semarang, indonesia email: 1budipurnomo.s3@gmail.com received: 01-02-2019 accepted: 08-06-2019 published: 31-07-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj the power of kalang woman in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) 1prabani setio hastorahmanto, 2sugiono soetomo, and 3agung budi sardjono 1budipurnomo.s3@gmail.com 1student of doctoral program of architecture and urban science, diponegoro university, semarang-indonesia 2department of urban and regional planning, faculty of engineering, diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia 3department of architecture, faculty of engineering, diponegoro university, semarang, indonesia abstract: kalang is a javanese sub-ethnic within the kalang tradition, which is an acculturation of ancient javanese culture with hindu culture coming from india. in everyday life, the kalang women as a mother have a central role in the household activity of being responsible to the husband and children’s wellbeing. this cultural acculturation still exists in the lives of the kalang people in kendal, central java, indonesia. in tradition, kalang women have power in her position as a housewife, not in using her physical strenght, but to demonstrate the ability to think, manage time and control emotions in carrying out the three household activities of 1) domestic, 2) tradition, and 3) social activity. in today's modern era, gender equality becomes the central talk of how the kalang society places women within a family that is judged not through the material she obtains, but by her responsibilities.. through a deductive paradigm with ethnographic techniques, the research finds how powerful a mother is in managing the family. because she succeeded in showing her role as head of the family, thus perfecting the role of men also as breadwinner, and in making her family life stable by continuously upholding the kalang tradition. key words: ewuh, kalang, mantenan, obong, sonteng hastorahmanto,s.p. soetomo,s. & sardjono,a.b. the power of kalang woman 175 in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj abstrak: kelompok orang kalang, merupakan sub-etnis jawa dengan tradisi kalang yang merupakan akulturasi dari budaya tradisional jawa kuno dengan budaya hindu yang datang dari india. dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, perempuan kalang sebagai seorang ibu memiliki peran yang central dalam aktivitas rumah tangga, peran tersebut merupakan tanggung jawab kepada suami dan anak-anak. alkulturasi budaya tersebut masih eksis dilaksanakan dalam kehidupan orang kalang di kabupaten kendal, jawa tengah, indonesia. dalam tradisi kalang perempuan memiliki keperkasaan dalam posisinya sebagai ibu rumah tangga. keperkasaan bukan berarti kekuatan fisik yang dapat disalahgunakan untuk kekerasan, namun keperkasaan menunjukan kemampuan olah pikir, olah waktu dan olah mental dalam melaksanakan tiga aktivitas rumah tangga yaitu aktivitas 1) domestik, 2) tradisi dan 3) sosial. di era modern saat ini, dimana kesetaraan gender menjadi issue utama setiap kali membicarakan masalah perempuan, kelompok orang kalang memposisikan perempuan (ibu) menjadi posisi sentral dalam keluarga yang memiliki kesetaraan gender melalui tanggung jawabnya dan bukan melalui materi yang dihasilkan. melalui paradigma deduktif dengan teknik etnografi, ditemukan makna seorang ibu yang perkasa dalam mengelola keluarga. tulisan ini adalah hasil penelitian yang dilakukan pada ibu sebagai sentral keluarga yang sukses menunjukan perannya sebagai pilar keluarga karena menyempurnakan peran laki-laki sebagai pencari nafkah, sehingga menyejukan kehidupan keluarganya dengansecara terus menerus menjaga tradisi kalang. kata kunci: ewuh, kalang, mantenan, obong, sonteng introduction women, in her position as a mother and husband’s companion has an active role in maintaining the sustainability of married life. the responsibility that most women have is aside from the responsibility of being the breadwinner of the family. being a 21st century women who can have equal opportunities with men, there are questions arising about whether women is given the position as heads of their families. although the notion of gender is an inherent trait of socially and culturally constructed from men and women (mansour 1997) with men considered mighty and rational, while women are considered gentle, beautiful, emotional and maternal, in certain instances, it is the women’s nature to be interchangeable in positioning themselves to be more dominant or not than men (umar, 1999). gender equality has a recognition for women to be in 176 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 174 188 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj positions that replace men’s domination in a family because women can have equal responsibilities as men, although physically, women are considered weaker in physical strength. the nature of women in the context of traditional life has several different meanings in each ethnic. yet, it can also be generalized that women have the same responsibility of being a mother and housewife to any family. in indonesia, the javanese is a group of people who have the largest ethnic of having itself spread throughout the indonesian archipelago. it is interesting to note that one of the sub ethnic group of the java people is the kalang group (abdul, 2015), which carries out a different tradition on how women are positioned in their families. the existence of this kalang group has been officially recognized by the javanese sultan, hamengku buwana vi in serat angger-angger (angger-angger document) in 1865. in serat angger-angger, it is mentioned that the kalang are brothers of the javanese who lived side by side in the islamic mataram kingdom (susilantini, 2014, p.52). in the document, there is no detailed explanation of what is meant by kalang women, who are powerful. powerful is not explained clearly in what way. however, in the quotation mentioned about the disputes a husband and wife of a kalang family experinced in chapter 24, which states: “if the people of kalang in the sultanate are married, then the men will have a more powerful position than the women. on the contrary, if the people living around the edge of gajahmati are married, the women will be more powerful.” in the document, it is informed that firstly, the kalang people are those who live and become abdi dalem (relatives) in the sultan’s palace. secondly, kalang people are ordinary people living on the edge of the river gajah mati. these people living at the edge of the river are considered sub-ethnic javanese people. they have a strong, mighty, and harsh characteristics. although these words are claimed to be equivalent to showing something that is considered to have more power – in this context, it does not mean that these people have physical strength, but instead they have the positive power of sustaining a family togetherness. in the keraton or the people living in the mataram kingdom, people see the women as positive members of the general kalang society. the serat anggerangger, issued by sultan hamengku buwana vi (1865) has acknowledged the power of kalang women despite having a different tradition from the sultanate of java which then became a role model for the priyayi, which is a term for the javanese people who are considered to be in a higher class of education as they show better behaviour and politeness rather than most hastorahmanto,s.p. soetomo,s. & sardjono,a.b. the power of kalang woman 177 in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj common people. currently, in the 21st century, the power of the female kalang is said to be still relevant. in the life of the kalang group, who are within a middle and lower hierarchy rather than the high class of the mataram kongdom, some kalang women still practice the traditions they inherited from their ancestors. kalang culture is the result of the acculturation of the traditional javanese culture that still accommodates with animism and dynamism with the hindu tradition of india. the openness of the javanese to new traditions and cultures, like the welcome for indian hindu shows that the javanese people does not show resistance to other cultures (khalil, 2008). the new tradition that is absorbed and accepted as an update to the beliefs of animism and dynamism provides an insight into the traditional life of ancient javanese society. kalang women in reality is not different from other women in indonesia with regards to their lives in domestic, social and traditional activities. however, the kalang women follows through several traditions that are routinely and periodically done, in order to give thanks for their safety and comfortable lives they and the family are receiving uo to now. having the kalang tradition implemented in every individual family makes almost everyone in the group have a specific purpose of following the kalang tradition. in their individual family tradition, the kalang people make time to show their thanks for a successful life stage, through the manifestations of sajen or offerings. in the big family tradition, they show their thanks in the show of a good relationship between family members with their creator and ancestors who have provided protection, happiness and prosperity through their yearly ewuh comemmoration. in the kalang family tradition, there is a responsibility to bring their relatives or parents who have died to be at their best for the great creator, by giving magical prayers through a burning ritual known as obong. in this ritual, it is the kalang women that have the significant role in practicing the ritual, and reciting the mantra or prayers for the hope of a better life for the deceased and the family that are left behind. women in gender vs local wisdom perspectives gender equality is a movement that wants to recognize women's contribution to various aspects that are usually considered to only belonging to men. the existence of gender equality have increased the participation of 178 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 174 188 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj women in various aspects of male-dominated activities, that consequently there are more various activities that are dominated by women (bonney, 2007). women with various abilities that are equivalent to men's abilities begin to appear without awkwardness, and are done well. the issue of women having an equal position with the men is not the ability to make women physically dominant and become manly, instead women are made dominant by still maintaining their feminine caharacteristics. gender issues originally positions itself as a movement that raises the dignity of women in the eyes of men. the movement tries to emancipate women in various aspects of life that only men usually do. in issues of gender equality, most of the time people try to show the differences between men and women through their social roles, behaviors, duties, rights and functions that are imposed on women and men. generally, gender issues arise as a result of a condition that indicates a gender gap, which deals with the systems and structures experienced by society (herawati, 2013). a gender gap usually arises when a condition between men and women who begins to compare with the value of the income they earn. it has become a factor for gender gap, because there is the demand for the women to be equivalent to men in terms of the amount of money that can be obtained by the women. herawati (2007) informs that a growing gender concept results from the social functioning of each individual that deals with new, more personal thoughts that tend to override the main task of what a man or woman should do. in other words, the concept or ideology of gender makes people fragmented with the meaning of man versus woman. in this case, women will try to be equal with men and may forget their basic nature as women, who provides assistance in the background. the gender equality concept has thus, an impact that reduces an individual’s responsibility, which leads to injustice in men and women's resources in terms of carrying out their responsibilities, recipient of wages and the recognition of their respective contributions in society. however, if looking at the local culture in indonesia, women are positioned already with men in equal portions of responsibility and recognition of their respective contributions, while the differences in wages do not trouble the relationship matter in terms of economics (herawati, 2007). gender equality in the indonesian culture is, therefore, not about what women should be able to do in carrying out men’s work but what women could do in complementing men’s work. most indonesian women will position themselves for jobs that are not difficult and do not require physical hastorahmanto,s.p. soetomo,s. & sardjono,a.b. the power of kalang woman 179 in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj power, thereby, it means that whatever job they undertake, they do them in support of their male partners. the same kind of responsibility occurs if women or men are given different job portions. the indonesian cultural sphere of justified equality for both men and women shows that culture becomes a grip to establish proportionally. indeed, the roots of injustice that have occurred so far may derive from the practice of policies and programs of development that is more prominent in men, and where women’s position is still associated with domestic activities (marhaeni, 2008). however, if we look at some local wisdom that positions women in equal proportion to men, in indonesia, it is found that there has been a gender equality that has been believed to be a gender-based division of responsibilities in folklores such as the goddess dewi sri story. women like dewi sri has been shown in the indonesian culture as having an essential role for providing a source of life for the substinence of all human’s lives. dewi sri is a goddess believed by the javanese-indonesians, as the one who provides the force for rice fields to continually grow. with continuous rice available for java citizens, due to the blessings from goddess dewi sri, it entails that the javanese people will continue to survive as rice becomes the main staple of food for the javanese people’s lives. dewi sri is not only the goddess of rice, she is also the agriculture goddess and goddess of fertility. the glorification and worship of dewi sri for the successful crops of the javanese and balinese rice fileds has been evident since the pre-hindu times to pre-islamic times on the island of java. as a goddess, dewi sri is one who is considered or believed to be a subtle human being, who is in charge of nature and the existence of men. dewi sri is not only a protector of birth and life, she is also the one in control for food, especially rice, as the main staple food for the javanese and balinese society. in the majapahit kingdom, dewi sri is married to sadana. sadana in the javanese myth is someone who gives way to people’s lives’ meanings. thus, with sadana, dewi sri makes possible for people’s lives to achieve the dream of living a comfortable life with the abundance of rice as the main food for human’s survival. the local myth of bathari dewi sri and bathara sadana, who is the god and goddess in charge of giving good fortune to humanity has influenced the writing of the javanese numerology, or calculation of the mangsa saddha. mangsa saddha, which is the counting days of special javanese events is a way of findng the best day for acquiring the best prosperity someone can have. the myth of dewi sri shows that women can have an equal position with men in different job portions. with the ability for both dewi sri and saddana as wife and husband to control human life from birth, to control food, to 180 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 174 188 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj control happiness and prosperity, they have become role models for the javanese people. having the woman (sri) working side by side with her man (sadana) becomes an example of how people’s household can achieve happiness and prosperity, in addition to a woman’s responsibility of giving birth to children in a family (jajang, 2014). women’s performance and interactiveness in the javanese society is, thus defined by their immediate society. it is this kind reference that makes javanese women comfortably continue to do what is deemed customary for women in order to be positioned in where they are (rohmana, 2014). the indonesian archipelago, which has many tribes has provided specific characteristics that indicate people’s identities. in identity, there is a show of distinction among the several indonesian tribes that have unique culture, language, and tradition that are inherited from their ancestors. there is, however, a similarity that arises from the various tribes in indonesia and the position of men in general; i.e. the patriarchal system of the society, which assumes that men have a higher position than women (sakina, 2017). in the javanese culture of the 18th century, however, women in the general society and the government of the mataram kingdom, is shown to be a kanca wingking (a friend in the back part of the house), with responsibilities of becoming a friend to their husbands in managing household affairs. these affairs are the taking care of the children,doing the cooking, and washing the clothes of the family. although women are equally managers with their men or husbands in their own households, a number of javanese expressions have tended to demean the women’s importance. a javanese expression, which states that a wife must have the cleverness to manak, macak, masak, which means that a wife should be able to give birth and have the cleverness to take care of their children, know how to dress them up well, and cook deliciously well also gives identity to how and where women are positioned as being submissive to the men in their households. this is the reason why later on, in the ruling empire of the island of java, people began to think of the differences between men and women as following the patriarchial definition of the world’s men versus women’s position. however, the javanese expression for women to go to neraka katut, suwarga nunut, which means when entering hell the women got carried in, and when entering paradise the women follows with the men ascertains that women have the equal opportunity as their men to go to either hell or heaven. this means that women do not necessarily become in contradiction but have the distinction to complement the men in order to enable the formation of a harmonious relationship in the family to build an hastorahmanto,s.p. soetomo,s. & sardjono,a.b. the power of kalang woman 181 in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj orderly society. the gender equality between javanese women and men is also confirmed in the javanese expression of sak iyeg sak eka kapti, which means that as human beings, the javanese people are assigned with equal responsibilities. the similarity of responsibility between the masculine and feminine that makes a balance on each javanese individual gives the possibility for each human being to develop their own personality optimally (uyun, 2012). just like the concept of androgyny, where men not only develop aggressiveness and strength in order to be seen as masculine characters, they are only complete as a human being if they also develop their feminine characters when needed. consequently, in similar terms, women should develop their feminine characteristics but also develop their masculine rationality and independentness. the role of androgyny in the javanese culture, therefore, is not only to demand the equal rights between men and women but also to develop themselves into the required character when needed. a balance between masculinity and femininity is a good thing to have in order to avoid being forced into different activities required by responsibilities brought by gender differences (kaplan, 1979). kalang tradition: an acculturation of ancient javanese and hindu india acculturation is a social process in society that can create new cultures that benefit people’s lives. the process of acculturation of two cultures takes on a long process because there are psychological changes that occur between two or more cultural groups. at the group level, there are also changes met in the social structure and cultural practices (berry, 2005). social and cultural changes also occurred in the kalang javanese group who had settled in java before accepting the indian’s culture. the arrival of the indian people brings with them their beliefs, hierarchies, and government systems that later mingle with the ancient javanese society (muslimin, 2012). the presence of the indian nation affected the social changes of the ancient javanese cultural systems, religion, community organisations, knowledge systems, existing tools of technology and art. the melting and reciprocal cultural blend created a new culture known as the kalang tradition. kalang people are found in kendal district, of central java. kalang is a tradition, that existed through the process of acculturation between native javanese and the hindu culture that came from india around the 2nd century 182 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 174 188 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ad. the original inhabitants before the 2nd century ad had the belief of animism and dynamism. although it has been a long time since the 2nd century ad until the development of technology and information in the 20th century ad, kalang groups still carry on the traditions passed on from their ancestors. these traditions include the tradition of ewuh and obong tradition. these two traditions are periodic even though they have embraced islam as a way of life. the understanding of the kalang group of religions and traditions has strengthened its faith to carry out the ewuh and obong traditions, which are celebrated in every javanese family. a. ewuh tradition: a ritual of gratitude to the ancestors the ewuh tradition is a tradition carried out by the kalang people within each javanese nuclear family, which consists of a father, mother, son and/or daughter, who is in one house. the family carries out the tradition of ewuh as a form of gratitude to their ancestors. from observations and interview, it is found that this tradition was actually addressed to the demang, who was an ancestorial village leader. the tradition is carried out every weton (birth day) of the first demang, which was born on tuesday wage, while the second demang was born on friday wage. the calculation of the ewuh day tradition is every two times of every seven months and two times of every five months,so that in one year will be held four times of ewuh tradition. the implementation of ewuh tradition is the form of offerings, which consists of a combination of: 1) kebon (garden), 2) makaryo (work), and 3) peken (market). the three sources become one in a pawon (kitchen) room to be given a mantra (prayer), that is recited by the mother of a family. all of these are processed and arranged on anamben (bed). in the offerings there are: 1) pawon (kitchen) furnace; 2) lumbung (rice granary); 3) lawang (main door); 4) pawon room (kitchen); and 5) gentong banyu (a container mad from clay that stores water). after the mother finished saying her mantra, the offerings can be eaten by the family members or anyone who wants to enjoy the food. as can be learned here, the ewuh tradition, places a woman (the mother) to be agile in carrying out and preparing all offerings ranging from the selection of the ingredients, preparations for the cooking of the meals, , arrangement of the cooked meals, and reciting the mantras. carrying out rituals and saying the mantras to give peace to the spirits are done by the mother of the kalang family. the power of a mother is seen starting at dawn at around 03.00 a.m, where the whole series of the ewuh tradition started with the husband and children still sleeping. the tradition hastorahmanto,s.p. soetomo,s. & sardjono,a.b. the power of kalang woman 183 in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj continues well until the evening at 18.00 p.m. for the second ritual offering. this shows that the position of women are given a higher position than the men. b. obong tradition: a family responsibility one other tradition that is in unison with ewuh tradition is obong tradition. obong tradition is a tradition performed by the kalang as a form of family responsibility to the relatives who had died earlier. this tradition has the meaning of delivering, giving provision and reciting mantra, so that the relatives who have passed away can go smoothly to nirvana, which is believed to be a proper place for those who have died to live eternally. the obong tradition is executed twice after death that is at pitung dino (seven days after death) and mendak setunggal (one year after death). in addition to these days, the kalang people have a more complete ritual of also praying for the death relative’s telung dino (three days), patang puluh dino (forty days) and nyatus dino (one hundred days). according to them, this tradition springs from the acculturation of the hindu culture perpetrated by their ancestors. the obong tradition is recognized by the kalang people as being almost the same as the ngaben tradition in bali, but the corpse in bali, which is buried in the ground is replaced by a mantenan (wooden wedding doll) to symbolize the body. at the time of pitung dino (seven days) comemmoration, the mother of the kalang family wouldburn the sandangan (clothing) owned and used by the deceased, also in addition to burning a variety of sangu (supplies/provisions) from the deceased. this could be in the form of food, fruit, rice,, side dishes and money. the tradition is held in the at12.00 noon, by commencing with a mantra reading ritual that is guided by a sonteng shaman. the sonteng shaman is an elderly woman who is believed to have the ability to communicate with the spirits of ancestors or spirits of people who have died. then, this isproceeded with an obong ritual at about 13:00 p.m. until finished, where all sandangan (clothing) and sangu (supplies) are burned down and become ash. the obong tradition was carried out at the time of the deceased mendak setunggal (one year) of death.. this tradition has several levels of ritual that can be carried out with consideration of the economic capacity of each family. the slaughter of a male buffalo, for example, is carried out only for the complete obong tradition for economically capable families.in the tradition of buffalo slaughtering, the meat is cooked but the skin, legs, head, and tail are separated which will later be put together again for the ritual slametan (prayer of salvation). the buffalo animal, is believed to be a vehicle for the relatives who 184 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 174 188 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj have died into nirvana. the buffalo has been a friend while working on the javanese rice fields. . at the time of buffalo slaughtering, the sonteng shaman will prepare a space to lay down the mantenan dolls.along with the teng-teng (carrying of properties) ritual, there is an angon kebo (herded buffalo) ritual, which ended with a nyangoni ritual (giving supplies) from family members. the nyangoni ritual is the part where family members of the deceasd would give ritual attendees money and food, after the ritual is closed by the sonteng shaman. the ritual finishes at around 22:00 p.m, where all of the teng-teng ritual equipment were returned to the kiwo (left) part of the room again for safe keeping. although, it was time for the family to rest, there are also some family members who joined the lek-lek-an (not sleeping) ritual in order to be ready with the ewuh tradition, which starts at 03.00 a.m. the next day. at 03.00 a.m., all members of the families are waken up, to help the sonteng shaman, preparing all uborampe (equipments etc.) offerings and the mantenan (wooden doll) for a similar ritual like the previous one done up to 20.00 p.m. after the obong ritual of burning all of the offerings, the left over mantenan, sandangan and sangu are placed in the omah (house) made of alangalang (wild grass). before the omah-omahan (house model) are burned and turned to ashes, the family would surround the house as a ritual.the very last part of the obong ritual is to throw coins in the burnt ashes for grabs by everyone present. that is the complete tradition of the capable kalang family. meanwhile, for the kalang family with lower economic capabilities, they can replace the buffalo with goats, chickens, ducks or other livestock according to the economic capacity of the family. the buffalo angon (buffalo shepherding) ritual is not performed when the obong tradition is carried out. in the obong tradition, it is seen that the role of the woman (mother) if the husband or child dies, is for her to contact the sonteng shaman to determine the day for implementing the obong tradition. limasan: the room for the kalang performance acculturation in the kalang tradition is the belief system implemented in rites equipped with sajen (offerings). sajen is associated with the production of fruits, grains and vegetables, but the acculturation is very different from the offerings conducted by hindu communities on the island of bali. if the balinese does their burning and worshipping ritual for the deceased on an outdoor field, the kalang ritual is performed in a limasan house. limasan is a traditional javanese building, whose rooftop features like a temple. the hastorahmanto,s.p. soetomo,s. & sardjono,a.b. the power of kalang woman 185 in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj limasan house’s primary function is as a place to live and carry out all domestic activities, while the secondary function is as a place to carry out the social and cultural activities. with kalang tradition performed within the limasan house indicates that the hindu culture and ancient javanese culture have been combined, with some of the cultural elements of each group still maintained. the hindu religion on the island of bali shows the acceptance of the architecture of the temple as a place to carry out the hindu ritual explicitly. this is why the temple is built in the yard of every balinese house as one of the forms of their religious activity. meanwhile, the balinese house is used to carry out domestic and social activities. the javanese limasan house changes functions when carrying out the ewuh tradition or the obong tradition. as a house with two functions (tjahjono, 1989), the limasan house becomes sacred when it is used as a place to carry on the kalang tradition. however, it is worthy to note that not all of the house spaces are sacred places. the spaces within a limasan's house that become sacred and revered during the ewuh ritual are the pawon (kitchen), barn (a space for storing rice and food), banyu (space for storing water), furnace (space for cooking) and lawang ngarep (front door) rooms. these spaces are sacred because they are considered to be the places where the residents of the house are given their lives. during the obong ritual the rooms that are considered sacred are: the ruang kiwo (left side space), and ruang andangan (the space in the limasap house). in the ruang kiwo a mantenan (wooden doll) that symbolises the family members who have died is placed in there along with other offerings. the sonteng shaman's room is in front of the kiwo room (left room), which functions as a space for the mantra (prayer) and nyangoni (giving provision) rituals for the deceased and living families. the next space is the ruang obong (obong space), which is located in the open yard of ngajeng (front yard). this space functions for the obong (burning) ritual of the mantenan and all offerings used as sangu (supplies) for the journey of the soul to nirvana (place after life). women’s abilities in managing the kalang tradition kalang tradition sees the role of a woman (mother of the family) as the person who dominates in their rituals and thus, gives a deep meaning about the role and abilities of women.the ability is not only in the traditional ritual but also in other routine activities. in the domestic activity, the mother is the center of the family mingling in between the husband and children. in the 186 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 174 188 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ritual activities, the mother takes on the role of the leader, who carries out the ewuh and obong ritual. in doing these activities, there are great responsibilities, which requires a good management from the women. the management is in three esential ways: 1) mind, 2) time, and 3) mental management. first, in mind management, women are required to have the ability to organise various things in a particular activity. the ability includes the cooking of the food used fo rthe offering. after the food is ready, the women must have the ability to arrange the food well and have it ready as offerings for the ewuh traditon. to complete the ewuh ritual, these women will need to lead the family by reciting . second, in time management, kalang women need to organize their time well to do the various activities which they are responsible for, within a specified time agreed by the kalang people. the ability to manage time is seen from when a mother has to do more than one activity at the same time. not only should she function as the leader of the kalang rituals, she must also become a mother who make her children and husband ready as active participants in the ritual. third, in mental management, kalang women are required to be healthy physically and mentally. a healthy and fit body will affect the mind and soul, so the kalang tradition can be completed with all of the stages of the tradition, in its best quality women (kabeer, 2005). while performing the traditional rituals, women mothers should do their domestic activity and social activities simultaneously well. from the activities of this tradition seems the power of a mother in carrying out her responsibilities with sincerity for family safety. policies to support gender equality should pay attention to the equality of all human beings. the human way of thinking about gender equality needs to be emphasised and not just from the physical side. increasing the role of women in making decisions, it is necessary to develop policies that place women in the perspective of gender equality so that decisions that have the same responsibilities occur. (widyastuti, 2011). conclusion maintenance of the ewuh and obong rituals of the kalang people, where the women perform mantra prayers in a limasan house, is one form of the hastorahmanto,s.p. soetomo,s. & sardjono,a.b. the power of kalang woman 187 in gender equality (ancient javanese acculturation with indian hinduism) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj acculturation that occurs between two cultures, i.e. the javanese and the indian people as a. acculturation is not a matter of coercion but becomes a process toward perfection in life, complementary and mutually accepting differences, inorder that people can live in peaceful togetherness. thinking positively while learning a better way of life from other people’s cultures such as that from india, have resulted the javanese kalang people to have abetter life order. this article have discussed that the kalang people believes it important to carryout a tradition taht gives respect to their ancestors, and by giving prayers of thanks for the protection they have received from their ancestors. compliance in carrying out a kalangtradition shows that the kalang people gives attention to performing a good personality in life. kalang people highly appreciates their women mothers who are found to, have a great responsibility to the husband and children to continue the kalang traditions’ rituals. in carrying out her responsibilities, a kalang mother becomes an exemplary person, who gives a positive impact on the development of a child's life. the way a mother woke up from 3.00 a.m. and perform the ewuh and obong ritual up to around 20.00 or 22.00, would have inspired a child on how to practice or preserve the kalang tradition of women as leaders. seeing the woman mother becomes the centre of attention in a child’s own limasan’s house, the child can truly appreciate the power his/her mother has in the tradition. references abdul, k. (2015). pendidikan agama islam dalam kebudayaan masyarakat kalang. at-taqaddum, 7(2). berry, j. w. (2005). acculturation: living successfully in two cultures. international journal intercultural relations, 29(6), 697–712. bonney, n. (2007). gender, employment and social class. gender, employment and society, 21(1), 143–155. herawati, t. (2007). budaya jawa dan kesetaraan gender. jurnal komunikasi massa, 1(1), 18–24. herawati, t. (2013). peran gender, kontribusi ekonomi peerempuan, dan kesejahteraan keluarga petani holtikultura. jurnal ilmu, keluarga dan konsumen, 6(1), 10–19. 188 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 174 188 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj jajang, r. (2014). perempuan dan kearifan lokal: performativitas perempuan dalam ritual adat sunda. jurnal musawa,13(2), 151–165. kabeer, n. (2005). gender equality and women’s empowerment: a critical analysis of the third millennium development goal. gender & development, 13(1), 13–24. kaplan, a. (1979). clarifying the concept of androgyny: implications for therapy. psychology of women, 3. khalil, a. (2008). islam jawa: sufisme dalam etika dan tradisi jawa. malang: uin-malang press. mansour, f. (1997). analisis gender dan transformasi sosial. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. marhaeni. (2008). perkembangan studi perempuan, kritik, dan gagasan sebuah perspektif untuk studi gender ke depan. jurnal piramida, 4(2). muslimin. (2012). akulturasi agama hindu di indonesia. al-adyan, 7(2). sakina, h. (2017). menyoroti budaya patriarki di indonesia. share social work jurnal, 7(1), 71–80. retrieved from http://jurnal.unpad.ac.id/share/article/view/13820/6628 susilantini, e. (2014). serat angger pradata awal & pradata akir di kraton yogyakarta : kajian filologis historis. yogyakarta: balai pelestarian nilai budaya yogyakarta. tjahjono, g. (1989). cosmos, centre and duality in javanese architectural tradition: the symbolic dimension of house shapes in kota gede and surrounding. university of california. umar, n. (1999). argumen kesetaraan gender perspektif alquran. jakarta: paramadina. uyun, q. (2012). peran gender dalam budaya jawa. psikologika, vol.7(no.13), 32–42. retrieved from http://journal.uii.ac.id/psikolo gika/article/view/332/7127 widyastuti, y. (2011). perubahan sosial (mewujudkan kesetaraan gender dalam pembangunan). serang: fisip untirta, serang. depan_celt dec 2012 the characteristics of a singaporean science textbook written in english for primary three and four linggayani soentoro1 abstract: textbooks play an important role in teaching learning process. teachers and students can be well-equipped with the textbooks as the sources of knowledge, guidance and activities. as indonesia has been aware of the use of imported books to upgrade their curriculum to be international standardized, the primary students are one of the subjects to use these books, especially those who study at international, international standardized and immersion program in national schools. the generic structure and the physical characteristics of the textbooks build special attractiveness and images to the readers, in this case young learners in indonesia in the science class. this paper discusses the presentation of the singaporean science textbooks written in english and the appropriateness of the books for for indonesian students. key words: generic structure, physical characteristics, science, imported textbook, young learners, esl, efl classroom, curriculum 1 linggayani soentoro, s.s. <linggayanisoentoro@gmail.com> is a graduate student of english language education at state university semarang. l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 143 introduction the existence of globalisation era in the world has given much alteration in many aspects of human being’s life. one of the impacts is shown in the language development, as the basic communication media in people’s daily life. the global language used by common people to unite all the people from different countries in the world is english. it has become an international language, as used in some countries. in certain countries, english is neither their mother tongue nor their second language. it still has its own position as a foreign language. yet, nowadays, those countries have shown their concern by using english as the media to teach lessons in their formal education. this happens because of the importance of english in this globalisation era as stated by harmer (1985: 22 – 23). some people within the society consider the importance of the inter-language these days as stated by fasold (1990: 299). by seeing this phenomenon, the education in indonesia has been developed to go towards globalization era and upgrade their curriculum to prepare the young generations facing the globalization era. therefore, there are a lot of schools in indonesia nowadays where english is used as a media to teach other subjects, such as mathematics and science. those schools are international schools, rsbi/sbi (international – standardized schools), and immersion programs in several national schools. this phenomenon is derived from the law of national educational system (undangundang sistem pendidikan nasional) number 20, year 2003. one of the sections of the law is section 50 article 3 that central and/or district government is to organize at least a unit of education in every level of education, and it should be developed an international education level. hence, the upgraded curriculum, based on the decrees of minister of national education number 22 year 2006 concerning celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 144 the standard of contents and number 23 year 2006 concerning the standard of graduate competence, opens the opportunities for schools to use and enhance their own materials used for achieving the international standard. this phenomenon widens the chance of the international and/or foreign publishers to come and promote the imported books, for instance, singaporean science textbooks. the young learners harmer (1985:82) stated that the characteristics of young children especially those up to the ages of nine to ten, learn differently from older children, adolescents and adults in the following ways: their understanding comes not just from explanation, but also from what they see and hear and crucially have a chance to touch and interact with, they generally display an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them. according to brown (2001:90) children are good at sensing language that is not authentic. however, this kind of sensing may not be found among indonesian children who are learning english. again, this is caused by the fact that english is a foreign language. what is important is the ability to adjust with the condition in indonesia. what they need are opportunities for repetition but it needs to be done in an interesting and meaningful way. the next question that may arise is how to make the lesson interesting because if a teacher asks a student to repeat all the time the students may be bored and lose their spirit and enthusiasm to learn english and this is quite fatal. the following is suggested by brown (2001) to make the material interesting, lively and fun: 1. activities should be designed to capture their immediate interested because children are focused on the immediate here and now. l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 145 2. a lesson needs a variety of activities to keep interest and attention alive. 3. children have a lot of natural curiosity. he/she must make sure that he/ she tap into that curiosity whenever possible, and he will thereby help to maintain attention and focus. the following are some general characteristics of the children of that group according to wendy scott (1990:2 – 4): 1. they are competent users of mother tongue. 2. they can tell the differences between fact and fiction. 3. they love to play and learn best when they enjoy themselves seriously and like to think that what they are doing in real work. 4. they are enthusiastic and positive about learning. 5. they rely on the spoken world as well as the physical world convey and understand meaning. 6. they are able to work with others and learn from others. 7. their own understanding comes through eyes, hands and ears. the physical world is dominant at all times. 8. they have very short attention and concentration span. in indonesia, the characteristics of elementary school students are not far from those in general. however, there are several characteristics that can be added (tim pengembangan mkdk ikip semarang, 1998). they are: 1. the elementary school students are the children at the age between 7 to 12 years old. 2. they are in the smart age. it means that they often show what they know from school and they are really proud of it. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 146 3. there is strong correlation between the physical condition and school achievement 4. they intend to praise themselves 5. at the end of this phase, they begin to have an interest in special subjects. from the explanation above, it can be concluded that the elementary school students still need a specific guide from their teacher and people around them especially their parents in order to follow the lesson well. in addition, they get bored easily during the class activity so teachers should make the class interesting. additionally, the roles of audio visual aids are quite important. as the students get bored easily, they also need something interesting and attractive. one of the visual aids is a textbook. the textbook should have several characteristics that should fulfill the students’ needs. the administrative de-emphasis of the teacher in the second language classroom would suggest that teachers must learn how to integrate and organize content of a textbook to make learning an interactive and meaningful experience, as opposed to an act that can be completed alone by self-directed study with a textbook. the strategy behind this technique is to eliminate unsatisfactory textbooks at each stage of analysis so that only the most appropriate is left at the end, making the choice clear and manageable. parrish (2004) states that one of the benefits of using a textbook is that it can meet a learner’s needs or expectations of having something concrete to work from and take home for further study. teaching children in indonesia english in indonesia is a foreign language. therefore, some considerations should be taken before starting teaching children in the foreign language context. so far there are many books provided l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 147 as the bases of teaching other lessons using english as the media specially designed for children based on indonesian context. however, children have common characteristics in certain cases, for example: children are still in an intellectual stage which is called concrete operations (piaget 1972, as cited by brown 2001:88). another fact stated by brown (2001:90) is that children are good at sensing language that is not authentic. however, this is not true for indonesian children who are having english as a foreign language. children may not have any good sense to feel that the language is authentic or not. teaching elementary school students is not the same as teaching adults, because they have different characteristics as stated by helaly: unlike adults, children are not self motivated and do not have an immediate need to learn english. they are not concerned with job or university degree that requires knowledge of english. their world is their daily games, events of interest to them, new knowledge that their inquisition minds may ask (helaly 1987: 49). teaching material most books are available to be used to teach english to children; however, there are only a few books that are suitable for indonesian young learners. most books are intended to teach children where english is a first language and/or second language. however, some language institutions use books which are published by singapore where english is a second language. in indonesia english is not a second language but a foreign language. therefore, the material published for teaching the lessons should have easy sentence structures, easy vocabularies/terminologies and celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 148 several other supporting factors that make the students enjoy and easy to learn. harmer (1991:161-170) proposes another theory to teach children in understanding meaning of lexis. he has theorized that in the reality people can see that not all vocabulary can be learnt through interaction. this means that the material used should contain vocabulary which is in real context. in this case the use of the easy vocabularies can help students learn science and/or other lessons better. my pals are here! science textbook for primary three and four: the physical characteristics the writer uses science 2nd edition my pals are here! cycles for primary 3 & 4 which is written by dr kwa siew hwa and teo-gwan wai lan. it is edited by gerald koh and team, designed by cephas chew and team, illustrate by anuar abdul rahim and team. the science education consultan for this book is charles chew. it is published by marshal cavendish education pte. ltd., singapore, under the approval of ministry of education, singapore for academic year 2008 – 2012. it was published in 2001 and the second edition was in 2008. it was reprinted in 2009 by times printers, singapore. l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 149 opening a book to an especially beautiful or interesting picture and placing it in a holder by the bookshelf often entices children to that area (hendrick 1986). the singaporean science textbook written in english thick, colourful and glossy paper as the cover and illustrated attractively with special characters used, this textbook attracts children, especially for primary 3 and 4 students. this statement is also supported by hendrick (1986). he identifies that good books for young children generally have brief texts, beautiful pictures, and subject matter that is interesting for children and presented in good taste: excellent books also have that extra note of originality combined with quality writing and a good story that enshrines them in the hearts of children forever (hendrick 1986: 260). in this case, the science textbook, published by marshal cavendish, singapore presents several images for the young learners to attract and motivate them to understand the lesson. byrd in celce – murcia (2001) stated that the variety of graphical elements is including print size and style and white space as well as illustrations. in this case, illustration and the setting of the textbook are also important. the design plays an important role for the students’ reading convenience as it is appropriate for their level. additionally, the mix between print and white space is balanced so that the readability is enhanced and appropriate. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 150 the pages inside are also colorful and arranged in an interesting layout (non-linier), full colors, pictures and graphs to make the students understand more about the contents of the book. the font used for the content is arial, font size is 14 – 16, and highlighted and printed bold for important information. for the title in every unit, it uses first grader, printed bold and in green colour. the green colour is used based on the thematic colour as it is about the cycles. the pictures used in this book are cartoons, special characters, models and real objects or places. the pictures are scattered here and there so that it will give a different concept for the students to study science. several pictures are zoomed in to provide more details of the picture as the means of visualization. the total page is forty pages. the content and the generic structure the contents or explanation should be likely to be of interest of use to the students. furthermore, the textbooks should help learners to understand what they need in order to learn. in this science book, there are a lot of features to support students, especially in the esl/efl classrooms. there are several aspects that contribute the use of the textbook in the classroom. the function of the textbook as the major resource of a lesson is clearly stated by crookes – chaudron in celce-murcia (2001). the textbook should stand for a syllabus and training program, as well as the aid of the lesson. byrd in celce-murcia (2001) provided several guided questions to analyze the selection and implementation of the textbooks, more on the thematic content. they are: what topics are used in each unit? what topics recur throughout the whole book? l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 151 what connections can i make between these topics and the backgrounds/interests of my students? how can i make enriched use of these themes? by the thematic content, the mph science book is divided into several chapters. this book only comprises of one theme with five units for primary 3 and 4. the other books are diversity, systems, energy and interactions. the contents are as follows: theme: cycles which has 5 units: 1. life cycles 2. life cycles of some animals 3. life cycles of plants 4. what is matter? 5. three state of matter it is developed based on the latest primary science syllabus set by the ministry of education, singapore. it is adopting the inquiry – based approach to the learning of science. it aims to spark curiosity and awaken young minds to the world around them. it is using special emphasis for helping pupils acquire skills and processes. it uses fascinating pictures and vibrant illustrations to stimulate young minds. concrete examples from daily life are used widely to help pupils relate well to concept taught. a variety of questions are used to engage and guide the pupils in the inquiry process as concepts are developed. this enables to shape the pupils to be independent learners and cultivates in them an inquisitive attitude for the effective learning science. concepts learnt are constantly reinforced throughout the chapter, while the-end-of-chapter summaries and thematic overviews aid easy recall, helping pupils grasp key concepts for assessment. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 152 each unit is organized and contains several special features. the special features inside the book are: 1. let’s find out questions are placed at the start of every chapter to highlight briefly the gist of what students will be learning. 2. highlighted questions questions that facilitate the development of concepts are highlighted to help pupils focus on what they are learning. 3. explore this section is inquiry-based activities that pupils can carry out to gain an appreciation and a deeper understanding of the concepts learnt. 4. building block it comprises questions that reinforce the understanding of concepts learnt and inculcate thinking skills. 5. xtra xtra contains interesting and intriguing facts that excite pupils and broaden their scientific knowledge. 6. activity book link this section contains cross – reference to a corresponding activity in the activity book for pupils to further their learning. 7. self-check pupils can use these checklists to help them revise the key learning outcomes of a chapter. 8. science words this section is a list of important words related to key concepts in the chapter. the following are sample pages of those 8 sections: 1 2 l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 153 3 4 5 6 7 8 frodesen in celce – murcia (2001) identifies several points as guidelines to choose texts and grammatical points for analysis. the grammatical features should be appropriate for students’ developmental stages. additionally, he stated that the lessons should generally be kept brief, especially for less advanced writers, in this case young learners. grabe and stoller in celce – murcia (2001: 23) stated that graphic representation of text information plays an important role to provide students with the clear visual representatives of the text. the most effective way to carry out reading instruction that focuses on careful reading comprehension and discourse organization is through the use of graphic organizers (i.e. visual representations of text information. the main goal of graphic representations is to assist celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 154 students in comprehending difficult texts. by using graphic organizers, students are able to see the key information in a text, the organization of text information, the ways that information is structured, and relationships among ideas presented in a text or a portion of a text. graphic organizers are sometimes generic. there are several kinds of graphic organizers: 1. the use of cycle diagram to show processes described in the text. 2. the use of venn diagram to highlight differences and similarities between characters, places, events, or issues in a text. 3. the use of a flowchart to trace events or steps in a process highlighted in a text. in this book, we can also find the graphic organizers, such as the flowchart and circle with arrows flowing in a circular direction. these features help children grab the materials and understand them better. each unit, there is a feature, “at a glance”. it comprises a concept map that summarizes and links all the concepts learnt in a chapter. this also represents the whole one unit that the students have learnt. l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 155 the special feature that this book has is concept map. it comprises a map of the chapters they have learnt and the linking lines to show the students the connections of each chapter to another. they are: national education it is information about the nation (singapore) so that the students have national awareness. yet this is not appropriate for the students who are learning in indonesia. the background information cannot provide students with straight-to-the-point knowledge. thus, this is not really appropriate for the students in indonesia. super scientist a comic strips section to provide students with the fun side of science. it is telling about the life of a scientist on the last page of the book the generic structures of units 1 and 2 textbook are for the students. thus, the elements---the content/explanation, the examples and the exercises or tasks--should suitable with the students. before unit 1 starts, there are introductory pages. they contain the core of the lesson, in this case cycles in general. it is written in narrative stories with special characters of the book. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 156 here are the generic structures of unit 1 and 2 as the samples: unit 1: life cycle 1. let’s find out 2. comic strips (introduction to the topic) 3. definition 4. building block 5. explore 6. activity book link 7. sub – topic (highlighted questions) 8. figures/pictures/graphs with caption 9. at a glance 10. self-check 11. science words unit 2: life cycles of some animals 1. let’s find out 2. graphs with labels & captions 3. explore 4. building block 5. comic strips 6. xtra 7. at a glance 8. self – check 9. science words l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 157 the features of the two units presented above are almost the same. both of them have the same features to end each unit: at a glance, self – check and science words. the genre of the texts used in this textbook are narrative as it can be found on the introductory pages and several comic strips to start each unit, exposition to present the scientific materials: theory, examples and definition of terminologies, descriptive texts accompanied by pictures and graphs, and also discussion to show the comparison. those genres support the learning process of the students. narrative is used to introduce the lesson, as it will attract the students to read more and more. the lexico-grammatical features are also supporting the young learners in indonesia. it comprises several aspects as follows: 1. technical terms: science terminologies (e.g. pattern, reproduce, stages, life cycle, nymph, seeds, seed leaves, emerge, matter, mass, volume, space, solid, liquid, gas) 2. contains more common words 3. questions (inquiry-based approach), imperative (instructions), statements 4. simple present tense 5. dominant part of speech: nouns & adjectives 6. simple sentences: approximately, 1 sentence consists of 10-14 words. 7. type of voice: active voice conclusion this science textbook is a comprehensive package developed based on the latest syllabus, set by the ministry of education singapore. the adoption of inquiry-based approach to the learning of science contributes the progress of science learning, by triggering young’s minds with questions. additionally, to make it celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 142–159 158 attractive, the use of real pictures and amusing illustrations enhances the learning. these make learning science real and relevant. the content of the book uses thematic-based approach that will make the students understand better, as they can see in one scope at one time before linking their thinking to another theme. the lexicogrammatical features and several special features that build this book are appropriate for the indonesian students in those levels. on the other hand, some information, under the national education is not really appropriate to the students in indonesia as it is de-contextualized. it only provides the students about singapore national and cultural knowledge. moreover, the features of the book enhance the learning by giving systematic structures to the students and help the teachers to explore more about the topic taught. at the end, the students should be able to link the topics they have learnt previously in a systematic order, in the form of concept map. this helps the students to develop their critical thinking and connecting-lines from one to another. this book is appropriate for the indonesian young learners as it is supported with special features that make the students easy to understand the lessons. the graphical features, the layout and the design are also suitable for their level. references andersson, una cunningham and stafan andersson. growing up with two languages. london: routledge,1999. brewster, jean., gail ellis, denis girard. the primary english teacher’s guide. england: clays ltd, 1991. l. soentoro, singaporean science textbook 159 brown, h. douglas. teaching by principles an interactive approach to language pedagogy. ny. pearson education, 2007. cameron, lynne. teaching language to young learners. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2001. celce-murcia, m. editor. teaching english as a second or foreign language 3rd edition. thomson learning inc., 2001. hall, s., and p. du gayquestions of cultural identity. london: sage publications, 1996. harmer, j. the practice of english language teaching. new york: longman, 1985. hendrick, joanne. total learning: curriculum for the young child. ohio: merrill publishing company, 1986. kwa, siew hwa et.al. mph science 2nd edition cycles for primary 3 & 4, singapore: marshall cavendish lessard-clouston, michael. towards an understanding of culture in l2/fl education.boston, ma : heinle & heinle, 2007. mclaughlin, barry. theories of second language learning. new york: routledge, 1987. ministry of education. desired outcomes of education. in http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/desired-outcomes/, retrieved 1 july 2011. morisson, george s. teaching in america. new york: paperback, 2001. richards, j.c. the role of textbooks in a language program. www.professorjackrichards.com/pdfs/role-of-textbooks.pdf, 2001. tim pengembangan mkdk ikip semarang. psikologi perkembangan. semarang: ikip semarang press, 1997. wahyuni. pengajaran bahasa inggris di indonesia. jakarta: grasindo, 1998. linggayani soentoro_vol 12_no 2_dec 2012 a0_depan_celt dec 2012 a1 ok dec 2012 yoseph p101-120 dec8 emd8-22 24 25 jan 22feb13 a2 ok dec 2012 tengsoe p121-141 dec8 emd822 jan 22feb13 a3 ok dec 2012 lingga p142-159 a4 ok dec 2012 ari p160-179 dec10 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice floats like a butterfly: the rumble in the jungle and the art of cooll sudipto sanyajl abstract: this paper discusses the rumble in the jungle, as the 1974 boxing world heavyweight championship bout between muhammad ali and george foreman in kinshasa, zaire is known in popular culture, in the light of robert farris thompson's analysis of the aesthetic of the cool in african tribal culture/so it connects various notions of cool to the creation of the spectacle of ali in the documentary film on the event, when we were kings, and proposes a reading of ali as a sort of culmination o/the idea of american cool. key words: boxing, muhammad ali, cool, identity, when we were kings me, we. muhammadali he was negritude. nonnanmailer, on george foreman 1 this paper was first conceived for prof. supriya chaudhuri's graduate lecture class, performative play: the literature and culture of sport, at jadavpur university, calcutta, and later modified for prof. ellen berry's graduate seminar, theories of american culture studies, at bowling green state university, ohio. 2 sudipto sanyaj,b.a., m.a. <ssanyal@bgsu.edu> is currently an american cultural studies doctoral student at bowling green state university, ohio, usa. he obtained his b.a. and m.a. in english literature from jadavpur university, calcutta, india. s. sanya/, floats like a butterfly:the rumble in the jungle & the art of cool 41 references carr, roy. a century of jazz. london: hamlyn,2006. debord, guy. society of the spectacle. translated by ken knabb. london: rebel press, 2005. early, gerald. 'the lives of jazz', american literary history, vol. 5, no. i (spring, 1993), pp. 129-146. in http://links.jstor.org/ sici?sici=08967148%28199321 %295 %3a 1%3 c 129%3atloj%3 e2.0.co%3b2-4, accessed october 11,2009. early. 'mike's brilliant career: mike tyson and the riddle of black cool', transition, no. 71, 1996: pp. 46-59. in http://links. jstor.orglsici?sici=0041-1191 %28 i 996%290%3a 71 %3c46%3am bc%3e2.0.co%3b2-x accessed october 11,2009. jacobs, bill. 'when we were kings: revisiting the rumble in the jungle.' screen education, issue 47, 2007. in http://o-web.ebscohost.com. maurlce.bgsu.edu/ehostjpdf?vid=2&bid=7 &sid=e5f 175ba-88e24e98-a008-54494f d47b3e%40srcsm2, accessed october ii, 2009. leland, john. hip: the history. new york: harper collins, 2004. majors, richard, and janet mancini billson. cool pose: the dilemmas of black manhood in america. clearwater, fl: touchstone books, 1993. sugden, john. boxing and society: an international analysis. manchester: manchester university press, 1996. the jack paar show. perfs. jack paar, liberace, cassius clay. nbc, 1963. in http://www.youtube.comlwatch?v=dpfzduplhae. access ed october 11,2009. thompson, robert farris. 'an aesthetic of the cool', african arts, vol. 7, no.1, autumn, 1973: pp. 40-43+64-67+89-91. in http://links.jstor.orglsici ?sici=ooo 1-93 3 %28197323 %297%3a 1 % 3 c40%3aaaotc%3e2.0.co%3b2-5,accessedoctober 11,2009. when we were kings. film. directed by leon gast. hollywood, ca: universal studios, 1996. microsoft word 0435-a2c9-1c16-d832 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . oppressions in popular culture’s spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru” 1kenny christian suwandi, 2*ekawati marhaenny dukut, and 3angelika riyandari faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia 117j10001@student.unika.ac.id, 2ekawati@unika.ac.id, 3a.riyandari@unika.ac.id received: 30-03-2021 accepted: 06-06-2021 published: 15-06-2021 mailto:ekawati@unika.ac.id mailto:a.riyandari@unika.ac.id *corresponding author https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj oppressions in popular culture’s spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru” 1 kenny christian suwandi, 2 *ekawati marhaenny dukut, and 3 angelika riyandari 1 17j10001@student.unika.ac.id, 2 ekawati@unika.ac.id, 3 a.riyandari@unika.ac.id faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia abstract: this article is a development of the research done for an undergraduate study, which has the objectives to find the oppressions exercised by mr. krabs in usa’s “drive thru” episode of spongebob squarepants cartoon tv series. using karl marx’s theory in the study, it is revealed that the episode represents the oppressions by the bourgeoisie capitalist towards the proletariat. the data were discussed by using descriptive explanation and were analyzed and interpreted with the finding that the bourgeoisie treated proletariat rudely when it comes about money. as a development of the study, this article adds into the discussion on the explanation of mr. krabs actions based on the concept of popular culture’s strategies of making profit at the expense of the proletariat. key words: popular culture, cartoon, oppression, marxism, profit making abstrak: artikel ini merupakan pengembangan dari penelitian yang dilakukan sebagai bagian dari studi s1, yang bertujuan untuk untuk menemukan penindasan yang dilakukan oleh tuan. krabs pada episode “drive thru” dari serial kartun televisi spongebob squarepants. menggunakan teori karl marx terungkap bahwa episode tersebut merepresentasikan penindasan kaum kapitalis borjuis terhadap kaum proletar. data yang ada dibahas dengan menggunakan penjelasan deskriptif dan dianalisa serta ditafsirkan dengan temuan bahwa kaum borjuis memperlakukan kaum proletar secara kasar dalam hal uang. sebagai kelanjutan dari studi tersebut, artikel ini menambahkan 2 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj penjelasan tentang perbuatan yang dilakukan tuan krabs berdasarkan konsep strategi budaya popular yang mencari keuntungan dengan mengorbankan kaum proletar. kata kunci: karya sastra popular, kartun, penindasan, marxism introduction spongebob squarepants is a cartoon film created by an animator stephen hillenburg, which has been televised since 1979 when it was owned by viacom (tarr & brown, 2013, p. 21). when it was broadcasted for the first time, this cartoon was created for kids. however, since the second season, the stories have changed its target for all ages, as seen in the episodes such as “rock bottom, ugh, patrick’s staycation, plankton’s robotic revenge”, and “drive thru”. in brief, the episode, “drive thru”, starts with a scene at the krusty krab where spongebob is wondering why mr. krabs is filling a hole in the wall with a toothpaste. unfortunately, the toothpaste starts dribbling and causes the hole to crack, making an even greater crack in the wall. a fish and his children then come to the krusty krab and orders from the hole, as they thought it was a drive through window. this incident gives mr. krabs a thought to establish a krusty krab drive through. to start the drive through, spongebob brings in equipment from the diner, but mr. krabs ignores spongebob’s attempt and simply write down the menu ordered on napkins and use tin cans for the microphone. another customer soon orders also from the drive through but spongebob has trouble getting the food out of the window. to enlarge the hole, mr. krabs forcibly breaks another section of the wall again. in another occasion, larry, the lobster who is addicted to body-building and lifting weight, comes with his s.u.b. (sports utility boat). at that time, spongebob has trouble getting the food to him since larry’s s.u.b’s window is so high above the drive through hole. the problem forms a long line of customers through the entire town. to speed the service, mr. krabs makes a second drive through by breaking the other side of the wall. as a result, spongebob and squidward desperately try to give food to all of the customers at both sides. mr. krabs breaks another hole and says "more money!" out of greed, so the whole krusty krab diner cracks and falls apart into a pile of dirt. spongebob jokingly attempts to fix the diner with toothpaste while telling mr. suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 3 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj krabs that they may need to buy more. the episode ends with mr. krabs crying (https://spongebob.fandom.com/wiki/drive_thru). the “drive thru” episode is fascinating to focus on because it portrays of mr. krabs, who is exploiting his employees; a practice that is commonly done in a capitalistic industry. by understanding mr. krabs as a capitalist, who makes his employees work harder than ever to get money for his own good, it is thus, interesting to find out how the story adheres with d’amato’s definition of capitalism. d’amato, (1999 p. 30) states that “capitalism is a society based on the exploitation of the many by the few. because it is founded on massive inequality, it requires various means to oppress and keep down the working class and the poor.” this means that in a capitalistic society, the owner of the capital or people of the rich are the ones that control the working class, who are the laborers, by means of oppressions. with regards to the definition of oppression, coulter (2004, p. 335) states that “oppressions enables those in charge to have access to control resources and choices while making those labelled as inferior vulnerable to poverty, violence and early death,” so, the idea of oppression is central to the capitalistic industry. in the field of literature, the relationship between the capitalist and oppression is discussed within karl marx’s framework, which allows for gender inequality. the discussion of how the capitalist exploited the working class has been discussed in a number of undergraduate thesis. however, the condition of why such a relationship is being shown in the film can be also be explained by the condition of mr. krabs’s position who wanted to popularize his product quickly to gain profit. for this reason, this article will discuss how popular culture helps explain the reason for the conditions of marxism in the film’s plot. literature review historically, spongebob squarepants film was originally shown to the public as a kinetoscope media. it was mute and colorless, and was invented by thomas alfa edison for individual audiences. ever since then, it developed into a colored, speaking cartoon film, which according to albornoz (2016, p. 28), became “the most-viewed feature films in theatres globally during 2012 4 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and 2013.” its popularity among others was shown by the various t-shirts sold with spongebob and his friends’ cartoons on it. doll miniatures that look like spongebob, patrick and mr. krabs have also helped boost up the popularity to children and young adults. pillar (2011, p. 73) mentioned that the cartoon film has even been translated in 25 languages and had amused 170 countries, with brazil being the highest in audience ratings. pillar’s (2011) cartoon and gender: masculinities in spongebob, showed how the male gender was constituted in spongebob squarepants. by analyzing three episodes, pillar sought to understand the effects of meaning related to masculinity and how this signification was constructed in the interplay between visual and sound systems. pillar saw that both the cartoon episodes and the children’s interpretations were analyzed based on the discursive semiotics theory which sought to understand the process of the constitution of the effects of meaning in texts and practices. the results indicated that in discussing the school, what was portrayed was how genders were represented as a way of denaturalizing the process of men and women’s constitution of our culture. marxist analysis has been used in another study. in his research, class conflict in “step up revolution” film prayuda (2019) found that there were two main classes in the film, proletariat and bourgeoisie, which were represented by two major characters in the film. according to prayuda, the film under study was basically telling about the difference between several classes in the city of bikini bottom. in the film, it was described that the mob and the resident of spring garden district were the proletariats, while bill anderson and his company were the bourgeois. prayuda’s study found that the protest done by the proletariats successfully got a lot of support from social networks because of their help for the poor, who revolted against the capitalist. suwandi’s (2020) recent undergraduate research also dealt with how marxism was exercised in spongebob squarepants film, but the focus is in only one episode, ie. “drive thru”. he found that mr. krabs was the representative of the capitalist, and spongebob with his friend squidward were representatives of the proletariats. in addition to marxism, the study on spongebob squarepants has been related to the american dream ideology by tarr & brown (2013). they say, the episodes of “help wanted”, “tea at the treedome”, sweet and sour squid”, and “the googly artiste” are picturing the american landscape. the landscapes reveals that there are real people who would have the “happy-gosuwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 5 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lucky spongebob” who is always in smiles to of “getting hired in a new job”, the meeting with the “self-centered mr krabs”, the “loyal friend” patrick or squid the neighbor who “just do not see eye-to-eye” (tarr & brown, 2013, p. 28). there has not been any article, however, that sees spongebob from a popular culture viewpoint that is combined with marxism ideology. based on the information that various t-shirts and doll miniatures with spongebob and his friends’ caricatures on it have been sold to boost up the popularity to children and young adults; this phenomenon is adhering with the popular culture theory that to increase popularity popular culture producers would mass produce things. the mass production is not only to increase its popularity but also to make possible that it can be bought cheaply by people from all social class (dukut, 2018). the cartoon film spongebob squarepants is a popular film. it has maintained itself as a product of usa’s popular culture by having 56.1 million monthly viewers (tarr & brown, 2013, p. 21). not only in the usa, the film had successfully amused 170 countries, with 25 language translations. this condition adheres with the criteria that popular culture products are usually projected to be widely spread. in more detail, dukut informs that popular culture products also (1) make consumers feel satisfied, (2) are easily accessible, (3) reflect a society’s era, (4) reflect a society’s daily life, (5) are manipulative, (6) are non-sustainable, (7) are concerned with profit making (2018, pp. 11-21) method the method used for the analysis is qualitative method. in analyzing spongebob squarepants film, the oppressions exercised by mr. krabs, the powerful owner, who is representing the capitalistic, bourgeoisie, is compared with spongebob and squidward, the proletariat. in framing the marxism analysis of oppressions in a capitalist industry, however, the background of popular culture profit making conditions are also used as support for mr. krabs’ actions and decision making. in collecting the data, the library research is used. blaxter, hughes & tight explains: there is no doubt that the opportunities for searching information via the internet are enormous. indeed, the accessibility if this information makes it a very attractive source for research…using the internet needs to be systematic and carefully 6 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj manages, and requires you to keep an eye on the quality of the information you are accessing (2016, p. 107). in the library research, books and pdf articles from journals available in the internet are also used to complete the data analysis of the research. the primary research data, which is the cartoon film spongebob squarepants; “drive thru” is taken from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hdvwcuoojm, http://en.spongepedia.org/index.php?title=drive_thru_ (episode), https://spongebob.fandom.com/wiki/squid_on_strike/transcript, https://subscene.com/subtitles/spongebob-squarepants-eighth-season, https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x5746wp results and discussions a. oppressions brought by mr. krabs’ popular culture’s thinking cap oppression is a belief system done by one group who has power to control to make the lower class feel less than the upper class. the oppression exercised by mr. krabs towards his employees starts when mr. krabs discovers the “drive thru” unintentionally in his diner when he fixes a little hole with a toothpaste. dialog 1 shows the conversation mr. krabs has with a customer, who comes and sees through the little hole and assumes that krusty krab diner is putting in a drive through. dialog 1 frank : hey, you guys put in a drive thru! mr. krabs : [confused] we did? frank : great, i'll have three large krabby patties, krabby fries, a krabby cola, and 2 extra-large orders of krabby rings. [sniffs] is this toothpaste? figure 1: a customer assumes that krusty krab is putting in a drive through suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 7 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj although initially mr. krabs does not intend to make a drive through as proven by his reply, “we did?” when answering the customer’s inquiry, the consumer’s initiation provides mr. krabs with the idea to diverse his business. in a popular culture’s viewpoint, the customer’s reaction to the hole that mr. krabs accidentally make is a genius strategy to popularize the business. it gives the opportunity for customers to choose from either dining inside the krusty krabs diner, or just buying food products through the window. this buying through the window is adhering to the concept that a popular culture product is easily accessible and gives satisfaction to customers, who prefer to just buy something quick without sitting for a long time, while waiting for the waiter to finally serve the customers with the food ordered. a drive through is usually available in fast-food diners. this drive through facility is usually made to meet a society’s expectations of the food service, which offers convenience, rapidity and easiness in obtaining the food ordered. because customers would often be sitting in their car waiting for their food to be delivered in an instant. with this condition, customers are also expecting some kind of practical packaging, so they can eat-on-the-go. blešić et al. (2018) argue that the trend of eating in fast-food outlets is influenced by modernization and the fast pace of life by shortening the time it takes to prepare food. customers who choose fast-food are usually expecting “good service staff, prices, menus, ambiance, and comfort” (blešić et al., 2018, p. 258). this is why mr. krabs feels he has the right to manipulate his employees to work harder, in order to give some kind of fast delivery service to comfort his customers who are eagerly waiting for the food ordered. unfortunately, mr. krabs forgot the fact that his same employees are also the ones giving service to his dine-in customers. this is why mr. krabs’ announcement that he wants to open a drive through is responded differently, by spongebob and squidward. while spongebob only says, “a drive--woah!”; in an astonished voice, squidward, who is always the skeptical one, has sensed the brimming of a problem. squidward is foreseeing that the drive through will create extra work for the employees. with only one waiter to deal with customers in the diner, he cannot imagine that the same waiter, ie. spongebob will have the hands to deal with hungry lurking drive through customers, who are asking for a quick service due to a possible queue of other hungry-in-the-car customers. to voice his concern, therefore, squidward responds to mr. krabs by stating directly that mr. krabs’ plan will result in an extra work for him: 8 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dialog 2 squidward : sounds like a lot of extra work to me. mr. krabs : you mean for you. squidward : [pounds cash register] it'll cost you money. mr. krabs : oh nonsense, we'll build it for free! viewing from a marxism perspective, the dialog obviously shows the occurrence of oppression of labor in terms of working hours by mr. krabs to his employees. squidward realizes the extra work he has to do when mr. krabs opens the drive through. however, he cannot do anything but accept the decision since he is only an employee. squidward foresees that he will not only becomes a cashier but also the man who delivers the fast-food to his newly drive through customers. meanwhile, spongebob squarepants is not realizing yet that he will be doubling his duty as a cook and waiter for the customers. knowing that the drive through initiative can increase his profit-making business, mr. krabs actually also realizes that the drive through will definitely prolong his employees’ working hour but as the owner of the capital, he does not care about it, as proven by his saying, “you mean for you” in response to squidward’s statement, “sounds like a lot of extra work for me.” figure 2: squidward does not want to accept this new “drive thru” mr. krabs’ ignorance of his employees’ working hour is the sign of his oppression as the capital owner who has power to his employee who is powerless. figure 2 shows how obvious mr. krabs is in exploiting his employees. forcing the employee(s) to work hard is a typical oppression in capitalism. in dialog 1, squidward who initially has already opposed to the potential of extra work, expresses openly that he hates his present job because suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 9 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj it is too complicated and tiring for him. squidward’s complaint is actually reasonable because the accidental drive through necessitates him to run back and forth from his cash register boat to the drive through service window, which is the hole in the wall. he knows for sure that mr. krabs will not compensate extra pay for his extra work. moreover, he also knows that his waiter friend, spongebob will certainly have no time in dealing with the waiter business and also by being the only cook in the diner, too. however, mr. krabs ignores squidward’s complaint. he even reprimands squidward in dialog 3 below, by yelling “ahoy, squidward” when he thinks that squidward was not serving his customers fast enough. he knows that his customers would be satisfied only if there is faster service. dialog 3 squidward : spongebob, two large, two medium. i hate my job. dale : excuse me, i like to place an order. [squidward walks] mr. krabs : ahoy, squidward. squidward : mr. krabs, i am getting really tired of running back and forth. i find it both exhausting and time consuming. meanwhile, dialog 4 shows another evidence of oppression. here, the oppression is on the negligence to provide a safe working condition for the employee. the safe working condition can be interpreted as a comfortable working space. this condition is adhering also with popular culture’s way of increasing customers’ satisfaction, whereby, a popular place needs to provide a comfortable area, either to enjoy eating the meals provided or as a place to rest for awhile and have a different surrounding as an exchange for the usual kind of home dining. unfortunately, dialog 4 shows off a greedy mr. krabs, who deliberately sets up his business in a way that can bring him more profit by neglecting to provide better equipment for the work load his staff are doing. instead of investing in new equipment for the drive through to increase the popularity of his diner, mr. krabs tells spongebob that he uses napkins to write the menu, tin cans for microphones, and noodles to make a sign. dialog 4 spongebob : hi, mr. krabs. mr. krabs : ahoy, spongebob. what's with all the booty? 10 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj spongebob : i got this new microphone system which everybody hears, the sign with a menu on it, and a colorful arrow from the krusty krab. it even lights up, see? [light goes on] mr. krabs : ok, but i got something better. a menu made with napkins and tape, a microphone system made of tin cans, and this sign... i made it from an old noodle. maximizing the gain of profit to a business is usually done by increasing a number of equipment to result in a fast-making product that are in a mass, and thus can be sold cheaply. however, in this case, mr. krabs did not want to take any money out of his business as a modal for better money making. he instead chose to use whatever equipment and facilities he already has, by neglecting his employees’ work comfort. mr. krabs’ willingness to sacrifice his employees as long as he does not have to spend extra money, is no doubt a sign of oppression. though judged cruelly by his employees, mr. krabs is making ways to manipulate whatever he has to gain as many profits as he can without sacrificing the need to buy additional kitchen equipment. this condition is shown in dialog 5 below where mr. krabs is only focusing on free things that do not necessitate him to use any of the money, he has already collected from his customers and staff’s forcible, and underpaid work: dialog 5 spongebob : i don't get it, mr. krabs. how is this stuff better than what i bought? mr. krabs : i'm sorry, what? spongebob : how is this stuff better? mr. krabs : because it was... [shakes microphone] free! the oppression to his staff is continually seen in dialog 6 where instead of listening to squidward’s complaint and refitting the work place, mr. krabs rearranges the place to fit his goal of producing profit. dialog 6 mr. krabs : [pushes the cash register boat beside the hole in the wall, then pushes the grill along with spongebob suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 11 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj into his office, and finally pushes his chair into the kitchen. then walks back to squidward] squidward : [sarcastically] oh, wonderful. peachy. now how am i supposed to get to spongebob, so i can hand them these order tickets here? mr. krabs : [smashes a hole to his office revealing spongebob] problem solved! spongebob : squidward! hi! squidward : oh, it's days like this that make me wish i had gone back to college. squidward in dialog 6 voices his disagreement with the condition of the working space by stating that he wishes to be somewhere else, ie. the college to be precise. but again, mr. krabs does not pay attention to squidward’s implied complaint because he was very much focused on the potential for profit. the inability to listen to an employee’s problem and follow his own way to gain profit is not only an example of oppression, but it is a show of how mr. krab is not patient enough in achieving the american dream of getting rich quickly without sacrificing to many of mr. krab’s already earned savings. the fact that mr. krabs only thinks about his financial gain while neglecting the employee’s working condition is once again shown in the dialog 7. it is when squidward sarcastically gives a bill to mr. krabs to pay for his surgery. squidward claims that he has to undergo an ear surgery because of the bad working condition, where he has to force his ears into listening to a tin can microphone, which is not clear and definitely not a suitable equipment to substitute for a real microphone. dialog 7 mr. krabs : a bill?! and what is this for? squidward : it's for my ear-replacement surgery! we need a real microphone and speaker! mr. krabs : do you have any idea what a real microphone and speaker costs?! squidward : how much? mr. krabs : well...they cost as much as...as uh...as a... real microphone and... speaker. 12 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in dialog 7, mr. krabs is seen to avoid taking the responsibility and insist to use the old existing equipment. his confusion to answer squidward’s question on the price of the equipment proves that mr. krabs does not even try to check on the price of the equipment, let alone to buy new ones. mr. krabs’ stinginess is not only on the case of new equipment for his employee. it goes further to the customer who is supposed to be served well. mr. krabs’s negligence toward the customer’s needs is shown by the scene when frankie billy asks mr. krabs to compensate his dry-cleaning bill because spongebob spilled the food onto him as result of a too narrow drivethrough window, and the realization of mr. krabs’ order to serve his customers quickly. yet, in reply, mr. krabs refuses to give the money to frankie billy; instead, he breaks the window to make the hole wider. dialog 8 mr. krabs : [billy walks by] can i help you? [billy gives mr. krabs a bill] what?! a bill?! what's this for? frankie billy : it's for my dry cleaning. your drive-through window is getting smaller now. size-wise, i mean. mr. krabs : [crashed the drive-through window with a mallet] there, problem solved. [smiling] as shown in dialog 8, mr. krabs’ love for money even goes worse by asking his customer to compensate him with money because the customer breaks an inadequate equipment. figure 3: mr. krabs crashes the little hole with hammer to create a big hole. the form of the capitalist’s oppression exists in the form of exploitation to the proletariat. mr. krabs as the owner of the drive through exploits not only the suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 13 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj employee by giving them bad conditioned working space, but also the customer by charging them for the damage (read dialog 9). it is obvious here that mr. krabs, the capitalist, is always finding the opportunity to get money even from the small mistake that someone makes. dialog 9 larry : woah woah. whoopsy! mr. krabs : [notices the can fall of] hey! you delinquent! squidward : now you have to replace it. mr. krabs : replace what? squidward : the microphone! mr. krabs : what do i look like? am i made out of tin cans? squidward : no but that pile of tin cans over there is [points to a pile of tin cans]. mr. krabs : good thing we have you around to always point out the obvious! squidward : good thing you're around to never notice the obvious! larry : [watches mr. krabs fix the microphone] sorry about that dude. mr. krabs : well, that's nice! i'm still billing you for the damages. from a popular culture point of view, the oppression carried out by mr. krabs is not good for the longevity of his business. in order to maintain a constant popularity, mr. krabs should have found ways not only to satisfy his customers but also his employees. although at first, mr. krabs may have to take money out from his savings to purchase the correct equipment to make his business going, the money he used for his capital assets could have returned quickly with the right way of promoting his products. additionally, although, as a consequence, he may have to hire more people, the salary he may have to give to the staff may well be quickly returned when the same staff could successfully promote the business by having many customers come and purchase many of the products produced by krusty krab. in popular culture’s terms, massed produced products from many staff will have produced cheaper products. these same cheap products will eventually help cover up the expenses already paid for running the business. unfortunately, in mr. krabs case, he is willing to get financial gain, only when 14 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj he can get his employees and customers to sacrifice for him rather than he sacrificing first for the future success of his business. b. social class representations in spongebob squarepants “drive thru” in this cartoon film, two social classes are being portrayed. the first one is the bourgeoisie represented by mr. krabs and the proletariat is represented by squidward and spongebob. mr. krabs, the bourgeoisie is the owner of capital, who dominates production, and who often oppresses weaker classes. as stated earlier also, the bourgeoisie is the owner of capital who dominates production and who often oppresses weaker class (ritzer, p. 60). mr. krabs has been consistently shown as a capitalist. he practices exploitative ways to make the money flows smoothly with his workers suffering from their low salary, which did not compensate for their hard work, like exemplified in dialog 10 below. dialog 10 mr. krabs : hmm? spongebob! i ain't paying you to play dress up! [squidward becomes exasperated, and sighs deeply] breathe on your own time. i don't pay you to breathe. squidward : you hardly pay us at all. mr. krabs : oh, that reminds me. i got something for you. [he hands his employees envelopes.] squidward : what is this!?! you're making me pay you to stand at the cash register? what is the meaning of this? have you gone off the deep end. in the bill, it is shown that squidward as an employee has to ridiculously pay up $1 for breathing, $5 for talking, $10 for standing, etc. which is making squidward angry. this dialog blows up how mr. krabs, the bourgeoisie, is taking advantage of others for the desire to expand the business, in addition to financial gain. as mentioned, the bourgeoisie or capitalist is on the need to generate money. the bourgeoisie makes the lower class do their works and get the benefits. the bourgeoisie is indeed as the one to do the exploitation. they are the owner of the property and they are the one who makes the rules. figure 4 shows the natural characteristic of the bourgeoisie, who always try to expand the market through all nations (habib, 2005, p. 528). this is suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 15 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj why mr. krabs is showing no mercy to laborers who does not want to work for him by his rules. figure 4: mr. krabs showing no mercy for the laborers in a marxist viewpoint, it is ordinary to find a bourgeois, whose nature is always to extend, enlarge, and develop their wings throughout the world. this is because, it is their natural desire to expand the market. to a businessman who understands the strategy of popular culture, having his products globalized will make ways for gaining profit. as a proletariat, the working class, or also known as the minority class, spongebob and squidward have no capital. although often oppressed, unfortunately, they can only sell their own labor in order to survive because there is nothing else, they can sell (habib, 2005, p. 528). squidward, spongebob squarepants and patrick star’s neighbor, works as the cashier of the krusty krab diner. as spongebob squarepants’ coworker, he is an exceptionally critical, and stick-in-the-mud kind of person. squidward (see figure 5) would often complain to mr. krabs because he believes that as employees, he and spongebob should have some kind of rights to be fought for and seized. however, the fact that squidward is the laborer, the working class, the proletariat, makes him unable to get the justice he fights for. mr. krabs’, who unwillingly listens to him nor make any fixations to the working place’s condition. it is a typical fate that squidward should be suffering as a 16 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj proletariat, the powerless class. because of that, he always loses a fight because he is not the owner of the capital. figure 5: squidward the cashier meanwhile, spongebob (see figure 6), the other character that belongs to the proletariat class is a different person from squidward. being a childish and blissful sea-sponge who lives comfortably in a pineapple with his pet gary the snail within the city of bikini bottom, spongebob with his good-natured, always cheerful self; never shows his disappointment to mr. krabs. it is not because he does not experience any suffering, yet it is because he does not know that he is being suffered or oppressed by mr. krabs. as a broil cook in krusty krab diner, who doubles his work as a waiter for customers, spongebob always sees himself as a talented cook that is being appreciated by mr. krabs. figure 6: spongebob squarepants suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 17 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in real life, there are in fact two kinds of proletariates. one who knows that he is being oppresed by the capitalist, and one who does not know, or pretends to not know that he is being oppressed, in so far as he gets the pay he needs for a living. these pretending-not-to-know proletariates do not want to protest because they do not want any trouble. the explanation for this, is most likely because, they had a hard time in finding a job and, therefore, do not want to be fired just because they protested to their boss. for these proletariats, so long as they get their wage earnings, they will keep quiet and work as happily as they can be. conclusion many things in popular culture can be taken as an object of a research study such as the study of comics, and graphics novel, yet this study proves that the cartoon film, spongebob square pan’s episode of “drive thru” is a product of popular culture that can be analyzed in a serious way. by using marxism, this study finds that the relationship of the bourgeoise and proletariat can represent a true society. as shown in the discussion, spongebob squarepant’s episode of “drive thru” shows the relationship between the bourgeoise, mr. krabs and the proletariat, squidward and spongebob, who are mr. krabs’ employees. as proletariats, both of the employees have sold their labors to the owner of the capital. although found oppressed, squidward and spongebob have no choice but to do extra work to give mr. krabs the profit he needs. the reason for mr. krabs’s oppression to his employees is among others wanting to fulfill the characteristics of popular culture, which is providing good service to customers who would feel relaxed and comfortable with the place. popular culture businessmen believes that one of the ways in giving satisfaction to customers is being able to produce mass produced products, which can ensure a cheap price to the vast range of menu that customers can easily choose from a diner like krusty krab. for this reason, squidward expresses that there should have been modern kitchen equipment to ease the work load of the employees. unfortunately, mr. krabs did not want to provide any additional equipment in his kitchen as it means he would need to take out his savings to purchase them. this is why, he labored spongebob to make as many foods at a rapid time. although transformed to an employee, who suddenly have hundreds of hands working to mass produce the ordered food, 18 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj spongebob stays quiet because he cannot find any other job than being in krusty krab diner. squidward, however, protested at the beginning, but at the end also stayed quiet. the quietness from both, however, have made the place in chaos due to overworked employees and improper business facility management. mr. krabs exercise of using his full power is a form of greed for a marxist power. he probably knows it is wrong to do so, but he does not care because he aims for a popular krusty krab that is globally successful with the minimal means of investment. in the end, however, mr. krabs can only cry at the downfall of his cherished krusty krab. references albornoz, l. a. (2016). diversity and the film industry: an analysis of the 2014 uis survey on feature film statistics unesco. http://dx.doi.org/10. 15220/978-92-9189-190-0-en blaxter, l., hughes, c. & tight, m. (2016). how to research, 2 nd ed. philadelphia: open university press. https://silo.tips/download/howto-research-second-edition blešić, i., popov-raljić, j., pivac, t., & ivkov, m. (2018). factors influencing students’ choice of fast food diners. ekonomika poljoprivrede, 65(1), 257–268. https://doi.org/10.5937/ekopolj1801257b coulter, j. (2004). what is oppression. human studies, 335–340. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:huma.0000042125.97271.a0 d’amato, p. (1999). oppression and marxism. international socialist review, 29–37. https://isreview.org/sites/default/files/pdf/09-marxismoppression.pdf dukut, e. m. (2018). the use of digital media in the classroom (penggunaan media digital di dalam krelas). semarang: universitas katolik soegijapranata. http://repository.unika.ac.id/17809, https://scholar.google.com/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=109762945802055 84026&btni=1&hl=en suwandi, k.c., dukut, e.m. & riyandari, a., oppressions in popular culture’s 19 spongebob squarepants episode of “drive thru”. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj feng, z. (2006). a contemporary interpretation of marx’s thoughts on modernity. frontiers of philosophy in china, 1(2), 254–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11466-006-0007-6 flick, u., ernst v.k & ines s. (2004). a companion to qualitative research. london: sage publications. https://www.researchgate.net/file.postfilel oader.html?id=5773903a3d7f4b 10bb0f1c61&assetkey=as%3a378242109329411%401467191354760. habib, m.a.r. a history if literary criticism (from plato to the present . malden: blackwell publishing. 2005. print. http://shiraz.fars.pnu.ac.ir/portal/fi le/showfile.aspx?id=e95be9b 2622c-422f-a038-896ebe350d58 http://en.spongepedia.org/index.php?title=drive_thru_ (episode). https://spongebob.fandom.com/wiki/squid_on_strike/transcript https://subscene.com/subtitles/spongebob-squarepants-eighth-season https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x5746wp pillar, a. (2011). cartoon and gender: masculinities in spongebob. international journal of education through art, 7(1), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1386/eta.7.1.69_1. prayuda, o. w. (2019). class conflict analysis in step up revolution film by using marxism criticism. http://repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/1 23456789/45831/1/oka% 20wahyu%20prayuda-fah.pdf ritzer, g. sociological theory, 8 th ed. new york: mcgraw-hill. 2011. print. https://www.amazon.com/george-ritzer-sociological-theoryeighth/dp/b004hmaid6 suwandi, k. c. (2020). marxist analysis of oppressions in spongebob squarepants episode “drive thru”. unpublished graduate thesis, universitas katolik soegijapranata, semarang. http://repository.unika.ac.id/24535/ synopsis of spongebob squarepants episode: drive thru https://spongebob.fandom.com/wiki/drive_thru 20 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 1 – 20 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj tarr, b.a. & brown, t.j. (2013). of theory and praxis: spongebob squarepants and contemporary constructions of the american dream. american international journal of contemporary research, 3 (11), pp. 20-29. http://www.aijcrnet.com/journals/vol_3_no_11_novembe_2013/3.p df. the influence of english reading habit on the students' acillevementin literary related subjects: a research report' heny hartono2, marini paulp and antonius suratno" abstract: this article is a rnearch report abolll ihe injll1(1l~:/.'y>f, english i"('ading iulbil on ihe stlldl'iiis' achiel'emelll illlilera . i.h~ ... ~'··. ,iii! sllbjects: prost' i, prose 2, dral1la i, drama 2, al/d poel,.... i~!. thae ai"(' 11\'0 \'{/ria/j!es ill li,is resl'arch: ihl' ellglish re,~din <e!rjj).ii.;~· as illdl'pent/elll i'trriabil' alld sllidellls' aclliel'el/l('111 as dltl!li r~ p.!i.p.p." l'aria"'l'. the dala are obl(lilled ihrollgh l/1ic'slio//lw/i":e, docl/l1il'liialioli, a/l(l ill ic'itil'h'. fllrtlll'mlort'. il is atlclly::.c'c/ usillg prot/ile/-moilil'lil correlalioll. the /'t'mll of procillcl-momc'1i1 c orre/alioll siioil's ihal ihal tllere is a corrdatioll betll'een ellglish readillg iwl}it allcl sliulellts' achiel'emellf illlllosl' siibjects. the result sholl's tl/(/ithl' scot'(' of correlalion prot/iici-alolllt'lll is higher ihall score of r·labk thai is 0.-101-155 > 0.339. ii is founclthal detamillalll coefficit'llf is 0.161 i 67. ii'hich mealls tht' injll1l'liet' ofeliglish readillg hahil 011 lilt' .huc/nlls' achiel'elllelll is 16.12c?c. ii indicates ihat ellglish rcadillg i/ll/jil is 1101 the 11i0.l't doll/illl/llt factor ii'iiieil illj7i1ell(,('s .i'1iidl'iii.1'· lichic'i'c'mcl/l ill thosc .wijjcct.l'. iii olha words. ihe iilciw/sl' (~r stile/ellis' lichic'\'('l1iem is 1101 ollly delt'mlillcr/ by iheir readillg 'ull} it. hili lil.w il~/ii1c'ii('c'd hy mhe i' it/clot's. slich (/s ill1elligellcc'. (/plillll/i'. ii/olil'(/fioll. school (/iu/jtllllily l'ii\'i''olill/i'iii, {('(/chc'rs. lilid titcilitin il/d"dillg hooks (/1it! lihmrin. key worcls: iil11"i'ii('(', e.llglish relldillg iii/hit, .i/"t/ellf.1 . (/c/ri('\'('ii/(,lit this artidt: is a devdopment of an s i the~i~ that wa~ dekndt:d in 2005. hen), hartono, s.s., mpd. is a it:ctulw at faculty of leiters, soegijapnlll'lia catholic university. scmarang. marini pauli, s.s. is an alumnae of the faculty of lellt:rs. soegijapranata catholic university. semarang. drs. antonius suratno, m.a. is a lecturer at faculty of leiters. soegijapranata catholic university. semarang. 156 celt. volume 5, number 2, december 2005 : 155 164 background as stated by brown (2000: i ), learning a second language is a long and complex undertaking. every person has different reasons and purposes in learning a second language but mainly he or she wants to be proficient in it. apart from individual different purposes, during the second language learning process, each learner must be exposed to both the spoken and written forms of the target language. it means in certain level, each learner will not only deal with oral verbal activity but he or she will also deal a lot with reading activity. grabe and stoller (2002:2) state that many people in multilingual settings need to read in a second language at reasonably high levels of proficiency, especially to achieve personal, occupational, and professional goals. meanwhi ie, there are several reasons why reading activity itself is important for second language learners. more specifically, for students of faculty of letters who regard english as a foreign language, reading in english is important for some reasons. mikulecky (1998:iv) writes about the reasons why reading is important for students: reading in english helps students learn to think in english. reading in english helps students build your english vocabulary. reading in english makes students more comfonable with writing in english. reading in english can help if students plan to study in an english speaking country. overall, reading in english is one way to get exposure to english because indonesian students live in a country where english is regarded as a foreign language. within a foreign language setting. exposure to english is quite limited students will only have opportunities to deal with english when they are in class. to get more exposure towards the target language, students need to do self-study. which can be done through reading. therefore, reading is assumed to be one factor. which may influence the students' proficiency. based on the facts presented above. the writers are encouraged to conduct a research on students' reading habit. the writers are interested in investigating how english reading habit influence students' achievement in english classes. the classes observed are literary related subject classes in english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university which include drama, prose, and poetry analysis classes. those classes are chosen since those literary related subjects involve a lot of reading activities. h. hartolio, m. pauli and a. suratno, the innuence of english reading 157 reading habit and the advantages of reading through reading habit according hornby (1995:968) "reading means action of person who reads." whereas habit is a thing that a person does often and almost without thinking. especially something that is hard to stop doing." based on the definition which has been given by hornby. reading habit can be defined as the frequency of how often the person does an activity to read books including literature books. stories. magazines. newspapers etc. reading through reading habit brings some advantages for us. first. good habit is assumed to be able to improve individual's characteristic as a better person. as stated by gie ( 1984) university students need to have and build good habits in order to be able to finish their study with the highest score and to face a new life. moreover. subyakto (1993: 113) says. "reading is one way for language learning. to increase our knowledge and to increase our ability in using the language and to increase the students' mastery of vocabularies."lt means that someone who wants to read well needs to build a strong vocabulary. meanwhile. to build a strong vocabulary. he or she needs to read well. using literature to build reading habit literature is used in esl and efl classes because the literary texts of literature can contribute and help the students in language learning. especially in reading. having literature in esl and efl classes will give some benefits in motivating students to achieve successful reading program. yopand yop( 1991: 132 as cited in day and bamford. 1998:96) state "providing students with motivating materials and involving them in a variety of interesting activities are critical to a successful reading program." basically. the main purpose of lising literature in the reading program is to encourage and develop skills of literary analysis and language. literature is liseful for the language enrichment. collie and slater ( 1987:4) says. "language enrichment is one benefit often sought through literature." it means that using literature will help the students to be able to broaden and enrich their own writing skills. it is because literature provides a rich context where lexical or syntactical items are made more memorable. 158 celt, volume 5, number 2, december 2005: 155 164 achievement hornby (1995: i 0) says that achievement is a thing done successfully, especially with effort and skill. english reading habit is one of many factors that can help us to the increase of achievement. as it has been widely known, books arc the source of everything. it is the source of information, knowledge, inspiration, and many more. as stated by salam (2004: 48, 49, 52): membaca bl/kll merupak{lil kebias{ulii yang baik yang bergllna iil/ilik menambah pengelllllllall, melllll/jang kemampllan berpiki,. krilis. mcliililljllhkan sara/-sara! bam eli olak dan dapar mcnyc'liclilgkal/ i/{/ri. (translation: reading books is a good habit to enrich knowledge, critical thinking and fun) moreover, english reading habit makes us directly or indirectly increase our vocabulary. it can be seen that someone who reads encyclopedia will get a lot of general knowledge, whereas those who read novels. short stories. poetry and other sources related to literature will get a lot of knowledge in literature, especially in building new words. day and bamford ( 1998:4) state that gelling achievement. however. is also supported by high motivation. in this case, the motivation will make the students read more and more. murcia (200 i: 199) says. "there is. however, a significant body of research that argues that motivation has an important impact on reading development." she also says that motivation makes a real difference in student's reading development. moreover. vemoli (1971: i 06 as cited in downing and leong j 982:251) states that "it is gcnemlly considercd that reading achievemcnt is increased by strong achievement motivation." since there is a motivation to increase the knowledge in order to get a good mark in class. there must be a will to develop and build the reading habit. the relationship between english reading haiht and students' achievement according to jassin (1983:4) "karya sastra akall sclalu mel/(/rik perlwriall karella mellgrmgkapkan pcllglw.vatall mal/usia yang paling dalam. ylliru pelja/llllall mdupnya di segala tempat di dunia illi" {translation: literary works will always be interesting because it reveals man's h. harlono, m. pauli and a. suratno, the influence of english reading 159 understanding of his life journey all over the place in the world). based on the fact that through literature (stories) we can also explore this life, it can be said that the more readers read, the more they get from it. it increases their knowledge that finally brings them to the increase of intelligence. furthermore. the higher the increase of intelligence, the higher the achievement they get. research objectives .#~¥.f~ this study .is conducted to achiev~ the follo~ing goals: . . ~£'(dt~)\i i. to ftnd out whether there is or there is not any relatlonshlp~~~n:~) english reading habit and students' achievement in literarx.~re1~l subjects (prose analysis i. prose analysis 2. drama analysis i;l-dliiffiil":' analysis 2. and poetry analysis). ") to see how far the english reading habit influence students' achievement in those subjects. research methodology the instruments used in this study arc: questionnaire. documentation (students' transcript). and interview. the participants of this research are s i students of faculty of letters soegijapran'lta catholic university semarang from academic year 2001. there are 34 students involved in this study. the questionnaire is used to gain data about students' reading habits while the interview is used to support the results of the questionnaire. whereas doculllentation is a tool to obtain data about students' marks in literature rdated subjects. the data from the qucstionnaire and students' marks arc proccssed using the product-moment correlation to scc the correlation between the variahles. the formula is presented bdow: rxy n.l xy (lx) (ly) meaning of symbols: rxy = coefficient of correlation between english reading habit and students achievement. lx y = sum of scores of x (reading habit) times y (student's' achievement) lx = sum of scores of reading habit 160 celt. volume 5. number 2. december 2005 : 155 164 l y = sum of scores of student's achievement lx 2 = sum of squares of english reading habit ly2 = sum of squares of student's achievement n = number of subjects that is observed data analysis and interpretation a. result of questionnaire st.answ qi q2 q3 q4 q5 q6 q7 v.often i i 0 0 3 3 2 often 7 7 3 8 11 9 10 q.often 16 7 5 9 10 11 13 seldom 7 14 14 14 8 8 7 a.never 3 5 12 3 2 3 2 table i: ovcnall rcsult question i q8 i 16 9 7 i q9 qio qii 2 7 5 10 11 9 11 8 10 8 5 7 3 3 3 the data shows that the students have enough interest in reading short stories even though they do not do the activity frequently or very frequently. question 2 it means that most students are not interested in reading simplified novels. question 3 similar with liuestion number 2. the result of this questionnaire indicates that the students rarely read complete novels. question 4 most students choose the option seldom. it means that they also i'al'dy read english poetry. question 5 based un the tabk. we can sec that the students have good english reading habit. the text they read arc english stories in newspaper. magazine. bulletin. etc. question 6 the highest number of students' answer is quire (~frell. this result leads us to the conclusion that the students have quite good reading habit. in this case to read synopsis on the internet. h. hartono, m. pauli alld a. suratllo, the influence of english readi ng 161 question 7 more than half of the students choose the option oftell and quite often. it proves that the habit of students in reading english literature is good enough. question 8 through the question number 8. the students admit that they usually read literature from english sources when they get assignment from their teachers! lecturers. question 9 the response of the students through this question indicates that the difficulties in english realling do not make them give up continuing their reading. even they still continue their reading. question 10 the result shows that most of the students read literature based on their free will. question 11 the differences in options among the respondents 'ojin! and quite (~fiell' indicate that half of the students have a good habit in reading literature. b. the relationship between english reading habit and students' achievement in literary related subjects in calculating the correlation product-moment. x is the total slim of english reading habits. and y is the total sum of students' achievement. the table of x and y is presented below: nr x ! y x: ..... : i xl' i i i ! i 35 ii 1225 i 121 385 2 ~ 16 1156 2)() 544 3 35 18 1225 324 630 4 18 12 324 144 216 5 38 ii 1444 121 4h~ 6 47 17 22cjj 289 7g:) 162 celt. volume 5. number 2. december 2005 : 155 164 nr x y x~ y~ xy 7 '57 9 1369 81 333 8 17 7 289 49 119 9 29 10 841 100 290 10 33 12 1089 144 396 ii 40 15 1(00 225 (ill 12 24 13 576 100 312 13 38 12 1444 144 456 14 38 12 1444 144 456 15 34 12 1156 144 408 16 32 ii 1024 121 352 17 26 19 676 361 494 18 xl 7 400 49 140 19 19 ii 361 121 200 xl 25 9 625 81 225 21 31 13 961 100 403 22 32 9 1024 81 288 23 34 ii 1156 121 374 24 29 13.5 841 182,25 391.5 25 37 9 1369 81 333 26 47 12 2200 144 564 27 32 15 1024 225 480 2h 29 12 841 144 348 29 44 3) 1936 400 880 30 30 10 t..xx) 1m 300 31 39 12 1521 144 4(1x 32 2'5 10 62'5 j(x) 250 33 34 15 1156 225 510 34 32 17 1024 289 544 sum 1094 422.5 37~ 5593.25 13915.5 table 2: preparation calculation on product moment h. harlono, m. pauli and a. suratno, the influence of english reading 163 the calculation of product moment is as follows: r=~==n=(u~y=)-#(u==x=~y=)==~ ~{nr.x 2 (u 2 ){my 2 (~y f }} 34.13915,5 1094.422,5 ~{34.37064 1094 2 r34.5593,25 422,5 2 } 473127-462215 ~{1260176-1196836ri90170.5-178506,25} 10912 = -;:;::=====::::;r ~{63340.11664,25} 10912 = '~=73=8=81=3=59=5 10912 =---27181,126 = 0,401455 the result of calculation shows that the score of product-moment (r) is higher than score of r-table. that is 00401455> 0.339. furthermore. it is found that determinant coefficient is 0040 i 455: = o. i () i i () 7. it means that the influence of english rending habits on students' nchievement is 16. i 2%. while the other 83.8817c is influenced by other factors. what are the ractors? explain. the result of interview indicates that the other factors come from hoth internal and external flleto!' sheh as intelligence. aptitude. motivation. interest. self-study. school environment, family cl1\ironment. facilities including books. lind tcacher ... conclusion and suggestion the results of this study show that there is a significant correlation between english reading habit and students' achievement in literary related subjects. the result indicates that english reading habit contributes about 16, i 2% to the students' achievement. while the rest factors are influenced by intelligence, aptitude. motivation. interest. self-study, environment, facilities 164 celt, volume 5. number 2. december 2005 : 155 164 including books. and teachers. although reading habit is not the most dominant factor that influence students' achievement, it has a significant correlation with it, so english teachers should motivate the students to read as many english books as possible. moreover, this study can be a reference to english learners to increase english reading habit and for further research it is suggested to involve broader respondents in order to get a more valid correlation. bibliography brown. h. d. principles of ulii!:liage learnill!: alld teachillg. 4'h ed. new york: longman. 2000. collie. j. and s. slater. 1987. literatllre ill the uliigllage classroom. cambridge: cambridge university press. 1987. day. r. r. and j.bamford. extellsii'l' rellding ill the secol/d uliirllage class/'()om. cambridge: cambridge university press. 1998. downing. j. and c. k. leong. psychology of reac/illg. usa: macmilan publishing. 1982. gie, t. l. kemajllall stlldi. no 3. yogyakarta: yayasan studi iimu dan tekhnologi. 1984. grabe. w. and f. stoller. teachillg lilill researchillg reac/illg. england: pearson education. 2002. hornby. a s. oxford ad\'{/ilced leame,. 's dictiol/al'y. 5'h ed. ox ford: ox ford un i versi i v press. 1995. jasin. h.g 7ifa pellya;r c/all daem/lllya. jakarta: gunung agung. 1965. mikulecky. b. and l. jeffries. read;lig power 2,,·1 c'ci. new york: longman inc. 1998. murcia. m. c. teachillg eiirli.~" a.l' secolld ami foreigll [..iii/gl/age 3'./ eel. usa: heinle & heinle. 200 i. salam. b.cara bdajal' yallg siik-h'.\' tli pel:~i1""llll 7illggi. jakarta: rineka cipta. 2(x)4. subyaklo. s.u.n. metoc/ologi pellgajal'clli bahasa. jakarta: pt gramedia puslaka. 1993. logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia interpersonal relationship to tackle at-risk students: a case study in efl learning katharina rustipa english language and literature program, faculty of language and cultural studies, universitas stikubank (unisbank) semarang, indonesia email: katrin_esde@yahoo.co.id received: 03-12-2017 accepted: 18-04-2018 published: 21-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interpersonal relationship to tackle at-risk students: a case study in efl learning katharina rustipa katrin_esde@yahoo.co.id english language and literature program, faculty of language and cultural studies, universitas stikubank (unisbank) semarang, indonesia abstract: this study investigated interpersonal relationship to tackle at-risk students’ low competence, inactive class participation, misbehave. this research especially aims at knowing how positive, supportive teacher-at risk student relationship can enhance the student’s learning outcome, how teacher-student relationship can enhance students’ motivation, can activate the atrisk students. this study is descriptive in nature held in a classroom context in sentence writing class in stikubank university (unisbank) semarang, indonesia. the results of the study revealed how the at-risk student’s perception on teacher’s affective qualities can affect their learning outcome. it is concluded that the more positive the at-risk student’s perception on the teacher-student relationship, the higher the learning outcome she/ he achieves. the positive at-risk students’ perception on their teacher’s affective qualities makes them achieve the learning outcome successfully. this is because they feel that their teacher creates a safe and trustful environment that makes them feel free to share difficulties. thus, supportive and caring teacher-at risk student relationship is essential in teachinglearning process. key words: interpersonal relationship, at-risk students, learning outcome abstrak: penelitian ini menyelidiki hubungan interpersonal untuk menangani kompetensi yang rendah, ketidakaktifan serta perilaku kurang baik dari mahasiswa ‘beresiko’. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui bagaimana hubungan positif dosen dan mahasiswa ‘beresiko’ rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 207 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dapat meningkatkan prestasi mahasiswa ‘beresiko’, bagaimana hubungan tersebut dapat meningkatkan motivasi, dapat mengaktifkan mahasiswa ‘beresiko’. penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif, dilaksanakan selama pembelajaran writing di universitas stikubank (unisbank) semarang, indonesia. hasil penelitian mengungkap bagaimana persepsi mahasiswa ‘beresiko’ terhadap kualitas sikap dosen dapat mempengaruhi hasil belajar mereka. kesimpulan penelitian adalah bahwa semakin positif persepsi mahasiswa ‘beresiko’ terhadap hubungan interpersonal antara dosen dan mahasiswa, semakin tinggi hasil belajar yang dia raih. persepsi yang positif memfasilitasi mahasiswa untuk meraih capaian pembelajaran. hal ini karena mahasiswa ‘beresiko’ merasa bahwa guru mereka menciptakan lingkungan yang aman dan dapat dipercaya yang membuat mereka merasa bebas untuk mengungkapkan kesulitankesulitan yang mereka hadapi. oleh karena itu, hubungan yang positif, penuh perhatian antara dosen dan mahasiswa ‘beresiko’ penting dalam proses pembelajaran. kata kunci: hubungan interpersonal, mahasiswa ‘beresiko’, capaian pembelajaran introduction education is a system comprising input, process, outcome. it is often defined as a productive system in which inputs are transferred into outcome. the achievement of the learning outcome is influenced by the quality of the inputs and process. inputs provide material and immaterial for the teaching and learning as the primary transformation process. scheereen et al. (2011, p. 43) state that a well-qualified and motivated teaching force is to be seen as one of the most vital assets for education quality. and students as the raw material of education production process are the main producers of learning and the attainment of learning results. thus, the quality of the students which among others is determined by their general intelligence really influences the attainment of learning results. it is hypothesized that the more qualified the students are, the more likely that they can achieve the learning outcome more easily. this will facilitate the teacher’s task to transfer knowledge and to guide the students to construct knowledge. on the other hand, the less qualified students usually will find more difficulties to attain the learning outcome. and it’s always a demanding and challenging task for a teacher to transfer knowledge and to guide the less intelligent students to construct knowledge. these demanding and challenging tasks are almost always faced by most 208 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lecturers in most less favorite private tertiary educational institutions. this study was triggered by my attempt to find a way to solve the challenge. the matter above is understandable because there is a paradigm in the society that state tertiary educational institutions are better than private tertiary educational institutions. this makes the students to firstly enroll in state tertiary educational institutions. and if they are not accepted in state tertiary educational institutions, they move to enroll in private tertiary educational institutions. so, it is more likely that private tertiary educational institutions only get the residue from the state tertiary educational institutions. our society classifies private tertiary educational institutions into favorite and less favorite institutions. the students usually will firstly enroll to the favorite institutions, then lastly they will enroll to the less favorite institutions. so it can be predicted concerning the student inputs of the private tertiary educational institutions judged as less favorite. because of having low quality students, various problems arise. the problems can be refined into the problems of motivation, behavior, cooperation, and care. i call the students having those characteristics above as at-risk students who are potential for failure. downey (2008, p.56) notes that research has shown the effectiveness of good teacher-student interaction and instructional strategies to help students who are at risk of academic failure. the root of the problems above is low-quality student inputs and teacherstudent relationship because interpersonal relationship which is positive and supportive between teachers and students in the classroom can affect the students’ interest and motivation which in turn will contribute to the improvement of the learning process. da luz (2015) explains that a supportive teacher is one who creates efficiently a positive classroom environment, who encourages students to behave well in the classroom and to be motivated. based on those reasons above, i investigated teacher’s interpersonal relationship with at-risk students to enhance the students’ motivation as an attempt to help the lecturers to activate the at-risk students. specifically, this study investigated the influence of the at-risk students’ perception on the teacher-student relationship towards the students’ learning outcome. the learning outcome is not only in the form of hard skill/ knowledge but soft skills such as social values are also important. the good teacher’s relationship with the student is a model of social values and skills that can become an exposure to be imitated by the students. rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 209 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this study was held in unisbank, in english department. in every academic year, english department of unisbank recruits at average 70 new students. the selection of new students is not tight, so we also recruit at-risk students who have the problems with motivation as mentioned above. the research questions to be answered in this study can be stated as follows: how can teacher-student relationship increase the students’ motivation and interest in learning the content taught? is there positive relationship between the students’ perception on the teacher-student relationship and their learning outcome? thus, the null hypothesis of this study can be defined as “there is no relationship between the students’ perception on the teacher-student relationship and their learning outcome.” this study is significant in that the research results can add to the current literature on the benefit of the relationship between teachers and atrisk students. practically, the research results will help teachers learn about how interpersonal relationship between teacher and at-risk students can help to improve their learning process, how interpersonal relationship can help the students enhance their performance in acquiring the learning content. studies on teacher-student relationship have been conducted by educational researchers with various purposes. gablinske (2014) investigated the factors of teacher-student interaction that enhance the learning environment. the research subjects of this study are approximately 700 students and 75 teachers of elementary school in east bay rhode island. the study revealed that strong teacher-student relationship and its specific components (such as praise, listening, proximity, courtesy, compliment, individual help, touching) were considered essential for the students’ learning environment. knoell (212) explored the teacher’s characteristics that affect the students’ perception of their relationship with their teacher, and the correlation between students’ performance and students’ perception of the teacher-student relationship. the research participants are the fifth graders of two mid-western rural elementary schools on either end of the poverty spectrum. the study revealed a list of teacher’s characteristics most-valued by students in both schools, i.e. a sense of humor, consistent help, active listening; value for the group as well as the individual, the inclusion of games for learning, and the use of spoken and written encouragement. downey (2008) conducted a study to examine classroom practices that made a difference for all students, but especially for at-risk students. the 210 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj research results showed that teacher’s personal interaction with his/her students made a significant difference. it was reported that sense of belonging was an important product of a strong teacher-student relationship that is critical to a student’s success in school. the similarities between this current study and the previous studies are they all explored the teacher-student relationship. the differences between this current study and the studies above are as follows: the first study investigated the factors of teacher-student interaction that enhance the learning environment, while the latter explored the students’ perception on the teacherstudent relationship towards their learning outcome. both the second and this current study investigated the correlation between students’ performance and students’ perception of the teacher-student relationship, the difference is that the research participants of the former are young learners, while those of the latter are adult learners. the third and this current studies all investigated atrisk students, the difference is that the third study’s participants are young learners, while this current study’s participants are adult learners. literature review a. teacher-student relationship teaching involves various, integrated, simultaneous skills, including the ability and the skills to cultivate interpersonal relationship which is more formally labeled as “nurturing pedagogy”. so, the duty of a teacher is not just transferring knowledge but also caring and supporting the students, especially the at-risk students who need more attention. knoell (2012) defines teacherstudent relationship as caring and authentic relationships between teachers and the students. positive teacher-student relationship will facilitate conducive classroom climate that will enhance the students’ learning and interaction in the class. a good, positive classroom environment is important because this situation provides the students’ opportunities to feel themselves as capable, worthy, confident that make them brave to share, to express opinion, to ask questions, to convey difficulties, and to work without pressure. mazer (2012, p. 99) as cited in da luz (2015) states that students who experience heightened emotional interest are pulled toward a content area because they are energized, excited, and emotionally engaged by the material. nielson & lorber (2009) rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 211 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj note that exposure towards positive emotional stimuli will make the students able to recall newly learned information. the teacher-student relationship will increase the students’ motivation and interest in learning the content taught. this motivation and interest encourage the students to participate actively in the classroom, to cooperate with the teacher and their classmates. the study in the field of motivation indicates that the quality of interpersonal relationship influences the students’ emotional and behavioral engagement in school (national research concil, 2004) as cited in da luz (2015). similarly, meyer & turner (2002) as cited in gablinske (2014) reported the importance of students’ and teachers’ emotions or interpersonal relationship during instructional interactions because this increased motivation is essential for teaching and learning (p. 107). so, it is clear that strong relation is important to improve classroom environment. allen et al. (2013) classify features of teacher-student relationship into three major domains, i.e. emotional supports, classroom organization, and instructional supports. the emotional link enables students to feel comfortable in front of the teacher and in front of the class. classroom management will develop conducive classroom environment facilitating the lesson to run smoothly. instructional supports will make the teacher able to choose the teaching strategies, methods, models matched with the learning outcome. b. teacher-student relationship to enhance classroom environment a good teacher-student relationship creates a good, safe classroom environment. da luz (2015) states that classroom environment refers to institutional culture, level of instruction, physical and social climate of a classroom, and the nature of a classroom. a good teacher always tries to build a good, safe classroom environment by filling their practices and their classes with pleasure, creativity, challenge and joy. myers et al. (2012, p. 389) explain that when teachers interact with their students in a supportive, positive manner, they create a good classroom climate in which communication is efficient and characterized by few distortions, effective listening behaviors, and clear message transmission that in turn will improve the students’ academic skills. on the other hand, teachers with a defensive manner will create a classroom climate in which their students will feel threatened that possibly will make the classroom environment filled with resistance, rebellion, and defiance. thus, classroom environment or climate depends largely on whether 212 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students consider their teacher communicate with them in a supportive or defensive manner. c. teacher-student relationship to facilitate classroom management a professional teacher not only needs to master the subject matter they teach, but he/ she also needs to recognize and respect the individuality of the learner, and to look for ways to stimulate the students to learn or to manage classroom. da luz (2015) states that students’ success and failure can be linked to how the teacher leads and manages his or her classroom and how he or she communicates and motivates students to learn. building good interpersonal relationship with the students will facilitate the teacher’s duty to manage his/ her classroom because the students will listen, be attentive and be obedient to the supportive teacher having good interpersonal relationship with them. the skill to manage a class is badly needed by a teacher since it will facilitate her to establish a classroom climate to enable the class to run smoothly. classroom management skill refers to teacher’s ability to manage class activities from opening up to closing, i.e. to manage time, space, resources, student activities and student behaviors to create and maintain a conducive climate encouraging the learning process. in short, it is an attempt a teacher does to make a lesson run smoothly. methodology this study was conducted in a classroom context when the researcher was teaching sentence writing to second semester students of unisbank. it was held in the even semester of academic year 2015/2016, february-july 2016; and in the even semester of academic year 2016/2017, february-july 2017. this study is a correlation study to reveal the relationship between the students’ perception on the teacher-student relationship and their learning outcome. it tries to explain how teacher-student relationship can enhance at-risk students’ motivation that will enhance their learning outcome. the participants of this study are 45 second-semester students of english department –unisbank, taking sentence writing subject, in academic year 2015/2016, 2016/ 2017. the 45 research participants were taken from three classes of sentence writing subject in academic year 2015/2016, and from three classes of sentence writing subject in academic year 2016/2017. the distribution of the research participants is described in table 1. rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 213 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 1: participant’s distribution academic year group number of students number of at-risk students 2015/2016 a 25 9 b 25 8 c 22 6 2016/ 2017 a 25 7 b 25 8 c 20 7 142 45 the procedure of selecting the participants is: 1) observing the students’ participation during the teaching-learning process in the classroom, 2) identifying the at-risk students, 3) selecting at-risk students as the research participants. the student’s class participation and the student’s pre-test score are used as criteria to classify a student as an at-risk student. at-risk students are students having low learning outcome and low motivation reflected in the low class participation. the procedure of the research which was held in a classroom context during the sentence writing lesson follows the steps below. 1. interviewing the first meeting was used to explain and to discuss lecturing contract. afterwards, the students were given time to express their expectations. the rules of the class, ethics, consequences of violation were also discussed and agreed between the lecturer and the students. this will make the students have sense of community and sense of belonging. gablinske (2014) states “it is very important to build a sense of ownership, to build trust and responsibility, to build a community that everyone is a part of.” after the class finished, randomly the lecturer called four students for each class to be interviewed. the purpose of the interview is to know, to clarify the students’ opinion concerning the quality of teacher-student relationship that can develop supportive, positive learning environment. the question asked to the student is “what affective qualities do you think a teacher needs to have in order to be a good teacher?” this question is also followed by other clarifying or probing questions. this is important to know the students’ hope and 214 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj expectation toward their lecturer. later on, the lecturer included the interview results, i.e. the elements of teacher-student relationship expected by the students, in the teaching practices. 2. pre-test pre-test was administered in the second meeting. students were asked to write 12 sentences with their own topics for 45 minutes. in doing the pre test, the students were not allowed to access the internet, to consult a dictionary in order that the results reflected their writing competence. the pre test result was used as one indicator to classify a student as at risk or not. however, this pre test score itself is not sufficient criteria, it should be supplemented with other criteria, i.e. the student’s participation in the class activities, the student’s behavior that can be revealed through observation. 3. observation observation was done in the third up to the sixth meeting while the lecturer was teaching. the steps of the teaching strategy employed in this study were: introductory activities, modeling, explicit teaching, practice (sentence imitation, sentence expansion, sentence combining), formative test (writing sentences, students’ doing their sentences revision based on the teacher’s feedback, students’ doing text analysis) as recommended by rustipa (2017, p.134). in doing the observation, the lecturer used checklist to observe the student’s participation in the class activities and the student’s behavior. the field notes pertaining to the students’ habit, interaction and behavior were also made. at the end of the sixth meeting, the research participants had been selected based on the observation results and the pre test scores. 4. building stronger teacher-student relationship, especially with at-risk students in the seventh up to the fourteenth meeting the lecturer continued presenting the teaching materials comprising simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, compound complex sentences. in these meetings, stronger teacher-student relationship was built, especially with at-risk students by caring, active listening, giving praise, using humor, etc. rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 215 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 5. giving questionnaire in the fifteenth meeting, the lecturer did review of all the materials that had been presented. at the end of this meeting, the students were asked to complete questionnaires to gauge the students’ perception on their teacher’s interpersonal relationship with them which took them approximately 10 minutes. in order to avoid subjectivity, the questionnaires were not given by the lecturer, but given by the staff of the quality control board. there were 7 items involved in the questionnaires. the questionnaires were made based on the results of the interview with the students and based on the theory of teacher-student relationship. each item of the questionnaires relates with teacher-student relationship features essential for students. based on the interview with 24 students, the affective qualities a teacher needs to have in order to be a good teacher can be refined into: (1) having sense of humor, (2) helpful, (3) listening to the students, (4) looking for the students if they do not attend the class, (5) showing fairness to everybody in the class, (6) never underestimate the students, (7) encouraging and pushing for the betterment. all of these qualities are covered in the class maps survey (cms) which was developed by beth doll and associates (doll, et al., 2009). therefore, to gauge the students’ perception on their teacher’s interpersonal relationship with them, class maps survey (cms) was used. each item of the questionnaires is related to each of the qualities mentioned above. here is the list of questionnaires. a) my teacher listens carefully to me when i talk. (related to listening to the students) b) my teacher helps me when i need help. (related to helpful) c) my teacher respects me. (related to never underestimate the students) d) my teacher likes having me in this class. (related to looking for the students if they do not attend the class) e) my teacher makes it fun to be in this class. (related to having sense of humor) f) my teacher thinks i do a good job in this class. (related to encouraging and pushing for the betterment) g) my teacher is fair to me. (related to showing fairness to everybody in the class) 216 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj each item of the questionnaires was assigned a number as follows: never 0, rarely 1, sometimes 2, often 3, and always – 4. the students state their degree of agreement for each item by choosing one of the four points. 6. final or post-test in the sixteenth meeting, the students did post test to gauge the students’ learning outcome. the students wrote 24 sentences with their own topics (6 simple sentences, 6 compound sentences, 6 complex sentences, 6 compound complex sentences) for 90 minutes. 7. comparing the students’ perception on teacher-student relationship and the students’ learning outcome the comparison is used to know how the students’ perception on teacher-student relationship influences the students’ learning outcome. this is to answer the research questions: how can teacher-student relationship increase the students’ motivation and interest in learning the content taught? is there positive relationship between the students’ perception on the teacher-student relationship and their learning outcome? results and discussion a. results the results of this study provide information of how the at-risk student’s perception on teacher-student relationship can influence the students’ learning outcome. the study found out that the more positive the student’s perception, the more diligent the student came to class, the higher the learning outcome the student gained. the pre-test results show that 13 students gained 42 (wrote 5 correct sentences from 12 sentences), 15 students gained 33 (wrote 4 correct sentences from 12 sentences), 17 students gained 25 (wrote 3 correct sentences from 12 sentences). the list of students’ class attendances indicates that 24 students attended the class fully (16 times), 14 students attended the class 15 times, 5 students attended the class 14 times, and only 2 students attended the class 13 times. the list of at-risk students’ learning outcome indicates that 5 students gained 79 (wrote 19 correct sentences from 24 sentences), 10 students gained rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 217 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 75 (wrote 18 correct sentences from 24 sentences), 20 students gained 71 (wrote 17 correct sentences from 24 sentences), 8 students gained 67 (wrote 16 correct sentences from 24 sentences), while 2 students gained 63 (wrote 15 correct sentences from 24 sentences). one academic institution grading system in indonesia is as follows: (adopted from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). table 2: students’ score range the table shows that 35 students (78%) very well attained learning outcome, 8 students (18%) well attained learning outcome, while 2 students (4%) almost well attained learning outcome. this also means that 43 (96%) students attained the learning outcome successfully. in other words, 96% at-risk students are competent in sentence writing subject. the findings reflect the influence of the at-risk students’ perception on teacher-student relationship towards the students’ learning outcome. it can be described as follows. the perception levels of 5 students attaining 79 are 4 (1 student), 3.9 (2 students), 3.7 (2 students). the perception levels of 10 students attaining 75 are 3.6 (5 students), 3.4 (4 students), 3.3 (1 student). the perception levels of 20 students attaining 71 are 3.3 (14 students), 3.1 (4 students), 3 (2 student). the perception levels of 8 students attaining 67 are 3 (5 students), 3.1 (3 students). the perception levels of 2 students attaining 63 are 3.3 (1 student), 3.4 (1 student). so, the average of the students’ perception level on teacher-student relationship compared with their learning outcomes is as follows. table 3: students’ perception level and learning outcomes average students’ perception level average learning outcome average number of students range grade letter grade point description 81-100 a 4.0 excellent/ perfect 71-80 ab 3.5 very good 66-70 b 3.0 good 61-65 bc 2.5 almost good 56-60 c 2.0 fair 46-55 d 1.0 poor 0-45 e 00 fail 218 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3.84 79 5 3.49 75 10 3.23 71 20 3.04 67 8 3.35 63 2 the statistical calculation shows that the robserved is 0.7893, bigger than the rvalue from the r-table, at the level of significance .01 and .05, i.e. 0.380 and 0.294. this means that the null hypothesis “there is no relationship between the at-risk students’ perception on the teacher-student relationship and their learning outcome” is rejected. it means that the at-risk students’ perception on the teacher-student relationship influences their learning outcome. b. discussion this study reports experiences and procedure of how to develop positive, supportive teacher-student relationship in the classroom and explains how the at-risk students’ perception on teacher-student relationship can influence their learning outcome. cultivating supportive teacher-student relationship was done from the first up to the last meeting of the lecture of sentence writing subject. here, i place myself as having a role as a mother. in building good relationship with at-risk students, teacher’s motherly/ fatherly characteristics are badly needed. they need teacher who listens to them, who looks at them while they are talking, who can paraphrase or reflect what they have said in order that they can predict the consequences of their act – their behavior – their anxiety in the short or and in the long run, who encourages them, who appreciates them. the practices and the steps that i take to build relationship with my students are mainly aimed at effectively delivering the instruction necessary for learning, to make at-risk students achieve the learning outcome so that no students are left behind as said by downey (2008) that a dynamic set of interactions is to interrupt negative trajectory and to support academic success. this section discusses how positive, supportive teacher-student relationship was built in the classroom and how this can influence at-risk students’ learning outcome. 1. first meeting to build students’ sense of belonging and sense of community the first class meeting was not only used to present the syllabus, the learning outcome, the evaluation system of sentence writing subject, but it was also used to build students’ sense of belonging and sense of rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 219 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj community. downey’s study (2008) reported that sense of belonging was an important product of a strong teacher-student relationship that is critical to a student’s success in school. rules and ethics codes were established using whole class discussion. i did not dictate the rules to my students. i didn’t go in the classroom and told them “these are the rules”. the students and i created expectations and created consequences for behavior together. this is a way to make the students have sense of belonging and sense of community that everyone is a part of. this is also a way to establish trust and responsibility to the class. later on when there was violence of the rules and ethics code, i reminded the students the rules and ethics codes that we had been agreed together. this will be helpful for me to manage students’ misbehavior and to enforce the rules adherence. i also used this first meeting to arouse the students’ bravery to actively participate in the class activities. i said to them “i’m here to help you, not to scare you. for me, all questions and opinions are valuable. there are no stupid questions and opinions. so please feel free to ask questions to share opinions”. this is my way to be close to the students. 2. teacher’s affective qualities essential for students in the first meeting i also did interview to 24 students to reveal teacher’s affective qualities that the students like in order that i can behave accordingly. the interview results show the teacher’s affective qualities that the students like are: (1) having sense of humor, (2) helpful, (3) listening to the students, (4) looking for the students if they do not attend the class, (5) showing fairness to everybody in the class, (6) never underestimate the students, (7) encouraging and pushing for the betterment. these results are similar to knoell’s interview results (2012) finding a list of teacher characteristics most-valued by students, i.e. sense of humor, consistent help, active listening, the inclusion of games in teaching, use of encouragement. 3. at-risk student characteristics the research participants of this study who are at-risk students have the characteristics as follows. the range of the pre test scores is 25-42. during the observation, it was revealed the less active participation of the students in the class activities. very often they were less attentive to the teacher. while the teacher was delivering instruction, they were busy playing gadgets or they were sleepy. they never asked and answered 220 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj questions. in a small group discussion, they were passive, rarely contributed ideas. in other words, they only became free rider. they rarely submitted their assignment on time, even some of them didn’t submit their assignment despite their teacher’s reminder. their misbehavior was also reflected in the classroom. they often came late to class with various reasons such as: overslept, traffic jam, flat tire. they very often didn’t respect their teacher, their classmates, and rarely greeted them. they withdrew themselves from class community by rarely communicating with their teacher and their friends. these students’ low competence, low participation, misbehavior were tackled in the teaching-learning process, by cultivating positive, supportive teacher-at risk student relationship. 4. teacher at risk student relationship to effectively deliver the sentence writing instruction after the at-risk students were identified, i focused more on them to tackle their low competence, low motivation, their misbehavior by building stronger teacher-student relationship while delivering sentence writing instruction. in cultivating interpersonal relationship, i considered allen et al.’s (2013) ideas classifying features of teacherstudent relationship into three major domains, i.e. emotional supports, classroom organization, and instructional supports. the emotional link enables students to feel comfortable in front of the teacher and in front of the class. classroom management will develop conducive classroom environment facilitating the lesson to run smoothly. instructional supports will make the teacher able to choose the teaching strategies, methods, models matched with the learning outcome. the steps of the teaching strategy employed in this study follows rustipa’s recommendation (2017) as follows: introductory activities, modeling, explicit teaching, practice (sentence imitation, sentence expansion, sentence combining), formative test (writing sentences, students’ doing their sentences revision based on the teacher’s feedback, students’ doing text analysis). first, introductory activities are opening activities to mentally prepare the students for the lesson. the activities that i did in this part are: a) greeting to start building warm relationship. i tried to remember rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 221 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj everybody’s name from the first time in order that i can call everybody using his/ her name. this makes every student close to me because i knew them individually. i checked the absentees. i also asked the student who was absent in the previous meeting but coming at present. example: “good morning everybody. how are you? it’s nice to be with all of you this morning. who are absent today? does anybody know why? andi, why were you absent last week, what happened to you?” this greeting makes the students feel that i’m happy with their presence and that i miss them if they do not attend my class. this refers to the interview result “i like a teacher who is happy with my presence in her class, who is anxious and looks for me when i am absent from her class”. b) stimulating the students’ interest by doing brainstorming, attention grabbing. graham & perin (2007) state that this activity may be particularly important for low-achieving learners for compensating and overcoming weak prior knowledge. brainstorming is used to check their prior knowledge and attention grabbing is used to arouse their interest, their curiosity in order that they are motivated and ready to learn the new material. this can be done by showing the teacher’s enthusiasm and by connecting the content and the context. in this part, i stimulated my students’ interest and motivation by explaining the usefulness of studying sentence writing. i encouraged them to brainstorm the benefits if they can write accurate simple, compound, complex, compound complex sentences. c) conveying the learning objective of the lesson. this is important to make students aware what is expected to be achieved at the end of the lesson. while conveying the learning objective, i also informed the teaching-learning methods employed to achieve the learning objective. modeling, explicit teaching, practice are the main parts of delivering sentence writing instruction. here, teacher-at risk student relationship was mainly developed. in the modeling stage, i presented model sentences to be learned and analyzed by the students with my help. explicit teaching was done by explaining unfamiliar terms using examples. the students and i, then, analyzed the examples to find out the unfamiliar terms. in practice stage, i asked the students to apply the concepts they have learned to make their own writing. previously they did sentence imitation, sentence expansion, and then 222 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sentence combining (rustipa, 2017). in this main section of the lesson, various problems appeared, especially with atrisk students. the following are attempts that i did to tackle my atrisk students. a) individual help i tried to show my interest in my students as individuals, especially in my at-risk students. i tried to provide help to individual students who needed it in the classroom or after class. when the student raised his/ her hand for help, i would come approaching her/him to say “what can i help you with?” b) fairness i distributed my attention to all of students in my class. i provided an opportunity for all students, without seeing their race, their economy status, their background, etc. so, every student has the equal chance to be part of a lesson, an activity, or response to a question. c) listening i was listening to my students when they were talking to me, looking at their eyes, giving short comments as an indication that i followed them. this was my way to captivate the students’ interests. my frequent listening and contact with them was also my way to get trust from them that made them feel free to talk about anything to me. d) encouraging encouragement was given to enhance the students’ performance, to increase their self confidence, to make the students feel that they have done a good job. most of my encouragement was in the form of spoken and written language. sometimes, i used gestures such as nodding, raising my thumb, etc. this made the students enthusiastic to participate in the class activities. therefore, i came to an opinion that the use of praise as a means of academic encouragement is significant in the learning environment. e) touching i found some students who withdrew themselves from class community by rarely communicating with me and their friends. to tackle these students, i touched them on their shoulder in a respectful, appropriate rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 223 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and friendly manner, and persuaded them to feel free to talk with me and their friends. f) using humor i often told jokes in interacting with my students to make them enjoy time with me. if the students felt bored, i would find a way to make it fun by telling a funny story to make them laugh. it refers to the interview result “if something’s really boring, she’ll find a way to make it fun.” g) personal discourse to maintain my relationship with my students and to make them feel important for me, i sometimes shared my personal stories such as my struggle to achieve my dream, my unforgettable experience, my pet, etc. h) respecting i tried to recognize and respect the individuality of my student. i never swore to them despite their misbehavior, their laziness, etc. i reminded them politely, using expressions of courtesy with students, i chose words that were kind and caring. i realized that i needed to be stern but caring, using a mild tone of voice. i) applying cooperative learning methods to strengthen the teacher-student and the student-student relationships, i often applied cooperative learning methods. formative test (writing sentences, students’ doing their sentences revision based on the teacher’s feedback, students’ doing text analysis) is aimed at making the students applying the new knowledge they have just acquired in a new situation. the students did the formative test individually, in pairs and/ or in group. in other words, in doing the formative test, they can have consultation with their friends to help each others. the formative test was followed with teacher’s and peer’s corrective feedback. these activities strengthened the student-student, teacher-student relationships. 224 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 5. the positive perception on teacher-student relationship to activate at-risk students’ class attendance the study found out that the positive at-risk students’ perception on teacher-student relationship made the students more diligent to come to class because they were satisfied with the good class climate created by the teacher. the teacher who develops good interaction can create productive learning environment. the average of the at-risk student’s perception on teacher-student relationship is 3.32 meaning that the students are in the opinion that the teacher almost always shows the positive affective qualities. these positive and supportive characteristics make the positive, warm, conducive class climate that encourages the students to come to class. this can be seen from their high average frequency to come to class, i.e. 15.3 times from 16 times. this finding supports baker’s study (1999) as cited in gablinske (2014) reporting that the at-risk students were satisfied with school if they perceived their relationship with their teacher as a caring and supportive one. 6. the at-risk students’ perception on teacher-student relationship to enhance the students’ learning outcome the positive at-risk students’ perception on teacher-student relationship made them achieve the learning outcome successfully. this can be seen from the average grade of the learning outcome, i.e. 72, meaning that the at-risk students very well attained the learning outcome. the research findings indicate that the more positive the at-risk students’ perception on teacher-student relationship, the higher their learning outcome. the average of the at-risk students’ perception level who achieved score of 79 was 3.84; the average of the at-risk students’ perception level who achieved score of 75 was 3.49, the average of the at-risk students’ perception level who achieved score of 71 was 3.23; the average of the atrisk students’ perception level who achieved score of 67 was 3.04. however, there is an exception in the research findings, i.e. two at-risk students whose average perception was 3.35 achieved score of 63. after doing analysis, i conclude that the cause of the low score is that they missed 3 classes meaning that they missed some materials. this finding also supports baker’s study (1999) as cited in gablinske (2014) concluding that students’ interactions with their teachers and the quality of the interactions have potential influences on their school rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 225 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj performance because the social connectedness with the teacher at school could function as a protective factor in facing academic or life stressors. downey (2008) explained that teacher’s interpersonal relationship with his or her students cannot be ignored because it is critical for the students who are at risk for academic failure. building good interpersonal relationship means recognizing and respecting the individuality of the learner that will make the learner believe that his/ her teacher is warm and supportive. students who believe that their teacher is warm and supportive will develop more positive sense to achieve their learning outcome. warm and supportive teacher will motivate students to experience not only the cognitive growth but also the personal growth. this strong and supportive relationship allows students to feel safer and more secure in the school setting, feel more competent, make more positive connections with peers, and make greater academic gains. the good interpersonal relationship will create good, positive classroom environment that offers good conditions to enhance students’ learning and interaction that makes students feel part of the learning process. a good, positive classroom environment is important because this situation provides the students’ opportunities to feel themselves as capable, worthy, confident that make them brave to share, to express opinion, to ask questions, to convey difficulties, and to work without pressure. mazer (2012, p.99) as cited in da luz (2015) states that students who experience heightened emotional interest are pulled toward a content area because they are energized, excited, and emotionally engaged by the material. nielson & lorber (2009) notes that exposure towards positive emotional stimuli will make the students able to recall newly learned information. building good interpersonal relationship with the students will facilitate the teacher’s duty to manage his/ her classroom because the students will listen, be attentive and be obedient to the supportive teacher having good interpersonal relationship with them. thus, the quality of teacherstudent relationship will affect a teacher’s quality to manage a class, to enable the class to run smoothly, to stimulate the students to learn to achieve the learning outcome. as said above that to strengthen the teacher-student and the studentstudent cooperation and relationships, i often applied cooperative 226 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj learning methods in sentence writing instruction. by applying this method, i observed that my students can get along well with me and to each others, they cared and respected to each others. this facilitated them to learn the learning content. thus, the cooperative learning method application has significant contribution in enhancing the positive at-risk students’ perception on teacher-student relationship that in turn will enhance the students’ learning outcome. conclusion supportive and caring teacher-at risk student relationship is essential in teaching-learning process. this sense of caring and supporting motivates the atrisk students to become a more interested and active learner. the positive atrisk students’ perception on their teacher’s affective qualities makes them achieve the learning outcome successfully. this is because they feel that their teacher creates a safe and trustful environment that makes them feel free to share difficulties. teacher’s affective qualities essential for students are among others: 1) having sense of humor, 2) helpful, 3) listening to the students, 4) looking for the students if they do not attend the class, 5) showing fairness to everybody in the class, 6) never underestimate the students, 7) encouraging and pushing for the betterment. they need to be considered in teaching, especially in tackling at-risk students. based on the research results, a recommendation to tackle at-risk students especially in sentence-writing instruction is as follows. the first class meeting is used to establish students’ sense of belonging and sense of community by establishing rules and ethics codes using whole class discussion. the steps of the teaching strategy recommended are as follows: introductory activities, modeling, explicit teaching, practice (sentence imitation, sentence expansion, sentence combining), formative test (writing sentences, students’ doing their sentences revision based on the teacher’s feedback, students’ doing text analysis). in the introductory activities, a teacher does the following: greeting to start building warm relationship, stimulating the students’ interest by doing brainstorming and attention grabbing, conveying the learning objective of the lesson. teacher-at risk student relationship is mainly developed in the stage of modeling, explicit teaching, practice, i.e. the main parts of delivering sentence writing instruction. rustipa, k., interpersonal relations to tackle at-risk students: a case study 227 in efl learning https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teacher’s attempts to tackle at-risk students are among others done by (1) giving individual help, (2) showing fairness, (3) listening, (4) encouraging, (5) touching, (6) using humor, (7) sharing personal discourse, (8) respecting, (9) applying cooperative learning methods. in the stage of formative test, the students do the test individually, in pairs and/ or in group. the formative test was followed with teacher’s and peer’s corrective feedback. these activities strengthened the student-student, teacher-student relationships. references allen, j., gregory, a., mikami, a., lun, j., hamre, b., & pianta, r. (2013). observations of effective teacher-student interactions in secondary school classrooms: predicting student achievement with the classroom assessment scoring system-secondary. school psychology review, 42(1), 7698. da luz, f.s. (2015). the relationship between teachers and students in the classroom: communicative language teaching approach and cooperative learning strategy to improve learning. in bsu master’s theses and projects. retrieved from http://vc.bridgew.edu/theses/22 doll, b., kurien, s., leclair, c., spies, r., champion, a., & osborn, a. (2009). the classmaps survey: a framework for promoting positive classroom environments. in r. gilman, s. huebner, & and m. furlong (eds.), handbook of positive psychology in the schools (pp. 213-227). new york: routledge. downey, j.a. (2008). recommendations for fostering educational resilience in the classroom. preventing school failure, 53, 56-63. gablinske, p.b. (2014). a case study of student and teacher relationships and the effects on student learning (doctoral dissertation). retrieved from http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oa_diss/266 graham, s., & perin, d. (2007). writing next: effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high school. washington dc: alliance for excellence in education. knoell, c. m. (2012). the role of the student-teacher relationship in the lives of fifth graders: a mixed methods analysis. retrieved from http://digital commons.unl.edu/cehsdiss/134. http://vc.bridgew.edu/theses/22?utm_source=vc.bridgew.edu%2ftheses%2f22&utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oa_diss/266?utm_source=digitalcommons.uri.edu%2foa_diss%2f266&utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages 228 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 206 228 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj mazer, j. p. (2012). development and validation of the student interest and engagement scales. communication methods and measures, 6, 99-125. myers, s. a., & claus, c. j. (2012). the relationship between students’ motives to communicate with their instructors and classroom environment. communication quarterly, 60 (3), 386-402. nielson, k. a., & lorber, w. (2009). enhanced post-learning memory. neurobiology of learning & memory, 92, 70-79. rustipa, k., (2017). efl students’ sentence writing accuracy: can “text analysis” develop it? international excellence in higher education, 7(1), 126136. doi: 10.5539/ijel.v7n1p126. scheerens, j. et al. (eds.). (2011). perspectives on educational quality, springer briefs in education. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-0926-3-2. 2.pdf (p.1) 1234-200-222 002 dec2018.pdf (p.2-24) logo: guide for contributors access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia b. retang wohangara1 abstract: as a particular type of tradition, rituals have been of interest to folklorists and anthropologists. understood as repeated, patterned, and contextualized performances, rituals could be in “low contexts” meaning that they are less formally, unplanned in advance, and do not demand for complicated performances, or in “high contexts” that they are realized in a highly stylized and formalized occasions, and set as public events. this article attempts to describe an access ritual, called paariyangu (ritual of being a guest and a host), conducted by the people of (eastern) sumba living in the east part of indonesia. visiting somebody’s house is an act of entering somebody else’s private domain. it is therefore necessary for the both parties (i.e. the guest and the host) to abide to certain manners so as to maintain a desirable social encounter. key words: access ritual, sumba, traditions, low contexts, high contexts 1 b. retang wohangara, s.s., m.hum <wohangara@yahoo.com> +6281229527272 is a lecturer at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university semarang. he is now pursing his ph.d degree at the department of folklore and ethnomusicicology of indiana university, bloomington, usa. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 87-101 88 introduction an individual or a group of people often hold ceremonies or performances to enact certain values, beliefs, or experiences. before entering universities, freshmen have to undergo a process of initiation so as to mark their incorporation into the body of university life. the lamarean people of flores carry out a certain pattern of procedural practices before rowing their boats to hunt whales. my masseur always gently blows his already poured with oil palms, and whisper some arabic lines before doing massaging my back and limbs with his strong hands. the initiation committee, the lamalerean whaler, the masseur are performing rituals. the above mentioned acts are called rituals since they are structured in certain ways, frequently framed in particular settings, and marked by special ways of execution. as particular types of tradition, rituals “are repeated, habitual actions, … frequently highly organized and controlled…” (simms and stephens 2005: 95). as formulaic and repetitive forms of communication, rituals are potential sides where one is able to observe cultural ideologies. through and with rituals people create and express social values and meanings both verbally and non-verbally (senft and basso 2009: 1-4). in general folklorists categorize rituals into low-context and high-context ones (ibid. 98-99). the low-context rituals refer to those less formally designated and usually not announced or planned in advance. in sumbanese culture, for instance, when a guest falls down from his seat, for example, the host is obliged to carry out a conversion ritual2 to get back the guest’s temporarily lost soul (pabelinya na hamangu-na). a 2 conversion rituals are associated with superstitions or belief behaviors related to back luck. they are performed to cancel bad luck. b. r. wohangara, access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia 89 fowl or a pig is slaughtered to win back the guest and his host’s equilibrium. this ritual occurs for a specific reason in response to a particular event (falling down from the seat). it is not planned and does not call for elaborated performances or complicated verbal expressions. in contrast, the high-context rituals are framed in special occasions, well prepared and frequently public events. for mcdowell (1983), [the high-context] rituals contain three interrelated criteria, those are, accessibility, formalization, and efficacy (36). they bear exclusivity and call for specific treatments in execution. aspects of accessibility, among others, relate to the people, who may or may not be involved in ritual performance, and to the degree of intelligibility to this special way of communication on the part of audience. the second criterion, formalization, deals with principles to identify these kinds of rituals as formalized events in terms of language use, objects involved, particular settings of time and place, and people assigned to conduct them, and procedures. the last constitution of the rituals (and also applies to the low-context ones) is efficacy. the performances of high-context and low context rituals are for an accomplishment. the rituals are intended to certain goal, a transition from one state to another one. marriage ritual (lii manguama) in sumba is certainly a high-context one. although it is exposed to public, not all aspects in the ritual is accessible to the audience due to the special register used (lawiti luluk). that only ritual specialists (wunang) can take the role as the representatives of both parties (the bride and the groom) signifies the formality of ritual. the traditional outfit of the wunangs, the use of local language, the settings of performance in particular time and place indicate this formalized event. a marriage ritual certainly marks a transition from bachelor/bachelorette to married life. it also unites an affinal relationship of two parties or reinforces an celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 87-101 90 existing one. in a similar vein, some ritual theorists divide rituals in two categories: those with capital “r” and the others with small “r” or ritualization. (r)-itual includes the “fully observable communicative performance that take place in, and create, a special setting in which other activities are suspended,” while (r-)itual is the “routine, minor actions and formulaic verbal utterances when other activities are going on as usual” (gnerre 2009: 314). the first category includes rite of the passage rituals, while the second covers day-to-day interactions such as greetings and farewells or street shamanistic performance. the so-called access rituals belong to the second category. for ameka (2009), access rituals are the “verbal and non-verbal communicative acts that mark boundaries at the beginning and closing phases of social interaction” (127). this kind of rituals includes the everyday, routine, and formulaic verbal utterances and specific behavioral poses. this paper is intended to give a brief description on how the eastern sumba people practice one of their access rituals which can be either in low or high context-, that is, social visit (paariyang). paariyang is a speech event when there is a news exchange between an owner of the house and his/her guest. this social interaction can be causal or formal, and the nature of social visit will determine the realization of the encounter. before proceeding to a description of an access ritual of the sumbanese, it is necessary to provide some information of the people where this particular type of tradition is practiced. (eastern) sumba in brief sumba, one of the three big islands (flores, sumba, timor) of the nusa tenggara timur province indonesia, lies to b. r. wohangara, access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia 91 southeast of bali, west of timor and south of flores. however, sumba is often confused with the island of sumbawa, which in fact sits to its northwest. sumba island covers an area of 12,297 km sq. (forth 1981: 17), and consists of four districts, i.e., east sumba (sumba timur), central sumba (sumba tengah), west sumba (sumba barat), and southwest sumba (sumba barat daya) with waingapu, waibakul, waikabubak, and waitabula as its capital respectively. this island is well known as the sandalwood island for being long involved in breeding sandalwood horses. in addition to sandalwood horses, sumbanese people take pride of the huge megalithic tombs and ikat-woven traditional fabric. topographically, sumba is a hilly, dry and infertile land. the open and wide savannah makes sumba see her way for breeding cattle, horses, or buffalos, although the scarcity of rain has been the major obstacle for the development of animal breeding. forests spread sparsely and the ongoing effort for to plant more trees fails due to the long dry season and barren soil. the traditional religion of sumbanese centers on the cult of marapu that refers to the ancestors of clans (kabihu). although many ‘natives’ of sumba have converted into the state approved religions, they retain their native religious belief and keep carrying out marapu practices in social interactions among their own and inter-clans. while the people at the western part of sumba speak ten different languages (hoskins 1996: 223) and therefore are only able to pick the indonesian language as a lingua franca, those of eastern sumba speak hilu humba (sumba language) with slight variations in some areas. the major dialect used in daily life and rituals by the majority of the eastern sumbanese people is kambera. while there are certain variations in custom, http://www.sumbatimur.com/ celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 87-101 92 beliefs, and dialects, the culture of eastern sumba is sufficiently homogenous. though it is not strong as it was used to be, a social stratification still colors the life of “native” people in eastern sumba. the three basic classes are the nobility (maramba), commoners (tau kabihu), and servants (ata). the classes are ideally endogamous, although intermarriage between nobility and commoners, and between commoners and ata may occur. marriage between nobles and slaves is formally impossible. what follows is further information about this social strata existing in eastern sumbanese society, and for the sake of a better explanation, the order is as follow: ata, maramba, tau kabihu. ata, euphemistically called the “children in the house” (anakiada la umma) or “the children doing errands” (anakiada pa paliawa ), is the lowest rank in social class. this class belongs to nobility, though certain large and wealthy commoner clans and lineages also own some. ata is also classified into two: ata bokulu and ata kudu. ata kudu is the lowest and humblest group in eastern sumba, and derived mainly from captives of local feud. in the past, they could be bought and sold. ata bokulu can be characterized rather as a class of retainers or hereditary servants. they cannot be bought and sold. ata bokulu are better treated than ata kudu, and many attain considerable influence as advisors and companions to their masters. unlike ata kudu, they often live in the same house with their masters and form a strong bond of affection and loyalty. female of ata bokulu serves as ata ngandi, those are, slaves brought along, who accompany their tamu rambu (mistress) when marrying and serving her in her husband’s house. b. r. wohangara, access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia 93 maramba sits on the highest position in eastern sumbanese social system, taking roles as socio-political leaders, holding the capacity to impose their will and perpetuate their power by means of different strategy. traditional recognition on their ability as being born leaders and their possession of economic capital give them power to control other groups. a maramba family is likely to be able to finance their children for higher education which facilitates them to work as governmental employees, and even involve in competition for modern political leaders. in this context, being a traditional leader and educated provide them more opportunity to chair high position in governmental offices compared to those coming from the so-called common people, and let alone the ata. maramba displays their status symbol in form of houses, wealth, and the numbers of ata possessed. although it is not very common in the present day for they build modern brick house, the houses of maramba in the past were big, characterized by peaked roof built on stilt. a noble family needs big houses because they have to accommodate several ata families. a spacious house is also necessary since it is noble families who are responsible for hosting rituals attended by people. the frequency of conducting rituals and the number of people gather determine the degree of a noble’s greatness (maramba bakulu). in addition to the big, high, and soaring house, the amount of cattle, buffaloes, and horses (banda la marada: wealth in the pasture) and gold items (banda la umma: wealth in the house) and of ata(s) possessed symbolically mirror the status of maramba. tau kabihu are, unlike ata, maintain their independence from maramba’s power, yet have no claim to nobility. in the past, they served the nobles as military allies, and in many celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 87-101 94 cases until the present time, act as advisors in regular matters. despite of being good speakers mastering aspects of tradition, maramba never becomes ritual speakers. sumbanese ritual speakers mainly come from this tau kabihu class. being assigned as maramba’s ritual speaker means climbing the ladder of social class for ritual practitioners. however, based on his research on the inter-class relationship among rindi people, sumba, forth (1981: 230) claims that, although having independent status, the tau kabihu tend to reinforce a dualistic representation of class (maramba-ata) “by occasionally referring to themselves as ata in the presence of a noble person in order to effect humility”. however, it should be recognized that the existence of social stratification has gradually lost its grip in the life of most sumbanese. the advance of education, the introduction of democracy, and the big influence of the church have played active role in creating more egalitarian society. a part of communities still living their oral tradition, the people of sumba mostly rely on orality and customary imitations in transmitting their traditions. one form of traditional practices still observed by sumbanese either those already embracing world religions or still adhering to local religion, marapu are rituals. the following is a kind of day especially the highly-performed and complex burial and marriage rituals. an access ritual of sumbanese to govern the behaviors of its members in social relationships, a society, and on a smaller scale, a community, possesses values translated in rules, customs, and laws. everyone is expected to conform to the shared values in order b. r. wohangara, access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia 95 to maintain harmony and stability. in the scale of sumbanese’s custom, somebody violating the agreed and shared values are metaphorically described as “na njara tindung; na wei kawanga (the stubborn horse, the deaf pig) or “na njara rubi rapa, na karambua tanggajir (the horse breaking its harness, the water buffalo destroying its fence) for he has disturbed the organic whole of society. the social life of the people of sumba is therefore directed by traditional custom/way (hori). in terms of having the desirable behaviors, or etiquette in social encounters, the members of this society hold a selfconcept, which constitutes their difference from nonsumbanese, as they put it in the expression “to behave like a sumbanese” (pa hori humbang) vis-a-vis “to behave like strangers” (pahori jawang3). among the sumbanese themselves, are binary, cultural ideologies: either behaving like a slave (pa hori atang), which has negative connotations, or behaving like a noble (pa hori marambang), which refers to expected behaviors4. a social visit to describe the sumbanese people’s social visit, i adopt the frame of speaking model proposed by dell hymes (quoted 3 the self-concept in sumbanese’s perspective is in two categories. the sumbanese are insider and the rest the outsider. the term jawa refers to any non-sumbanese, either from jawa or from other regions in indonesia. white people are called “white javanese” (tau jawa bara). 4 (eastern) sumba society is generally stratified into three classes, the nobility (maramba), the commoners (tàu kabihu), and the servant (ata). the noble is regarded as source of ideal manners. although the ideology of this stratification has gradually weakened, especially with the advance of education and the progressive idea of egalitarian democracy, the issue of social stratification remains lively discourses in the domain of political leadership. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 87-101 96 in ameka 2009: 131). a social visit can be divided into three parts: opening sequences, central sequences, and closing. the participants can be a host and a visitor, and in a more formal visit, includes another person functioning as a spokesperson. a. opening sequences the opening of a social visit in eastern sumba commonly follows the following sequences: attention calling, the welcoming, the offer of sitting on a mat, the offering of pahàpa5 and tobacco, and the host’s identification of the guest. attention-calling. when a visitor arrives to a targeted houseusually in the morning or in the afternoon, he announces his visit for a good intention by attracting the host’s attention. he uses the vocative stocked cry: “hello, the owner of the house” (hoo, màngu ùmang). in addition to drawing attention, this action is also intended to make sure whether the host is available or not. if the host is at home, he will give an exchange response by saying: “hello ùmbu/ràmbu6, please enter [to our house]” (hoo ùmbu/ràmbu tama ko na). the welcoming. by responding to the guest’s inquiry, the host implies his willingness to accept the visitor’s for-a good purpose visit, and officially welcome him in the house. shaking hands (patambi) or rubbing nose (papùduk) are common body languages of greeting. 5 pahàpa is betel fruit and areca nuts chewed with lime. 6 umbu and rambu are titles used to show one’s respect to male and female respectively. in the past the titles were used exclusively for the noble class. b. r. wohangara, access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia 97 picture 1: a “traditional” house seat offer. knowing a guest’s arrival, the host (if it happens to be the husband) will display his panicky response7 for the “unexpected” visit (even if he has already known it before) by asking his wife to find a guest mat (topu)8. the wife also performs the same response by hurriedly fetching a mat and then spreading it over on the left raised platform (kaheli) of the house, a spot reserved where a respected guest to be seated. a traditional house has got two raised floors with two doors of access. in many occasions, however, the left door is closed, so an access between the floors is only through the right door of the house. the right side of the house is regarded as a hot realm, while the left one a cool realm. a guest is always seated at the left section of the house, and i think, the reasons are not to disturb the moment of social visit with unnecessary nuisances, and also to welcome the guest on the best-cool place. betel-nut offering. exchanging betel-areca nuts is a very important non-verbal communication among the sumbanese people. it is a display of friendship. after the guest has been seated on the mat, the immediate sequence was the host’s offering of betel nuts, which is replied by the visitor’s 7 this kind of response in sumbanese’s etiquette is sign of modesty. it is a semiotic display that the visitor is a respected guest and that the host doesn’t actually deserve to have him in his “inappropriate house.” 8 in addition to having mats for family members, every sumbanese traditional household specifically provides a mat for guest. picture 2: betel and areca nuts celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 87-101 98 reciprocal action. in this context of situation, exchanging tobacco pouch is also common. identification. while chewing betel nut and smoking, both parties exchange information on clan background, affinal relationship, or what they have been up to in recent times. this sequence is usually in effect when the host and the guest have not met for a long time, or if the background of the guest is vague on the part of the host. for a non-sumbanese guest, identification can be about the geographical information of the guest’s origin. however, this sequence is escaped if the visitor is living in the same village, or a frequent visitor. b. the central sequence after the exchange of betel nuts and tobacco, the following sequence is an inquiry about the purpose of the visit. in sumbanese’s etiquette, it is the host who initiates this action. this segment is named “to make clear of something” (pakaluakang). the language used in inquiry of purpose and the guest’s explanations depend on the degree of the subject matters involved. when it is a casual or a more personal visit (tadal), daily-routine speech will be used. however, if a visit has a high degree of seriousness, meaning that it is a clan’s business, formal speeches will be delivered. to give some examples: if the visitor is a messenger of one’s death, he will not simply say that “your so and so passed away last night.” the formulaic metaphorical expression will be “na wàlahandàka lunggi, na bata-ndàka kajia, na bokumu/or …” (he has untied his hair for us, he has turned his back on us, your grandfather/ or… ) to imply that the grandfather has passed away. or in another context, if the visitor is a representative of a young man who is looking for a girl’s hand in marriage, he b. r. wohangara, access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia 99 will use the expression: “ka imbu-manya kalu ma ìhi, ka namat-manya tibu ma wàla” (we are looking for ripe banana, we are searching for ready-to-harvest sugar cane) to imply that the visitor is looking for a mature girl ready for marriage. after the visitor’s mission spelled out, the host will give responses. in a casual visit, the host may express his happiness: that such a visit confirms and strengthens their affinal relationship, and that some day he will visit his guest back. in another context, like the death news or a prospective bride inquiry, the host can outline his broad plan. he may promise to summon other members of his clan as soon as possible to talk about their participation in burial; or in the case of “looking for a bride,” he will talk to his close relatives, and give an answer if there is a potential wife among the family9. in formal social visits, and especially if the guest is a respected one, or a relative coming from a distant village, the host will slaughter a fowl or a pig to formalize their encounter. after the main business is settled, having lunch together will conclude the encounter. eating together is a mark unity. c. the closing betel nuts chewing or smoking after lunch is a kind of pre-closing. after some time, the guest will initiate the action to terminate the encounter. the host usually asks his guest to stay a little bit longer for the day is still long, of which the guest may accept or not. if the guest insists on leaving, the host 9 although the host (the man) obviously has a mature girl, and the prospective husband’s side already knows about it, the host’s delay of answer is a matter of decency. giving a definite answer: yes, we have or no, we haven’t, will be considered rude. the host may also give a prediction of time when his guest will get an answer. when this happens, the host will have a spokesperson to represent his interest. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 87-101 100 will express his regret for being unable to serve his guest in a more appropriate way10, while the guest expresses his thankfulness, that he has already received more than he deserves. in formal social visits, the host will spare meat of the slaughtered pig (tanggu), usually its rear legs, for his guest to carry home. later on, the guest will do the same thing when he in turns becomes a host himself. concluding remarks i have so far given a broad outline of how an access ritual is practiced by the people of sumba. the description of this behavior ritual process above is indeed too general. although it follows a certain kind of patterns and sequences (formality), in reality, the skeleton of the ritual is filled with more various and richer speech exchanges. in more serious events, like in marriage negotiations, the procedure of access ritual is more complicated and highly metaphorical language exchanges are used. like in other societies, people of sumba share common values, and are expected to obey certain desirable behaviors to keep a social bonding and harmony. there is a clear line to separate public and private spheres of life. when one wants to enter or to have an access on a private domain (a house), he should engage in particular actions or behavior in order to be considered as an individual abiding to traditional etiquette, the one who possesses the desired noble qualities, pa hori marambangu. paarinyang is a ritual on how a sumbanese may 10 the common expression to express humility is malangu, mai mia la lumbu àia (we do apologize since we merely have you under the shade of tree) b. r. wohangara, access ritual in eastern sumba, indonesia 101 display either his conformity or unconformity with the shared social values. references ameka, felix k. “access rituals in west african communities: an ethnographic communities.” in ritual communication. edited by gunter senft and ellen b. basso, new york: berger, 2009. forth, gregory. rindi: an ethnographic study of a traditional domain in eastern sumba. leiden: the hague-martinus nijhoff, 1981. gnerre, maurizio. “shuar and achuar ritual communicatioon.” in ritual communication. edited by gunter senft and ellen b. basso, new york: berger, 2009. hoskins, janet. “the heritage of headhunting: history, ideology, and violence on sumba, 1890-1990. in headhunting and social imagination in the southeast asia. edited by janet hoskins, california: stanford university press, 1996. mcdowell, john h. 1983. “the semiotic constitution of kamsá ritual language.” in language in society, vol. 12, no. 1, 1983: 23-46. senft, gunter and basso, ellen b. “introduction.” in ritual communication. edited by gunter senft and ellen b. basso, new york: berger, 2009. sims, martha c. and stephens, martine. living folklore: an introduction to the study of people and their traditions. utah: utah state university press, 2005. 10-2.pdf students’ perception toward the implementation of peerassessment in writing: before and after revision husni mubarok english education department, tarbiyah faculty and education sciences islamic university of nahdlatul ulama jepara, indonesia email: husni@unisnu.ac.id received: 02-08-2016 accepted: 20-07-2017 published: 11-08-2017 students’ perception toward the implementation of peerassessment in writing: before and after revision husni mubarok husni@unisnu.ac.id english education department, tarbiyah and teachers training faculty, islamic university of nahdlatul ulama jepara, indonesia abstract: this study was aimed at elaborating students’ perception toward the implementation of peer assessment in writing class either before or after revision. writing becomes one of skills which should be mastered by students in order to get higher level of literacy. writing is a productive skill which asks students to arrange words and organize them into good writing which could be understood by readers. the success of writing is determined by the writing process itself starting from planning, first draft writing, revising, and editing. one of the strategies used in teaching writing is by implementing peer assessment. peer assessment strategy becomes one of important parts in the process of writing because there will be feedback or suggestion from peers in doing a review. the number of the subject of this research was students in second semester of the english education department of unisnu jepara. this research was conducted on even semester. the total number of the students, which became respondents, was 37 students of english education department. the research design used was qualitative research which measured students’ perceptions of the implementation of peer assessment in writing: before and after revision. the result showed that before revision, students had negative perception toward their own writing. after revision, they had positive perceptions toward peer assessment strategy. those included usefulness and meaningfulness, nature of feedback, reality of feedback, precision, validity, fairness, and personal goal-setting. besides that, the score after revision (7.9) was higher than the score before revision (6.62). it meant that the result showed the increasing of students’ score after revision. key words: assessment, peer-assessment, writing 14 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 13 26 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjabarkan persepsi siswa terhadap penerapan penilaian sebaya dalam kelas writing baik sebelum dan sesudah revisi. menulis menjadi salah satu keahlian yang harus dikuasai oleh siswa untuk mencapai tingkat literasi yang lebih tinggi. menulis merupakan keahlian produktif yang meminta siswa untuk menyusun kata-kata dan mengaturnya kedalam tulisan yang bagus yang dapat dipahami oleh pembaca. kesuksesan menulis ditentukan oleh proses menulis itu sendiri yang dimulai dari perencanaan, draf pertama, revisi, dan edit. salah satu strategi yang digunakan dalam mengajar menulis adalah dengan menerapkan penilaian sebaya. penilaian sebaya menjadi salah satu bagian penting dalam proses menulis karena akan terjadi timbal balik atau masukan dari teman sebaya ketika melakukan review. subjek dalam penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa semester dua prodi pendidikan bahasa inggris unisnu jepara. penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada semester gasal. jumlah mahasiswa yang menjadi responden adalah 37 mahasiswa pbi. desain penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif yang mengukur persepsi mahasiswa terhadap penerapan penilaian sebaya dalam menulis baik sebelum dan sesudah revisi. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sebelum revisi, mahasiswa mampunyai persepsi negatif terhadap tulisan mereka sendiri. setelah revisi, mereka mempunyai persepsi positif terhadap strategi penilaian sebaya yang mencakup kegunaannya, manfaatnya, hakikat timbal balik, kenyataan timbal balik, ketepatannya, kesahihannya, kejujurannya, dan tujuan personal. disamping itu, hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan peningkatan nilai mahasiswa; sebelum revisi (6,62) dan setelah revisi menjadi (7,9). hasil tersebut menunjukkan naiknya nilai siswa setelah revisi. kata kunci: penilaian, penilaian sebaya, menulis introduction in english skills, there are two kinds of skill in general; receptive skills and productive skills. receptive skills include listening and reading, while productive skills include speaking and writing. in productive skills, students want to make interaction to the audiences or readers through oral or written communication. according to harmer (2007, p. 247), one of the advantages of production activities is that they provide evidence for students and their teachers to assess how well things are going. by understanding these two kinds of english skill, educators or teachers should know how to implement it in a teaching and learning process. mubarok, h., students’ perception toward the implementation of peer 15 assessment in writing: before and after revision https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj writing is one of skills that should be mastered by students in order to make communication between writers and readers. although in a real practicing, writing would be taught after students are familiar with listening, speaking, and reading. in writing, the writers want to express their ideas, thought, and opinions what they want to write. the writers should consider the writing rules like coherent and cohesion. besides that the writers also pay more attention to the genre they use. according to harmer (2007, p. 246), coherent writing makes sense because you can follow the sequence of ideas and points. cohesion is a more technical matter since it is here that we concentrate on the various linguistic ways of connecting ideas across phrases and sentences. based on the statement, it is known that writing is a communication tool to express or deliver one’s opinion, thought, or idea. written language is simply the graphic representation of spoken language. written products are often the result of thinking, drafting, and revising procedures that require specialized skills, skills that not every speaker develops naturally (brown, 2001, p. 335). according to yang (2011, p. 144), there are six basic elements in the writing process: l) generating ideas; 2) defining a focus; 3) organizing ideas into various thinking patterns; 4) drafting; 5) revising, editing, and proofreading; and 6) collaborating. in writing a good paragraph, a writer should implement a good strategy. a writing strategy would help the writer to gather the idea and then formulate it into good composition. in writing, a writer wants to communicate with readers and gives information to them. according to carter & nunan (2001, p. 29), in the field of creative writing in tesol classrooms and in the context of literature in language teaching, approaches to writing have been taken that involve strategies such as; re-writing from different viewpoints; shifting registers to explore changing communicative effects; writing predictions and completions to texts as part of a process of detail text study; and cross-genre writing. vygotsky as cited by puegphrom & chiramanee (2011, p. 1) suggested that an appropriate instructional method can enhance complex thinking development. this is why in teaching writing; teachers or educators need to implement appropriate strategy which is in line with students’ need. writing is a personal act in which writers take ideas or prompts and transform them into self-initiated topics (o’ malley & pierce, 1996, p. 136). in order to write well, students should incorporate the purpose of their writing to develop one main idea. in writing essay students will rely on at least four types of knowledge; knowledge of the content, procedural 16 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 13 26 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj knowledge to organize content, knowledge of convention of writing, and procedural knowledge required to apply the three other types of knowledge in composing a written product (o’ malley & pierce, 1996, p. 136). in the knowledge of content, students are required to do a memory search and call prior knowledge and experience. in writing a good paragraph, students often face some difficulties. one of them is gathering the idea and constructing it into good composition. some of students develop more than one idea in their writing, so that they could not focus on one main idea. when they do this, they could not realize the mistakes they made. this is why in writing; students are required to maximize all the time and effort in learning and practicing how to organize the idea coherently and cohesively. besides that, they are reluctant to re-read their writing, so that there is no second edited draft or final edited draft. another problem is the lack of time for teachers to evaluate or give feedback to students’ writing. sometimes, teachers should evaluate more than one class at the same time. so they do not have enough time to read students’ writing deeply and give detail feedback directly or indirectly to their writing. yang (2011, p. 144) investigated the perspectives of using peer evaluation and teacher's feedback in terms of implicit and explicit correction in a writing class on one internet platform from 50 thirdyear students. the results of the study showed that most students had positive comments on peer evaluation. mubarok (2012, p. 163) conducted a research on the use of peer feedback strategy to motivate students. based on the research, it was found that the implementation of peer feedback, students had low motivation. after the implementation of the strategy, students’ motivation increased. wang et al. (2014, p. 233) investigated a mix-mode peer response, the e-peer response (epr), to overcome the bias of a single mode, and examined how students with different levels of ability react to the epr. the results revealed that students in the experimental group performed better than those in the control group. puegphrom & chiramanee (2011, p. 1) found that after experiencing the writing instruction with peer assessment and being assessed by peer the subjects’ writing ability improved significantly, at .01. highly positive attitudes towards the teaching technique were also found, in particular on the following aspects: the writing ability development, self-directed learning, co-operative learning, and self-confidence. there are two kinds of assessment in writing. the first is selfassessment. then the second is peer assessment. self-assessment in writing encourages the type of reflection needed to gain increased control as a writer. mubarok, h., students’ perception toward the implementation of peer 17 assessment in writing: before and after revision https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj self-assessment encourages students to think about their purpose in writing and to reflect on what and how much they are learning (o’ malley & pierce, 1996, p. 151). in conducting this kind of strategy, students need to encourage themselves through dialogue-journal, learning log, and checklist of writing skills. self-assessment is a process in which students are responsible to evaluate their own writing. both self-assessment and peer assessment could be used to measured students cognitive and affective domain. in cognitive domain, students would try to evaluate based on their competences in giving critical comment or feedback. while in affective domain, they are faced to give comment and feedback fairly based on actual fact or not. according to spiller (2012, p. 2) self-assessment is a process of formative assessment during which students reflect on and evaluate the quality of their work and their learning, judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, identify strengths and weaknesses in their work, and revise accordingly. in implementing self-assessment, students would get some benefits. there are some benefits of self-assessment. it builds on a natural tendency to check out the progress of one’s own learning. selfassessment can promote learner responsibility and independence. selfassessment tasks encourage student ownership of the learning. selfassessment encourages a focus on process. if a student can identify his/her learning progress, this may motivate further learning. self-assessment tasks shift the focus from something imposed by someone else to a potential partnership (spiller, 2012, p. 3). one of the appropriate strategies in teaching writing is by implementing peer assessment. peer assessment is a kind of strategy in writing in which a student checks his/her peer’s writing. the checking here means that the student reads, evaluate, and give comment or feedback toward his/her writing. puegphrom & chiramanee (2011, p. 1) state that peer assessment has been considered an important part of writing process that helps improving writing ability. having a friend express opinions and provide certain guideline to improve the writing is analogous to a mirror reflecting the ability of the reviewer and the reviewed. peer assessment could become an alternative strategy in teaching writing because it needs participation among students. the participation could be in the form of giving feedback, suggestion, or critical response in the form evaluation. according to o’ malley & pierce (1996, p. 156) students can evaluate each other’s writing through peer assessment as they participate in student writing conferences. students are sometimes reluctance 18 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 13 26 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj to share impressions with their peers for fear of hurting the other person’s feeling. one way to overcome this reluctance is to make the student whose paper is being assessed responsible for finding out how the paper can be improved. another way is to have students pair up and read their papers to each other. every student is encouraged to respond to the other student’s paper by answering three questions; what did you like about the paper?, what facts or ideas could be added to the paper?, and what changes could be made to improve the paper? (o’ malley & pierce, 1996, p. 156). peer assessment requires students to provide either feedback or grades (or both) to their peers on a product or a performance, based on the criteria of excellence for that product or event which students may have been involved in determining (spiller, 2012, p. 10). there are some reasons why peer-assessment could be well implemented in learning a language especially writing skill. first, peer learning builds on a process that is part of our development from the earliest years of life (it is the practice of formal education and the centrality of the teacher that makes us lose sight of this). secondly, peer feedback can encourage collaborative learning through interchange about what constitutes good work. thirdly, students can help each other to make sense of the gaps in their learning and understanding and to get a more sophisticated grasp of the learning process. next, students can help each other to make sense of the gaps in their learning and understanding and to get a more sophisticated grasp of the learning process. students receiving feedback from their peers can get a wider range of ideas about their work to promote development and improvement (spiller, 2012, p. 11). peer assessment is a kind of assessment by asking peers to elaborate or respond the weaknesses and strength of the writing. if it is connected to the 2013 curriculum (which was canceled the implementation), peer assessment could be defined as assessment technique by asking peers to evaluate each other writing. this kind of assessment could be done by; a) each student should be responsible to give response and evaluate their peers’ writing, 2) designing a team which is consisted of some students which are responsible to assess skills of all students in the class, and 3) each student are given responsibility to assess three or four peers’ writing. in order to peer assessment can be done properly and effectively, it requires a supportive and conducive learning environment. students are required to feel comfortable and trust each other in order to provide fair feedback, structured, and constructive. therefore, the role of the teacher or mubarok, h., students’ perception toward the implementation of peer 19 assessment in writing: before and after revision https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj lecturer is extremely important in helping students to develop mutual trust among them. this study was aimed at elaborating students’ perception toward the implementation of peer assessment in writing class either before or after revision. students would write based on the topic given, and their peers were asked to give comment, response and feedback constructively. after students did peer-assessment, they were asked to give their opinion toward the implementation of peer assessment in writing class. methodology this study used qualitative approach to investigate students’ perception toward the implementation of peer-assessment before and after revision. according to wallace (1998, p. 32) qualitative is used to describe data what are not amenable to being counted or measured in an objective way, and are therefore subjective. descriptive study is a kind of study which seeks to describe the phenomenon of object or subject of the study (sukardi, 2013, p. 58). this kind of approach was used to gain the data deeply toward the implementation of peer-assessment. it meant that there was no data manipulation in this study. the result of the study could not be generalised to the wider subject of research. the subject of the study was second semester students of islamic university of nahdlatul ulama (unisnu) jepara. this study was conducted on the 2015/2016 academic year. the subject consisted of 32 students. the students had got intensive writing course when they were in first semester. this research was applied in writing i course in second semester. in collecting the data, the researcher used questionnaire to know students’ response and opinion toward the implementation of peerassessment in writing class. the questionnaire consisted of eleven questions. cohen et al. (2007, p. 245) state that the questionnaire is a widely used and useful instrument for collecting survey information, providing structured, often numerical data, being able to be administered without the presence of the researcher, and often being comparatively straightforward to analyze. each question represented various indicators. the indicators were the usefulness and meaningfulness of peer-assessment, nature of peer-assessment, reality of peer-assessment, precision of peer-assessment, validity of peerassessment, fairness, and personal goal-setting. the questionnaires were given 20 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 13 26 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj to the students as respondents. the type of the questionnaire was closedquestionnaire in which students did not have a chance to give or share their opinion, but they should choose the option given by the researcher. besides using questionnaires, this study also used test to investigate students’ score before and after the implementation of peer-assessment. this was used to know students’ improvement after they were taught by using the strategy. analytic scale was used in this study. in conducting peer-assessment, the researcher provided a guideline for students. the students should focused on some aspects in their friend writing. the aspects were: table 1: indicators of peer-assessment no aspects indicators 1 overall paper (organization) having a main idea supporting the idea logical and making sense organized well 2 word/sentence use complete and having one verb having variety of vocabulary using paragraph well using tense correctly 3 mechanism using periods using question marks capital letters at the beginning of sentence capital letters for proper nouns 4 spelling using spelling words correctly mubarok, h., students’ perception toward the implementation of peer 21 assessment in writing: before and after revision https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj result the result of the study showed that peer-assessment was good to be implemented in teaching writing as an alternative strategy. the implementation of peer-assessment in writing was 1) students were asked to gain ideas based on the topic given, 2) students were asked to write a composition based on the idea developed, 3) students were asked to read their writing by the mean of checking their writing, 4) students were asked to do peer-assessment, 5) students were asked to read the feedback given by their peers, and 6) students were asked to revise their writing after they read their feedback given by their peers. in implementing peer-assessment, students were given and provided a form of paper. so that it would make students and their peers were easy to give feedback or comment. scoring rubric which was used in this study was analytic scoring rubric. this scoring rubric was divided into some categories. analytic scales separate the feature of a composition into component that each are scored separately. the analytic scoring rubric used was based on o’ malley & pierce (1996, p. 145) rubric. the components were composing, style, sentence formation, usage, and mechanism. table 2: the students’ score composing style sentence formation usage mechanism before revision 6.6 6.5 6.7 6.4 6.9 after revision 7.6 7.7 8.1 7.9 8.2 based on the students’ score of pre-test, it was known that students had weaknesses in almost all components. in composing component, students got 6.6 in their writing. students found difficulty in generating the developed ideas in the form of a topic sentence and then supported by supporting sentences. this difficulty was caused in one paragraph there was more than one idea. after they were given a written feedback from their peers, they could increase their writing components which were still lacking. this is 22 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 13 26 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj because they knew the location of their lack of writing. it was shown the average score of composing component increased than before (7.6). students also faced difficulties in style component. style component consisted of some criteria like vocabulary choice, sentence variety, information and voice to affect readers. the students’ average score was low because most of students wrote their writing by using basic vocabulary and sometime inconsistent with the vocabulary they used. after the implementation of peer assessment, there was an improvement of style component. it was proved with the students’ average score which was 7.7. the third component was sentence formation. in sentence formation component, students faced difficulties in the aspect of making good sentence based on correct grammatical rules. students got 6.7 in the component. after the implementation of peer-assessment, students score was higher than before. it was shown by the average score which reached 8.1. in this aspect, students could write complete sentences which consisted of one single idea. besides that, students could make full sentences which consisted of subject, verb, and object correctly. besides that, students used coordinators appropriately and applied transition effectively. the fourth component was usage. in this component, students got 6.4 for their average score before the implementation of peer-assessment. this was because some students were still making mistakes in the form of grammar. after the implementation of peerassessment, students score was improved. it was shown by the table above which indicated 7.9 for students’ average score. the improvement occurred in the aspect of the form of plural of a word and subject and verb agreement. the last component was mechanism. students’ score in the pre-test was 6.9. they made mistakes in the form of punctuation, capitalization, spelling, and paragraph format. after the implementation of peer-assessment, the score was higher than the score before revision which was shown 8.2 in mechanism aspect. students realized the weaknesses so they could improve it in their next writing. table 3: the average of students’ score before revision after revision mean 6.62 7.9 based on the table above, it was known that there was an improvement mubarok, h., students’ perception toward the implementation of peer 23 assessment in writing: before and after revision https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj of students’ score before revision and after revision. before revision, students got 6.62 in their average score. after revision, they got 7.9 in their average score. by implementing peer-assessment, students got feedback from their peers. the feedback was used to revise their writing. they knew the mistakes and weaknesses of their writing, so that they would pay more attention to the feedback given by their peers. the feedback given by students was sometimes in the form of words, phrases, or sentences or even they directly give a correction. for their first draft / draft before revision, students’ mistake was found the in the aspect of developing main idea and supporting sentences. their idea was overlap with another idea. in the grammatical aspect, students sometimes made mistake in verb and subject agreement and plural form. table 4: the recapitulation of questionnaire before after no aspect options strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree 1 personal belief 12.5% 40.6% 31.25% 15.62% 2 own checking 21.8% 50% 18.75% 9.3% 3 own editing 25% 40.6% 21.8% 12.5% 4 writing organization 9.3% 34.3% 56.2% based on the table above, it was known that all students did not believe that their writing was good and could be understood by readers. some of them hesitated toward their own writing although it had been supported by their own checking and editing. they still faced difficulties in finding what aspect of their writing that had mistakes and weaknesses. they were not able to diagnose their writing in the aspect of organization. they only checked and edited in the aspect of grammar and spelling. some of them missed in checking the aspect of mechanism component. so it could be summarized that students had negative view toward their own writing before the implementation of peer-assessment. table 5: the recapitulation of questionnaire after revision 24 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 13 26 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj no aspect options strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree my feedback 1 usefulness and meaningfulness 40.62 % 50% 9.37 % 2 nature 34.37 % 53.12 % 12.5 % 3 reality 43.75 % 50 % 6.25 % 4 precision 40.62 % 46.87 % 12.5 % 5 validity 25 % 43.75 % 25 % 6.25 % my peer’s feedback 6 usefulness and meaningfulness 37.5 % 53.1 % 9.37 % 7 nature 37.5 % 56.25 % 6.25 % 8 reality 46.8 % 46.8 % 6.25 % 9 precision 37.5 % 43.75 % 18.75 % 10 validity 21.87 % 46.87 % 21.87 % 9.37 % 11 fairness 37.5 % 46.87 % 15.6 % 12 personal goal-setting 50% 50% based on the table above, it was known that the feedback students wrote was useful and meaningful. they did not give feedback which was out of theme and the feedback directly helped their peers to revise and improve their writing. it could be said that the feedback given by the writers (students) was useful and meaningful which was shown by more than 90% of students’ response was ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’. besides that, the students’ response also showed that the nature of students’ feedback so critical and detailed. it happened because students had known the scoring criteria before giving feedback to their peers. the critic they gave was meant to give positive sight mubarok, h., students’ perception toward the implementation of peer 25 assessment in writing: before and after revision https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj for students’ further writing. it was proven by the percentage more than 85% of students chose ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’. the feedback or suggestion which was written by students was based on real weaknesses or mistakes found from their friends’ writing. in this case, students were asked to be fair in giving feedback. they were not allowed to do the different thing in their friends writing. besides that, the precision of feedback also showed high response. the last thing discussed was the validity of the feedback. validity here meant the consistency of feedback given by friends in improving peers' writing. when peers provided feedback or suggestion, they always referred to the correct grammar and spelling of words. this allowed students’ feedback or suggestion would be similar if another student read the same paper. from the above questionnaires, it was found that the aspects of questionnaire were not only from the side of a reader (a student who gave a feedback) but also from the side of a writer. thus, there would be balance information toward the implementation of peer-assessment strategy. after students got feedback and then revised their writing, they had positive point of view toward their own writing. they thought that their writing was better than before. conclusion and suggestion based on the finding and discussion above, it could be concluded that there was an improvement of students’ score before and after revision and students had a positive point of view toward the implementation of peerassessment in teaching writing. students’ perception was measured from different aspects which included students’ feedback and peer’s feedback. each of the aspects was categorized into usefulness and meaningfulness, nature of feedback, reality of feedback, precision of feedback, and the validity. the students’ response was influenced by the implementation of the teaching strategy; peer-assessment. the usefulness and meaningfulness were coming from the significant aspect of the feedback. the feedback gave students enlightenment to the mistake and weaknesses of their writing. nature of feedback given was critical and detailed. the reality of feedback meant that the feedback given was based on real mistakes and weaknesses from students’ writing. the precision of the feedback meant that the feedback given could help students to revise their writing. finally, the validity of the feedback meant that the feedback might be similar if the paper read by 26 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 13 26 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj another student. it was meant that the feedback or suggestion showed the consistency of the feedback. acknowledgement we thank all the students of english education department who participated in this study. we also express our gratitude to the head of department of for supporting this research. references brown, d., (2001). teaching by principles; an interactive approach to language pedagogy, new york: pearson education international. carter, r. & nunan, d., (2001). teaching english to speakers of other languages., cambridge: cambridge university press. cohen, l., manion, l. & morrison, k., (2007). research methods in education, new york: routledge. harmer, j., (2007). the practice of english language teaching, london: pearson education international. mubarok, h., (2012). the use of peer feedback strategy to motivate students in narrative text writing. english education journal, 2(2), pp.99 – 211. o’ malley, j.m. & pierce, l. v., (1996). authentic assessment for english language learners. practical approaches for teachers, virginia: addisonwesley publishing company. puegphrom, p. & chiramanee, t., (2011). the effectiveness of implementing peer assessment on students ’ writing proficiency. in factors affecting english language teaching and learning. faculty of liberal art, prince of songkla university, pp. 1–17. spiller, d., (2012). assessment matters : self-assessment and peer assessment assessment. teaching development unit, (february), pp.1– mubarok, h., students’ perception toward the implementation of peer 27 assessment in writing: before and after revision https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 19. sukardi, (2013). metodologi penelitian pendidikan; kompetensi dan praktiknya, jakarta: bumi aksara. wallace, j., (1998). action research for language teachers, cambridge: cambridge university press. wang, j. et al., (2014). effects of a mixed-mode peer response on student response behavior and writing performance. journal educational computing research, 51(2), pp.233–256. yang, s., (2011). exploring the effectiveness of using peer evaluation and teacher feedback in college students ’ writing. the asia-pasific education researcher, 20(1), pp.144–150. 3 577 cover online husni.pdf 3 577 husni p 13-26 a book review: a deafening silence?: the mute echoing back the solemn lantern maker merlinda bobis new south wales, australia: murdoch books pty. ltd. 2008, 207 pages isbn: 9781741960785 . reviewed by judith balares salamat· "batang-bata ka pa at marami ka panglkailangang malaman at intindihin sa mundo/van ang totoolnagkakamali ka kung akala rno nalang buhay ay isangmumunting paraiso lamang." dr. judith balares salam at, m.a. <meliciasam@yahoo.com> +639192979337 is an associate professor at the camarines sur state agricultural college (cssac), pili, camarines sur, philippines, teaching literature, english, and journalism. her avocation is writing poetry and creative nonfiction.er master's degree in instructional technology at ohio universityusa. 98 celt, volume 9, number 1, july 2009:88-98 know nothing of the reality around them. their experiences will tell these adults the truth and somehow convince them to realize if, to use the words of the writer, "anguish can be made bearable and injustice can be overturned" (bobis, home website). references apo hiking society. "batang-bata ka pa." in lyrics mode. http://www. lyricsmode.com/lyrics/a/apo _hiking_ societylbatang_ bata _ ka ....pa.ht mi. re trieved 14 june 2009. bobis, merlinda. website. http://www.merlindabobis.com.aul. retrieved 18 june 2009. fair, dona. "son of pinetop woman helps strengthen bonds with filipinos." wmicentral.com. 2008. http://www.wmicentral.com/ site/news.cfm?newsid=19473522&brd=2264&pag=461&dept_i d=506173&rfi=6. retrieved 18 june 2009. grenz, s. j., a primer on postmodernism.grand rapids: cambridge university press, 1995:8. in http://www.webtruth.org/articles/ cultural-issues26/postmodernism-35.html. retrieved 14 june 2009. "launch of second novel for fca creative writing lecturer: the solemn lantern majcey' in http://www.uow.edu.aulcrearts/newsluow04 2237.hunl. retrieved 18 june 2009. l'estrange, sarah. radio interview. the book show. abc radio national. in http://www.abc.net.aulrnlbookshow/stories/2008/2291_908.htin. retrieved 18 june 2009. siriban, dianne rae e. "handouts for an oral report on postcolonialism." in scribd. http://www.scribdcomldoc/8734096/0ra1-report-on-postcolo nialcri ticism-handouts. retrieved 18 june 2009.   academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint reconstruction phase of reading to learn listyani english language education program, faculty of language and arts, satya wacana christian university, salatiga, indonesia email: listyani@staff.uksw.edu received: 22-10-2017 accepted: 24-10-2017 published: 23-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint reconstruction phase of reading to learn listyani listyani@staff.uksw.edu english language education program, faculty of language and arts, satya wacana christian university, salatiga, indonesia abstract: academic writing can be considered a difficult writing course which can make students exhausted and even frustrated. the principle of the more you read, the better you write may be applicable to this course. one way to make students write better is by asking them to read more and giving them some model texts to learn. asking them to work collaboratively with their peer students can also help. the series of steps are included in reading to learn (r2l) teaching method that i developed for my academic writing class in semester ii/ 2015-2016 academic year. this study mainly tried to describe how introverted and extroverted students of an academic writing class of the faculty of language and literature, universitas kristen satya wacana salatiga, indonesia, reacted to the phase when they were supposed to work with their peers to produce an outline and an essay. among other 21 students in the class, five who were found to be introverted, and five other extroverted, became the respondents of the study. they were selected based on questionnaires they filled in the previous semester. data were mainly derived from journals that they submitted every time they passed a step, and also from observation done through video recording during the whole semester. findings show that the ten students showed different affective reactions towards collaborative writing. key words: introverted, extroverted, collaborative writing, reading to learn, academic writing abstrak: academic writing sering kali dianggap sebagai sebuah mata kuliah momok yang membuat mahasiswa lelah, bahkan frustrasi. prinsip listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 251 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj bahwa semakin banyak seseorang membaca, semakin bagus dia menulis, mungkin bisa diterapkan pada mata kuliah ini. salah satu cara membuat mahasiswa menulis lebih baik adalah dengan meminta mereka membaca lebih banyak dan memberikan mereka teks-teks model untuk dipelajari. meminta mereka bekerja secara kolaboratif dengan teman kuliah mereka juga bisa membantu. langkah-langkah ini terdapat pada strategi mengajar reading to learn (r2l), yang saya aplikasikan untuk kelas academic writing saya pada semester ii/ 2015-2016. melalui penelitian ini, saya mencoba melukiskan bagaimana mahasiswa introvert dan juga ekstrovert dari kelas academic writing e, di fbs, uksw salatiga bereaksi terhadap fase ini, dimana mereka diharapkan bisa beerja sama dengan rekan-rean mereka untuk membuat sebuah outline dan juga sebuah esai. diantara 21 mahasiswa di kelas yang saya ajar tersebut, lima diantaranya adalah mahasiswa dengan kepribadian introvert, dan 5 ekstrovert. pencarian klasifikasi tipe kepribadian dilakukan dilakukan melalui kuesioner yang disebarkan satu semester sebelum kelas berlangsung. data untuk penelitian ini diambil dari jurnal yang harus dikirimkan mahasiswa melalui surat elektronik, setiap kali mereka melalui sebuah tahapan dari r2l. kesimpulan menunjukkan bahwa kesepuluh mahasiswa ini menunjukkan reaksi yang bervariasi terhadap tahapan ke 4 dari strategi r2l, yaitu joint reconstruction. kata kunci: introvert, ekstrovert, menulis kolaboratif, reading to learn, academic writing introduction this paper is intended to describe how 10 students of different personalities, that is, introvert and extrovert, responded to the fourth phase of reading to learn (r2l) – joint reconstruction in their academic writing class in semester ii, 2015/2016 academic year. this research was conducted in academic writing e class, at the faculty of language and arts, satya wacana christian university, salatiga, indonesia. one central question was addressed: how do students respond to the fourth phase of r2l? altogether, there were twenty one students who took this class. they were purposively selected as respondents. they were chosen among another hundred students of other parallel classes. they were selected based on the questionnaires that they filled in december 2015, or in semester i/ 2015-2016. these ten students were then put in one class, representing introverted and extroverted students, with other 11 students with different learning styles. findings show that the tertiary 252 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students responded positively to the stages. data were mainly derived from journals submitted every time they finished each step. literature review a. reading to learn (r2l) as a very famous quotation says, “there are many ways to go to rome”, in academic writing classes, the same principle applies. there are so many teaching methods, techniques and strategies to teach this course. the strategies included in reading to learn have been independently evaluated to accelerate students’ learning at twice to more than four times expected rates (rose & martin, 2012). reading to learn is said to be “one of the world’s most powerful literacy program, which was designed to enable all learners at all levels of education to read and write successfully” (rose, 2005b). david rose, the director of reading to learn international literacy program, had conducted a project of scaffolding reading and writing for indigenous children in school, with bryan gray and wendy cowey in 1999. david also worked with teachers of pitjantjatjara secondary school students to synthesize genre writing pedagogy and write it right research in 1998 and 2000 (rose and martin, 2012). an integrated course of reading and writing based on this literacy strategy was proposed by listyani (2015). the phases are described as follows. b. the phases of reading to learn rose claims (2005b) reading to learn as one of the world’s most powerful literacy programs. as previously mentioned, it is designed to enable all learners at all levels of education to read and write successfully, at levels appropriate to their age, grade, and area of study. these strategies have been independently evaluated to consistently accelerate the learning of all students at twice to more than four times expected rates, across all schools and classes, and among students from all backgrounds and ability ranges. the cycle is described as follows with the elaboration of each step preparing before reading reading to learn cycle consists of six stages (rose, 2005a). the first stage is preparing before reading. the first stage of r2l cycle was initially designed for aboriginal learners. it is called preparing before reading, a story or part of it is read aloud with the class, but learners have been prepared before to listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 253 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj follow words with understanding. they have been guided to understand the word meanings. they are given the background knowledge that they need to know. the teacher then tells them what the story is about, and summarizes the sequence of the story. learners’ understanding of the overall meanings of a text will provide a good context for recognizing more detailed meanings within each sentence which will be discussed in the next stage named detailed reading stage. besides stories, this first stage, preparing before reading, may also include more extensive exploration of the overall field. the text should be relevant to the curriculum topic. again, the teacher summarizes the topic of the text and the sequence of the story. this is done in words that all learners understand. some of the terms in the text are also used to as it is read aloud. during and after reading, key terms and concepts are also briefly explained. detailed reading rose further states that the general understanding of the text will provide a foundation for the key stage of detailed reading (2005a, p. 159). here learners must read the wordings themselves. this task is made easy by reading a short passage sentence-by-sentence, with the support of meaning cues provided by the teacher. these cues enable learners to be able to identify actively wordings from their meanings. they will also be able to apply what they learn to other texts. detailed reading enables all learners to read the passage with full comprehension and accuracy. this phase also becomes the foundation for the third stage of preparing before writing. in my perspective, this phase is ideal to be done in small groups. when grouping students for comprehension, serravallo (2010, p. 60) reminds teachers that it is useful to make sure that students are working on the same or about the same level of proficiency within a skill. in this phase, rose (2005a) further elaborates that meaning cues are more often the paraphrases of technical or abstract words. these may be drawn from common sense, or from the learners’ previously built-up knowledge in the field. elaborations tend to be the definitions of technical terms, explanations of new concepts or discussion based on students’ field knowledge. in the note making stage, students take turns to write/scribe on the class board as a dot-point list, the wordings that have been highlighted during detailed reading. at this point, it is the students who take over control, as the class dictates wordings and spellings that they can all read, prompted by the teacher where necessary. this stage provides many opportunities to practice spelling as 254 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj well as pronunciation. there are also opportunities to further discuss the field and organization of the text. when one side of the board has been filled with notes, students take turns to scribe/write a new text on the other side. the teacher now steps in to support the class. for example, the teacher can point out discourse patterns and other key elements in the notes. rose (2005a, p.153) elaborates that at this stage of the pedagogy (detailed reading), students can begin to read the wordings for themselves. however, the complexity of this task is increased by selecting a short passage and reading it sentence-by-sentence. providing adequate support for all learners to recognize wordings from the perspective of their meaning can also be done. preparation before writing in the next stage, preparation before writing, students are given the general framework of the genre and field where they have to rewrite the text. the teacher prepares students to imagine new texts. this is done by drawing attention to notes, suggesting alternative wordings, and discussing the field further. now instead of identifying literate wordings from common sense cues, students select more common sense paraphrases for the literate wordings in the notes. then the teacher can help to elaborate by rephrasing the selection, supporting them to check issues such grammar, letter cases, punctuation or spelling, and encouraging critical discussion of the way the original author constructed the field, and how they may reconstruct it. this high-level critical analysis is possible, in rose’s opinion (2005a) because of the supported practice in deconstructing and reconstructing meanings at all levels of the text. this stage, preparing before writing, varies with the type of text and level of schooling: with story texts in primary years, it may involve manipulating sentences on cardboard strips, followed by practice in spelling and fluent writing; with factual texts at all levels, it involves making notes from the text, in which spelling can also be practiced. the movement through these three stages is thus ‘top-down’, from overall meanings in the text, through wordings in sentences, to letter patterns in words. rose gives a term to the cycle of preparing, identifying, and elaborating as “scaffolding interaction cycle” (rose, 2005a, p.155). this cycle formally describes the micro-interactions involved in parent-child reading (rose, 2005a). the formal description enables teachers to carefully plan a discussion around the language features in a text, to think through which language features will be focused on at each step, how the teacher will prepare students to identify them, and how they will elaborate on them. listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 255 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as described by nassaji and wells (2000), in rose (2005a, p.148). but there are three crucial differences between the typical irf (initiation-responsefeedback) classroom pattern and scaffolding interactions. first, the initial scaffolding move is not just a question which elicits a response from learners, but this question consistently prepares all learners to respond well. next, the follow-up move is not simply feedback that evaluates or comments on responses. the feedback consistently elaborates the shared knowledge about text features. the lasts difference, responses are always affirmed, and responses which are inadequately prepared in irf discourse are frequently ignored. with teacher supports and communal learning tasks, students’ ability and independent competence can be gradually increased. the activities in prepare for writing phase include sentence making, spelling, and sentence writing. as in the early years, sentence making involves writing sentences on cardboard strips, but at this level using a whole selected paragraph. this phase starts with the teacher guiding learners to identify and cut out wordings, using the same discussion as done in detailed reading. less preparation is needed for them to identify the words. these words can now be elaborated with more detail and discussion. in groups, learners take turns to cut up sentences into phrases, and then words, put them back together, mix them up, rearrange them and construct new sentences. this can be done with the cards. this sentence making has three broad functions: it intensifies the identification and discussion of meanings and wordings from detailed reading. secondly, it enables learners to manipulate wordings to create meaningful sequences without more burden of writing. finally, it gives a space for learners to practice spelling as individual words are cut out. in sentence making activities, the learners are taking greater control of the reading and writing process, whether in groups or individually. the scaffolding movement from ‘outside-in’ is thus from whole class with teacher guidance, to a group practice, to independence. rose (2005a, p.156) further explains once all learners can automatically spell most of the words in the paragraph, they can practice writing the whole paragraph from memory. the value of this sentence writing activity is that learners are supported to practice writing long, meaningful text fluently, without any burden of inventing a story. to support learners to do so, most of the words in the paragraph are turned over, leaving only a few items such as sentence beginnings and grammatical words, as a framework to help them recall the sequence of meanings. 256 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj when students have finished writing, the words can be turned back over for them to check their wording and spelling for themselves. the next stage involves reconstructing the text patterns of the passage used for detailed reading, with new events, characters, settings and so on. this text patterning begins with the whole class as a joint activity before moving to independent writing. the first step is to read the whole passage again and reiterate the discussion of its global structures and key features. the class then brainstorms new story elements, the teacher scribes all ideas on the board or paper sheets for later use, and the class votes on which ideas will be used for the joint story. joint construction (collaborative writing) the next three stages then move back up to construct patterns of meaning in new texts. rose (2005a) clarifies that the fourth stage is joint reconstruction of the text. here, the teacher guides the class to write a new text, with all learners taking turns to scribe on the class board. with story texts, joint reconstruction uses the same literate language patterns as the original passage, with new content – events, characters, settings and so on. this supports learners to use the literary resources of the accomplished author they have learned to read and apply them to a new story. with factual texts, joint reconstruction uses the same content as the original text, via the notes scribed from it, but the new text is written in wordings that are closer to what the learners might use themselves in assignments. following the whole class joint construction, the text can be rubbed off and students can practice writing their own text from the same notes, in groups and individually, as a step towards independent research. in the joint writing process, learners take turns to scribe, but the whole class thinks of what to write and how to say it, closely following the original text patterns. this activity supports all learners to use the literate language of the accomplished author they have been reading, at the same time as creating a new story. individual reconstruction in the fifth stage individual reconstruction, learners use the text patterns or notes they have practiced using with the class to write a text of their own. again, with stories, this involves the same text patterns with new content, while factual texts involve the same content with new wordings. skills developed through each of these supportive stages then lead to the final stage, independent writing task on which learners can be assessed (rose, 2005). independent writing then involves using the same text patterns again, but with individual stories, using and expanding ideas discussed with the class. as listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 257 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj with all other stages of the curriculum cycle, some students will be able to do this activity more independently, enabling the teacher to provide support for weaker writers in the class. techniques for reading and writing factual texts can be used at any level, from primary to tertiary study, in any curriculum area. they support learners to develop skills in reading texts with understanding, identifying key information, selecting information for notes, and using it to write texts of their own. along the way, they also develop skills in interpreting and critiquing both the content of texts and how they are constructed (rose, (2005:158), citing from rose, 2004c). these writing activities flowing from detailed reading extend and intensify the approach of genre-based writing pedagogies (rose, 2005a, citing from cope and kalantzis, 1993; macken-horarik, 2002; martin, 1993, 1999; martin and painter, 1986; martin and rose, 2012; rothery, 1989, 1996). this six-stage curriculum cycle is schematized in figure 1. figure 1: the cycle of reading to learn according to rose (2005a), techniques for reading and writing stories in primary and junior secondary school support learners to read with engagement and enjoyment, to develop identities as readers, and to recognize and use literate language patterns in their own writing (citing from rose, 2005b). c. personalities second language learners are unique in their own way. they vary in a number of dimensions, like personality, motivation, aptitude, learning style, and age. these are what is meant by individual learner differences. these differences may result in differences in the route which learners pass in their 258 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj second language acquisition. these factors may also influence the rate and success of their sla (ellis, 1985 & 2012). dulay, burt, and krashen, (1982), strengthens this fact. even in the same environment, some learners acquire the second language better or even faster than others (dulay et al., 1982, p.74). personality is the “very general basic individual character structure”. learning styles are in the second place after personality. it is defined as how personality works in a learning context, in the classroom, as an example. styles reflect an individual learner‘s consistent and preferred learning approach; that is, an approach which he or she exhibits in a wide range of situations and contexts, not only in school contexts. a person‘s style affects the kinds of learning strategies. a learning strategy consists of a group of tactics or techniques. this is the only level which can be seen or noticed. this is what we see when we look at what a learner actually does in the classroom (mariani, 1996, in listyani, 2013). another similar study was conducted by erton (2010). he tried to find the relations between personality traits, language learning styles, and success in foreign language achievement. the variables in his study are faculty, success, personality, and language learning styles. erton concluded from the research which was conducted among five faculties at bilkent university first year students, that there is not a significant statistical relationship between the personality traits (introversion extroversion) of the learners and in their foreign language achievement (english 101 course). to achieve success in foreign language education, the introverts and the extroverts have a tendency to employ different learning styles. another study on learning styles and personalities was conducted by aldujaily, kim & ryu in 2013. in their article “differential use of learning strategies in first-year higher education: the impact of personality, academic motivation, and teaching strategies”, they found that personality traits like openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism cannot be overlooked when aiming to explain variance within student learning. teachers should also bear in mind that no two individuals comprehend reality in the same manner. this is related to learners’ idiosyncrasy; an unusual way in which a particular person behaves or thinks. the reason is that there are varieties of experiences of the individual, which are influenced by environmental stimuli and affected by the way they program themselves to transform reality into a learning process. the process is also known as an individual’s learning style. listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 259 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj keefe (1997), as cited by kopsovich (kopsovich, 2001) further says that the national association of secondary school principals adopted a comprehensive definition of learning style. this group defined “learning styles” as the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with and responds to the learning environment. there have been many theories that describe the organization of cognitive-centered approaches, personality-centered approaches, and learning/activity-centered approaches. according to zhang et al (2012), when respondents are characterized in terms of four dichotomous traits (extrovert/ introvert, intuition/ sensing, judging/ perceiving, and feeling/thinking), the researcher used mbti (the myers-briggs’ s type indicator) to measure personality. ellis (1985, p. 119) adds that personality has been explored in terms of a number of personal traits. they are said to constitute the personality of an individual. heinstorm (2000), in her paper, the impact of personality and approaches to learning on information behavior (citing from revelle & loftus, 1992) mentions that during the last years, conformity about the basic personality traits has emerged. it has been stated that they are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience. these dimensions are stable across the lifespan and directly related to behavior. they also seem to have a physiological base. the five factors are the following; 1. extraversion the extroverts tend to be more physically and verbally active whereas the introverts are independent, reserved, steady and like being alone. the person in the middle of the dimension likes a mix between social situations and solitude. (howard & howard, 1998, as cited by heinström) (heinström, 2000). extroverts are adventurous, assertive, frank, sociable and talkative. introverts are quiet, reserved, shy and unsociable. besides those qualities, extrovert learners like to talk to understand new information and ideas, work in groups, try something first and think about it later. they also like to see the results of a project and see examples of how people are doing their work (pritchard, 2009, p. 46). 260 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. agreeableness the agreeableness scale is linked to altruism, nurturance, caring and emotional support versus hostility, indifference, self-centeredness, and jealousy. agreeable people are altruistic, gentle, kind, sympathetic and warm. (boeree, no date, in heinstorm, 2000). 3. conscientiousness the conscientious, focused person is concentrating on only a couple of goals and strives hard to perceive them. he is career oriented, while the flexible person is more impulsive and easier to persuade from one task to another. conscientiousness has been linked to educational achievement and particularly to the will to achieve. (howard & howard, 1998, in heinstorm, 2000). the more conscientious a person is the more competent, dutiful, orderly, responsible and thorough he is. 4. neuroticism the persons with a tendency towards neuroticism are more worried, temperamental and prone to sadness. (howard & howard, 1998, in heinstorm, 2000). emotional stability is related to calm, stable and relaxed persons, whereas neuroticism is linked to anger, anxiousness, and depression. (boeree, no date). the name neuroticism doesn’t refer to any psychiatric defect. a more proper term could be negative affectivity or nervousness (mccrae & john, 1992, in heinstorm, 2000). in pitchard’s (2009) term, these people are called an introvert. they like to study alone, listen to others talk and think about something privately. they also like to think about something first and act later. they listen, observe, write, and read. they also take the time to complete their assignments. 5. openness people who are open are said to have broader interests. they are liberal and like a novelty. this is related to intellect, openness to new ideas, cultural interests, educational aptitude and creativity (howard & howard, 1998, in heinstorm, 2000). besides that, these people are cultured, aesthetic, intellectual and open (boeree, no date). openness to experience can be connected to activities like writing, science, and art (wallach & wing, 1969, in heinstorm, 2000). ellis (1985, p.120) adds that extrovert learners who listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 261 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj belong to this group, find it easier to make contact with other second language (l2) users, and therefore, find more inputs. some psychologists just draw a line clearly dividing between two types of personalities: extrovert and introvert. those who are open, sociable, outgoing, aggressive, talkative, and can be good leaders are usually extrovert. while people who are thoughtful, careful, reliable, pessimistic, melancholic, and quiet are usually introvert (mc.leod, 2014). in indonesia, not many studies have been conducted on reading to learn strategy and its relationship with learning styles, personality types, and writing competence. one study was conducted by samanhudi and sugiarti in 2013 (sa-ngiamwibool et al., 2013). this study reports the effectiveness of using reading to learn program in teaching critical writing to teacher candidates in english language teaching department, sampoerna school of education, jakarta. the reading to learn program implemented in that study allowed the researchers to employ principles from other theories of critical thinking and critical literacy. based on the characteristics of a mixed methods study and to some extent, a program evaluation research design, the researchers obtained data from classroom observations and students’ journals written after each teaching session. to determine students’ personalities, whether they are classified as introvert or extrovert, questionnaires consisting of 32 items were distributed. they had to fill in the questionnaires. analyzed based on likert scales of 1 to 5, and five introvert students and five extroverts were selected. results revealed that students’ ability to write an english text was better than before. this is indicated by their ability to clearly and explicitly explain details of information in the text they write, which surely fulfill the standard outlined in the critical thinking theory used in that study. statistical analysis also showed students’ improvements in their post-tests. due to the limitation on the number of respondents, this particular paper classifies personality types as extraversion and introversion only. these two types were then correlated with the students’ reactions towards the fourth stage of reading to learn, that is, collaborative writing, which was done with their classmates. one central question to be answered in this paper is thus: “what are introvert and extrovert students’ affective reactions towards the fourth stage of reading to learn (r2l)?” the following part will show the discussion part. 262 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology data were mainly derived from journals that they submitted every time they passed a step, and also from observation done through video recording during the whole semester. results and discussion a. how students of different personalities reacted to the fourth phase of r2l seen from their personalities, there were 5 extrovert and 5 introvert students. there were 5 introvert students; student a, student b, student c, student d, and student e. there were 5 extrovert students, they are student e, student f, student g, student h, and student i. different affective reactions of the ten students were shown below. 1. introvert students’ affective reactions falling into the group of introverted students are student a, student b, student c, student d, and student e. their opinions on collaborative work in writing an essay based on some model texts (joint reconstruction phase) are described as follows. student a (f) felt that working collaboratively with her peers. different ideas and disagreement among group members often happened. other problems included schedule clashes, incompatibility in terms of abilities or competence, and personal problems of the group members which often disturb the process of writing collaboratively. text 1: “i think that making collaborative writing is difficult enough…i do not really enjoy this. we have to make it together which our ideas are different with others and when we reveal the ideas, they sometimes disagree with us and then the ideas are not accepted to put on our task. they just put in their ideas and develop by themselves, it is so annoying because it is hard to combine some different ideas to make one document. afterward, sometimes we get member of group that are not suitable to work together, it is such self-ego or self-problem with them. it will distract our concentration because we are uncomfortable with them…group work actually has advantages and disadvantages like my opinion listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 263 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj above, but i more like make it by myself.” (student a’s journal, january 4, 2016, unedited) student b (m), on the other hand, was very positive about group work. he admitted that working collaboratively helped him write more easily and he could get lots of new ideas from his friends. student b stated, “thing that really helped me in writing my group essay is my comprehension to the topic, and the amount of sources that i read related to my topic. moreover, the simple and clear inputs from my friends and teacher comfort me in writing the essay.” (student b’s journal, february 9, 2016, unedited) similar to student a, student c (f) found it difficult to work together with her peers. disagreements and burdens to write a good essay became the main problems for her, although she realized the positive sides of collaborative work. below are her reactions on it. text 2: “actually, it was hard for me to combine our ideas in one essay. so, we often debate and argue our ideas in many times…for me, it was hard to find place and time to work together. in the other side, with working together, it was improve our team work. we knew what is bad and good from our partners. in that time, we also encourage each other to do our best for our study. also, team work taught us to be patient, and responsible with our times, and our efforts”. (student c’s journal, february 9, 2016, unedited) on the same boat as student b was student d (m). he was also very optimistic about collaborative work. he said that good communication avoids misunderstanding among group members. his group communicated via line, a social media to help them communicate better. he said that he could combine his ideas with his friends’ and thus, he benefitted from collaborative work, especially when he was stuck and had no idea of what to write. the last student, student e (m), showed his neutral position towards group work. he said that on the one hand, group work is beneficial. that is if he felt comfortable and suitable for the group. he would feel confident. on the other hand, he would be disadvantageous if the group members are not compatible. the group members would ignore him and his ideas were not accepted. this, student d claims could destroy one’s mentality. 264 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from the five students’ opinions, there is something interesting that i could draw a conclusion from. however, this is still too early to conclude. further research is needed in this area. two introvert female students did not really like the idea of collaborative writing, while the other two introvert male students showed positive or neutral position. the last student was neutral about it. whether gender is related to these affective reactions or not still remains unanswered. however, i tend to say that in general, girls are moodier than boys in working with others. they are fussier and demanding about time, discipline, agreement on ideas, and good personalities of other group members. in table 1, the students’ personalities and gender can be clearly seen. related to intelligence based on their last gpa, no specific conclusion can be drawn. students of various gpa responded variously towards this stage. table 1: introvert students’ responses towards stage 4 student initials response towards stage 4 competence (gpa) gender a negative 3.42 f b positive 3.73 m c negative 3.46 f d positive 3.35 m e positive 3.22 m 2. extroverted students’ affective reactions student f (f) stated that she had both positive and negative perspectives towards collaborative work, or, joint reconstruction in the cycle of reading to learn. her biggest difficulty was when she and her friends had to combine ideas of the whole group members. she knew the benefits of working collaboratively, however. this is what she stated, “the difficult part was when we combined, and we had to make it smoothly in order to make our essay better. to make it smoothly, we should reread and tried to add some sentences. it was also easier because when i could not make some sentences or i did not have an idea, my friends could help me to make complete the essay.” (student f’s journal, february 9, 2016, unedited) student g (f) had a similar opinion as her previous two female friends. schedule clashes seemed to be the biggest problem for her. she preferred listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 265 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj doing her work by herself, she could do that anywhere and anytime she wanted. below is her statement: text 3: “i am on the side who do not like collaborative learning. it is not because of i do not like the people who are working with me, but it is more like the process of it. if we are working with other people, we have to figure out when will we do the assignment, when can we meet or even where will it be. people’s schedules are different and it is hard to see each other. even, in this past assignment, we were barely face to face on doing our assignment. moreover, when we are working in groups we have to split our mind and united as one, although it is so hard, because sometimes what a wants is not what b wants. we could not satisfy what everyone’s want and make it happen.” (student g’s journal, february 9, 2016) similar to the previous male friends, student h (m) liked the process of joint reconstruction where he had to work collaboratively with others. “actually i like to do the pairs work because it makes my work easier than work by myself. working together with other people makes me know their background knowledge in learning. even though i am a person who often work by myself, i can cooperate with my pairs although i am rarely to talk”. student i (m), stated in his fifth journal that again, like the other male students, he liked collaborative work with his friends in the group. he thoroughly told me in the journal several reasons why he liked doing this collaborative assignment. this is what he stated along with the reasons why he liked this activity. text 4: “i feel happy enough to work with them because i know them personally and it helps me to not hold back myself when i am proposing a topic or ideas. first, i did not feel one of us being a slacker. we worked together even not literally together. sometimes we share the responsibilities like i am doing the outlining, osilva preparing the power point and irena print the material and 266 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj prepare the presentation outline. i could not argue that i kind of pushing them on the topic because i usually give them some ideas while they are only agree with my ideas. i kind of feel bad because it is like i did not give them enough opportunity to explore their own ideas. i usually did this, moreover when we procrastinating on the assignment. second, i like the collaborative learning with my group because sometimes they give me new perspectives. the last topic we choose for the group essay is ‘woman should pursue their career after marriage’, it was kind of girl thing. me personally have an argument from ‘the husband’ side, mostly i involved my own preference on the topic sentence and the argument. however, they give me new perspectives. they share how they felt when woman is working. it made me realize that man and woman sometimes have different perspective toward something. we have different way of thinking. mostly, woman use their feeling to overcome a problem. third, the problem i faced during the last collaborative learning is interest. we had some option for the topics such as; education, parenting, technology. i have more preference on technology, but osilva does not put any interest on it and irena is like she is fine with every topic. so, we decided on collecting some topics before we choose the one that fit ours interest. it is quite hard for me to write on a topic, which i do not really put my interest into or writing on a topic that oppose my ideology. we spend like 10 minutes thinking about one to another topic that may fit us. me personally like work with them because they can understand each other’s schedule and tolerate each other weakness. it is important to be not selfish when doing a collaborative learning because we have to grow together and explore ourselves.” (student i’s journal, february 9, 2016, unedited) listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 267 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the last student, student j (f), admitted that she did not like the idea of collaborative work. disagreement among group members, the members’ negative personality like laziness, and unfair division of the job among members became the main problems for her. “…when i have an idea and i think it is easy or interesting, sometimes our friends do not agree with our idea… also, … i have a friend who was lazy because he thought that it was the group assignment and he less worked in the group. it was very annoyed and not fair, because i and my other friend must be worked to finish our essay but he have less cooperation.“ these statements were taken from student j’s journal, february 9, 2016. again, there is a similar pattern of the previous five introvert students, as shown in table 2. female students tend to be more moody or choosy about their partners, while the boys tend to be more care-free and do not mind working collaboratively with others. table 2: extrovert students’ responses towards stage 4 student initials response towards stage 4 competence (gpa) gender f negative 3.5 f g negative 3.66 f h positive 3.65 m i positive 3.7 m j negative 3.22 f conclusion from the ten students’ affective reactions towards collaborative work or in the cycle of reading to learn it is called joint reconstruction, several conclusions can be drawn. first, both types of personalities, introvert and extrovert, have various reactions towards collaborative work on their essay. second, girls tend to be more moody and fussy about personal things like time, schedule, discipline, members’ personality like laziness, and also about academic matters like agreement on different ideas presented by the group members, or the unfair job distribution among the members themselves. thirdly, despite the similar patterns of reactions among the boys and girls, both introvert and extrovert students varied in their opinions on the subject matter. i cannot generalize that introvert students dislike working with 268 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 250 – 269 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj others, and prefer working in alienation, or the other way around for extrovert students. again, further research is needed to see the variable of gender in relation to the students’ reactions to this matter. as mentioned by schmeck (1988, p.10), there is no way to examine the genetics, styles, and experiences that make up a person or a personality. “we can see components of personality only indirectly by observing behaviour within varied stimulus situations. we cannot make direct observations of situational influences either… if we keep a situation constant and look across situations, we see the influence of personal style. however, the two are normally operating simultaneously in a sort of chemical reaction that, in the end, may be unanalysable. styles, genetics, and prior experiences influence perception of the current situational cues and moderate behaviour controlled by the current situation, and it is like chemical reaction metaphorically.” further investigation of the situation or environment, as well as the learners' styles, genetics, and prior experiences, are needed. references al-dujaily, a., kim, j., & ryu, h. (2013). “am i extravert or introvert? considering the personality effect toward e-learning system”. educational technology & society, 16 (3), 14–27. retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.16.3.14 dulay, h., burt, m., and krashen, s. (1982). language two. ny: oup. ellis, r. (1985). understanding sla. oup. ellis, r. (2012). the study of sla (2nd ed.). oup. erton, i. (2010). relations between personality traits, language learning styles and success in foreign language achievement. hacettepe university journal of education, 38, 115-126. heinstrom, j. (2000). the impact of personality and approaches to learning on information behavior. information research journal, 5(3). kopsovich, r. d. (2001). a study of correlations between learning styles of students and their mathematics scores on the texas assessment of academic skills test (doctoral dissertation, university of north texas). retrieved from http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc2889/m2/1/high_res_ d/dissertation.pdf listyani, academic writing students’ affective reactions towards joint recon 269 struction phase of reading to learn https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj listyani. (2013). students’ learning styles: a study on academic writing class semester i/ 2012-2013, presented at the 7th international seminar 2013 “language policy and planning: what are the issues?”, faculty of language and literature, uksw, salatiga, indonesia. listyani., (2015). reading to learn: an alternative to teach integrated reading and writing. asian efl journal, 84. mariani, l. (2013). investigating learning styles. perspectives. journal of tesol italy, 22(1). retrieved on august 1, 2013 from http://www.learning paths.org/papers/paperstyles.htm mcleod, s. (2014). theories of personality. retrieved on january 15, 2017 from http://www.simplypsychology.org/personality-theories.html pitchard, a. (2009). ways of learning. learning theories and learning styles in the classroom. ny: routledge. rose, d. (2005a). democratising the classroom: a literacy pedagogy for the new generation. journal of education, 37(1), 131-168. rose, d. (2005b). reading to learn: accelerating learning and closing the gap. teachers resource package. retrieved from www.readingtolearn.com.au rose, d., & martin, j.r. (2012). learning to write, reading to learn. yorkshire: equinox publishing ltd. samanhudi, u., & sugiarti. (2013). reading to learn program to teaching critical writing in english for academic purpose class. leksika. journal of language, literature, and language teaching, 7(2). issn: 1978-1965. schmeck, r. (ed.). (1988). perspectives on individual differences, learning strategies and learning styles. ny: springer science & business media. serravallo, j. (2010). teaching reading in small groups: differentiated instruction for building strategic, independent readers. portsmouth: heinemann. zhang, l.f., sternberg, r.j., and rayner, s. (2012). culture and intellectual styles. handbook of intellectual styles. preferences in cognition, learning and thinking, 131-152. ny: springer publishing company. http://www.simplypsychology.org/personality-theories.html http://www.readingtolearn.com.au/ 8.pdf (p.1) 008 dec2017.pdf (p.2-21) the interference manifestation through interlanguage : a study on a multilingual child's verbal performances· heny hartonoz and tan agung baryono3 abstract: interference is often seen as an intrusion from the native language when a language learner is trying to perform the target language. in fact, it is more a part of the process of acquiring the target language which naturally happens before a language learner sucessfully achieves the target language proficiency. as a process rather than afinal product of learning language, it is hoped that it is not seen as a permanent incorrectness. the interference is manifested as an interlanguage. the interlanguage itself can be divided into 4 categories. namely overgeneralization, simplification, hypercorrection and avoidation. this research is trying to see the interference manisfestation of a multilingual child. key words: interference, interlanguage. multilingual 1 this article is a development of a thesis. 2 heny hartono,s.s., m.pd. <henyhartono@yaboo.com> +628122968851 is a lecturer at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. she is a graduate from gadjab mada university and received her master's degree in education from semarang state university. 3 tan agung haryono is a graduate from the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. h. hartono and t.a. haryono, a multilingual child's verbal performances 87 references dulay, heidi, marina burt, and stephen krashen. language iwo. oxford university press: london, 1982. ellis, rod. understanding second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press, 1985. grojean, f. "bilingualism, individual". in journal on concise encyclopedia of educational linguistic. edited by bernard spolsky. oxford: elsevier, 1999: 284-290. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching translation studies harry aveling translation studies, monash university, victoria, australia email: harry.aveling@monash.edu received: 25-02-2018 accepted: 30-02-2018 published: 21-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching translation studies1 harry aveling harry.aveling@monash.edu translation studies, la trobe university; and monash university, australia abstract: translation pedagogy is one of the most underdeveloped fields of translation studies. this paper provides an introduction to three different approaches to the teaching of translation: the classical european, the “transmissionist” approach and the contemporary “social constructivist” approach. the paper shows how the relationship between teacher and student varies in each of these models. key words: social constructivism, translation pedagogy, transmissionist teaching abstrak: pengajaran menerjemahkan adalah salah satu dari studi yang belum berkembengdi dalam studi terjemahan. makalah ini memberikan pengantar tentang tiga maca pendekatan untuk pengajaran terjemahan: klasik eropa, pendekatan transmisionis, dan pendekatan kontemporer, yatu konstruktivis sosial. makalah ini menunjukkan bagaimana hubungan antara guru dan siswa bervariasi dengan menggunakan macam model-model itu. kata kunci: konstruktivis social, pedagogi terjemahan, pengajaran transmissionis 1 the first part of this paper draws on my “short history of western translation theory”. i am grateful to ms. do thi my han m.a. of ussh, hcmc, vietnam for her perception of her various teachers. 2 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction translation studies has been defined as: …a formal branch of academic study that addresses critical, creative and research issues involved in the linguistic and interpretive transferral of sense and sound from one language to another and from one cultural context to another. translation studies explores all dimensions of the translation process ... [translation] is an exacting process that demands creative expression, philological precision, minute knowledge of historical and cultural contexts, and a nuanced sense of style both in the source and target languages.2 although it is an important preparation for and dimension of “the translation process”, translation pedagogy is one of the most under-developed fields of translation studies. this paper provides an introduction to some of the different approaches to the teaching of translation as a useful skill to be used beyond the classroom. classical european translation pedagogy in 1963, jiri levy wrote in the art of translation that: “to date, writing on translation only partially belongs to the realm of theory, as most articles and monographs have been confined to empirical observation or essayistic aphorisms.” levy noted that such essays on translation as did exist often had a humorous tone (although the jokes told were rather old, e.g. translations were like women, either beautiful or faithful, but never both), featured the frequent use of anecdotal misunderstandings, and were often focused on such abstract topics as the nature of translation, whether translation is possible, and so on (2011, p. 3)3. the oldest european discussions of translation and translation pedagogy date back to ancient rome, and then continue to be of major importance through to the renaissance, the reformation, and the rise of the early european nation states. the central language of european scholars and 2 retrieved from http://www.utdallas.edu/research/cts/alta-htm, alta, link to “promotion and tenure”, 19 september 2008. 3 sonia colina agrees that until recently discourse on translation pedagogy was “largely dominated by anecdotal evidence and case studies” (baer & koby 2003, p. 29). aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 3 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj other readers was latin, and the core of their tradition was classical literature and judeo-christianity. lefevere’s words provide an accurate background to understanding the academic use of translation and how it was taught: "in such a culture, translations were not primarily read for information or the mediation of the foreign text. they were produced and read as exercises, first pedagogical exercises, and later on, as exercises in cultural appropriation in the conscious and controlled usurpation of authority." (lefevere, 1990, p. 16). the first texts on the nature of translation were intended to train future orators to act in the real world, the sons of nobles who could be expected to play an active part in the life of the state. through the training they received from an experienced elder, these young men were encouraged to work in a particular way, namely to create dynamic and non-literal versions of original works in greek as a means for developing the fluency of their own oratorical skills. marcus tullius cicero wrote as follows in on the orator (de oratore, 55 bc): i have judged it right to undertake a labor useful to students, although certainly not necessary for myself. that is, i have converted the most celebrated orations of two of the most eloquent attic orators, aeschines and demosthenes, which they delivered in debate against each other, not recasting them as a translator (interpres), but as an orator, keeping the same meanings but with their forms – their figures, so to speak – in words adapted to our idiom, i have not thought it necessary to pay out one word for another in this process, but have conserved the character and the force of the language. nor have i though it fitting to count them out to the reader, but to weigh them out (cited in jerome’s letter to pammachius, in venuti, 2000, p. 25). these binary practices were also prescribed by horace, pliny the younger, quintillian, and saint jerome. horace argued for the revitalisation of well-known texts through a style that would: "neither linger in the one hackneyed and easy round; neither trouble to render word by word with the faithfulness of a translator [sic]". the superior translator, the gentleman and not the market translator, should not treat the original writer’s beliefs with too easy a trust, and ought to avoid stylistic over-sensationalism "so that the middle never strikes a different note from the beginning, nor the end from the middle" (ars poetica, c. 20bc, robinson, 1997, p. 15). quintilian agreed: "in translating [greek authors], we may use the very best words, for all that we use may be our own. 4 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as to [verbal] figures…we may be under the necessity of inventing a great number and variety of them, because the roman tongue differs greatly from that of the greeks" (institutio oratoria, c. 96ad, robinson 1997, p. 20). st jerome called on the authority of both cicero and horace in his letter to pammachius, no. 57 (395ad), where he "freely announced" that "in translating from the greek except of course in the case of holy scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery i render not word for word, but sense for sense" (robinson, 1997, p. 25). the fullest consideration of these literal and free strategies was undertaken in friedrich schleiermacher’s "on different methods of translating" (ueber die verschiedenen methoden de uebersezens, 1813). robinson describes this work as "the major document of romantic translation theory, and one of the major documents of western translation theory in general" (1997, p. 225). schleiermacher’s essay too can be read as a work of advice for educated gentlemen on how best to translate. he too distinguished between the "interpreter (dolmetscher) who works in the world of commerce", and the "translator proper (ubersetzer) who works in the fields of scholarship and art". the more a work is dominated by the author’s "unique ways of seeing and making connections", he argued, the more it is "ordered by free choice or personal experience", and the more artistic it will be. for the true translator, there are only two choices: to "either (1) disturb the writer as little as possible and move the reader in his direction, or (2) disturb the reader as little as possible and move the writer in his direction" (robinson, 1997, pp. 228-229). schleiermacher’s preference was for the former, with all its consequences: "if the target-language readers are to understand, they must grasp the spirit of the language native to the author, they must be able to gaze upon the author’s inimitable patterns of thinking and meaning; but the only tools that the translator can offer them in pursuit of these goals are their own language, which nowhere quite corresponds to the author’s, and his own person, his own inconsistently clear understanding of, and vacillating admiration for, the author." to this end, he argued for the use of an intermediary language, which in following "the contours of the original" will seem "foreign" to the reader, by giving off "an aura of impediment, of having been bent forcibly into the foreign semblance". it will sound like "some specific other thing, something definitely other" (robinson, 1997, pp. 232-233). aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 5 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj these essayistic approaches of a confident translator of a superior status giving instruction from above to those with little knowledge of how to translate have remained constant to this day. it is the practical, commonsensical nature of these distinctions, either follow the word or the sense of the sentence and beyond, that has ensured that they continue to remain the basis for much formal translator training. as a contemporary example, we may cite peter newmark’s textbook of translation, in which he argues that the "central problem of translating...has always been whether to translate literally or freely". his answer to this problem is the distinction between semantic and communicative translation. semantic translation, "is personal and individual, follows the thought processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact". communicative translation, on the other hand, "attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership" (newmark, 1988, pp. 46-47). informative and vocative (non-literary) texts require communicative translation; expressive (literary) texts tend more towards the semantic method of translation (newmark, 1981, p. 44). binary schemes of "formal" and "dynamic" equivalence also play an important part in the work of the still very influential eugene nida (1964). the teacher set the model and the rule on which it was based, the student faithfully followed him. this may have taken place through fact to face contact; more often, the student was not a student at all but read the right books, if he was sufficiently interested. if students could somehow learn to do these things, they would be considered ready to take a useful place in society. recent studies in translation pedagogy throughout most of history, translation was the work of bilinguals, working practitioners and religious scholars. it was not considered a worthy university discipline beyond its role in the teaching of grammar. decisive challenges to the way translators and others thought about their work and how it was done came in the 1950s, and more especially after the 1980s, when "translation” into one’s own language ceased to be merely an aspect of language teaching, summarised by the directives “translate into language x” or “read and translate” (and followed by the question “right, who will go first?”) 6 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (davies, 2004, p. 11), and took on a new status in the academy. translation as an object gave way to “translation as a process and to translators as subjects” (seguinot, 2008, p. 2) the new academic field of “translation studies" was decisively defined by the american scholar, james holmes in his 1972 paper on "the name and nature of translation studies"4. holmes insisted that translation studies is “as no one i suppose would deny, an empirical discipline … a field of pure research – research pursued for its own sake, quite apart from any direct practical application outside its own terrain” (2000, p. 184). he divided translation studies into two major branches, "pure" and "applied", and then sub-divided the "pure" into two further sub-branches: "theoretical" and "descriptive" translation studies. he listed four fields within applied translation studies: the teaching of translation, translation aids, translation policy and translation criticism. with regard to the first of these, he wrote: the teaching of translating is of two types which need to be carefully distinguished. in the one case, translating has been used for centuries as a technique in foreign-language teaching and a test of foreign language acquisition … in the second case, a more recent phenomenon, translating is taught in schools and courses to train professional translators. this second situation, that of translator training, has raised a number of questions that fairly cry for answers: questions that have to do primarily with teaching methods, testing techniques, and curriculum planning. it is obvious that the search for well-founded, reliable answers to these questions constitutes a major area (and for the time being, at least, the major area) of research in applied translation studies. (holmes, 2000, p. 189) holmes had little to say on either translation aids or translation policy. the fourth of these fields, quality evaluation, is, according to arango-keeth and koby, the least developed area of this underdeveloped field (2003, p. 117). the role of translation in language teaching has primarily tended to be a “language exercise” rather than training for a real life vocational context. holmes preferred to see applied translation studies as being “of use” rather than “of light” (toury 2012, p. 189). he was not alone in this. in his 4 james holmes: “the name and nature of translation studies”, reprinted in venuti, l. (ed.) the translation studies reader, routledge, london, 2000, pp. 180-192. aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 7 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discussion of holmes ‘map’ of the discipline5, gideon toury insisted that: “it has always been my conviction that it is no concern of a scientific discipline, not even within the ‘human sciences’, to effect changes in the world of our experience” (2012, p. 11, emphasis in the original). he vigorously rejected peter newmark’s conviction that “translation theory’s main concern is to determine appropriate translation methods” (newmark 1981, p. 19), although he was prepared to admit that conclusions from theoretical reasoning might sometimes be useful for translation criticism and translator training. translator training, he insisted, derives its primary force from outside translation studies, “from a theory of teaching and learning, and hence (would) include notions such as ‘exercise’ and ‘drill, or ‘input’ vs. ‘intake’.” toury classified the major fields of translation studies as being “theoretical” and “descriptive”, while applied translation was “prescriptive … not intended to account either for possibilities and likelihoods or for actual facts, but rather to set norms in a more or less conscious way. in brief, to tell others what they should have done or should be doing …” (toury, 2012, p. 12). the rise of translation pedagogy the enormous expansion of translation studies over the past half century has not been matched by an equivalent change in the amount of research conducted about the nature and effectiveness of the various approaches to educational training and education. compared to pure translation studies, applied translation studies is still an underdeveloped field of study, so much so, in fact, that translation pedagogy has in fact been described as “the other theory” (baer & koby 2003, p. vii) or, more fully, “the other, forgotten theory in translation studies” (baer & koby 2003, p. vii). hermans writes that: “empirical research into [translator] training is still in its infancy” (baer and koby: vii). much of the early research from the 1960s on was carried out on a relatively small-scale, within the discipline of linguistics. it was based on limited personal experience and anecdotes, and published as single journal 5 toury, g. the pivotal position of descriptive studies and dts. descriptive translation studies, pp. 1-13. 8 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj articles or books of essays by various authors.6 the 1970s onwards began to see a significant growth in more sophisticated pedagogical research (published in the interpreter and translator trainer in particular) and the appearance of longer, more detailed studies of specific research problems (kelly, 2005). some publications were still centred on classroom activities, many on the theory versus practice debate.7 studies of actual pedagogical practices and settings formed a very valuable project but were still not plentiful.8 nevertheless, an awareness of educational theory was growing9. in 1980, jean delisle argued for a point that was commonplace in educational theory. he took a step away from unthinking subservience to established practices by insisting that translator trainers should have clear and achievable teaching and learning objectives, developed around contrastive-linguistic activities, so as to achieve clear and definite outcomes (kelly & martin 2009, p. 298, orlando 2016, p. 29). christiane nord (1991) confirmed the difference between language for the classroom and language for use beyond the academy when she suggested that training should simulate professional practice, thus leading to the production of a more professional and realistic approach to classroom work (kelly & martin 2009, p. 298, orlando, 2016, p. 29). in the real world, translators work not in classrooms but in government and professional agencies, business firms, and as editors, authors and scholars (ulrych, 2005, p. 4). as yves gambier has insisted: “we do not teach translation, we train translators” (cited in kearns 2008, p. 207). transmissionist teaching a major shift in approach came in 1991 with kiraly’s pathways to translation, and later his social constructivist approach to translator education 6 kearns (2008, p. xiii) notes a recent move away from “papers which focus hermetically on the individual experiences of teachers arriving at their own solutions in their own classrooms”. see kearns, j. (ed.) (2008). translator and interpreter training, london: continuum. 7 baer & koby (2003, p. vii) suggest that, “much of the discussions of translation pedagogy today is drowned out by the endless debate over theory versus practice.” 8 compare maria gonzalez davies “minding the process, improving the product” in m. tennent, m. (2005). training for the new millenium, amsterdam: benjamins, “much has been written about the process and product of translation, but little about class dynamics. the literature on translator training seems to lean towards a description of what happens in translation but not of what happens in the classroom. an approach which includes both issues is needed” (p. 67). 9 on the wide range of theory and research in educational studies in general, see cohen, l., manion, l. & morrison, k., (2007). research methods in education, 6th ed., london: routledge. aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 9 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (2000). kiraly’s argument too was not so new in education circles but it seemed profoundly new in translation studies. kiraly began with a description (some might say a caricature) of traditional translation pedagogy course types as being what he called “transmissionist”, that is, based on “the transmission of knowledge from those who know more to those who know less” (2000, p. 53). kiraly described the conventional, unexamined and uncriticised, round of lectures, exercise classes and seminars, as simply doing what had always been done. he insisted that in these situations: “the teacher is always present, in charge and in control, filling in the knowledge not covered by the presenters and answering any questions that the otherwise silent and generally passive lecture recipients might ask” (2000, p. 51)10. transmissionist teaching was conventionally justified by the common sense assumption that knowledge is static and open to the individual apprehension of brute objective facts. the assumption creates the belief that skills are pre-definable, almost identical for all students and measurable. in kiraly’s opinion, these methods respect neither the individuality of the student and how knowledge is created, nor the real world in which professional translators work today. they fail “to produce translators who are capable of the flexibility, teamwork and problem solving that are essential for success in the contemporary language industry, not to mention the creativity and independent thinking that have always been the hallmark of the finest translators” (kiraly, 2000, p. 23). here are two examples of “transmissionist teaching” as seen by a vietnamese m.a student in ho chi minh city, in 2014: the best and worst translation classes i ever attended: i have attended three translation classes: one at university (the compulsory subject at school) and two at graduate level (one taught by mr. abc and the other by mr. ghi). to my experience and memory, there are no best and worst classes as i did and have learned valuable things about translation from those teachers. for me, it would be more appropriate to say “the more and the less 10 compare the description by witte et al. of: “the grammar translation method with its focus on formal accuracy, often using translation not only in exercises but also for testing, tormenting generations of language learners with texts of absurd complexity only to show how little they knew” (2009, p. 1). 10 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj memorable classes” because the teacher himself and his methods are the ones that count. i was introduced to translation studies in my third year at university. my translation teacher was an old, conservative man. his name is def (i cannot remember his full name) but we, the students, tended to call him “dr. anesthesia” because his little, soft voice, in spite of using the microphone, made us extremely sleepy especially in the afternoon. i have to say that his translation class was kind of boring. the teacher provided only one section of translation introduction and the rest were for “hand-on”. we were required to do a lot of translation during the course, from l1 to l2 and vice versa. the teaching process seemed to be repeated day by day: getting handout of source text from dr. anesthesia, producing the draft in class, completing the revised at home, submitting the outcomes verbally or in written, and finally receiving comments and feedbacks. i regard it as the least memorable class but the most memorable teacher’s nickname. the one at graduate level was quite stunning. actually, there were some rumors spreading around this professor, mr. abc: skillful, but strict, serious, and very demanding. though i only studied with him for two sections, i myself got attracted and interested in his “strange” teaching method. he stressed on the heavy load of work i and my friends had to do during the course on the very first period, which made us experience the feelings that our seniors had suffered. i think other people were correct about his personality but i still loved attending his class: i admired his profound knowledge in the field of translation; furthermore this is tesol class of graduate students, so he had the reasons to be strict and demanding; he was serious in class but i did smile more than i did in any previous class. he really had a great sense of humour, at least from my perspective. mr. abc spoke vietnamese with the accent of a foreigner and this was extremely funny whenever he translated english into vietnamese. in addition, what made him different from teachers i had studied was he insisted on “team” not “group”: team work, team members, team spirit (he did spent one period explaining the difference between team and group) and he knew many popular vietnamese songs for the youth and singers and used aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 11 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj them as examples. it was regret that his poor health prevented him from continuing teaching; he left a lasting impression on me about a strict but humorous vietnamese teacher with “foreign” vietnamese accent. clearly this student learnt a lot from both of these lecturers and scarcely seems to have been rendered passive or unthinking. she worked quite hard in fact and gained much from both courses. mr abc did not hesitate to encourage team work and he was obviously emotionally committed to his students. contemporary constructivist approaches from a more contemporary position, following lev vygostky and others, kiraly has argued that knowledge is constructed through a process of linguistic interaction between members of a community as they seek to understand the world together, based on previous experience, knowledge and motives. as he says: “there is no meaning in the world until we human beings make it” (baer & koby 2003, p. 9). kiraly, therefore, looked for a type of education that is “a collaborative, acculturative and quintessentially social activity” (2000, p. 28). he argued that we ought to shift the focus of authority, responsibility and control away from the teacher and towards the learners (2000, p. 1), who in fact include (in my experience as well) both beginners and advanced levels of skill and real-world experience. he considered the change from instruction to the collaborative (or “social”) construction of knowledge as being “the promise of a paradigm shift in translator education”, and set out to “[make] a case for considering collaboration as a particularly valuable element in developing innovative methods for translator training.” (baer & koby, 2003, p. 9) knowledge includes the group development of knowledge, the testing of hypotheses about the text under consideration and its context, as well as action, the production of outcomes. in this style of teaching and learning, process matters as much as, if not more than, its products. the most effective learning is negotiated, experiential and active. kiraly made a distinction between “translation competence” and “translator competence”. he argued that: translator competence does not primarily refer to knowing the correct translations for words, sentences or even texts. it does entail being able to use both tools and information to create 12 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj communicatively successful texts that are accepted as good translations within the community concerned. perhaps most importantly, it means knowing how to work co-operatively within the various overlapping communities of translators and subject matter experts to accomplish work collaboratively, to appropriate knowledge, norms and conventions, and to contribute to the evolving conversation that constitutes those communities. (2000, p. 14).11 these skills can be further subdivided into such areas as linguistic competence, disciplinary competence, translation competence and technical competence (ulrych, 2005 p. 18, see also colina 2000, p. 32-33). here it is sufficient to note that the act of translation involves an intricate mix of social, cognitive and cultural as well as linguistic processes. the ideal education is not only “transactional” but indeed “transformational” (davies 2004, p. 14). immature translators show a tendency to incomplete and unsuccessful paraphrasing, a strong reliance on the dictionary, and an excessive fear of interference – all signs of a lack of selfawareness and self-confidence (colina 2000, p. 40). they must overcome the doubt, self-deprecation and the despair that alexander gross believes is characteristic of many translators (2003, p. 84), and learn to become more selfreliant as they gain experience and the possession of appropriate expertise. in becoming “functional translators”, to use nord’s term (2005), they must also learn how to deal with the client’s expectations, time constraints, terminological and background information, and personal experience with particular text types etc. being translations, here is also a dimension of crosscultural communication that needs to be considered (olshanskya, 2003, p. 177). as a preparation for working as professional translators in a multicultural environment, kiraly therefore recommended that translation classes should encourage the undertaking of real (“authentic”) projects, with outcomes that are acceptable to the client as an acceptable translation. kiraly also believed that “assessment tasks and learning activities should be able to be directly linked to the outcomes of the relevant course” (2000, p. 19). “constructive alignment” is a long-standing principle of standard patterns of curriculum design (participants and resources – objectives/ outcomes – 11 compare roger bell’s statement that “translator communicative competence” is “the knowledge and ability possessed by the translator which permits him/her to create communicative acts – discourse – which are not only (and not necessarily) grammatical – but socially acceptable”. see translation and translating, london: longmans, 1991, p. 30. aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 13 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method: teaching and learning activities – assessment). there should have been no doubt that it can be applied in translator pedagogy and it is used to good effect, for example, in dorothy kelly’s handbook for translator trainers (2005) as summative steps towards the final product (which is essential, kelly 2005, in orlando 2016, p. 32), johnson recommends that students should also keep portfolios, consisting of a selection of their work, reflective statements on goals, progress and frustrations (2003, p. 97). the principles developed in kiraly’s work have been widely accepted by translation teachers. mike forcada has spoken of: “pedagogical innovation, social constructivism, collaborative learning, non-transmissionist teaching, taskbased instruction, portfolio assessment”, as being the key terms in current discourse12. most recently, marc orlando (2016) speaks of a student-centred, learner-centred constructivist approach to teaching/learning as a way to empower and emancipate trainees. here is an example of a european lecturer using constructivist principles with the same vietnamese students in a course on translation theory: the last and the most memorable translation class i have ever attended was the one with mr. ghi. at first, when being informed by the faculty that a native english teacher was going to teach me the translation course, to tell the truth, i was quite surprised doubtful because according to my understanding, translation was a special course in which the instructor and the students should have the l1 in common for better comparison and contrast between the source and the target text. i doubted and wondered. however, my worries soon disappeared when i first met him, teacher ghi. he was about 65 but still energetic, with gray hair and blushing cheeks (may be because he is not yet familiar with tropical climate in vietnam), giving me the feeling of warmth and comfort. he provided us with a clear syllabus and a useful reading material composed by himself which contained major points about translation the students had better cover. the way he carried out the tasks was very “the west” and sla (second language acquisition) relevant: theories presented first and hands-on later, 10-minute break after every 1 hour (in the class of mr. tuan, we had to work nonstop from 7:30 am to 11:00 am), group work and 12 review of baer & koby. (2002). beyond the ivory tower, in machine translation 18(4), pp. 365-372. 14 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pair work alternated, revision before any sections… i believe that he did work a lot for this course, which was reflected in his preparation of handouts and presentations. in my opinion, he also made a good choice of translation topics, ranging from easy to more challenging, from vietnamese to latin and of course english, which made the lessons more interesting and authentic. after taking the course, i recognized that “wow, i can really do translation”. perhaps my versions were not very “english” or “vietnamese”, not poetic or accurate enough, but i was inspired to become a future vietnamese translator in the field where men are dominating. and this is another story about teacher ghi. i usually felt rather guilty looking at teacher sitting on the table and observing the class. we were busy gossiping or pretended to do so as no one dare to step forward and have a talk with the teacher. i remembered he said he had wanted to be closer with us, the students, but because of the space in the classroom, it had seemed quite formal. actually, that space represents the power distance in vietnamese culture: teachers are always at higher level in the society hierarchy. nevertheless, we do respect and appreciate his time spent with us delivering lessons, explaining difficulties, and especially being patient with “not-punctual” students like us. as a result of this different but readily recognisable approach, the student was empowered and self-confident after the course, although she probably learnt less than she would have with mr abc. she was also aware that the students had been able to take advantage of the lecturer in order to do less work than they did in other courses. conclusion in this paper, i have considered three different types of translation pedagogy, each conditioned by its time. classical teaching produced articulate members of the elite, particular through the practice of free translation. transmissionist teachers ran tightly controlled classes, in which they were the source of knowledge to be passed on to their receptive students. contemporary theorists encourage instructors to: 1. adapt classroom organisation by transforming the classroom into a discussion forum and hands-on workshop. aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 15 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. establish contact with the outside world by means of projects which involve professional translators, bilinguals with an aptitude for translation and professionals from the different fields of specialisation (corresponding to the texts to be translated). 3. design syllabuses that have been thought about beforehand and sequence the material accordingly. 4. favour an adequate learning environment which will enhance students’ potential and respect different learning styles as much as possible. 5. include as many real life situations as possible so that students have the chance “to live”, however slightly, in the professional world. (davies 2005, p. 71) professional translators often complain that the theories of translation studies are complicated and of little use in their everyday work. one sympathises with this view but it is important to note that the new sub-discipline of translation pedagogy attempts to make scholars and practitioners understand more about what sort of choices exist in the act of the training of new translators and what their consequences might be. today it is accepted that graduates should become scholar practitioners, or “practisearchers” (to use daniel gile’s term), “practitioners-cum-researchers who (wish) to adopt a more scientific approach to their investigation of interpretation” (1995, p. 15, cited in orlando 2016, p. 54). “pedagogy” relates to the greek term “pedagogue”, meaning the one charged with taking the student to school and ideally to discovering truth. our minimum aim as teachers is to remain useful to students while still being able to allow them to move on to play a successful and independent role in society. acknowledgement parts of this paper have been presented at the 5th celt international conference in semarang, indonesia during 9-11th september 2017. the conference was a project funded by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education. 16 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references arango-keeth, f. & koby, g. (2003) assessing assessment: translator training evaluation and the needs of industry quality assessment. in b. j. baer, & g. s. koby, beyond the ivory tower: rethinking translation pedagogy (pp. 117134). amsterdam: john benjamins. aveling, h. (2004). a short history of western translation theory. the journal of australian association of writing program. retrieved from http:/www.gu.edu.au/school/art/text baer, b.j. and gs koby (2003) beyond the ivory tower: rethinking translation pedagogy. amsterdam.: john benjamins. bell, r.t. (1991) translation and translating: theory and practice. london: longman. colina, s. (2003) towards an empirically-based translation pedagogy. in b. j. baer, & g. s. koby, beyond the ivory tower: rethinking translation pedagogy (pp. 29-59). amsterdam: john benjamins. davies, m. g. (2004) multiple voices in the translation classroom. amsterdam: john benjamins. holmes, j. (2000). the name and nature of translation studies. in l. venuti (ed.), the translation studies reader (reprinted ed., pp. 180-192), london: routledge. kelly, d. (2005). a handbook for translator trainers. manchester: st jerome. kelly, d., martin, a & martin. (2009). training and education. in m. baker (ed.), routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (pp. 100-105). london: routledge. kiraly, d. (1991). pathways to translation. kent state university press, kent oh. kiraly, d. (2000). a social constructivist approach to translator education. manchester: st jerome. kiraly, d. (2003). from instruction to collaborative construction: a passing fad or the promise of a paradigm shift in translator education? in b. j. baer, aveling, h., a labour useful to students: contrasting perspectives on teaching 17 translation studies https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj & g. s. koby, beyond the ivory tower: rethinking translation pedagogy (pp. 3-27). amsterdam.: john benjamins. lefevere, a. (1990). translation: its genealogy in the west. in s. bassnett & a. lefevere, translation, history and culture (pp. 14-28). new york: cassell. levy, j. (2011). the art of translation. amsterdam: john benjamins. newmark, p. (1981). approaches to translation. oxford: pergamon press. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. new york: prentice hall. nida, e. (1964). toward a science of translating. leiden: brill. nord, c. (1997). translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. manchester: st jerome. nord, c. (2005). training functional translators. in tennent, m. (ed.), training for the new millennium (pp. 209-223). amsterdam: john benjamins. olshanskya, n. (2003). after [isaac] babel. teaching communicative competence for translation. in baer, b.j. & koby, g.s. beyond the ivory tower: rethinking translation pedagogy (pp. 173-190). amsterdam: john benjamins. orlando, m. (2016). training 21st century translators and interpreters. berlin: frank and timme. robinson, d. (ed.). (1997). western translation theory: from herodotus to nietzsche. manchester: st jerome press. seguinot, c (2008). professionalization and intervention. in j kearns (ed.), translator and interpreter training: issues, methods and debates. london: continuum. tennent, m (ed.). (2005). training for the new millennium. amsterdam: john benjamins. toury, g. (1995). descriptive translation studies and beyond. amsterdam: john benjamins. 18 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 1 – 18 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ulrych, m. (2005). training translators: programmes, curricula, practices. in m. tennent (ed.), training for the new millennium. amsterdam: john benjamins. venuti, l. (ed.). (2000) the translation studies reader. london: routledge. witte, a, harden, t., harden, t. r. o. (2007). translation in second language learning and teaching. bern: peter lang. 1.pdf (p.1) 001 jul2018.pdf (p.2-19) guide for contributors a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 learners' language challenges in writing english barli bram ....................................................................................................... 1 autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. ............................................................................................ 16 scrooge's character development in charles dickens' a christmas carol theresia erwindriani .................................................................................... 28 teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono ....................................................................................... 45 “america, you know what i'm talkin' about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson ............................................................................................... 60 a love for indonesia: the youth's effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism shierly june and ekawati marhaenny dukut ................................................. 72 a book review: discourse analysis antonius suratno ........................................................................................... 88 celt, vol.12, no.1, pp. 1-100, semarang, juli 2012 (index) learners’ language challenges in writing english barli bram 1 abstract: this paper discusses a number of common linguistic challenges or issues or problems which learners (would-be teachers) of the english language encounter when attempting to express themselves in written form, particularly in paragraph writing. the paper also suggests strategies for dealing with the challenges and points out (dis)advantages of using a certain evaluation approach. generally, the common language issues can, for example, be classified into: 1. articles, 2. concord or agreement, 3. finite verbs, 4. prepositions, 5. countable and uncountable nouns, 6. sentence levels (fragments, comma splices and run-on or fused sentences) and 7. spelling. other general, more abstract challenges include diction or word choice, idiomatic expressions and sentence variations. the so-called minimum requirements, which are commonplace mistakes, as mostly listed in numbers 1-7 above and which learners (particularly those who are english teacher candidates) should avoid, are put forward and commented on. the writer believes this grammar-oriented approach still remains relevant. 1 barli bram, m.ed., ph.d. < barli@usd.ac.id > +62274513301 ext 1331 teaches at the english language education study program of sanata dharma university, yogyakarta. this paper was presented at the language and language teaching international conference 2009 held by prince of songkla university, thailand. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012 : 1-15 2 key words: common language issue, minimum requirements, grammar-oriented, paragraph introduction apparently, writing english grammatically (and semantically) can be tough, extremely challenging for learners of the target language. how to use articles and prepositions correctly, for example, still continues to remain problematic. it is true that when writing in english, the target language, the main objective of the learners is to convey their messages. in other words, "what counts most is to get our messages across" (bram 2002:25). to some extent, the statement might be interpreted that grammatical mistakes may be tolerated. is this a plausible approach for us to adopt? in this paper, some common language problems faced by (beginning) writers are described. suggestions for tackling the problems are also put forward. it is presumed that the common linguistic issues discussed here are also applicable to many other beginning writers in different places or countries. nevertheless, the learners here mainly refer to, firstly, undergraduate students of the english education programme, and secondly, students or participants of the english extension course of sanata dharma university yogyakarta, indonesia. the students belonging to the first group (english education programme students) are trained to become english teachers, and have studied english at school for at least six years, namely, three years at junior high school and another three years at senior high school. on the whole, english lessons at high school focus more on grammar points, vocabulary items and reading skills. the other language skills, namely, listening, speaking and writing, seemingly tend to receive less attention due to various reasons and limitations, for b. bram, learners’ language challenges in writing english 3 instance, the national examinations which stress reading comprehension and grammatical knowledge, and teachers' insufficient spoken proficiency. the students of the second group (english extension course students) are mostly university students majoring in various fields, such as engineering and psychology, and have studied english for over six years. some language issues or challenges in writing the following three tables list a number of language problems faced by learners of english when writing english, including paragraph writing. though the sources are different, the lists show some similarities and differences. in the first table, ferris (2003: 149) suggests a condense list of error categories made by learners. the five types of errors are then unsurprisingly also covered in table 2 (chen 2002:74) and table 3. it may be said that table 2 contains two types of errors not specifically covered by tables 1 and 3, namely, relative clauses and redundancy. further, as can be seen, table 3 inventories three specific error categories which are absent in tables 1 and 2, namely, spelling, punctuation and sentence level (fragments, comma splices and fused sentences). it should be pointed out that firstly ferris' (2003) five classifications of errors are a 'concise' version of ferris' et al. (2000) 'comprehensive' list of errors, which consist of 15 types. ferris et al. (2000) identified more than "5,700 errors marked by three esl writing teachers on 146 texts written by 92 collegelevel esl composition students. the marks ... were classified into 15 different categories..." (ferris 2003:148). in ferris' opinion (2003:149), the concise version is easier, less daunting to implement, and yet "without losing much information about student errors". secondly, chen (2002) investigated the characteristics and celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012 : 1-15 4 problems faced by taiwanese efl students when writing english at university, by engaging 28 first and third year students. the participants were assigned to write a reflection with the theme 'my problems when writing in english'. the writing problems mentioned by the students were then grouped "by identifying key ideas and by counting the frequency with which they occur in the students' reports" (chen 2002:59). it should be pointed out that the lists in tables 1 and 3 below do not show any rankings of error types faced by the learners. table 2, however, presents error types based on the frequency of occurrence. no. error type 1 verb errors 2 noun ending errors 3 article errors 4 word choice errors 5 sentence structure errors table 1: error types (ferris 2003:149) no. errors in order frequenc y 1 word usage 118 2 tense 58 3 definite article 54 4 prepositions 39 5 verbs 32 6 number, sing/pl 25 7 relative clauses 18 8 redundancy 17 table 2: types and frequency of errors (chen 2002:74) b. bram, learners’ language challenges in writing english 5 no. language problem note 1 prepositions for, with, on, in ... 2 articles a, an, the 3 finite verbs 4 concord (agreement) subjectverb,numbernoun 5 tenses 6 spelling 7 punctuation comma, full stop ... 8 diction (word choice) 9 sentence level, ie fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences table 3: list of language problems note: expanded based on the minimum requirements, which originally consists of seven categories of problems based on the observations of the (paragraph) writing classes and of the collected data (students' compositions: 1. expanding a story about a fox based on the given key words for the english extension course students and 2. writing an opinion piece, two or three paragraphs long for the english education programme students), the writer believes that the nine types of language problems, or rather challenges, as listed in table 3 (expanded based on the minimum requirements which used to be officially applied by the english education programme of sanata dharma university), ought to be made explicit (particularly to the students of the english extension course and of the english education programme of sanata dharma university). by doing so, the students know their common linguistic challenges in writing, which celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012 : 1-15 6 will then help them to directly pay attention to the issues in order to better their writing in the future. it might be a good idea, therefore, to have a closer look at the nine points listed in table 3 above. a. prepositions based on the data (bram 2005), namely the compositions written by approximately 50 students, representing two writing classes at sanata dharma university, the common preposition mistakes may be classified into three types. in the context, the students consisted of two groups. the first group, writing a of the english extension course (eec), had 20 learners, and the second one, writing v of the english education programme, consisted of 30 students. the three types of problems involving prepositions are as follows. the asterisk * means unacceptability.): (1) *similar with, instead of similar to (incorrect preposition) (2) *reply your message, instead of reply to your message (missing preposition) (3) *discuss about our plans, instead of discuss our plans (unnecessary preposition) it is concluded that the above prepositional problems were triggered by "the interference of indonesian, malay or other languages/dialects spoken by the students. in other words, it seemed that multilingualism played a role in leading learners to produce such ungrammatical, yet understandable, sentences in their writing" (bram 2005: 1). b. bram, learners’ language challenges in writing english 7 b. articles using english articles correctly is obviously a serious challenge for every learner of the target language. the three members, namely the indefinite articles a and an, and the definite one the, can indeed cause a 'headache'. although articles seldom bring about misunderstanding, a piece of writing containing numerous mistakes in the use or non-use of articles in an academic setting should not be seen as trivial. examples of problems involving articles are: (4) *we have just received an information from them. (unnecessary an) (5) *susan has kind uncle. (missing a) (6) *recently they have met a honest person. (incorrect a, correct: an) (7) *who is prime minister of thailand? (missing the) c. finite verbs what is meant by a finite verb? well, it refers to the verb of a sentence which undergoes a change or which is affected if the subject, form or tense of the sentence changes. for instance, the words have and does/did act as finite verbs in the following sentences: (8) all participants have been informed about the schedule. (statement) (9) have all participants been informed about the schedule? (question) (10) the stranger does not mean to cause any trouble. (negation, present) celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012 : 1-15 8 (11) does the stranger not mean to cause any trouble? (question) (12) the stranger did not mean to cause any trouble. (negation, past) in general, the most common problem regarding a finite verb in writing is its non-use or absence where the context requires its presence. examples of such problems are: (13) *my friends already tired and hungry. (14) *they not recognize the new member. (15) *tim, linda and helen good friends. (16) *what you doing right now? d. concord or agreement there are two kinds of concord or agreement, namely, the subject-finite verb concord and the number-noun concord. possible problems are: (17) *some children is very talkative. (18) *i have three good dictionary. (19) *her cousin drink milk every day. (20) *several week ago, they won a competition. e. tenses in this context, the problems of tenses may refer to inconsistency in using tenses or shifting to a different tense without a strong reason. examples of such issues are: b. bram, learners’ language challenges in writing english 9 (21) last weekend, we went the zoo.*we see many zebras there. (22) *bangkok was the capital of thailand. it is a beautiful city. (23) *they cancelled the match because it is raining heavily. f. spelling undoubtedly it is often tough to correctly spell certain english words. if students can work using a computer, the spelling check tool is an invaluable resource. dictionaries are certainly an excellent helper as well, providing the students have willingness to consult them. here are examples of spelling problems: (24) *acomodation instead of accommodation (25) *commitee, instead of committee (26) *unforgetable, instead of unforgettable g. punctuation while it is true that in general the non-use of punctuation in a sentence might not completely prevent communications, it does not mean punctuation errors should be tolerated. it is the responsibility of the writer to say or indicate explicitly what she or he intends to get across. thus, if a statement, for instance, is intended, the writer then should use a full stop to explicitly mark the end of the statement. why does a punctuation problem occur in a composition or paragraph? argante (2004:3) offers the following explanation: "because grammar and punctuation are used in written language, we forget they are based on the verbal patterns of speech. think of a comma, a semi-colon; a full stop. they are indicators of a pause celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012 : 1-15 10 each merely a different length of time". here are examples of punctuation problems in writing: (27) *next tuesday there will be an exam (no full stop or period [.]) (28) *the class is over the room is now empty. (no period [.] after the word over, as a possible explanation) (29) *is everyone ready now (no question mark [?]) h. diction or word choice another common issue which learners of english encounter is choosing the right or appropriate words to express themselves, in particular when they try to use low frequency words, for example, the ones beyond the first 3,000. the writer agrees with nation (2008:83) when he says that "work in the simplification of texts has shown that a small number of words (around 2,000 to 3,000) can be used effectively to express an enormous number of ideas". in some contexts, the diction issue seems to overlap with collocations. examples of diction problems are: (30) *national resurrection day, instead of national awakening day (31) *make homework, instead of do homework (32) *to change information with one another, instead of to exchange information with one another i. sentence level it should be noted that a fragment is a dependent clause or part of a complete sentence. thus, grammatically and semantically a fragment is not a sentence yet, and should be avoided in writing. b. bram, learners’ language challenges in writing english 11 the main trouble of a fragment is that it does not express a complete thought. examples of fragments are: (33) *when we try to say something. (34) *after they presented their papers. (35) *although it was raining. a comma splice may be defined as a learner's mistake in combining two or more sentences using a comma. frequently, it requires rereading in order to understand the intended message expressed in a comma splice. in short, a comma splice might hinder communications. examples of comma splices which should be avoided are: (36) *the host welcomed the guests warmly, everyone was enthusiastic. (37) *my friends played football, i decided to take a walk, we enjoyed ourselves a lot. (38) *some shoes are quite costly, students might need to save money first if they want to buy them. next, a run-on or fused sentence may be defined as a construction or situation where two or more sentences are combined without using any punctuation. normally, it is harder to understand a run-on sentence in a composition than a comma splice. the reason is that in the first place the reader has to find out where a sentence ends and the next one starts. thus, when writing in english, it is essential then to avoid a fused sentence. here are three examples of fused sentences: (39) *the wind blew very hard for hours the trees and the lamp posts fell down. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012 : 1-15 12 (40) *it was dark outside no one seemed to be around we went home earlier. (41) *after the speakers presented their papers in the third session all participants had a break the next session was scheduled to begin at two o'clock. what steps to take in section two above, nine main categories of language problems faced by student writers have been examined and commented on. now, it is time to ask ourselves what can or should be done to tackle the challenges effectively. realistically, there perhaps exists no quick or magical fix. one possible initial step is to (re)implement the so-called minimum requirements, which were once used by the english education programme of sanata dharma university yogyakarta (quoted below with permission). 1. concord 2. finite verbs 3. tenses 4. verb groups 5. articles 6. punctuation 7. spelling to some extent, the original version of the minimum requirements is more 'user-friendly' for both the students and the writing teacher to implement because the seven types of errors may be regarded as 'basic issues'. another plausible measure is to apply the expanded list given in table 3, which consists of nine categories (relisted here): 1. prepositions, 2. articles, 3. finite verbs, 4. concord (agreement), 5. tenses, 6. spelling, 7. punctuation, 8 diction (word choice) and b. bram, learners’ language challenges in writing english 13 9. sentence level, namely, fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences. the last two categories, namely numbers 8 and 9, may be seen as more abstract and more complex for learners to overcome. the main idea of the (expanded) minimum requirements is that the students should do their utmost to avoid making the listed mistakes in their written work. if a student's work contains very few language problems, the mark will be increased considerably. if a student's written work has many mistakes listed in the minimum requirements, the mark will then be reduced very much. the worst consequence faced by a student is to fail the writing class in question. it should be stressed once again that this kind of grammaroriented writing is not for the sake of grammar itself. it is already mentioned that the primary objective of writing is to convey messages, to communicate with readers. in this case, language elements or aspects play a crucial role in enabling learners to write english successfully. it is realized that writing is more than language elements, as bacha (2002:17) points out that writing involves "language (sentence structure, grammar, vocabulary, coherence, mechanics), organization (format, logical order of ideas, thesis and topic sentence), and content (major and minor supporting ideas)". the last two main key aspects of writing, namely, organization and content, are, however, beyond the scope of this paper. the writer supports chen's (2002:75) idea that "... we need to recognize the value of error analysis in diagnosing students' individual errors, then helping them identify their weaknesses and cope with those problems". for this purpose, a list of common language issues in writing will prove indispensable (for more detail, see table 3, for example). celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012 : 1-15 14 as mentioned earlier, it is realistic not to expect a quick fix or solution to language problems in writing. writing is not simply an instant product, but it is also a process. as a product, a piece of writing, as costas (2002:5) points out, should contain the following good elements regarding the language aspects: 1. "correct and consistent spelling" (eg british and american spellings) 2. "accurate and appropriate use of grammar and syntax" 3. "accurate and appropriate use, as well as a good range, of vocabulary" and as a process, writing involves, for instance, brainstorming, drafting, cooling down, editing, revising, proofreading and finalizing. each of these phases requires energy, time and thinking. it should also be realized that grammar-oriented writing (by implementing the expanded minimum requirements, for example) is not free from shortcomings. ferris and hedgcock (1998: 209), for instance, say that "dealing with student errors in written work can be tedious, tiring, and frustrating. this is no doubt why researchers have found that teachers are often erratic and even inaccurate in providing grammar feedback on student writing". concluding remarks to wrap up this paper, here are the concluding remarks. firstly, language aspects, such as, concord and finite verbs, deserve serious attention in order to enable learners to express their messages grammatically and effectively. secondly, it is a good idea to come up with a list of common language challenges or problems faced by learners. thirdly, it is realized that writing english is b. bram, learners’ language challenges in writing english 15 much more than constructing grammatically acceptable sentences. finally, writing is a process and product, requiring energy. references argante, jenny. constructive editing. tauranga: hen enterprises, 2004. bacha, nahla. "testing writing in the efl classroom". in forum, 2002, 40, 2: 14-19. bram, barli. write well: improving writing skills. 2nd ed. yogyakarta: kanisius, 2002. bram, barli. "some common problems involving prepositions in writing english in a multilingual context ". a paper presented at teflin 2005 seminar held by ahmad dahlan university, yogyakarta, indonesia, 2005. chen, yueh-miao. "the problems of university efl writing in taiwan". in the korea tesol journal, 2002, 5, 1: 59-79. online version: http://www.kotesol.org/files/u1/ktj5_allfall2002.pdf#page=67, retrieved on 29 april 2009. costas, gabrielatos. "efl writing: product and process", 2002. http://eric.ed.gov/ericdocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/ 0000019b/80/1b/14/7a.pdf, retrieved on 27 april 2009. ferris, dana and john hedgcock. 1998. teaching esl composition: purpose, process and practice. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. ferris, dana, chaney s, komura k, roberts b and mckee s. "perspectives, problems and practices in treating written errors. colloquium presented at international tesol convention, vancouver, bc, 2000. ferris, dana. response to student writing: implications for second language students. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum, 2003. nation, paul. teaching vocabulary: strategies and techniques. boston, ma: heine, 2008. index of subjects celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 acquisition, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28 african american, 62, 69, 70 african american culture, 69 american television, 6163, 66 anti-christmas character, 37 approach, 1822, 2428 articles, 1, 2, 7 autonomous learning, 19 behaviourist method, 20 bernie, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 beulah, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 black sitcoms, 62, 68, 70 black, 61-69 charity, 30, 31, 43-46 classroom, 16, 22-23, 25-28 cognitive approach, 21 cohabitation, 24 comma splice, 11-12 communication, 16, 18, 20-22, 28 communicative approach, 19, 21, 28 computer-assisted communication, 21 corruption, 79 cuisiniere rods, 19 cybernautical approach, 16-20, 22-23, 26-29 cyberspace, 20, 23 dickens, 29, 30-32, 35-46 diction, 1, 10 diversity, 67, 73-79, 89 drama, 46-57, 59-60 elle, 16-18, 25, 27 english education programme, 2, 5, 6, 12 english extension course, 2, 5 6 english novelist, 30 episodic drama, 53 ethnicities, 74, 76 finite verbs, 1, 7-8, 15 foreign language, 47 fox network, 67 game, 49, 53, 55-57 grammar-oriented writing, 14 indonesia, 73-77, 79, 81-84, 8788 injustice, 79, 82 language-learning process, 17 learning, 1628 linguistic, 1, 2, 6 misanthropy, 29, 36, 38, 45 multicultural, 73, 74, 88 multiculturalism, 73-77, 79, 81, 82-85, 87-88 multiculturalist discourse, 67 multilingualism, 7 multimedia technology, 24 neuro-scientific research, 21 non-conventional methods, 19 number-noun concord, 8 oracy processes, 46-47, 59 paragraph writing, 1, 3 pluralism, 76, 79, 84, 89 punctuation, 3, 9, 12 reformation era, 79 scrooge, 29, 31-45 second-language learning, 21 segregationism, 61-62 student’s literacy, 47 subject-finite verb concord, 8 systemic functional linguistics approach, 90 television, 61-62, 64, 66, 68-69 tenses, 9 unity in diversity, 78 victorian age, 30 youth, 72, 73, 76-79 index of authors celt, volume 11, number 1, year 2011 adhyanggono, g.m, 46 bram, barli, 1 erwindriani, t., 29 george c., j. 16 june, s. and ekawati m.d., 73 nelson, a., 61 suratno, a. ,89 index of articles celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 adhyanggono, g.m. teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 4660. bram, barli. learners’ language challenges in writing english. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 1-15. erwindriani, theresia. scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 29-45. george c., jacob. autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 16-28. june, shierly and ekawati marhaenny dukut. a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 73-88. nelson, angela. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 61-72. suratno, antonius. a book review: discourse analysis. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 89-93. celt volume 11, number 2, year 2011 thank the following people for their outstanding work as reviewers: a. effendi kadarisman (universitas negeri malang, indonesia) c. soebakdi soemanto (universitas gadjah mada, indonesia) fr. borgias alip (universitas sanata dharma, indonesia) helena agustien (universitas negeri semarang, indonesia) subur wardoyo (ikip pgri semarang, indonesia) 1 barli_2012_12_1(1-15) 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 89-93 anton 11-2.pdf microsoft word 1e10-34ba-bd29-373b a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia identifying minahasa and manado society's environmental awareness with cooper's ecological concept ceisy nita wuntu english education department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia email: ceisywuntu66@gmail.com received: 19-10-2017 accepted: 12-12-2020 published: 30-12-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj identifying minahasa and manado society's environmental awareness with cooper's ecological concept ceisy nita wuntu ceisywuntu66@gmail.com english education department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia abstract: the objective of this writing is to describe how minahasa and manado society has shown their awareness of their ecology based on the concepts offered by james fenimore cooper. although written three centuries ago, cooper’s the leatherstocking tales has shown readers how humans should treat their environment, to be ecologically safe. according to cooper, the leatherstocking tales shows a hierarchy of love, respect, wisdom, and justice for the environment. yet, concerning the minahasa and manado society’s involvement with the environment, some intellectual documents, interviews, and observation of the communities it is revealed that among those in the society are not yet environmentally aware of how to take care of their environment for a sustainable life as mentioned by cooper, even though both law and moral enforcement are among them. it has been found that among the people in the communities in their everyday life have not met the life requirements of giving priority for a healthy environment specifically about their sanitation, health, and attitude of affording their basic needs and maintaining life sustainability. those communities are found to still give priority to individual needs, social activities, and financial needs besides still lacking environmental insights. there are four kinds of groups in the communities found in this research: 1) those who care about their environment, 2) those who are indifferent to their environment, 3) those who care about their environment but having financial limitations, and 4) those who concern but having limitted knowledge and environmental insights. the communities mentioned are the people who do not have the motivation in wanting to know about what is happening in their surroundings to support the needs for a healthy global environment. this article reports how the synergy of wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 351 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj educational institutions and religious institutions assisted by law enforcers need to be injected with the energy of ongoing evaluation, control, and actions to generate public awareness. key words: cooper’s ecological concept, environmental awareness, minahasa, and manado society abstrak: tujuan tulisan ini adalah untuk menggambarkan bagaimana masyarakat minahasa dan manado menunjukkan kesadaran mereka terhadap ekologi berdasarkan konsep yang ditawarkan oleh james fenimore cooper. meskipun ditulis tiga abad yang lalu, cooper's 'the leatherstocking tales' telah menunjukkan kepada pembaca bagaimana manusia harus memperlakukan lingkungan mereka, agar aman secara ekologis. menurut cooper, 'the leatherstocking tales' menunjukkan hirarki cinta, rasa hormat, kebijaksanaan, dan keadilan bagi lingkungan. melihat beberapa dokumen intelektual, wawancara, dan mengamati masyarakat terungkap bahwa masih ada diantara masyarakat manado dan minahasa belum sadar lingkungan tentang bagaimana menjaga lingkungan mereka untuk kehidupan yang berkelanjutan seperti yang disebutkan oleh cooper, meskipun instrumen penegakan hukum maupun moral ada ditengah masyarakat. ditemukan bahwa masyarakat yang dimaksud sebagian besar masyarakat dalam kehidupan sehari-harinya belum memilikii persepsi tentang kebutuhan hidup yang mengutamakan lingkungan yang sehat khususnya tentang sanitasi, kesehatan, dan sikap dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan dasar dan mempertahankan hidup yang keberlanjutan. sebagian besar masyarakat dipahami masih mengutamakan keperluan individu, kegiatan sosial, dan kebutuhan finansial selain mereka yang masih kurang memiliki wawasan lingkungan. ada empat macam kelompok masyarakat yang ditemukan dalam penelitian ini; kelompok yang peduli lingkungan, kelompok yang tidak peduli lingkungan, kelompok yang peduli lingkungan dalam keterbatasan finansial, dan kelompok yang peduli lingkungan dengan keterbatasan pengetahuan dan wawasan lingkungan. sebagian besar mereka belum memiliki motivasi untuk ingin tahu tentang apa yang terjadi di sekitar mereka untuk mendukung kebutuhan lingkungan global yang sehat saat ini. sinergi lembaga pendidikan dan lembaga keagamaan dilengkapi dengan hukum, perlu 'diinjeksi' dengan energi evaluasi, pengendalian, dan aksi yang berkesinambungan untuk membangkitkan kesadaran masyarakat. kata kunci : konsep ekologi cooper, kesadaran lingkungan, masyarakat minahasa dan manado 352 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction james fenimore cooper, one of america's authors (1823-1841) is a visionary writer. he has written the importance of preserving the environment long before american environmental issues and law emerged in september 1964. he is concerned about human moral degradation that becomes a threat to the sustainable life on earth. this concern has been depicted in his the leatherstocking tales. the work presented his early alert to the early immigrants' activities in the very rich, fertile, and beautiful nature in the ‘new world’ named america, three centuries ago. humans’ attitudes, activities, and behavior in treating the majesty and the kindliness of nature have annoyed him. in those tales, cooper has shown his ideal way to maintain a sustainable life on earth by applying the idea that all elements in this biosphere ecosystem are connected and following ecological principles. cooper believes that an environment that is essential in preserving life safety on earth, should be treated by love, respect, wisdom, and justice that is supported by moral and law enforcement (wuntu, 2015, p.113). his effort of keeping the environment in the sequential stories written three centuries ago, is still much relevant in answering the fresh world critical issue on the environment. this vision as well as lessons in the leatherstocking tales cures the claim that literature as a fictional and imaginative product is worthy of inspection. the environment concept modelled in cooper’s tales can be a reference for mirroring and formulating environmental awareness for human beings, who are the most responsible for preserving life’s ecosystem. cooper’s environmental concept is suitable to control the environmental problem in many areas in manado when they experienced flash flood disaster in january 2014. the disaster has caused people in that area incredible suffering. manado is the capital city of north sulawesi province. the city has a rapid development in population, economy, infrastructure, and public housing development. yet, in january 2014, the city was struck by an extraordinary flood disaster. the cause of flooding, in general, is the decline in environmental quality caused by the increase in population in an area (cie, tarore & karongkong, 2016, p. 1). the increasing number of the population in manado has caused the increase in people’s housing that enlarge nature exploitation. this exploitation has triggered the decline in environmental quality caused by the transfer of land to housing that was growing significantly (runtunuwu, waney, & mandang, 2020, p. 1) as a consequence, flooding in manado was not only caused by an increasing population, with the transfer of wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 353 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj land for housing, but there was also a large water debit that comes from lake tondano minahasa during the rainy season.. topologically, tondano and minahasa areas are closely related. there is a large river flowing from lake tondano which empties into the manado sea. the electricity in manado is powered by tanggari hydropower plant which gets huge water supplied from tondano lake. so, it can be said that communities who live around the lake and the river, are the most responsible for preserving the environment. another cause related to the banjir bandang in manado is the topography of the lake which is surrounded by mountains that are agricultural land for the people in minahasa. the lake recently found shallowing (sorey, bisri, & sisinggih, 2016, p. 259). sources of income from the community around the lake originating from the lake are fish rearing activities in cages and fishing with tiger trawls which ecologically threaten the sustainability of the lake. this is evidenced by the accumulating sediment and vegetation originating from the effects of feeding fish in cages which can exacerbate siltation and threaten biota. in the lake (watania, poli, & lobja, 2021, p. 105) another cause related to the flash flood occurrence in manado is the topography of the lake which is surrounded by mountains. those are the agricultural land for people in minahasa, so the agricultural activities intensify the silting of lake tondano. sources of income from the communities of minahasa around the lake, such as tondano timur, tondano selatan, eris, lembean timur, remboken, and kakas originated from the lake. there are some farmers' activities of finding fishes in the lake and keeping fish that threaten the ecosystem in that area. they are: 1) feeding fishes in a cage made from slices of bamboo where the nutrition potentially also feeds the gulma in the lake, and 2) they use the big net ‘pukat harimau’ in cathing fishes. those activities ecologically threaten the sustainability of life (watania, poli, & lobja, 2021, p. 105) the accumulation of sediments and vegetation originating from the effects of feeding fish in cages can exacerbate siltation of the lake, and can cause the huge of water flows to manado. the state of the physical environment and the way the community treated it are the indicators that raise doubts about the environmental awareness of the community. culturally, society’s activities are the embodiment of their belief and thought. the phenomenon of environmental awareness of the society is the reality that determines the viability of life and so, it needs to be scientifically formulated as evidence to evoke the societies’ awareness. 354 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 1: the consequence of flash flood disaster in manado 2014 no item amount 1 death of people 18 2 swept away people by the flash flood at least 20 3 badly damaged and razed houses 50 4 swept away houses by the flash flood 101 5 not badly damaged houses about 1000 6 evacuated people about 40.000 7 wrecked cars about 100 8 affected districts 11 the loss caused by the flash flood in manado, explained about human live’s serious problems. humans' concern for the environment could have avoided harmful actions (kirby, 2009, p.14) such as abroader damage on the ecosphere, and global warming that has a huge adverse effect on human life on earth. the terrible flash flood caused by the societies’ ignorance has become an alert to study and to formulate the community's perspective for a precise action to evoke their awareness to preserve the environment. the sharing topography of minahasa and manado has resulted an object of this study. the objective of the study is, therefore, to detect and formulate the attitude and behavior of those societies towards the environment, which followed the criteria adapted from cooper’s ecological hierarchy (wuntu, 2015, p. 113). the other objective is also to prove ruckert’s theory of ecocriticism that admires the power of every idea in works of literature that challenges the real significance of literary criticism on the environment. literature review in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia, article 28h states that a good and healthy environment is the basic right of every indonesian citizen. similarly, the national economic development based on the 1945 constitution of the state, implemented with the principle of sustainable development or about environmental preservation. the diminishing quality of the environment has threatened the survival of human wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 355 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj life and other living creatures, so there needs to be genuine and consistent protection and environmental management by all stakeholders. the symptoms of global warming exacerbate the quality of the environment (consideran uud ri no.32, 2009). the concern of indonesia on the environment in the constitution explains that the environment has been viewed as essential. ,yet, many countries have not prioritized the concern for sustainable life (o’neil, fanning, lamb, steinberger, 2018, p. 88). public perception holds the main role in ecological preservation. the research of "investing for a more sustainable indonesia" in the world bank report in 2009 provides an overview of the public perception of environmental awareness. is the research revealed 3 categories: public, national, and local people’s perceptions. this categorization as explained in the report is derived by searching through the internet and through various organizations, as well as the visits to the klh library. hence, in a total of 24 surveys, from 1998 to 2007, it is found that in the general profile category, the indonesian people have not yet put the environment as an important priority, although the indonesians have acknowledged that the river, the air, and the city have all been polluted. actually, the report informs about the water (pollution, floods, drought), cities (cleanliness, solid waste, air quality), and forests (forest degradation, forest fires, illegal logging) concerns, where the people’s efforts to evoke environmental awareness and to preserve natural resources is still limited. it is further stated that fixing a societies’ environment covers a cooperation of 4 elements, they are mass media, civil society groups, legislature, and religious institutions (world bank report no. 50762, p. 44-47. it is unfortunate to learn that civil society groups are still more preoccupied with legitimacy and financial issues, thus, in the legislative board, environmental issues have not yet become the main issue. (world bank report no. 50762, p. 48). a survey that was conducted in north sulawesi and east kalimantan in "knowledge, attitudes, and practice (kap) survey report-north sulawesi and east kalimantan" that was implemented by the natural resources management project (usaid) with a sample size of 2,000 respondents from 2 provinces (east kalimantan and north sulawesi) showed that 30% of respondents in both provinces expressed concerns about pollution (water/river) pollution, forests and land (world bank report no. 50762, 45). the percentage of 30 %, however, is still small, thus explains why the government has minimal attention on the environment. 356 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the role of education in maintaining the environment is essential because humans are the key controller. for this reason, students should make an early observation to natural objects. this will avoid the students to only use their imagination to understand natural objects. (puspandari, 2008, p. 28-30) there is another different perspective from rusli h. lutan, et al. (2009), who stated that education through outdoors to increase students' environmental awareness is ineffective, although the researchers agreed that early environmental awareness can prevent environmental damage. endang tri margianti proclaims that environmental awareness determines human activities. dyah puspandari (2008) and lutan (2009) as well have stated about the urgency to find a texture of a deep-seated community perspective on the environment. ideally, the perspective is obtained by a direct observation and participation on a target communities. maintaining health is an integral part of an ecology that also needs maintenance through the social, economic, and ecological issues. hence, the awareness of giving attention to health is vital. one of the important aspects concerning human’s health is food materials and its hygienity that are environmentally friendly. the way people choose green product materials can tell about their environmental awareness on food. the awareness can significantly affect the maintenance of environmental balance (margianti, 2013). following the ecological principle that all elements in this ecosphere are interrelated (rueckert in glotfelty & from, 1996, p. 108), all efforts of development should serve the main priority of the ecological balance that covers the elements in the ecosphere. with humans as loftiest beings being responsible to maintain it. but when at the same time they have also to economically maintain their life (ecological exploitation should be avoided murphy & gouldson, 2000, p. 33). the environmental awareness from cooper’s perspective is derived from the christian teachings of love and compassion toward living creatures that foster their love for life as the source of life itself. the concept in cooper’s works in the leatherstocking tales is in the form of a hierarchy that starts with love emerging from compassion respect, wisdom and justice, and fairness in action (wuntu, 2015, p. 113). environmental issues can be overcome by morals and politics (garrard, 2004, p. 3). the institutions that can maintain community morals are readily available with educational institutions, and religion, as well as with existing legal instruments. environmental problems in wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 357 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj general as faced by the people in city of manado explains about the urgency of all elements; the legislative, executive, and all people in manado to work hand in hand in preventing the devastation from humans’ carelessness as on sanitation, deforestation, changing land function, the management of agricultural systems, and fishery system. here, the environmental devastation in its connection to the communities’ respect for the environment, by evaluating from cooper’s ecological concept of environment formulating the communities’ environmental awareness. method this writing focuses on the attitudes and behavior of the societies toward their everyday sanitation, health, life needs, and sustainable life. these are considered fundamental because they are an integral part of the communities’ awareness to the future and sustainable living including the disasters caused by their attitudes and behavior towards the environment. this is an ethnographical study that concerns mainly on the everyday life of the societies observed. the method applied in this research is a qualitative-descriptive method. the data has been collected through participatory observation method. in that understanding, the instrument is the researcher herself, where she is part of the society. this ecological research refering to cooper’s ecologial concept understood from work of literatue as called ‘energy stored’ by william ruckert. ruckert questions about how reader, teacher and writer about literature can function creatively in biosphere, finishing biospheric purgation, redemption from human intrusions, and health. the energy pathway should be available and maintained cooperatively to release the store energy that is active, alive, and generative, not an inert one. it can be a model for communities building and ecosystem. the principle of interconnection of ecology, allows ecological vision to penetrate the economic, social, political, technological, etc. and the problem as the effect of human cultural behaviour is not national but global and planetary (rueckert in glotfelty & fromn, 1996, p. 108-114). this research of applying work of literature for revealing communities’ awareness can potentially give a direct contribution for the policy makers in designing programs and enactmentss for maintaining ecologial balance and controlling human cultural behaviour. evaluating and identifying ecological awareness of people in minahasa and manado is based on the perspective of cooper’s ecological hierarchy of love followed by respect, wisdom, and justice that are 358 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj guarded by the legal instruments and moral tools. this of cooper’s concept of ecology is understood from his question on american society's appreciation to the flora, fauna, and the indians in america's abundance in the eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries (wuntu, 2015, p.113 ). . figure 1: research process thus, in using the observation and interview data, the process of analysis and interpretation go through the following steps: 1) formulating items/questionnaire to be observed and interviewed in each of the aspects of cooper’s ecological concepts, 2) verifying the items/questionnaire, 3) collecting data, 4) coding data, 5) interpreting data, 6) drawing conclusion results a. geographical and social setting minahasa is located on a peninsula in the northern part of the island of sulawesi. the area which became one of the dutch fortifications in the 17th to 20th centuries has an area of 40 thousand km2 with a population of 4.5 million people. it has a population whose majority is austronesian. the majority of religion in this area is christian and muslim. this area is surrounded by volcanoes such as mount soputan, kalabat, lokon, dua sudara, and mahawu. having been surrounded by volcanoes, the area becomes a fertile area that is rich in minerals. this area is bordered by gorontalo in the west, the philippines in the north, and in the east and south stored energy cooper’s ecological concept recommendation ecologial balance community development literature and community development ecocriticism william rucker energy pathway the process of criticism reader’s and writer’s task wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 359 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj is bordered by maluku island. minahasa region was divided administratively into the main minahasa or minahasa, north minahasa, tomohon city, bitung city, manado city, south minahasa, and southeast minahasa. people of minahasa consist of 8 sub-ethnics. they are people from toulour, tonsea, tountemboan, tounsawang, tombulu, pasan ratahan, ponosakan belang and bantik sub ethnic. the source of income for the people are from agricultural activities. they often have land which cultivated cloves, nutmeg, coconut/copra, vanilla, coffee, white ginger, red ginger, and cashew nuts, in addition to fishery. the people are culturally egalitarian that covers the spirit of 'maesa-esaan' (unity), 'masawa-sawangan' (please help), 'matombo-buttonan (mutual support)', and 'maaru-aruian' (inviting each other). these spirits mostly appear in the economic activities of the minahasa community such as mapalus, mutual cooperation, maendo, pa'anda/arisan, pakasan/walak. these cultural characteristics of the minahasa people formulated that they are people who support each other in mutuality. thus, activities carried out by these people are often more successful when done in groups rather than by individuals. there is a popular cultural concept in minahasa community. i.e. the ‘si tou timou tumou-tou’ (egalitiraian spirit) that has been coined by sam ratulangi. it has become a local wisdom that can lead the community to success, prosperity and various other benefits. it is this kind of egalitarian spirit that has become the foundation for the people's unity. minahasa cultural value is used mostly in manado. manado city is much smaller than minahasa. the population in 2015’s data is 474,034 people. protestant christianity is also the major religion with as much as 61.08% followed by muslims for 27.53%, catholicism 7.77%, buddhism 3.05%, hinduism 0.48%, and confucianism 0.10%. manado city has 11 sub-districts and 78 urban villages, with an area of 157 km2. table 2: number of districts, sub-districts, villages, and areas regency total number of district, sub-district village, and total area number of district s number of subdistricts number of villages total area (km2) 360 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2016 2016 2016 2016 minahasa 25 104 166 1115 manado city 11 78 9 157 north sulawesi 171 367 1471 13852 source of data: central bureau of statistics of north sulawesi province minahasa area with 1115 km2 is acknowledged by the indonesian government as the largest city in north sulawesi with 166 villages, 104 sub-districts and 25 sub-districts, although its widthis less thanbolaang mongondow, north bolaang mongondow, south minahasa, and talaud islands. meanwhile, manado city only has 11 sub-districts, 78 sub-districts and 9 villages and has an area of 157 km2. table 3: owning highest diploma regency owning highest diploma don’t have elementary school diploma elementary school diploma/paket a junior high school diploma/paket b senior high school diploma/paket c 2016 2017 2016 2017 2016 2017 2016 2017 minahasa 16.31 15.03 19.95 21.03 16.34 18.42 38.44 35.67 manado 6.19 8.52 16.01 14.12 15.55 17.17 49.08 44.21 north sulawesi 15.22 15.3 25.15 22.2 16.26 20.61 34.45 32.16 source of data: central bureau of statistics of north sulawesi province compared to the area of manado, minahasa is much wider than manado. from this data, it can be understood that the district of minahasa has plenty of lands to be controlled as well as managed socially, culturally, and ecologically. good management and control, however, are only possible when assisted by education. education opens people's insight and knowledge about the environment (pinto, 2015, p. 163) so that damage and disaster caused by poor environmental management can be avoided. this becomes the reason why the government's attention on education in the two regions is important to be the object of this research. the increasing trend of the educational quality of the two communities provides a positive sign to the communities’ wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 361 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj understanding and so it is assumed their environmental awareness is also positive. table 4: home ownership (percent) regency home ownership (percent) private house rent a house free rent official residence total 2016 2017 2016 2017 2016 2017 2016 2017 2016 2017 minahasa 78.48 71.62 1.29 5.02 19.34 22.79 0.89 0.57 100 100 manado 57.92 56.62 15.21 21.59 24.35 19.12 2.52 2.67 100 100 north sulawesi 79.77 76.79 4.85 7.02 14.15 15.09 1.23 1.1 100 100 source of data: central bureau of statistics of north sulawesi province this data regarding homeownership is assumed to be identical to the financial capacity of the community. the concern in this data is about families who rent houses and families who live in private houses. minahasa district in 2016 had 30.63% of families recorded as having no place to live, while in 2017 the percentage was 27.81 who do not have their place to live. this means there is a positive trend about the willingness of the communities to be better by having their own homes table 5: human development index regency human development index 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 bolaang mongondow 62.75 63.16 63.78 64.16 64.53 65.03 65.73 66.08 minahasa 70.38 70.82 71.43 71.94 72.76 73.59 74.37 74.59 manado 74.47 75.47 76.15 76.56 77.27 77.32 77.59 78.05 north sulawesi 67.83 68.31 69.04 69.49 69.96 70.39 71.05 71.66 source of data: central bureau of statistics of north sulawesi province the human development index is another important part to be linked in discussingng the communities’ concern for the environment for the sustainability of life. the data shows that the index of minahasa 70.38-74.59% 362 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in 2010-2017 is a good number that shows participation in environmental conservation efforts in minahasa. the number is the same as in manado city that reached 74.47%-78.05 in 2010-2017. this explains the other potency of the communities in preserving ecological balance. table 6: number of poor population by regency/city (thousand people) regency number of poor population by regency/city (thousand people) 2015 2016 2017 minahasa 28.88 27.64 26.34 manado 23.96 22.41 23.39 source of data: central bureau of statistics of north sulawesi province in tables 5 and 6 above there is a comparison to see the percentage of poor people in minahasa regency and manado city. approximately 27.64 thousand of poor people in minahasa and 23.39 in manado city are assumed to have the potency to increase the exploitation for the reason of low income and the potency to the less concern on sanitation, health, and sustainable life (giddings, hopwood, & o’brien, 2002, p. 187) table 7: main activities (2017) regency main activities by regency 2017 labour force not belong to labour force unemployment open unemployment minahasa 158.180 101.848 147.253 10.927 manado 194.713 135.152 176.510 18.203 source of data: central bureau of statistics of north sulawesi province the potency of humans’ activities to damage the environment in minahasa district is about 10,927 people and in manado city 18,203 people. this number is potentially related to those people who do not have permanent work, an illegal logging, illegal practice on fishery, changing land use function, etc. (perrings, 1998, p. 503). wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 363 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. minahasa and manado communities’ perception on environment global sustainability can be controlled by humans’ roles in every activity, such as their responsibility to maintaining ecological balance (ramani, ramanujan, bernstein, zhao, shuterland, & carol, 2010, p.1) in connection to the humans’ responsibility, the analysis here concerns the communities in minahasa and manado’s ecological awareness. public awareness on sanitation, health, and nutrition, the dichotomy between economy and sustainable life determines humans’ life on earth (o’neil, fanning, lamb, steinberger, 2018, p. 88). good sanitation, nutrition, and health can substantially lower morbidity and can save many people, and also can improve the life quality of the people. the improved sanitation can significantly help increase not only health but on social, and economy activities (mara, lane, scott & trouba, 2010). who argues that “environmental health comprises human physical health, biological health, social, and psycho-social health. it potentially maintains adversely the health of present and future generations” ( 1993, p. 3). this warns and controls as well about the standard quality of all people in the world. understanding minahasa and manado communities’ perception of the environment as sanitation, nutrition, and health are directly related to the flood disaster in tondano city, and -the flood in manado. the analogy is on the people’s attention to environment on a small scale. minahasa regency consists of several communities. the communities are the object of this research. they are a community in tondano, tondano pante (lembean mountains), people on the coast of tondano lake as the people of touliang oki, ranomerut, tandengan, eris, watumea , telun, tasuka, kaweng, kakas, remboken, urongo, peleloan, tounsaru and communities on the banks of the tondano river. manado is the capital city of north sulawesi. it consists of of several communities in 11 districts they are districts of malalayang, sario, wanea, wenang, tikala, singkil, paal dua, mapanget, tuminting, bunaken, and bunaken kepualauan. the responsibility for the 2014 flash flood disaster should be to most of the people who live in the communities as a result of public housing, spreading of wastes, carelessness on sanitation, carelessness on fishing, and carelessness about agricultural activities. c. the awareness on sanitation, hygienist, and nutrition the habit of eating healthy food is a lifestyle that describes the behavior of loving the environment, thinking and acting conditionally towards sustainable living (cavaliere, de marchi, banterle, 2018, p.: 141) the 364 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj communities’ awareness of their environment can be seen from the extent to which they maintain their sanitation, health and their attitude of treating their environment. minahasa and manado communities are observed to have a fair quality of self-hygiene concept. this evidence is understood from their way of how they clean themselves. when they clean their bodies or when they take a bath, they will do well. they acknowledge that it is done to remove the dirt clung to their body. it is done to obtain good health and to avoid fatigue after working daily. referring to the application of the ecological concept of loving to the environment is analogized to the love of cooper’s main character natty bumppo to a helpless creature, a helpless bird that is shot, and almost dies. as what natty says “that kiver the ground here, looking up with their eyes on me, as if they only wanted toungues to say their “but i will go to the hut with my own game, for i wouldn’t touch one of the harmless things thoughts” (ls,the pioneers, 250).this of natty’s love to the dying bird has become an analogy of loving to all people and other creatures, even of self loving. f personal hygiene means also a love to the self as part of environment. people in minahasa and manado has given priority to self-cleaning before doing various activities. this is evidence from those who works everyday. these groups of people have a higher concern to care for themselves of the demand that they should be clean when they are in their workplace. unfortunately, the frequency and regularity in giving priority to self-cleaning is not followed by non-workers. when one was asked the reason why they haven’t taken a bath, one of the answers is there is still other things to do that will make one dirty again. taking a bath or cleaning the body is an activity that will be done only when they will have activities outside like having a meeting or going to bed. it is rare to find those who do the cleaning routine with the motivation to maintain personal hygiene. among the communities, there are those who thinks that taking a bath is only for having freshness and relaxation, and to sleep well. according to cooper’s philosophy, loving the environment is including loving body's hygiene as first priority. the love of self-cleaning reflects the love of hygiene and health. regularly washing hands is also one way to maintaining one’s hygiene and health. when one was asked why she didn’t wash her hands before eating, she answered “i just washed it in the bathroom”. or when a farmer is asked why the hands were not washed, he said that “it is really rare to have dangerous virus here”. the answers show that there is enough knowledge about hygiene, but people do not prioritize it as a regularity. wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 365 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the other part is about sanitation. this is about the cleanliness of the environment in the houses, yards, villages, districts, and regency. clean living is an important factor in sustaining life, in addition to personal hygiene that supports the health of every human being to survive and can do good for one’s own life and neighbors. this means that the garbage must be discharged well rather than carelessly blocking the course of water, resulting in flooding. unfortunately, manado people often threw their garbage carelessly in the tondano riverbed and has damaged the marine biota, especially in the bay of manado and the protected marine parks of bunaken. observing people's concern for cleanliness in their smallest neighborhood, it is found that the people perceive it as a priority. they know the right time to do it. when there will be guests or there will be a worship ritual in their homes, they make cleaning becomes priority. one indicator of love for environmental hygiene is regularity. unfortunately, this is not the case for most people for priority is the first consideration. when one finds the house or the yard is not properly cleaned, the people are always easy welcoming a visitor. the extroverted, sociable, joyful, and open-minded culture of the minahasa and manado communities help the people much in maintaining social relationship. health is the most basic thing in a person's life. how and to what extent the minahasa and manado people are watching or fighting for their health is the focus of discussion in this section. having observed the daily life of minahasa and manado communities, it was found that there are still some people who lived a life of concern walk and live like a continuous 'train' smoking, where both men and women have the unhealthy hobby of smoking a cigarette. when they were asked why they do so, the answer was because it was for fun, or to be seen masculine, brave, and up to date. though smoking is considered a destructive activity for the body, and used up a lot of money, they still chose to do it. concerning healthy food, some people do not care of eating noodles and eggs for their regular diet, although, they knew that there is a healthy food criteria of ‘empat sehat lima sempurna’, many people would prefer to eat tasty food for prestige rather than have nutritious healthy food for the sake of health. from the questionnaire distributed, 40 % of the people said that they will prepare food based on what is mostly liked by the people they will entertain as guests in their party. these people believed that food can represents one’s social status. 366 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the other aspect that shows the society’s low awareness on the environment is about the inactivity. the people tend to be inactive in cleaning their environment. from 100 respondents, in which most of them are students, 45 % explicitly answered that it is a matter of priority. as many as 20 % say that they were too busy to clean their environments. most of them realized about the requirements of a healthy environment including healthy food. as many as 40 % of the young people consider more about the taste of the food but not the healthy ingredients of the food. also, as many as 50 % chose to do social activities outside rather than cleaning houses, bathrooms, kitchens, and yards unfortunately, as many as 80 % of the students as respondents have no idea about global healthy environment. this information can bring into the understanding that most people would also have no information about global warming. the inactivity to clean the environment can also mean low respect for environment. as many as 60% of the people say that they do not feel of cleaning their environment as apriority. the people in minahasa and manado are religious. they are mostly christians. natty bumppo in the pioneer (1823), deerslayer in deerslayer (1841), hawkeye in t.he last of the mohicans (1826), pathfinder in the pathfinder (1840), and the prairie (1827) is fully compassionate to the animals he meets. different from most of the immigrants depicted in the leatherstocking tales they kill other humans. the practical ways shown by natty bumppo to love each other is in line with the teaching of christianity. thus, it is expected that religious people would avoid environmental destruction. fortunately, the church associations in minahasa and manado, such as pgi and gmim (has the theme "god lifts us from the great ocean" and the sub-theme "in solidarity with our fellow nation's children we continue to practice pancasila values to overcome poverty, injustice, radicalism, and environmental destruction” (gmim.or.id/visi-misi-gmim) is in line with cooper’s concept above. in the questionnaire given, almost 100% answered that they would give help to others. when allowed to have advantages such as wealth. the religiousness also gave around 70% of the people who responded that the earliest activity to start their daily activities is a prayer. figure 2: praying to god is 1 st priority wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 367 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj these ideals and good intentions are capital to achieve complete environmental awareness. unfortunately, the data obtained from the respondents is disappointing because there are only approximately 20% who admit to having environmental consciousness. figure 3: answers from respondent a the answers from the respondents above, describes about their good knowledge of the dangers that threaten the environment. they are also aware of the threats to their health are as pollution, unhealthy food due to poor nutrition, chemical wastes, unhealthy houses, non-biodegradable plastics, and others. d. the awareness on the dichotomy of economy and sustainable life in one of the questions given, it was asked about the considerations made when buying woods or when to do business about ligneous furniture or even houses. figure 4: respondent’s immediate buying the direct answer, “langsung membeli’ shows that people usually buy with no explanation. this, unfortunately, signifies that people do not care about the continual availability of wood or timber. wood is from trees. when trees are cut down without thinking of replacing or replanting, there will be an 368 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj extinction and further loss of trees that function to hold or store water. this would result in drought, landslide or even flash flood that eventually make humans suffer. wild and careless logging can seriously threaten ecologic stability of decreasing evapotranspiration efficiency and can lead to global surface warming and threaten biodiversity (davin, de noblet-ducoudre, 2010, p. 97; hansen & treue, 2008, p. 573). figure 5: respondent’s less concern on environment this answer shows about the less concern to preserve environment. this respondent doesn't care about whatever plant that is growing surround him, in contrast with the answers given by the respondent below that shows his concerns, and his adequate knowledge on the benefit of preserving environment . in item 4 the garden field is intended to grow plants that are used for everyday needs. this can describe a way of thinking that prioritizes the sustainable environment. figure 6: respondent’s ecological awareness wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 369 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 7: respondent’s concern on health e. community that cares for the environment in financial limitations this group of people care about the environment although with a financial limit as shown in the response below. here, the respondents are very good at answering questions in the sense that the answers given provide a good response to their concern for the environment except when asked about the types of trees planted in cultivated fields. they plant and grow trees not for the purpose to protect the land from erosion but for financial benefits. figure 8: respondent’s land as economic purpose (a) the choice of plant species is intended more for economic interests as understood from figure 7, and 8. and those that can provide benefits such as cloves and coconuts. the responses were given by the respondents to give priority to financial gain. the fields are planted with commodities that can provide economic benefits. item 5 also explains the priority given to economic reasons. from the data obtained, it is explained that there are 65% give 370 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj priority to the environment for financial benefits, and at the same time, they also understand about the personal and environmental safety . figure 9: respondent’s land as economic purpose (b) the main concern of respondents is on point 2,3,4 that focuss on economic benefits, while the other respondents also care to the environment as informed in point 9. f. concerned society with limited knowledge and environmental insight the responses given by the respondents below show their concern for environmental damage. when fish are caught using electric current or storm, one respondent (see figure 9) realizes that the coral reefs will die as well as other small fish will also die. figure 10: respondent’s limited knowledge on environment (a) wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 371 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 11: respondent’s limited knowledge on environment (b) the above respondents (see figure 10) have the intention and attitude to give respect to the environment, but the answers obtained are not detailed which describes the lack of knowledge or information they might have. for example, in point 2 above it is only explained that the respondent will consider the quality, but it is not clear what quality. if the respondent has environmental awareness and has good knowledge about the environment, his good intentions and attitudes are to pay attention to the environment, he will also describe his analysis or considerations regarding the presence of trees around which illustrates his concern for the scarcity of existing trees. unfortunately, the respondent as seen in figure 9 and 10, only said he was concerned with some kind of unknown quality. in item 5 it is clear about his attitude and intentions for a good environment because he wrote down, “he prefers the a healthy environment ”. and at the moment when he knew that he needs the commodities for life sustainability or for economic purpose, he should also describe about the kinds, quality, and reason why particular plants should be grown. the data from the respondents when they are asked about their awareness of the things they should prepare to protect their health and their comfort in doing a trip using motorcycle. the data explains the respondents’ less knowledge and insight about the dangers of pollution when he only states information about the importance of documents such as sim and stnk, and does not say anything about pollution. likewise with the description of the respondents below in point 9 he does not elaborate on the importance of the 372 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj mask he must use to protect himself from pollution, he only lists the helmet and chest protector as the most important things to be paid attention to. figure 12: respondent’s limited knowledge about body safeguard figure 12: respondent’s limited knowledge about the danger of pollution the respondent above also has the same case where he is aware of important things he will do but has limited knowledge and information, for example, he is not aware of the pollution when he only mentions about only preparing raincoat for his trip using motorcycle. he doesn’t mention about preparing a mask for the dangers of pollution in his description. instead, when he writes down, “for the trip by motorcycle, i will prepare everything that can protect me from rain” he didn’t describe that he also needs a mask to protect him wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 373 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from the danger of pollusion that is carcinogenic and that also can give negative effect on his lungs, and also can cause his blood oxigen deficieny. figure 13: respondent’s limited knowledge about healthy food the respondent above also illustrates that he has good attitudes and intentions towards the environment when he mentions god's name and prays in points 9 and 10, but in other items such as point 12 regarding the importance of removing the smell of soap in washing dishes, he does not pay any attention to chemical danger that is possibly contaminates dishes, and moreover he doesn’t know kinds of healthy food. these respondents have shown their good attitudes and intentions towards their environment but having limited knowledge and insight so they cannot give the maximum attention to their environment. g. the community, law enforcement, and moral convention the government has provided legal and regulatory tools to protect the environment such as law no. 32 of 2009 and other rules as local regulation in more detail. the law enforcement is available but it is seemingly not yet effective in guarding the entire environment, particularly in making people aware of their living environment that should be maintained, even also maintaining their health. among the communities are still found throwing garbage everywhere. when one is asked why he does that, he answers that “nobody sees and controls it”. while the other argues that “we are in the forest, nobody sees us”. among them are the children in elementary and of junior high school who even often throw garbage carelessly so that the streets become the place of waste paper, plastics, mineral water bottles, plastics 374 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj packaging of children snacks, etc. the actions of these school children can explain the absence of the role of teachers and parents in educating and instilling the values of environmental love. it is unfortunate that the teachers fail to become the spearhead of the government, who should have strengthened and cultivated environmental awareness of these school children. the roles of the 'goalkeeper' is essential to control the communities’ awareness on life sustainability. unfortunately, there are still those in the communities of minahasa and manado that still consider keeping environmental health as “the next priority”. the scattered garbages have not been made a serious problem by the particular societies. there are those in the communities’ members who are not yet aware of the most important environmental principles regarding the relationship of each environmental element that is closely intertwined with one another. this needs a serious concern of the responsible institutions. indifferent practice will not provide an excellent service, the vulnerable evironment will make sure of the environment instablity, and so can constantly proceed to environmental destruction. this signifies the lack of understanding of the attachment of all elements of the environment. there is a need for environmental education and campaigns on hygiene, health, and environmental preservation to realize a 'sustainable life'. within religious institutions, the minahasa evangelical church (gereja masehi injili minahasa) and indonesian churches association (persatuan gereja-gereja indonesia) have tried to accommodate the importance of preserving environment for a sustainable life by making their members follow the minahasa church theme "god lift us from the great ocean” and the sub theme "in solidarity with all indonesian people we constantly practice pancasila values in tackling poverty, injustice, radicalism, and environmental destruction". however, this attempt has not yet completely evoke the spirit of environmental awareness of the minahasa and manado people. conclusion james fenimore cooper's ecological hierarchy of "love, respect, wisdom, and justice" teaches people to be aware of their environement. the case of the 2014 flash flood experienced by the minahasa and manado people should be wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 375 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a turning point to pay close attention on environment preservation, unfortunately, there are those who arestill indifferent of taking care their environment. this research founds that there are four kinds of groups in the communities found. first, is a group of those who care about their environment. second, is a group of those who are indifferent to their environment. third, is a group of people who cares their environment in their financial limitations, and fourth is the group of those who concern with their environment, but have limited knowledge and environmental insight. using a questionnaire, which questions about the evaluating elements as the communities’ love, respect that are understood from how they have treated their environment. it is found that there are about 60 % that have no ideas about the global environment and those who are indifferent including those with their idleness found in the communities. it is also found that 65 % of those who are trapped between pursuing financial income and preserving life. this explains a serious problem for their powerless of having apathetic behavior towards caring the environment. for this reason, there is a need of a synergy of educational institutions and religious institutions assisted by law that needs to be encouraged for an ongoing evaluation, control, and actions to generate public awareness. environmental education is also needed at every level of education to intensify and socialize the cultivation of an individual's environmental awareness. references bank dunia. (2009). analisa lingkungan indonesia : berinverstasi untuk indonesia yang berkelanjutan. basha, k.a., samuel, a.j., kumar, s. (2010). 100% free global warming. international journal of computer application, 1(15), 53–60. cavaliere, a., de marchi, p., banterle, a. (2018). exploring the adherence to the mediterranean diet and its relationship with individual lifestyle: the role of healthy behaviors, income, and education. nutrients, 10(2), 141. cie, c.s, tarore r.c., karongkong, h. (2016). identifikasi penggunaan lahan pada daerah rawan banjir bandang kota manado. jurnal spasial : perencanaan wilayah dan kota, 3(3). cooper james, f. (1985a). the leatherstocking tales; volume i (the pioneer, the last of the mohicans, the prairie) (vol. 1). the library of america, usa. 376 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 350 – 377 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cooper james, f. (1985b). the leatherstocking tales; volume ii (the deerslayer, the pathfinder). the library of america, usa. davin, e.l., de n.-d. (2010). climatic impact of global-scale deforestation: radiative versus nonradiative processes. journal of climate, 23(1), 97–112. gerrard, g. (2004). ecocriticism. routledge. london and new york. giddings, b. hopwood, b. o’brien, g. (2002). environment, economy and society: fitting them together into sustainable development. journal of sustainable development, 187–196. glotfelty, c., f. h. e. (1996). the ecocriticism reader landmarks in literary ecology. university of georgia press. georgia. hansen, c.p., treue, t. (2008). assessing illegal logging in ghana. international forestry review, 10(4), 573–590. kirby, a. (2009). climate in peril: a popular guide to the latest ipcc reports. unep/grid-arendal. norway. lawniczak-malinska, a., ptak, m., celewicz, s., choiriski, a. (2018). impact of lake morphology and shallowing on the rate of overgrowth in hard-water eutrophic lakes. water, 10(12), 1827. lutan, h. rusli, kardjono, c. (2009). pengaruh outdoor education terhadap peningkatan kesadaran kelestarian lingkungan alam. margianti, e. t. (2013). pengaruh kesadaran lingkungan terhadap niat beliu produk hijau (studi pasa mahasiswa universitas surakarta). murphy, j., gouldson, a. (2000). environmental policy and industrial innovation: integrating environment and economy through ecological modernization. 33–44. o’neill, d.w., fanning, a.l., lamb, w.f., steinberger, j. . (2018). a good life for all within planetary boundaries. journal of nature sustainability 1, 88–95. pangau, a., kanine, e., wowiling, f. (2014). no title. jurnal keperawatan, 2(2). perrings, c. (1998). resilience in the dynamics of economy environment systems. journal of environmental and resource economics 11, 503–520. pinto, z. (2015). kajian perilaku masyarakat pesisir yang mengakibatkan kerusakan lingkungan ( studi kasus di pantai kuwaru, desa poncosari, kecamatan bantul, provinsi diy. jurnal wilayah dan lingkungan, 3(4). puspandari, d. (2008). upaya meningkatkan kesadaran pelestarian lingkungan hidup melalui pembelajaran pklh berbasis ctl. jurnal pendidikan inovatif, 4(5). wuntu, c. n., identifying minahasa and manado society’s environmental 377 awareness with cooper’s ecological concept https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ramani, k., ramanujan, d., bernstein w.z.,zhao, fu., carol, s. (2010). integrated sustainable life cycle design: a review. journal of mechanical design, 132(9). runtunuwu, s. waney, e., mandang, d. (2020). arah pertumbuhan kota manado (studi setelah banjir 2014). jurnal teknik sipil terapan, 2(3), 1–9. sorey, t.d, bisri, m., sisinggih, d. (2017). kajian penanganan sedimentasi danau tondano. jurnal teknik pengairan: journal of water resources engineering, 7(2), 259–267. undang-undang no. 32 tahun 2009 tentang lingkungan watania, h.a., poli, e.a., lobja, e. (2021). no title. geographia : jurnal pendidikan dan penelitian geografi, 2(1), 104–108. wuntu, c. n. (2013). connecting the vanishing flora and fauna and its relation to the indian removal policy as seen in coopers the leatherstocking tales. celt: journal of culture, english language teaching, literature, and linguistics, 97–117. untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia revealing translation techniques applied in the translation of batik motif names in see instagram 1 dyah raina purwaningsih, 2 ika maratus sholikhah, 3 erna wardani 1,2 english department, faculty of humanities, universitas jenderal soedirman, purwokerto, indonesia 3 language education department, faculty of humanities, universitas jenderal soedirman, purwokerto, indonesia email: 1 dyah.purwaningsih@unsoed.ac.id, 2 ika.sholikhah@unsoed.ac.id, 3 erna.wardani@unsoed.ac.id received: 25-06-2019 accepted: 29-08-2019 published: 5-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj revealing translation techniques applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation 1dyah raina purwaningsih, 2ika maratus sholikhah, and3erna wardani 1dyah.purwaningsih@unsoed.ac.id, 2ika.sholikhah@unsoed.ac.id, 3erna.wardani@unsoed.ac.id 1,2english department, faculty of humanities, universitas jenderal soedirman, purwokerto, indonesia 3language education department, faculty of humanities, universitas jenderal soedirman, purwokerto, indonesia abstract: this article discusses one of the forms of machine translation, the instagram translation feature called “see translation”. the research is focused on the translation techniques applied by the machine in translating banyumas batik motifs from indonesian to english found in @batikantodjamil and @batk_rd. this topic is worth discussing since machine translation is now getting more developed and is projected to replace human translator. however, in some cases, for example in dealing with culturally-bound terms, machine translation cannot perform contextual knowledge as well as the human translator. this mini research was conducted by applying qualitative research with purposive sampling technique in which the researchers obtain the data by selecting two batik center instagram accounts containing batik motif names in the captions. the result shows that there are three translation techniques applied by the instagram translation features, namely literal, borrowing, and particularization. the most dominant technique to use is borrowing technique, and it shows a tendency that such cultural terms in the source language do not have one-to-one correspondence in the target language. in other words, the touch of human translator is very important in the post-editing process of translation by machine to make the translation more acceptable. however, if it is impossible to involve human translator, the instagram administrator should enrich the machine with more contextual linguistic database to provide the users with better translation results. 288 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 287 – 301 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: batik, culturally-bound terms, machine translation, translation technique, acceptability abstrak: artikel ini membahas salah satu bentuk machine translation, dalam bentuk fitur terjemahan instagram "see translation". penelitian terfokus pada teknik terjemahan yang digunakan oleh mesin dalam menerjemahkan motif batik banyumas dari bahasa indonesia ke bahasa inggris yang ditemukan dalam akun instagram @batikantodjamil dan @batk_rd. topik ini layak dibahas karena terjemahan mesin sekarang semakin berkembang dan diproyeksikan untuk menggantikan penerjemah manusia. namun, dalam beberapa kasus, misalnya yang dengan istilah budaya, terjemahan mesin tidak dapat menggunakan pengetahuan kontekstual seperti yang dapat dilakukan oleh penerjemah manusia. penelitian kecil ini dilakukan dengan menerapkan penelitian kualitatif dengan teknik purposive sampling di mana para peneliti mengumpulkan data dari dua akun instagram pusat batik yang berisi nama-nama motif batik. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada tiga teknik terjemahan yang diterapkan oleh fitur terjemahan instagram, yaitu literal, borrowing, dan partikularization. teknik yang paling dominan untuk digunakan adalah teknik borrowing, yang menunjukkan kecenderungan bahwa istilah budaya seperti itu dalam bahasa sumber tidak memiliki padanan satusatu dalam bahasa sasaran. dengan kata lain, sentuhan penerjemah manusia sangat penting dalam proses post-editing oleh mesin agar terjemahan yang dihasilkan lebih berterima. namun, jika tidak mungkin melibatkan penerjemah manusia, administrator instagram harus memperkaya mesin dengan basis data linguistik yang lebih kontekstual untuk memberikan hasil terjemahan yang lebih baik kepada pengguna. kata kunci: batik, istilah terkait budaya, machine translation, teknik penerjemahan, keberterimaan introduction seeing the phenomenon of the emergence of mt in wide range and function of human communication, the researchers are interested in bringing this topic to discussion. moreover, research on instagram translation feature is still rarely found due to the novelty of the aspect. this research is expected to give a contribution to the development of translation research area. besides analyzing translation technique, the researchers would also like to see the effect of the technique to the acceptability of the translation in the source language (sl), which is english in this case. the reason why the acceptability of the translation is important to discuss is because the data are in purwaningsih, d. r. & sholikah, i.m., revealing translation techniques 289 applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj form of culturally-bound terms, especially javanese cultural terms, which theoretically need to be treated specially when rendered to another language. in assessing the acceptability of the translation, the researchers applied semantic analysis on the lexical items constructing the cultural terms to see whether the sl word is equally translated to the tl word or not. nearly similar research was conducted by (pudjiati, 2018) who evaluated the semantic errors in the instagram machine translation of hti account captions. the research shows that there are errors in grammatical, contextual, and referential meanings. there is also previous research dealing with the loss and gain of the translation of culture-specific items with ahmad tohari’s lintang kemukus as the data source conducted by (tiwiyanti & retnomurti, 2017). the research shows that the translator should have translation competence and knowledge in translating culture-specific items. literature review a. translation translation is a term that refers to three activities, namely product, process, and field. it is also important to stress that translation deals with the transfer of written text as there is another mode of translation in which the medium is oral, which is called interpreting or interpretation. in translating, the language from which a text is translated is known as source language (sl) and the language of the translated product is the target language (tl). what is also referred to as the original text is generally called the source text (st), and the translated text is target text (tt) (colina, 2015, pp. 2–4). a more comprehensive definition of translation is proposed by (nida & taber, 1982), who state that translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. based on this definition, there are at least three aspects in translation that need to be preserved, namely, equivalent, meaning, and style. a translator has to try to find the closest equivalent of the sl in the tl; it can be started from the micro level of a text such as word and phrase. in order to produce equivalent translation, a translator is demanded to maintain the meaning or message of the sl as well as its style or form. in order to produce good and quality translation, the use of translation tools is necessary. translation activity relates to tools, namely the writing instruments such as stylus, quill, and pen and also its material supports like wood, parchment, and paper. the tools of translation in earlier periods are not only the material objects that allow words to be permanently traced but they are the products of those tracings which in turn will assist translators in their 290 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 287 – 301 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj tasks. in other words, translation is impossible to do without tools. (cronin, 2003). the tool in translation activity is later developed rapidly along with the globalization era as well as the increase of translation needs. the advent of wiki-translation indicates that the rapid dissemination of online social networking practices not only generates new translation needs, but has farreaching consequences for the profession of translator in an age of globalization. with the machine translation (mt) at hands, the translation consumers are increasingly becoming translation producers. (cronin, 2013). translation, as stated before, also refers to both academic and commercial fields. therefore, it is included as one of courses learned in colleges and universities, and recently it becomes one of developing research fields. in indonesia, translation grows rapidly in those fields; a lot of reference books written in english or in other foreign languages are translated into indonesian to bridge the readers to the information contained in the books. in addition, translation is also done in other kinds of written materials, like novel, comic, magazine, poetry, verse, song, and so on. today, translation is also found in digital media in various usages including online shop, online advertisement, website, and social media. b. machine translation according to colina (2015) machine translation (mt) is the translation produced by a software program without the intervention of a human translator; usually the target text produced by a computer is not usable in its raw form (i.e., raw output). it has to be revised and edited by a human translator or editor. the process of editing and preparing machine-translated output for use by human is known as post-editing. the use of mt in nearly all aspects of human life somehow affects the real role of human translators. the emergence of mt in social media features such as the instagram again proves that translation is important, but human translator’s role is seemingly not. however, the absence of human translator in this translation feature results in doubts whether the translation result of the mt meets the translation quality parameters or not, especially in dealing with culturally-bound terms. it is because mt cannot perform contextual knowledge system or knowledge of situation. this knowledge is one of the memories needed by translators in doing their work; they are knowledge of language system, knowledge of language use, knowledge of the world, and knowledge of situation (mandelblit, n.d.). on the other hand, human translator is facilitated with many translation techniques, strategies, methods, and procedures to deal with difficult language units to translate. purwaningsih, d. r. & sholikah, i.m., revealing translation techniques 291 applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj machine translation can now be found in several social media providers, such as facebook and instagram. instagram is a mobile application (ios and android) that enables users to instantly turn their mobile snapshots into visually appealing images, which are then shared with others on the network. instagram launched in october 2010, was purchased by facebook in april 2012, and currently has approximately 130 million monthly active users. (salomon, 2013). recently, instagram has added a translation feature called see translation under the caption and comment column that enables the users to look up the caption and comment in other languages. this feature is a corpusbased translation that translates the caption and texts by making use of linguistic database provided by the machine. c. translation techniques in translation process, cultural non-equivalence is the most frequent problem to emerge, as stated by (hoed, 2006) that translating cultural items is not easy since the translator sometimes does not totally master the tl as the inseparable part of the tl culture. many culturally-bound terms do not have one-to-one correspondence in the target language, for example indonesian cultural terms joglo that cannot be translated into equivalence english term. the term joglo refers to a traditional house that can only be found in central java, and it is usually owned by the royal family. this kind of house is not recognized in other cultures. in that case, the translator is given some techniques of translation, such as borrowing technique; that is to borrow or maintain the original term of the source language as proposed by (molina & albir, 2002) another technique is also likely to apply, such as description technique; that suggests the translator to describe the term to avoid wrong translation. in description technique, the translator replaces the term or expression with a description of its form or function (molina & albir, 2002). for example, instead of mentioning the term joglo, s/he describes it based on its function and appearance. however, in this article, there are three translation techniques to explain due to the research findings, namely literal, borrowing, and particularization. 1. literal is to translate a word or an expression word for word, 2. borrowing is to take a word or expression straight from another language. 3. particularization is to use a more precise or concrete term (molina & albir, 2002) 292 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 287 – 301 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. translation of culturally-bound terms as stated by house (2015), translation is more than a linguistic act, which is also an act of communication across cultures. translation is one of the major means of constructing representation of other cultures (nida in house, 2015). it is important to keep in mind that in translating, the translator does not merely change the source language (sl) text structure into the target language (tl) structure. therefore, bilingualism and biculturalism are two things required for the translator. language and culture are inseparable aspects in translation activity since the former is one of the realization of the latter. language is a means of communication that can be expressed both verbally and non-verbally. nonverbal communication is expressed in form of symbols, gestures, pictures, and so on. symbol itself can be seen in various media, one of them is clothes. for example, in batik, as one of javanese cultural products, the symbol delivers certain messages and they mostly represent local values held by the society. the symbol is usually represented through the batik motif names. banyumas batik motifs have various names, such as kembang turi, lumbon truntum, wahyu temurun, bunga gesekan, kawung picis, and so on. each of those names is the representation of the messages that the artisans want to deliver. when those names of batik motifs are intended to be translated, a translator should take into account the acceptability of both form and meaning of them in the target language. the message of the motif should be well-recognized by the target readers. translating culturally-bound terms is one of the mostfrequent problems faced by a translator although s/he is nowadays more equipped with translation tools. it is in line with one of research results conducted to investigate translation of cultural lexicon in a novel entitled saman. the results show that translating cultural terms needs cultural lexicons understanding in order to transfer the meaning and the message from the sl into the tl, so that it would not lead to confusion (hilman, 2015). e. translation acceptability acceptability is one of translation quality assessment parameters suggested by some scholars to evaluate translation quality. larson (1984) prefers to call it naturalness since it deals with the naturalness of the translated text felt by the target readers. meanwhile, newark (1988) proposes the term acceptability in dealing with the assessment of the use of certain dictions in translating a text; the diction must be well-recognized by the target readers. acceptability is the crucial part of translation assessment when dealing with cultural texts. purwaningsih, d. r. & sholikah, i.m., revealing translation techniques 293 applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in collecting data, the researchers took some samples from two instagram accounts containing batik motif names, namely @batikantodjamil and @batk_rd. since the research belongs to qualitative research, the data taken are in forms of images and texts. a. type of research this research was conducted with qualitative method which rely on text and image data (creswell 2013). to be called qualitative research, there are several basic characteristics that should be reflected in the research. qualitative research should be conducted in a natural setting; qualitative researchers tend to collect data in the data field at the site where participants experience the issue or problem under study. in this type of research, the researcher is the key instrument that collects the data through examining documents, observing behaviors, or interviewing participants. qualitative researchers also gather multiple forms of data such as interviews, observations, documents, and audiovisual information rather than a single data source. those three characteristics were applied during this research. the researchers used text and image taken from instagram accounts that are used as the subject of the research. the researchers also examined the data themselves by applying the translation theories as well as other documents to support the analysis. b. research subjects there were two instagram accounts used as subjects for the research, namely @batikantodjamil and @batk_rd owned by two prominent batik centers in banyumas. those two accounts are chosen due to the reputation of the batik artisans in maintaining banyumas batik motifs originality by being persistent in creating more banyumas local motifs to be introduced to the national or international level. their idealism is obviously seen in the batik they produce which mostly depict the local values and wisdom of banyumas people and philosophy. both @batikantodjamil and @batik_rd are used to promote their product to the world by mentioning the names of batik motifs in the caption column which are mostly taken from banyumas local values. those batik motif names contained in the two instagram accounts are the primary data of this research (see picture 1). meanwhile, the secondary data in this research is the result of interview with the owners of anto djamil and rusmini darmono batik center. the result of the interview is used to help the researchers analyzing the meaning of each batik motif in accordance with the analysis of translation technique of those batik motifs. the knowledge of the meaning behind the batik motif is important in determining the suitable technique of translation used, since translation is about meaning-transfer. method 294 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 287 – 301 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the unit of analysis of this research is therefore at the micro level of text, which is called phrase. it is said by saldanha & o’brien (2014, p. 24) that the unit of data might be at the micro-level of ‘text’ and, while a researcher might analyze text in general, it is quite likely that the unit of analysis (or measurement) will be further broken down into measurable concepts such as lexical items, sentences, clauses, phrases, collocations and so on. c. research procedure since this research was conducted qualitatively, the researchers did some qualitative procedures before starting the analysis. firstly, the researchers observed @batikantodjamil and @batik_rd instagram accounts as the research subjects to gather the data needed. during the observation, the researchers collected the data that show batik motif names and the translation version. secondly, the researchers classified the techniques used in the translation based on the theory applied. the researchers also did literature study about the meaning of the batik motifs used as the data to support the analysis of the translation. picture 1: borrowing technique in @batikantodjamil translation caption purwaningsih, d. r. & sholikah, i.m., revealing translation techniques 295 applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results and discussions in the data of this research, there are three translation techniques applied namely literal, borrowing, and particularization. translation technique is a term to use when the focus of the research is the translation result, and the technique is the realization of translation strategies used in the process of translation. here is the explanation of each technique found in the data. a. literal in literal technique, the translator translates a word or an expression word for word. this technique is found in the following data: datum 1 this datum is taken from account @batikantodjamil. the batik motif wahyu temurun is translated into hereditary revelation which is derived from the lexical meaning of the words wahyu and temurun. in merriam-webster online dictionary, the word hereditary in this context is defined as an adjective referring to inheritance or heredity; while revelation refers to something that is revealed by god to humans. the translation is accurate since the meaning of the words is well-conveyed but it is less acceptable for the target readers. the target readers will be probably questioning about the meaning of hereditary revelation and it will be difficult for them to catch the philosophical meaning of the batik motif. the sl term of this motif, which is originally a javanese term, consists of not only lexical meaning, but also sociocultural meaning that is defined by suryawinata & hariyanto (2003, p. 120) as meaning that is related to cultural factors held by certain society; the naming of the batik motif is closely related to the local value of the javanese people. wahyu temurun means god’s words delivered to human as the guidance in their lives. the the batik artisan wants to express divine message through the motif. meanwhile, in the tl culture, this value does not exist. datum 2 in this datum, the batik motif bunga gesekan is translated into flower friction, and the technique employed is literal technique. the instagram machine translation simply translates the lexical meaning of each word that construct the term. as a result, the sl term sounds unnatural, and the term is unaccaptable in the sl culture. sometimes, batik artisans create batik motif by taking some inspiration from their surroundings. it also happens to the batik motif bunga gesekan which is taken from the surrounding flower plants. the word bunga here is literally translated into flower, while gesekan is translated into friction. apparently, the instagram machine translation only recognize the lexical meaning of the word, whereas in this term, the word gesekan refers to 296 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 287 – 301 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the technique of rubbing applied in creating such pattern to result fiber pattern of batik. however, the word friction is not equivalent to the meaning refered by the sl word, because friction itself is not recognized as a name of batik-making technique, or fabric-designing technique in general. if this batik motif is necessary to translate, a translator needs to find the suitable term to be naturally accepted by the target readers; yet it cannot be performed by machine translation. datum 6 in addition, literal technique is also found in the translation of batik motif waru wajik in batik_rd instagram account that is translated into hibiscus diamonds. in translation, equivalence of source language and target language is important, so the translator should find the closest equivalence between those two languages. the word waru is derived from javanese language; in indonesian it is called baru, a plant that belongs to malvaceae genus. it is translated literally into hibiscus. whereas, the word wajik is translated into diamonds. literally, the translation is accurate because it produced formal equivalence, but if we view it from cultural perspective, it seems that the translation does not represent the intention of the batik artisan who chooses to produce the batik motif with certain purposes, for example to introduce local wisdom in forms of culture, heritage, and even floral objects. the detailed information about the use of literal technique is shown in the following table. datum account source text target text 1 @batikant odjamil kain tulis kombinasi biron colet “wahyu temurun” fabric write combination biron dab “hereditarry revelation” 2 @batikant odjamil kain tulis kombinasi biron colet “bunga gesekan” fabric write combination biron dab “flower friction” 6 @batik_rd batik banyumas motif: waru wajik batik banyumas motive: hibiscus diamonds 5 @batik_rd batik banyumas motif: campur sari batik banyumas motive: mix sari table 1: the distribution of literal technique purwaningsih, d. r. & sholikah, i.m., revealing translation techniques 297 applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. borrowing another translation technique found in the data is borrowing technique that means to take word or expression straight from another language. there are two types of borrowing technique, namely pure and naturalized borrowing. here are some data with borrowing technique: datum 3 one of the examples of pure borrowing technique is found in batik motif lumbon truntum that is taken from account @batikantodjamil. the term lumbon truntum is maintained in the target language because the word lumbon and truntum are javanese words and their lexical meanings cannot be found in the dictionary. the translation feature of the instragam seemingly does not provide the corpus of this kind of term. it is seen from the technique chosen, which is borrowing technique. the technique is indeed commonly found in the translation of specific or culturally-bound terms whose one-to-one correspondence cannot be found in the target language. lumbon is derived from the word lumbu, or taro plant which refers to javanese plant that is easily found in any season and any place. it symbolizes a javanses local value that a person should be able to adapt in any situation and should be useful for other people as well as for the surrounding. meanwhile, truntum is a javanese word which means regrow, and it also carries a sacred philosophy that an old love will grow again along with the time. some people also relate this batik motif to eternal love. therefore, if the batik motif is translated based on its lexical meaning, the effect will be different and it will lose its cultural sense. datum 4 in the next example, we can see another borrowing technique in the batik motif named kembang turi. the batik motif kembang turi is translated into turi cauliflower and the borrowing technique is found in the translation of the word turi. this word refers to a name of a flower found particularly in central java, and it hardly can be found in other countries. in translating such term, borrowing is one of translation techniques used most frequently. 8 @batik_rd batik banyumas motif: kawung picis batik banyumas motive: kawung cents 7 @batik_rd batik banyumas motif: sekar jagat batik banyumas motive: sekar universe 298 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 287 – 301 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj datum 7 borrowing technique is also found in the translation of batik motif sekar jagat taken from @batik_rd instagram account. this technique is applied in translating the word sekar. the word sekar is a javanese term of bunga or flower in english, and because it belongs to local language variety, the lexical meaning of the word is not provided in the database of the instagram translation feature. therefore, the machine simply borrows the word to be transferred into the target language. below is the complete information about the use of borrowing technique in the data that is shown in the following table. datum accou nt source text target text 4 @batik antodj amil kain tulis kombinasi biron colet “kembang turi” dab “turi cauliflower” 3 @batik antodj amil kain tulis kombinasi biron colet “lumbon truntum” fabric write combination biron dab “lumbon truntum” 7 @batik _rd batik banyumas motif: campur sari batik banyumas motive: mix sari 5 @batik _rd batik banyumas motif: sekar jagat batik banyumas motive: sekar universe 8 @batik _rd batik banyumas motif: kawung picis batik banyumas motive: kawung cents 9 @batik _rd batik banyumas motif: cempaka mulya motive: cempaka mulya 10 @batik _rd batik banyumas motive: manggar batik banyumas motive: manggar table 2: the distribution of borrowing technique fabric write combination biron batik banyumas purwaningsih, d. r. & sholikah, i.m., revealing translation techniques 299 applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. particularization particularization is a technique in which the translator uses a more precise or concrete term. for example, the word anak-anak in indonesian is translated into boys in english. the opposite technique of particularization is generalization. in datum 4, there is a particularization technique in the translation of the batik motif kembang turi; the particularization occurs in the translation of the word kembang into cauliflower. based on the lexical meaning, kembang means flower in english while cauliflower refers to a different object; it refers to the flower of cabbage and is usually cooked as vegetables. if those objects are compared, we can see that the term cauliflower is not accurate to represent the turi flower. to translate name of a cultural product, we can simply use borrowing technique to maintain the original term. conclusion based on the research result, there are some points that can be drawn into conclusion. there are three translation techniques found in the data, namely, literal, borrowing, and particularization, and borrowing technique is the most dominant one to apply. it is due to the way the machine translation works. different from human translators, machine translation translates a text simply based on the linguistic corpus or database. in this case, the linguistic corpus of the instagram translation feature still needs improvement so that it can produce more acceptable translation for the target readers. machine translation is very helpful for human translators since it can produce more translation in relatively short time. however, the absence of human translator’s role in a translation feature just like the one provided by the instagram brings about unacceptable translation. it happens because machine translation cannot perform contextual knowledge in the translation process. acknowledgement we would like to express our gratitude to lppm unsoed for the opportunity and support so that the researchers in conducting the research. the other parties who also have been very helpful and cooperative are rumah batik rusmini darmono and rumah batik anto djamil in providing us with much information and knowledge about batik and the meaning represented in each name of the motifs. 300 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 287 – 301 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references colina, s. 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(2013). moving on from facebook: using instagram to connect with undergraduates and engage in teaching and learning. college & research libraries news, 74(8), 408–412. purwaningsih, d. r. & sholikah, i.m., revealing translation techniques 301 applied in the translation of batik motif names in see translation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5860/crln.74.8.8991 suryawinata, z., & hariyanto, s. (2003). translation: bahasa teori & penuntun praktis menerjemahkan. yogyakarta: kanisius. tiwiyanti, l., & retnomurti, a. b. (2017). loss and gain in translation of culture-specific items in ahmad tohari;s lintang kemukus: a semantic study. lingua cultura, 11 (may), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1820 @batikantodjamil @batik_rd guide for contributors indonesian efl teachers studying overseas: feelings, expectations, and perspectives on professional development bambang yudi cahyono1 abstract: one of the ways to develop english teachers’ professional competence is by sending them to study in a graduate program in english language education. sending english teachers to pursue their higher level of education is one of the policies taken by the government of east java to improve english teachers’ professional competence. in response to the government of east java’s policy, teachers were selected to study in a graduate program with a sandwich study. the sandwich takes the format of “in-house training” held at state university of malang and overseas study in angeles university foundation, philippine. this article explores the english teachers’ feelings, expectations, and perspectives on professional development with regard to the opportunity in studying overseas. the results of the study show that studying overseas contributed to professional development of the english teachers participating in the sandwich study program during their graduate education. 1 prof. bambang yudi cahyono, m.a., m.ed., ph.d. <yudic2001@ yahoo.com> +62816937209 is afull-ime profesor at the english department of state university of malang. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 44 key words: studying overseas, professional development, graduate education, english teachers introduction there are several factors that determine the success of english language teaching (elt). these factors include, among others, the curriculum, learning environment, facilities, textbooks, teaching and learning activities, instructional media, and teachers. among these factors, teachers are considered the most prominant one as other factors cannot play important roles when the teachers do not perform their duties well. for example, it is the teachers who have to “translate” the curriculum into classroom practices. teachers also determine how a good learning environment can be created; how facilities can be managed well; how textbooks can be used effectively; how teaching and learning activities can be planned and undertaken successfully; and how instructional media can be applied properly. in indonesia, the duties of teachers are established in the act on the national system of education no 20/2003, especially chapter xi article 40. it is stated that one of the responsibilities of teachers or educational workers is “to have professional commitment to improve quality of education” (undang-undang sisdiknas 2003). because of the important role that teachers have, teachers need to be able to develop their competences. according to the act of teachers and lecturers no 14/2005, teachers need to have four kinds of competences: professional competence (knowledge of subject matter), pedagogical competence (skill in teaching methodology), personal competence (good behavior and personalities), and social competence (social interaction and acceptance) b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 45 (sarimaya 2008: 17). brown (2001: 430) called these respective competences “good language-teaching characteristics.” the characteristics include technical knowledge, pedagogical skills, interpersonal skills, and personal qualities. this article focuses on how teachers can develop one of the four types of competence, namely professional competence or technical knowledge. in my earlier article (cahyono 2010), i mentioned four options that can be done for teachers’ professional development in elt. the options include sending teachers to graduate program in elt, assigning teachers to join in-service teachers’ certification, sending teachers to a professional training program, and building teachers’ awareness of the importance of continuous improvement learning. based on the responses elicited from the teachers, it was revealed that the options could successfully develop teachers’ knowledge which supports the teaching of english in their classrooms. moreover, the four options improved not only their knowledge in their disciplinary study but also in curricular aspects such as in making lesson plans and in applying teaching methodologies. more importantly, all the teachers stated that “they have improved themselves compared to they used to be before they undertook the options for professional development” (cahyono 2010: 14). this study deals with development of english teachers’ professional competence is by sending them to study in a graduate program in elt. sending english teachers to pursue their higher level of education is one of the policies taken by the government of east java to improve english teachers’ professional competence. in 2008, the government of east java selected 22 english teachers of pre-internationally standardized schools (rintisan sekolah bertaraf internasional/rsbi) and sent them celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 46 to study at the school of graduate studies of state university of malang. these english teachers started their graduate study at the elt program of state university of malang from january 2009. what is unique to this program is that it is tailored to the opportunity to study overseas for a sandwich study (cahyono 2008b). analogous to how a sandwich looks like, a “sandwich study” is an opportunity to study in the “inhouse –overseas–in-house” format, where the in-house parts are conducted at state university of malang, while the overseas part is conducted at angeles university foundation (auf), the philippines. in the third semester of their study program, the 22 english teachers departed to angeles city to start their sandwich study for two months (february 6 to april 4, 2010). two courses were offered in the sandwich study, that is applied linguistics and english for specific purposes. the policy of the government of east java is taken in response to the demand to develop the quality of education as one of the important issues raised in the education reform. in indonesia, it is believed that the quality of education can be improved by establishing internationally standardized schools (sekolah bertaraf internasional/sbi) which are started by the implementation of pre-internationally standardized schools (sekolah rintisan bertaraf internasional/rsbi). the sbi schools are different from the regular schools in some ways. in terms of the curriculum, for instance, the regular schools use the nationally standardized curriculum called the standard national pendidikan (snp), whereas the rsbi/sbi schools use the “snp + x” curriculum. the x factors in the rsbi/sbi curriculum require the instruction to be conducted in english, completed with science-related topics, conducted using information and communication technology (ict), enriched with cross-cultural values, and presented by considering multiple intelligences. in addition to the application of the b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 47 curriculum and instructional facilities (ict-rich environment or multimedia room), there is a growing need to improve the quality of the english teachers at sbi/rsbi schools. thus, the policy taken by the government of east java to select and send english teachers to study in a graduate program in english language education is an attempt to improve the quality of the sbi/rsbi teachers’ professional competence. in response to the government of east java’s policy to select and send english teachers to study in a graduate program with a sandwich study, this research study aims to examine how the english teachers see the opportunities that they have got to study overseas. three questions raised in this research study are presented as follows: 1. how do the english teachers feel with regard to the opportunity study overseas? 2. what do they expect to learn when they study overseas? 3. how do they see the education overseas in relation to their professional development? method this research study describes english teachers’ feelings and expectations with regard to their study overseas and their perspectives on professional development. it involved 22 english teachers—10 male and 12 female—from various towns and regencies in the province of east java. they were secondary school teachers, consisting of 8 junior high, 1 senior high school, and 13 vocational high school teachers. the names of the schools are shown in table 1. the teachers are currently studying for their master degree in elt program at state university of malang, east java, indonesia and have undergone their sandwich study at celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 48 angeles university foundation (auf), central luzon, the philippines. as mentioned earlier, they took two courses: applied linguistics and english for specific purposes (esp). the aims and activities undertaken in these two course are documented in the report that the student teachers have writen (rsbi english s2 students, 2010: 5-6). in the applied linguistics course, they studied linguistic theories including phonology, morphology, syntax , and the application of linguistics for solving problems related to language. this course aims at helping the students to learn “how to produce the correct sounds, how to form a word, how to make sentences using the appropriate rules and how to apply it in the real context.” in the esp course, they students studies literature, reading, and writing. the course activities included reading a poem in front of the class, making a summary of five short stories, and presenting papers in the form of seminar on topics such as grammar, listening, writing, reading, and various issues in the teaching of english. no school town no school town 1 state junior high 1 genteng banyuwa ngi 12 state vocational senior high 1 singosari malang 2 state junior high 1 bondow oso 13 vocational senior high st albertus malang 3 state junior high 1 situbond o 14 state vocational senior high 1 kepanjen malang 4 state junior high 1 lumajan g 15 vocational senior high malang b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 49 sukodono pgri 3 5 state junior high 5 probolin ggo 16 state vocational senior high 1 banyuw angi 6 state junior high 1 pandaan pasuruan 17 state vocational senior high 1 lumaja ng 7 state junior high 4 kediri 18 vocational senior high 1 sukorambi jember 8 state junior high 1 kesamben blitar 19 state vocational senior high 1 jember 9 state senior high 5 malang 20 state vocational senior high 1 purwosari pasurua n 10 state vocational senior high 5 malang 21 vocational senior high 1 kediri 11 vocational senior high muhammadi yah 1 kpjn malang 22 vocational senior high 1 pogalan trengga lek table 1: names of schools of the teachers participating in the sandwich program a questionnaire with three open-ended questions were delivered to the teachers before they started their sandwich study at auf (in february, 2010) and it was collected when they already returned to their home country (in april, 2010). the three open-ended questions which reflect the research questions were as follows: celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 50 1. how do you feel with regard to the opportunity to study overseas? 2. what do you expect to learn in the university overseas? 3. how do you see the education overseas in relation to your professional development? the english teachers’ responses to the questionnaire were analyzed to see the variability of the answers of each questionnaire item and trends of the english teachers’ feelings and expectations with regard to their study overseas and their perspectives on professional development. results the results of of the study are presented to answer the three research questions. the results deal with the teachers’ feelings on the opportunity to study overseas, teachers’ expectations of studying overseas, and teachers’ perspectives on professional development from studying overseas. a. teachers’ feelings on the opportunity to study overseas analysis of the responses on the teachers shows that with regard to the opportunity to study overseas, most of the english teachers felt “excited” (18 cases). other feelings they felt included feelings of being “challenged” (13 cases) and “sad” or “nervous” (3 cases) (see table 1). this means most of the teachers were emotionally stimulated with the academic chance to study overseas, as it is considered a good opportunity. however, few cases show that being far away from their home country made a teacher unhappy or that the new situation and culture made some teachers nervous. b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 51 no feelings of studying overseas no of cases 1. excited 18 2. challenged 14 3. sad or nervous 3 table 2: feelings on the opportunity to study overseas with regards to the feeling of excitement, the respondents have a number of reasons as expressed in their statements presented in this section. for example, yk, a female teacher stated, “i was really excited be the one of the indonesian students study overseas or abroad. this is it, the chance to have much experiences in philippines.” fi, another female teacher said, “it was very nice and excited for me. i had many experiences when i studied and stayed in the philippines. all the parts of that campus were very kind. i was really happy study here.” in a more elaborate version, wu stated as follows: well, i feel so lucky having chance to study overseas. i’m sure that it is a special gift that not all people have. i used to dream of going abroad, and i really couldn’t believe that my dream came true. it’s really my special gift because my friends were celebrating my birthday here in the philippines. happiness or excitement, in fact, was not the only feeling the teachers shared. they were also challenged to take the opportunity well. this is evident in some of the teachers’ responses. for example, rr, a female student stated, “that is the first time i got an opportunity to study overseas. hope that it will give me to get some new experiences and challenges.” ev, a female teacher, felt that she had to speak english which she had rarely done in the home country situation, except in relation to her teaching job. in her brief words, “this program celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 52 forces me to speak daily english for communication.” a male teacher, ap, felt he enjoyed the sense of being more matured in the new environment than in his home country. as he admitted, “i found something different and make more grow up to face life. i also remember the term of longlife education. it is all for my beloved motherland and country.” nevertheless, some students also felt the sadness of being away from their home country. unfavorable feelings are noticeble in some of their responses. for example, mv, a female teacher, stated, “sometimes i might feel very excited and happy. other times i may feel less positive emotions like sadness or loneliness. sometimes i may just find myself feeling a bit down, or “blue.” on the other hand, two male teachers felt that they were quite nervous because of living in a new environment. the following statement, as expressed by ra represents the teachers’ nervous feeling. he stated, “i am also curious and nervous of what i deal with and the feeling of leaving my country a long time.” to sum up, the opportunity to study overseas has made teachers excited and at the same time challenged to improve themselves. more experiences, new cultural encounters, or academic life on campus were some of the reasons that they expressed with regard to the joyful feelings. more importantly, sadness or nervousness that occassionally came due to longingness to the home-country situation cannot surpass the happy moments that the teachers have experienced during their stay in the phillippines. b. teachers’ expectations of studying overseas the result of analysis of the teachers’ answers on the question on what they expect when studying overseas shows b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 53 that there are a lot of expectations, varying from “getting experiences” (7 cases) to “learning psychology in education” (1 case) (see table 2). in the three top responses, it is noticeable that the english teachers expected to get more experiences, to understand cross-cultural values, and to search for references. no. expectations of studying overseas no. of cases 1. getting experiences 7 2. understanding cross-cultural values 6 3. searching for references 6 4. learning the teaching process 5 5. learning new teaching techniques/strategies 5 6. interacting with new society 5 7. expanding knowledge 4 8. learning more about esp 4 9. facing new challenges 3 10. understanding new educational system 3 11. learning the language 2 12. learning the instructional materials 2 13. getting more motivated to learn 2 14. learning psychology in education 1 table 3: expectations of studying overseas the most frequent expectations expressed by the teachers were in the form of their intention to get experiences. the statement expressed by tk, a female teacher, can be an example. she said, “getting experience to study abroad is a celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 54 wonderful thing. and i hope i can apply my experiences in philippines to improve my teaching techniques to make it better and more beneficial.” being exposed in a full english interaction is what, ra, a male teacher, expected. he stated. “i hope to have the experience of being taught by overseas lecturers who cannot speak indonesian at all.” fi, a female teacher, shared her expectation to learn various things from her experiences. she elaborated her expectations as follows: i expect many things in the university overseas. in angeles university foundation (auf), i’ve got many things. i got new experiences from the lecturing, observations, fieldtrip, many big malls, etc. it was very nice. some teachers stated that they could understand crosscultural values by studying overseas. this is apparent from the response stated by yk, a female teacher that has been referred to earlier, who said, “i expected to dig many challenges in philippines which i didn’t get in our own country, and take as cross culture for our progress in education.” mv, a female teacher that has been mentioned earlier as well, added what is stated by yk. mv confirmed, “these study abroad programs will introduce me to various cultures and show the importance f shared living.” lw, a male teacher, expressed his expectations of getting various aspects of cultural exposure abroad. he stated, “i want to study as scheduled by state university of malang, (namely) linguistics and esp. but i also want to learn other things, such as culture, language, education system.” with regard to more academic orientation, the teachers intended to search for references (6 cases), learn the teaching process (5 cases), and learn new teaching strategies (5 cases). the teachers’ concern about searching for references is represented in the statement delivered by sc, a female teacher. b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 55 she said, “i hope i can find many references to complete my thesis.” another attractive side in terms of academic matters deals with the process of teaching in the university. ms, a male teacher stated, “i really expect to have the chance of studying specific english lessons directly from the foreigner experts.” meanwhile, the focus on strategies in delivering lessons is stated by en, a female teacher. she stated, “we expect to learn new methodologies or strategies that we can apply in our classroom later on.” other cases show that teachers expect to be able to interact with new society (5 cases), expand their knowledge (4 cases), learn more about english for specific purposes (4 cases), face new challenges (3 cases), and understand new educational system (3 cases). interestingly, only 2 cases show that the teachers had the expectations to learn the language. this may suggest that most of the teachers considered that learning the language (english) can be done while using the language for communication and for other purposes, namely the three top purposes. two other cases each of which was favored by two participants were learning the learning materials and getting more motivated to learn. the last case, learning psychology in education, was favored by one participant. stated briefly, various dimensions of cultural and academic orientation were behind most of the teachers’ expectations of studying in the university abroad. it is important to note that all of the teachers know for sure that they could learn things which are beneficial for their endeavour to finish their study at the graduate level and to promote their responsibilities to be teachers. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 56 c. teachers’ perspectives on professional development from studying overseas the responses to the question probing the english teachers’ perpectives on professional development following the completion of their study show that most of the english teachers viewed studying overseas as a means of “increasing professionalism” (12 cases), “advancing education” (8 cases), and “enriching experiences in running classes” (4 cases) (see table 3). surprisingly, only one case shows that studying overseas is important to support the success in following the teachers’ certification program. no. teachers’ perspectives no. of cases 1. increasing professionalism 12 2. advancing education 8 3. enriching experiences in running classes 4 4. supporting the success in following teachers’ certification program 1 table 4: perspectives on professional development from studying overseas more than half of the teachers considered that studying overseas a means to increase their professionalism. in this case, the term professionalism refers to the ideas to become professional in the job that one is doing. indicators of professional competence include, among others, having a good academic qualification, participating in education and training programs, and having reatively long teaching experience (sabilah, 1998: 45), ra, a male teacher, stated “getting experience overseas is very important to my profession development.” similarly, ms, another male teacher, said “education overseas is really important to my professional b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 57 development.” in a more elaborated way, dk, a female teacher, explained the benefit of studying overseas for her professional development. she stated: as an english as a foreign language teacher, the education overseas is very useful. it can improve my professional development. based on the experience that we got, we can learn and compare our education with the education overseas. so we can apply the good methodology or strategy to improve our professional development. in addition to seeing studying overseas as a good chance for improving their professionalism, teachers also thought that studying overseas helped them advance their education. this view is apparent in the statement expressed by lw, a male teacher who has been mentioned earlier, who stated “education overseas will enlarge my knowledge on education. going back to indonesia, i have more experiences in running classes and teaching my students.” while some teachers mentioned the importance of studying overseas in improving education in general, some other teachers focused more specifically on the effect of studying overseas on the improvement of their english education. as, a male teacher, stated “studying in english-speaking countries is such a great chance to improve our english since this country gives us great exposure.” some teachers also thought that the chance to study overseas could be a means for learning the lecturers’ various ways in presenting materials and in conducting the teaching and learning activities in the classroom. ls, a female teacher stated “the dedication of the teachers (university lecturers) is very high to their schools and they teach their students patiently. as a professional, i should also develop these things to help students face their problem patiently.” another female celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 58 teacher, en, stated, “the teachers (university lecturers) are dedicated to the work. they are professional in their field. they not only teach about the lesson, but also the value of life.” unlike the benefits of studying overseas that have been mentioned previously, one teacher thought about the benefit in relation to the apreciation or reward that they may gain in the long run. more specifically, it was about the academic credit that can be used in the process of promotion to a higher rank in the teaching career. accordingly, when a teacher is promoted to a higher rank, he or she will get a higher salary. the teacher will get even more salary if his or her status changes from a regular teacher to a certified teacher. this is evident in the statement said by rs, a female teacher. she stated, “it gives more credits relates to teachers’ points for certification because it (the program) is conducted internationally.” all in all, the result suggests that the english teachers valued their professional development in terms of their academic competence (improvement in knowledge and education) and professional competence (teaching the lesson and handling classes) over salary increase following the success in securing credits for passing teachers’ certification program. it is interesting to note that one of the teachers involved in this study provided a longer response with regard to the research questions. this male teacher, sy, wrote his response in a poem-like format with a title “a frog in a nutshell”. the “poem” tells about the big responsibilities that teachers have and the necessity to improve their capabilities by studying overseas. the complete version of the “poem” can be seen in the appendix. b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 59 discussion this article has explored the teachers’ feelings, expectations, and perspectives on professional development pertaining to their education in a university in the philippines. in general, it is apparent that all of the teachers viewed their experience in studying and living abroad in a favorable way, be it emotionally or academically. in terms of feelings, the teachers’ happiness is likely to bring positive influence on their language learning. in second language acquisition theory, emotional states are included as part of “learner differences” or “personality factors” (brown 1994: 134-162). examples of personality factors include motivation, attitude, and anxiety. the role of personality factors can be explained by referring to the the affective filter hypothesis (krashen 1982). according to this hypotesis, if the affective filter is strong, the chance to be less successful in language learning is high. whereas, if the affective filter is weak, the chance to be more successful in language learning is greater. with the happy feelings that teachers had in participating in the sandwich program to study overseas, their chance to be successful is higher because of the weak affective filter. in addition to their positive feelings, teachers also expected to achieve what they wanted from studying overseas. in fact, all of the teachers had expected things which are supportive of their academic and professional life. the high expectations are likely to encourage them to gain success, instead of creating pressure to succeed (walqui 2005). the expectations might also show the teachers’ motivation. there are two categories of motivation and each category has two kinds (brown 2001: 75). the first category is motivation based on the source and this includes intrinsic and extrinsic celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 60 motivation. the second category is motivation based on the purpose, that is integrative and instrumental motivation. the teachers’ motivation seems to be an intersection between internal and instrumental motivation. by internal motivation it means that the teachers have their intrapersonal intention to be successful; whereas by instrumental motivation it means that they wanted to succeed in studying overseas to support their graduate study and their professional duties as teachers when they have finished their graduate education. the responses that the teachers also showed that they have a degree of integrative motivation as they would like to get involved in the academic atmosphere of the university and cultural aspects overseas. the influence of motivation on the success of the language learning in educational setting may be explained according to the motivational hypotheses by gardner (1988 cited in schmidt et al. 1996: 13), namely “integrative motivation is positively associated with second language achievement” (the integrative motive hypothesis) and “cultural beliefs influence the development of the integrative motive and the degree to which integrativeness and achievement are related” (the cultural belief hypothesis). accordingly, the teachers’ expectations contributed to the possibility of success in achieving what they wanted to learn or gain from their participation in studying and living overseas. with regard of the last research question, it is evident that all of the teachers had optimistic views on their own pofessional development. they saw their opportunity to study overseas as a means to a better performance on their academic and professional duties, namely being graduate students as well as being teachers in their schools. the way teachers saw themselves is in line with what harmer (2007: 425) who stresses the importance of attending a kind of professional b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 61 training as a means of professional growh. in harmer’s words, “one way of developing as a teacher is to undertake more training.” he also adds, “what we choose to study depends entirely on our own interests and what we hope to achieve as a result of the course of study we undertake.” in fact, all of the teachers in the present study felt grateful of the chance to study at the angeles university foundation, the philippines, as the meat part of the sandwich graduate program they took at state university of malang, indonesia. conclusion the results of the study on the english teachers’ feelings and expectations with regard to their study overseas and their perspectives on professional development show that studying overseas contributed to professional development of the english teachers participating in the sandwich study program during their graduate education. the opportunity to study overseas was welcome cheerfully with various expectations favorable for the improvement of the teachers’ academic and professional competences. the study also suggests that the academic and cultural benefits of attending the sandwich study program overseas surpasses the reward of getting a piece of certificate for portfolios required in the teachers’ certification program. with these findings, showing the success of the policy of goverment of east java in selecting and sending english teachers of rsbi/sbi schools, it is recommended that the policy be maintained in the following years so that more english teachers will be able to improve their academic and professional competences by studying in a graduate level of education tailored with a sandwich study program. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 62 acknowledgements the author is grateful to prof. marthen pali, the former director of school graduate studies, and prof. siusana kweldju, the director of international relation, of state university of malang, who provided the opportunity for the author to accompany and supervise the english teachers during the departure to and arrival at angeles university foundation in luzon, the philippines. the author also thank all of the english teachers who participated in the sandwich program who completed the questionnaire for the research program reported in this article. it is important to note that the summary of the article was presented in teflin international conference held in bandung in 2010. references brown, h. d. principles of language learning and teaching. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall regents, 1994. briwn, h. d. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. white plains, ny: pearson education, 2001. cahyono, b.y. “the continuous improvement learning programme for english language teachers: an indonesian experience”. in practices and issues in english language teacher development. edited by m.e. vethamani & m.k. kabilan. petaling jaya, malaysia: sasbadi sdn. bhd, 2008a.: 61-78. cahyono, b.y. (2008b). “preparing teachers for postgraduate studies overseas: an indonesian experience”. a paper presented in the 6th asia tefl international conference. bali, 1-3 august., 2008b. cahyono, b.y. “options for professional development in english language teaching in indonesia”. in selected papers in english language teaching. jakarta: relo-iief, 2010. b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 63 harmer, j. the practice of english language teaching. essex, uk: pearson education, 2007. krashen, s. (1982). principles and practice in second language acquisition. oxford: pergamon. rsbi english s2 students. sandwich program state university of malang in angeles university foundation philippines, february 4-april 2. a report. malang: graduate program in english language teaching, state university of malang, 2010. sabilah, f. “ideas toward teachers certification: qualified portfolio as an assesment of competency test”. in human resources development in english language teaching. edited by m. sumardi, n. mahmud, & n. husna. jakarta: jurusan pendidikan bahasa inggris uin syarif hidayatullah, 2008: 4446. sarimaya, f. sertifikasi guru: apa, mengapa dan bagaimana? (teachers’ certification: what, why, and how). bandung: yrama widya, 2008. schmidt, r., boraie, d., & kassabgy, o. “foreign language motivation: internal structure and external connections”. in language learning motivation: pathways to the new century. edited by r. oxford. honolulu: university of hawai’i, second language teaching & curriculum centre, 1996: 9-70. undang-undang sisdiknas. undang-undang sisdiknas 2003: uu ri no. 20 th 2003. jakarta: sinar grafika, 2003. walqui, a. (2005). “who are our students?” in academic success for english language learners. edited by p. a. richard-amato & m. a. snow. white plains, ny: pearson education, 2005: 721. appendix: a teacher’s “poem” response celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 43-65 64 a frog in a nutshell teachers are the front edge of a spear of nation’s education system to pierce into the darkness of illiteracy, the thickness of vanity, the stiffness of injustice, and the thickness of inhumanity. in the shoulders of teachers, there lies a big invisible burden to eliminate and terminate any disorders happening in the country. to make a spear move fast and far, it needs great power; and to make it effective and efficient, it needs sharpening. support to empower teachers such as sending them to study abroad will hopefully gives them power and, as their experience, knowledge, as well as understanding teaching escalates, they will automatically become effective and efficient teachers. education is one of the essential ways out to better and brighter future of our nation. sending teachers overseas gives them opportunity to reflect what they have undergone to serve the nation; it enables them to see and understand how education in a certain country is managed. this kind of policy is truly powerful and demanding as a great change cannot just jut out of a sheer of commonplace policy. a great change in education service that impacts on considerable development of human resource can be achieved only by extraordinary action. ordinary people that do the same activities, same ways of thinking and insufficient knowledge can never create great changes. b. y. cahyono, indonesian efl teachers studying overseas 65 as part of the effort to improve the quality of human resource and as one of students who have opportunity to study abroad, i feel very happy because i have the opportunity to directly observe how instruction, education system and school management are done and i can, as well, absorb new things that are possible and worth doing in my home country. this is my biggest dream, as a teacher, that i have welldeveloped students with internationally accepted skill, the ability to communicate, read and write; not just a frog in a nutshell. guide for contributors oral test: a powerful tool for assessing students’ actual achievement in language learning muhamad ahsanu1 abstract: teaching and testing are inseparable elements in pedagogical world irrespective of the course a teacher teaches. phrased differently, there is no teaching without testing and vice versa. the results of testing should ideally motivate students in learning and give better perspectives to teachers on how to devise a better teaching-learning. accordingly, a teacher needs a sort of test that can sufficiently assess students’ actual achievement in learning, in their given courses. one of which is so-called “oral test”, the test that can give a feel of confidence that the test really measures what is purported to measure and provide relatively consistent results over the time (validity and reliability respectively), which, in the end can opaquely discriminate the proficiency levels amongst the students. thus, this paper is a humble attempt to juxtapose teaching and testing and to run a critical diagnosis on the fruitfulness of oral test, the test type worth trying. key words: oral test, assessment, learning achievement 1 muhamad asanu, s.pd., m.sc. <ahsanu.muham mad@yahoo.com> +62281625152 is a leturer at the study program of english language and letters, department of hunmanities, faculty of social and political sciences, of jenderal soedirman university, purwokerto. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 2 introduction there could be no science as we know it without measurement. testing, including all forms of language testing, is one form of measurement. in language testing, there are so many types of test and one of which is achievement test. the achievement tests (henning, 1987: 6) are used to measure the extent of learning in a prescribed content domain, often in accordance with explicitly stated objectives of learning program. in other words, it is to provide information about the effectiveness of program of instruction. according to heaton (1989: 5), both testing and teaching are so closely interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work in either field without being constantly concerned with the other. he further asserts that test may be constructed primarily as devices to reinforce learning and to motivate the student or primarily as a means of assessing the student’s performance in the language. in general, a language test seeks to find out what candidates can do with language and provides a focus for purposeful, everyday communication activities. a good communicative test of language should have a much more positive effect on learning and teaching and should generally result in improved learning habits. not the least the fact that testing student retention of fundamental/powerful concepts is a challenge for any discipline, but this can be especially difficult for a certain course like literature, linguistics, and humanities courses. the foregoing explanation gives partly an answer to the question: why test? besides being used as an evaluation for the purpose of selection or screening, heaton also mentions that the classroom test is concerned with evaluation for the purpose of enabling teachers to increase their own effectiveness by m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 3 making adjustments in their teaching to enable certain groups of students or individuals in the class to benefit more. in addition, a good classroom test will also help to locate the precise areas of difficulty encountered by the class or by the individual student. generally speaking, a reliable method of obtaining measurements of oral production skills is that which involves the students’ class teacher. in the words of hughes (2008: 134), to have an accurate measurement of oral ability is not easy. it takes considerable time and effort, including training, to obtain valid and reliable results. nevertheless, whereas a test is high stakes, the investment of such time and effort may be considered necessary. theoretical framework probably it entails truth that, as assumed by hingle and linington (2002: 354), many language teachers have been comfortable setting pencil-and-paper tests. years of experience marking written work have made them familiar with the level of written competence pupils need in order to succeed in a specific standard. conversely, teachers often feel much less secure when coping with tests which measures speaking. speaking test is perceived to be appropriate with indonesian learners as they are considered to come from an oral rather than a written culture, and so are likely to be more proficient in this mode of communication. the query is: how does one set a test which does not intimidate learners but encourage them to provide an accurate picture of their oral ability? according to madsen in hingle and linington (ibid.), “the testing of speaking is widely regarded as the most challenging of all language tests to prepare, administer and score”. the theorists suggest three celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 4 reasons why this type of test is so different from more conventional types of tests. first, the nature of speaking skill itself is difficult to define. because of this, it is not easy to establish criteria to evaluate a speaking test. for example, is “fluency” more important than “accuracy”? second, a set of difficulties emerges if one tries to treat an oral test like any other more conventional ones. in oral test the people involved are important, not the test, and what goes on between tester and testee may have an existence independent of the test instrument and still remain a valid response. a. teaching, learning and testing teaching sets up the practice games of language learning: the opportunities for learners to listen, think, take risks, set goals, and process feedback from the teacher and then recycle through the skills that they are trying to master. what about testing and teaching? like teaching and learning, both testing and teaching are so closely interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work in either field without being constantly concerned with the other (heaton 1989: 5). as a rational follow-up of teaching and learning, test may be constructed primarily as devices to reinforce learning and to motivate the students or primarily as a means of assessing the students’ performance in the language (ibid.). in this respect, the test that becomes the issue is the classroom test which is concerned with evaluation for the purpose of enabling teachers to increase their own effectiveness by making adjustments in their teaching to enable certain groups of students or individuals in the class to benefit more (ibid. 1989: 6). m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 5 b. assessment we might think that testing and assessing are synonymous terms, but they are not. tests are prepared administrative procedures that occur at identifiable times in a curriculum. assessment, on the other hand, is an ongoing process that encompasses a much wider domain. whenever a student responds to a question, offers a comment, or tries out a new word or structure, the teacher subconsciously makes an assessment of the students’ performance. in assessment, there are two mostly known types, namely formative and summative assessment. according to hughes (2008), assessment is formative when teachers use it to check on the progress of their students, to see how far they have mastered what they should have learned, and then use this information to modify their future teaching plans. summative assessment, on the other hand, is used at the end of the term, semester, or year in order to measure what has been achieved both by groups and individuals. c. achievement test tests are a subset of assessment that a teacher can make. brown (2001) defines test as a method of measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain. hence, a test measures performance, but the results imply the test-takers’ ability, or competence. it is common to find tests designed to tap into a test-taker’s knowledge about language. thus, a test is a method that measures performance and competence in a given domain. a well-constructed test is an instrument that provides an accurate measure of the test-taker’s ability within a particular domain. there is a number of test-types and one of celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 6 which, dealing with the issue presented in this paper, is classroom achievement test. in line with this, brown (2005) asserts that all language teachers are in the business of fostering achievement in the form of language learning. and the purpose of most language programs is to maximize the possibilities for students to achieve a high degree of language learning. this fact will lead language teachers to make achievement decisions. achievement decisions are decisions about the amount of learning that students have accomplished. such tests are typically administered at the end of the term, and such decisions make take the form of deciding which students will be advanced to the next level of study, determining which students should graduate, or simply for grading the students (cf. brown 2004; hughes 2003). thus, achievement tests should be designed with very specific reference to a particular course. this means that the achievement tests will be directly based on course objectives and will therefore be criterion-referenced. a good achievement test can tell teachers a great deal about their students’ achievement and about the adequacy of the course. achievement test can be executed in many different ways and one of which is via oral test or oral presentation. d. oral test there are five basic types of speaking/oral test. they include imitative, intensive, responsive, interactive and extensive. brown (2004) laments that extensive oral production task includes speeches, oral presentations, and story-telling, during which the opportunity for oral interaction from listeners is either highly limited (perhaps to nonverbal responses) or m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 7 ruled out altogether (brown ibid.) further affirms that in the academic and professional arenas it would not be uncommon to be called on to present a report, a paper, a marketing plan, a sales idea, a design of a new product, or a method. a summary of oral assessment techniques would therefore be incomplete without some consideration of extensive speaking tasks. once again the rules for effective assessment must be invoked: (a) specify the criterion, (b) set appropriate tasks, (c) elicit optimal output, and (d) establish practical, reliable scoring procedures. and once again scoring is the key assessment challenge. for oral presentations, a checklist or grid is a common means of scoring or evaluation. holistic scores are tempting to use for their apparent practicality, but they may obscure the variability of performance across several subcategories, especially the two major components of content and delivery. following is an example of a checklist for a prepared oral presentation at the intermediate or advanced level of english (ibid.). e. oral presentation checklist evaluation of oral presentation assign a number to teach box according to your assessment of the various aspects of the speaker’s presentation and performance. 4 excellent 3 good 2 fair 1 poor celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 8 content: � the purpose or the objective of the presentation was accomplished. � the introduction was lively and got my attention � the main idea or point was clearly stated toward the beginning. � the supporting points were • clearly expressed • supported well by facts, argument � the conclusion restated the main idea or purpose. delivery: � the speaker used gestures and body language well. � the speaker maintained eye contact with the audience. � the speaker’s language was natural and fluent. � the speaker’s volume of speech was appropriate. � the speaker’s rate of speech was appropriate. � the speaker’s pronunciation was clear and comprehensible. � the speaker’s grammar was correct and didn’t prevent understanding. � the speaker used visual aids, handouts, etc., effectively. � the speaker showed enthusiasm and interest. � (if appropriate) the speaker responded to audience questions well. such a checklist is reasonably practical. its reliability can vary if clear standards for scoring are not maintained. its authenticity can be supported in that all of the items on the list contribute to an effective presentation. the washback effect of such a checklist will be enhanced by written comments from the teacher, a conference with the teacher, peer evaluations using the same form, and self-assessment. m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 9 in the perspective of harris (1969), there is no language skill which is so difficult to assess with precision as speaking ability. like writing, speaking is a complex skill requiring the simultaneous—use of a number of different abilities which often develop at different rates. there are at least four components that are generally recognized in analyses of speech process: pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. harris (ibid.) further underlies that when we refer to a student’s skill in speaking a second language, our fundamental concern is with his ability to communicate informally on everyday subjects with sufficient ease and fluency to hold the attention of his listener. thus in the test of speaking ability we are primarily concerned with the student’s control of the signaling systems of english—his pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary—and not with the idea content or formal organization of the message he conveys. the emerging question would probably be about how ‘powerful’ the oral test is in terms of its practicality in designing, implementing and scoring. the standard textbooks tend to conform that it is easy in the first two phases yet highly ‘subjective’ in the second last part. subjectivity in scoring will in a nutshell be easily referred to as a ‘weak’ tool for assessing student’s actual learning. this can be either true or false. however, as language teachers who teach and test language have to be aware that in fact all kinds of evaluating tools can never identify, generate and represent an accurate measure of 100% of student’s actual learning performance or language ability. there is no flawless testing. there is always blind-spot in every measure. irrespective of debatable strengths and weaknesses, oral test can serve as a practical and ‘powerful’ tool for measuring student’s actual learning achievement. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 10 discussion the discussion here is principally on the ground of the writer’s actual experience in teaching some courses like speaking, writing, grammar, english culture, sla, and language testing. however, the explanatory data are not resulted from ‘field’ research but generated from a continuous reflection and tinkering as a language teacher. doing reflections has provided the ‘state-of-the-art’ perspectives of teaching and learning processes, things the writer has done well and things the writer needs to change, revise and improve. thus, let’s have this discussion as though the writer was reiterating an old story. having tried many kinds of test like matching test, transformation tests, picture-cued tests, multiple choice, essay and the like, the writer always feels that there is something missing in the test, a sort of ‘unconscious doubt’ that my tests have not really measured what the tests were supposed to measure. this uneasiness became more overt when it came to scoring the test results. let’s take, for instance, the case of multiple choice items. thomas (2011), who had done one study on this, found this kind of test to be problematic. first, a cumulative final exam like this one teacher would have thousands of questions and possible answers. students are intimidated by a test that has approximately the same number of pages as their textbooks, and teachers are intimidated by the prospect of making and grading such a test. secondly, tests of this type encourage the “3 r's”—read, remember, regurgitate (and then forget). retention of these concepts simply does not occur with such a testing format. the writer has never been so sure that what students had chosen strongly represented their very understanding of a given course. did they answer it because they really knew the m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 11 answer, or did they answer it correctly because they had the right guess? would it be possible for those who haven’t been exposed to previous learning at all could have the possibility to get the right answers when doing it with multiple choices? another irritating question perhaps would be, “did language teachers, with no exception, design a multiple choice test just because they were very concerned with the ‘practicality’ in scoring part for he/she was unlucky to teach a big class with more or less 50 to 100 students therefore neglecting the critical moment in the selection of test items? the worst of all, when the tests items were not carefully opted based upon the syllabuses or objectives of the course or on what the teacher was supposed to teach and the students were supposed to learn, whereas the students did smart guesses, the test didn’t mean anything either for the students, the teachers or the pedagogical process itself. this sort of test cannot be relied on. if this sounds overexaggerated, let us put it away. however, if that once happened to us especially when we set out our first teaching practice, let us take a ‘moment of silence’ how the test meant to us, as a teacher, and to students, as learners. certainly, flawed testing practice means a lot: unprofessional. of no doubt, these are not intended to disregard the virtues and values of multiple choice test. as long as it is very carefully designed, multiple choices probably can bring about a desired testing result. this brings us to the second option—an essay test. what is your perception about essay test? as the name implies, essay test is “easy” to make yet hard to grade. jonathan thomas (2011) firmly believes that a literature/humanities class should be writing intensive, and a test like this one definitely satisfies that criteria. but there are problems here, too. such a test may be difficult to complete in two hours. if a choice of celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 12 writing prompts is offered, several students may opt to write on the same question, thereby limiting the number of fundamental/powerful concepts addressed in the class. the writer is 100% certain that all of language teachers had an experience in conducting an essay test. many of them very probably favor or disfavor of it due to one of these reasons, which is being very easy to make and being very tiresome to score respectively. probably, there are few of language teachers who are very idealistic in composing an essay test, for instance, to purely generate students’ comprehensive ability and therefore design a comprehensive test items covering the details of the given domain. at the same time the teachers become passionate teachers who are willing to go a miles away (time and energy) to do a scoring by looking at the details of the answer, the logic of the answers, the smoothness of the sentence structure, etc., and finally make a final judgment that student x deserves an a and student y deserves a b. the language teachers might possess a delicate idea when doing the scoring that dragged them to a social judgment postulating that well even though the answer does not mean anything, not really answering the question, but it is fine to reward the student with a certain score for his/her effort in making ‘good and long’ handwriting. then, they were scoring the handwriting, not the answer. making unwise wisdom is never wise. if the language teachers were taken to the church and asked to confess honestly on what they have done in their testing using essay, they would very likely to admit one of the following: first, the writer designed the test following the whole procedures and scored the test results very attentively (the m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 13 writer did it as a passion of being a teacher, paid or unpaid that is not a big deal as my job is to serve and to educate). second, the writer designed the test seriously and carefully, but due to certain reasons he did the scoring halfheartedly (he just wanted to finish it at once as he didn’t want to do something hard that he was not paid for) third, as the writer had not ample time or he was busy completing his academic-related responsibilities, the writer did not really look into the details of what essential points to involve in the questions. yet, he was very concerned with the scoring and he had to see as well other factors during the class like students’ activeness, assignment, and attendance. it means that he scored the students seriously especially based on the essay test. finally, the writer thought that he knew who his students were, who were and who were not active in the class. the tests were just complementary aspects. he made the essay test as the way he presumed the students could answer and corrected the test when had enough time or when he deemed he had to. there is no teacher who wants to sacrifice his/her students. in short, it can be inferred that both multiple choice and essay tests do not really promise the language teachers a haven of comfort in being both a teacher and a tester. if there are teachers who feel great doing the testing as reflected above, perhaps they are having a made-up ambience that does not last constantly. apart from these, some language teachers might propose the third option, which is by merging the two: partly multiple and partly essay. this sounds great and better yet very tricky in practice. the underlying assumption is perhaps acceptable in which the two will complete each other in the sense that the celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 14 weakness of each is mended by strength of the other. bear in mind that the language teachers who prefer to marry these two run the risk of having imbalance in terms of the proportion of the test items, yet very often overlapping to one another (the items are taken randomly, the proportion is lessened, and the multiple choice outnumbered the essay, even some language teachers might take one or two essay questions used just to complement the multiple choice). these do not stop there as the scoring will be more uncertain in terms of the value for each item particularly essay items. these models of tests are said to lack of so-called ‘validity and reliability’ in their loose sense. what about making a paper that has to be submitted on examination day? it sounds an ‘academic’ task. however, has the teacher or lecturer asked of how the students have made the paper, whether they really make it themselves, where they got the references, how much they really understood the contents, and the like. teachers should be alert at least on two queries: 1) how was the paper made? and 2) how much the student know about what they put on the paper? why these two? because today is the electronic era in which all sources can be found available in the internet. therefore, this era is also learnt as “copy and paste” era. students can access e-books, articles, theses, book reviews, etc. easily with similar topics given by their teacher or lecturer. the writer holds a belief that the essence of tasking a paper to students is to see how far students can formulate and arrange his understanding in a systematically arranged paper. so, how to come to grips with the issue of ideal and practical testing in which the aspects of validity and reliability are debatably negotiable? assuredly, the answer is oral test. it is a test in which the students can express their ideas, understanding, and m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 15 perception, argument, thought verbally. it is a test, regardless of what the subject is, that can be designed relatively easily (i.e. giving students some course-related topics to prepare in a paper or slides, just in their memory), practically implemented (asking the students to present orally the given topics, the course materials right on the spot and asking them to explain some statements or questions or to verify some contrasting /conflicting ideas opaquely), and effectively scoring their very performance reflecting their competence (of their respective course). in scoring students’ oral test performance, the language teachers are no longer haunted by uncertainty as to whether the answers really represent the students’ actual understanding and knowledge as the teachers can directly observe the students’ linguistic behavior (eye contact, mimicry, body language, etc.), logical of reasoning, and depth of understanding (in relation to content knowledge), use of media (visual aids, handouts, etc.), and students’ linguistic performance (fluency, accuracy, intonation, pronunciation, and vocabulary) in uttering their answers, ideas and feedback. with the rating scale at hands, language teachers can easily put a score on every item tested. how about the test efficiency? oral testing can be claimed to be more efficient than other types of test in the sense that language teachers can directly score the students, while other test types language teaches have to look at the test sheets one by one which might take extra time at home. with other test types, language teachers work on the test twice, even three times or more for very often uncertainty shadows the teachers’ mind on what actual score a student should get. in oral test, language teachers might seemingly take much time to test. that is definitely true yet we do not bring the job back home as both testing and scoring are enacted simultaneously. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 16 what about its validity and reliability? it is valid as the students are tested what they have learnt previously and they are given ample time to prepare before the oral tests. in addition, students are also required to make a ‘small’ paper as per given topic. in other words, all questions and materials to be orally presented have been well informed in advance so they students make themselves well prepared. the test scores are reliable in the sense that all questions and materials have been ‘pre-tested’ in the class with the students and the scores are also reliable since the scores are not provided on a random basis but with a certain rating scale that has been informed to the students earlier. what about the subjectivity of the scoring as it is scored by one person? it is true that more scores will minimize the subjectivity, yet it does not mean that a single rater cannot have an object score. this rests on the answer of the question: are you sure that you are a good teacher of english who knows english well who can write and speak the language correctly and accurately which sound english? if the answer is yes that there is no doubt that you can give an objective score. it is always better to have one good malang apple than a basket of rotten washington apples. naturally, there are problems with this format. the written part of the exam (the paper) simply has to be completed at home, and students will grumble about having to speak in front of the class. but the oral part can be factored into the exam grade using a speaking rubric, and the presentation still tests a student's ability to synthesize and analyze information in a finite amount of time. more importantly, it fosters a true knowledge and retention of the subject matter that does not fade as soon as the pen cools. m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 17 with a full-fledged understanding of the ideas of how to conduct oral test and of the advantages resulted from running the test, language teachers can have a sound result of language assessment. language teachers can also do formative and summative assessment using oral test set formally based on a fixed schedule or informally on random basis. by advocating oral test, language teachers can truly perform classroom achievement test since they can easily diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of the students as the students can directly expose what they believe they can and cannot do without hesitation. the oral test, therefore, enables language teachers to identify how much their students have learnt their respective course and what they lack of so that the teachers can have a strong basis on what to improve in their future teaching and learning process. best of all, oral test can help teachers in sketching the real ability of their students so that they can console and guide their students accordingly. while at the same time oral test can give language teachers direct input on their teaching styles, teaching methodologies, teaching strategies, teaching materials, teaching aids and teaching commitment to achieving the success of students’ learning. conclusion like teaching, testing can be done in many varied ways. multiple choices, essay and other forms are not something to leave and to forget but something to review and to renew on the way how it should be held. oral testing as a part of language assessment is another kind that is worth practicing. each of them has advantages and disadvantages. however, to excel in performing it we need to focus on the good points and to be celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 1-19 18 aware of its drawbacks so we are alert on which track to go through. the end does not mean the last, yet it is the angle to see where to start. succinctly, in the conclusion we are not closing but opening possibilities or new ways in doing things: teaching and testing. let us see what goes well and do something extra to keep it well. too, see what does not go in tandem with our teaching blue prints and have a plan to do better things to make them better. bear in mind that both teaching and testing are intertwined in which one cannot stand still without the other. the niche of the issue of language teaching, language learning, and language testing is that language learners should be ensured that they are not solely good at acquiring linguistic competence but more importantly they are solemnly great at performing their communicative competence which can be done through oral testing. references brown, j. d. testing in language program: a comprehensive guide to english language assessment. singapore: mcgrawhill, inc., 2005. brown, h.d. language assessment: principles and classroom practices. new york: pearson education, inc., 2004. harris, d. p. testing english as a second language. new york: mcgrawhill book company, 1969. heaton, j. b. writing english language test: longman handbooks for language teachers. london: longman inc., 1989. henning, g. a guide to language testing: development, evaluation, research. boston: heinle & heinle publishers., 1987. hingle, i. and linington, v. “english proficiency test: the oral component of a primary school”. in richards, j.c. and m. asanu, oral test:a powerful tool for assessing language learning 19 renandya, w.a. (eds.). methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current practice. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2002. hughes, a. testing for language teachers, 2nd ed. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2008. jonathan thomas, j. after the test: an oral examination of fun damental/powerful concepts, 2001. in www.surry.edu/ about/critical_ thinking/thomas_afterthetest.pdf, retrieved 7 december 2012. muhamad ahsanu0f untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in onlinebased english learning class at universitas fajar andi febriana tamrin english literature department, faculty of economic and social sciences, fajar university, makassar, indonesia email: andifebriana90@unifa.ac.id received: 22-10-2019 accepted: 11-11-2019 published: 7-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in onlinebased english learning class at universitas fajar 1 andi febriana tamrin 1 andifebriana90@gmail.com 1 department of english literature, faculty of economics and social sciences, universitas fajar, makassar, indonesia abstract: online-based learning or lecture is deemed as a new learning methodology among academics in this present era. this method involves a learning process in which lecturers and students could undergo lectures or courses without being present in the classroom. one of the online applications that supports this method is edmodo. this study aims to obtain data about the perception of students regarding the use of edmodo in english language classes at universitas fajar. the method used in this study is descriptive study. the result showed that although it has drawbacks, edmodo is considered as one of the most effective tools in supporting the learning process. key words: edmodo, english class, perception abstrak: pembelajaran online atau perkuliahan secara daring dapat diasumsikan sebagai sebuah paradigma baru yang berada di kalangan akademisi. metode ini berupa proses pembelajaran yang dalam proses belajar mengajar (pbm) dimana dosen dan mahasiswa dapat melakukan perkuliahan tanpa harus duduk di ruang yang untuk melakukan aktivitas kelas. salah satu aplikasi yang mendukung kegiatan ini edmodo. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan data mengenai persepsi mahasiswa mengenai penggunaan edmodo dalam proses belajar di kelas bahasa inggris di universitas fajar. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif presentase. hasil penelitian menujukkan bahwa edmodo dianggap sebagai salah satu media pendukung pembelajaran yang efektif bagi mahasiswa. tamrin, a. f., students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in online 303 based english learning class at universitas fajar https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj edmodo, kelas bahasa inggris, persepsi :kunci kata meski demikian, pembelajaran dengan menggunakan metode ini masih ada kendala dalam hal pengoperasiannya bagi mahasiswa. the medium of learning serves as a supportive tool to assist learning process that could be accessed and used by teachers, and online media has been increasingly used in schools and introduction there are three important factors that must be considered in planning a learning process, namely; learning condition, method and result. out of these, method of learning is the one that could be modified by the lecturer or teacher. in method of learning, lecturers could implement many methods to achieve learning outcomes in accordance with the learning conditions. method and medium of learning are the two most prominent components in a learning process as they serve as the primary tool in pedagogical practices. in terms of role, they both have interrelated function in learning. the use of technology in the learning process encourages the lecturers to create a variety of learning media or medium to apply in their learning process. the idea of using animation to explain complicated case for students to learn and use video conference in classroom as part of a learning process is very interesting for learning practitioners. it is also because there is progress in the field of information technology (it) that created a new concept in learning process, which is called e-learning. online study or e-learning is an internet-based learning method that connects teachers and students who are in different places. the use of elearning terminology refers to all training or educational activities that implemented electronic media or information technology in the learning process. bentley, y., habte, s., and anjali shegunshi. (2012). design and evaluation of student-focused elearning. the electronic journal of elearning, volume 10 issue i, 2012, page 1-12 from http://www.ejel.org/volume10/issue1 suggested that online study is a modern learning method that connects lecturers and students who are in different places. this phenomenon gains considerable attention in the field of education and training and sparks the existence of e-learning method. 304 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 302 315 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj one of the courses using this application is english learning and is often deemed highly difficult for students. attracting students’ interest in english classes becomes one of the greatest challenges because teachers often face issues such as monotonous teaching style and lack of learning resources. hence, studying about online-based learning is necessary to explore the perception of learners on its implementation. with the use of edmodo, students could interact with their peers and teachers actively in any time and place. moreover, they could access course materials that are shared through this application, including texts, pictures, sound, data, and video. in addition, it also has some features for creating class group, quiz, poll, and gradebook. in fact, it is a school-based application with social media characteristics, which are supported by a learning management system. the lms which is adjusted with virtual learning need, could give extensive benefits to its users (balasubramani, kandappan & jaykumar , leena n.k. (2014). student preference towards the use of edmodo as a learning platform to create responsible learning environment. proceeding, asia euro conference. selangor: school of hospitality, tourism and culinary arts.. the features that are usually included in lms are video conference and discussion forum. universities nowadays. on of the online applications that is used to support the learning process is edmodo, a learning application that was developed by jeff o’hara and nick borg in 2008 and could be accessed freely. in addition to its easy and flexible use, this application could make learning become more interesting. online learning, e-learning, or virtual learning is a learning approach that uses internet connections as a basis for learning interaction media. kucirkova, et al (2012) explains that online learning is a learning process where teachers and students not only sit in one place simultaneously but use internet connection-based technology. internetbased means that in online learning students and lecturers rely on internet-based technology as a medium of interaction and the provision of literature review a. online learning tamrin, a. f., students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in online 305 based english learning class at universitas fajar https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teaching materials. in conclusion, online learning is a learning process that uses internet technology media to interact in the learning process. nowadays the development of e-learning in the indonesia education is rapidly evolving. there are several variations of e-learning, ranging from power point in the classroom up the lms that is developed by a university. sindu in basori (2013) states that learning atmosphere could accommodate students in displaying their roles actively to do planning and finding materials for their lesson by themselves. b. edmodo balasubramani & jaykumar (2014) states that edmodo is defined as a free and secure social networking-based learning that makes it easy for teachers to create and manage virtual classes, so students can connect with classmates and instructors where and whenever they are. edmodo was created using a concept similar to facebook, where the purpose of making it is specifically for the field of education that can support the learning process online. this application not only connects teachers and students but also parents can monitor if they have an account. edmodo is a social network-based learning media in supporting the learning process in virtual classrooms. edmodo provides facilities for sharing material, communicating with friends and teachers and doing assignments online that can be used anytime and anywhere. according to sanaky (2013), edmodo has several purposes, it can be seen as: a. improving the quality of student learning b. changing the culture of teaching c. changing student learning styles d. expanding learning opportunities for students e. developing and expanding new products and services. integrating social network, such as edmodo in the teaching and learning process gives some pedagogical benefits. this is a tool to improve learning because it allows students to give comments, send notes, links, files, warnings, tasks, warnings, events and messages directly to the teacher. looi & yusop (2011) states that edmodo is for students who are 306 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 302 315 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj weak and introverted, because they can use the platform to interact and communicate with their teachers. the teacher also could clarify their doubts in the subjects studied through the platform. this helps to reduce the inconvenience of having to ask in front of a physical audience. apart from that, they add that edmodo provides a motivating learning atmosphere by making it possible for teachers to reward students who perform well in quizzes and assignments with badges. more importantly, unlike another social networking site such as twitter and facebook, edmodo provides students with a taste community and involvement in their learning with excellent security. scott (2012) states that edmodo can be a useful technology for teachers and students as edmodo is made for free, and can be accessed anytime and anywhere from a computer or a device with an internet connection. it also offers free applications for apple and android devices. in addition, through edmodo, individuals can collaborate on activities or share contents. this facilitate classroom management by offering useful tools for posting jobs, set quizzes, organize groups, manage turn-ins and grade assessments, update calendar, create an upload library and monitoring discussion. c. students’ perception students’ perception is the perspective or opinion of students about a matter related to the learning process for example; learning process, teaching material, students’ needs and so on. struyven (2005) explain that students’ perceptions are all concepts used to identify students’ ideas, beliefs, opinions, images, and preferences about their educational context and educational activities. based on this explanation, it can be concluded that student perception is a perspective that contains information about education and education activities that should be carried out by teachers based on their perception. students’ perceptions cannot be justified by teachers or policy makers but must be considered, because they can be used as information to develop the quality of education. positive teacher-student relationship is known to facilitate conducive classroom climate that will enhance students’ learning and interaction in the classroom. a good, positive classroom environment is important because this situation provides the students’ opportunities to feel capable, worthy, and confident. with these feelings, the students would feel brave to share, express opinions, ask questions, convey difficulties, and to work tamrin, a. f., students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in online 307 based english learning class at universitas fajar https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj without pressure. this condition is supported by mazer (2012, p. 99 as cited in da luz, 2015) who states that students who experience heightened emotional interest are more energized, excited, and emotionally engaged by the material given in the classroom. nielson & lorber (2009) also note that exposure towards positive emotional stimuli will make the students able to recall newly learned information better than those who are not given any stimuli. method this study used descriptive method. sugiyono (2013) suggested that descriptive method is a method of analyzing data used to respond and describe particular problem objectively. this method was selected as it assisted the researcher to obtain and describe the study finding. this study also used descriptive method for analysis technique, and it was used to gain data about learners’ perception towards the use of online-based learning and edmodo in english classes at universitas fajar. the data were analyzed by selecting, sorting out, and grouping the available data, followed by summarizing and presenting them in the form of narrative. the data were presented in the form of brief description and tables using statistic descriptive and percentage-based analysis. the respondents of this research are the students who programmed english. they come from different departments, namely accounting (bachelor degree), accounting (diploma 3), architecture and management. the total of them are 100. the participants were chosen because they could provide the best information and they were taught by using edmodo in the english class. the process of collecting data is based on the research instruments that have been made by the researcher. the instrument is a questionnaire for the respondents to fill in. results based on the questionnaire administered to students of accounting (bachelor degree), accounting (diploma 3), architecture, and management who enrolled in general english course, who totaled were all 308 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 302 315 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj adjusted with the number of samples. the result revealed that the majority of students had positive perception on the use of edmodo during the learning process. their detailed responses are presented in the table below: table 1: the role of edmodo in changing students’ learning style the use of edmodo as supportive learning medium scale the highestscale percent age avera ge catego ry vda d n a ha the use of edmodo changes learning style 2 0 8 63 27 63% 57% agree the use of edmodo eases tasks submission 0 0 5 46 49 49% highly agree the use of edmodo reduces the cost burden in paper assignment 0 1 2 21 76 76% highly agree the use of edmodo enhances technological skill 0 1 7 45 47 47% highly agree the use of edmodo increase learners’ participation 0 1 23 55 25 51% agree the table above showed that 63% of the students agreed that this learning application changed their learning style positively. meanwhile, from 48% to 76% of the participants revealed that it assisted them to submit the assignment easily and to save some of their money. tamrin, a. f., students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in online 309 based english learning class at universitas fajar https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj about 47% students said that the application enhanced their technology skills, and 51% of them showed that it allowed them to become more active. thus, this can be concluded that students truly supported the use of edmodo during their learning process. the second table below displays participants’ responses on the role and the use of edmodo when used during the learning process. this includes its convenience, communication between lecturers and students, and course materials delivery. table 2: students’ responses towards the role and performance of edmodo in english course the use of edmodo as supportive learning medium scale the highe st-scale perce ntage ave rage categ ory vda d n a ha edmodo-based method is better than conventional method 2 0 8 63 27 63% 57 % agree edmodo eases communication between lecturer and students 0 0 5 46 49 49% highly agree course materials could be directly accessed by students 0 1 2 21 76 76% highly agree it is easy to use 0 0 5 50 45 50% agree social-media based learning is more efficient 0 2 12 55 31 55% agree materials delivery through edmodo is more efficient 0 0 13 50 37 50% agree the above table shows that 76% of participants viewed that the course materials could be received directly through this application while 49% of them pointed out that they can communicate with their lecturers 310 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 302 315 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj easily. the later finding was surprisingly small if it is compared to the expected ease they should have when communicating with their lecturers. the table also reveals that 2 students responded “highly disagree” related to the statement that edmodo-based learning is better than conventional learning method. however, this factor is supposedly caused by the lack of adjustment on the use of the application. on the positive note, the average of 57% of students agreed with the positive role and use of edmodo during learning process. discussions the tables above depict information and data about the perception of students on the use of edmodo in online-based english learning. it is evident that its use has both positive and negative reaction as students have their unique perceptions towards its implementation. the results of the questionnaire show that the majority of the participants support its use as they show “agreement” in 6 out of the total 11 questions and “great agreement” in 5 out of 11 questions. this finding shows that students’ perception on the use of onlinebased learning and edmodo application could be summarized as (1) onlinebased learning gives tremendous benefits and convenience for students, especially those who have low-level attendance (2) the use of edmodo during lectures has good acceptance from learners as they no longer have to take a lot of notes during lectures and could focus more on lecturers’ explanation since the course materials could be accessed through the application. in addition, it assists them to be more discipline in completing their tasks as the system required them to complete and submit assignments before the due date. moreover, the application of edmodo in english class makes the students feel encouraged. edmodo has quiz section which the lecturer could use to test the students’ knowledge. the appearance of it also supports edmodo in educated students. it has easy language to understand, even students who are slow could easily catch up. edmodo has its own quiz facility which is presented in english, so that it makes students actively learning english to answer the questions. tamrin, a. f., students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in online 311 based english learning class at universitas fajar https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this research also found out that teaching english by using edmodo as the media is a very useful tool. through edmodo, the lecturer could post the instruction and material for the class. the efficiency of it also interest and coaxed the students to learn more. this statement also supported by the finding of whiterspoon, a. (2011). edmodo: a learning management system. retrieved may, 2, 2019, from http://www.poweredwithtechnology.com. , he found out that edmodo is a great cms tool for supporting the teachers to manage their online classes. it also beneficial for them in the use of time. in terms of providing material for english class, the students could ask more question on the wall if they need more. it is also very helpful for them because the lecturer could maintain the students’ learning. by using edmodo, the lecturer could control and observe them during learning in the classroom. the lecturer is also given advantages by edmodo. the lecturer could create the sustainable learning even though she is not present in front of the students. in the term of communication and interaction for students and lecturers, they could build a better relation. in the efl teaching and learning process, the roles of the lecturer is prominent for the students’ performance. this is where edmodo provide a golden opportunity for both parties, lecturer and student, to interact more. the facilities include real time chat and bulletin board or wall to communicate. for students, they informed that they could learn easily and they could feel wonderful if they have their lecturer’s guide. as for reading subject, the students can learn more effectively and efficiently. they could freely ask questions that related to their efl material which have been posted by the lecturer. based on the finding of this research, this statement has been proven. as much as 87 out of 100 students find it that materials for the subject, especially reading, is delivered more efficiently through edmodo consequently, the students are more enthusiastic in learning english. reading activity in english class gets more benefit by using edmodo as learning media. by posting the reading materials for students to learn, the lecturer could give them more than one material to do. that is why it is 312 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 302 315 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj very efficient and effective. for a reading task, the students could easily access their account from laptops, computers and smartphones. thus, by applying edmodo in english class, it is also applying a blended-learning approach, which is lecturing and learning that could be done in the classroom or even out of the classroom all at one time. edmodo application is also suitable for teaching and learning. as a learning media based on networking, edmodo provides a meaningful learning environment to support, strengthen and enhance the learning of efl. using edmodo, is more beneficial for students. the reasons are: edmodo provides virtual learning and manages students’ boredom of learning. this statement is in line with the finding of this research. as many as 63 percent of the students agreed that e-learning using edmodo is better than the conventional method of learning with the whiteboard. it means that edmodo encouraged students to learn more by having it integrated to their english lesson. thus, by using edmodo, the students could learn a reading subject more effectively and efficiently. from this research, it also found out that there is a transparency of the students’ result of study. because edmodo provides lecturers two media for giving recognized achievement such as grades and badges. with edmodo, results of students’ work could be seen directly by the students. this method is useful in increasing their motivation in online classes. the badge that students receive has a function to appreciate the performance of the students. in return, the students could watch the progress of their work, on whether the lecturers have been assessing their work or not. it could be seen from the status of their worksheet. this is in line with the result of the study., where most of the students agree (50%) that edmodo is easy for them to use and it is easy for them to see their learning progress for the english class. robertson, c. (2008). integrating of moodle management system (cms) into an efl writing class. the jalt call journal, 4(1), 53-59. retrieved june 7, 2019, from http://journal.jaltcall.org/articels/4_1_robertson.pdf (2008) believed, that this kind of e-learning or implementation of technology for learning has positive effects for efl courses. in this research, it is found that technology has supported many parts of efl activities, such as the distribution of coursework, the implementation of lesson, the communication and tamrin, a. f., students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in online 313 based english learning class at universitas fajar https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interaction of the lecturer and students, and the most important is to help in creating students center learning experience. edmodo’saccessibility is found to be convenient and suitable for students. it is because edmodo is part of e-learning site, so it could access itanytime from anywhere. thus, the students have positive attitudes or responses toward this ability. they could learn and consult with the lecturer even though they are not in the same place. it is also convenient because it is a non-stop application that is available for 24 hours to accesses. this statement is supported by the result of the research by fujimoto (2012), where he found that edmodo as a free application for learning, allowed the users, in this case the students to access any material, videos and audios whenever the students need or want them. higher education under the junior lecturer grant. acknowledgement this paper was fully funded by the ministry of research, technology, and in efl learning and teaching, using edmodo as media is proven useful and helpful. the finding of this research showed that edmodo is a suitable medium for learning english. students are found to have a better learning style as a result of their more-practical learning. this is made possible through students who are being more disciplined when completing assignments through edmodo. thus far, edmodo is found to be a great assistance for those who could not attend lectures directly. nevertheless, as edmodo is just recently applied, lecturers and students should be aware for some obstacles that may arise or still exist. conclusion balasubramani, kandappan & jaykumar , leena n.k. (2014). student preference towards the use of edmodo as a learning platform to create responsible learning environment. proceeding, asia euro conference. selangor: school of hospitality, tourism and culinary arts. references 314 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 302 315 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj robertson, c. (2008). integrating of moodle management system (cms) into an efl writing class. the jalt call journal, 4(1), 53-59. retrieved june 7, 2019, from http://journal.jaltcall.org/articels/4_1_robertson.pdf nielson, k.a. and lorber, w. (2009). enhanced post-learning memory consolidation is influenced by arousal predisposition and emotion regulation but not by stimulus valence or arousal. neurobiology of learning and memory. vol. 92, no. 1, pp 70 – 79. bentley, y., habte, s., and anjali shegunshi. (2012). design and evaluation of student-focused elearning. the electronic journal of elearning, volume 10 issue i, 2012, page 1-12 from http://www.ejel.org/volume10/issue1 da luz, fredson soares dos reis. (2015). the relationship between teachers and students in the classroom: communicative language teaching approach and cooperative learning strategy to improve learning. in bsu master’s theses and projects. item 22. http://vc.bridgew.edu/theses/22. fujimoto, c. (2012). perceptions of mobile language learning in asutralia: how ready are learners to study on the move? the jalt call journal, 8(3), 165-195. retrieved june 20, 2019, from http://journal.jaltcall.org/articles/8_3_fujimoto.pdf kucirkova, l., petr, k., and hana, v.v. (2012). study result and questionnaire survey of students in the lesson of business english e-learning course in comparison with face-to-face teaching. journal on efficiency and responsibility in education and science, volume 5 no. 3 page 173-184 from https://www.eriesjournal.com/index.php/eries/article/view/63 looi, c. y. and yusop, f.d. (2011). potential use of social networking tool to assist reading comprehension: implications for practice and future research. jurnal pendidikan, 31 (1), 189-201 from http://eprints.um.edu.my/9216/ mazer, j.p. (2012). development and validation of the student interest and engagement scales. communication methods and measures, 6, 99_125. http://www.ejel.org/volume10/issue1 https://www.eriesjournal.com/index.php/eries/article/view/63 http://eprints.um.edu.my/9216/ tamrin, a. f., students’ perception towards the use of edmodo in online 315 based english learning class at universitas fajar https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj whiterspoon, a. (2011). edmodo: a learning management system. retrieved may, 2, 2019, from http://www.poweredwithtechnology.com. sugiyono. (2011). metodologi penelitian kombinasi (mixed methods). bandung: alfabeta. struyven, katrien. (2005). students’ perceptions about evaluation and assessment in higher education: a review, assessment & evaluation in higher education, 30:4, 325-341 from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/026029305000991 02 scott, m. (2012). go ahead… be social: using social media to enhance the twenty-first century classroom. distance learning, 9(2) 54-59 from https://www.questia.com/magazine/1p3-2742042181/goahead-be-social-using-social-media-to-enhance sanaky, h. (2013). media pembelajaran interaktif-inovatif. yogyakrta: kaokaba di pantara. https://www.questia.com/magazine/1p3-2742042181/go-ahead-be-social-using-social-media-to-enhance https://www.questia.com/magazine/1p3-2742042181/go-ahead-be-social-using-social-media-to-enhance https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02602930500099102 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02602930500099102 merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english as a foreign language? mojtaba magbsudjl abstract: in surveys of third language acquisition (l3a) research, mixed results and findings demonstrate that there is no consensus among the researchers regarding the advantages and/or disadvantages ofbilinguality on l3a. the main concern of the present study was, thus, to probe the probable differences between iranian bilingual/monolingual learners of english regarding their syntactic knowledge. it was an attempt to investigate whether bilingual and monolingual learners of english differ significantly in learning embedded question, preposition stranding and pied piping knowledge. to carry out this study, a total of399 male andfemale subjects at seven preuniversity centers in arak, iran were randomly selected from among two groups of turkish-persian bilinguals and persian monolinguals. a general english proficiency test, a questionnaire, and a syntactic structure test were administered to both groups. statistical analyses including anova, t-test and descriptive statistics revealed the following outcomes: 1monolingual and bilingual learners did not differ in acquiring syntactic structure, 2no significant difference was observed between gender of monolinguals and bilinguals' performances in acquiring syntactic structure. key words: bilingualism, monolingualism, syntactic knowledge, general english proficiency, gender mojtaba magbsudi, ph.d. <maghsudim@yahoo.com> +009891607023 has ph.d. in tefl. he has published 15 articles in the area of tefl and the impact of bilingualism on additional language acquisition. his research interests lie in second language teaching and learning and bilingualism as well as the strategic reading behaviors ofesl learners. he is the president of pay am-no or university of shazand, and simultaneously the faculty member of shahid bahoonarttc ofarak, iran. 2 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 introduction when we study language we study the manner in which human beings express themselves. we study a system of communication, which enables us to conv~y feelings and facts to one another, to react and comment, to agree or disagree, to accept or reject. it is in the nature of language systems to change and develop constantly, to adjust to changes in society. language reflects the social structure, the correctness, and the accepted values of society. language is therefore personal as well as group-orientated, specific as well as universal. language cannot be. divorced from the c~ntext in which it is used. language is not produced in a vacuum; it is enacted in changing dramas. communication includes not only the structure of language (e.g. gdnnmar and vocabulary) but also who is saying what, to whom, in which circumstances. one person may have limited linguistic skills but, in certain situations, be successful in communication. another person may have relative linguistic mastery, but through developed social interaction skills or in a strange circumstance, b~ .relatively unsuccessful in communication. the ability to speak two languages is often seen as something of a remarkable achievement, particularly in the english-speaking countries. since as trask (1999), mentioned 70 percent of the earth's population is thought to be bilingual there is a good reason to believe that bilingualism is the norm for the majority of people in the world. answers to the questions ''who is bilingual?" and "what is bilingualism?" are not simple. bilingual or bilingualism is the ability ,to speak, communicate, and understand two languages. it is not to be confused with. j>ilit~racy, which is the ability to read and write in two languages. '. dewaele et al. (2003) believe, the very elastic definition of bilingualism is, the presence of two or more languages, which reflect the awareness of the interdisciplinary nature of studies in bilingualism. it is said that no single definition of bilingualism is m. maghsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 3 broad enough to cover all instances of individuals who are called ''bilingual.'' the range can be from native-like control of two or more languages to possessing minimal communication skills in a second or foreign language. kandolf(1995) claims that a bilingual is someone who uses two languages on a regular basis. all bilinguals are more dominant in one of their two languages. in her view, the importance is that bilinguals are exposed to both languages regularly. the oxford english dictionary agrees with this claim and refers to bilingualism as "the ability to speak two languages; the habitual use of two languages colloquially." none of the above descriptions of bilingualism separate second language acquisition from bilingual language acquisition. furthermore, bilingual language acquisition refers to 'the simultaneous intake of two languages beginning in infancy or before the age of three , . calling someone bilingual is therefore an umbrella term. underneath the umbrella rest many different skill levels in two languages. being bilingual is not just about proficiency in two languages. there is a difference between ability and use of language. someone may be quite competent in two languages, yet rarely or never use one of those languages. such a person has bilingual ability but does not act or behave bilingually. a different case is a person who regularly uses both their languages, even though one language is still developing. such a person may be hesitant in speaking, finding it difficult to speak with correct grammar or unable to use a wide vocabulary. in practice, that person may be bilingual, although ability in one language is lacking (but improving steadily). such a distinction between ability in a language and use of a language again shows why the simple label bilingual hides a complex variety beneath its simplicity. if you ask people in the street what 'bilingual' means, they will almost certainly reply that it is being able to speak two languages 4 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 perfectly. unfortunately, we cannot even describe exactly what speaking one language perfectly involves. no one speaks the whole of a language. each ofus speaks part of our mother tongue. the bilingual does too. this problem, the fact that it is almost impossible to compare an individual's abilities in two different languages because we are not measuring the same things, is central to all discussion ofbilingualism, and shows why the person in the street's 'definition' just will not do, except in very rare circumstances. some defmitions, which researchers have suggested, are mentioned. lam believes bilingualism is the phenomenon of competence and communication in two languages ... a bilingual society is one in which two languages are used for communication. in a bilingual society, it is possible to have a large number of monolinguals .... provided that there are enough bilinguals to perform the functions requiring bilingual competence in that society. there is, therefore, a distinction between individual bilingualism and societal bilingualism (lam 2003). bilingualism is the ability to use two or more languages sufficiently to carry on a limited casual conversation, but we cannot set specific limits on proficiency or how much the speaker in question is speaking or demonstrating comprehension of another speaker (myers-scotton 2006). researchers in the field have discussed the advantages and disadvantages of bilingualism or multilingualism. most earlier studies suggest that bilingualism is associated with negative consequences (see, for example, printer and keller 1922, saer 1923, anastasi and cordova 1953, darcy 1953 and tse 2001). these studies support the idea that bilingual children suffer from academic retardation, have low iq and are socially maladjusted as compared with monolingual children and also believe that our brains are just m. maghslltu, merit or demerit ofbilinguality in learning english? s like our stomachs: to have room for dessert, we can not overeat. just like an expanding balloon, some believe, our brains can only hold so much, and ifwe fill it too fully with the heritage language, there will be no room for english. this misconception leads many parents and teachers to advocate arresting development of the native language to leave sufficient room for the new language. contrary to these claims, many researchers have found that bilingualism has a positive effect on foreign language achievement (lerea and laporta 1971, cummins 1979, eisenstein 1980, ringbom 1985, thomas 1988, valencia and cenoz 1992, zobl 1992, klein 1995, sanz 2000, hoffman 2001, richard-amato 2003, and flynn 2006). j. thomas (1988) for example compared the acquisition of french by english monolinguals and english-spanish bilinguals. her study yielded striking differences between the two groups, with the bilinguals outperforming the monolinguals. she concluded: bilinguals learning a third language seem to have developed a sensitivity to language as a system which helps them perform better on those activities usually associated with formal language learning than monolinguals learning a foreign language for the first time. mixing results of studies on the consequences of bilinguality caused some scholars to conduct experiments with more controlled variables. the findings of some of these studies led to a neutral attitude toward bilingualism. in their studies, lambert and tucker (1972) and barik and swain (1978) examined the performance of large samples controlled for sex and age, and found no significant difference between monolinguals and bilinguals in terms of their intelligence, mental development and school achievements. nayak et at (1990:221), comparing the acquisition of a grammatical point by monolingual, bilingual and multilingual students, reported that although the multilinguals showed superior performance under certain conditions, they generally showed "no clear evidence that they were superior in language learning abilities". 6 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 the aim of the present research is to shed some light on he blurred issue of the bilingualism in learning an additional language. therefore, the following hypotheses are formulated: hi: there will be a significant difference between monolingual and bilingual learners in syntactic structure scores. h2: gender of monolbilingual learners has impact on their performance in acquiring syntactic structure. methodology a. subjects based on consensus among researchers regarding, the larger the size of the sample, the greater its precision or reliability, the present researcher invited 399 pre-university students both male and female with the age range of 17 to 19 at 7 pre-university centers from different distracts of arak (one of the industrial cities of iran) to participate in present study. the researcher had to exclude 11 participants from this study because they were not involved in this range of age and the remainders (n=388) were categorized through a background questionnaire as follows: 89 turkish/persian female bilinguals 101 persian female monolinguals 93 turkish / persian male bilinguals 105 persian male monolinguals all the participants were from the families who had taken residence inarak more than 5 years. some of them had acquired both languages (persian and turkish) simultaneously at home whereas some others had learned their second language, persian, at later age in their schooling years. the researcher elicited some demographic information about the participants through a background questionnaire in order to match m. maghsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 7 them as closely as possible for socioeconomic status to minimize the effect of social class. accordingly the participants were classified as middle class. b. instruments the following instruments have been used in this paper: 1) a backgroundquestionnaire: in order to elicit information about participants, a background questionnaire was developed by the researcher. it covered issues such as the subjects' age, gender, linguality status, number of members in each family, the subjects' parents' socio-educational status, occupations, monthly income, their levels of education and duration of their residency in arak. no standard instrument for determining ses (socio-economic status) in iran was available, so after consultation with a sociologist, subjects were categorized into three classes, upper, middle and lower, based on a set of socially made indices of the type commonly used in social science research. this comprised issues as, subjects' parents' socio-educational background, occupation, their monthly income and finally the number of members in a family. these characteristics have been elicited in order to determine the social position of the students in that particular society, because according to michell maiese (2004), social position is the position of an individual in a given society and culture. that is, these features can be at play in determining one's social status. accordingly, from ses point of view the participants were classified as: high middle low to have homogeneous participants and to prevent the effect of some interval variables such as social class just those who have been 8 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 categorized as middle class have been invited to participate in the present research. 2) general english proficiency test: english nelson test, (series 400 b) was utilized as the pedestal for assessing the participants' level of proficiency in english. this test comprised 50 multiple-choice vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension items. the researcher piloted the test with 15 students with the same level and similar characteristics to those of participants of this study and then it was correlated with an achievement test developed by the ministry of education for pre-university centers. the correlation coefficient calculated between these two (achievement test and general english proficiency test) appeared to be .67. hence, the general english proficiency test was found to be appropriate for the participants performing level. for ensuring the participants homogeneity, having administrated general english proficiency test, the researcher included those students in this project who scored between one standard deviation below and above the mean score. it is worth noting here that the reliability of general english proficiency test estimated by kr-21 (kudar richarson) formula appeared to be.63. 3) the grammatical judgment test: the grammatical judgment test (gjt) is one of the most widespread data-collection methods that researchers use to test their theoretical claims. in these tasks, speakers of a language are presented with a set of stimuli to which they must react. the elicited responses are usually in the form of assessments, wherein speakers determine m. maghsudi, merit or demerit ofbilinguality in learning english? 9 whether and i or the extent to which a particular stimulus is correct in a given language. in order to examine the participants' syntactic structure and to find out the probable differences in their performances in this area a grammatical judgment test was developed by the current researcher. the test was found on two of the grammatical points covered in english textbook designed for pre-university level. one grammatical point is related to what radford (2004) calls preposition stranding and pied piping, and the other grammatical point is related to what adger at el., (2001) calls embedded knowledge. c. procedure in the process of carrying out the study, the researcher took the following procedures to achieve the objectives of the current study. all the procedures including the development of the background questionnaire, grammatical judgment test, general english proficiency test and their administration are explained in details below: at the first step of the research, the researcher developed a background questionnaire in order to elicit some personal information about participants such as: their bi i monolinguality status, gender, age, educational qualification of parents, parents' monthly income and the number of members in their family.\ in order to prevent any possible misunderstanding or confusion on the part of the participants and to ensure maximum understanding, the background questionnaire was developed in english along with its translation in persian. after doing the sampling procedure and choosing subjects randomly 388 students (89 female bilinguals, 101 female monolinguals, 93 male bilinguals and 105 male monolinguals) were initially requested to participate in this study. then testing was conducted in the respective schools by the 10 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 researcher with the help of the school staffs. the conditions for testing were strictly followed as far as possible. the administration of the tests has been completed in two phases: phase 1: the background questionnaire and general english proficiency test (gept) in 55 minutes (the first 15 minutes was allotted to fill up the background questionnaire and the rest was allotted to gept); and phase 2: grammatical judgment test (gjt) in 25 minutes. subjects' scores based on general english proficiency and grammatical judgment tests range from 0 to 50 and 0 to 30 respectively. it is important to mention that prior to the administration of the general english proficiency test it was piloted with 15 students of the same grade with similar characteristics to those of subjects of this study and it was found to be appropriate for the subjects' proficiency level in that particular given time. that is, the reliability of general english proficiency test estimated by kr-21 (kudar richarson) formula appeared to be .63, which was appropriate enough to go on. after collecting the background questionnaires, the general english proficiency test was conducted and before the start of this test, the researcher cleared the participants' doubts. the way of answering the question was made clear to the participants and in case of any difficulty they were encouraged to ask questions and they were provided with help. the researcher did the best endeavor to draw the participants' attention to take part in the research stage by giving them necessary information about the nature and purpose of the research. in the present study the most endeavor was done to ensure the students that their responses will be kept full secrecy and also will not be used for performance evaluation. after collecting the papers of general english proficiency test and background questionnaire, those students who had done haphazardly were discarded. then on m. mlighsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 11 the basis of scores, which they received in gept, those subjects whose scores fell between 1 standard deviation above and below the mean score were selected to participate in the next stage of the project. the reason behind selecting just this group was to include those who were proficient enough to participate in the next stage, which was the vital stage of the study and also to ensure of the homogeneity of the students in terms of english language proficiency. therefore, these numbers of subjects were students with average knowledge in general english proficiency. accordingly the researcher had to exclude 85 participants from this study, therefore, the number of all participants who were allowed to enter the next stage was 303 (64 female bilinguals, 73 female monolinguals, 77 male bilinguals and 89 male monolinguals) the next stage was to administrate the grammatical judgment test. this test comprised 30 multiple-choice items containing 15 items on the basis of preposition stranding and pied piping (7 out of 15 items observed in interrogatives and the other 8 items observed in relative clause) and 15 items on the basis of embedded questions (7 out of 15 items were in interrogative forms and the rest were in declarative forms). before administrating this test the researcher made strong effort to ensure of the reliability of the test. the following table provides kr-21 formula (one of the reliability measurements) for grammatical judgment test, that is, embedded questions (eq); preposition stranding (ps) and pied-piping (pip) and also. spss for windows (version 14-evaluation version) has been employed for calculation of reliability coefficients for embedded questions, preposition stranding and pied-piping and total questions. 12 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 questions reliability coefficient eq .6817 ps & pip .6431 total .6551 it is evident that kr-21 formula obtained for embedded questions, preposition stranding and pied piping and also total questions ranged from .6431 to .6871, which are highly significant. we can definitely say that instruments used in this study are highly consistent. having ensured of the reliability of the grammatical judgment test, the researcher administrated the test and had to discard 79 subjects' result from data analysis because they had skipped answering most of the questions thoroughly. the result of the remaining 224 subjects, (49 female bilinguals, 61 female monolinguals, 54 male bilinguals and 60 male monolinguals) were tabulated and codified for the computer analysis. results and discussion the independent it-test' was employed in order to analyze the collected data. the statistical representation of analyzed data is given in the following tables: as shown in table 1, there is a difference between the bilinguals questions type mean std. deviation ~t' value pvalue bilingual 4.8846 2.4188 .650 .516 (ns) eq monolingual 5.1443 2.7810 bilingual 3.0577 1.5938 .262 .793 (ns) pip and ps monolingual 3.1443 1.6535 m. maghsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 13 questioru type mean sui devition 't'value pvalue bilingual 6.8077 3.8035 .590 .556 (ns) total monolingual 7.0581 4.0175 note: ns-non-significant eqembedded questions pip-pied piping ps-preposition stranding table 1: descriptive statistics for bilingual and monolingual learners in syntactic structure with the results of independent samples't' test and monolinguals mean scores on 'eq' and 'pip and ps' (6.80 and 7.05 respectively). however, the difference is not statistically meaningful. that is, even though the mean scores of monolinguals on these structural areas were higher than that of bilinguals, indicating that monolinguals outperformed the bilinguals on this structural knowledge. the result of this hypothesis is to some extent a support for keshavarz et a1.'s study (2006). they attempted to investigate whether bilingual and monolingual learners of english differ significantly in learning lexical items and syntactic knowledge. the study aimed further at examining whether bilinguality was an enhancement to learning a third language or a hindrance to it. to carry out this study, they have selected subjects from among two groups of turkish-persian bilinguals and persian monolinguals. statistical analyses revealed that monolinguals outperformed bilinguals in areas, vocabulary and syntax. by referring to table 1 and considering the mean scores of bilinguals and monolinguals (6.8077 and 7.0581 respectively) on 'embedded questions' and 'pied piping and preposition stranded', it is obvious that the difference was so small that it could be neglected. in other words, monolingual and bilingual did not differ significantly in mean scores on embedded question, preposition stranding and pied piping as well as in total scores. the obtained t values for embedded (t=. 650; p<. 516), stranded and pied piping (t=. 262; p<. 793) and 14 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 total scores (t=. 590; p<. 556) were all found to be statistically nonsignificant. in a short term, monolingual and bilingual learners had statistically equal scores in embedded, stranded and pied piping and also total scores. hi is rejected, as there were no significant differences among monolinguals and bilinguals in embedded question, preposition stranding and pied piping scores including total scores. the result of this hypothesis may be well understood by taking the threshold theory into concern. according to this hypothesis many studies have suggested that the further the child moves towards balanced bilingualism, the greater the likelihood of cognitive advantages (e.g. cummins and mulcahy 1978, clarkson 1992, cummins 2000b and bialystok 200 1 a). thus the question has become 'under what conditions does bilingualism have positive, neutral and negative effects on cognition?' how far does someone have to travel up the two language ladders to obtain cognitive advantages from bilingualism? one theory that partially summarizes the relationship between cognition and degree of bilingualism is called the threshold theory. this was first hypothesized by cummins (1976) and by toukomaa and skutnabb-kangas (1977). they suggested that the research on cognition and bilingualism is best explained by the idea of two thresholds. each threshold is a level for a child to avoid the negative consequences of bilingualism. the second threshold is a level required to experience the possible positive benefits of bilingualism. it also suggests that there are children who may derive detrimental consequences from their bilingualism. as baker, (2006) expresses the threshold theory may be described in terms of a house with three floors. up the sides of the house are placed two language ladders, indicating that a bilingual child will usually be moving upward and will not usually be stationary on a floor. on the bottom floor of the house will be those m. maghsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? is whose current competence in their both languages is insufficiently or relatively inadequately developed, especially compared with their age group. when there is a low level of competence in both languages, there may be negative or detrimental cognitive effects. for example, a child who is unable to cope in the classroom in either language may suffer educationally. at the middle level, the second floor of the house will be those with age-appropriate competence in one of their languages but not in both. for example, children who can operate in the classroom in one of their languages but not in their second language may reside in this second level. at this level, a partly bilingual child will be little different in cognition from the monolingual child and is unlikely to have any significant positive or negative cognitive differences compared with a monolingual. at the top of the house, the third floor, there resides children who approximate 'balanced' bilinguals. at this level, children will have age-appropriate competence in two or more languages. for example, they can cope with curriculum material in either of their languages. it is at this level that age-appropriate ability in both their languages; they may have cognitive advantages over monolinguals. most of the earlier studies suggested that bilingualism was associated with negative consequences (see, for example, anastasi and cordova 1953, darcy 1953, printer and keller 1922, saer 1923). these studies supported the idea that bilingual children suffered from academic retardation, had a lower iq and were socially maladjusted as compared with monolingual children. ziahosseiny and mozaffari (1996) investigating the role of transferring the linguistic habit of the two languages (turkish and persian) to english, reported that in the area of system, the bilinguals tended to rely heavily on persian rather than on turkish, while in the area of vocabulary they relied on their mother tongue. ziahosseiny and mozaffari (ibid) justified that bilinguals used persian as medium of instruction at schools and other academic settings, whereas, they 16 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 utilized turkish only at home. therefore, in academic setting they gave more value to persian as a sophisticated language, a more prestigious on more over, and the language of turkish is subconscious, whereas that of persian is learnt consciously through books, with the help of an instructor describing the rules (cited in bahrainy 2003). the finding of this study however didn't present evidence of language transfer because neither persian nor turkish permits preposition stranding. this is a crucial factor for arguing that learners in both groups (monolinguals versus bilinguals) had an equal chance to acquire the target construction (preposition stranding). this requirement pre-supposed that learners in neither group have yet had experience in setting the relevant parameter at the value. prior language (in this particular case thrkish and persian) permits piedpiping and embedded knowledge. this has affected the result as a consequence of transferring. therefore, both bilinguals and monolinguals in this regard had sufficient experience about them, and the learners' mte of acquisition of these two syntactic structures is presumed to be enhanced hence, in this particular case similar findings are reported among bilinguals and monolinguals. that is, both groups, bilinguals versus monolinguals, indicated nearly the same mte of acquiring these target constructions in english as a foreign language. finally it can be concluded that bilinguals and monolinguals performed more or less equally on these domains (6.80 vs. 7.05 respectively) with no significant difference. another reason behind such an unexpected finding may be that turkish / persian bilinguals had acquired their li (turkish) only orally in a naturalistic setting. they did not receive schooling in turkish and their vehicular language was persian, which is the language of instruction and the official language of the majority linguistic group. so it can be argued that persian is the more dominant language among the bilingual learners of english. therefore, m. moghsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 17 8 7 rij 6 e 5 0 (j rij 4 fi) 3 0 ~ 2 1 0 .,------1 lei bilingual ~----l 0 monolingual embedded stranded total questions figure 1: mean scores for bilingual and monolingualleamers in embedded and stranded and pied piping receiving no-academic instruction on ll (in this case turkish) may have hindered learning an additional language. consequently, as mentioned above the bilingual learners did not perform as well as monolingual learners did in syntactic structure but the difference was statistically too negligible to be considered. regarding the second research hypothesis (gender of monolingual and bilingual learners has impact on their performance in acquiring syntactic structures), the present researcher applied twoway anova for scores of male and female mono and bilingual learners in syntactic structure which are indicated in tables 2 and 3. as it is indicated in table 2 and 3, no significant difference was observed between monolinguals and bilinguals' syntactic structure mean scores as the obtained f value of .960 was failed to reach the significance level criterion (p<. 328). from the mean values it is evident that scores of monolingual and bilingual learners were statistically similar (means 7.94 and 8.29 respectively). gender wise comparison also revealed a difference between male (mean 8.05) and female learners (mean 8.31). however, this difference was so small 18 celt, volume 10, number i, july 2010: 1-26 linguality type mean std. deviation male 8.23 3.37 monolingual female 7.60 3.11 total 7.94 3.25 male 7.96 3.21 bilingual female 8.68 3.78 total 8.29 3.49 male 8.05 3.26 total female 8.31 3.59 total 8.17 3.41 table 1: descriptive statistics for male and female bilingual and monolingual learners in embedded knowledge and preposition stranding and pied piping source of variatiol sum of df mean square f sig. squares (pvalue) questions 11.126 1 11.126 .960 .328 (ns) linguality .137 1 .137 .012 .913 (ns, questions • 30.811 1 30.811 2.660 .104 {ns, linguality table 3: results of1\vo-way anova for scores for male and female mono and bilingualleamers in embedded knowledge and preposition stranding and pied piping that it could be neglected and regarded as non-significant alodg the same line, twoway anova was conducted to compare male and female bilingual efl learners' mean scores on syntactic structure. as tables 2 and 3 display the interaction effect between linguality and gender was found to be non-significant (f= 2.66; p<. 104) indicating that pattern of scoring was the same for male and female learners m. maghsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 19 irrespective of their linguality background. therefore, h2 is rejected as there was no significant difference between male and female learners in their total scores (embedded knowledge and preposition stranding and pied piping). conclusion and implication multilingual acquisition considered as 'the acquisition of languages other than the first or second' is becoming a common process in the world in fact, the increasing links among all countries in world as the result of historical, political, economic and technological development have produced the need to use languages of wider communication, mainly english, which are not always the language or languages of one's own community. social phenomena such as immigration also contribute to the development of minority communities who need to acquire more than two languages. multilingualism and multilingual acquisition are often considered as simple variations of bilingualism and second language acquisition and 'second language acquisition' (sla) tends to be used as a cover term to refer to 'any language other than the first' without taking into consideration the number of other non-native languages known by the learner. due to the increased number of immigrants to large cities of iran, we confront a great deal of bilingual learners in our educational system. in this regard the present study was conducted to investigate whether turkish / persian bilinguals could be helped in their learning a l3 (english in this case) by their fltst and second languages. an attempt was made to examine the impact of bilinguality on l3 learning and to investigate whether bilinguality does enhance learning subsequent nonnative languages. the main concern of the present study was, thus, to probe the probable differences between iranian bilinguallmonolinguallearners 20 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 of english regarding their syntactic knowledge. it was an attempt to investigate whether bilingual and monolingual learners of english differ significantly in learning embedded question, preposition stranding and pied piping knowledge. the study aimed further at examining whether bilinguality was an enhancement to learning a third language or a hindrance to it. to carry out this study, an ex post facto design was employed. a total of399 male and female subjects at seven pre-university centers in arak were randomly selected from among two groups of turkish-persian bilinguals and persian monolinguals. a general english proficiency test, a questionnaire, and a syntactic structure test were administered to both groups. statistical analyses includinganova, t-test and descriptive statistics revealed that there were non-significant differences in the performance of the two learner groups, i.e. monolingual and bilingual participants. the results and findings of the statistical analyses may be summarized as follows: 1) hypothesis 1 was rejected, indicating that monolingual and bilingual learners did not differ in acquiring syntactic structure. it is often believed that early exposure to two languages, either simultaneously or sequentially, is detrimental to language acquisition. this belief rests on an implicit assumption that learning more than one language in early childhood necessarily produces on one hand, confusion and interference between the languages and on the other hand, hindrance to learning a third language. this hypothesis is in line with results of studies by some scholars who conducted experiments with more controlled variables. the fmdings of some of these studies led to a neutral attitude toward . bilingualism. in their studies, barik and swain {i 978) and lambert and tucker (1972) examined the performance of larger samples controlled for sex and age, and found no significant difference m. mllghsudi, merit or demerit ofbilinguality in learning english? 21 between monolinguals and bilinguals in terms of their intelligence, mental development and school achievements. more recently, nayak et al. (1990), comparing the acquisition of an artificial grammar by monolingual, bilingual and multilingual students, reported that although the multilinguals indicated superior performance under certain conditions, they generally revealed 'no clear evidence that they were superior in language learning abilities' (1990: 221). magiste (1984) reported an investigation by balke-aurell and lindbad (1982) on the differences between monolingual and bilingual immigrants of varied l 1 s with swedish as l2 in learning english as a foreign language. the results indicated no difference between the bilinguals and monolinguals in standardized tests of english comprehension and grammar performance (cited in keshavarz, 2003). 2) hypothesis 2 was rejected, showing that no significant difference was observed between gender of monolinguals and bilinguals' performances in acquiring syntactic structure. this hypothesis supports the fmdings of talebi et ai, (2007). they concluded that male and female learners have to some degree similar performance in reading comprehension and syntactic structure of an additional language. that is, the interaction effect between bilinguality and gender is found to be non-significant. indicating that the pattern of reading comprehension scores are similar for male and female students irrespective of the linguality background they have. one pedagogical and policy implication is that in order to help the bilinguals to learn english, they should be encourage by educators to develop their linguistic capacities and keep informing and advising the parents with the charismatic impact of bilingualism on additional language acquisition if the first two languages are acquired academically, therefore, it may enable them to promote the frrst language at home. 22 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 therefore, it is suggested that turkish should also be introduced in formal education in iran in order to make the learners aware of the differences and similarities between their first and target language and also providing them with the linguistic knowledge of their first language. therefore, the level of learners' ll is very important for the further language learning process. clearly, the more aware learners are of the similarities and differences between their mother tongue and the target language, the easier they will fmd it to adopt effective learning and production strategies. in order for the pupils to achieve the best results, on one hand, it seems that it is very important for language teachers to be aware of the learners' linguistic starting point in order to give them the best instruction possible on the other hand it is essential for language learners to be familiarized with the strategies and linguistic knowledge of their own first language in order to compare and contrast it with target language while they are acquiring an additional or target language. because as it was mentioned elsewhere in the current section it is believed that learner's awareness of similarities and differences between their mother tongue and additional language will pave the way for effective learning. references adger, d. and josep q. "the syntax and semantics of unselected embedded questions". language, vol. 77, no. 1,2001: 107-133. anastasi, a. and cordova, f. "some effects of bilingualism upon the intelligence test performance of puerto rican children in new york city". in journal of educational psychology. vol 44, 1953: 1-19. bahrainy n. the impact of bilingualism on third language acquisition. unpublished doctoral dissertation. tehran university, tehran, 2003. baker, c. foundation of bilingual education and bilingualism, ~ edition. multilingual matters ltd, 2006. balke-aureli,g. & t. lindbad. immigrant students and their languages. m. maghslldi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 23 gotenberg, sweden: university of got enberg, 1982. barik, h.c. & m. swain (1978). "a longitudinal study of bilingual and cognitive development". in international journal of psychology. vol. 11,1978: 251-63. bialystok, ellen. bilingualism in development: language, literacy and cognition. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2001 a. clarkson, p.c. "language and mathematics: a comparison of bilingual and monolingual students of mathematicsn • in educational studies in mathematics. vol. 23, 1992: 417-429. cummins, j. ''putting language proficiency in its place: responding to critiques of the conversationall academic language distinction". in. j. cenoz and jessner (eds), english in europe: the acquisition of third a language. clevedon: multilingual matters. clevedon, avon, england: multilingual matters, ltd, 2000b. cummins, j. "the influence of bilingualism on cognitive growth". in baker, c. (eds). foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. clevedon: multilingual matters, 1976. cummins, j. & mulcahy, r. "orientation to language in ukrainian-english bilingual childrenn • in child development. vol. 49, 1978: 12391242. darcy, n. t. "a review of the literature on the effects of bilingualism upon the measurement of intelligence". in journal of genetic psychology. vol. 82, 1953: 21-57. dewaele, j.m., housen, a. & wei, li (eds). bilingualism: beyond basic principles, multilingual matters, 2003. eisenstein, m. "childhood bilingualism and adult language learning aptitude". in international review of applied psychology. vol. 29, 1980: 159-172. flynn, k. f. panorama: building perspective through reading, books 1 & 2. new york: oxford univ. press, 2006: 65-84. fromkin, victoria, rodman, robert, & hyams, n. an introduction to language, l' edition. boston: thomosonlheinle, 2003. 24 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 hoffman, c. ''towards a description of trilingual competence". in international journal of bilingualism. vol. 5,2001: 1-17. kandolf, c. (1995). the bilingual families' web page; myths about bilingualism. retrieved october 18, 2007 from http://www.net help.no/cindy/myth.html keshavarz, m. and astaneh, h. (2003). the impact of bilinguality on learning of english vocabulary as a foreign language (l3). international bilingualism, 48(4),30-38. retrieved january 14,2007 fr 0 m http://sear c h . yah 00. com i sea r c h ? e i = u t f8&fr=slv8msgrl &p=keshavarzoio20mohammad%2bbilinguality&t ype. keshavarz, m. and bahreini, n. (2006). is bilinguality an advantage or disadvantage in learning english as a foreign language? the processing of¢' conference on bilingualism. joensuu, finland, 10-11 august, 2006. klein, e.c. "second versus third language acquisition: is there a difference?" in language learning. vol. 45, no.3, 1995a: 419-465. lam., w. s. e. second language literacy and identity formation on the internet: the case of chinese immigrant youth in the u.s. unpublished doctoral dissertation, the university of california, berkeley, 2003. lambert, w.e. and tucker, o.r bilingual education of children: the st. lambert experiment. rowley, ma: newbury house, 1972. lerea, l. and laporta, r. ''vocabulary and pronunciation acquisition among bilinguals and monolinguals". inlanguage and speech. vol. 14, 1971: 293-300. magiste, e. "learning a third language". in journal of multilingual and multiculturaldevelopment. vo1.5, 1984: 415-421. michelle maiese (2004). social status. retrieved february 19,2007 from http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/social_status! myers-scotton, carol. duelling languages: grammatical structure in code switching. oxford: clarendon press, 1993. m. maghsudi, merit or demerit of bilinguality in learning english? 25 nayak, h., hansen, n., krueger, n. and mclaughlin, b. "language-learning strategies in monolingual and multilingual adults". in language learning. vol. 40, 1990: 221-244. printer, r. and keller, r. "intelligence tests for foreign children'. in journal of educational psychology. vol. 13, 1922: 1-23. radford, a. minimalist syntax: exploring the structure of english. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2004. richard-amato, patricia a. making it happen: from interactive to participatory language teaching theory & practice. pearson education inc, 2003. ringbom, h. foreign language learning and bilingualism. turku: abo akademi, 1985. saer, 0.1. "the effect of bilingualism on intelligence". in british journal of psychology. vol. 14, 1923: 25-28. sanz, c. "bilingual education enhances third language acquisition: evidence from catalonia". in applied psycholinguistics. vol. 21, no. 1,2000: 23-44. talebi, h. and maghsoudi, m. monolingual and bilingual english learners in one classroom: 'who is at a disadvantage?' unpublished article, m ysore university, mysore, 2007, october. thomas, j. ''the role played by metalinguistic awareness in second and third language learning". in journal of multilingual and multicultural development. vol. 9,1988: 235-247. toukomaa, p. & skutnabb-kangas, t. "the intensive teaching of the mother tongue to migrant children at pre-school age. (research reported no. 26). in baker, c. (eds.), foundation of bilingual education and bilingualism. multilingual matters ltd, 1977. trask, r. l. key concepts in words and linguistics, r edition. london: routledge, 1999. tse, l. why don't they learn english? separating fact from fallacy in the u.s. language debate. new york: teacher's college press, 2001. 26 celt, volume 10, number 1, july 2010: 1-26 valencia, j.f. and cenoz, j. "the role of bilingualism in foreign language acquisition". in journal of multilingual and multicultural development. vol. 13, no.5, 1992: 433-446. zobl, h. (1992). "prior linguistic knowledge and the conservation of the learning procedure: gtammaticality judgments of unilingual and multilingual learners, in s. gass & l. selinker (eels.), language transfer in language learning. amsterdamlphiladelphia, benjamins, p.176-196. depan_celt dec 2012 instructional choices to heighten indonesian students’ motivation and engagement in reading english canonical texts yosep bambang margono slamet 1 1 drs. yosep bambang margono slamet, m.si., m.a. <yosepmargonoslamet@uiowa.edu> is a ph.d candidate at the teaching and learning department, the university of iowa, iowa, u.s.a. abstract: this paper focuses on how to motivate my struggling students for whom english is a second language when they read canonical texts written in english. students in english departments are required to read english canonical texts, but most of them find this task very challenging. one strategy teachers can use to motivate students to read is to pair the english canonical texts with young adult texts. important in these instructional choices are the pre-reading, during-reading, and after-reading activities. pre-reading activities are intended to prepare readers to enter the story world. during-reading activities are important to make students understand the stories better. some of the duringactivities include using role plays and teaching media to increase students’ understanding of the characters and the plots in the books. in the post-reading activities, students can write journals or quotes they find interesting from the book. giving students more varieties in book choices and activities can, hopefully, make them independent good readers. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 102 key words: reading, canonical texts, instructional strategies and choices introduction appropriate instructional choices in teaching reading can heighten students’ motivation and engagement for reading. in this paper i discuss instructional choices i can make to heighten my indonesian students’ motivation and engagement in reading english canonical texts in the future. i begin by describing the context and then i discuss what i mean by the english canonical texts. in the next section, i describe the observations i have made about my students’ understanding of and response to canonical texts written in english. following this section, i describe what research says about reading motivation and engagement and their connections to reading for understanding. after all these discussions, in the last part of the paper i describe instructional choices i can make to heighten my students’ motivation and engagement in reading english canonical texts. the context in general, indonesians start to learn english after graduating from elementary school. as a foreign language, english is given for about two to three hours a week in junior high school. in senior high school, the portion of english students have depends on the students’ major. high school has three majors, namely science, social studies, and language arts. students who major in science spend the least time to learn english while those who major in language arts spend the most time to learn english. when students graduate from high schools, their knowledge of and competence in english are not the same. those who major in language are supposed to know english better than those who major in science ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 103 and social studies. but that is not always the case because many students learn english in out-of-school courses. when they are in university2 all students in the english department have to take the introduction to english literature ant the introduction to linguistics because these two courses are parts of the core curriculum. however, only those who are in literature section , only those enrolled in the english department study the english language intensively, including english literature and/or linguistics. students majoring other than english only learn the english language in the first two semesters. most of students enrolled in the english department want to be competent in english as a means of communication. after they graduate, they become english teachers, businessmen, journalists, radio and television broadcasters, etc. for them, the english language is the passport to many job opportunities. 3 2 the term “college” is absent in indonesia. in indonesia, in enrolling a university, students already choose their major or department, even for undergraduate programs. 3 english department in indonesian universities has two sections, literature and linguistics. in the sixth semester, after students have finished their language skills courses, the introduction to english literature, and the introduction to linguistics, they have to decide whether they want to focus on english literature or linguistics. study english literature more deeply. as a teacher in the english department of a small private university in indonesia, i teach the english literary canon to students and the courses i teach are english prose and drama. the curriculum for the english department in indonesia lists many of the english and american literary texts to be taught. the texts range from old english to modern english periods. in addition, students also study english drama and english poetry. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 104 the task of teaching english canonical texts is not an easy job. the lack of resources and the students’ low motivation and engagement in reading those texts---which, in turn, affect their response and understanding of those texts---are two problems among many that we encounter. with the background i have mentioned above, i have to teach the english literary canon to students who may have different motivations in learning english and, definitely, who have different levels of competence in english. before i discuss this in more details, in the following section i describe what i mean by english literary canon for the purpose of this paper. the english literary canon the english literary canon has more than one definition. fowler emphasizes that the literary canon is “the literature we criticize and theorize” (1979: 97). however, according to fowler, we only capture “sizable subsets of the writers and works of the past” (1979:97). for many english teachers in the u.s., the english literary canon is refers to good literature or classic literature, or “traditionalist texts that have withstood the test of time” (stallworth et al. 2006: 479). meanwhile, for bloom (1994) and d’souza (1991), the english literary canon includes works for preserving traditional western society (cited in godina 1996:544). and according to gallo the english literary canon is “the classics, which are about adult issues, written for adults, to be enjoyed and not tested” (2001:34). for english teachers in indonesia, the english literary canon may mean all the above: we teach students “sizable subsets of the writers and works of the past” that we think “are good or classic literature” or “traditionalist texts that have withstood the test of time” such as romeo and juliet by shakespeare, a tale of two cities by dickens, and the scarlet letter by nathaniel just to name ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 105 some examples. different from gallo, we teach the english literary canon to be tested also. by the english literary canon, i do not mean to refer to classical works of literature written in english by british authors only but also works written in english by american authors and some works by russian and norwegian authors in the english version. for example, works by tolstoy, dostoevsky, ivan turgenev, and henrik ibsen are parts of the english literary canon. the english literary canon and my students in indonesian universities, english literature courses have many requirements and prerequisites. prior to taking these courses (english prose, english drama, and english poetry), students should have passed the following courses: reading comprehension i, ii, and iii; english grammar i, ii, and iii, english composition i, ii, and iii, listening comprehension i, ii, and iii, and the introduction to english literature. all of these are taught in english and focused on english language texts. in addition, students should also have taken book report i and ii in which they read abridged english texts that are part of the english literary canon and write summaries of and their reactions to the works they choose. in my observations, my teaching english literary canon in the past did not always work well. in literature classes there should be exchanges of ideas, both between students and teacher and among students. students should have read the required reading(s) before class. i always wanted my class to be ‘noisy,’ in which students could jump in any time to express their ideas during class discussion to show that they were engaged and motivated. instead, i often found that the classes i taught were quiet: students were looking at me and looking at each other without any uttered words. they did not read before the class. this made us, students and me, celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 106 frustrated. despite the situation, we had to move on because they had to pass the final exam. factors of unsuccessful teaching on reflection, i thought about three factors that made the teaching unsuccessful. first, it concerned the book choices. due to limited resources, i could only give books available in our libraries and in my personal collections to my students.4 the unfamiliar context with little connections to students’ life is the second factor that made my classes dull. many of my students had difficulties in trying to connect the english canonical texts they read to their lives and their background knowledge. research shows that students’ background knowledge is crucial to understand the texts they read (wilhelm 1997, tovani 2000, in our collections, there are shakespeare’s romeo and juliet, hawthorne’s the scarlett letter, warton’s the house of mirth, orwell’s 1984 and animal farm, lawrence’s lady chatterley’s lover, and some other books by hemingway, edgar allan poe, arthur miller, and by some more other authors. we also had some anthologies. in addition, we had a small collection of russian and norwegian literature in the english version. those mentioned are difficult books---even for some american students (simon 2008, porteus 2009). in american context, simon argues that the difficulties of texts considered to be part of the literary canon lie in their “unfamiliar context with little connections to students’ life” (2008: 134). 4 unlike in american universities in which books are abundant, in small private universities in indonesia books are scarce. many english teachers, including myself, use books from their personal collections. for us, english teachers in indonesia, to buy new books written in english is a luxury. usually those who have an opportunity to study abroad buy new books for their own collections. ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 107 l’allier and elish-piper 2007). this difficulty made them passive readers and they expected the meaning to “come out of” the texts they read (wilhelm 1997). the third factor is the language. because english is not our native language, many of my students still struggled with it. they read the texts word for word, which is not a good reading strategy to understand the meaning of a text because, as mcelvain argues, “good second language readers do not read word for word, but use their background knowledge and various strategies such as predicting and confirming to comprehend the text” (2010:180). many of my students did not do this. even though they have passed the courses of english skills, many of them still had to learn harder to understand the english literary canon. in addition, they also had to know about the english (social) history and culture (if the required books are written by american authors in american setting, students had also to know about american history and society). these complexities made them not interested in reading the required books even though i told them to read texts to pass the final exam.5 however, only a few would read the required english canonical texts seriously. the rest depended on what i would say in the class; or, they relied on those who read the texts. this situation happened from year to year. they lacked motivation for reading the english literary canon so that they were not engaged in reading the required books. this resulted in their low understanding of the books. or, it could be that because they could not understand the books, they had low motivation and engagement to read them. 5 passing literature courses is the requirement for writing the final paper (mini thesis). celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 108 teaching strategies i had before we started to read the required english canonical texts, i explained to students the background information: some biographical background of the author, when or in which period the texts were written, and the social and cultural background of that time period. i also cited what i found to be interesting parts of the texts. i did these all with the expectation that they would help students to be interested in the texts and so that they had some ideas about what to expect during their reading. i usually also divided students into small groups and assigned each group with some chapters. each group had to be responsible for and lead the discussion of the chapters they read. the problem with this strategy is that each group told me that there were always students who did not contribute to the group at all. thus, this strategy did not always work either. when every member of a group did not understand what they had read, i turned to other groups to express their ideas. but because other groups were not responsible for those chapters, they were not ready. only those who were really motivated would read and contribute to class discussion. i discuss this more thoroughly in the following section. reading engagement and motivation to understand literary works they read, students have to become engaged readers; and to become engaged readers, they have to have motivation. o’brien et al. point out that “the role of motivation in engaging struggling readers is almost universally acknowledged as a crucial issue” (2007:52). motivation may come from students themselves or it may come from other people (teachers, parents, or peers). according to guthrie and davis (2003), motivation which comes from students themselves is called intrinsic motivation and this is the highest level of motivation. engaged readers do have this intrinsic motivation because they ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 109 read out of curiosity and personal goals. achieving students usually have this intrinsic motivation so that teachers do not have to tell them to read. on the other hand, struggling, unengaged readers may not have intrinsic motivation and teachers have to work hard to persuade them to read. guthrie and wigfield (2000) contend that motivation influences whether engagement with the text happens. when students are engaged with the text, the result is strong comprehension because they think as they read. brozo et al. (2007), in their study about variables that have the most impact on reading performance in three pisa6 regarding ells reading texts in english, research shows that diversity of reading materials has a crucial role in heightening their motivation in reading (freeman and freeman 2009). in engaging them in reading, there are some engagement models of instruction that teachers can apply, such as “knowledge goals, real-world interactions, interesting texts, support for student choice, direct countries (the united states, the united kingdom, and the republic of ireland) found out that the more engaged students read, the higher reading achievement they have. an indication of higher reading achievement must be strong comprehension. to enhance students’ motivation to read, one of the first things for teachers to do is to give them diversity of reading materials (wilhelm1997, tovani 2000, bean et al. 1999, brozo et al. 2007). by giving students the diversity of reading materials, teachers may meet their individual student’s need because every student may have different tastes and likes. however, giving students diversity of reading materials may still not work for all students when among them there are resistive readers, or students who actually are able to read but choose not to (wilhelm 1997, tovani 2000). 6 program for international student assessment celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 110 strategy instruction, and collaborative activities” (freeman and freeman 2009:80). even though freeman and freeman discuss ells in american schools, i believe that the recommendations also apply to ells in countries in which english is a foreign language such as in indonesia. teachers of english in indonesia, with limited resources, should be able to engage students in reading the english literary texts. what freeman & freeman recommend about the engagement models of instruction should become our consideration, even though, for instance, it is a great challenge to relate 16th or 17th century english literary works to the lives of indonesian students in this 21st century. regarding this, ernst-slavit et al. (2002:116) raise such questions: “how do we help ana learn about such complexities …? how can she begin to understand 16th century english when she is confused by 21st century english?” or, in porteus’s (2009:16) words, “how can we help to make a connection between a one-hundred-year-old novel and a sixteenyear-old student?” this is one of the major issues for indonesian students (even though they are no longer teenagers) in learning english and reading english literature: they have to understand 16th century english while they are confused by 21st century english. this is a really challenging task for us to motivate and engage them in reading the english canonical texts. several instructional choices looking back to my teaching english literary canon to my indonesian students, i realized that the limited resources i had did not make my teaching generate a maximum result. it is true that in the end, students had to be able to “say something” about the required books because they had to pass the final examination. but i wanted them to do more than just passing the exam. i wanted them to be motivated and engaged readers. even if they just wanted ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 111 to pass the exam, according to freeman & freeman (2009) i have cited above, they should have been motivated by this “knowledge goals,” because needed to have a good score. any literary text i gave to my students should have made them motivated. but that did not always happen. i had (and still have) to learn more how to motivate my students. by limited resources, i did not only mean the choices in literary texts to be given to students, but also the strategies of teaching i applied. for the latter, i did not have any professional resources to consult with. my colleagues and i had a lot of discussion about how to teach students better, how to motivate them to read more, and how to make them understand better the texts we gave to them. we taught students based on how we were taught. of course we learned a lot from our former teachers and we always learned from our interactions with students both inside and outside the classrooms, but they were not enough. we needed to update our methods and strategies of teaching literature. but, again, we did not have recent research from which we could learn (i often imagined our having good libraries, including online professional journals). the research i have been studying while i am a doctorate student at the university of iowa, therefore, gives me invaluable information about how to make instructional choices and apply them to my teaching in the future, even though my students, at some points, will always have problems with english. but at least, i can work better in how to motivate them to read and how to engage them in reading the required texts. in what follows, i lay out instructional choices that i can make and apply to my teaching later. diversity of reading materials research shows that successful teaching in reading starts with the diversity of reading materials (wilhelm 1997, tovani 2000, celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 112 bean et al. 1999, brozo et al. 2007). it is imperative for teachers of literature---if they want to engage their students in literary texts--to have various texts. learning from my past teaching, in the future i plan to give students more various texts, even though i have an assumption that the curriculum of the english department will still remain the same---we still have to give students the english literary canon. 7 however, i feel i need to make changes even though i agree with simon (2008) that challenging texts are necessary for students to successfully negotiate academic literary tasks. on the other hand, what wilhelm argues that we do not need “to stuff shakespeare down their throats like castor oil so they’ll hate it and never want to read him …” because “… we want to develop readers who love story and language and who will want to read and go to shakespearean plays in the future” (1997: 145) is more applicable to my students. therefore, when i return to my university teaching position, i will not only give my students challenging texts (i.e. the english literary canon), but also more recent literary texts which are less challenging, whether in content or in language. in particular, i will give my students what in the u.s. is called young adult literature. according to gallo (2001), there are hundreds of young adult books of good quality written by great writers.8 7 when i left for the u.s. in 2006, the english department curriculum had no room for literary texts other than the english canonical texts. 8 gallo (2001) contends that the followings are great writers:richard peck, robert cormier, chris crutcher, norma fox mazer, caroline cooney, bruce brooks, m. e. kerr, alden r. carter, will hobbs, walter dean myer, and many new writers. not everybody should necessarily agree with him about great young adult books and great writers. each of us may have different criteria for great books and great writers. nielsen & donelson (1993), carlsen (1980), and cart (1996), for instance, also have their criteria for the characteristic for the best of young adult literature. i can pair a literary text for young adult and a text that is considered as a part of the english literary canon. according to porteus (2009), pairing a young adult book with a classic means ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 113 “easing the pain of the classics.” for example, i can pair robert lipsyte’s the contender (1967) with richard wright’s black boy (1945). each book is about the lives of an african-american boy but the two main characters in the books live in different eras and places and both of them struggle for life. reading these two books, students will learn interracial relationships in american society in different settings of time. i can also pair john clinch’s finn (2008) with twain’s the adventures of huckleberry finn. finn “provides a back story for twain's original novel, with language that older teens will find more accessible than twain's dialect” (porteus 2009: 17). another example is to pair suzanne selfor’s saving juliet (2008) with shakespeare’s romeo and juliet. reading saving juliet will add students’ background knowledge of life in elizabethan times which is really important in understanding the context of the classic tragedy (porteus, 2009). this way i hope my students will be interested and become more engaged and motivated to read the english literary canon. before, during, and after-reading activities research shows that the success of teaching reading also depends on the strategies teachers use with their students before, during, and after reading (wilhelm 1997, tovani 2000, simon 2008, o’brien et al. 2007, l’allier and elish-piper 2007). these researchers proved that good strategies worked well in engaging even resistive and struggling readers to become engaged readers. therefore, i want to apply this to my teaching in the future. in general, these researchers agree that what teachers do before, during, and after reading is very crucial for the success of the teaching. what i mean by “success” in this case is not for the teachers’ sake, but mainly for the students’. with good or appropriate strategies, teachers not only make good readers better but also make struggling, unengaged readers engaged. the goal of celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 114 reading literature in the end is not only to make students understand the literary texts they read but also to create meaning out of them (wilhelm 1997, tovani 2000). both wilhelm and tovani agree that the background knowledge of students play a crucial role in making meaning. with such a goal, it is important for teachers to have a good plan in the first place. tovani (2000) suggests that teachers establish expectation before the teaching begins. in indonesian setting, this is usually a top-down approach, i.e. teachers expect students to do whatever teachers plan. there is only a little room for students to express what they want or what they expect. this is a common practice and i admit that i did this too. however, i learn from tovani that is it very crucial for teachers to listen to students’ expectation in the first place. by listening to students’ expectation, teachers can make any necessary plan for the success of the teaching. in pairing the contender and the black boy, for instance, i can ask them what they expect from the two books. on the other hand, i can tell my students that they, in addition to enjoying the stories, also need to pay attention to the similarities and differences of the two texts. after listening to students’ expectation, the next step is the pre-reading activities. many researchers recommend various interesting pre-reading activities. in general, the pre-reading activities are aimed at preparing students to reading the text(s) or, in wilhelm’s (1997) words, to enter the story world. according to wilhelm, if students fail to enter the story world, they will fail in their reading because they will not be able to create meaning from what they read. simon (2008) suggests that in teaching complicated texts such as the english literary canon, teachers use role-play as a pre-reading activity. simon asked her students to pair up acting as lily bart and lawrence selden in the beginning of the house of mirth to enter the story world. she did this because many of her students considered that the opening of the house of mirth is difficult to understand. meanwhile, good reads: reading guide ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 115 (n.d.) offers a different activity, i.e. thinking about a book. in this activity, teachers need to ask students to look at the book cover and title. teachers can further ask students to predict what kind of book they are going to read, what the book will be about, and also ask them to brainstorm the meaning of the word used as the title of the book. in simon case, for example, she could have asked her students to think about the meaning of the word mirth used in the title of the book. in my case, i can ask my students to think about the meaning of the word contender and to think about the phrase black boy. research shows that during-reading activities heighten students’ motivation and understanding of the book they read (wilhelm 1997, o’brien et al. 2007). they suggest that drama or dramatization of stories is good way at this stage to make students enter the story world and understand the stories more deeply (in this case, wilhelm is different from simon because he uses drama as a during-reading activity). in addition, wilhelm (1997) also suggests that art is a good activity to make students engaged with and understand the stories. meanwhile, good reads: reading guide (n.d.), calls the during-reading activities as “working with the book.” at this stage, teachers can ask students to pay attention in detail to characters, plot, and setting of the story. teachers can create clue charts for each element. for the discussion of characters, teachers can create a chart about “what the writer tells us, what the characters say, do, and think, and what others think and say about the characters” (wilhelm 1997:2). for the discussion of plot and setting, teachers can make similar charts with different clues. in asking students to fill out the charts, teachers need to make sure that students understand what plot and setting are and why they are important to the story. i can use these strategies to make my students more engaged and motivated in reading both the contender and the black boy. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 116 there are various postor after-reading activities. l’allier and ellish-piper (2007) offers alpha boxes. teachers provide students with boxes containing each alphabet. these boxes help summarize key ideas such as concepts, connections, and examples. this activity is especially useful when the required books are difficult or very difficult. teachers of canonical literature can use this activity to help students remember characters, plot, setting, or important events in a story. good reads: reading guide (n.d.) offers two interesting post-reading activities, i.e. talking about the book and writing about the book. teachers can ask students to write a quote or quotes from the book to talk or to write about. this activity is very important for students to remember important aspects of a story. i can apply these activities in teaching the contender and the black boy or finn and the adventures of huckleberry finn or saving juliet and romeo and juliet. in addition to the above activities, there is another important post-reading activity that teachers usually apply to the teaching of literature, i.e. ask students to make connections. wilhelm (1997), tovani (2000), and l’allier and ellish-piper (2007) suggest that students need to make text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world connections in order to make meaning out of the stories they read. for the text-to-self connection, for example, teachers can ask students to quote an event or a setting of a story and they can write “this reminds me of …” in my opinion, this activity can be used as both the during-reading and post-reading activities, depending on the emphasis placed by the teachers. at this point, the background knowledge of students will have a great impact on how they can connect the text to their lives. tovani (2000) argues that without connecting literary texts to their own lives, students will find it difficult to draw inferences because inferences cannot be found in the texts. without drawing inferences, students will fail to understand the meaning of literary texts they read. this is an interesting option for my future teaching. ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 117 these pre-reading, during-reading, and post-reading activities will be a great help for me to make my students more motivated and engaged. i did not recall i used these strategies in detail in the past teaching. but in the future, i will apply these activities in detail by having a good plan in advance. with a good plan in advance, students will know what to do so they can prepare well. they will be aware of the teacher’s expectation and know what to expect from the teacher and from the texts. in addition, i may use the combination between what good reads: reading guide (n.d.) offers and what wilhelm, tovani, or l’allier & ellish-piper propose. i can ask students to think about the pair of texts before we start reading them, and then i can ask them to do role-plays to understand certain characters during our reading, and after we finish reading the texts, i can ask them to talk about the books, or to write about them, or to make any connections to their lives, to other texts, or to any thing that they think is important and/or interesting. having that said, i will have “something” i did not have in the past. in my past teaching, when the strategies i used did not work, the teaching ended up becoming a one-man-show: students asked me what they wanted to know or students expected me to know anything they wanted to know. there are times when teachers do not know what students want to know. let alone, literary texts may have different meanings for different persons: everyone reading a literary text may come up with different meanings and understandings. i answered as best i could every time my students asked a question about our reading. theorist or researchers do not recommend this one-man-show way of teaching. according to wilhelm (1997), in this way i did not help my students become active readers. when students do not find the meaning of any literary texts they read by themselves, the teaching of literature fails. now i have choices to heighten my students’ motivation and engagement in reading the english literary texts (i no longer will restrict my teaching to texts that are part of the celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 118 english literary canon). by heightening their motivation and engagement, i want my students to become “readers who know the power of the literary experience” (wilhelm, 1997, p. 145). according to wilhelm, these kinds of readers will always return to read literature and enjoy it. they are the kinds of readers every teacher wants to have. conclusion this paper is both a reflection on what i did in the past and a reference for what i am going to do in the future as a teacher of the english literary canonical texts to my indonesian non-native english speakers. the research i have been studying helps me to see what did not go well in my past teaching. at the same time, the research gives me confidence and hope that my future teaching should improve. the research especially provides me with invaluable information about what strategies students and i, as a teacher, should use in order that the teaching of the english canonical texts might be more successful. references bean, t. w., p.c. valerio, h. money sr., and f. white. “secondary english students’ engagement in reading and writing about a multicultural novel.” in the journal of educational research, vol. 93, no. 1, 1999: 32 – 37. brozo, w. g., g. shiel and k. topping. “engagement in reading: lessons learned from three pisa countries.” in journal of adolescent & adult literacy, vol. 51, no. 4, 2007: 304 –315. carlsen, g. r. books and the teenage reader. new york: harper and row publishers, 1980. ybm slamet, instructional choices to heighten indonesian motivation 119 cart, m. from romance to realism: 50 years of growth and change in young adult literature. new york: harper collins publishers, 1996. ernst-slavit, g., m. moore, and c. maloney. “changing lives: teaching english and literature to esl students.” in journal of adolescent and adult literacy, vol. 46, no. 2, 2002: 116 –123. fowler, a. “genre and the literary canon”. in new literary history, vol. 11, no.1, 1979: 97 – 119. freeman, y. s. and d.e. freeman. academic language for english language learners and struggling readers: how to help students succeed across content areas. portsmouth, nh: heinemann, 2009. good reads: reading guide. (n.d.). edmonton, canada: grass roots press. in http://www.grassrootsbooks.net/pdf/reading-guideset.pdf#page=63 guthrie, j.t. and a. wigfield. “engagement and motivation in reading”. in handbook of reading research editted by m.l. kamil, p.b. mosenthal, p.d. pearson and r. barr, vol. 3, 2000: 403 – 422. guthrie, j. t. and m.h. davis, m. h. “motivating struggling readers in middle school through an engagement model of classroom practice”. in reading and writing quarterly, vol. 19, 2003: 59-85. l’allier, s. k. and l. elish-piper. “walking the walk” with teacher education candidates: strategies for promoting active engagement with assigned readings”. in journal of adolescent and adult literacy, vol. 50, no. 5, 2007: 338 –353. mcelvain, c. m. “transactional literature circles and the reading comprehension of english learners in the mainstream classroom”. in journal of research in reading, vol. 33, no. 2, 2010: 178-205. nilsen, a. p. and l.d. kenneth. literature for today’s young adults. 4th ed. new york: harper collin college publishers, 1993. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 101 – 120 120 o’brien, d., r. beach, and c. scharber. “struggling middle schoolers: engagement and literate competence in a reading writing intervention class”. in reading psychology, vol. 28, 2007: 51 – 73. porteus, k. “easing the pain of the classics”. in young adult library services, 2009: 16 – 18. simon, l. “i wouldn’t choose it, but i don’t regret reading it: scaffolding students’ engagement with complex texts”. in journal of adolescent and adult literacy, vol. 52, no. 2, 2008: 134 – 143. tovani, c. i read it, but i don't get it: comprehension strategies for adolescent readers. portland, me: stenhouse publishers, 2000. wigfield, a., j.t. guthrie, k.c. perencevich, a. taboada, s.l. klauda, a. mcrae, and p. barbosa. “role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension instruction on reading outcomes”. in psychology in the schools, vol. 45, no. 5, 2008: 432 – 445. 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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/pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial issues in american indigenous poetry bayu kristanto english department, faculty of humanities, university of indonesia, depok, west java, indonesia email: baladewabayu@gmail.com received: 15-06-2019 accepted: 05-07-2019 published: 31-07-2019 mailto:baladewabayu@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial issues in american indigenous poetry bayu kristanto baladewabayu@gmail.com english department, faculty of humanities, university of indonesia, depok, west java, indonesia abstract: the integration of the personal and the political has been an engaging topic in analyses of literary texts by authors whose works are known for their political content and activism, as well as an emphasis on social justice. literary audiences in the united states have been familiar with joy harjo and john trudell, two well-known contemporary indigenous poets, who have voiced out the concerns of indigenous people in the face of colonization and injustice happening in their homeland. within the fusion of the personal and the political, as well as the mythical, the idea of transformation is paramount for indigenous authors since to move from the state of being colonized to one of being decolonized, transformation is undoubtedly crucial. this paper focuses on the role of memory and the power of language in the process of transformation in the three poems by joy harjo and john trudell. the analysis uses a qualitative methodology in the form of a close reading of literary texts to uncover the interconnectedness of memory and language in transformation. i argue that native poets experience personal transformation that is critically influenced by the role of ancestral memory and social and historical consciousness in the broader context of indigenous people‟s struggle and resistance, as well as the power of language to see reality differently and affect its change. the analysis is intended to show to what extent the concepts of memory and language are critical in the process of decolonization and the manners in which these texts can be empowering for both indigenous and non-indigenous audiences in response to forms of injustice through the integration of the personal, the political, and the mythical. key words: transformation, memory, language, indigenous, colonization kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 43 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: integrasi unsur-unsur yang bersifat personal dan politis merupakan topik penelitian yang menarik dalam teks-teks sastra yang ditulis oleh para pengarang yang dikenal luas karena muatan dan aktivisme politik yang kental dalam karya-karya mereka. termasuk di dalamnya adalah adanya penekanan akan pentingnya terwujudnya keadilan sosial bagi seluruh umat manusia. pembaca sastra di amerika serikat mengenal dengan baik joy harjo dan john trudell, dua penyair pribumi kontemporer amerika yang kerap menyuarakan keprihatinan kaum pribumi menghadapi kolonisasi dan bentuk-bentuk ketidakadilan yang terjadi di tanah leluhur mereka. dengan menyatunya unsur-unsur personal dan politis, sekaligus unsur-unsur mitis, konsep transformasi menjadi sesuatu yang fundamental bagi para pengarang pribumi karena transformasi dibutuhkan dalam proses perubahan dari kondisi masyarakat terjajah menjadi tidak terjajah. fokus makalah ini adalah pada peran memori dan bahasa dalam proses transformasi yang terdapat dalam tiga puisi karya joy harjo dan john trudell. analisis dilakukan menggunakan metode kualitatif berupa pembacaan dekat teks-teks sastra untuk mengungkap keterlindanan konsep memori dan peran bahasa dalam proses transformasi. argumen utama makalah ini adalah bahwa para penyair pribumi amerika mengalami transformasi personal yang secara kritis dipengaruhi oleh peran memori leluhur serta kesadaran sosial-historis dalam konteks perjuangan kaum pribumi melawan kolonisasi dan ketidakadilan, sekaligus peran kekuatan bahasa yang memampukan mereka untuk memahami kenyataan dengan cara berbeda serta menciptakan perubahan nyata. analisis menunjukkan bahwa konsep-konsep memori dan peran bahasa menjadi faktor-faktor krusial dalam proses dekolonisasi serta bagaimana teks-teks sastra memiliki kekuatan untuk memberdayakan para pembacanya, baik pribumi maupun non-pribumi, sebagai respons terhadap bentukbentuk ketidakadilan melalui integrasi unsur-unsur personal, politis, maupun mitis. kata kunci: transformation, memory, language, indigenous, colonization introduction on being asked whether she sees her work as political, joy harjo responds by saying: everything is political, whether you choose to see it that way or not. i‟ve weathered fierce tribal politics, canoe club politics, music, poetry, and everything has politics. with whatever you say or do you are making a stand, one way or the other. and even that you are saying or doing 44 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj something makes a stand nevins, b. (2011). writing, constructing the next world: interview with bill nevins. soul talk, soul language: conversations with joy harjo. joy harjo and tanaya winder. middletown, connecticut: wesleyan university press.indeed, joy harjo‟s poetry is what we would call political as she addresses crucial issues facing native people and women, people and women of colour, and other marginalized people. we will find constant references to the history of colonization of indigenous people, the violence upon the ancestral land, sexism and abuses of women, as well as the importance of connection with the land and ancestors. joy harjo and other native poets have such a close engagement with these diverse social issues as well as indigenous people‟s collective memory (including references to elements of indigenous people‟s oral tradition and sacred narratives). therefore, i argue that the words “the political” are inappropriate to describe their concerns with the history of colonization and contemporary social justice issues faced by native and other disadvantaged people. the political refers more to efforts by individuals and groups to achieve their objectives that are related more to individual and sectarian interests. we would call the political, the efforts by some political leaders to attain certain governmental positions. we would also call the political efforts by israeli lobbyists to persuade u.s. senators and members of the house of representatives to keep supporting israel‟s political endeavour to persistently block the acknowledgement of the sovereignty of the nation of palestine by the world. calling joy harjo and other native poets‟ poetry as political would reduce the significance of indigenous people‟s ongoing concerns with the disenfranchisement of their community, land, and culture. the use of the longer phrase “social and historical consciousness and ancestral memory” is preferable to refer to what the non-indians call the political when addressing poetry by indigenous poets. for these poets, there is no separation between the personal and social and historical consciousness as well as ancestral memory. these different aspects have been woven together to create a distinct category of poetry in which the personal and the political have become one and crucially inseparable. following up harjo‟s contention, when everything is political, then everything that sounds personal in her poems is also political. at the same time, as harjo and other native poets are addressing personal issues in their poems, they are also addressing the broader issues of social injustice facing native people. similarly, at the same time as these poets are talking about the personal, they are bringing social and historical consciousness as well as indigenous people‟s memory in their poems. kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 45 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interestingly, joy harjo integrates not only the personal and the political, but also, according to pettit, “the political and the mystical” as they “merge in a fusion of styles, genres, and techniques in harjo‟s poetry” pettit, r. (1998). joy harjo. boise, idaho: boise state university presswith such an integration, “boundaries between the physical and spiritual worlds dissolve; animate and inanimate objects are inter-connected and sacred, time ceases to be linear” (pettit, 1998, p. 6). with the dissolution of such boundaries, harjo, as well as other native poets, can transcend the confinement of the personal to move and grasp the greater context of the concerns of the community. the blending of the personal and social consciousness, as well as collective memory, is a significant element in native american poetry. this paper is aimed at analysing three poems by joy harjo and john trudell, focusing on the issue of transformation. i argue that native poets experience personal transformation that is critically influenced by the role of ancestral memory and social and historical consciousness in the wider context of indigenous people‟s struggle and resistance, as well as the power of language to see reality differently and affect its change. their poems that address the personal issue of transformation is pivotally related to ancestral memory as it has informed and inspired their creative and artistic expressions. indeed, these poets find significant emotional sustenance by referencing and incorporating elements of ancestral memory through their poems, and by making strategic use of poetic language. the analysis will focus on the poems “i give you back” (also titled “fear poem”) and “transformations” by joy harjo (2002), and the poem “iktomi” (also titled “i flew with the eagles”) by trudell (2008). literature review pettit mentions that on reading audre lorde‟s poems, harjo learned about the importance and close connection among survival, memory, and language, which would manifest very clearly in her poem “anchorage” (pettit, 1998, p. 19). the use of repetition in much of her poetry is also indicative of the tendency in native american ceremony to make use of “the hypnotic effect of repetition to achieve fusion and transformation among members of the community” (allen, quoted by pettit, 1998, p. 25). indeed, there is a crucial connection between the use of repetition and one of its main objectives, which is to effect transformation both for the poet and the reader. repetition has many functions, one of which is to lead the poet and the reader in meditative mode and contemplative process, leading toward 46 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj transformation that the poet expects to happen through poetry. pettit also observes that in harjo‟s poem “explosion,” the notion of “explosion” and “violent birth” of horses implies the “possibility of transformation” utilizing statements with the word “then” which are “mythologized” and illustrate the global travel of the horses (pettit, 1998, p. 26). in another poem by harjo, “deer dancer,” the language of myth is an important element of the poem, as we witness a tribal woman who gets on top of a table and starts to dance naked. she “shook loose memory,” and is transformed into a figure that “offers the hope of transformation” for other frequent visitors of the bar, who are “indian ruins” and “broken survivors” (pettit, 1998, p. 31). pettit also highlights that transformation for harjo also happens through poetry itself (1998, p. 37). poetry has “transformative power” which poets can utilize to transform and heal themselves, as well as inspire the reader to conduct and undergo the same experience. when being interviewed by greg sarris on the necessity to love and understand through the power of poetry, harjo responds that “what poetry taught me … is how to break through and how to make it through” griggs (1996). sarris‟ question and harjo‟s statement are meant to address the issue of crossing and breaking through cultural boundaries in harjo‟s poems. however, i contend that it is also applicable to the notion of transformation, which is the idea that poetry enables poets and readers to break through things, i.e. through the solid wall of impossibility and rigidity. this act of breaking through would lead toward the necessary transformation. the idea of transformation is essentially the act of breaking through things, i.e. only by breaking the existing barriers, either personal, cultural, or political, that transformation is possible. transformation is also possible in poetry since the act, and art, of poetry writing, is fundamentally the act of opening up things or opening things aside so that new paths and possibilities become visible. it is interesting to note that harjo acknowledges that it was not she who came to poetry, but it was poetry that came to her in a certain point in her life when she was much overcome by desperation and inarticulateness: “poetry came to me and said in a period of great testing, „you are a poor thing. you don‟t have any grace. you don‟t know how to listen. you don‟t know how to talk. you really need me. … poetry has taken and taught me how to break through weaknesses and language” griggs (1996). as she accepted the invitation of poetry, she experienced a profound transformation when a new world opened up, and she found her true self and integrity through poetic writing. because transformation is crucial in harjo‟s poetry, pettit describes it as “a poetics of transformation,” as she observes that kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 47 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj through “the right words,” i.e. poetry, “grace and love and change [i.e. transformation, my emphasis] are possible if the integrity of language can be restored and maintain” pettit (1998). goodman in “politics and the personal lyric in the poetry of joy harjo and c.d. wright” is interested in the personal and the political in harjo‟s poems. more specifically, she is intrigued by the ways in which “innovations in poetic form can heighten and even change poet‟s and reader‟s consciousness of the language and other symbols that frame public life” goodman (1994) goodman makes an interesting commentary on harjo‟s poems, saying that “harjo … [is] writing consciously political poems that are also personal.” however, her personal poems (the ones in which she grapples with personal issues) are not constricted by what we usually refer to as “the limits of the private poems” (goodman, 1994, p. 40). indeed, what harjo does is making “innovative combinations of experimental poetics, political statement, and autobiographical lyric,” working on “personal voice, politics, and experimental change.” harjo‟s poetry cannot be separated from her “political concerns” (goodman, 1994, p. 40). her “poetic freedom” is, at the same time, her “political freedom” (goodman, 1994, p. 44). goodman contends further that harjo‟s collection of poems she had some horses is replete with eroticism, where there are “connections between the politics of love and sex and the public politics” (goodman, 1994, p. 44). again, the word “political” is heavily loaded, and in this statement, it has to be understood more as the consciousness of and engagement with social and historical realities instead of referring only to efforts to achieve certain objectives in the realm of politics. central within such intersection is the notion of transformation, in this case, the transformation of “the available forms for political and personal-poetic expression” (goodman, 1994, p. 49). thus, by eliminating the boundaries between the personal and the political, what happened is a transformation in the ways we understand personal-poetic and political expressions. however, how is this argument related to individual transformation experienced by the poet and expressed in her poetry? goodman contends that the poet‟s personal experiences “become linked to a larger story through references to the horrors of the past,” which could mean that native poets‟ expressions of transformation in their poems are always closely connected to the more significant concerns with the history of oppression and social injustice. at the same time, transformation is related to ancestral memory as a remembrance of the past injustices is always connected to how ancestors responded to the colonization of their land and community. indigenous myths and memories always find incongruity as they encounter the colonized 48 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj landscape, and this led to the necessity, as harjo sees it, to transform the “poetic and political materials” (goodman, 1994, p. 50). thus, we can see in harjo‟s poetry the integration of personal voice, indigenous elements of storytelling, and statements of history and politics [i.e. social and communal consciousness] that she observes as consistently relevant (goodman, 1994, p. 50). in this case, issues of personal transformation become crucially linked to politics and ancestral memory. therefore, there is an interesting dynamic in harjo‟s poetry, which we can also see to be significantly at play in john trudell‟s and other indigenous poets. the need to transform language and poetic materials and to reconstruct the existing boundaries goes hand in hand with the making of connections between the reality of personal transformation and social justice and the role of memory. memory is “what literally gives form to our present world”bryon (2005) bryson (2005). in a commentary about john trudell, lee (2007) quotes womack who argues that “the idea behind ceremonial chant is that language, spoken in the appropriate ritual contexts, will actually cause a change in the physical universe” (2007, p. 93). the element of chanting and repetition is an important characteristic of trudell‟s poems, which i believe is intentionally incorporated as trudell‟s lyrical lines are part of the musical aspect of his poetic performance. repetition also assists him and the reader to engage in a contemplative process because chanting and repetition affect reality in a critical manner. in essence, “repetition as a chant can effect transformation” kosolov (2003). furthermore, i observe that trudells‟ poems are both strongly political and strongly personal, which indicates the inseparability between these two aspects of his poetry. this idea is underscored by landrum who argues that “at the same time john trudell‟s career is both an individual and collective act of sovereignty as he breaks out of the liminal universe that attempts to keep him rooted on the reservation and in the past” [my emphasis] (2012, p. 201). since the individual and collective acts of sovereignty are so closely intertwined in his poems, with the past, i.e. the collective memory, always informing his creative process, trudell‟s poems of personal transformation engage intimately with social and historical consciousness as well as ancestral memory. interestingly, despite the intense tone of anger that we find in much of his poetry, at the centre of that anger is not hatred but love. as trudell himself states: “no matter what they ever do to us, we must always act for the love of our people and the earth. we must not react out of hatred against those who have no sense” igliori (1994). indeed, it is love that, as gould kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 49 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj states, makes possible “alteration of consciousness” (2000, p. 145). harjo, in like manner, “turns her attention to the possibility of bringing love into the world as a positive force for social and political change” in the face of violence and injustice, and this is possible “when there is a change of heart among people” gould (2000). love underpins poetic expressions of anger, the personal will always be entwined with the political. the political is incorporated with the motive of profound love, i.e. the love of humanity and the love toward his own people whose life and land have been disrupted by colonization, and is now continuously disrupted by advanced capitalism. the element of love in the poetry of transformation is significant as it underscores the need to find love within hatred, as well as “the eternal within the temporal” (kolosov, 2003, p. 39). kolosov contends that poetry of transformation “disavows the submergence of memory to include overlapping time frames, where physical and spiritual realities brush up against each other, and the speaker of the poem reveals herself/himself to embody a host of other voices and identities: past, present, and future” (2003, p. 39). what poetry of transformation does is “offer a powerful alternative,” that is, offer “the readers as well as the writers a way out of fear, hatred, suffering, and passivity,” breaking the confinement of “displacement” and “victimisation” (kolosov, 2003, p. 39). regarding the notion of breaking down boundaries, kolosov quoted womack who observes that during the last twenty years, i.e. from 1983 to 2003 (kolosov‟s essay was published in 2003), harjo‟s poems have become “increasingly interior and complex,” marked significantly by the dissolution of barriers between the personal and mythical (kolosov, 2003, p. 40). love empowers the poet to obtain the power and vision “to transform hatred and persecution” (kolosov, 2003, pp. 42-43). indeed, harjo “find[s] sustenance in myth” (kolosov, 2003, p. 45). these arguments underscore my contention that harjo‟s process of personal transformation is closely linked to social consciousness and ancestral memory, i.e. references to myth and the blending between the mythical and the real worlds. instead of creating a rift between the personal and the political, such a strategy results in a “unified poetic utterance,” as lang argues: “harjo‟s past memories and present experiences seamlessly fuse together within individual poems, and when read together as a group, her poems construct in the reader‟s mind a single consistent, cohesive, and unified poetic utterance” lang (1993). the discussion above has shown a number of analyses conducted on joy harjo‟s focusing on the idea of transformation. however, there is a critical lack of discussion on the poems written by john trudell that centre around the concept of transformation. john trudell is known as a political activist as 50 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj well as an artist and poet, and he is known more for his political speeches and political content in his poems. critical discussion is crucially missing that engages with the manners in which the personal, the political, and the mythical are interconnected in trudell poems. this analysis is meant to close that gap by juxtaposing joy harjo and john trudell to see how the personal and the political, the real and the mythical, memory and facts, language and ideas, and how they all contribute to the act of transformation play an essential role in their poems. methodology this paper utilises a qualitative methodology in the form of a close reading of literary texts. the analysis focuses on the ideas of memory and the power of language as they are manifested in the three poems by joy harjo and john trudell. it engages with various poetic devices used by the poets, and it endeavours to reveal how these devices are used to shed light on the two ideas or concepts mentioned above. the poems are read analytically and critically to emphasise the poets‟ engagement with those crucial concepts and to what extent the poems are empowering to both indigenous and non-indigenous audiences. results and discussion harjo‟s poem “transformations” (see appendix 2) centres essentially on the idea of coping with hatred. it is interesting to note that while harjo‟s coping with fear ends in the act of re-inviting fear in “i give you back,” (see appendix 1) there is a sense of duality and paradox as hatred is depicted as a beautiful woman that is standing close to us. i would like to discuss the poem “transformations” in critical juxtaposition with the poem “i give you back.” “i give you back” traces harjo‟s personal journey to release herself from fear, and while the poem is highly personal, there are no boundaries between the personal and the political since her journey is connected to the wider context of colonisation and deprivation of indigenous people that has happened for generations. the political has become deeply personal, as her personal has become crucially political. interestingly, in this poem, she takes control of the historical reality of colonization and genocide. the poem emphasises her agency in the form of the act of returning fear, or its effects, to its original owner. there is a reference to colonization in its extreme form that has become a memorable part of the collective memory, manifesting in words kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 51 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj such as “beheaded,” “raped,” “sodomized,” and “burned” (stanza 3). these are words and images that represent different stages or periods of colonization, such as massacres and destructions of indian villages, the boarding school history, the removal stories of the trail of tears and the long walk, the bia corruption, as well as marginalisation and appropriation imposed upon indigenous communities and cultures. what happens in the third and fourth stanzas is a condensation of the entire history of dispossession of native people in the americas. the mentioning of this reality is important since it is a way to counter forgetfulness, a prominent theme in harjo‟s poetry. it signifies that the colonization of native people was harsh and extremely violent, comparable to contemporary reality such as the genocide of the jewish people and the extermination of the unwanted segment of the society during the rule of the pol pot‟s regime in cambodia (curiously, her poem “the end” was written in reference to the death of pol pot). she also emphasizes continuity through memory since she did not experience all these terrible things herself, but she carries it within her psyche, underscoring the role of ancestral memory in integrating the past into the present. by saying “because you hold // these scenes in front of me and i was born // with eyes that can never close” (stanza 4), harjo is conveying the idea that the memories cannot be erased and continue to affect her generation as well as the future generations. these generations will always deal with these terrible memories (“with eyes that can never close”). it is at this point that we see the crucial role of memory for harjo as it “connects her to everything else; memory makes place, keeping her aware of her relationship to all things” (bryson, 2005, p. 61). interestingly, harjo chose not to reveal the more current causes of her fear, such as divorce, poverty, emotional instability, domestic abuse, and motherhood, because, i argue, she wanted to emphasize the impact of ancestral memory and intergenerational trauma in the creation and preservation of fear. what i also found interesting is that harjo intentionally situated this negative memory in the middle of a process of transformation, i.e. near or toward the middle of the poem, which indicates that what is taking place is a process of containment. indeed, it is a process of containment that is leading toward a decisive turning point. what appears next in the poem is the repetition of “i release you” and “i am not afraid” (stanzas 5 and 6), underscoring the employment of repetition as a containment strategy. repeating these lines is comparable to hitting something repeatedly with a hammer, signifying an intense, highly concentrated physical action, illustrating a crucial enactment of agency in the process of containment. the poet is 52 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj holding a hammer, pounding on the very thing that has caused her psychological instability, i.e. fear. we could also picture somebody using a stick to beat a drum, resulting in a regular beat and profound influence of musicality in a psychological grappling with a terrible reality. the use of active verbs such as “release” in “i release you” implies the making of decisive actions, instead of the use of imploring expression such as “release me.” in this poem, ancestral memory is located at a crossroad, which underlines the process transformation, as well as relationality, referring to the preservation of connection to the ancestors and the broader context of the community, going beyond the boundary of the individual. therefore, in this poem, harjo is showcasing the process of transformation through reference to ancestral memory, signalling its importance, as well as situating the negative realities within the framework of containment. i argue that in this poem, we witness the cause and the effect of fear, as well as its resolution. interestingly, it is not a statement of a permanent good-riddance of fear; instead, after the poet has acquired the power to gain victory over fear, she invites fear back now that she has the ability to contain it and to use it for her benefit: “but come here, fear, // i am alive, and you are so afraid // of dying” (stanza 11). on being asked how she grappled with fear as expressed through this poem, harjo emphasizes the continuity of fear as it is carried on through successive generations: sometimes i feel that it‟s a fear linked up to generations and that we all carry it. i think of my mother and what she lived through in coming out of extreme poverty, and i understand what‟s been passed on to me and what was passed on to her and so on. just as there is a love that gets transmitted, there‟s probably a fear that gets transmitted, too. so when i come up against it, i sometimes feel that it‟s fear engendered in many of us. what i am touching on in this poem [referring to “i give you back”] is a fear for a force that includes generations of warfare, slaughter, and massacre. i am thinking especially of america. moyers (1995). such an acknowledgement underscores the idea that for harjo, as well as other native poets, what is the personal constitutes the political, or part of the social consciousness, and consciousness of social and historical realities inform the personal. furthermore, by inviting the fear back instead of creating a safe distance from it, what harjo is doing is essentially making fear “an ally instead of just an enemy” (moyers, 1995, p. 167). instead of rejecting fear outright, she is kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 53 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj trying, as she mentions it herself, “to understand this destructive force, and in some way, to take it into myself. otherwise, it‟s always going to be the enemy. if it‟s out there, it will always be your enemy, and it will always be following you around” (moyers, 1995, p. 167). thus, what we observe happening in this poem is a process of transformation that includes the causes and effects of the problem, as well as its resolution. this resolution includes not only the release of fear, but also a critical strategy of containment by making fear an ally to benefit the poet, instead of building a solid, impenetrable boundary between herself and fear. the enemy has become an ally because as an ally an enemy is much less potent than as a directly confrontational entity. to think of fear as both an enemy and an ally, and the act of going back and forth between these opposing sides is like thinking like a spiral winn (2013), which is a going back and forth that moves forward. a spiral is used “to symbolize the kind of memory … that is not going backwards [; rather, memory is] non-linear [and it] diffuses the hegemony harjo works against” (winn, 2013, p. 4). the spirals in harjo‟s poems “serve as an alternative architecture for her mythic return, replacing the more linear pecking order of the traditional chain-of-being-myth” (bryson, 2005, p. 57). moving back into the past, for harjo, is “simultaneously and paradoxically a movement into the future” (bryson, 2005, p. 58). indeed, it could be said that it is through the movement of a spiral that traces back and embraces the mythic world that transformation is possible for harjo. while harjo invites and embraces fear in “i give you back,” the poem “transformations” is an open letter to her enemy, which is hatred. this enemy may mark its victim by piercing his/her eye with a “splintered bone,” but harjo argues that such an act of violence will not enable hatred to be able to identify its victim. i think this line refers to the idea that hatred always wants to be part of a human being or a community, but it can never do so since hatred can never be an integral part of an individual or community. hatred will remain a foreign being and is disunited from human beings. interestingly, harjo does not evoke the memory of violence to underscore one of the primary causes of hatred; instead, she mentions that “memory has many forms.” the sudden appearance of this sentence right after naming or identifying hatred, without any transitional idea in between, refers to the close connection between hatred and its causes. harjo is saying that our hatred is often created by our memory that appears in different forms. the image that comes after this sentence is “a blackbird laughing in the frozen air; guards a piece of light.” the image of a bird, or a blackbird, appears quite frequently in harjo‟s poems. the blackbird could be an image of death since this is the bird that visits a house at the moment when there is a death in the family. the 54 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj blackbird makes loud noises around a house where a family lives, and this happens right before the family hears news of the passing away of a family member or relative. this mythical bird may be the animal that escorts the soul of the departed to the next realm. we often hate the blackbird for the bad news that it brings, and for the sense of death and darkness that it conveys, intensified by the far-from-beautiful coarse voice that it makes. however, when being asked by greg sarris why she likes using the images of a blackbird or a crow in her poems, harjo replies that crows are tricksters. crows are smart animals that like to hang around garbage dumps, and they are smart because they know what human beings throw away as garbage, which they can identify as food (griggs, 1996). indeed, crows are capable of judging and evaluating human beings, while human beings are often incapable of doing it for themselves. for harjo, the blackbird is part of her memory, and this memory is the memory of an intelligent animal that has inspired human beings. in many indigenous communities, the crow is a trickster figure which is respected for its intelligence or its cunning smartness. reading references to mythical animals in harjo‟s poems, “[p]eople need to recall the mythic world when self and nature were not distinct entities, but rather one interdependent and symbiotic organism” (bryson, 2005, p. 54). thus, in the face of hatred, harjo is evoking the trickster, and i believe that the trickster, which is part of ancestral and collective memory, has cunning and peculiar strategies that can help individuals and communities in the fight against hatred. i contend that the image of the blackbird laughing in this poem is comparable to the image of ko-sahn which suddenly appears to momaday (1998), in the middle of his writing process, which can be read in his seminal work “the man made of words” (1998). oddly, ko-sahn has inspired momaday by blending reality and imagination and by underscoring the importance of the remembered earth or memory of the land. the use of ancestral memory equips us with an intelligent and strategic power to cope with hatred since this is the power that enables us to “laugh” even in the face of profound hatred. the crow is also described as “guard[ing] a piece of light,” which refers to the idea that our ancestral memory provides us with a clear direction in our journey in life in the face of many challenges, that is, when we have to walk in the realm of darkness, and when we have to deal with anger. interestingly, when the blackbird is laughing, “the whole world [is] caught in that sound [and] the sun stopped for a moment because of tough belief.” this should be understood as a moment of decisive action when the trickster is inspiring us with how we can face hatred. the laughing of the kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 55 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj blackbird is a critical moment because laughing indicates the release of high energy, and with such a release of energy, we are empowered to deal with hatred courageously. in a way, the ability to laugh amid a terrible event is equal to the ability to sing in the middle of a tragedy. indeed, a lot of indigenous people cope with tragedy with song. on being asked on the reason why a character who is severely tortured keeps on singing in the poem “returning from the enemy,” harjo recalls a terrible event that she read in the new yorker magazine, i.e. a massacre in el salvador: men were taken out and shot, and women and children herded into a church and burned. other women and girls were hunted down in the fields, then raped and killed. the one survivor told the story of how she watched all of this, hidden in the field. the most beautiful girl of all of them was singled out for heavy and violent rape. in the middle of her degradation she sang. she went down singing. to take what was meant to destroy her and turn it into song is one of the most powerful acts i have been witness to, and i was witness to it in a story that was printed in the new yorker (harjo & winder, 2011, p. 12). i imagine that the act of singing and the act of laughing in the face of a terrible event and tragedy are similar in nature. it is the ability of the most intense kind to deal with the most difficult of challenges. it is energy so high that it is almost impossible to produce. the strongest individual who can do it necessarily becomes the strongest human being on earth. the beautiful girl who was raped is undoubtedly the strongest woman, both physically and psychologically. i believe that when the girl was capable of singing in the face of violent rape, instead of being wholly consumed by hatred of the most profound nature, she was bringing to her mind the things that could sustain her. she was bringing into her mind the memory of her people, the ancestral memory, as well as the strength that she learned from the stories and lessons learned from her people. i assume that the girl strongly believed that she, and her people, would never be destroyed even in the most brutal form of degradation. such a conviction sustained her, and it enabled her to sing instead of cry. the power to withstand such a tribulation comes from memory, i argue, and the memory of the trickster, going back to the poem “transformations,” offers members of a community the strength to deal with the problem in an uncanny way. searching for the most difficult possibility in the midst of circumstances produces an almost total guarantee of impossibility. quite similar to what we read in “i give you back,” which is also known as “fear poem,” transformation could happen through the act of writing. indeed, the writing of poetry provides us, and harjo, with a way to 56 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cope with fear: “i know you can turn a poem into something else.” the title “fear poem” can be understood in at least four different ways. firstly, it implies that it is a poem about fear and directed toward fear. also, it refers to her struggle to defeat fear, which is a process of healing. thirdly, it refers to the poetic process of writing the poem, which implies that the fight to release fear creates the structure of the poem. lastly, and most importantly, it refers to the power of art and poetry as creative energy to subdue fear. the title “fear poem” could be read as “be afraid of poem.” similarly, hatred in “transformations,” instead of being fought against upfront, could be used as a source of energy. instead of being consumed by hatred, harjo is suggesting that we use it as a creative power: “what i mean is that hatred can be turned into something else, if you have the right words, the right meanings, buried in that tender place in your heart where the most precious animals live.” these “right words” with the “right meanings” are poetry, and we can find them in the deepest chamber of our heart, where our “most precious animals,” a symbol of ancestral memory and memory of the land or the remembered earth, are safely kept. i believe that the right place of our memory of ancestors and of the land is in our heart, instead of in our head. thus, the power of poetry is combined with ancestral memory to create the power that empowers us for transformation. interestingly, in the final part of the poem, harjo seems to refer back to what she has said at the beginning of the poem, and this is exactly what makes the poem come full circle. instead of believing that hatred often cannot be identified, we see hatred in the form of a “beautiful” “dark woman” that “has been talking to you for years.” while the pronoun “you” at the beginning of the poem seems to be addressed to hatred, the “you” in the final part of the poem seems to be addressed to the reader. she identifies the hatred as appearing in our nightmare, but there is an interesting paradox because we find hatred “in the middle of a nightmare” as well as “from the center of miracles,” which implies that hatred is not exactly our enemy as it may be one of the miracles in life which we will appreciate. hatred is embodied as a dark woman, but she is a beautiful woman, which is another interesting paradox. the very last line is the most profound: “this is your hatred back. she loves you.” hatred, regardless of how negative its influence upon us is, can become an intimate lover. it is crucial to underline that for harjo, “transformation embodies the least resistance to hatred, a coming to terms with those who would destroy her, a transition and transcendence” haseltine (2006). kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 57 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hatred is transformed from negative to positive when we are empowered to see things in a different way, or from a new fresh perspective. our ancestral memory, as well as our belief in the power of words to affect reality, are the instruments with which we can develop such an ability. it should be emphasized that harjo‟s “non-linear perception of memory allows her to present [native american traditions,][which we can find in great amount in her poetry,] as ongoing processes persisting into the future[, and it is] through stories and memories that she finds ways of empowerment” antene (2012). while fear and hatred are what joy harjo grapples within her two poems above, in the case of john trudell, craziness seems to be a personal issue that appears in a number of his poems, although the causes such craziness are mostly not made clear. in his poem “iktomi,” also titled “i flew with the eagles,” (see appendix 3) the first stanza offers several possibilities regarding the causes of his madness: “i flew with the eagles // until i fell from the nest // i ran with the wolves // then got lost from the pack” (stanza 1). it is possible to understand from these lines that the cause of his craziness may be his separation from his people or community, which makes him an estranged individual since often it is a connection with our people that sustains us and gives us a sense of identity and purpose or meaningful existence. it could also be a separation from a group to which he used to belong (probably the american indian movement or aim), which gave him a sense of place, identity, and authority. it could also mean separation from the grand ideas that used to be part of him in the past (“eagles” and “wolves”), and perhaps now he has to engage with different ideas (perhaps not as grand) in a different reality. it could also be a disengagement with revolutionary ideas and movements that used to identify him in the past and give him strength and a sense of purpose as a human being, an activist, and an artist. he is now in limbo, having no sense of purpose: “i never strayed into heaven // it was hard getting past hell // i traveled through and beyond // the death and birth of man” (stanza 2). he calls religion the moment when men “stray into heaven,” and he is never interested in america‟s mainstream religion since it has failed him and his people. he has never reached hell as well; he is located in a place that is like a no-man‟s land. trudell mentions that he has “traveled through and beyond // the death and birth of man,” which implies that he is neither dead or alive. the next stanza seems to offer another hint for the cause of his craziness: “imagine running out of imagine // mistaking authority for power // weaving lifes spirit // into patterns of control” (stanza 3). the lack or absence of the power to imagine makes him “mistake authority for power,” 58 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj which could lead to an abuse of power since authority is not the same as power. authority refers more to one‟s ability and competence, which makes her/him deserve a particular position or power. power refers to the ability to influence others, to make others do what one desires. power usually involves the use of force (or the possibility of violence), while authority implies knowledge and competence. when one suffers from a lack of imagination, he/she is made into thinking that what she/he has is power instead of authority. while authority is reasonable and neutral, power tends to go against the order of nature, or the natural world, which is why what results from power is the transformation from what is natural (“weaving lifes free spirit” into instruments of force, i.e. “patterns of control”). i believe that the poet‟s craziness is caused by the fact that new understandings of life are no longer made, in other words: there is a spiritual and ideological vacuum (“i heard all that was said // until now i hear nothing at all”) and the blurring between right and wrong, when our culture seems to have made everything relative but also meaningless (“the edge between twilight and dark”) (stanza 4). the language we hear has become a language of lies, when politicians no longer tell the truth and our language has become full of disguises. everyone seems to employ the same kind of deceptive language, although there is also a choice not to use it either (“the great lie lurks // prostitution of soul // anyone can do it or not”), and that there seems to be no longer any possibilities to get out of such a desperate condition (“i went down some roads that // stopped me dead in my tracks”) (stanza 4). the poet feels that he can no longer become a model for others to emulate, and he finds it hard to define what love actually means. the tone seems to be desperate in the first six stanzas. interestingly, in the seventh stanza, there is a switch of tone. i argue that ancestral memory comes into play in the seventh stanza, which is the moment when trudell realizes the role of memory to sustain him in difficult times. it is the memory of the land or the remembered earth when he mentions: “from the earth // wind cave memories // one with the sky // time of different motions” (stanza 7). these lines express his esteemed connection to the land and the memories of his ancestors and the earth, as well as his oneness with the earth and the sky. he starts to realize the non-linearity of time, which is a necessity in developing the ability to see things from a new perspective. “time of different motions” refers to the flexibility in our notion of time, which is when time moves back and forth and circularly from the past, present, and future. in such a manner, one never gets stuck in a certain period and gets confined in it. one can evoke the past to affect the present, and one can think of the future when making decisions in the now. when the past is so limiting, kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 59 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj one can leap to the future and think of new possibilities. i contend that remembrance of the ancestors, what they have taught him, and engagement with the earth, enables the poet to find a way out of a confining situation such as his madness, caused by various factors. furthermore, the following lines should be read positively: “dog days dreamer // chasing the neon // woven into minds” (stanza 7). the act of dreaming is seen positively in many indigenous communities. indeed, when human beings are no longer able to dream, both literally and figuratively, there is a serious problem with their ability to imagine. the absence of dreams indicates the impairment in imaginative power. these lines refer to, in my opinion, the need to affect reality through the power of writing, that is, the power of poetry. it is the time when a dog is dreaming of “chasing the neon” but such a dream is “woven into minds,” signifying the creative power to process reality through imagination. the poet is aware that “from my place in line // i fell out of order,” but “i‟ll be back again,” and that is because he is “iktomi” (stanza 8). indeed, the line “i am iktomi” is repeated throughout the poem, and it ends each stanza. i observe that this line provides the frame for the poem, and it underlies how the poet is dealing with the factors that have caused his madness. instead of an expression of weakness and incompetence, including desperation and a sense of purposelessness, i argue that trudell is affirming the strength to cope with various painful and terrible realities because he is inspired by the trickster figure of his people, i.e. the lakota people. this proves the crucial role of ancestral memory in the process of transformation. the lakota people believe that iktomi is a trickster and a culture hero. iktomi itself means ground spider, characterised by its large round belly and long legs and arms. iktomi used to have a respectable place in the community, for his father is inyan, the rock, while his elder brother is iya, the great devourer. he also used to be ksa or wisdom, but he lost this title since he was prone to making trouble. he makes and has a lot of plans, but they all end in failure, and they even backfire. iktomi also represents human beings‟ worst attributes, such as foolishness, greed, untrustworthiness, laziness, uncontrolled passion, and disrespect for language. curiously, he is also a shape-shifter since he can change into a human form. people often blame him for the problems that arise in the community. following the nature of storytelling in native communities, there are no authentic stories of iktomi. it seems that iktomi stories serve as lessons that can teach community members about proper behaviour and avoidance of misconduct. 60 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj i see that trudell feels that all these trickster qualities belong to him and that iktomi embodies his weaknesses and failures as well as his strength to deal with such negativity. while iktomi fell into disgrace due to his troublemaking character, i believe that trudell was overwhelmed by a similar feeling caused by his “troublesome” and rebellious attitude. i observe, however, that such a troublemaker and rebellious spirit is what makes him a poet and an artist. it is the source of creative energy, which is the reason why he is invoking iktomi since he sees himself in the tension between creating trouble and utilising such a tendency as a source of creative power. furthermore, iktomi is also a dream-catcher and a weaver, signalling that his power of imagination is continuously active. although he is struggling with madness, trudell wants to affirm that he still retains the power of imagination, and he can use it to his advantage, that is, to engage in the act of transformation. in a way, john trudell is similar to joy harjo in that both realize the need to both refuse and embrace negativity, which is hatred in the case of harjo, and madness in the case of trudell, and turn them into both an enemy and a passionate lover, in order to provide them with creative energy. although he realizes the danger of “running out of imagin[ation]” (stanza 9), he believes that his attachment and engagement to ancestral memory in the form of realization of his trickster qualities will be the way for him to transform himself from a weakling into a strong warrior. conclusion these three poems by joy harjo and john trudell demonstrate the significance of the role of ancestral memory and the power of language in the process of transformation. this use of ancestral memory can be in the form of remembrance of past colonization that was violent in nature in the case of harjo‟s “i give you back.” in her “transformation,” it is the choice to laugh (and sing) in the face of the most difficult time (including the most profound tragedy) by evoking the collective memory (as well as the communal belief to resist and survive). in trudell‟s “iktomi,” it takes the form of the realization of both weaknesses and strengths in reference to life-sustaining trickster qualities. in the three poems, the necessity to process and overcome negativity through language and the act of writing is paramount, since it is the power of language and imagination that enables the poets to see the same reality differently, that is, from a much brighter looking glass. kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 61 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj harjo‟s “i give you back” demonstrates the process of containment of negativity through the employment of condensation and violent images, followed by the use of repetitive lines which illustrate both the physicality as well as the musicality of the containment process. interestingly, the main enemy, fear, is released but re-invited, after harjo is fully aware that the containment strategy has been successful. “transformations,” where the plural form of the word indicates the possibility of different forms of transformation accruing from the process, underscores the need to see the duality of negativity and the paradoxical nature of a lot of factors which we usually regard as the enemy. there is a need to safeguard ourselves from being consumed by hatred, but there is also a need to weaken its effectiveness by making it an ally, a close friend, instead of an enemy. indeed, harjo witnesses hatred as both a dark but also beautiful woman, whom she encounters in a nightmare but also in the realm of miracles. trudell‟s “iktomi” employs an intriguing use of repetition at the end of each stanza, to illustrate the process of his going back and forth from acknowledgement of weakness to affirmation of strength through reference to ancestral memory and the power of imagination. the three poems have shown us that we find strength in the power of informed imagination, that is, when the memory of our ancestors, the remembrance of the earth, and the close connection between language and reality determine the nature of our transformative process. by integrating such crucial elements, transformation is always possible both at the individual and communal levels. references anténe, p. (2012). poems as stories and memories: joy harjo‟s narrative poetry. the rainbow of american poetry. proceedings of the 18th international colloquium of american studies, october 25–27, pp. 121-135. palacký university, olomouc, czech republic. bryson, j. s. (2005). finding the way back: joy harjo. the west side of any mountain: place space and ecopoetry. iowa city: iowa university press. gould, j. m. (2000). i gave you back: memory, language, and transformation in joy harjo‟s poetry (unpublished doctoral dissertation). university of new mexico, albuquerque, new mexico. 62 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj goodman, j. (1994). politics and the personal lyric in the poetry of joy harjo and c.d. wright. melus, 19(2), 35-56. griggs, d. (director) (1996). joy harjo. performing joy harjo and greg sarris. lannan literary voice. harjo, j. (2002). i give you back. how we became human: new and selected poems: 1975-2001. new york: norton. harjo, j. & winder, t. (2011). triplopia. becoming the thing itself: interview with triplopia. soul talk, soul language: conversations with joy harjo. middletown, connecticut: wesleyan university press. haseltine, p. (2006). becoming bear in momaday and harjo. concentric: literary and cultural studie,s 32(1), 81-106. igliori, p. (1994). stickman: john trudell: poems, lyrics, talks, a conversation. new york: inanout press. kosolov, j. (2003). poetries of transformation: joy harjo and li-young lee. studies in american indian literature, 2(15), 39-57. landrum, c. l. (2012). kicking bear, john trudell, and anthony kiedis (of the red hot chili peppers): „show indians‟ and pop-cultural colonialism. the american indian quarterly, 36(2), 182-214. lang, n. (1993). ‟twin gods bending over‟: joy harjo and poetic memory. melus 18(3), 41-49. lee, k. (2007) .heartspeak from the spirit: songs of john trudell, keith secola, and robbie robertson. studies in american indian literature, 19(3), 89-114. momaday, n.s. (1998). the man made of words. the man made of words: essays, stories, passages. new york: st. martin‟s griffin. moyers, b. (1995). the language of life: a festival of poets. new york: doubleday. nevins, b. (2011). writing, constructing the next world: interview with bill nevins. soul talk, soul language: conversations with joy harjo. joy harjo and tanaya winder. middletown, connecticut: wesleyan university press. kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 63 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pettit, r. (1998). joy harjo. boise, idaho: boise state university press. trudell, j. (2008). iktomi. lines from a mined mind: the words of john trudell. colorado: golden. winn, t. (2013). ecofeminism and cultural memory in joy harjo‟s poetry: writing in the enemy‟s language. discovery 1(1). retrieved from http://www.peninsulacollegepress.org/uploads/2/2/4/9/22492008/ite m_no_001_winn.pdf. appendix 1: i give you back joy harjo i release you, my beautiful and terrible fear. i release you. you were my beloved and hated twin, but now, i don‟t know you as myself. i release you with all the pain i would know at the death of my children. you are not my blood anymore. i give you back to the soldiers who burned down my house, beheaded my children, raped and sodomized my brothers and sisters. i give you back to those who stole the food from our plates when we were starving. i release you, fear, because you hold these scenes in front of me and i was born with eyes that can never close. i release you i release you i release you i release you 64 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj i am not afraid to be angry. i am not afraid to rejoice. i am not afraid to be black. i am not afraid to be white. i am not afraid to be hungry. i am not afraid to be full. i am not afraid to be hated. i am not afraid to be loved. to be loved, to be loved, fear. oh, you have choked me, but i gave you the leash. you have gutted me but i gave you the knife. you have devoured me, but i laid myself across the fire. i take myself back, fear. you are not my shadow any longer. i won‟t hold you in my hands. you can‟t live in my eyes, my ears, my voice my belly, or in my heart my heart my heart my heart but come here, fear i am alive and you are so afraid of dying. appendix 2: transformations joy harjo this poem is a letter to tell you that i have smelled the hatred you have tried to find me with; you would like to destroy me. bone splintered in the eye of one you choose to name your enemy won‟t make it better for you to see. it could take a thousand years if you name it that way, but then, to see after all that time, never could anything be so clear. memory has many forms. when i think of early winter i think of a blackbird laughing in the frozen air; guards a piece of light. (i saw the whole world kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 65 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj caught in that sound, the sun stopped for a moment because of tough belief.) i don‟t know what that has to do with what i‟m trying to tell you, except that i know you can turn a poem into something else. this poem could be a bear treading the far northern tundra, smelling the air for sweet alive meat. or a piece of seaweed stumbling in the sea. or a blackbird laughing. what i mean is that hatred can be turned into something else, if you have the right words, the right meanings, buried in that tender place in your heart, where the most precious animals live. down the street an ambulance has come to rescue an old man who is slowly losing his life. not many can see that he is already becoming the backyard tree he has tended for years, before he moves on. he is not sad, but compassionate for the fears moving around him. that‟s what i mean to tell you. on the other side of the place you live stands a dark woman. she has been trying to talk to you for years. you have called the same name in the middle of a nightmare, from the center of miracles. she is beautiful. this is you hatred back. she loves you. appendix 3: iktomi / i flew with the eagle john trudell i flew with the eagles until i fell from the nest i ran with the wolves then got lost from the pack slowly i go crazy every day some days run faster than others i never strayed into heaven it was hard getting past hell i traveled through and beyond the death and birth of man i am iktomi 66 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 42 – 67 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj imagine running out of imagine mistaking authority for power weaving lifes free spirit into patterns of control i heard all that was said until now i hear nothing at all the edge between twilight and dark the great lie lurks prostitution of soul anyone can do it or not i went down some roads that stopped me dead in my tracks i am iktomi i‟ve been the mirror to others reflecting selves i‟ve known love that can‟t help but love and i‟ve been close to that hurting way of love i flew with the eagles until i fell from the nest i ran with the wolves then got lost from the pack from the earth wind cave memories one with the sky time of different motions dog days dreamer chasing the neon woven into minds from my place in line i fell out of order kristanto, b. the role of memory and language in transformation: crucial 67 issues in american indigenous poetry https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj i‟ve been here i‟ve been there i‟ve been anywhere and i haven‟t been anywhere and i‟ll be back again i am iktomi imagine running out of imagine mistaking authority for power weaving lifes free spirit into patterns of control 2108 bayu cover ojs t.epe.pdf (p.1) 2108 bayu k pp. 42-67 t.epe.pdf (p.2-28) untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia chat language and the challenges of students in written composition 1 dorathy ijeoma chijioke and 2 michael alozie nwala ph.d 1, 2 department of english studies, university of port harcourt, choba, port harcourt nigeria received: 23-10-2016 accepted: 17-12-2016 published: 6-12-2019 email: 1 okoroichigozie@gmail.com, 2 mikeson100@yahoo,com mailto:okoroichigozie@gmail.com mailto:youremail@xxxx.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chat language and the challenges of students in written composition 1dorathy ijeoma chijioke and 2 michael alozie nwala dorachijioke@gmail.com; mikeson100@yahoo.com 1,2 department of english studies, faculty of humanities, university of port harcourt, choba, port harcourt, nigeria abstract: with the prevalence of the internet and social network platforms in this digital age, most people opt for text messages as a fast and convenient means of communication and prefer real-time online chats to face-toface social interactions. the cyber language is replete with writing errors that are not conventionally acceptable in academic writing and which can impede comprehension in some cases. as teenage participation in this new media increases, this study investigated the impact of chat language on the written composition of senior secondary school students who are prospective candidates for o’level and or a’level examinations. data were generated from the students’ written essay scripts and analyzed using halliday’s systemic functional grammar as the theoretical framework. the study adopted the quantitative and qualitative research methods in which 842 senior secondary 2 and 3 (ss2 and ss3) students of selected schools in port harcourt, rivers state, are the population. the result revealed that online chat language and text-based messages mostly affect students’ writings in mechanical accuracy and expression. the study therefore recommended that the negative effects of the social media on the students’ writings should be checked in schools. key words: texting, online chatting, composition, effective writing mailto:dorachijioke@gmail.com mailto:mikeson100@yahoo.com chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 317 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction over the past three decades, the internet has emerged as a notable new technology which has spread all over the sectors of education, business, economics and other disciplines. while we admit that the internet has revolutionized the way people live in modern times, the most far-reaching is the impact it is having on the way we communicate. due to this new means of communication, people are easily able to communicate and exchange ideas and feelings via text messaging or social media chatting. to a large extent, online chatting shares the features of face-to-face interactions (bamgbose, g. (2018). the influence of social media on the english language in nigeria. the nigerian voice, 3rd april, 2018. retrieved 20th may, 2018.and has informally been referred to as ‘media-written interactions’ (mni). participants employ abbreviations, neologisms, jargons, cyberslang, emojis and hashtags in order shorten the time it takes to type a text or respond to a chat. they prefer these short forms to detailed sentences because they believe that the more concise kata kunci: sms, chatting online, komposisi, penulisan efektif abstrak: dengan prevalensi platform internet dan jaringan sosial di era digital ini, kebanyakan orang memilih pesan teks sebagai sarana komunikasi yang cepat dan nyaman dan lebih memilih obrolan online waktu-nyata daripada interaksi sosial tatap muka. bahasa cyber penuh dengan kesalahan penulisan yang tidak dapat diterima secara konvensional dalam penulisan akademik dan yang dapat menghambat pemahaman dalam beberapa kasus. seiring dengan meningkatnya partisipasi remaja dalam media baru ini, penelitian ini menyelidiki dampak dari bahasa obrolan pada komposisi tertulis siswa sekolah menengah atas yang merupakan kandidat prospektif untuk ujian tingkat o dan tingkat a. data dihasilkan dari skrip esai tertulis siswa dan dianalisis menggunakan hallicay's systemic functional grammar sebagai kerangka teoretis. studi ini mengadopsi metode penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif di mana 842 siswa sekolah menengah 2 dan 3 (ss2 dan ss3) yang dipilih di port harcourt, rivers state, adalah populasi. hasilnya mengungkapkan bahwa bahasa obrolan online dan pesan berbasis teks sebagian besar memengaruhi tulisan siswa dalam akurasi dan ekspresi mekanik. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini merekomendasikan bahwa efek negatif dari media sosial pada tulisan siswa harus diperiksa di sekolah. 318 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj you are with your post, the better. this, according to them, is called ‘respect towards your follower’s time’. as students frequently visit the social media sites, they tend to get more ingrained with the pattern of communication and writing mostly because, it is easier and faster and no one basically examines what is written there. this compels students to display numerous writing errors ranging from incorrect spellings to ‘ungrammatical’ sentence constructions (mphahlele & meshamaite, 2005), errors in mechanical accuracy, use of non-standard orthography, cyberslang, misuse of homophones, mix-up in the use of british and american englishes and many more, are now commonplace in their compositions. chat language threatens students’ literacy skills. it hampers their critical thinking, creative abilities and creates undesirable writing and reading habits (craig, 2003). it is a matter for great concern that writing on any composition topic in english language, a core academic subject, is a huge challenge as students could not consciously make the difference between the formal use of the language from its informal use for other purposes such as the social media. it is upon this premise that we set out to investigate the impacts of chat language on effective writing of compositions among senior secondary school students in port harcourt metropolis. literature review a. theoretical framework: systemic functional grammar (sfg) this study adopted the theoretical framework of systemic functional grammar (sfg). sfg is a form of grammatical description originated by m.a.k. halliday. it is part of social semiotic approach to language study called systemic functional linguistics. sfg is concerned primarily with the choices that grammar makes available to speakers and writers. traditionally the choices are viewed in terms of either the content or the structure of the language used. in sfg, functional bases of grammatical phenomena are divided into three broad areas, called metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual. written and spoken texts can be examined with respect to each of these metafunctions in register analyses. thus, sfg is a study of meaning construction through systems of lexicogrammatical choices that serve functions within social and cultural contexts. each metafunction has its own system of choices, each choice resulting in a structure. chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 319 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. conceptual review 1. computer-mediated communication computer-mediated communication (henceforth, cmc) is an umbrella term which refers to a communication that takes place between human beings via the instrumentality of computers (herring, 2001). while the term refers to those communications that occur via computer mediated formats, it can also be applied to other forms of text-based interactions such as mobile telephony (or texting). bodomo, a. (2010). computer-mediated communication for linguistics and literacy. hershey, pa: information science reference. gives the definition of cmc to include the use of other technological devices to perform tasks on the internet other than just sending text messages. meanwhile, ooi, v.b.y. (2002). aspects of computer-mediated communication for research in corpus linguistics. in p. peters, p. collins and a. smith (eds.). new frontiers of corpus research. amsterdam, new york: rodopi. lays more emphasis on the multi-modal nature of the medium by referring to it as ‘a mode of communication that centrally involves the computer as a medium, and made via a hybrid of speech, writing, graphics and orthography’. popular forms of cmc include bulletin board, e-mail, usenet groups, listserv mailing list, internet relay chat (irc), web pages (weblogs), skype, audio-visual chats, text messaging via mobile phones, etc. the modes of cmc can be either synchronous or asynchronous. synchronous cmc takes place in real time where all parties are engaged in the communication simultaneously; however, they are not necessarily all in the same location. examples of synchronous communication are online chats, video and audio calls and/or conferencing. on the contrary, asynchronous cmc refers to communication which takes place when the parties engaged are not necessary online simultaneously. in other words, the sender does not receive an immediate response from the receiver. examples of asynchronous communication are text messages and e-mails. 2. computer-mediated discourse (web 2.0) computer–mediated discourse (henceforth, cmd) is a sub-field within the cmc. it is a specialization within the broader interdisciplinary study of cmc, ‘distinguished by its focus on language and language use in computer– networked environments and by its use of methods of discourse analysis to address that focus’ (herring, 2001). computers in this sense, broadly include any digital communication device (herring & androutsopoulos, 2015). cmd uses web 2.0 which refers to a world-wide website that emphasizes user-generated content (ugc); usability (ease of use, even by non-experts); and interoperability (the website can work with other products, systems and 320 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj devices) for end users. a web 2.0 website allows multiple participants to communicate simultaneously in a virtual community. this is in contrast with the web 1.0 era when people were limited to the passive viewing of the content. cmd is considered multi-modal when its production and reception involve other channels of communication, in addition to plain text (herring & androutsopoulos, 2015). 3. social networking in today’s world, pre-teens and young adults can access social media applications from many entry points including desktop computers, laptops, smart phones, tablets and ipads. there are over 100 social networking sites (snss) with their technological affordances supporting a wide range of interests and practices. participation in any of these sites is a matter of preference and purpose. examples of some popular snss are facebook, twitter, instagram, youtube, whatsapp, wechat, skype, snapchat etc. these sites do not only connect friends and families, they also help users build a reputation and bring career opportunities and monetary incomes (aichner & jacob, 2015). amidst all their effects on our daily lives, the snss have their mega effects on formal writing. users enjoy linguistic freedom on the social media platforms not for reasons of style or creativity, but for the obvious fact that no examiner is there to assess the written language. the fact that most youngsters are frequently visiting these snss and spending quality time on them, is one of the major reasons why formal writing skills are continually being battered, especially since the dawn of the new millennium. the report of glen (2014) shows why social media writing is a world away from academic writing and why the two should not cross paths by any standards. he states: using social media often means learning to use language in a somewhat different way: our register is different our vocabulary is different; our grammar may even be different. we embrace certain forms of informality […] we develop a store of short words […] and a greater appreciation of strong verbs. we treat grammar in ways that we daren’t in our academic writing; that is, we assume a sympathetic audience who will know what we mean even when we bend the rules. […] even in the more spacious confines of a blog, our style may be affected by the fact that a blog post is written in a compressed time frame […] to compress reader-ready sentences […] the limits of social media confirms one of the great strengths of academic writing. (blog post, april 2, 2014). chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 321 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj social media participants deploy a lot of shortcuts to make their posts as short as possible, buy time during chats or save their reader’s time. users may access multi-modal means of communication made available by the telephone technology such as emojis, photo or video sharing in place of grammatical explorations. more so, since many people are not friendly with typing texts on the keyboard, they resort to using cyberslang which is made up of acronyms (initialisms), different forms of abbreviations, jargons and neologisms. some of these are ‘lol’ (laugh out loud), ‘omg’ (oh my god!), ‘tbt’ (throw-back thursday). ‘kwim’ (know what i mean?), ‘hru’ (how are you?) etc. 4. linguistic features of computer-mediated discourses scholars are interested in understanding the characteristics and effects of computer-mediated language and how it is changing people’s way of communication. cmd systems change the form of written language to become more speech-like, more like a talking text (ko, 1996). various studies of cmd have observed that the linguistic structures of most online interactions are less standard, less complex and less coherent than the standard written language (cristal, 2006; herring & androutsopoulos, 2015; chiluwa, 2015; abati, 2018). in her survey, murray (1985) reports that computer-mediated communication shows features of simplified registers associated with both oral and written language as well as other specific norms such as ‘formulaic phrases’, ‘abbreviations’, ‘symbols’, ‘acronyms’ and ‘simple sentence structure’. other linguistic features include paralinguistic features that are either written or expressed. real-time genre of electronic discourse is more similar to spoken language than the written language (herring et al, 2005). it tends to be interpersonally involved, syntactically fragmented and has a relatively low degree of information focus and elaborateness. in his study of a chat-like protocol known as daedalus interchange, ko (1996) describes cmc as being linguistically impoverished compared to speaking and writing. this feature is in relation to information focus and elaborateness. lind (2012) discovers that chat language is very highly elliptical with its omission level at 37%, which is twice as many words in normal speech. this condensed form of writing is wreaking havoc to academic writing in the classroom, especially in applying composition skills. c. on chat language of all the activities that go on in the social media, chatting and texting hurt formal writing the most. chat or chatting is an online synchronous communication which involves the interaction and exchange of messages 322 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj between participants in the internet. it can happen between two or more participants at a time in a chatroom. one person initiates a topic or discussion which is displayed on the screen and the other types and sends a response. online chatting can be in form of texts, audio, visual or audiovisual communications. participants use netspeak (crystal, 2001), textese (van dijk, 2016), or chat language in common parlance. netspeak and textese are forms of abbreviated written – or, actually typed – language that are characterized by omission of letters, words, abbreviations, acronyms, cyberslang, letter/number homophones, emoticons, neologism, typos and grammatical errors. herring (2001) argues that this form of writing is appropriate for the context -that is, cmd, but we are of the view that it becomes a matter of great concern when the cmd form of writing overlaps with academic writing and other formal writing skills, away from its social audience. herring (2001) also argues that majority of this writing pattern are deliberate choices made by users to economize space, mimic spoken language features or express themselves creatively. we rather assert that the students’ transfer of these deliberate choices into their formal writings calls for investigation, because traces of this form of writing are creeping uncontrollably into their school work. when they were interrogated, the students retorted: ‘it’s fun!’ this means that they enjoy the writing pattern since it saves their time and helps them bother less about correct spelling and other conventions of effective writing skills which they now tag as ‘boring’, ‘stressful’ or ‘long hand’. baron, n. (1984). computer mediated communication as a force in language change. visible language. posits that ‘underlying the contemporary handwriting is actually a deeper concern that the internet language is corrupting the way we craft traditional writing or even speaking face-to-face’ (p.176). van djik, van witteloostuiin, vasi, avrutin & blom (2016) affirms that children’s text messages do not always adhere to conventional written language rules, because they use textese: a register that often transgresses grammar rules. sometimes, the participants’ use of abbreviations and short forms is deeply confusing, because the abbreviated words lack uniformity and tend to be contextually situated; encoding different meanings in different contexts. this makes writing very simple but reading and comprehension become a herculean task. d. features of a typical online chatroom these are some of the popular manipulations of language in typical online chats. i. non-standard spelling/unconventional orthography. examples gud (good), haus (house), jux/jst (just), epp (help), ur (yours) etc. there chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 323 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj is generally no uniformity in the orthography as each person spells as he/she deems fit. ii. use of emojis to express emotions or reactions. iii. phonetic spelling. examples: neva (never), dat (that), tot (thought). iv. letter/number homophone. examples: gr8 (great), 9t (night), 2mr (tomorrow), 18r (later), b4 (before) 4eva (forever). chiluwa (2015) refers to this as ‘syllabogram or rebus writing. v. misuse of homophones. examples: their/there/they’re, it’s/its, you’re/your vi. use of acronyms and cyberslang. examples: lol, omg, cya, uwc, bae, brb. vii. use of letters to represent words. examples: c (see), u (you), y (why), b (be), n (and). viii. use of symbols, to represent words. examples: @ (at), & (and), # (number, or for hashtags). ix. writing is sometimes either in all caps or all lower cases. x. holophrastic and telegraphic responses. xi. code–switching and code mixing: often as a result of inability to express oneself in one language variety. xii. free combination of the british english (bre) and american english (ame). this happens at the level of spelling, lexis and grammar. xiii. omission of subject pronouns and articles. xiv. short words are often preferred to long words. use of nonconventional portmanteau words. (a portmanteau word was a word that is invented by combining the beginning of one word and the end of another and keeping the meaning of each [oxford advanced learners dictionary, 2010]. for instance, ‘motel’ is a portmanteau word for motor + hotel. chatroom examples are: upandan (up and down), issorait [it’s alright], nope [no problem]). xv. while punctuation marks are generally omitted in so many cases, the comma and the exclamation marks are over-used (sometimes to create certain shades of meaning). the question mark is sometimes used to represent a whole sentence. example: ‘?’ could mean ‘i couldn’t understand it’, ‘i am confused’, ‘what do you mean?’, ‘are you still there?’ (especially when a response is long awaited). the asterisk (*) is used to denote disapproval, error or a mistake. xvi. use of funny transliterations. example: ‘let me come and be going’ (i need to go). xvii. use of paralinguistic features, especially while representing such auditory information such as prosody, laughter and other nonlanguage sounds. (examples; hahaha, kikikiki, eheeem, mtcheew. sometimes participants write a letter multiple times just to sound 324 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj expressive. examples; grrrrrrt, somebody heeelpppp, yeeeess, bekkyyyyy). xviii. hashtag is used to stress key words in a post. xix. texts are often incomplete sentences, usually presented in fragments. et cetera. in order to maintain the pace and atmosphere of the interaction in the chatroom, participants endeavor to write, almost at the same speed of speaking. this makes them devise several means (as outlined above) to meet expectations. e. writing a composition writing a composition entails bringing ideas together and carefully arranging them for the purpose of achieving unity and beauty in what has been created. thus, essays are not just written, they are composed. the writer relies entirely on the written words to get his message to his target audience. the writer needs to state his message formally, clearly and appropriately. specifically, the ability of a writer to put his message across to his target audience depends on his lexical and structural choices. it is important to note that mistakes in lexical choice are less generously tolerated than in syntax (carter, 1992). there are three stages of a writing process: the pre-writing stage, the writing stage and the re-writing stage (osuafor, 1998; ojo, 2007). drawing an outline in the prewriting stage usually provides a scaffold for the draft in the writing stage. re-writing is the final stage of writing where the reader revises, corrects, edits and improves on what he has written. osuafor (1998) affirms that “writing is not a simple process at all. professional writers do not hand in even the second draft. sometimes they need to rewrite and rewrite until they are able to get a seeming perfectly finished copy that clearly communicates the idea” (p.9). the qualities of good writing include economy, unity and clarity (eko, 1987). the esl composition class requires senior secondary students to do a substantial variety of writing tasks (often referred to as ‘continuous writing’ at this level), on the different topics they have been taught and from which they are expected to attempt any one of their choices in an examination. questions are set on descriptive, narrative, argumentative and expository essays. included also are letter writing, speech, article and report writings. candidates’ performances are evaluated based on the acronym coema – that is, content: relevance of the writer’s ideas to the central theme of the chosen question; organization: unity, coherence and paragraph development; expression: clarity, variation of sentence patterns, appropriateness of style and judicious use of figurative language; and mechanical accuracy: this punishes undeniable errors of grammar, chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 325 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj punctuation errors, spelling errors and disuse of the capital letters where necessary. coema is the west african examination council (waec) assessment guideline for continuous writing in english language question papers. this study investigated the effects of online chatting on the students’ writing skills based on coema. f. empirical review there have been mixed feelings from extant literature regarding the possible effects of the social media and social networking on the academic performance of students. studies show that students’ participation in the social media could have positive effects, negative effects or no correlation at all. in the studies conducted on the students of kogi state university, asema, okpanachi, edogoh (2013) discover that the social media have a negative relationship with the students’ academic performance. a similar study was carried out on students of covenant university, otta, by ayodele, mosunmola, senanu, gbenga & adeonke (2015) and the result shows that the social media have a positive correlation with academic competence. meanwhile tuan (2013) and wood (2014) find out positive impacts of the social media on language and learning, the findings of ghanney et al (2017) show that the social media negatively influence participants’ reading skills, writing skills and speaking skills in every way. in a textual analysis of the effects of three social media: facebook, 2go and twitter on the esl writings of the students done by iro and mohammed (2014), the results indicate that students’ writing is hampered by serious writing impediments occurring at three crucial aspects which are lexis, grammar and punctuation. they report that the students distort their writing with their social media experiences and practices thereby producing unclear, vague and unintelligible essays, especially to the audience who are not familiar with this negative trend. in an interaction with dr. lee newton on the influence of the new media on writing, he explains that “this generation of teenagers is the group that has written the most throughout their lives. although they write a lot, quality has suffered because their writing skills are weaker”. this study used quantitative and qualitative methods for the analysis. we based our research on the writing habits that occur most frequently on two social networking sites (snss) often used by the students: facebook and whatsapp; and how often these writing patterns occurred. facebook and method 326 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj whatsapp were chosen because they allow students to write longer statuses against the space limitations of twitter. we selected a total of 10 pages from 5 students’ facebook pages, 4 students’ whatsapp pages and 1 students’ group whatsapp page to examine their status posts and chats on the social media. we chose these pages because they are managed by the students themselves. there was a total of 652 posts throughout the pages in thirteen months. data were generated by administering a composition test of 4 questions drawn from the waec syllable for continuous writing. each student was to attempt only one question of his/her choice. the population was 842 students. these were ss2 and ss3 students from ten private secondary schools in port harcourt metropolis, rivers state. evaluation was based on coema. the purpose of using coema was to ascertain the greatest influence that chat language has on the written composition of the students. sample size was calculated using taro yamane’s formula. the sample is a representation of the features required for the analysis. from ten private secondary schools total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ss 2 20 30 30 40 29 90 35 30 41 32 377 ss 3 40 43 32 32 44 88 35 51 50 50 465 total 60 73 62 72 73 178 70 81 91 82 842 determination of a sample size from a given population here is using taro yamane’s formula. taro yamane’s formula: n = n/1+n (e)2 where: n = sample size n = population size e = level of significant error (5%) therefore: table 1: population of participants chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 327 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj n = 842/1 + 842(0.0025) n = 842/1 + 2.105 n = 842/3.105 n = 271.17 data presentation and analysis the data for the analysis consist of 271 scripts of students written compositions. after analyzing them, the following observations were made: a. casual expressions example the verbal group ‘like’ in the examples above shifted from its mental process of expressing emotional feeling and was used informally in the composition. it is often used as a slang in oral conversation to show surprise, uncertainty or inaccuracy. examples: 1. the first day i came to the school, i was like wow. 2. well, after that our holidays, i got a new school and i have paid my school fix. the school is a big school and has like 3 campuses. in example 1, like shows a pleasant surprise, while in example 2 it shows probability. the students’ deployment of this expression in their formal work reveals the extent causality in their social media chats is rubbing off on their formal writings. b. use of short forms and phonetic spelling in examples 3 and 4, the students made use of the dollar sign ($) and the ampers and (&) as symbols to represent the word ‘and’. this feature is repeated in several other scripts. 3. how are you, how is mummy $ daddy … 4. … my new school has boarding facilities for both boys & girls. 5. sir pls, i want to thank you for rebuilding our school. thks sir. but pls, there is still a little issue the govt needs to solve. 6. how are you and ur family? 328 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 7. i watched the carnival with so much joy cause i have never seen 1 like it before. 8. they have a library that is well equipt. the short form ‘thks’ stands for ‘thanks’ or ‘thank you’, ‘pls’ stands for ‘please’, the figure ‘1’ stands for the spelling ‘one’, ‘cause’ stands for ‘because’, ‘ur’ stands for ‘your’ and ‘equipt’ for ‘equipped’. students are becoming increasingly lethargic to correct spellings and are beginning to appreciate these short forms as a faster and a more stylistic pattern of writing. this sneaks unconsciously into their school work. c. combination of the british and american varieties of english language the relational processes ‘is’ and ‘are’ in examples 9 and 10 perform the interpersonal function of enquiring about the well-being of the family members who are here referred to as guys. be in example 11 is a relational process that is used in the imperative form to manipulate the mood network. ‘guys’, ‘kinda’ and ‘gotta’ are american english lexis that the students infused their british english spellings and sentences. 9. … how is your parents and siblings, i hope you guys are doing well. 10. how are you and your family, i hope you guys are doing good. 11. you gotta be conscious of yourself and let him be the leader. 12. i was kinda looking awkward. students have continuously been encouraged to restrict their writing to one international variety of english language, preferably the british, but the cross-cultural pattern of interactions in the social media chats is finding its way into formal writing. d. use of cyberslang and acronyms in examples 13 and 14, ‘xup’ is a cyberslang that means ‘what’s up? or ‘what’s happening around you?’. ‘lol’ is an acronym for ‘laugh out loud’ which indicates a mood of laughter. 13. xup? i know you’ll be expecting my letter by now. 14. she is growing larger than normal. lol. these expressions are regular features of online synchronous mode of chatting that help participants to type fast, save time and respond almost at chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 329 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the speed of speaking. cyberslang and social media acronyms threaten grammatical explorations and elaborate details to a very large extent. it redirects the tone of the writing. e. over-use of the comma the comma was not only wrongly used in examples 15 to 17, it was also over-used. it was wrongly used in place of the full stop and question mark. 15. i have found admission in a very good school, named blessed children academy, it is located at 18 eligbolo street port harcourt, it has so many students, teachers, it has…, it has… 16. what about mama, how is she doing, how about uncle joe, how is he doing, have you seen favour our friend, i heard she… 17. i wish to tell you about my new school, i love everything about the school, the teachers are caring, and the school is fun. in online chatting, disuse of the full stop aids them to type faster and avoid searching for the capital letter to start the next sentence. in some cases, questions and enquires are made without a question mark at the end, or any form of punctuation at all. in example 15 for instance, i have found… good school is the given information, while named… it has… is the new. the nominal group which is the theme informed the addressee of the writer’s success in his search, the rheme revealed the name of the school, its location, population size etc. the over-use of the comma in the examples resulted in complex clauses that formed run-ons. these types of constructions distorted meaning in the examples since punctuation marks are graphological markers that guide meaning-making in sentences. f. misuse of homophones the words ‘your’, ‘were’, ‘its’, ‘sheared’ and ‘there’ in examples 18 to 22 were misused for their homophones ‘you’re’, ‘where’, ‘it’s’, ‘shared’ and ‘their’ respectively. 18. how are you? i hope your fine 19. the school has a big field were we can play 20. its another opportunity for me… 21. our teacher sheared the project topics… 330 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 22. ... while boarders return to there hostels. the errors caused the sentences to be faulty while meaning too, is affected. g. nominal group deletion the deletion of the nominal group in example 23 caused the sentence to become ambiguous. the subjects of hope, missing and forgetting are not known. 23. how are you and your siblings? hope all is well, missing you a lot since you travelled to ghana, but not forgetting your big head. the writer relies so much on the interpersonal metafunction of the grammar which is x-rayed in the mood network, using interrogatives. the semantic implication of the deletion is that the nominal group could at best be presumed to be ‘i’ or ‘we’. the subject deletion clustered many thoughts into one compound complex sentence. this is a typical feature of space management in online chatting. h. orality in written english the excerpts from the narrative compositions written by the students in examples 25 to 26, as well as the concluding part of the letter in example 24 are speech-like. the narrative technique can pass for an oral interaction where the narrator can make repetitions to show intensity or describe manner. 24. it’s time to go ‘oh’, tell your parents i said good bye 25. …the wife waited and waited and waited, then the news got to her, she wept and wept and wept ooo till … 26. …he was fixing the knots, he would not get it & he was trying & trying… other effects of the online chatting which reflected on the scripts we investigated include difficulty in streaming a coherent discourse, gross disregard for the use of punctuation marks and capital letters, elliptical sentences. in the scripts involved, ellipsis caused a suspension of meaning in the sentences and in some cases sentences become ambiguous. disuse of the punctuation marks may be connected to the fast writing (or typing) in online chatting in which the information focus is on the lexical items regardless of other elements that enhance good communication. frequent use of punchy sentences without connectives could account for the students’ difficulty in composing a standard coherent piece of writing. chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 331 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discussion of findings this research finds that there is frequency of errors found in the content, organization, expression, and mechanical accuracy. table 2 shows the result in percentage, whereas following after are discussions of each of the components is more detail. items frequency of error percentage c = content 55 20.29% o = organisation 43 15.86% e = expression 68 25.09% ma = mechanical accuracy 105 38.74% 271 99.98% a. mechanical accuracy the most common error that was found in all the students’ scripts were the error of mechanical accuracy (ma = 38.74%). spelling and punctuation errors were very frequent. use of capital letters was below average. because students do not care about grammatical correctness while doing social networking, it appeared awkward to be restricted to writing right. so, they dangled between correct and incorrect grammar. errors of omissions, especially of articles, correspond with the same manner students post their chats without proofreading the hastily typed text. most students have left the autocorrect feature of their phones to effect capitalization, this affected their written works. students used more of the simple declarative sentences in the same manner they write short messages in the social media. b. expression this is the second highly recurrent error in the study (e = 25.09%). the most outstanding feature of their expression is its informality. the students were unable to write for their audience. the tone in the scripts was generally casual. there were poor word choices and no variety of sentence patterns. students used slang in the narrative essay and the informal letter writing without marking them. most of the scripts were as plain as the text frequency of error using waec checklist table 2: 332 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj they send during chats, devoid of any embellishments with linguistic aesthetics such as figures of speech or idioms. twenty cyber acronyms were noticed. four students used paralinguistic features, example ‘hahaha’, to indicate hilarious laughter. we posit that over-reliance on emojis and other multi-modal features of these phones had effects on the students’ expressive abilities. there were indications that some of the students have knowledge of the subject matter but lacked the skills to express their thoughts. they ended up clustering the content in two paragraphs of few punchy sentences. thus, clarity was not really achieved due to colloquialism and ambiguity. c. content this is the third in the order of hierarchy of errors in the scripts that we surveyed (c = 20.29%). one obvious fact here is that most students could not write up to the required length of essay, which is 450 words. students wrote as if they were in a hurry to end the composition. ideas were collapsed into one paragraph and soon the composition ended. the students that wrote in more paragraphs had shallow content. proper introduction to the topics posed some challenges to the students and some submitted their scripts without fulfilling the demands of the questions they chose. this implies that students are becoming lethargic to critical thinking and writing a lengthy piece because they enjoy the short posts in their chats on social media. d. organization in the scripts we evaluated, paragraphing posed a lot of challenges to the students (o = 15.86%). ideas were either expressed in fragments, run-ons or clustered in one or two paragraphs. the contents of some scripts were so short that they did not create room for paragraph linkers. some of the ideas were presented in a stream of consciousness, so that the composition could not cohere. logical presentations and smooth paragraph transitions were observed in only nine scripts. the students lacked proper organisation of their composition due to their fragmented posts in the online chats. pedagogical implications and conclusion the results of this study showed that text-based synchronous computer mediated interactions have negative effects on students’ composition skills. the interactive medium disfavors effective language use and limits elaborate expressions in written compositions. however, colomb &simutis (1996) chijioke, d.i. & nwala, m.a., chat language and the challenges of students 333 in written composition https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj posit that the medium makes it well suited for class discussions in which widespread participation is the desired outcome. while activities in the social media may help students in some ways, they actually deform their composition skills; encourage the much maligned ‘tech-talk’ and cause students to be lethargic. many of the students who were good writers and spellers are gradually losing the skills because they want to conform to the trends of the social media. we recommend therefore, that students must consciously write for their target audience, especially in the esl courses. they must curtail frequent use of textese even while doing social networking, so as to control errors of mechanical accuracy. there’s need for regular practice of the three stages of writing. this helps students to master the fastest means of getting to the last stage while working within a specified short period. the multimodal features of their phones could accompany simple correct sentences while chatting; better than textese. being too apt and concise affect the length of the essay. students must learn to be moderately detailed. finally, online chatting, and social networking generally, can favorably compete with formal writing, especially the composition skills. ‘technology cannot replace effective writing’ (no matter how beneficial it may prove to be), says cynthia ryan, an associate professor of english at the university of birmigham (science daily, 2014). context is the key, ‘neither autocorrect, a thesaurus, nor any other kind of resource can be counted on, to do the work for the writer’, she concludes. references abati, r. 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(2013). influence of social media in the academic performance of the undergraduate students of kogi state university, anyigba, nigeria. research on humanities and social sciences 3(12). 334 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 316 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ayodele, a.; mosunmola,a.; senanu, o.; gbenga.a. & a.deronke o. (2015). social networking and student’s academic performance: the role of attention deficit predictors of behaviour and academic competence. international conference on african development issues (cu – icadi): information and communication technologytrack. badri, m.; al nuaimi, a., yang, g. & al rashedi, a. (2017). school performance, social networking effect a and learning of school children: evidence of reciprocal relationships in abu dhabi. telematics and informatics. www.elsevier.com/locate/tele bamgbose, g. 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(2016). the influence of texting language on grammar and executive comprehending advertisements through jean baudrillard's postmodernismi ekawati marhaenoy dukut2 abstract: nowadays people are living in a postmodern society. which is nihilistic because many things are being simulated that no one actually knows which is real. what people see on television or a magazine,for example. is regarded more real than the reality itself one ofthefactors that make a society feel more comfortable in living in a hyper-real world is because of the existence of advertisements or ads. thus. to understand what is signified by an ad, a reader or consumer needs to ,ake in mind the theory of postmodernism laid out by jean baudri//ard key words:postmodernism, jean baudrilard. advertisements introduction the study of advertisements (ads) connotes the comprehension of ads' existence as a sign as well as a product, which resulted from a postmodem society's lifestyle. this is possible only when ads are analyzed through a semiotic means, because ads are thought to take root from a concrete reality (noviani 2002:ix). in other words, ads are argued to have a social reference to the society who is trying to comprehend the ads shown on a media such as a television. this article is part of a dissertation argument, the writer proposes to the american studies, post-graduate program of gadjah mada university. many thanks is dedicated to prof. dr. c. soebakdi soemanto, s.u. for his initial insights on postmodemism thinking. dra. ekawati marhaenny dukut, m.hum. is a full-time lecturer at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 32 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 31-45 take for example, the television ad of an indonesian car kijang. it is widely accepted by the general public to mean a car that is appropriately used by the extended family, i.e. the grandfather, grandmother, father, mother, sister, brother, cousin, parent-in-law, and so on. in reality, it is true that an extended family in indonesia is important and would need a car like the kijang to transport all ofthe people mentioned, but the ad tend to exaggerate the notion ofthe 'extended family' terminology because the car cannot carry all of the family, it can merely carry 8 adults. using a postmodem perspective theorized by jean baudrillard, where ads are regarded to not blindly take root from the social reality yet represent the simulation which mirrored it (noviani 2002:viii), it becomes understandable for the underlying reason of the ad creator to introduce such a hyper-real phenomenon. baudrillard believes that ads are created to basically touch the ambition of somebody's desire to be more than what he can own, so the exaggeration oftora sudiro (a popular indonesian tv comedian) in carrying 'all' of his extended family in he kijang car is deliberately done to attract consumers who see the importance of giving his extended family that special transportation attention. another sample is the value of luxury, exclusiveness and glamorous life lux beauty soap tries to offer in its television ad. it does so by exposing that almost all popular film stars like sophia latjuba, desi ratnasari and dian sastrowardoyo would frequently use. in reality, it is true that those using lux soap can be bodily clean and have outstanding fragrance. yet, to have a life like and become a film star like the three mentioned just by using lux beauty soap everyday is only a dream. it is interesting, however, to find that most consumers do not mind buying the soap because they are satisfied enough to have that dream. why do those shown on ads easily tempt consumers? what does it mean when baudrillard says that the postmodem society readily accepts the signs and values represented by ads? this article will: 1. define and give some interpretations to what is being conceived as a postmodem society by comparing it with a modem one 2. discuss why ads can be categorized as a popular cultural product, and 3. discuss the influence and relationship of ads as a popular cultural product with the consumer culture theory of baudrillard's hyper-reality. e.m. dukut, the effect of baudrillard's theory towards ads 33 modernism and postmodernism a. modernism there are a number of definitions offered for the word 'modernism'. first, according to malcolm bradbury and james mcfarlane in their book entitled modernism 1890-1930, it is "the movementtowardssophistication and mannerism, technical display, internal self-skepticism" (1986: 16). they continue to say that "impressionism, post-impressionism, expressionism, cubism, futurism, symbolism, imagism, vorticism, dadaism, surrealism" is included in the era of modernism (bradbury and mcfarlane 1986:23). second, t.r. quigley (2006) believes that modernism is a terminology to show that the aesthetical perspective is often used in europe and america alongside with the formalism and autonomous principle of analyzing a workmanship. third, roger fowler defines modernism as a way to label the types of art and literature that flowered during the twentieth century. this is similar to how the term neoclassicism is used for the eighteenth century and romanticism for the nineteenth century (1987: 151). the kinds of art that modem artists created are usually experimental, complex, elliptic that has an element of decreation in addition to creation. in literature, well-known modem artists include: virginia woolf, james joyce, t.s. eliot, ezra pound, and madame mallarme. fourth, mary klages (2006) explain modernism as a movement in 1910-1930 that disagreed with the victorianism belief of "how art should be made, consumed and what it should mean". modernism, is a movement which is highly conscious ofits aesthetical reflection that allows an analysis of a paradoxical reality, which is ambiguous and open without any certainty and, which disagrees with the idea of an integrated being who suffers from a destructuring and dehumanization (featherstone 2005: 15). b. postmodernism the movement following after modernism is postmodernism (ritzer 2003:15). according to kohler (1977) and hasan (1985) postmodernism as cited in mike featherstone (2005: 16) is firstly used by federico de onis in the 1930s to show people's reaction towards modernism. witcombe (2006) informs further that postmodernism became popular in the 1960s when new 34 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 31-45 york artists, writers and young critics such as rauchenberg, cage burroughs, barthelme, fielder, hassan and sontag make a reference to a movement that is on the verge of extinction because its "corruptive and oppressive values" are no longer accepted by the academic society. a word like 'equality' in an american society, for example, for a number of academia's is thought inapplicable since the position and salary of a woman lecturer will never be equal to those of her male counterpart. it can be said that, 'equal' opportunity for gender difference is a vocabulary that shows an unrealistic condition in the u.s.a. actually postmodernism is a movement that is popularly used in the field of architecture (see krisprantono 2005), painting and drama, as well as music (featherstone 2005: 16, ritzer 2003: 14). postmodernists' theorists include daniel bell, julia kristeva, jean-francois lyotard, jacques derrida, michel foucalt, jean baudrillard and frederick jameson. in art, post modernism carries the following characteristics: the boundary abolition of art with everyday life, the collapse of hierarchical difference between high and popular culture, a mixing of sty i is tics, which gives importance to eclectics, parody, pastiche, the shallowness of cultural surface, the sloping down of artists' creativity and assumption, so that art is merely a repeated representation oflife (featherstone 2005: 17). with this regard, mike featherstone's definition is similar to mary klages, who believes postmodernism as having ... boundaries between high and low forms of art, rejecting rigid genre distinctions, emphasizing pastiche, parody, bricolage, irony, and playfulness. postmodem art (and thought) favors reflexivity and self-consciousness, fragmentation and discontinuity (especially in narrative structures), ambiguity, simultaneity, and an emphasis on the destructured, decentered, dehumanized subject. c. differences between modernism and postmodernism although both modernism and postmodernism both argue for a selfconsciousness of the subject who experiences a destructuralism and dehumanization, there are a number of differences between them. according to george ritzer (2003: 19-20) there is a tendency of a postmodernist to criticize anything in association with postmodernism. second, there is also a e.m. dukut, the effect of baudrillard's theory towards ads 35 disagreement with modernism's worldview, metanarrative and totality. third, postmodernists thinkers tend to exaggerate the pre-modem phenomena of the emotion, feeling, intuition, reflection, speculation, personal experience, habit, metaphysics, tradition, cosmology, religious and mystique experience. fourth, postmodernists tend to refuse the modem discourse of meticulous and logical academic lifestyle. modernism sees the human subjectivity and life history as fragments where the idea of losing something is regarded as a tragical outcome. it is for this reason that modem artists seek to find a unity and coherence, which institutionally may not be possible. as a comparison postmodernists do not cry for the fragmented thinking or incoherence of something but instead celebrate the situation. does this consequently that living well on earth is no .. "longer important for an individual? for a postmodernist, he will not try to make the world know his condition but rather will play with the unusual circumstances the world has to offer. another way to differentiate between modernism and postmodernism is to view it from a capitalistic perspective, like suggested by frederick jameson (cited in kalges 2006) that is supported by jean baudrillard (cited in sarup 1993: 163-164). he says that the first phase is within the development of technology, where motors and steam machinery with their aesthetical beings are created to portray realism. the second phase is at the end of the nineteenth century up to mid twentieth century (ww ii), in which the capitalists who founded electricity and the automobile monopolize technology. the last phase is the recent era, where consumer's capitalism has reached the multinational stage of post modem technology that includes the founding of the nuclear. d. postmodernism's deconstruction and construction in his article "postmodernism .. klages (2006) explain further that the terminology is also used to refer to the two principles of being anti-modern or agreeing with the task of redefining modernism's premises. what is meant by anti-modernism is the act of deconstructing postmodernism 's doctrine of refusing the pre-eminence ofreasoning, righteousness, belief in the perfection of mankind, and the premise that a society can be rebuilt with better ~ 36 celt, volume 6, number 1, july 2006: 31-45 circumstances. postmodern deconstructionists believe that the concept of "equality" and 'freedom" cannot be naturally understood or could never be attained because the concepts are only an ideology that are constructed by mankind. inthis case, the requirements to explain about the belief in god, the self, and the postmodernists, usually reject the aim of life and world's reality. postmodern thinkers see the world as nihilism, i.e. all normal activities are disregarded and whatever could not be seen can be learnt and communicated. the understanding that life is meaningless becomes the basic belief of the postmodernist philosophers. meanwhile, the second principle, which concentrates on the revision of the modern concepts are referred to the constructive postmodernists. the followers, in this case do not reject modernism's concepts but attempt to make better the premises and other traditional concepts. similar to the postmodernist deconstructionist, they try to erase everything that stops them to find all means of making a legitimization and logical view of the modernist's principle. one way to reach it is by offering the ethic's viewpoint of aestheticism and religious institution. postmodernists do not reject the development of science but only the means to understand the world through the modernist's perspectives. the postmodern constructionist wants to see the reality and norms of the premodern practitioners. postmodernists want to take over the position of modernism and modernity's, who are seen to disturb the sustainability of earth's living creatures. so, basically both deconstructionist and constructionist try to get rid of constricting themselves and adopt the unknowing and ambiguous concept of defining a world. if a modernist wants to find a closed conclusion, the postmodernist prefers to see the open-ended vision and sees in more detail the process of something that is continually happening. therefore, even though a postmodernist knows that his world is full of nihilism, he still has time to reflect on his own. he realizes that he is a man who is involved in the deconstructive process of finding the meaning about his own and society's existence. e.m. dukut, the effect ofbauurillard's theory towards a~(~,~. ~~~., ~ l~~'a' ~', advertisement: popular culture product ~"(i;~:'.:'., advertisement in the american studies discipline is studied in popular culture. denotatively, a popular culture is one's everyday culture that is widely accepted by the society. for example, behaviors, hobby, how someone acts and not act, what is being eaten and worn, things that are connected with everyday transportation, sport, religion, etc (wilson 1995:5). dominic strinati (2003), stan le roy wilson (1995), michael petmcca and madeleine sorapure (1998) say that the study of advertisement or ads is just like television, film, music, sports and cybernet. not only in america but also in any other country, the lives of mankind are always colored with many kinds of advertisements that are displayed in various texts, illustrations and color. according to kasiyan (2004:1) the existence of ads are no longer regarded as a phenomenon but an everyday culture of a society. henceforth, it is this everyday existence that makes ads a popular culture. ads is interesting to study by the postmodern society, because the readers and consumers feel they receive a happiness and satisfaction in life from ads that deliver a "!tiper-realistis" (hyper-realistic) world, which offer a "kebahag;aan semu" (pretentious happiness) (piliang 2003:95) nigel watson further explains that consumers do not really become interested in the use ofthe products advertised, but they are interested in the symbolization it carries or "the image and the way it appears to others" (2001 :57). of similar belief, jack solomon regards postmodern consumers to live on ads for the symbolical status it brings into mankind's lives (1998:48). therefore, ifsomeone can wear a rolex watch or drive a bmw, that someone will feel that he has such a high prestige. this is why advertisers want to attract consumers to buy their fashionable clothes (that may not be from expensive cloth), they would make use of pretty, sexy, and alluring woman model who wears a rolex watch and stand beside a bmw. the really more expensive clothing worn by another model standing beside a hyundai, however, may not have attracted as many consumers as the other one. it cannot be avoided then that postmodern ads tend to deal more with the cultural representations of a product rather than the quality it carries, and thus is in congruent with the nature of popular culture (strinati 2003:267). in the eyes ofjean baudrillard, the postmodernism world is filled with simulations such 38 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 31-45 as exemplified. as a result, things that are 'real' usually become a 'hyperreality' . quigley (2006) gives his support as follows: the postmodem condition is also characterized ... as a kind of schizophrenia or postmodem temporality. this comes out of a lacanian (structuralist) analysis of language and its role in the experience oftime. there is no unmediated (direct) access to reality. thus, the referent (object) drops out of the structuralist analysis and we are left with the sign and its two remaining aspects, i.e. signifier and signified. meaning (signification) is not a one-to-one relation between a word and its related concept. meaning emerges from a larger relationship, viz. that of the sentence. this places the signifier in the context of other signifiers. thus, meaning (the signified) emerges from the signifier/signifier relations. it can be concluded that living in the hyper-reality of a postmodem world gives legitimacy to schizophrenics because those kinds of people have no direct access to what are supposedly real. this is the same with ads, the world they offer to their readers or consumers are hyper-real and are not long lasting. advertisers know that the products offered have their own type of consumers and are only popular at a certain frame of time. this is because the popular audience have their own way of making a connection to the texts and illustrations described by the ads, which may create a discursive competition among themselves in order to make decisions about how popularly the ad will still be accepted by them (barker 2005:50). to understand the message of an ad, thus, needs a relational process between the signified and the signifier. consequently, a research on ads as a product of popular culture needs to employ a semiotic analysis. semiotics according to strinati can explain why a real material can never be judged real, because of the many connotations it may have (2003: 123). for a semiotician, the reality is always constructed and understood in multi-layered meanings, which may never be wrong as it usually has a certain aim behind the creation and with which the meanings can never be expressed the same by its analysts. e.m. dukut, the effect ofbllwjrillard's theory towards ads 39 like what is written by roland barthes in his book mythologies (1972) meaning is never the same as meaning is created from a system of codes and rules that have been agreed upon a society with a certain cultural understanding. so, the analysis of an ad must take into consideration the consumer culture theory of the postmodem era. jean baudrillard's theory of nihilism in consumer culture (cited in sarup 1993:121) becomes the most appropriate method in analyzing ads. according to george ritzer (2004), the young baudrillard was raised in structuralists and semioticians' surroundings. hence, baudrillard sees consumer's object and communicative system behind ads as grounding for a code of significations (ritzer 2004: 137) of the individuals living inside a community. roland barthes believes that an object is a sign, whose values are decided by the codes carried out by the postmodem society. ironically, when man consumes the object that consists of those signs, the man feels unique. but in reality, that man becomes a mirror of his societal group that consumes that object. thus, 'unique' needs to be understood as being indifferent but at the same time 'the same'. baudrillard and postmodernism's consumer culture a. hyper-reality and simulacra jean baudrillard is a valued member of the postmodernist thinkers because his ideas are useful for the general community (ritzer 2003:132). baudrillard regards society as being dispersed or exploded into the public mass. the social key factor such as the existence of social class and ethnic differences have dissolved with the creation of a mass that cannot be differentiated from one another. the world for baudrillard is one where a chain of modern differences have fallen apart because the real condition is no longer real, it becomes the ownership of the public mass and no longer owned by the private individual. of similar concept is chris barker's statement of the "art and reality" that has been totally sucked into "the black hole". in other words, what has been regarded a unique reality is no longer appropriate as things occur from a simulation of hyper-realities. 40 celt, volume 6, number i, july 2006: 31-45 chris barker defines the word 'hyper' to show something as "more real that the real" (2005:6), whereby the reality in this case, is produced according to a model that is not yet set beforehand but artificially produced as a discursive of retouchable realities that may be similar to the selfhallucinations made by mankind. barker (2005: 162) continues to explain that man could not place himselfin certain situations well because he is manifested by the following factors: i. the cannibalization of the past style to the future time 2 the loss of authentic artistic style that is caused by what is being imitated 3. the representation transformation that becomes a mimicry and demonstration 4. the downfall of the clear cut difference between the low and the high culture 5. the establishment of a simulacra or duplicative culture (so nothing is original anymore) another way to explain the occurrence of manifestation such as described above is whatever happens in society is no longer regarded as real, but is only a replica or simulacra, since there is a concept that reality exists in the process of unreal simulations (klages 2006). with regards to this concept, baudrillard also sees that the postmodem society is a mimic of simulacra (cited in sarup 1993: 164) comparisons. the following paragraphs exemplify the phenomena. when the soccer match between real madrid and naples, who fought for the european championship, happened in 1987, it was done at night without any real supporters. even though supporters were not allowed to enter the stadium because officials were afraid the madrid supporters would make a dispute over the game, many television viewers were entertained to see the simulation match on television. this is clearly an example of how the postmodern society enjoys a simulacra as much as what may have been a reality. another example is when trying to appreciate the value of van gogh's classical paintings. people acknowledge that there is only one real true painting that deserves a high valuable price. yet, it is with conscience that the same people would prefer to buy the imitation for the sake that it has the same e.m. duku/, the effect of baudrillard's theory towards ads 41 image of showing to others how much they appreciate van gogh's masterpiece. the high-class status symbol the people received for owning a van gogh painting although only an imitation is reason enough to buy the copy. it is even absurd in the example of the flowering of pirated cds. no one is able to find out which of the cd is the real copy because mass production is so simple to do. it is a usual phenomenon in the postmodem society that no one ever wants to know which cd is the first replica of the real cd. this is absurd, but it is what the postmodem society wants. the above example shows why the postmodem society does not trouble with whatever is real or not. the practice of media has changed the original view of the world into a world of simulacrum. what is real is no longer related with the real world but with whatever is presented in the media ofthe radio, newspaper or television. in other words, what is seen on television is today's real world. what is presented on television has entered the human life and the human life has entered in television. sarup (1993: 165) believes that what may be fiction has become a reality and what is real has become a fiction. this is the reason that postmodemism is referred to a world of simulacrum. b. consumer culture and its entrapment baudrillard's point of view about simulacra or hyper-reality is published in his book the system of objects (1968). it argues that the basic principle of an ordered structure organization is through understanding the works of a consumer culture. baudrillard continues to explain that consumer products have a classification system and effect towards the formation of a certain behavior (2004 : 6). ads produce codes for their product through symbols that makes it different from other products. if the product becomes an object and later consumed, it will transfer the meaning of codes. the unlimited symbols have become one of the factors to regulate the society even though the same sign can make a consumer feel free to express the ownership ofthe product. so, consumers here do not mean consuming values only but consuming many of the symbols offered (sarup 1993: 162). someone is said to be searching for his class or existence in a society through an object or product offered. so, 42 celt, volume6,number i,july2006:31-45 the function ofa commodity is not only in fulfilling the needs ofan individual but also the needs of the individual's social class. consumption is not the end of an economic chain that starts with the activity of production but is an exchange system, i.e. a language to show that commodity is something that can be semiotically analyzed by an individual. baudrillard (2004) thinks no one is actually complete on his own, but he exists because there are other people, things, and objects that results a range of relations to build the unique characteristics of the individual. looking from history's perspective, consumer culture as a product of postmodern culture has been a focused attention since the end of the 1950s to the beginning of the 1960s. in 1970 consumer culture has become the objective of cultural studies because of the discussion that analyses commodity, which "produce alternative and oppositional meanings" (cited in storey 1996: 113). because of this, ads can fulfill mankind's needs o( a simulacra world. baudrillard says that ... adverts generate false needs for example, the desire to be a certain kind of person, wearing a particular type of clothes, eating a particular type offood, drinking particular drinks, using particular items, etc (cited in storey 1996: 114). thus, ifsomeone buys a big mac in mcdonald's restaurant, he is not only buying it to have his stomach full, but he gives himself a sign or image that he is part of a busy and active community who has no time to cook for himself that he had to buy a fast food product, which is more practical and suitable for his middle class budget. consumer culture's ideology is said to be a strategy of a "displacement process" (storey 1996: 115) because of its characteristics of always wanting to continually find something new. the hope that what he'll receive from consuming something (like 'love') has become a metonymy movement towards the limits of one's needs. consumption is believed to make someone whole and continually exist in his hyper-real world: ... consumption will make us whole again; consumption will make us full again; consumption will make us complete again" consumption will return us to the blissful state of the • imaginary' (storey 1996: 117). e.m. dukut, the effect of baudrillard's theory towards ads 43 this is the reason why john fiske (cited in storey 1996: 115) believes that the following text: live to love, and love to shop, so you sec... if i can buy enough things, i'll never have to work at love again! found in an ad is interesting to study as it makes readers want to know what kind of product is being offered. consumer cu lture's concept has made shopping consuming an endless activity. this is because consumer culture is not only an economic activity, i.e. buy a product and use the commodity advertised to satisfy someone's' material needs but it is also an actualization of a dream, a deep want, an identity and a way for better communication. henceforth, as clever as one tries to not be interested and attracted by a product advertised in television, newspaper, magazine, brochure or banner posted along a street man's character of always having a new hope to better himself, to be loved, to feel complete be a main reason of trapping people in a postmodem consumer culture. conclusion baudrillard's postmodem theory explains that man is now satisfied in consuming his hyper-real world through the daily products offered in ads. things that cannot be attained in reality can be reached through the simulacra signified in ads posted in the radio, television, newspaper, magazines, banners, and the like. to be evaluated someone from a high class, that person need not to really buy a bmw, but she only needs to wear a dress which she often sees a model wear in a bmw, like how she remembers in an ad she saw. or to make someone feel she is a famous super star, she can just buy herself beauty soap, lux, to become sophia saxtuba or sophia loren at anytime she wants to. baudrillard defines postmodemism as a world of simulations filled with multi-layered meanings. the meanings and symbols offered in ads are also multi-layered; consequently, the analysis of a product will be different from one individual to another. this, however, may produce a person who is very similar to another. for example, britney spear's popularity has made almost al\ teenagers to go out from the same salon or boutique that make them al\ look like her. where is the real britney spears? the answer for the 44 celt, volume 6, number i,july2006:31-45 postmodern society is not considered important. what is important is that ads helped to form a nihilistic world a world that makes almost everyone to be at another place, doing something else. wear another kind of clothing, eat and drink something else, be somebody else without going anywhere or do something crazy because everything can be simulated at their fingertips! bibliography barker, chris. cultural studies: teori dan praktik. yogyakarta: kreasi wacana, 2005. penerjemah nurhadi. translated from cultural studies: theory and practice, london: sage publications, 2000. barthes, roland. mythologies. london: jonatahan cape, 1972. buidrillard, jean p. masyarakat konsumsi. yogyakarta: kreasi wacana, 2004. translated by wahyunto. translated from la sosiete de consummation. denoel, 1970. bradbury, malcolm dan james mcfarlane ed. modernism 1890-/930. great britain: hazell watson & viney limited, 1986. featherstone, mike. posmodernisme dan budaya konsumen. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar offset, februari 2005. translated by misbah zulfa elizabeth: translated from consumer culture and postmodernism. fowler, 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"modernism to postmodernism". 2001. in http:// homepage.newschool.edul-quigley/vcs/pomo.hbnl. download 3 february 2006. ritzer, george. teori sosial posmoderen. 2nd ed. yogyakarta: kreasi wacana, 2004. translated by muhammad taufik. translated from the postmodern social theory. penerjemah sarup, madan. an introductory guide to post-structuralism and postmodernism. 2nd ed athens: the university of georgia press, 1993. solomon, jack. "masters of desire". in common culture: reading and writing about american popular culture, 2nd ed. michael petracca dan madeleine sorapure (eds). usa: prentice-hall, inc, 1998:46-59. storey, john. "the consumption of everyday life". in cultural studies and the study of popular culture. athens: university of georgia press, 1996: 113136. strinati, dominic. popular culture: pengantar menuju teori budaya popule, 1 st ed. yogyakarta: bentara budaya, 2003. translated by abdul mukid. translated from an introduction to theoris of popular culture, london: routledge, 1995. watson, nigel. "postmodernism and lifestyles (or: you are what you buy)". in the routledge companion to postmodernism. stuart sim (ed.) london and new york: routledge, 2001 :53-64. wilson, stan le roy. mass medial mass culture: an introduction, 3rd ed new york: mcgraw-hili inc., 1995. witcombe, christopher l.c.e. "modernism and postmodernism". in http:// witcombe.sbs.edulmodernismlmodpostmod.html, retrieved 3 februari 2006. logo: untitled-1 a study of euphemized abusive javanese terms and their figurative meanings yoseph edmundus budiyana1 and rakhmadati dagsani2 abstract: speech community frequently uses language for insulting. this study deals with a perspective to find out the classification of the euphemized abusive javanese terms based on huang and warren (1993) and their figurative meanings. by using qualitative method, the writer collected nine public documents related to the euphemized abusive javanese terms. then, they were examined and validated by five javanese experts such as lecturers, puppeteers, and teachers to check their accuracy. the results show that based on huang and warren’s theory, abstract and spirit provenance for insult attacking physical shortcomings; intellectual shortcomings; character and personality deviations; and personal behavior and social deviations are absent. secondly, the euphemized abusive javanese terms for insult attacking physical shortcomings are not found. thirdly, new provenance, emotion is found in insult attacking characters and personalities. lastly, from figurative meaning facet, the majority of the euphemized 1drs. y.e. budiyana, m.a.<yoseph54@yahoo.com> +6281542371074 is a full-time lecturer at the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 2rakhmadati dagsani, s.s. <sania_lifepuzzle@yahoo.co.id> +62878323 83679 is an alumnae from the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. this article is part of the thesis argument she defended for her sarjana sastra degree. y.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 211 abusive javanese terms have metaphorical meanings, while the others belong to irony and simile. key words: euphemized abusive javanese terms, figurative language, metaphorical meaning, provenance introduction language in people’s lives plays such important roles as to share ideas, demonstrate intention, convey message to other people, and conduct social life (kramsch 1998:3). in terms of conducting social life, language functions well in uniting similar opinions, thoughtful patterns and ways of thinking among different people. as a result, those people share such features as similar opinions, thoughtful patterns and ways of thinking by using the same language and then create a group called speech community. saville-troike (2003:15) defines speech community as “the shared dimension be related to ways in which members of the group use, value or interpret language”. in speech community, the members frequently immerse themselves in a particular situation such as insulting. for instance, javanese speech community use euphemized words in insulting others so that it will not hurt or shock those who hear them. it is also assented by sartini (2009:32) that the javanese neglect offensive utterances towards other people, dislike hurting others, and behave humbly in the case of communication. the euphemized words for insult actually tend to be abusive in order to give moral teachings to other intended people having unpleasant personality and characters (huang and warren as cited in aman1993:194). that is why this article will focus on classifying the euphemized abusive javanese celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226212 terms based on huang and warren’s theory and analyzing them figuratively. abusive terms in accordance with conley (2010:8) abusive term is “a term that is inherently abusive, that is insulting.” how abusive the terms are varies from language to language, culture to culture, and even within a language, a given term can be more or less abusive depending on the situation and personal conduct agreed by one’s culture. for instance, english has terms considered dangerous, holy, magic or shocking, offensive, obscene, and only used in certain situations, or by certain people (swan 1980:589). if the terms are misused from their original usage, those who utter them will shock one hearing this or sound immensely abusive. therefore, such terms are called “taboo words”. within english community, taboo words tend to concern christian religion, bodily functions, body parts and death such as “jesus”, “christ” and “god” representing christian religion; “fuck”, “sweat”, “piss”, “defecation” which are categorized into bodily functions; “penis”, “cock”, “vagina”, “cunt” which are categorized into body parts; and “die”, “kill” sorted into death (o’graddy et al. 1997: 554). in comparison with english, abusive terms in china are euphemistic and drawn by analogies, namely human, animal, plant, object, body part, characteristic, abstract, activity, and spirit (huang and warren as cited in aman 1993:194). from the aforementioned provenance, animal is considered to be the most disdainful analogy. they emerge as the reflection of chinese women who are licentious, talkative and untrustworthy. also, the unflattering relationship between many.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 213 woman, husband-wife, parent-child and learned-illiterate is the cause of the insult (huang and warren as cited in aman 1993:195). according to huang and warren (as cited in aman 1993:196-211) there are abusive mandarin terms for four kinds of insults associated with some provenance categories in each insult. insult attacking physical shortcomings insult attacking intellectual deviations insult attacking character and personality deviations insult attacking personal behaviour and social deviations human provenance: ai-ze: “short junior”: a short man object provenance:ka itien-chuang: “open-sky window”: a person having syphilis plant provenance: dai-gua: “stupid melon”: a gullible person characteristic provenance: jie-jieba-ba: “stammerin”: an inarticulate person animal provenance:celao-hu or “old female tiger”: a dominant and short-tempered woman body part provenance: hen-xin: “cruel heart”: a cruel person abstract provenance: wufawu-tien: “no law, no heaven”: a person having no respect for any existing rules or laws activity provenance: cheruan-fan: eating soft rice: a pimp spirit provenance: jiou-guei: “liquor ghost”: an alcoholic table 1: the examples of abusive mandarin terms figurative language stull (1961:4) clearly indicates that figurative language is “the language that avoids speaking directly or plainly about the subject under examination”. in expressing figurative meanings, there are ways which can be used by the author or the speaker. celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226214 those are irony, hyperbole, metaphor, metonymy, litotes, simile, personification and oxymoron (leech as cited in anonymus n.d.:2). a. irony irony is to say something in which the meaning is different from the real situation. leech and short further report that irony is “a double significance which arises from the contrast in values associated with two different points of view” (1981: 278).for instance, the utterance “you have so high iq that you cannot solve such an easy question” means that the real situation shown by the utterance is that the intended person does notsurely have high iq. if he or she has high iq, he or she must be able to solve an easy question. in other words, the utterance is indirect sarcastic criticism for the hearer. b. hyperbole perrine (as cited in mindari 1999:65) state sthat hyperbole is an exaggeration of the truth. the use of it is usually for emphasizing what a speaker or an author sorely means. for example, the utterance “i am so thirsty that i want to drink river near my house” implies and stresses that the unbearable thirst makes a speaker wants to drink a lot. c. metaphor jakobson and halle (as cited in cruise 2000:211) contend that “metaphor is based on resemblance and involves the use of one domain as an analogical model to structure our conception of another domain”. the example can be seen through the y.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 215 sentence “time is money”. money is something precious and worth. most people compete for earning money, for without money, they cannot fulfill their principal needs. similarly, “time” is something valuable. if one is five minutes late, for instance, he or she may not enter office or school. d. metonymy metonymy means “the use of a single characteristic to identify a more complex entity” (sutcliffe 2005:1). in metonymy there is association between two components within a single domain (cruise 2000:211). “i go to campus by mercedes benz” is the example of metonymy. “mercedes benz” here represents the brand of the car coming from germany. in other words, “mercedes benz” and car are the two similar components. e. litotes litotes is “saying less than is actually the case” (anonymus n.d:2).for example “would you call in on my small house?” expresses the idea where speaker does not merely reveal intention of his or her small house to the hearer. however, he or she actually wants to show the hearer his or her big house. f. simile in accordance with toner and whittome (2003:12) simile is to say two things that are similar one another by using such words as “like” or “as”. for instance, the sentence “sue’s appearance is like a barbie doll” has two different objects celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226216 compared, namely appearance and barbie doll. sue’s appearance is beautiful, outstanding, and gorgeous. g. personification it is to give inanimate objects particular abilities in order to be able to act like alive human beings. for instance,in the sentence, “my pencil is dancing in my book” personification plays its role to make “pencil” dance like human being. since when someone is holding a pencil and writing, his or her pencil moves over and seems like dancing. h. oxymoron oxymoron is to “place two ideas that seem to be directly opposed to one another in close proximity, which, on closer inspection, make sense” (toner and whittome 2003:15). it usually involves two contradictory terms like the sentence, his infidelity is open secret. the term, secret is something that should not be told to others and is only known by particular people. however, it becomes contradictory, for it is linked to the term, open which is totally different from the secret that should be closed. research design: type, data collection and interpretation this study uses qualitative method focusing on library study as the natures are to classify, discover the kinds of the figurative languages of the euphemized abusive javanese terms and analyze them figuratively. the euphemized abusive javanese terms are obtained from the following books: y.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 217 1. kawruh basa jawa pepak; 2. buku pinter basa jawi pepak, 3. peribahasa jawa sebagai cermin watak, sifat, dan perilaku manusia jawa; 4. kamus jawa-indonesia; 5. sistem morfemis adjektiva bahasa jawa-indonesia: 6. suatu studi kontrastif; 7. sesuluh basa jawi; gagrag anyar basa jawi pepak; 8. basa jawa pepaking pepak kawruh basa afterwards, they are validated by five javanese experts, namely one lecturer, one puppeteer, one junior high school teacher and two elementary school teachers. the data are interpreted by using huang and warren’s theory. by using this theory, the euphemized abusive javanese terms for insults are classified into provenance categories, such as human, animal, plant, object, body part, characteristic, abstract, activity and spirit. then, they are analyzed based on their figurative meanings such as irony, hyperbole, metaphor, metonymy, litotes, simile, personification and oxymoron. classification of euphemized abusive javanese terms and their figurative meanings a. insult attacking physical shortcomings in insult attacking physical shortcomings, none of such nine provenance classifications as human, animal, plant, object, body part, characteristic, abstract, activity, and spirit are found. celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226218 b. insult attacking intellectual shortcomings within insult attacking intellectual shortcomings, there are no euphemized abusive javanese terms classified into human, animal, plant, object, abstract, and spirit provenance. the other ones belong to body part, characteristic, and activity provenance. in other words, the detail is as follows: 1. body part provenance landhêp dhêngkul: “sharp knee”: a very stupid person it is irony referring to a very stupid person. the javanese experts that the writer claims it is the euphemized abusive javanese term. dhêngkul or “knee” is part of the leg which is blunt, yet in this case the “knee” is called sharp. knee is never used for thinking; however, in this context, it is used to refer to brain. while the brain is normally sharp due to high intelligence, the knee is normally blunt due to the low intelligence. thus, “sharp” is irony of “blunt” and “knee” is irony of “brain” which entirely means a very stupid person. 2. characteristic provenance cupêt nalaré: “short intellect”: a person who cannot think all things it is a metaphor deriving from cupêt or “short” and nalar or “intellect” which is the ability to think in a logical way. if a person has short intellect, he or she cannot think all the things. in other words, he or she is indirectly a stupid person. ora mêlék: “not seeing”: a stupid person, an illiterate. 3. activity provenance y.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 219 a blind person is someone who is unable to see. however, ora mêlék or “not seeing” is a description of a stupid person or an illiterate since he or she can understand nothing and has no fascinating insight. that is why ora mêlék or “not seeing” is a proper analogy for a stupid person or an illiterate and belongs to metaphor. c. insult attacking character and personality deviations the provenance classifications of the euphemized abusive javanese terms which are absent within insult attacking characters and personalities are abstract and spirit provenance, whereas the others comprise human, animal, plant, object, body part, characteristic, activity, and emotion provenance. 1. human provenance cinå craki: “chinese medicine merchant”: a miser it depicts metaphor and encompasses euphemized abusive javanese terms. it does not merely express a medicine merchant coming from chinese. cinå or “chinese” here, in accordance with the javanese has a notion of a person who is unwilling to spend much money. furthermore, if he or she is a medicine merchant, he or she will always sell his or her medicine with expensive price without giving a bit of discount to a buyer at all. måtå yuyu or “crab eyes” here is not crab’s eyes but it is metaphor for a woman who easily cries. if she easily cries everytime she faces certain problems, especially the light 2. animal provenance måtå yuyu: “crab eyes”: a woman who can easily cry. celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226220 ones, her eyes gets bigger and wide like crab’s eyes. if animal is directed at human, he or she will be humiliated. 3. plant provenance anggêdêbog bosok: “like rotten banana tree trunk”: a person whose face and heart are bad. since“like” (preposition) is used in the euphemized abusive javanese term, it belongs to simile. a person whose face and heart are bad is like rotten banana tree trunk. if it gets rotten, it will be useless since it does not function well anymore. therefore, a person whose face and heart is bad fits that analogy. 4. object provenance måtå dhuwitên: “money eyes”: a materialistic person it is not related to currency or financial matter, but it is metaphor depicting a materialistic person where he or she tends to regard money the most important thing in his or her life. in other words, when he or she sees abundant money, his or her eyes are directed at it and then he or she wants it. 5. body part provenance lunyu ilaté: “slippery tongue”: a person whose utterance changes anytime it is a methapor used to describe a person whose utterance changes anytime. the adjective lunyu or “slippery” in lunyu ilaté or “slippery tongue” leads to such easily movable motion that the tongue can produce changed utterance anytime. y.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 221 6. characteristic provenance cupêt pangandêlé: “short belief”: a person who is not easy to believe in others this term has been checked and validated by five javanese experts. they all state that cupêt pangandêlé or “short belief” is the euphemized abusive javanese term. it represents a person who is not easy to believe in others. cupêt or “short” here reflects something lacking. d. insult attacking personal behavior and social deviations 7. activity provenance pêcél alu: “breaking rice pestle”: a person whose behavior is rigid it portrays metaphor. alu or “rice pestle” is made from stone and the nature of stone is hard and not easy to be broken. similarly, a person whose behavior is rigid tends not to want to take others’ advice and regard his or her opinion as the most correct one. wêdi gêtih: “afraid of blood”: a faint-hearted person the color of blood is by nature red and red frequently represents bravery. it is an appropriate metaphor for a faint-hearted person since he or she does not dare enough to take any risks and face challenges. in insult attacking personal behavior and social deviations, there is no classification of the euphemized abusive javanese terms included in abstract and spirit provenance, celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226222 while the other terms are classified into human, animal, plant, object, body part, characteristic, and activity provenance. 1. human provenance tangan togog: “hands of giant’s servant”: an unfair person it is encompassed in metaphor. togog is evil figure who is frequently demonstrated in javanese shadow puppet, such as disloyal, greedy, unfair, money-grubbing, and so forth. he is semar’s close friend who is older than him. furthermore, his work is to serve giants. that is why tangan togog or “hands of giant’s servant” is directed at an unfair person. 2. animal provenance cumbu lalêr: “easily caught fly”: a person having excessive acts lalêr or “fly” is an insect which can fly quickly. consequently, it cannot be easily caught. there is euphemized abusive javanese term saying that fly is easily caught, however. it exactly does not represent the same meaning of what the term is. there is discrepancy between what is said and what the intention is. “easily caught fly” or cumbu lalêr is irony for a person who has excessive acts. it is metaphor for a person engaging in a conversation but he or she is actually not invited. bamboo twig is a part of bamboo tree that cannot be used. it tends to be removed. a person who is not invited to engage in a conversation 3. plant provenance carang canthél: “bamboo twig hung”: a person engaging in a conversation but he or she is actually not invited y.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 223 resembles a bamboo twig. since he or she wants to immerse himself or herself in a conversation, he or she seeks to take part. likewise, useless bamboo twig wants to be hung as wall decoration in order to be considered valuable. 4. object provenance anggênthong umos: “like leaky pitcher”: a person who cannot keep a secret if a pitcher or gênthong is leaky, it cannot be used to fill water. moreover, if it is filled with water, the water will permeate out of it. similarly, a person who cannot keep a secret is portrayed by simile, “like leaky pitcher”. his or her mouth tends to divulge what to be a secret. 5. body part provenance dåwå tangané: “long hands”: a thieving person this metaphor does not merely express the idea of a person having long hands. it is, however, the depiction of a thieving person. the adjective, dåwå or “long” in dåwå tangané or “long hands” means the ability of seizing something. as a result, he or she easily takes others’ possessions. it is metaphor for a rich person who actually feels lacking. garang or “strong” is an image of something powerful, while garing or “dry” describes something having no water on it. a rich person is an illustration of the one who is 6. characteristic provenance garang garing: “strong but dry”: a rich person who actually feels lacking celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226224 powerful in terms of money. he or she can buy what he or she wants or needs. however, his or her wealth cannot totally make him or her happy since he or she feels garing or “dry” where he or she cannot likely attain freshness on his or her heart, namely love and care. as a result, his or her wealth is not precious again. secondly, abstract and spirit provenance for insult attacking physical shortcomings; intellectual shortcomings; characters and personality deviations; personal behavior and social deviations are absent. abstract provenance is considered unsuitable since the random order cannot convey implicit intention of them to the ones who are insulted. as a result, 7. activity provenance adol ayu: “selling prettiness”: a woman who only shows off her beauty it is metaphor for a woman who only shows off her beauty. literally, the action of adol or “selling” is usually associated with things or objects so that it will be, for example, “selling fruit”. its normal meaning is to give those things to someone in return for money. nevertheless, adol ayu or “selling prettiness” figuratively shows ayu or “prettiness” to attract other people’s attentions and does not expect money. conclusion there are some conclusions drawn from the classification and the figurative analysis of euphemized abusive javanese terms as insults. firstly, new provenance, emotion emerges in insult attacking character and personality deviations. y.e. budiyana and r. dagsani, euphemized abusive javanese terms 225 those who are insulted will not recognize their improper behavior. meanwhile, the javanese are religious so that they avoid things in relation to spirit. they believe that their lives are only for god so that all the things that they do are directed at god (prihatmi et. al.2003:63). thirdly, none of euphemized abusive javanese terms for insult attacking physical shortcomings are found, for according to the javanese physical shortcomings are god’s gifts. they are not for being insulted but for being accepted (prihatmi et. al. 2003:66). lastly, a large majority of euphemized abusive javanese terms have metaphorical meanings. the remainder of them belongs to irony and simile. references aman, r. (ed.). talking dirty. london: rodsun books, 1993. anonymus.(n.d.)“the usage of figurative meaning in the time magazine.”retrieved from http://repository.usu.ac.id/bit stream/123456789/19290/5/chapter%20i.pdf, 1 april 2012. conley, t. toward a rhetoric of insult. chicago and london: the university of chicago press, 2010. cruise, a. meaning in language: an introduction to semantics and pragmatics. united states: oxford university press, 2000. kramsch, c. language and culture. oxford: oxford university press, 1998. leech, g. n. andm. h. short.style in fiction: a linguistic introduction to english practical prose. london and new york: longman,1981. mindari, r. “a study on figurative language and nonverbal symbols in the javanese wedding ceremony.” unpublished celt, volume 13, number 2, december2013:210 – 226226 postgraduate dissertation. institute of teacher training and education, malang, 1999. o’graddy, w., m. dobrovolsk and f. katamba.contemporary linguistics: an introduction. united kingdom: pearson education limited, 1997. prihatmi, s. r., a. basuki, t. yusuf, and slamet. peribahasa jawa sebagai cermin watak, sifat, dan perilaku manusia jawa. jakarta: pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional, 2003. sartini, n. w. “menggali kearifan local budaya jawa lewat ungkapan (bebasan, saloka, danparibasa)”. in jurnal ilmiah bahasa dan sastra, vol. v, 2009:28-37. saville-troike, m.the ethnography of communication: an introduction. united kingdom: blackwell publishing ltd., 2003. stull, b. t. the elements of figurative language. new york: longman, 1961. sutcliffe, r. “figure of speech”.retrieved march 5, 2012, from http://www.opundo.com/figures.php?searchstr=*, 28 decem ber 2005. swan, m. practical english usage. london: oxford university press, 1980. toner, h. and e. whittome.as level english language and literature. united kingdom: cambridge university press, 2003. 4_yoseph and rakhmadati_2013_13_2(210-226) cover celt december 2013_revisi_1 celt vol 13 no 2 december 2013_revisi_2# cover celt december 2013_revisi_2 a comparison between peer and teacher feedback on learners' languageaccurac~ a case study wiwik andreani1 abstract: this study examines how peer and teacher feedback help learners improve their grammatical accuracy in their written work. it is a longitudinal case study with twelve participants of an efl grammar class. they did two selfediting tasks and three self-correction tasks on the same written work. in doing the self-correction activities, the learners received three kinds of feedback: direct peer feedback and two kinds of indirect feedback from the teacher. the study found that indirect teacher feedback, in the form of metalanguage comments and underlining errors, gave the biggest contribution to the learners' language accuracy. however, in regard to the consistently corrected errors, peer feedback outperformed teacher feedback in its contribution. the result showed that both direct and indirect feedbacks were beneficial for the learners to raise their awareness towards becoming independent self-editors. key words: peer feedback, teacher feedback, language accuracy dra. wiwik andreani, m.a. <wiwik@binus.edu> at +62812944538 is an english ecturer from binus university. she received her bachelor degree (dra.) from english department, universitas kristen satya wacana, salatiga in 1984. her masters degree in applied linguistics was acquired from universitas katolik. atma jaya, jakarta in 2008. she is interested in english teaching and educational psychology. 58 celt, volume 9, number 1, july 2009:42·59 references allwright, d. and k. bailey. focus on the language classroom: an introduction to classroom research for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university presst 1991. ashwellt t. "patterns of teacher response to student writing in a multipledraft composition classroom: is content feedback followed by form feedback the best method?" in journal of second language writing, vol. 9, 3 2000: 227-257. chandler, j. 6'the efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in tbeaccuracy and fluency ofl2 student writing." in jounjqj o/secont/language writing, vol. 12,3 2003: 267-296. fathman, a. and e. whalley. "teacher response to student writing: focus on form versus content". in kroll (ed), second language writing: research insights/or the classroom, edited by kroll. barbara t 1990: 178-190. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1990. fenis, d. "can advanced esl students be taught to correct their most serious and frequent errors?" in catesoljournal, vol. 8, 1 , 1995: 41-62. __ " uthe case for grammar correction in l2 writing classes: a response to truscott". in journal o/second language writing, vol. 8,1 1999: 1-10. __ .. 'the 'grammar correction' debate in l2 writing: where are we, and where do we go from here? (and what do we do in the meantime ... 1)". in journal of second language writing, vol. 13, i 2004: 49-62. ferris, d. treatment of error in second language student writing. ann arbor: university of michigan press, 2002. ferris, d. and b. roberts. "error feedback in l2 writing classes. how explicit does it need to be?". in journal of second language writing, vol. 10,3,2001: 161-184 we andreani, peer and teacher feedback on learners' language accuracy s9 hendrickson, j. "the treatment of error in written work". in mckay (ed). in composing in a second language. edited by mckay sandra cambridge, mass: newbury house, 1984: 145-159. james, c. errors in language learning and use: exploring error analysis. london: longman, 1998. lalande, j. "reducing composition errors: an experiment". in modem language journal, vol. 66, 2,1982: 140-149 lee, i. "esl learners' performance in error correction in writing: some implications for teaching". in system, vol. 25, 4 1997: 465-477. makino, t-y. "learner self-correction in efl written compositions". in elt journal, vol. 47,4, 1993: 337-341. prodromou, luke. grammar and vocabulary for first certificate. edinburgh: pearson education limited, 1999. robb, t., s. ross and i. shortreed. "salience of feedback on error and its effect on efl writing quality". in tesol quarterly, vol. 20, 1, 1986: 83-91. truscott, j. ''the case against grammar correction in l2 writing classes." in language learning, vol. 46, 2,1996: 327-369. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the implementation of online classes in mediating reading activities via blended learning model senny suzanna alwasilah english language and literature department, faculty of art and literature, universitas pasundan, bandung, indonesia received: 21-01-2020 accepted: 29-02-2020 published: 02-06-2020 email: senny-alwasilah@unpas.ac.id https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the implementation of online classes in mediating reading activities via blended learning model 1senny suzanna alwasilah 1senny-alwasilah@unpas.ac.id 1english language and literature department, faculty of art and literature, universitas pasundan, bandung, indonesia abstract: the presence of technology has massively influenced many fields, including education. in this era, there is an urgency to promote literacy through reading that simultaneously embeds technology in the learning. reading is considered as an important activity requiring thinking process, and its learning nowadays requires technology. therefore, this study is intended to investigate the implementation of online class in mediating reading activities using blended learning model. the participants in this study consisted of 40 students of reading-writing connection course of a private university in bandung. the qualitative method of case study 2.0 was used as the framework to collect the data using observations, interviews, and online artifacts, and analyzing data. this study found that in the reading comprehension learning, a blended learning environment was used as the means to deliver pre-reading and post-reading activities. the activities in the online learning classes included quizzes, video viewing, and use of materials, such as e-books and worksheets. key words: online learning, blended learning, reading comprehension abstrak: kehadiran teknologi telah mempengaruhi banyak bidang, termasuk pendidikan. di era sekarang ini, ada urgensi untuk mendorong literasi melalui membaca yang sekaligus menanamkan teknologi dalam pembelajaran. membaca dianggap sebagai kegiatan penting yang membutuhkan proses berpikir, dan pembelajarannya saat ini membutuhkan teknologi. oleh 40 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 39 – 58 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui penerapan kelas online dalam memediasi kegiatan membaca dengan menggunakan model blended learning. partisipan dalam penelitian ini terdiri dari 40 mahasiswa mata kuliah readingwriting connection di salah satu perguruan tinggi swasta di bandung. metode kualitatif studi kasus 2.0 digunakan sebagai kerangka pengumpulan data melalui observasi, wawancara, artefak online, dan analisis data. penelitian ini menemukan bahwa dalam pembelajaran pemahaman membaca dalam lingkungan blended learning, kelas online digunakan sebagai sarana penyampaian kegiatan pra membaca dan pasca membaca. kegiatan dalam kelas pembelajaran online ini berupa kuis, menonton video, dan materi berupa e-book dan lks. kata kunci: pembelajaran online, blended learning, pemahaman membaca introduction the presence of technology has a massive influence in various fields, especially education. digital literacy (reading, writing and digital interaction) is one of the requirements to support future success that every student must possess (partnership for 21st skill, 2012). to facilitate the students’ learning, strengthening their competence in reading skills is significant. reading is an activity not only intended to seek for information from a text, but it is also categorized as a literacy activity that involves a thinking process, which is needed as a requirement to interact with a text (hudson, 2007). in addition, reading is one of the important aspects of the language acquisition process (ghazizadeh & fatemipour, 2017). however, in the practice of classroom learning, reading activities are often taught passively. the current concept of the learning of reading requires it to be interactive by involving the students in the process of capturing meaning and they must participate actively in class and become independent learners (yang & wilson, 2006). the development of technology and the internet can be used to improve the quality of the learning of reading in schools. in other words, the internet can be used as a means to practice reading (krajka, 2006). teachers alwasilah, s.s., the implementation of online classes in mediating reading 41 activities via blended learning model https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj can use it to improve and produce active interactions between students inside and outside the classroom (looi & yusop, 2011). chun (2006) affirms the benefits of integrating technology and internet in supporting reading learning as follows: 1. providing access to electronic dictionaries 2. facilitating word recognition in the reading text automatically 3. providing access to design authentic materials 4. providing web-based reading facilities this use of technology gives numerous contributions to learning, and one of which is new learning models such as blended learning. this learning model is a hybrid learning model that combines face-to-face learning with online learning (mcgee & reis., 2012). furthermore, bersin (2004) explains that blended learning is a learning model that can be developed to support specific subjects and specific audiences. in reading comprehension learning, this model can be used as a way to provide additional access to learning materials, as a strategy to start reading activities (pre-reading activity) and as an activity to evaluate the learning (postreading activity). another benefit of the implementation of blended learning model in reading is the additional aid in the reading acquisition process to support students who have poor reading skills (macarthur et al., 2001). blended learning supports flexibility for learners, especially in reading activities. students have the flexibility to manage responses to teaching materials in their own convenience (self-paced learning), and independent exercises that are certainly unreachable by face-to-face learning systems (johnson et al., 2010). therefore, it can effectively support individual student’s learning activities (saine, lerkkanen et al., 2011) and support learning at all levels in both institutions and classes (graham, 2004). the implementation of blended learning in reading can be done using the modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment (moodle) platform named learning management system (lms) or virtual learning environment (vle) platform. the platform was developed by martin dougiamas to provide access to educators and students to interact and collaborate online (dougiamas & taylor, 2003). this platform can be used for free and is currently being used in various schools and colleges in the 42 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 39 – 58 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj world to implement distance learning and hybrid learning such as blended learning. studies on the integration of technology into reading learning have been carried out by researchers in various places. maduabuchi & emechebe (2016) examined the effect of technology in supporting reading learning and argued learning mediated by technology can have benefits in supporting reading skills to students, especially in building vocabulary. in addition, studies from various countries in asia have also been able to reveal the benefits of social networking sites in facilitating reading and learning activities, such as encouraging students’ positive attitudes and perceptions (kabilan, ahmad & abidin, 2010), and improving students’ performance (park & kim, 2011). broadly speaking, this study focuses on investigating the implementation of online classes in mediating reading comprehension activities in the blended learning model by emphasizing on the activities used in the classes. literature review a. reading comprehension grabe & stoller (2002) verify that reading is not only about obtaining meaning from texts and interpreting information, but also building information correctly. furthermore, hudson (2007) states that reading is motivated by the readers’ specific goals and is intended to improve understanding through texts. reading is a complex process that involves a process of understanding. understanding can be defined as distinguishing and obtaining general ideas and specific facts and seeing how these ideas and facts are organized and developed (nation, 2009). based on the aforementioned elaboration, it can be concluded that reading comprehension is a process aiming at understanding the ideas of a text correctly. in relation to this, alyousef (2006) states that in the process, the reader interacts dynamically with the text and tries to interpret the meaning and uses various types of knowledge possessed including linguistic or system knowledge and schematic knowledge. wallace (1992) asserts that in addition to background knowledge, understanding is also influenced by the readers’ knowledge of language and text structure, cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and also their reasoning alwasilah, s.s., the implementation of online classes in mediating reading 43 activities via blended learning model https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abilities, motivation, and level of involvement. in detail, there are at least six components of general skills and knowledge to help students possess good reading skills: 1. skill of automatic recognition 2. knowledge of vocabulary and structure 3. knowledge of structure of formal discourse 4. skill and strategy in synthesizing and evaluation 5. background knowledge of the world 6. metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring (grabe, 1991) in terms of reading process, many researchers have tried to create a general understanding of the reading process using a framework known as the general reading model. the model used as a strategy in reading is the concept of new literacy model. a distinctive feature of this model is how it defines reading comprehension as a process of reader-text interaction, which links to the reader’s knowledge (bloome, 1993). in addition, bloome (1993) admits that recognizing and examining are a social context involving social interaction, reading, and writing. this view suggests that readers can interpret meaning derived from a text as a cultural context and their interpretation is not mistaken (hudson, 2007). in other words, reading activity involves thinking process and is a social interaction between the reader and the writer. in turn, it requires the readers to be able to understand the text as a medium for understanding ideas. b. blended learning blended learning is a combination of various training media (technology, activities, and face-to-face) to develop the best training programs for specific purposes (bersin, 2004; willson & smilanich, 2005). in classroom management activities, the blended learning approach combines classroom face-to-face methods with computers to produce instructional approaches (latchem &jung, 2010; bielawski &metcalf, 2003) and to bring new learning environments (finn & bucceri, 2004; garrison &kanuka' 2004). furthermore, thorne (2003) explains that the purpose of the blended approach is to facilitate students with interactive experiences and flexibility in the learning process. 44 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 39 – 58 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj many teachers use computer-based media to increase their students’ motivation and learning (marsh, 2012), such as the use of software referred to as e-learning or online learning. several studies have shown that students could learn successfully in online learning and traditional face-to-face classes (donnelly, 2010; woltering et al., 2009). however, recently, it has also been accepted that online learning with a single course environment setting cannot direct students to produce optimal performance in learning (kocoglu et al, 2009). therefore, educators have combined traditional face-to-face classes with online learning programs or learning management systems in mixed learning designs to produce classroom teaching and to promote active and flexible learning (garnham & kaleta, 2002). over the past decade, blended learning has also been implemented into language teaching and is still considered as a new concept for many educators (marsh, 2012). however, some other studies (pena-sanchez & hicks, 2006; stracke, 2007; and stracke, 2007) show that blended learning could effectively enhance the learning experience when properly implemented. in another study on blended learning, bekele &menchaca (2008) identified a number of research that found the positive effects of blended learning on (1) students’ performance (ladyshewsky, 2004; motteram, 2006), (2) students’ participation and motivation (de georgewalker & keeffe, 2010; lopez-perez, perez-lopez & rodriguez-ariza, 2011; ugur, akkoyunlu and kurbanoglu, 2011), (3) increased access and flexibility (macedo-rouet, ney et al., 2009), (4) cost effectiveness (herman & banister, 2007); and (5) more active and deeper learning (bonk et al., 2006). marsh, (4: 2012) also identified the following strengths of blended learning: 1. providing a more individual learning experience 2. facilitating a more personalized learning support 3. providing support and encourages independent and collaborative learning 4. increasing students’ involvement in learning 5. accommodating various language styles 6. arranging a place to practice target language outside the classroom 7. providing a less stressful training environment for the target language alwasilah, s.s., the implementation of online classes in mediating reading 45 activities via blended learning model https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 8. providing flexibility in learning, anytime and anywhere to meet the needs of target learners, and 9. helping students develop the 21st century learning skills to conclude, blended learning can be a powerful model for improving the quality of teaching, especially language teaching. this is a combination of various learning media to develop the best training programs for specific purposes (bersin, 2004; willson & smilanich, 2005). thus, the model can strengthen learning content, improve accessibility of learning materials, and help with the collaboration and communication in the learning process (aborisade, 2013). c. teaching reading comprehension in a blended environment in language teaching, tomlinson (2013) states that blended learning design must aim at reducing the problems that exist in language teaching by: 1. maximizing students’ exposure to english 2. providing experiences for all students from various academic genres and opportunities for individual students to gain further experience for their specialization 3. increasing students’ affective and cognitive involvement by providing text and assignment choices 4. serving different levels and aspirations by giving choices of text and assignments 5. providing opportunities for students to make their own discoveries about the use of english features to achieve the desired results 6. providing opportunities for students to seek regular feedback from peers and teachers about their communicative performance, and 7. providing opportunities for teachers to monitor the progress of their students in a way that allows them to provide constructive criticism and responsive teaching when needed most in implementing blended learning, activities using lms (such as moodle, schoology, and edmodo) also have the potential to provide a 46 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 39 – 58 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj platform that facilitates reading interactivity, develops independent learning, and supports meaning-making activities (looi & yusop, 2011). several previous studies have found the improvements in students’ performance when learning using online activities (such as the use of social networking sites) were included in english teaching and learning. for example, park & kim (2011) examined the reading strategies used by the students of english as a second language (esl) in a series of online reading assignments. their study found that ‘hybrid’ online esl readers could use their reading strategies creatively to understand the tasks. additionally, online tasks can be used as a way to find out more about the target language (meskill, 1999). method a. participants the participants in this research were 40 students of reading writing connections course at a private university in bandung b. research design this research used a qualitative case study method as the framework for analyzing data. case study 2.0 is a method to capture a social phenomenon that occurs on a digital platform. cresswell (2012) affirms that a case study is a model designed to examine a social phenomenon through in-depth investigation. c. data collection and data analysis procedure this study used observations, interviews, and online artifacts as instruments in answering the research questions. observations were carried out in both online and face-to-face classes. semi-structured interviews were conducted to lecturers and students. the students were selected based on their achievements (high, moderate, and low achievers). online artifacts were carried out to provide data on student activities, learning scores, and learning material. this study was conducted in september to december 2018. to analyze the collected data, creswell's strategy (1998, p. 112-113) which involved data management, reading, memo-making, describing, classifying, interpreting, representing, and visualizing, was used in this study. alwasilah, s.s., the implementation of online classes in mediating reading 47 activities via blended learning model https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the next stage was to label and group the data into a theme so that the data can be presented clearly and in detail. a triangulation was carried out to confirm the data obtained from each instrument, hence, the potential bias in this research could be reduced. this was done to ensure that any data can be connected with other findings. results and discussions in its implementation, blended learning was carried out in readingwriting connection course in one private university in bandung. in the observation process, each session was recorded and noted. the learning was divided into eight topics, as presented in the table below: table 1: observation data no teaching program session needed prereading whilst reading post reading 1 hi!! 2 face-toface class face-toface class face-to-face and online class 2 getting personal 2 online class face-toface class online class 3 i love learning 2 online class face-toface class online class 4 my routines 2 online class face-toface class online class 5 what’s in your bag 2 online class face-toface class online class 6 that’s mine 2 online class face-toface class online class 7 my family tree 2 online class face-toface class online class 8 my dad can 2 face-toface class face-toface class face-to-face and online class the learning was divided into 16 face-to-face meetings and was supported by online classes as supplementary materials for learning outside the classroom. hence, the students were able to access material from outside 48 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 39 – 58 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the classroom. the students were able to access the materials using mobile phones so that the learning became more flexible and the learning materials could be accessed easily. the following are the learning activities in the online classes. figure 1: online class activities during the online learning, the students were required to do exercises aim at improving their reading ability. each topic consisted of four reading comprehension exercises activities. figure 2: student exercise activities in the online class alwasilah, s.s., the implementation of online classes in mediating reading 49 activities via blended learning model https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 3: student exercise activities in the online class subsequently, several artifacts showed that the students obtained online classes, and also other learning materials in the form of learning e-books used in face-to-face meeting learning activities. therefore, the learning was supported by diverse materials that are interconnected with each other (online and face-to-face class). the data is illustrated in figure 4 below. figure 4: e-book and face to face class materials 50 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 39 – 58 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj furthermore, the evaluation of learning was carried out automatically and stored in moodle. the lecturers input the offline materials into moodle. every exercise carried out by the students was easily identified because the data were easily obtained in moodle. all data were then downloaded for learning evaluation purposes. the data on student assessment and evaluation is illustrated in figure 5. figure 5: student learning assessment and evaluation the data obtained from the interviews showed the fact that the lecturers understood well about comprehensive reading learning. the following are excerpts of the interviews with the lecturers. interview 1 with a lecturer: menurut pendapat saya, reading comprehension adalah sebuah proses untuk memahami, menafsirkan, dan menguraikan informasi dari teks. dalam proses ini, pembaca berinteraksi secara dinamis dengan teks serta mencoba menggambar makna dan menggunakan berbagai jenis pengetahuan. (in my opinion, reading comprehension is a process to understand, interpret, and describe information from a text. in this process, the reader interacts dynamically with the text and tries to draw meaning and use various types of knowledge.) this statement was in line with the process of the teaching program that the lecturer conducted. he began by introducing how to understand the main alwasilah, s.s., the implementation of online classes in mediating reading 51 activities via blended learning model https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj topics and ideas in a text; then by training the students to understand the context through vocabulary; and then finally training the students to use their knowledge background in interacting with the texts. in addition, he also had skills in integrating technology into the learning process. in his perception, ict is intended to improve the quality of learning. this statement is also in line with voogt (2003) stating that an important part in integrating ict into the teaching and learning process is its purpose of improving the quality of learning. the next interview question was related to the implementation of blended learning using moodle in teaching reading comprehension. the following is the excerpt of the conversation. interview 2 with a lecturer: moodle sangat bermanfaat dalam pembelajaran membaca, karena dapat menunjang memberikan materi tambahan pada mahasiswa di luar kampus. hal itu bermanfaat untuk membantu kami meningkatkan eksposur terhadap sebuah teks. (moodles is very useful in reading learning, because it aids in providing additional materials for the students outside the campus. it is useful to help us to have more exposure to a text.) this is in line with biancarosa & griffiths (2012) arguing that technology is able to provide more opportunities for students to improve their reading skills. the next interviews were conducted with three students. the first interview question was about their opinions about the lecturers’ strategy in teaching reading comprehension. all respondents expressed that most of the lecturers’ strategies were appropriate in helping them improve their reading skills. they also said that the classes were enjoyable. the following are excerpts of three interview results: interview with student 1 (high achiever student): cara-cara mengajar dosen sangat bermanfaat buat saya dalam memahami bacaan dalam bahasa inggris. (the lecturers’ ways of teaching are very useful for me in understanding reading in english). 52 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 39 – 58 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interview with student 2 (moderate achiever student): cara mengajarnya menyenangkan dan membuat saya semakin menyukai belajar bahasa inggris. (the lecturers’ ways of teaching is fun and i enjoy learning english more.) interview with student 3 (low achiever student): saya merasa lebih mudah dalam belajar membaca karena kelasnya selalu menarik. (i find it easier to learn to read because the class is always interesting.) all three students reported that they benefitted greatly from learning reading from conventional face-to-face classes and online classes. they said that even though moodle was something new to them, they did not have many problems in operating it and the features were very easy to understand. they also said that learning to use moodle was enjoyable. this is informed by student vi (low achiever student), as follows: ya, moodle adalah kelas online yang sangat menyenangkan. meskipun baru pertama menggunakan kelas online saya tidak kesulitan menggunakannya. (yes, moodle is a very enjoyable online class. even though i have only used online classes for the first time, i have no trouble using them.) the final question was related to the implementation of online blended learning in teaching reading comprehension. all respondents said that the use of moodle and online classes gave them many benefits. the first benefit was that blended learning provided new experiences in learning. this idea corresponds to dudeney & hockly (2007) stating that technology provides new learning experiences and cultures for students. second, the blended learning model provided convenience to the students in accessing the teaching materials. the following is an excerpt of the interviews with student iv (moderate achiever student) that informs this situation: alwasilah, s.s., the implementation of online classes in mediating reading 53 activities via blended learning model https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj saya sangat terbantu dengan kelas online dan tatap muka karena mudah mengakses materi belajar. (i have acquired a lot of help in the online and face-to-face classes because i can easily access the learning materials.) the third benefit was that the use of online classes provided flexibility in learning, especially outside the classroom. the following is an excerpt of an interview with student vi (low achiever student): saya bisa belajar di mana pun dan kapanpun saya mau hanya dengan menggunakan mobile phone saja. (i can study wherever and whenever i want just by using a mobile phone) the interview excerpt shows that the online learning model using the blended learning model was able to offer several benefits in supporting student learning activities. the students were aided in understanding the learning as a whole and they could easily access the learning materials outside the classroom. conclusion this study aims at finding out the implementation of online classes in mediating reading learning in the blended learning model. after analyzing the data, this study finds that in a reading blended learning environment, online classes were used as the means for pre-reading and post reading activities. online classes were the means for brainstorming activity that are used to help the students build knowledge before they conduct face-to-face classes as well as a means to evaluate the students’ ability to understand the materials being taught. the activities that occurred in the online learning classes were doing quizzes, watching videos, and obtaining materials such as ebooks and worksheets. references aborisade., p. a. 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(2005). the other blended learning: a classroomcentered approach. san francisco: ca: pfeiffer. woltering, v., herrler, a., spitzer, k. & spreckelsen, c. (2009). blended learning positively affects students’ satisfaction and the role of the tutor in the problem-based learning process: results of a mixed-method evaluation. advances in health science education, 14(5), 725–738. retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10459-009-9154-6 yang, l. & wilson, k. (2006). second language classroom reading: a social constructivist approach. the reading matrix, 6(3), 364–372. depan_celt dec 2012 the popularity of korean music (k-pop) among peranakan chinese undergraduate students of soegijapranata catholic university shierly june1 and ekawati marhaenny dukut 2 abstract: korean wave is one of the popular cultures that has developed in indonesia. it comes with some special products that attract indonesian youth. doing a research on this, it is found that korean music or k-pop has noticeable popularity among 96.87% of selected peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university. this article to discusses and analyzes the phenomenon and the development of k-pop of the factors of why the peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university are found of the korean wave product. key words: korean wave, k-pop music, peranakan chinese, soegijapranata catholic university 1 shierly june. lovely_darlene_cavanaugh@yahoo.com +6281901214647 was a student of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, whose thesis on “korean wave and the understanding of chinese identity among peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university” has been defended on june 20, 2012 2 dra. ekawati marhaenny dukut, m.hum. ekawatimd@gmail.com +628122938202 is a lecturer at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university who is currently also pursuing a doctorate degree at the american studies graduate program in gadjah mada university, yogyakarta with a specialization on popular culture. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 193 – 204 194 popular culture and globalization every person brings with them their culture and lives with it in the society they decide to choose and develop it further. in doing so, they blend the culture they have inherited from generation to generation with the immediate culture of their new society. thus, within a society, there are many cultural point of views in looking at and behaving towards the others‟ cultures. some may look down at certain cultures, do discrimination, and even refuse and fight others‟ cultures. however, on the contrary, some people can also admire and idolize others‟ cultures that they consider fabulous, prestigious, and have a higher value, which is often further considered as „popular culture‟. the phenomenon of popular culture cannot be separated from what is called „globalization‟. shim (2006:26) in his study states that: the major frame of reference in international communication research today is globalization, a word that has become part of everyday vocabulary. the term refers to the process and context of the word becoming integrated, and it is most exuberantly used in corporate slogans through globalization, the exchange of cultures among countries is very possible especially for the cultures which are considered popular. people can immediately get information about a kind of popular culture as much as possible easily from the internet and other mass media and then apply it. thus, globalization becomes a bridge and path for countries in the world to exchange information and communicate each other unlimitedly and it makes possible for capitalist countries with their modern cultures to spread out and sell the cultures world-widely. s. june and e.m. dukut the popularity of korean music 195 the notions of korean wave as the writer has explained above, the dissemination of popular culture cannot be separated from what is called „globalization‟. the latest booming popular culture, korean wave, also comes, develops, and influences indonesian people through globalization. there are some notions to define „korean wave‟. a finding from shim states that “news media and trade magazines have recognized the rise of korean popular culture in asia by dubbing it in „korean wave‟ (hallyu or hanryu in korean). the associated press reported in march 2002: „call it “kim chic”” (2006:25). in addition, xuezhe in her study defines korean wave as “the growing popularity of south korean culture and south korean products … from clothes to hairstyle, well-packaged television dramas to slick movies, popular music to comic books, video games to electronic appliances, mobile phone to automobiles” (2007:3). therefore, from the definitions, korean wave rises in asia with many congregating elements that influence many life aspects of the countries affected by it. a study by dator and seo (2004) reveals the reasons of korean wave‟s popularity into some points: first, korean dynamic young generation is claimed as the engine behind its success story (dator and seo 2004:32). the youths‟ creativity and imagination is blossoming as the result of the prosperity of the country as well as in its political democracy. second, democratization in korea plays a role where the fullfledge freedom of expression is guaranteed (dator & seo, 2004, p.33). the youth can freely express their creativity in their songs or the story of drama because in the rule of pop culture, old authoritarian traditional rules are assumed as ridiculous thing. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 193 – 204 196 third, some experts argue that the phenomenal success and advance of korea‟s mass culture in asia to a set of its unique qualities is in its dynamism characteristic, such as that “played in korean dance music”, which is a “highly entertaining nature, admirable production quality, and niche market position” (dator and seo 2004:33). therefore, korean wave is a new korean cultural product, besides its manufacturing products, that has significant popularity and affects many people because it takes the young generations as the engine supported by the democratization in korea that produces the unique and quality popular culture. korean wave in indonesia korean popular culture, or usually known as „korean wave‟, can be easily found and applied by many indonesian youth nowadays. when the writer perceives the phenomenon happening among the youth today, there are many boys and girls, starting from hairstyles, wardrobes, accessories, and music, applying to what is called „korean wave‟. in addition, there are also a lot of korean drama dvds (although some prefer to watch it on television) and songs collected by korean wave lovers. mass media becomes a source that encourages the youth to perform and apply korean wave. for example, there are many guidelines or tutorials of how to be fabulous with korean fashion, style, and make up in magazines and internet in addition to the spread of many online shops of korean wardrobes and accessories. the youth can also easily download k-pop songs, music videos, and dramas from the internet. the phenomenon of korean wave among indonesian youth is also supported by the emergence of some korean dramas broadcasted by two indonesian tv stations such as sctv that s. june and e.m. dukut the popularity of korean music 197 broadcasted the first korean drama “winter sonata” in 2002 continued by indosiar 3 which has been broadcasting a lot of korean dramas for these recent years. furthermore, the spread of korean songs and music videos of korean boy/girl-bands performing the energetic dance and easylistening songs in the internet encourages the youth to imitate or apply the similar style of dress, dance and song arrangement. the effect of popular culture always seems to infect some groups in societies to be drawn in it. however, from the writer‟s observation, the peranakan chinese youth are very potential to be the object of study about korean wave because of particular factors, which are discussed in the next section. peranakan chinese korean wave is known as a popular culture that comes from east asia. the characteristics of the culture are still under the rule of east asian cultures although it includes western cultures inside it. however, the packaging of korean wave will be seen as asian cultures. it is observed that there are many peranakan chinese youth that are fond of korean wave. the term peranakan chinese itself appears from what happened in the new order era. a study by suryadinata (1999:3) states that: let us look at the ethnic chinese situation. just as the indigenous indonesians are not a homogenous group, neither are the ethnic chinese a homogeneous group. there are chinese-speaking and indonesian-speaking groups. but the 32 years of soeharto rule have 3 indosiar is a television channel in indonesia. celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 193 – 204 198 succeeded in “indonesianizing” the majority of ethnic chinese in that the younger generation has lost the command of the chinese language completely. only those above forty, who attended chinese schools in indonesia, are still able to converse in chinese. realizing this fact, suryadinata then adds that “among those who no longer speak chinese, local terms are often used to refer to themselves for example, peranakan chinese (locally born and indonesian-speaking chinese)” (1999:4). however, the fact shows that peranakan chinese nowadays are not only unable to speak chinese. they have lost many chinese cultures. for example, there are many peranakan chinese who do not have chinese names or even know their parents‟ chinese names. a study by prasetyo (2011:9) defines name as “one of the inheritances of a race and it can reflect their identity of their race; it has special characteristic that will distinguish them from others”. thus, the inability to speak chinese and the absence of chinese names have become a clear view how many peranakan chinese have lost their chinese identity. the new order government‟s bad treatments become the cause of this. the study by prasetyo (2011:2-3) reveals the fact that: in 1965, there was a law; kep.presidium no.127/u/kep/12/1966 mengenai peraturan ganti nama bagi wni yang memakai nama cina; that compelled chinese-indonesians people to change their chinese names into indonesian names. it can be one of the reasons why they did not use chinese names as their names. they were forced to change their chinese names to indonesian and they had no freedom to use chinese names as their names so s. june and e.m. dukut the popularity of korean music 199 that they change their chinese names and use indonesian names. thus, it is concluded that peranakan chinese are chinese indonesians with less knowledge of chinese cultures. it makes them easy to apply another culture, especially popular culture like korean wave. in addition, as youth, peranakan chinese are in the phase of identity formation process and easily influenced. the popularity of korean music (k-pop) korean wave comes, develops, and influences many people through globalization. however, the youth becomes a potential subject, who applies korean wave because a study by xuezhe (2007:7-8) indicates that most youth prefer to indulge in using the internet to play computer games and animation and they are the ones who more willing to be fashionable and find their own characteristics. in the age range, the youth is also a group that is in the phase of the individual identity formation process which becomes one of the “unending layering and interaction of cultural knowledge acquisition” (huat 2006:35). thus, as youth, the peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university are easily influenced by korean wave which is booming nowadays as a popular culture. doing a research about korean wave, 32 peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university were collected as data. in classifying korean wave, the kinds of products that the participants like are found to be in the forms of: k-pop (music), korean dramas, korean variety show, korean celebrities (actors/actresses, singers, and bands), fashion and style, and dance. the result from the interview about the participants‟ kinds of interest of korean wave is as follows: celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 193 – 204 200 kinds of interest percentage korean music (k-pop) 96.87% korean dramas 62.50% korean variety show 09.37% korean celebrities 71.87% fashion and style 56.25% dance 06.25% table 1: participants‟ kinds of interest in korean wave (june, 2012) because korean music or k-pop holds the highest percentage of participants‟ interest, then this article makes a focused discussion on the popularity of k-pop among the peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university. korean pop music or known as k-pop is a new music genre coming from korea that skillfully blends western and asian values to create its own (shim 2006:40). the research among peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university is done by interviewing the participants and got a result that 96.875% of them like k-pop. the reasons why they like k-pop are: a. easy listening and nice songs: most peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university like kpop because of the easy listening and nice songs. b. the songs have soft music especially for the instrumental music: kpop does not only consist of music with the voices of the singers, but it also has instrumental music with its particular style. interviewing the participants, the reason that they like k-pop instrumental music is because it has a soft and calm character. s. june and e.m. dukut the popularity of korean music 201 c. the songs have good lyrics and melody: relating to the first reason that k-pop is nice and easy listening, k-pop is also considered having meaningful lyrics and good melody. this makes peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university like korean music. d. the singers have good voices: korean music has many singers as the engine that supports the popularity of korean wave. thus, the vocal ability and skill of the singers become a crucial thing that makes kpop popular. doing interview with participants, it is found that the good vocal of the singers, in addition to the good melody and meaningful lyrics, makes k-pop well-liked by peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university. e. some music tends to be „cute‟: as a popular culture, k-pop appears with its special music style that offers cute songs and singers. interviewing participants, the writer finds that k-pop has a special style that makes it different from the other music in which some songs tend to be “cute”. this particular music style attracts some peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university and makes them like k-pop. f. a new different music genre: in addition to the previous reason that k-pop has some „cute‟ music style, k-pop is also known to have and is creatively blending in some music genres. the participants‟ ideas in the interview state that k-pop is a new music genre that is different from the others in which it is the blend of some music genres such as pop, rock, r&b, ballad, and rap. this new music genre makes many peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university like k-pop. g. the music videos have a good story line or plot: it is common for music to have its video to support it. the music videos can be about the meaning of the songs, only perform the singers with their styles, show particular situations, and tell a kind of story. in the same way with the other music, k-pop also has music videos with many themes and styles including music videos with stories. for korean music videos with stories, the consideration that the story line is clear makes celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 193 – 204 202 many peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university like k-pop. the above findings show that korean music is one of the korean wave products than can be enjoyed universally. it offers new genre, easy listening songs, meaningful lyrics, soft instrumental music, good quality of the singers, and interesting music videos. it is easy to get k-pop songs from the internet and needs only a few minutes to enjoy it. its superior quality makes k-pop popular among peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university. conclusion peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university have less knowledge about chinese cultures. the lack of knowledge about chinese cultures is caused by the injustice experienced by chinese indonesians in the new order era. many chinese indonesians were forced to change their chinese names to indonesian names and the young generation could not speak chinese language except those who attended chinese schools. what happened in the new order era brings effect to peranakan chinese nowadays. it makes them easy to adopt another culture, especially popular culture like korean wave. in addition, their ages as youth also support them to apply korean wave because the characteristic of youth are easily influenced and they like to indulge in internet, as it is the best tool to get many up to date information. through an analysis of 32 peranakan chinese undergraduate students spread out in the many faculties and departments offered by soegijapranata catholic university, it is found that the students like certain kinds of korean wave products, such as: k-pop (music), korean dramas, korean variety show, korean celebrities (actors/actresses, singers, and bands), fashion and style, and dance. s. june and e.m. dukut the popularity of korean music 203 however, 96.87% of the students as respondents liked korean music or k-pop best. the reasons are that k-pop offers a new music genre, it has easy listening songs, meaningful lyrics, soft instrumental music, good quality of the singers, and interesting music videos, so it made k-pop very popular among the peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university. references dator, jim, and yongseok seo. korea as the wave of a future: the emerging dream society of icons and aesthetic experience. in journal of futures studies, vol. 9, no. 1: 31–44. in http://www.jfs.tku.edu.tw/91/04.pdf?refer=www.clickfind.com.au, 2004, retrieved 11 june 2011. huat, chua beng. east asian pop culture: consumer communities and politics of the national. in cultural space and public sphere in asia, 2006: 27-43. in http://asiafuture.org/csps2006/50pdf/csps 2006 _1a.pdf, retrieved 15 april 2011. june, shierly. “korean wave and the understanding of chinese identity among peranakan chinese undergraduate students in soegijapranata catholic university”. an unpublished thesis semarang: english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, 2012. prasetyo, lydia. language and identity: an analysis of the chineseindonesian people’s practice in adopting names at the faculty of letters, unika soegijapranata. an unpublished thesis. semarang: english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, 2011. shim, doobo. “hybridity and the rise of korean popular culture in asia”. in media, culture and society journal, vol. 28, no.1, 2006:25-44. in http://mcs. sagepub.com/, retrieved 12 june 2011. http://mcs/ celt, volume 12, number 2, december 2012: 193 – 204 204 suryadinata, leo. the ethnic chinese issue and national integration in indonesia. singapore: department of political science national university of singapore, 1999. in http://www.iseas.edu.sg/ trends992.pdf, retrieved 16 january 2012. xuezhe, liu. the rising of korean wave among chineseyouth., 2007. in http://www.fxqw820.tripod.com/aws.pdf, retrieved 11 june 2011. shierly june_vol 12_no 2_dec 2012 a0_depan_celt dec 2012 a1 ok dec 2012 yoseph p101-120 dec8 emd8-22 24 25 jan 22feb13 a2 ok dec 2012 tengsoe p121-141 dec8 emd822 jan 22feb13 a3 ok dec 2012 lingga p142-159 a4 ok dec 2012 ari p160-179 dec10 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a5 ok dec 2012 cecilia p180 192 dec8 emd8-22 jan 22feb13 a6 ok dec 2012 shierly & eka p193-204 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/hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun 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can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader 5.0 and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) (1.0) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) (4.0) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample16bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) (2.0) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [2400 2400] /pagesize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia madihin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, structure, form, value, and function m. rafiek lambung mangkurat university, banjarmasin, indonesia email: rfk012@yahoo.co.id received: 05-08-2019 accepted: 08-08-2019 published: 4-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj madihin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, structure, form, value, and function m. rafiek rfk012@yahoo.co.id lambung mangkurat university, banjarmasin, indonesia abstract: this study aims to describe and explain about (1) the structure of the presentation of madihin, (2) the forms of madihin, (3) the values in madihin, and (4) the functions in madihin that were performed by pamadihinan john tralala and hendra. this study used parry and lord and oral literary approach and it was qualitative research type. the oral literary approach was used to study madihin's oral literature in terms of presentation structure, form, value, and function. as an oral literature, madihin can be described qualitatively because the data is submitted verbally by the pamadihinan (someone who presents madihin). after that, the madihin data is discussed in accordance with its presentation structure, form, value, and function. the results of this study are (a) the presentation structure consists of opening, installing tabi, presenting the contents (manguran), and closing; (b) the forms of madihin of john tralala and hendra are (1) sampiran, (2) question and answer or question and answer sentence, (3) poem, (4) poem of more than 4 lines and broken rhymes, (5) broken rhyming poem, (6) poem of less than 4 lines, and (7) answers. so, there are 7 forms of madihin of john tralala and hendra; (c) the values in madihin of john tralala and hendra are (1) the value of loving art, (2) the value of preservation, (3) the value of working together, (4) the value of art appreciation, (5) the value of hard work, (6) the value of honesty, (7) the value of self-confidence or self-flattering, (8) the value of "dropping", (9) the value of reminding (moral), (10) the value of courage to self-defend or not want to lose, (11) the value of self-defending or not willing to budge, and (12) the value of education. so, there are 12 values in madihin of john tralala and hendra; (d) functions in madihin john tralala and hendra are functions of education, advice, and entertainment (humor). key words: presentation, structure, form, value, function, madihin 258 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan dan menjelaskan tentang (1) struktur penyajian madihin yang dibawakan oleh pamadihinan john tralala dan hendra, (2) bentuk-bentuk madihin yang dibawakan oleh pamadihinan john tralala dan hendra, (3) nilai-nilai dalam madihin yang dibawakan oleh pamadihinan john tralala dan hendra, dan (4) fungsi-fungsi dalam madihin yang dibawakan oleh pamadihinan john tralala dan hendra. penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan sastra lisan parry dan lord dan berjenis penelitian kualitatif. pendekatan sastra lisan digunakan untuk mengkaji sastra lisan madihin dari segi struktur penyajian, bentuk, nilai, dan fungsi. sebagai sebuah sastra lisan, madihin dapat diuraikan secara kualitatif karena data disampaikan oleh pamadihinan secara lisan. data madihin tersebut kemudian dibahas sesuai dengan struktur penyajian, bentuk, nilai, dan fungsinya. hasil penelitian ini adalah (a) struktur penyajian terdiri atas pembukaan, memasang tabi, menyampaikan isi (manguran), dan penutup; (b) bentuk-bentuk madihin john tralala dan hendra adalah (1) sampiran, (2) tanya jawab atau kalimat tanya jawab, (3) syair, (4) syair lebih dari 4 larik dan berima patah, (5) syair berima patah, (6) syair kurang dari 4 larik, dan (7) jawaban. jadi, ada 7 bentuk madihin john tralala dan hendra; (c) nilai-nilai dalam madihin john tralala dan hendra adalah (1) nilai cinta seni, (2) nilai pelestarian, (3) nilai bekerja sama, (4) nilai apresiasi seni, (5) nilai kerja keras, (6) nilai keterusterangan, (7) nilai kepercayaan diri atau menyanjung diri, (8) nilai “menjatuhkan”, (9) nilai mengingatkan (moral), (10) nilai keberanian membela diri atau tidak mau kalah, (11) nilai membela diri atau tidak mau mengalah, dan (12) nilai pendidikan. jadi, ada 12 nilai dalam madihin john tralala dan hendra; (d) fungsi-fungsi dalam madihin john tralala dan hendra adalah fungsi pendidikan, nasihat, dan hiburan (humor). kata kunci: struktur penyajian; bentuk; nilai; fungsi; madihin introduction madihin is one of the traditional arts in south kalimantan, indonesia. this madihin can be played individually or in pairs. the player is called pamadihinan. madihin is performed by the pamadihinan by chanting rhymes or poems accompanied by a pat musical instrument called terbang or tarbang which he pats by himself. pamadihinan usually has memorized it outside the head of the rhymes or poems that he is chanting. pamadihinan is also adept at patting terbang to accompany his rhymes or madihin poem. madihin continues to progress. this can be seen from the various ways in which the pamadihinan brought the madihin. the song or rhythm of the clapping terbang that he brought is more varied as rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 259 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj well as the rhymes or madihin that he brought. this makes the pamadihinan must have the courage to innovate in presenting his madihin. for example, the pamadihinan, john tralala and hendra are able to survive until now. rafiek (2012) and (2013) conducted research on madihin, which was delivered by the pamadihinan john tralala and hendra. in rafiek's research (2012), it was found that the madihin presentation strategy presented by john tralala and hendra also contained rhymes related to knowledge about their era, related to artists who had been and were popular in indonesia or abroad, cartoon films that were loved by children, daily life activities, family life, and a little bit of vulgar language. rafiek (2013, pp. 190-193) in his research found that the most important madihin strategy presentation of john tralala and hendra was code-mixing strategy, which was mixing indonesian language with banjarese language but it was still understood its meaning by other tribes outside banjarese. this code-mixing strategy was usually used by john tralala and hendra when they performed in the kalimantan region. this was done by john tralala and hendra because the migrants who lived in kalimantan generally understood the banjarese language. if it was outside kalimantan with no banjarese language speakers, they used indonesian language in presenting the madihin. adaptation strategies (adjusting the madihin language) with the audiences was also conducted by them in each of their performance. madihin by john tralala and hendra are quite popular with people in south kalimantan because of the humor in their madihin. this element of humor also made them quickly known and often invited to local government’s events, national holidays, campaigns, marriages, and others. the hilariousness in the madihin that they brought made the audience entertained and cheerful until the end of the performance. kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995, p. 18) also support this opinion by stating the following. the success of the dissemination of madihin's oral literature is due to the fact that this art is easily adaptable to its new environment. both in terms of language and substance, which is always communicative and funny, and it also touches the people who enjoy it. kawi, jarkasi, & kusasi (1995, p. 19) even said that the madihin art that was presented by john tralala and hendra was pop madihin. it is said pop madihin because its presentation used indonesian language, 260 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj which was mixed with banjarese language so that the general public who were not banjarese community was able to enjoy it. according to kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995, p. 20), the madihin which was brought by john tralala and hendra were very popular because they were able to make the audience laugh because of the humor in their madihin. madihin had been studied by kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995), ghany (1999), jarkasi (2004), rafiek (2012b), and rafiek (2018). kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995) examined the madihin oral literature. kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995) succeeded in describing and explaining the historical background of madihin's oral literature, the structure of madihin oral-literary presentation, and the literary elements in madihin oral literature. in the historical background of madihin oral literature, kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995) described and explained about the origins of madihin oral literature, madihin artists, madihin oral-literary function, madihin's development, and its language. in the presentation structure of madihin oral literature, kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995) described and explained the place and time of madihin performances, pemadihinan and themes orientation, structures of madihin performance, musical instruments and beats, and traditional elements in madihin oral literature. in the literary elements of madihin oral literature, kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995) described and explained about the image, metaphor, myth, symbol, and rhythm. this recent research is clearly different from the research conducted by kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi. that is because the source of this research data is only focused on madihin brought by john tralala and hendra, while the source of research data conducted by kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi consisted of madihin from several pamadihinan in south kalimantan. although the function of madihin had already been examined by kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi, however based on the initial observation there were differences in naming the functions and the new functions will be found in this study. likewise with the structure of madihin performance, although kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi had examined it, but based on the initial observation of the researcher, there were differences in the examples of madihin in the order of performance. ghany (1999) examined about humor in the madihin rhyme. in his research, ghany found that humor was found in setting tabi. humor in the madihin rhyme mainly put in the content (manguran). ghany also said that humor in the rhyme of madihin contains the value of beauty. obviously, ghany's research is very different from this research because ghany's research focused on humor, while this research rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 261 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj focused on the presentation structure, form, value, and function of madihin. jarkasi (2004) examined about madihin, essence, function, and formula. in his research, jarkasi (2004) succeeded in describing and explaining the nature of madihin, the structure of madihin, the formula of madihin, the function and value of madihin. in conducting his analysis, jarkasi (2004) used the formula theory from lord and finnegan, the theory of literary sociology from faruk and sapardi djoko damono, and semiotic theory from aart van zoest and semiology from roland barthes. the research conducted by jarkasi is different from this research in terms of analyzing and discussing its functions and values. based on the researcher's initial observation, this study will find several functions and values that are different from those already discovered by jarkasi. in addition, jarkasi used lord’s formula to find the madihin formula, while this research tried to find madihin forms other than as a bound poem (rhyming aaaa or a-b-a-b). rafiek (2012b) examined the madihin rhyme: characteristics study, staging structure, pemadihinan creativity, its development and guidance in south kalimantan. in his research, rafiek explained about the origins and development of madihin, the characteristics of madihin rhyme, the structure of the performance of madihin rhyme, the creativity of pamadihinan, the development strategy and the guidance of madihin using structural theory. the difference between this research and rafiek's research above lies in some of the studied problems. this research was more focused on examining the form, value, and function in madihin presented by john tralala and hendra. in addition, this study used a data source derived from madihin, which was delivered by john tralala and hendra, while rafiek's research above used data sources from madihin that was developed by himself. rafiek (2018) examined humor in madihin of john tralala and hendra (study of humor types of veatch, gruner, and hobbes perspectives). in his research, rafiek (2018) found (1) straight humorous answers were based on the emotional transformation theory of veatch, (2) praising humor and jokes were based on the superiority theory of hobbes, (3) defensing rumor, clarification, not wanting to lose were based on aggression theory from gruner, (4) narrative humor or jokes, association humor, and contradictive conditions were according to the emotional transformation theory of veatch, (5) rhetorical questions humor was based on aggression theory of gruner, and (6) association humor was according to emotional transformation theory of 262 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj veatch. that research from rafiek was not related at all to the study of the structure of the presentation, form, value, and function. based on the above studies, it can be seen that madihin from john tralala and hendra have never been examined in terms of the study of presentation structure, form, value, and function. therefore, this research becomes very important as initial research on the study of the structure of presentation, form, value, and function in madihin presented by john tralala and hendra. madihin madihin is typical art of south kalimantan or presenting poem or rhyming accompanied with a tambourine punch (hapip 2008, p. 114). it is said tambourine because the pat musical instrument used in madihin, namely tarbang or terbang, is a pat musical instrument such as tambourine in the kasidah. kawi, jarkasi, and kusasi (1995, pp. 16-17) based on information from bakhtiar sanderta and abdul rasyid, it was stated that the origins of madihin naming was as below: madihin art is a form of entertainment among the banjarese palace. madihin came from the word madah, which means words of praise. words of praise (madah) are often addressed to the royal family and court officials with the intention of entertaining. in the next subsequent development, this madihin was not only known in the palace, but also spread and developed in the community. ... its function was not only concerned with entertainment, but it was also giving advices and messages for the people. the emergence of madihin derivative form which was derived from the word madah, according to bakhtiar sanderta was allegedly because pemadihinan (madihin artists) often composed the word madah with iiinnn. the addition of lingual elements in as well in the form of ilahiiinnn was just as efoni which made pemadihinan easier to give rhythm and sounds tasty. from this process, the term madihin was created. taha and sanderta (2000, pp. 23-24) stated that madihin came from the word madah, which means poem. thaha and sanderta (2000, p. 24) also stated that madihin came from the banjarese language, namely papadahan or mamadahi (giving advice). according to jarkasi (2004, p. 21), madihin came from the word madah, which means poem. the word madah according to jarkasi (2004, p. 21) is still closely related to padah or pepadah in the banjarese language which rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 263 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj means advice or speech. therefore, madihin usually contains advice or papadah. according to kawi, jarkasi, and zakiah (1995, p. 17), madihin art was originally developed by dulah nyanyang from tawia village, angkinang district, hulu sungai selatan regency, south kalimantan. jarkasi (2004, pp. 35-36) explained it as quoted below. ahmad nyarang had studied about madihin to three pamadihinan, namely pakacil dulah nyanyang in tawia village, kandangan (south hulu sungai regency), ungkul in tabu darat, birayang (hulu sungai tengah regency), and jamain in baruh, amuntai (hulu sungai utara regency). based on the above quotation, it can be seen that the origin of the development of madihin was in tawia, tabu darat, and baruh. this is based on the name of the area where the pamadihinan lived, which was being the madihin teacher for ahmad nyarang. jarkasi (2004, p. 2) stated that madihin is one of folk song forms that contains advice, criticism, satire, or curses (gossip) which is managed in the speech of the battle. madihin came from the word madah, which in the banjarese language it means padah (giving advice). from the word padah, it was then given the suffix maand -i so it became mamadahi which means advising. in order to sound more familiar, it was shortened to madah which derived from the word mamadahi. however, there were also those who argued that madihin came from the word madah plus the sound in. madah in malay means poem. this can be seen in syair perahu poem by hamzah fansuri. in the first line of the first stanza, there is a quote this is what a madah is (safioedin, 1969, p. 30, usman 1963, p. 185). at the beginning of its development, the pamadihinan was indeed bringing madihin that contained poems. however nowadays, pemadihinan has created madihin by bringing rhymes. the suffix -in in madihin is estimated to be taken from the word ilahin at the beginning or opening of madihin. not all of the pamadihinan start with the ilahin, there are also those who start with ha-him, ilahi, aaawan, and iii .... aaawan. an example of the opening of madihin, which starts with ilahin can be read below. ilahin: fill in the basket with kuini (kind of manggo) peel for the bribe we will gather tonight insyaallah i want to do madihin (source: madihin entitled umpat bapasan by yustan aziddin in kawi, jarkasi, kusasi 1995, p. 88) 264 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ilahin ……………………………………………………. basting …………….. basting the sarong fabric in the sack sarong ............... naga balimbur mamucuk rabung (kind of sasirangan fabric typically from south kalimantan) ……………………………………………………………… (source: madihin, entitled mun kawa from hulu sungai selatan district (kandangan) in kawi, jarkasi, kusasi 1995, p. 94) . according to sunarti, purlansyah, seman, maswan, and kadir ( 1978, p. 235), madihin can be delivered by a pamadihinan and can also be done by several people in turn or even in a comedy. sunarti, purlansyah, seman, maswan, and kadir (1978, p. 235) also stated that madihin had a function as public entertainment. oral poetry theory of parry and lord the theory used in this research was the theory of oral poetry from parry & lord. according to the oral poetry theory of parry and lord (in teeuw 2003, pp. 243-244) it was stated that the text is not memorized from generation to generation, but it is spontaneously reproduced every time it is delivered and at an amazing speed. according to parry & lord (in teeuw 2003, p. 244), the resulting text adjusts to the listeners’ interests, their nature, and the available time. indeed, there is pemadihinan which is practicing before going to the stage, both in terms of producing poem or rhymes of madihin and patting the terbang. it can happen to find the latest ideas or word choices that can cause humorous or funny effects before the pemadihinan performs. short exercises before performing is an effort and strategy of pamadihinan in order to successfully entertain the audience or the community. without prior exercises, it is naturally that between partners who are paired up when bringing madihin on stage will be not really fluent in shouting the madihin. pamadihinan, who is already an expert does not need to memorize his madihin texts anymore and will spontaneously deliver his madihin. this will be different from those who have just learned or have recently become pamadihinan; of course they will be practicing more to produce madihin texts and pat their terbang. rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 265 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj finnegan (2005, p. 175) stated that texts and performances can be seen not only as opposition but also as essential, which is complementary dimension of literary realization. this shows that the existence of the text cannot be separated from a performance, even if it is only studied outside the show. therefore, pemadihinan must be able to distinguish when he studies madihin texts and when he must appear in performances without texts. according to the above oral poetry theory of parry and lord, it can be seen that the madihin that developed in south kalimantan is now delivered spontaneously by its pamadihinan, even in pairs who are shouting together. madihin in south kalimantan is also presented in accordance with the themes of the event or activity. the madihin content is sometimes related to news or information that is being talked about or already familiar to the listeners’ ears. pamadihinan must pay attention to the duration of time provided by the committee or the host when delivering madihin. if madihin is presented at the opening or closing of an event or activity, it will be very different in the term of duration from a special event to welcome guests of honor or marriage events. at the time of opening or closing the event or activity, the duration of time is very short, while when welcoming guests of honor or marriage events, the duration of time is rather longer. similarly, if madihin is presented at a socialization or counseling activity, the time duration is also rather longer. gräbner (2008, p. 1) stated about performance of poetry as in the quotation below: … performance poems use elements that appeal to the oral and the aural, and not exclusively to the visual. this includes music, rhythm, recordings or imitations of nonverbal sounds, smells, and other perceptions of the senses, oftentimes performed simultaneously with other elements of signification. madihin as a performance poem shows the things that were expressed by gräbner. in madihin, poetry or rhymes are delivered orally by pemadihinan. the power of listening to the listener or the audience in understanding the meaning of poetry or rhymes delivered by pemadihinan is the key to success in the show. madihin poetry or rhymes are performed by the pamadihinan by using a pat musical instrument called tarbang. the contents of madihin are delivered containing advice relating to people's daily life. teeuw (1994, p. 2) stated that parry & lord succeeded in finding yugoslav folklore singers which was not memorizing the works they sang without a script or text. furthermore, teeuw (1994, p. 3) explained as below. 266 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj parry and lord came to the conclusion that every time a guslar (nickname of yugoslavia singer) tells his story, he recreates it spontaneously, but by using a large number of language elements (words, compound words, phrases) which is available for him to use. teeuw (1994, p. 5) insisted that everywhere based on the results of research in various parts of the world, every time a storyteller or narrator of oral poetry performed; he reproduced new and spontaneous compositions. this also applies to the poems and rhymes of madihin that are delivered by the pemadihinan in south kalimantan. method this study used an oral literary approach, while this type of research was qualitative. in oral literary studies, literary works or art works are analyzed by following the steps of oral literary analysis. in this case, the madihin texts of john tralala and hendra were analyzed by finding its presentation structure, form, value, and function. the data source of this research was madihin, presented by the pemadihinan john tralala and hendra at the cultural arts performance on november 18, 2012 at the taman budaya cultural center building in south kalimantan province. the data of this research are the poems or rhymes of madihin, which were performed by the pemadihinan john tralala and hendra. the researcher collected the data by watching and listening to video recordings of madihin which were performed by john tralala and hendra. after that, the researcher recorded every poem or rhyme in the madihin that was delivered by john tralala and hendra. if there are parts of the poem or the rhyme of madihin that are not clearly heard, the researcher will repeat the recording several times before recording it. this was done by the researcher so there would be no mistake occured in writing poem or rhymes that was listened. after all the poems or rhymes in madihin were recorded, then the researcher classified the data or sorted the data before it was analyzed. data analysis in this study used content analysis techniques. the steps in conducting content analysis according to krippendorf (1991, pp. 75-183) included unitization, sampling, recording, data language, constructs for inference, and conducting analyzes. unitization included (1) determining the type of analysis unit, which are sampling unit, recording unit, or context unit, and (2) specifying the units, which are physical units, syntactic units, referential units, propositional units, or thematic units. in this study, the rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 267 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj researcher used the type of recording unit and syntactic unit. sampling included (1) determining the type of sampling scheme, namely random samples, stratified samples, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, variable probability sampling, or levelled sampling, and (2) determining the sample size. in this study, the researcher did not use the sample. recording included determining the meaning of various categories, verbal designation, and constructing for observing and withdrawing inference. data language included the grouping of poems and rhymes in madihin, which was related to the presentation structure, form, value, and function. the construct for inference refered to the source of uncertainty or the source of certainty. the content analysis technique used is in the form of contextual classification. stokes (2007, p. 59) stated that krippendorff assumed that the content analysis was as a symbolic method because it was used to examine symbolic text material. stokes (2007, p. 59) also stated that in carrying out content analysis there are many interpretive activities carried out and must be based on the researcher's knowledge of the text that was being studied. therefore, in this study, the researcher analyzed the contents of madihin text of john tralala and hendra based on the knowledge gained according to the results of the process of reading books on oral literary theory and previous madihin studies. thus, the researcher could analyze and discuss the research findings in detail and depth. findings and discussion a. presentation structure of madihin presented by john tralala and hendra based on the structure of the presentation, madihin by john tralala and hendra was accordance with madihin display structure proposed by taha and sanderta and jarkasi. thaha and sanderta (2000, pp. 29-30) suggested that the structure of madihin's presentation consists of opening, setting tabi, delivering contents (manguran), and closing. jarkasi (2004, p. 63) stated that the structure of the presentation of madihin consists of opening greetings, giving tabi, or greeting all attendees, giving content (manguran) and ending. look at the presentation structure of madihin by john tralala and hendra below. 1. opening and greetings hendra: ilahiii ... if ... if if we could be ... clouds ... clouds ... if ... the cloud 268 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj if we could become ... clouds ... clouds ... john tralala: assalammu’alaikum here, i say this hendra: wa’alaikum salam, i answer 2. setting tabi john tralala: greetings to all of us today is feeling happy the art performance that we are watching now the faculty of economics organizes the young generation must love art we need to continue the artists’ relay stick in order to make the arts in south kalimantan do not become extinct do not lose it let 's work let's clap 3. delivering content (manguran) hendra: it's true that today as we are witnessing in this performance show south kalimantan arts and culture the faculty of economics of lambung mangkurat held it specifically, the students executive board that has planned it is successfully carried out these various competencies are held from competing for rhyme telling the story of banjarese language until this mamanda competition is held this art appreciation is very amazing all of our young generations must struggle so that later the cultural arts of south kalimantan do not extinct from now on until later on it keeps remaining rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 269 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj john tralal : it is true that the child i love we are all generations must love art if we have art if later become civil servants at least a high official become soldier son become police son at least you can be a commander hendra: for example, if i live in the village john tralala: at least become rt (head of the village) hendra: even though i become an rt, i am also happy but with art. i am so happy if i were an rt people who make id cards i would directly process it hendra: obviously i do not give it john tralala: what is the reason you do not give? hendra : you can misuse it to have a wife again ......... 4. cover john tralala: police ... not too long son for doing madihin because the audience waiting for the announcement who will be the winner later according to information, there had been reports show from last saturday was opening tonight son, we have closing committee, please take care of your health keep and take care of the health like we take care of our motorcycle son, our vehicles ... john tralala: asalammualaikum wr.wb. 270 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj based on the madihin brought by john tralala and hendra above it can be seen that the structure of their madihin presentation consisted of opening and greeting, setting tabi, delivering contents (menguran), and closing. so, the presentation structure of madihin by john tralala and hendra still followed the rules of the existing madihin presentation structure. b. forms of madihin presented by john tralala and hendra 1. sampiran and question and answer hendra: ilahiii ... if ... if we could be ... clouds ... clouds ... if ... the cloud if we could become ... clouds ... clouds ... john tralala: assalammu’alaikum, here i say this hendra: wa’alaikum salam, i answer in the quote above, besides singing the sampiran, pamadihinan john tralala gave greeting, while hendra answered his greetings. madihin of john tralala and hendra in the opening has the form of question and answer as follows: 2. poems which have more than 4 arrays and broken rhymes the form of madihin brought by john tralala and hendra in the quote below has poetical form. john tralala brought madihin consisting of 4 arrays and poem consisting of 5 arrays and broken rhymes. the poem which consisted of 4 arrays had a-a-a-a rhyme, while the poem which consisted of 5 arrays had a-a-a-b-a rhyme. madihin quotes which consisted of 5 lines was called poem because even though there were more than 4 lines in a row, but almost all ended with the same sound n, kesenian (art), teruskan (go on), selatan (south), dan tangan (hand) and there was only one ending with g, which was hilang (lost). this indicates that pemadihinan john tralala still tried to maintain his madihin who rhymed a-a-a-a even though there was one rhyme finally was not the same. related to this broken rhyme, safioedin (1969, p. 12) called it the breaking poem with the formula of abac, abcabd, abbb, or cdcdcc. the term of broken rhyme was introduced by badudu (1984, p. 18) which stated as follows. if in poetic stanzas there are words that do not have rhyme, while other words in the same place in other lines have rhyme, then such stanzas are said to have broken rhyme. it is said to have that rhyme with the alphabet for example a-a-b-a or b-c-b-b-b and so on. rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 271 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj all the lines of madihin are only narrative and hope, it does not appear to have sampiran like rhyme and also four lines like poem. however, it is still called poem because pemadihinan john tralala still tried to keep his madihin poem rhyming a-a-a-a even though there are more than 4 lines and there is one rhyming array is not the same. look at the quote below. john tralala: greetings to all of us (a) today is feeling happy (a) art performance that we are watching now (a) the faculty of economics organizes (a) the young generation must love art (a) we need to continue the artists’ relay stick (a) in order to make the arts in south kalimantan (a) do not become extinct do not lose it (b) madihin of john tralala below used verse forms consisted of 7 dab arrays with same rhyming, namely a-a-a-a-a-a-a . it can be seen from the word tercinta (beloved), biasa (ordinary), mahasiswa (college student), orangnya (people), rhoma, penampilannya (performance), dan china. there was no sampiran in all contents. it is named poem because the condition for poem should have rhyme a-a-a-a, though it does not consist of four lines. pamadihinan john tralala had tried to maintain the characteristics of poem that must rhyme a-a-a-a even though it consisted of more than 4 lines. john tralala: have married ... aaa aw ... cloud beloved invited ladies and gentlemen (a) this is an amazing night (a) if the audience mostly college student (a) though, hendra’s son is a handsome person (a) however, in the face looks like ridho rhome (a) john tralala’s performance is long-lasting (a) looks like jackie chan the star of china hongkong (a) 4. the poem which has less than 4 arrays the madihin presented by pamadihinan hendra below is in the form of a poem consisting of 3 arrays with a-a-a rhyme. this same rhyme a-a-a can be known from the end of the array, which is jhon tralala (a), bapa (father) (a ), let 's work let's clap (a) 3. the poem which has more than 4 arrays 272 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and tercinta (beloved) (a). the word bapak (father) here must be sounded bapa by hendra so that the rhyme finally sounded same which is a-a-a. hendra: my beloved father, mr. johntralala (a) who gave birth me was not you (sounds bapa) (father) (a) but who gave birth was my beloved mother (a) 5. answer and poem madihin delivered by john tralala is in the form of answer consisting of 1 array and in the form of poem consisting of 4 lines. madihin, which is in the form of answer that consisted of 1 array is a reply to the madihin that hendra brought earlier. the next madihin consisted of 4 arrays and a-a-a-a rhymed. it can be known from the sound at the end of the array, which is ku cintai (beloved), tinggi (height), ini (this), and cut tari. john tralala: it was very nice as long as not with orangutan but hendra my beloved son (a) if choosing an actress, it has a high risk (a) if you keep insisting, i (father) search for it tonight (a) with luna maya or cut tari (a) 6. poem the forms of madihin brought by hendra and john tralal below is kind of poem though composed two arrays and rhyming a-a for a single person of pamadihinan. however, if the two lines between pemadihinan are combined, it will become a verse of poem consisting of 4 arrays and rhyming a-a-a-a. the forms of madihin from hendra and john tralala are called poem because the madihin they presented only containing narration. hendra brought madihin about the narration of the completeness of the motorcycle, while john tralala brought madihin to pay attention to the human body. hendra: if the motorcycle has lamps (a) it also has handlebar and etc. (a) john tralala: look, brothers and sisters! (a) in our body, there are similarities (a) rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 273 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 7. question and answer sentences in madihin presented by john tralala and hendra below, it is formed by the questions and answers which both of pemadihinan shouted to each other. the question of hendra was answered swiftly and agile by john tralala. the question and answer sentences they brought were only about the parable of the motorcycle and the human body. however, with creative ideas that they brought the madihin in the form of question and answer sentences, it made funny effects when it was heard by the audience. especially on the question from hendra how about under the stomach? which was then answered by pemadihinan john tralala with the answer that must be a spark plug. this can be seen in the following quote: hendra: if it is like that i will immediately ask how about our eyes? john tralala: if it is like the motorcycle, then our eyes are the lamps hendra: how about ears? john tralala: of course it is the turning signal lamps hendra: how about the nose? john tralala: this is the horn hendra: how about the mouth? john tralala: fuel filler hendra: how about hands? john tralala: that must be the handlebars hendra: how about a stomach? john tralala: obviously, it is the tank. hendra: how about under the stomach? john tralala: that must be a spark plug. 274 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj john tralala: asalammualaikum wr.wb. if we look at the form of madihin by john tralala and hendra above, it does not at all show that the madihin they brought is in the form of poem or rhymes even though it is finally sounded the same. the form of rhymes in madihin of john tralala and hendra is in the form of a question and answer sentence. this had been reviewed by seman (2010, p. 7) who stated the verses consisted of verses that do not have an exact number of lines. however, each line which consists of several words has the law of poem related to the end sound of the line, which is always the same. overall, the opinion stated by seman is indeed proven in the madihin presented by john tralala and hendra is in the form of question and answer. even though it is in the form of question and answer session, but the pemadihinan john tralala and hendra tried to match the final sound of the array/line even though there are different ones. look at the final sound of the madihin, which are bertanya (asking), kita (our), lampunya (the lamps), telinga (the ears), retingnya (the turning signal lamp), klaksonnya (the horn), bakarnya (the fuel), setangnya (the handlebars), tangkinya (the tank), and businya (the spark plug), all of them has rhyme of a-a-a-a. only a few do not rhyme a-a-a-a, which are hidung (the nose), mulut (mouth), tangan (hands), and perut (stomach). so, even in the form of question and answer, john tralala and hendra still kept the final sound of their madihin to make the same sound. c. values in madihin presented by john tralala and hendra the values in madihin presented by john tralala and hendra are as follows: 1. the value of loving art, preservation, and cooperation the value of loving art, preservation, and cooperation can be seen in the madihin quote below. john tralala: greetings to all of us today is feeling happy art performance that we are watching now the faculty of economics organizes the young generation must love art we need to continue the artists’ relay stick in order to make the arts in south kalimantan rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 275 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj do not become extinct do not lose it let 's work let's clap the value of loving art can be seen from the quote the young generation must love art. the value of preservation can be seen from the quote of we need to continue the artists’ relay stick/in order to make the arts in south kalimantan/do not become extinct do not lose it. the value of working together can be seen from the quote let's work . 2. the value of art appreciation and hard work we can see the value of art appreciation and hard work in madihin presented by hendra below. hendra: ... this art appreciation is very amazing all of our young generations must struggle so that later the cultural arts of south kalimantan do not become extinct from now on until later on it keeps remaining in the quote above, the value of art appreciation is seen in the quote: from competing rhyme/telling story of banjarese language/until this mamanda competition is held/this art appreciation is very amazing. for the value of hard work, it can be seen in quote: all of our young generations must struggle/so that later the cultural arts of south kalimantan/do not extinct/from now on until later on it keeps remaining. 3. value of honesty the value of honesty is contained in the madihin brought by hendra in the question of john tralala which is why he was not permitted to make a national identity card (ktp) if his son was the head of the neighborhood association (rt). hendra: for example, if i live in the village john tralala: at least become rt (head of the village) hendra: even though i become an rt, i am also happy but with art. i am so happy if i were an rt 276 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj people who make id cards i would directly process it john tralala: what if i make it later? hendra: obviously i do not give it john tralala: what is the reason you do not give? hendra: you can misuse it to have a wife again in the madihin presented by john tralala and hendra above, it can be seen that hendra conveyed the value of honesty to pamadihinan john tralala. this value of honesty can be seen from the answer of the hendra to john tralala. that can be seen from the question of john tralala, what if i make it later? then hendra's answer was obviously i do not give it. pamadihinan john tralala remained intrigued by the answer of pamadihinan hendra and then asked again what is the reason you do not give? then honestly answered by hendra that john tralala could misuse it to have a wife again. 4. value of self-confidence or self-flattering the value of self-esteem/confidence or self-flattering is contained in madihin brought by john tralala below. john tralala: have married ... aaa aw ... cloud beloved invited ladies and gentlemen this is an amazing night if the audience mostly college student though, hendra’s son is a handsome person however, in the face looks like ridho rhome john tralala’s performance is long-lasting looks like jackie chan the star of china hongkong in madihin, above it can be seen that pamadihinan john tralala conveyed confidence value by flattering or praising his son and himself. john tralala first praised the handsomeness of his son's face which he said resembled with ridho rhoma and then praised himself like jackie chan (hong kong movie star, china). the value of confidence to self-flattering, creating a humorous effect for the audience who heard the madihin. rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 277 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 5. value of dropping the value of dropping is found in the madihin presented by pemadihinan hendra below. hendra: oh, the audience tonight is smiling because a father is flattering himself try to stand up and see it ladies and gentlemen bapak (mr.) john tralala is indeed handsome like a drama artist but he does not look like hong kong movie star but he is very similar to the japanese movie star, doraemon in the madihin presented by the pamadihinan hendra above, it can be seen that hendra wanted to "overthrow" (mahantak) the pamadihinan john tralala after praising his son and himself. hendra did not praise his father but instead wanted to "overthrow" john tralala in front of the audiences. pamadihinan hendra said that his father was similar to doraemon, and not like a hong kong movie star. this was of course raising the effect of humor for the audiences. the strategy of maambung (praising or flattering) then mahantak ("dropping") in madihin which was brought by hendra can be seen from the beginning when he was praising or flattering his father and then "dropping" john tralala. the strategy of praising or flattering can be seen from the quote: mr. john tralala is indeed handsome like a drama artist. the strategy of "dropping" is seen from the quote, but he does not look like hong kong movie star, but he is very similar to the japanese movie star, doraemon. the value of "dropping" is actually a negative value, but because it is presented in the madihin show to give humor effect , then it is considered normal. 6. value of remembering (moral) reminiscent value is contained in the madihin conveyed by pamadihinan john tralala to pamadihinan hendra; it can be seen in the quote below. john tralala: doraemon.... oh my dear son hendra do not speak like that in front of college students i am ashamed, i become ashamed hendra you are supposed to realize if is not because of me who looks like doraemon you was definitely not born into the world my son 278 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in the madihin delivered by john tralala above, it can be seen that john tralala wanted to remind his son that he felt ashamed to be said similar with doraemon, moreover it was said alone in front of the students who were watching. pamadihinan john tralala kept remembering his son that if it was not him who looked like doraemon, his son, pemadihinan hendra would not have been born. indeed, the madihin delivered by john tralala shows the great role or service of a father for the birth of his son. the value that john tralala wanted to instill for the audiences was that to be devoted to father. 7. value of courage to self-defend or do not want to lose the value of courage to self-defend or self-defending is contained in the madihin presented by pamadihinan hendra, and it can be seen from the quote below. hendra: my beloved father, mr. john tralala (a) who gave birth me was not you (sounds bapa) (father) (a) but who gave birth was my beloved mother (a) in the above madihin, it can be seen that pamadihinan hendra wanted to deliver the value of courage to defend himself from the statement of john tralala above that if it were not because of his father he would not have been born into the world. hendra also firmly answered through his madihin that the one who gave birth to him was not his father but his mother. off course, it made the audiences who watched and heard the madihin that was delivered by the hendra laughing. 8. value of self-defending or do not want to give up the value of self-defending is contained in the madihin presented by pemadihinan john tralala below. john tralala: but it was the result of cooperation between the two of us even though your mother who gave birth but i also become the sponsor in the madihin above, it can be seen that pemadihinan john tralala did not want to be defeated by his son's defense. pamadihinan john tralala then said that his son was the result of cooperation between him and his wife. john tralala clearly said in his madihin, that was, but it was the result of cooperation, between the two of us, even though your mother who gave birth, but i also became the sponsor. this value of not wanting to lose or not wanting to give up is a negative value in life. however, because it was delivered in madihin, of course it was legitimate and normal to cause the effect of humor in its speech. rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 279 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 9. value of education in the madihin presented by pamadihinan hendra below, there is educational value. hendra: problems of women do not take too much but choosing woman is clearly not easy must be a good and religious person must obey the rules being virtuous and also polite the tribal issue is not a problem ... the value of education in madihin brought by pamadihinan hendra above can be known from the quotation, but choosing woman is clearly not easy, must be good and religious person, must obey to the rules, being virtuous and also polite, tribal issue is not a problem. the educational value that hendra was willing to instill is that in choosing woman as life partner do not discriminate among tribes but still look at good personalities, religion, obedience, virtuous, and politeness. d. functions in madihin presented by john tralala and hendra educational function the education function is contained in the madihin that was presented by pemadihinan john tralala below. john tralala: ... the young generation must love art we need to continue the artists’ relay stick in order to make the arts in south kalimantan do not become extinct do not lose it let 's work let's clap in the madihin presented by the pamadihinan john tralala above there is an educational function, which is education to love art and to regenerate artists. this can be seen in the quote; the young generation must love art, we need to continue the artists’ relay stick, in order to make the arts in south kalimantan, do not become extinct do not lose it. the function of this education is to deliver education to the younger generation so they will love art. john tralala: .... we are all generations must love art 280 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj if we have art if later become civil servants at least a high official become soldier son become police son at least you can be a commander in the madihin which was delivered by john tralala above, there is an educational function so that the younger generation will love art. that educational function is contained in the quote we are all generations, must love art . 1. advice function in the madihin presented by pamadihinan hendra below there is a function of advice. hendra: ... all of our young generations must struggle so that later the cultural arts of south kalimantan do not get extinct from now on until later on it keeps remaining in the madihin delivered by the hendra above, there is an advice function, which is the young people must struggle to maintain and preserve the cultural art of south kalimantan. the function of advice is contained in the quotation of all of our young generation must struggle, so that later the cultural arts of south kalimantan, do not extinct from now on until later on it keeps remaining. hendra: problems of women do not take too much but choosing woman is clearly not easy must be good and religious person must obey to the rules being virtuous and also polite tribal issue is not a problem whether javanese or medan whether sundanese or ujung pandang whether jakarta or kalimantan pamadihinan hendra also in his madihin gave advice on criteria in choosing a woman as couple. hendra said that the criteria for the ideal woman are good, religious, obedient, virtuous, and polite. he also said that he did not have problem ethnic/tribal issues. he highly valued diversity in the nation of indonesia. rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 281 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj john tralala: it was very nice as long as not with orangutan but hendra, my beloved son if choosing an actress, it has a high risk if you keep insisting, i (father) search for it tonight with luna maya or cut tari pamadihinan john tralala in the above madihin advised his son hendra to choose a couple/wife. john tralala said that if choosing an actress, it has a high risk. hendra: if it is with them, of course i am afraid john tralala: what is the reason hendra to be afraid? hendra: how could ariel be arrested by the police? pamadihinan hendra immediately understood the advice conveyed by pemadihinan john tralala. hendra said that he did not dare or he was afraid to be introduced to luna maya or cut tari because why could ariel be arrested by the police? john tralala: ... committee, please take care of your health keep and take care of the health like we take care of our motorcycle son, our vehicles pamadihinan john tralala advised the committee to keep healthy. john tralala also reminded that keeping healthy is the same as keeping a motorcycle. 2. entertainment function (humor) in the madihin presented by john tralala and hendra, it is found that there is entertainment function (humor) as shown in the quote below. hendra: even though i become an rt, i am also happy but with art. i am so happy if i were an rt people who make id cards i would directly process it john tralala: what if i make it later? 282 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hendra: obviously i do not give it john tralala: what is the reason you do not give? hendra: you can misuse it to have a wife again madihin presented by hendra and john tralala in the form of questions and answers above contained humor to entertain the audiences. that humor is seen in madihin brought by john tralala, which is what if i make it later?. then it was answered by pemadihinan hendra obviously i do not give it. then john tralala asked again what is the reason you do not give?. hendra replied, you can misuse it to have a wife again. the answer from pamadihinan hendra by using banjarese language babini (married/have a wife) obviously made the audiences who heard was laughing. pamadihinan hendra could give an answer that provoked the laughter from the audiences with the answer that if his father is allowed to make another ktp (identity card), then in his joke, later it could be used by john tralala to marry again. however, in the question and answer session that was delivered by the pemadihinan john tralala and hendra, it was not explained why by just making more id card, people could use it again for married. john tralala should have asked again to explain why hendra thought so. then, pemadihinan hendra could explain that marital status could be changed or replaced into single or unmarried; after that of course it could be misused to marry again. although this was not conveyed directly by pamadihinan hendra, the audiences were able to directly understand the intent behind the line you can misuse it to have a wife again. it means that in this case, the pemadihinan hendra and john tralala succeeded in making the audience laughing. in the madihin quotation below, there is an entertainment function (humor) about pemadihinan john tralala praising hendra and himself. praises can be seen from the lines of madihin delivered by john tralala about the handsomeness of his son and himself. pamadihinan john tralala said that his son was handsome like ridho rhoma, while he looked like jackie chan. however, hendra welcomed the madihin brought by the john tralala; on the contrary way, which is mahapak (mocking other people with the intention of bringing down). pamadihinan hendra said that jhon tralala was very similar to doraemon, a japanese cartoon character in his next madihin delivery. this of course embarrassed john tralala as he stated in his madihin. however, pamadihinan john tralala did not want to lose against his son. he then delivered madihin like this if is not because of me who looks like doraemon, you was definitely not born into the world my son). hearing this, the pemadihinan hendra immediately answered in his madihin by saying, o my beloved father, mr. john tralala, who gave birth me was not you, but who gave birth was my beloved mother. definitely, it made the audiences who rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 283 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj heard was laughing right away. pamadihinan john tralala remained to not want to lose againts the pamadihinan hendra, he then stated in his madihin but it was the result of cooperation, between the two of us, even though your mother who gave birth, but i also become the sponsor. this madihin again made the audiences who watched laughing out loud. pamadihinan john tralala did not want to lose againts pamadihinan hendra, he then said in his madihin that even hendra was handsome, but he was also mentally weak, he could not be disturbed by girls. after that, the pemadihinan john tralala said in his madihin about his madihin activities in balikpapan. in his madihin, he told that he saw a beautiful and tall girl like tamara blezensky, her buttock was as sexy as elvy sukaesih, her sweet smile was very similar to syahrini's. however, john tralala was very surprised that the girl was suffering from epilepsy. this story in the madihin of john tralala would obviously make the audiences laugh as it was delivered in funny banjarese language. the audiences laughed because they heard the banjarese language in madihin delivered by john tralala to describe the characteristics of someone suffering from epilepsy. pamadihinan john tralala mentioned epilepsy with gila babi (madness pig) in the banjarese language. in addition, pemadihinan john tralala called his eyes glaring with his eyes manciling (glaring). the choice of words is what caused the audiences who heard to laugh. sponsor ... a aaw ... cloud my beloved son, hendra he is handsome but meantally weak (lamah bulu) can not be bothered with girls in balikpapan last week we had madihin show like this there was a beautiful and tall girl looked like tamara blezensky her buttocks are as sexy as elvie sukaisih her smile is very similar to syahrini’s smile but i fought desperately the girl was possessed, her eyes were glaring spitting until cheek turned out that this girl was gila babi (madness pig) (turned out that this girl suffering from epilepsy) pamadihinan hendra did not want to be inferior to pamadihinan john tralala; he then delivered a madihin to tell john tralala's experience. pamadihinan hendra in his madihin told about john tralala who wanted to find a couple. pamadihinan hendra also told in his madihin that john tralala was too selective in finding a couple. finally, pemadihinan hendra 284 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj told the story that pemadihinan john tralala met with someone who looked like transvestite. the thing that made the audiences laughed was when they heard a quote of madihin from hendra which was you already know the transvestite, when he wanted to have romance, he caressed the transvestite's hair, the transvetite felt it, mr. john tralala touched constantly, however he was surprised that he almost touched the head of catfish. the choice of the words of banjarese language used in madihin brought by hendra which sounded funny caused the audiences to laugh. the entertainment function (humor) can be seen from the answer of pemadihinan john tralala to pemadihinan hendra's question. pamadihinan john tralala gave a funny answer in relation to the association about a motorcycle which was asked by the hendra. the answer of john tralala that made the audiences laughing was when hendra asked if it is under the stomach? pamadihinan john tralala gave the answer that it is definitely the spark plug. the audiences can immediately be associated with the word spark plug with something under the stomach. therefore, the audiences directly laughed after knowing the association. previously, the audiences only smiled when they heard the similarities between motorcycle and human body. pamadihinan john tralala told that human eyes were same as motorcycle lights, human ears as motorcycle turning signal, human nose as motorcycle horn, human mouth as motorcycle fuel filler, human hands as motorcycle handlebars (handles), human stomach as motorcycle tank. conclusion based on the analysis and the discussion above, it can be concluded that. 1. the presentation structure consists of opening, installing tabi, presenting the contents (manguran), and closing. 2. the forms of madihin of john tralala and hendra are (1) sampiran, (2) question and answer or question and answer sentence, (3) poem, (4) poem of more than 4 lines and broken rhymes, (5) broken rhyming poem, (6) poem of less than 4 lines, and (7) answers. so, there are 7 forms of madihin of john tralala and hendra. 3. the values in madihin of john tralala and hendra are (1) the value of loving art, (2) the value of preservation, (3) the value of working together, (4) the value of art appreciation, (5) the value of hard work, (6) the value of honesty, (7) the value of self-confidence or self-flattering, (8) the value of dropping, (9) the value of reminding (moral), (10) the rafiek, m., mahidin of john tralala and hendra: a study of presentation, 285 structure, form, value, and function https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj value of courage to self-defend or not want to lose, (11) the value of selfdefending or not willing to lose, and (12) the value of education. so, there are 12 values in madihin of john tralala and hendra. 4. functions in madihin john tralala and hendra are functions of education, advice, and entertainment (humor). references badudu, j.s. (1984). sari kesusastraan indonesia. bandung: pustaka prima. finnegan, r. (2005). the how of literature. oral tradition, 20 (2), 164-187. http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/20ii/finnegan. ghany, m. s. (1999). humor dalam pantun madihin. wanyi, edisi 13, tahun i, 1 oktober 1999 (hlm. 9). gräbner, c. (2008). performance poetry, new languages and new literary circuits? world literature today online, january – february 2008. https://www.worldliteraturetoday.org/2008/january. hapip, a. dj. (2008). kamus banjar indonesia. banjarmasin: cv rahmat hafiz al mubaraq. jarkasi. (2004). madihin: hakikat, fungsi, dan formula sastra lisan banjar. banjarmasin: forum kajian budaya banjar kalimantan selatan. kawi, dj, jarkasi, & kusasi, z. a. (1995). sastra lisan madihin. banjarmasin: proyek pembinaan bahasa dan sastra indonesia dan daerah kalimantan selatan. krippendorff, k. (1991). analisis isi, pengantar teori dan metodologi. terjemahan oleh farid wajidi. jakarta: rajawali pers. rafiek, m. (2012). humor dalam pantun madihin john tralala dan hendra, anaknya. laporan penelitian tidak diterbitkan. banjarmasin: program studi magister pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, program pascasarjana unlam. rafiek, m. (2012b). pantun madihin: kajian ciri, struktur pementasan, kreativiti pemadihinan, pembangunan dan pembinaannya di kalimantan selatan. jurnal pendidikan bahasa melayu, vol.2 bil. 2: 104114. http://spaj.ukm.my/jpbm/index.php/jpbm/article/view/53/53 rafiek, m. (2013). pemasyarakatan bahasa indonesia melalui madihin banjar john tralala dan hendra sebagai upaya mempererat persatuan bangsa 286 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 257 – 286 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj indonesia. jurnal bahasa dan sastra, 3(2): 184-195. https://ppjp.ulm.ac.id/journal/index.php/jbsp/article/view/4552/397 4 rafiek, m. (2018). humor dalam madihin john tralala dan hendra (kajian jenis humor perspektif veatch, gruner, dan hobbes). bahasa dan seni, 46 (1), 57-72. http://journal2.um.ac.id/index.php/jbs/article/view/3256/pdf. safioedin, a. (1969). seni sastra indonesia. bandung: peladjar. seman, s. (2010). kesenian tradisional banjar lamut, madihin, dan pantun. banjarmasin: lembaga pengkajian dan pelestarian budaya banjar kalimantan selatan. stokes, j. (2007). how to do media and cultural studies, panduan untuk melaksanakan penelitian dalam kajian media dan budaya. terjemahan oleh santi indra astuti. yogyakarta: bentang. sunarti, purlansyah, seman, s., maswan, s., dan kadir, m. s. (1978). sastra lisan banjar. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. suroto. (1989). teori dan bimbingan apresiasi sastra indonesia. jakarta: erlangga. teeuw, a. (1994). indonesia antara kelisanan dan keberaksaraan. jakarta: pustaka jaya. teeuw, a. (2003). sastera dan ilmu sastera. jakarta: pustaka jaya. thaha, m. dan sanderta, b. (2000). pantun, madihin, lamut. banjarmasin: dinas pendidikan dan kebudayaan tk.i kalimantan selatan dan dewan kesenian kalimantan selatan. usman, z. (1963). kesusasteraan lama indonesia. djakarta: gunung agung 11-1.pdf untitled-1 wollstonecraft and friedan’s theories highlight the women struggles in julius caesar ekawati marhaenny dukut1 and farhana malik2 abstract: for centuries, women have been struggling to establish their place in the society and fight for their rights as becoming an equal to men. this article, presents an analysis on the female characters portia and calpurnia of rome, in julius caesar. the play was written by william shakespeare who based his story on the historical events of ancient rome. making use of wollstonecraft and friedan’s theories, this article aims at examining to what extent the struggles of women are reflected and presented in the play. the struggles of the female characters are intrinsically concerned with the play and extrinsically relates to the condition of women in ancient rome. upon analyzing, it becomes clear that roman women had less rights and privileges than men and were considered inferior to men. women in roman were seen as weak, feeble and unworthy. although feminism is not even heard of in shakespeare’s time, through studying wollstonecraft and friedan’s theories, portia and calpurnia’s struggle can be considered as the springing of feminist’s actions. 1dra. ekawati marhaenny dukut, m.hum. <ekawatimd@gmail.com> +628122938202 is a full-time lecturer at the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university 2farhana malik<farhanamalik77@yahoo.com> +6285878116028 is a student at the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university student. this paper is based on the thesis argument she recently defended for her sarjana sastra degree. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209188 key words: portia, calpurnia, women struggles, rome, liberal feminism introduction drama is a well-known product of literature which consists of vast genre, for instance tragedy. in the book of aristotle poetics, aristotle provides us with a definition of tragedy as, “the imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself” (aristotle 1962:32). one of the famous dramas of tragedy is julius caesar, which was written exquisitely by the most gratifying writer known in history, william shakespeare, who is the father of english literature because he wrote many plays or dramas which were based on several historical figures. the well-known play, julius caesar is based on the roman empire. it is based on the historical events which took place around 44 bc, in ancient rome. according to roma gill (2010:xxv), shakespeare wrote these plays chronically from the works of historians who documented the events of history. one of the primary sources of these historical plays written by shakespeare was plutarch, the writer of plutarch’s lives. its original title was parallel lives of famous greeks and romans, in which he presented the lives of the greeks in contrast with the romans. plutarch’s study were on the general, statesmen and public figures including alexander the great, solon, pyrrhus, julius caesar, and marc antony which gave a view of the life of the romans and the greeks up to plutarch’s life. the female characters of shakespearean plays, particularly in julius caesar gives an outline of the roman values. it provides a contrast with the male characters, as e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 189 according to the play, rome is a masculine society. the female characters in julius caesar, portia and calpurnia, are the wives of two powerful men of the roman society, brutus and caesar, respectively. being wives of leaders, portia’s and calpurnia’s conversations and actions are worth to analyze. therefore, the roles, positions and struggles of the female characters painted by shakespeare, with the support of wollstonecraft and friedan’s feminism perspectives becomes the main focus of this article. mary wollstonecraft and betty friedan are feminists who theorized liberal feminism. they believed that women and men are equal and have similar capacity. therefore, women should be given the same rights and opportunities as men. liberal feminism also stressed on the importance of individual rights. rosemarie tong states in ‘feminist thoughts’ that, what wollstonecraft most wanted for women is personhood. she claimed that a woman should not be reduced to the “toy of man, his rattle,” which “must jingle in his ears whenever, dismissing reason, he chooses to be amused (2009:16). thus, the liberal feminism approach is used simply in the insistence of women’s equality with men and with which it disagrees with patriarchy. shakespeare’s works william shakespeare was an english playwright and a poet of the late 1500’s and the early 1600’s, who wrote numerous varieties of plays and different sonnets. he is acknowledged and admired by many scholars and common people who have liked his works. shakespeare wrote about celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209190 tragedies, comedies, romance and histories. shakespeare’s works made people feel different emotions through the plays about myths, beliefs, heroes, queens and kings. the works of shakespeare were also appreciated in the elizabethans era, where they were performed in the theatre; especially in the globe theatre. the elizabethans era was an intriguing period in the history of england. it was forenamed after the greatest queen; queen elizabeth i. the era is often regarded as a golden age in the english history. it was the time where renaissance was at height and it was where the english poetry and theatre flourished. in that period, the globe theatre was a great success and the source of entertainment. shakespeare also became an actor in some of his play performances. however, there were no actresses, as it was considered inappropriate for women to perform in the theatre. women were said to be forbidden to perform by law in the elizabethan era. thus, the roles of the women were carried out by young boys, whose voice were high and the body muscles were not fully grown. the master-pieces of shakespeare’s have been converted into hundreds of languages throughout the world and are heartily performed as a rich work of literature. the outstanding works of shakespeare have inspired and motivated many writers and artists. hinton, an artistic director of an english theatre expresses his views on shakespeare’s work as follows, shakespeare moves us with the courage of heroes, foolishness of clowns, the aching of lovers. he seems to know about everything. he writes with music, with a soaring imagination, with tenderness, with passion and with humor. he is inside us al (cited in sparksnote 2006:1). e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 191 some of the famous works of shakespeare, which have moved and captured many minds of people, are merchant of venice, as you like it, twelfth night, julius caesar and antony and cleopatra. all of these plays from shakespeare have something in common, i.e. the females of these plays have strong and outspoken characters. they yield towards the male power but are also firm and cunning to sometimes outwit the male characters. however, in this article, only the female characters of julius caesar and the society it concerns, i.e., rome, is discussed. the ancient roman society according to history, the ancient rome followed the monarchy system before gaining its republic in 509 b.c. the romans formed a republic, a government in which the roman citizens elected council to rule on their behalf. being a republic, every citizen was expected to play an active role in governing the state. the wealthy class (aristocracy) dominated the roman republic, who was known as the patricians in the roman society (hope 2011). the roman society was furnished with the wealth, power and means of an emperor existing alongside the poverty and degradation of a slave. valerie hope in her article, social pecking order in the roman world states that, at the end of the first century ad, the roman administrator, poet and writer pliny the younger (today known particularly for his letters) attended a dinner party. he noted that the food and wine on offer differed in quality. the guests were not being treated equally. instead the host was mirroring status distinctions in the standard of the food and beverages he presented to his guests (2011:¶2). celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209192 through this observation, it can be said that status and power matter in the roman society. the social arrangement of the society was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and freedom. the patricians of the roman society were mainly nobles and wealthy people, who were also lawmakers and the patron. the roman society had the scheme of patronage, where the patricians offered the protection to the plebeians. plebeians were the common people or peasants who worked for the patricians to acquire legal help, food and money. however, some plebeians were free salves. slavery was also one of the parts of roman society where they were the possession of their masters and to whom their power of life and death was. roman society had its social factor which could avoid strict legal divisions. one of which was wealth, as money and fortune could buy status symbol, even though, the person possessing wealth might be a freed slave. however, the status was evaluated as it marked the boundaries in the life of romans to know whether the person was a senator or a slave (hope, 2011:¶12). roman citizens, slaves and ex-slaves mingled quite freely on the streets, showing few observable symbols of their status. in the routine of life distinctions based on gender, age, occupation and wealth may have been of importance than status alone. the roman could gain status from several roles of their life like a father or a husband, and their identities could have influenced on how they act and interact with others (hope, 2011). roles of woman in the roman society in the roman society, women were not given much power. politics was the sphere of men. the roman women e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 193 were kept out of political issues and were never encouraged to be the senators, governors, lawyers, judges or any of the other official positions that involved in running rome. according to richard a. bauman “the only exception was priesthoods, to which they were admitted as vestal virgins and in a few other cases.” (2003:2). henceforth, roman society’s law did not look upon women as equal to men. women received only a basic education, if any at all, they were under the authority of man. customarily, they were authorized by their father before marriage. later, the power switched to their husband, who possessed the legal rights over the children. being a patriarchy society, rome considered women unequal to men. nevertheless, the roman women enjoyed certain degree of freedom, which largely depended on their wealth and social status. these women could possess property but yet they were not allowed to vote. they had no formal role in the society. in the roman society women were supposed to play the traditional role in the household (santarpia 2011:¶2). women in the roman society lived by the same regulations as in many other ancient civilizations. their lives revolved around their families, social class and status. women fulfilled their roles as daughters, wives and mothers. they were basically confined to their household affairs. though they had freedom of mingling in the society, going to markets and going to baths with their slaves, yet they were considered inferior to men.they had to follow their husband’s order, who is the master of the house (santarpia 2011:¶5). the role of a wife was to manage the household and educate her children. all chores were done by slaves, although the ideal wife was still expected to spin and weave like her ancient ancestors. the women of the upper classes, in reality celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209194 were free from work. women in the roman society could also inherit after their husband or father. the role of women differs from noble women to plebeians, as noble women belong to the aristocratic families where a male child was to be born as the heir to carry the name and lineage of the family. therefore, these women were perpetually pregnant and infertility was the actual ground for divorce (santarpia 2011:¶6). wollstonecraft and friedan’s feminism opinions since the feminism approach regards and compares the roles and the struggles of the female characters in the play, the liberal feminism of the first and second wave of the feminism approach which gives the idea of women should be ‘equal to men’ is applied in analyzing the women’s role and behavior in julius caesar. according to rosemarie tong, who cites susan wendell in her book, feminist thought, “liberal feminism is equality of opportunity” (2009:13). tong has provided a vast knowledge on feminism in her book, such as liberal feminism, radical feminism, socialist and marxist feminism and so forth. tong’s description on liberal feminism can be applied to analyze the female characters in the shakespearean play. from tong’s book, the first-wave feminist, mary wollstonecraft’s theories also provide a clear perspective about the females portrayed in the play. in wollstonecraft’s reading, a vindication of the rights of woman, it is inferred that women lacked liberty and did not have the freedom to make their own decisions. they were bound in the boundaries of their homes, husband and children (1996:173).it is wollstonecraft, who presents a sight of women, e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 195 being strong in body and mind, where she is not a captive in the domestic sphere. in support to wollestonecraft’s idea john stuart mill’s and harriet taylor, who are first-wave feminists insisted that a society could attain gender equality, by providing women the same political and economic rights as men enjoys (cited in tong 2009:16). mill points out that the society’s double standards are hurtful for women and states that it does not justify to prohibit women to try something, just because they are not capable of doing it similar to men. mill specifies, …what women by nature cannot do, it is quite superfluous to forbid them from doing. what they can do, but not as well as the men who are their competitors, competition suffices to exclude them from (cited in tong, 2009:19). meanwhile, tong also conveys that liberal feminism is about women being equal to men. she mentions that the overall effort of liberal feminism is about “a just and compassionate society in which freedom flourishes” (2009:13) where women and men can prosper equally. women in julius caesar julius caesar is considered as a masculine play displaying politics of the ancient rome. as politics was a notion prohibited for women, shakespeare inserted only two female characters in the play for a limited period. it seems that these females were used only to show some light on their respective husbands. their devotion and loyalty towards their husbands are meant to show the power of men in society. yet, when making a closer reading of how the women behaved, there is something different that can be gained apart from celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209196 politics, conspiracy, betrayal, hate and war. portia, the wife of the honorable brutus, and likewise calipurnia, the wife of the most powerful man in rome, julius caesar are strong female characters, who continually shows devotion and concern towards her husband. in a feminist perspective, this behavior is not merely a sign of being weak but can be a sign of their strength. how has the roman empire build up women’s condition? the following argumentation explains. rome has been constructed as a masculine society in julius caesar, ie. women’s importance in society were positioned beneath men. they were considered weak and feeble. they grew up under the conditions of the society that made them inferior to men, such as being dependent, passive, and incapable of making decisions. in concern towards her husband’s health and safety, portia also admits twice to the idea that women are feeble and weak through her inglorious declaration, “ay me, how weak a thing / the heart of woman is!”(gill 2010:42) and “…think you i am no stronger than my sex” (gill 2010:32), which meant women in general are seemed as weak and unworthy. 1. romanian social background men had such great power on women that as a young girl, portia was governed by her father and after marriage controlled by her husband. women were considered so weak that …a little knowledge of human weakness, justly termed cunning, softness of temper, outward obedience, and scrupulous attention to a puerile kind of propriety, will obtain for them the protection of man (wollestonecraft 1996:18). e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 197 in the men powered society, where women seek protection of masculine men, men felt insulted and humiliated when compared to women. any display of weakness in the masculine domain of politics and warfare were considered ‘sissies’ or better known as ‘cowards’. this instance can be seen in act i scene ii, where cassius compares caesar as a “sick girl” (gill 2010:8) to brutus. he describes how caesar became sick, had a seizure, and whimpered ‘for some drink’ in spain as an implication that caesar is weak and not fit to be a crowned, which brands brutus’s mind in thoughts against caesar and in favor of the conspiracy. yet again in act i scene iii, cassius insults caesar and tells casca: let it be who it is. for romans now have thews and limbs like to their ancestors, but—woe the while!—our fathers' minds are dead, and we are governed with our mothers' spirits. our yoke and sufferance show us womanish (gill 2010:18). thus, cassius claim is that the roman men have powerful bodies of their ancestors, but not their manliness. their tolerance and patient endurance of the oppression shows them as weak, like women. upon this fact, friedan states, in the feminine mystique, that freud considered women being “strange, inferior and lessthan-human species” (1997:108). wollstonecraft agrees that, “nature has given woman a weaker frame than man” (1996:28), but does it make woman any less-than-man or lessthan-human? does this mean that woman should be the means of insults and humiliation? the answer is no. yet, roman men who were considered animals are better in position than women. wollstonecraft tries to understand this by explaining celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209198 that women have been illustrated by most societies as “artificial, weak characters and useless members of society” (wollstonecraft 1996:56). whether the roman men imply animals for good or bad purpose, they considered women as a disgrace. samples of men considered as animals can be found in act iv, scene i, when antony compares lepidus to a horse when octavius mentions lepidus being “a tried and valiant solider” (gill 2010:70). secondly, is in scene ii, when brutus expresses his concerns to his fellow man as follows: “but hollow men, like horses hot at hand/ make gallant show and promise of their mettle” (gill 2010:72). thirdly, in scene iii, brutus relates himself to a lamb and informs, “o cassius, you are yokèd with a lamb” (gill 2010:78). here, ‘yoked with a lamb’ means allied with a lamb. defensively, friedan contributes the idea that women must somehow prove themselves much better than an animal to achieve recognition from a manly society: …to prove that woman was not a passive, empty mirror, not a frilly, useless decoration, not a mindless animal, not a thing to be disposed of by others, incapable of a voice in her own existence, before they could even begin to fight for the rights women needed to become the human equals of men (1997:81). unfortunately, after the death of caesar, calpurnia’s husband, when mark antony reads out caesar’s will, in front of the citizens, it is noticed that there is no mentioning of calpurnia’s name in the will. antony states that caesar has left all his gardens, private summer-houses and newly planted orchards for public pleasures. and also he gives every roman citizen seventy-five silver coins (gill 2010:64). along with not being e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 199 mentioned in the will, calpurnia also suffers greatly as she was neglected by octavius, the adoptive son of her dead husband. likewise, calpurnia was also ignored by the roman men, who came to take caesar to the capitol on the day of his assassination. they all greeted caesar with praises and yet ignored calpurnia as if she was not present their throughout the scene. further, the adoptive son, octavius, enters in the middle of the play and directly gets involved with the war and revenge. there is no indication of calpurnia getting anything from caesar’s will or octavius providing for calpurnia. the worst of all is there is no reference of calpurnia after the assassination of caesar, till the end of the play. it is a mystery whether she lived or died, whether she was provided for or left on her own and whether she was acknowledged by the citizens or not. this proves that in rome, women have often suffered the crisis of identity. they are mostly known as ‘the wife of’ or ‘the mother of’. does this mean that theydo not have their own identity? confined to the domestic sphere, friedan states that, “a woman could only exist by pleasing man. she was wholly dependent on his protection in the world that she had no share in making: man’s world” (1997:81). in the play, calpurnia presence was not as important as her husband who was seen in flesh and blood, that her own death became an ‘unseen’ or ‘unmentioned’ death of calpurnia, the wife. the question here arises with what reason was calpurnia not important enough to be mentioned in the play? did she not have an identity apart from being the wife of caesar? was not she supposed to be treated kindly and considerably after the murder of her husband? was she a useless member of the manly society? calpurnia’s role seems to be so easily forgotten! this is, unfortunately, familiar with portia’s condition. on hearing about the death of portia, brutus, her husband was celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209200 told to not shed any tears, though he grieves for her silently. brutus being the manly man of the manly society pursues his stoic philosophy of patient endurance of portia’s death. he even quiets the people who speak of her by saying, “speak no more of her” (gill 2010:81) and eagerly drowns himself in wine and makes amends with cassius. yet again when messala, a friend of brutus, tells him that his wife is dead; brutus utters, “why, farewell, portia. we must die, messala” (gill 2010:82), thereby entailing that portia’s death is not as important as any other manly businesses. on the other hand, when cassius dies, brutus grieves differently. he praises cassius and bids him farewell. brutus also states that, are yet two romans living such as these? the last of all the romans, fare thee well! it is impossible that ever rome should breed thy fellow friends, i owe no tears to this dead man than you shall see me pay. i shall find time, cassius, i shall find time (gill 2010:98). this means that brutus is ready to shed tears for cassiushis worthy romanbut not for his wife. why does not he forget his belief on the stoic philosophy of endurance which he applied on the death of portia? portia deserved a better final farewell from brutus because she was a lovely and devoted wife. therefore, it seems that women were just supposed to provide fulfillment as a wife and should not expect a lot from men. roman women were enslaved by the men of the society, particularly, by their father, brother and husband. as illustrated 2. portia and calpurnia’s struggles e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 201 in the play, although being a wife of the soon to be crowned emperor, calpurnia was not in a better position. caesar had every authority on calpurnia, for she was his wife, to show the greatness of calpurnia in being his trustee. yet, calpurnia’s loving devotion by always answering caesar’s call with “here, my lord” (gill 2010:4), makes it seem that men were of greater importance than women even though they are husband and wife. instead of showing the great loving relationship she has for caesar, the roman society sees it just like wollstonecraft who states women’s sex, “as the weakest as well as the most oppressed” (1996:34). in act i scene ii, on the feast of lupercal that was celebrated in a public place, caesar, in front of ‘a great crowd’ asks calpurnia to stand directly in the way of antony’s running course. the feast of lupercal calls for a holy race to be run by the young men, touching the women with their leather thongs. caesar tells antony, forget not in your speed, antonius, to touch calpurnia, for our elders say the barren, touchèd in this holy chase, shake off their sterile curse (gill 2010:4). caesar states in front of everyone that calpurnia is “barren”, which means unable to have children. this clearly shows that caesar was concerned that he lacks an heir and was ready to make a spectacle of his wife in public. this unfortunately, shows how inconsiderate caesar was towards calpurnia, his wife. it seems that roman husbands considered, “the wife…who is faithful to her husband, and neither suckles nor educates her children, scarcely deserves the name of a wife, celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209202 and has no right to that of a citizen” (wollstonecraft 1996:150151) if unable to produce children, and thus does not deserve the name of a wife and has no right to that of a citizen. friedan correctly mentions the fact that most men saw women “as childlike dolls that existed in terms only of man’s love, to love man, and serve his needs” (1997:108). thereby, women were regarded unimportant. the roman women seems wholly submitted to the patriarchal rules that bonded them to the private or domestic sphere or lives, which denies them access to the public or political field. they were kept away from the political discussions and assemblies. shakespeare exposed it well in julius caesar, where brutus’s wife portia has a powerful conversation with her husband, that right after that the conspirators leaves brutus’s house at the early hours of dawn. as a devoted wife to her husband, she shows distress by his anxieties and inquires by questioning him. when brutus refuses to confine in her, she urges him to reveal his troubles, as she deserves to know them, as his wife. she even kneels before brutus to listen to her plea, yet brutus does not confine. however, portia continues, i should not need if you were gentle, brutus. within the bond of marriage, tell me, brutus, is it excepted i should know no secrets that appertain to you? am i yourself but, as it were, in sort or limitation, to keep with you at meals, comfort your bed, and talk to you sometimes? dwell i but in the suburbs of your good pleasure? if it be no more, portia is brutus' harlot, not his wife. (gill 2010:32) e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 203 indicatively, portia attempts to tell brutus how she feels being excluded from her husband’s life and how his secret makes her feel. she feels as wollstonecraft rightly puts, women as “considered as only the wanton solace” (1996:151). thus, portia feels that she is only ‘brutus' harlot, not his wife’, so she desires to be close to brutus as a wife should be which is reasonable. however, brutus still does not reveal his secrets and efforts to console portia. to this, portia utters to brutus, if this were true, then should i know this secret i grant i am a woman, but withal a woman that lord brutus took to wife. i grant i am a woman, but withal a woman well-reputed, cato’s daughter. think you i am no stronger than my sex, being so fathered and so husbanded? tell me your counsels. i will not disclose 'em. i have made strong proof of my constancy, giving myself a voluntary wound here in the thigh. can i bear that with patience, and not my husband’s secrets? (gill 2010:32). confined to a masculine society, where women were thought as weak and frail, they themselves had to prove that they are better. portia had to remind brutus that, although she is a woman, she is the daughter of the well reputed cato. in addition, to prove that she is not weak as women are considered to be, she stabs herself on the thigh without wincing or flinching and demands her husband to trust her with his secrets. nonetheless, brutus keeps her isolated from the political issues or the conspiracy against caesar and takes the advantage of the moment, as he hears a knock. though, he assures her, with flowery words, that he will notify her about his concerns in the future, he never does tell her about the conspiracy. this becomes reason for wollstonecraft to say that men like brutus celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209204 usually just persuade women “by working on their feelings, to stay at home and fulfill their duties” (wollstonecraft 1996:64). roman women actually struggled under the rule and power of their husbands because their devotion and love were not valued enough to make them equals of their husbands. calpurnia also struggled under caesar her husband’s standard and order. in act ii scene ii, calpurnia tries to break her ‘adjustment of the feminine role’ and shows boldness in stating her mind, by saying that caesar will not leave the house. however, caesar put calpurnia in ‘her place’ by telling her that “caesar shall forth” (gill 2010:34). actually, calpurnia wanted her husband to be at home that day because she dreamt caesar being murdered. it was not only calpurnia who feared for caesar; caesar himself feared too, as he also sent a servant to the priest to perform a sacrifice, before calpurnia entered. instead of showing his thanks for his wife’s concern, he exaggerates by claiming that the threatening things will vanish once they face him and announced that it seems strange to him that “men should fear” (gill 2010:35). when caesar listens to no reasoning for staying home that day and claim’s that “danger knows full well that caesar is more dangerous than he:” (gill 2010:36), calpurnia voices out, alas, my lord, your wisdom is consumed in confidence. do not go forth today. call it my fear that keeps you in the house, and not your own. we’ll send mark antony to the senate house, and he shall say you are not well today. (kneels) let me, upon my knee, prevail in this. (gill 2010:36). in the roman society, it is quiet awful to hear caesar’s agreement to stay home instantly, on the cost of calpurnia’s e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 205 kneeling and begging in front of him and also calling it only ‘her’ fear, not ‘his’. this is why, he taunts calpurnia by adding, “mark antony shall say i am not well, and for thy humour i will stay at home” (gill 2010:36). wollstonecraft has well mentioned that men assume, “the rights of humanity have been thus confined to male line from adam downwards” (2010:89), therefore to quickly surrender under a women’s request is a sign of unmanliness. the scenario changes, however, when decius and other conspirators come, and coax caesar with flattery to come to the assembly. although at first, caesar thrusts his power by telling he will not come when calpurnia tells them by saying caesar is sick, caesar embarrasses her by saying, “shall caesar send a lie?” (gill 2010:37).caesar was actually the one who suggested “mark antony shall say i am not well” (gill 2010:36) but he made calpurnia seem as a liar and a fool, in front of his subjects or so-called friends. he continues humiliating calpurnia by telling them, “…on her knee hath begg’d that i will stay at home today” (gill 2010:37). this action was chosen because caesar knows it was shameful to have ones husband bragging about his wife begging him, on her knees, in public. calpurnia was not the only person who feared for caesar’s safety, caesar himself was a bit uneasy about it too. if he were brave like what he boasted, he “would not need any other’s weakness to prove his own masculinity” (friedan 1997:377).caesar’s disrespect towards calpurnia still does not come to an end, however, as at the end he taunts her before leaving by emitting, how foolish do your fears seem now, calpurnia! i am ashamèd i did yield to them. give me my robe, for i will go. (gill 2010:38). celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209206 in the play, unfortunately, calpurnia’s dream and her concern did come true, as caesar was assassinated on the same day by those people, whom caesar had humiliated calpurnia in front of. men assumed that only they could “decide for themselves in the eyes of their god the problems of right and wrong” (friedan 1997:82). likewise, portia was yet another woman struggling in the world of men, where women were considered as ‘not strong’. portia’s death or suicide could make women seem strong by feminists. in the play, portia’s death took place because of brutus’s lack of attention and in the state of anxiousness about brutus’s safety. she feared that octavius and antony had become so powerful that it will bring harm to brutus, as brutus has been part of the conspiracy against caesar. brutus’s secrets about the assassination also distressed portia and she overcame with the concern and fear for her husband. brutus himself tells cassius about portia’s death by describing as follows, impatient of my absence, and grief that young octavius with mark antony have made themselves so strong for with her death that tidings came with this she fell distract and, her attendants absent, swallowed fire.(gill 2010:80). with the anxiety and uncertainty of her husband who trusts on her, portia decides then to take her own life. this painful and agonizing way to die, to feminists would show that even while dying she has strength. portia considered herself as a strong person, although her husband thought otherwise. e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 207 conclusion from the analysis of the female characters and their society in the play: julius caesar, it is understood that rome was a strict, uptight, masculine society which gave women less rights and value. thus, it can be inferred that rome was strictly ‘men’ society because women were considered as weak, unworthy and kept bounded only in household affairs and were restricted from getting involved in war and politics. calpurnia and portia were confined under the powers of their husbands. evenso, the struggles of calpurnia and portia who tried to prove their worth to men and the society, can be understood as feminist behavior. in the play, calpurnia and portia struggle with their husbands in order to become their ‘equal’ instead of being inferior. although in achieving recognition, they had to portray being devoted, caring and loving housewives, who live to please their husbands. they even had to kneel and beg in front of their husbands’ to get some consideration to their pleas, that is, if their husbands desire to grant them. friedan expresses that, …it is only a sick society, unwilling to face its own problems and unable to conceive of goals and purposes equal to the ability and knowledge of its members, that chooses to ignore the strength of women. perhaps it is only a sick or immature society that chooses to make women “housewives,” not people (1997: 232). as seen in julius caesar, calpurnia and portia, have struggled to get their rights and respect. it gives the impression that women have started early on to fight for their rights, and thus, feminism were born long back in history, even before the first feminism movement started. because calpurnia’s and portia’s struggles were limited to their husbands’, this makes celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 187 – 209208 the kind of feminism struggle they did was a mild feminism in comparisons to the ideas and theories of wollstonecraft and friedan. however, the efforts that calpurnia and portia did can encourage and inspire other women to fight for their rights, whether it is within or out of their household. wollstonecraft wisely declares that, would men but generously snap our chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothers-in a word, better citizens (1996:154). with this said, it entails that when women should have been given the respect and rights they deserved for being an important part of the society. if women are acknowledged as an equal of men instead of being considered as inferior, there would be a great fusion of respect and understanding between both men and women, which would form a tremendous society. references aristotle. poetic english, on the art of poetry. translated by i. bywater. oxford, great britain: clarendon press, 1962. bauman, r. a. women and politics in ancient rome. london: routledge, 2003. friedan, b. the feminine mystique. new york: w.w.norton & company, 1997. gill, r. (ed.). julius caesar. great britain: oxford university press, 2010. gill, r. (ed.). oxford school shakespeare: julius caesar, 2nd ed. great britain: oxford university press, 2010. e.m. dukut and f. malik, wollestonecraft and friedan’s theories 209 hope, d. v. social pecking order in the roman world, 29 march 2011. retrieved from bbc history: http://www.bbc. co.uk/history/ancient/romans/social_struture_01.shtml, 11 december 2012. santarpia, g. m. mariammilani. september 2011. retrieved from ancient roman women: http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient _rome/ancient_roman_women.htm, 12 december 2012. sparksnotes (ed.). no fear shakespeare: anotony and cleopatra. u.s.a.: spark publishing, 2006. tong, r. feminist thought a more comprehensive introduction, 3rd ed. colorado, united states: westview press, 2009. wollstonecraft, m. a vindication of the rights of woman, 3rd ed. new york: dover publication, inc., 1996. 3_ekawati and farhana 2013_13_2(187-209) cover celt december 2013_revisi_1 celt vol 13 no 2 december 2013_revisi_2# cover celt december 2013_revisi_2 logo: untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia emotional, behavioral and cognitive engagement in language learning: the experience of the successful learners 1mister gidion maru and 2christin natalia pajow 2 post graduate program, universitas negeri manado, indonesia 1english education department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, indonesia email: 1mrgidionmaru@unima.ac.id; 2christyn.pajow@yahoo.com received: 19-09-2017 accepted: 20-09-2019 published: 8-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj emotional, behavioral and cognitive engagement in language learning: the experience of the successful learners 1mister gidion maru and 2christin natalia pajow 1english education department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, indonesia 2post graduate program, universitas negeri manado, indonesia abstract: this study aims at investigating and portraying learners’ engagement with language in the learning process. it further shares the influence of the engagement upon the success of language acquisition. this study is methodologically qualitative. the semi-structured interview is implemented based upon the attempts to elaborate seven main questions and several follow-up questions. the respondents are from manado, north sulawesi. they are learners whose score above 500 in toefl itp or equivalence to ielts above 6.0 as the qualification of successful english language learners. they took the test in different institutions such as the golden gate and the british council. the data are then analyzed and interpreted in triangulation. the research findings showed that the engagement has shaped the success of the learners’ language acquisition. the engagement comes in the forms of emotional, behavioral and cognitive ones. such engagements take place from the silent period to communicative competence period of acquisition. it is further found out that to ensure the success of language acquisition, the three models of engagement have to be persistently and consistently practiced and developed. key words: cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, successful learners abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki dan menggambarkan keterlibatan siswa terhadap proses pembelajaran bahasa. penelitian ini kemudian memaparkan pengaruh keterlibatan siswa dalam kesuksesan pembelajaran bahasa. penelitan ini menerapkan metode kualitatif. wawancara ‘semimrgidionmaru@unima.ac.id; christyn.pajow@yahoo.com 338 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj structured’ diterapkan sebagai upaya untuk menguraikan tujuh pertanyaan inti dan pertanyaan lain untuk memperjelas ungkapan dari peserta wawancara. peserta berasal dari manado, sulawesi utara. mereka adalah pelajar bahasa inggris yang memiliki skor toefl diatas 500 atau sederajat dengan score ielts diatas 6, sebagai kualifikasi pelajar bahasa inggris yang baik. mereka mengikuti ujian di institusi-institusi yang berbeda, seperti golden gate dan british council. data yang diperoleh kemudian dianalisis dan diinterpretasi dalam triangulasi. hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa keterlibatan siswa telah membentuk mereka sehingga berhasil dalam proses penyerapan bahasa. keterlibatan yang dimaksud adalah keterlibatan secara emosional, sikap, dan keterlibatan secara kognitif. keterlibatan tersebut terjadi sejak proses awal pelajar belajar bahasa inggris sampai pada keberhasilan dalam menggunakan bahasa inggris. selanjutnya juga ditemukan, untuk menjadikan pelajar berhasil dalam proses penyerapan bahasa, tiga jenis keterlibatan yang disebutkan harus diterapkan dan dikembangkan scara terus menerus dan konsisten. kata kunci: keterlibatan secara kognitif, keterlibatan sikap, keterlibatan secara emosional, keberhasilan setiap pelajar introduction numerous studies have revealed that good language learners employed various strategies which contribute to their success in language learning. learners tend to apply several strategies and find the most effective one for them to develop their language skills. however, although learning strategies have been recognized as a fundamental factor which facilitates language acquisition and also differentiates between good language learners and poorer ones, learning strategies are not the whole answer to making good language learners (griffiths, 2015). the other essential factor which defines a good language learner is the efficacy of strategies which depend on how learners engage with the learning goals, tasks, and contexts. engagement is generally known as students’ involvement in the classroom or what is so-called classroom engagement. it also has been defined as how interested students accomplish learning activities and how they connect to the peers, teachers, and institutions (axelson & flick, 2010). nevertheless, it does not solely occur in the classroom, yet it can also take place wherever and whenever learners are willing to engage themselves with language learning (carroll, et al., 2019) maru, m.g. and pajow, c.p, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement 339 language learning: the experience of successful learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj engagement in terms of language learning is examined as the way learners develop their communicative and academic skills through the meaningful practice that is continually conducted with a realistic comprehensible input and output (nation & newton, 2009, cited in ogabaldwin, 2019). a seminal study on learner engagement revealed that a good language learner has strong engagement, as it makes the learner successful in the language learning journey. due to such study involved a narrative inquiry method, this study uses a different method with more amounts of participants to know how they engage with language learning. in accordance with the engagement, many studies have been carried out, but they are more focused on classroom engagement (ainley, 2012; dao et al., 2019; philp & duchesne, 2016). few are conducted, concerning learners’ engagement and its relevance to successful and effective language learning, particularly outside the classroom. the current study is deemed important to be conducted since the researcher believe that learners will experience more sense of learning when they directly practice outside the classroom setting. the other aspect that serves as the ground for the study is because engagement is believed as the key contributor to successful learning (fredricks, filsecker & lawson, 2016). therefore, learners who are not engaged are less likely to be successful. in other words, good language learners who are successful in learning a certain language have strong engagement with what they learn. as the ultimate goal of learning language is to reach communicative competence, those, who produce the language, use it appropriately, and then communicate it in a meaningful way, are regarded as successful language learners. the main aim of the current study is to investigate the successful learners’ engagement in learning english as a foreign language. realizing how pivotal engagement to the language learners, this study is conducted to answer the following research question: how did the learners behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively engage with language learning for their successful acquisition? literature review learner engagement categorizes into three parts which are behavioral, cognitive, and emotional (fredericks et al., 2004). behavioral engagement refers to the positive response and participation to academic tasks, length of time students spent to learn the target language, and their participation in academic and extracurricular activities. cognitive engagement is concerned with self-regulated learning, strategies employed by the students, and their investment in learning. emotional engagement means students’ emotions and attitudes towards teachers, classmates, and school, as well as a sense of 340 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj belonging at school. in this study, particularly, learner engagement will be related to learners’ active approaches to the process of language learning. the engagement does not only have an intriguing meaning focusing on the valuable involvement of students with the school, but also has different aspects, such as emotional, psychological, behavioral, and cognitive engagement (skinner & pitzer, 2012). they categorized engagement into three levels started from the general to the specific one. in comparison to other kinds of engagement, they admitted that classroom engagement is the most engrossed one, as it is categorized as the most specific area of engagement. classroom engagement is delineated as students’ engagement to their academic work, signed with a positive attitude, for instance; enthusiastic, constructive, willing, emotionally positive, and cognitively focused participation. this engagement is recognized as critical for some reasons. first, the process of acquiring knowledge and skill happens, only if the students are willing to create involvement active participation in the subject they learned. second, a sense of academically competent emerges when students have high-quality of engagement so that they are more likely to perform greatly and connect with other peers as well as teachers. another reason is because classroom engagement contributes to the academic development of students. it is believed as a part of the everyday resilience process and energetic resource to cope with the challenges, drawbacks, setbacks, and/or barriers in school. effective coping will yield a durable longterm mindset to be motivated such students may have an autonomous learning style, and be more goal-oriented. therefore, classroom engagement has an important role as a key player in developing academic assets which take place throughout the school year and over the entire educational career of students. moreover finn & zimmer (2012) proposed that among the other terminologies which are different and complex to be differentiated, another model of engagement which frequently appears, are depicted as follows. first, academic engagement refers to the student’s behavior towards the learning process, such as attentiveness and completing the classroom task or homework, or taking additional courses or academic extracurricular activities. the second is social engagement that refers to the extent to which the written or unwritten assignment is followed by the students, for instance, attending the class on time, having appropriate interaction with both teachers and students, and not exhibiting anti-social behavior such as withdrawal to themselves to participate in learning activities or disrupting other students’ work. subsequently, a cognitive engagement which is indicated by students’ behavior in inquiring a question to clarify the unclear explanations or maru, m.g. and pajow, c.p, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement 341 language learning: the experience of successful learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj concepts, reading and finding materials or sources beyond those required, using self-regulation and implementing other strategies to guide learning. finally, an affective engagement is characterized by having a sense of belonging in school and realizing that the school activities are worth pursuing. among all of the classification of engagement that has been variously described, the three dimensions of engagement proposed by fredericks et al. (2004) seems to be more appropriate in analyzing language learning, since the integration of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement roughly covers the aspect of language learning which was researched the most, such as motivation, learning strategies, affective orientation, and cognitive traits (lee & hsieh, 2019). this study employed a qualitative design. in order to obtain the data, a semi-structured interview was carried out consists of seven main questions and several follow-up questions, depending on the answer of the interviewees. the respondents or participants for this study are from manado, north sulawesi. they are learners whose score above 500 in toefl itp or equivalence ielts above 6.0 as the qualification of successful english language learners. they took the test in differ institutions, such as the golden gate and the british council. one of the participants took a toefl prediction on campus before finishing his undergraduate study. student a and e followed the test in october 2019 and february 2019 respectively. while student c and d took the test in july 2019, student f took the test in may 2018. the remaining participant, student b was tested in november 2017. the participants were accessed by contacting them personally, and then conveyed what the researcher intends to conduct with them. when they agreed, the researcher arranged the appointments to interview them one by one. method table 1: students’ data and the detail of their toefl/ielts score no students‟ initial age toefl/ielts score 1 student a 24 520 2 student b 25 520 3 student c 22 6 4 student d 25 563 5 student e 29 517 6 student f 25 6.5 342 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the interview processes were conducted in the last week of november 2019, and during the data analysis, the interviewees were interviewed again if some clarifications were needed. the six participants have been interviewed about the engagement in learning english as a foreign language. each participant was interviewed virtually, so that the interview processes were easily recorded. table 1 presents the students’ data. the semi-structure interviews were conducted, following the interview protocol by (creswell & creswell, 2018). after finishing the interview, the data were analyzed in three steps which are data organization, description, and together and transcribed consecutively according to the interviewees’ answers. subsequently, the data were categorized into the table, by creating a separate column, consisting of the number of the questions. it will be more effortless to compare and analyze the data when it is organized in chronological order, based on the participants’ answers. finally, at the last phase, the data were interpreted by coding them using the themes of the three model of engagement: behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement, following by the three stages of learning a language: the silent period, early production and experimentation, and continued language development and communicative competence. results and discussions in this study, the learner engagement is investigated and detected by the enactment of a language learning process which is presented in three stages namely the silent period, early production and experimentation, and continued language development and communicative competence. by following methodologically these phases, the leaner engagement can be thoroughly and systematically portrayed in terms of having a picture of students’ successful english language learning. the phases consist of the silent period, early production and experimentation, and continued language development and communicative competence: a. the silent period silent period is defined as the earlier period of learners before they are able to communicate or use the language. it is similar to the infants when they first acquired a language by listening to the language that their family used. this concept is commonly known as second language acquisition. when interpretation (best & kahn 2014). first of all, the data were compiled maru, m.g. and pajow, c.p, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement 343 language learning: the experience of successful learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj someone learns a certain language, there will be time for them to silently listen or grasp the input from their surroundings (krashen, 1982). most of the participants conveyed, since they were in junior high school, they have had past habit they did unconsciously in terms of learning english. the activities had been done by watching the english shows either english movies, cartoons, and/or listening to the english song. these are admitted by the participant, as follows: i always watched cartoons basically english cartoons like fox bunny and mickey mouse when i was childhood. well, in those cartoons they speak a lot, so i intend to capture the vocabularies through their gestures. cartoons actually are very active, unlike movies where they just stand and speak. in cartoons they performed what they were speaking, for example when they said “let’s run away!” and the next thing they do is run away. so, i kind of captured the vocabularies through the gestures which showed that run means walk very fast (student d). the answer above indicates that the learner had been attracted by english language since elementary school. as a result, the process of learning occurs unconsciously, which lead to the acquisition process. a similar activity was conducted by listening to the english song and simply imitate the words in the song. it is revealed in the following statement: when i was junior high school, i basically loved listening and singing english song even though sometimes i didn't know what i was singing, i didn't know the lyric or the exact words and how to pronounce them. i just imitated it. basically, i imitate the sound (student b). the learner’s experience shows that the language is assimilated through the activity that they like the most. when they are interested in a certain activity, they tend to conduct it many times without realizing that they are learning something. student f also acknowledge that he watched movies that he preferred several times. this evidence confirms that learners embark the learning process by exposing themselves to a massive amount of language input. the habits which they had been built since junior high school. it is is not a short time product. in addition to this, learners do not only habituate themselves in watching and listening to the english, but some of whom learn english through a game, played when they were at school. they consider that playing a game intrigued and stimulated them to learn english, as mentioned by some learners below: 344 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj playing game is the only thing that i have been done to learn the language (student c). yugio card actually popular in my childhood, so in order to know how to use this card, i need to learn what they meant in the text, so i read a lot of words in the dictionary (student d). based on the statements above, the two learners admitted that their willingness in learning english is shaped by playing a game. the game encouraged them to follow the instruction or to understand what they should consecutively do and further learners are urged to find out the sentence meaning. at this point, it is obvious that since they were childhood, they actually played while learning english. the game that they played had helped learners to develop their english language literacy and use, even its simplest way; interacting with game instructions. from all of the proposition above, it can be identified that at this period learners begins their interest to engage with the language by they found as interesting activities. as they enjoy the activities of watching, listening or playing a game when they were childhood, they actually exposed to english in every session of the game. similarly, the establishment of the engagement can occur in a hobby such as singing as pointed out by the following respondent’s expressions; i think, this is related to my interest, because i like playing games since i was little, and i also enjoy watching english movies or listening to the english songs. i normally search for the lyric, so i think, i kind of absorb all the english phrases from those activities that i usually do, and i do it in my daily basis because i like doing it. it just happens every day (student f). it is clear that pleasant learning activities lead learners to have an awareness and enjoyment as well as enthusiasm for learning. the emotional aspect is taking a role. they deal with the language due to the feeling of like it. therefore, these aspects are categorized within the emotional engagement. additionally, starting a learning process with the activities that are very intriguing to the learners is deemed appropriate. by doing so, they will make themselves emotionally engaged to the learning process. the emotional engagement is recognized by learners’ positive attitude and involvement to the learning experience, as in this context; learners are eager to learn english more. this seems to reveals that the emotional engagement occurs within the silent period. in terms of language acquisition process, this silent period should not be disregarded. this phase does not expect learners to produce a language instead it serves as learners’ preparation to be ready in producing the language. krashen (1982) puts forward, when learners have developed the maru, m.g. and pajow, c.p, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement 345 language learning: the experience of successful learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj competence of listening and understanding the language around them, the ability of speaking will follow afterwards. b. early production and experimentation in comparison to the first stage, it is found that in the second phase learners showed, they have the three dimensions of engagement focused in this study. firstly, in order to expand their vocabularies’ knowledge, learners undertook various strategies and maximized every chance to learn new words. being a strategic learner as well as performing their active involvement on learning activity indicates the cognitive engagement. it can be seen in the following responses: when i was junior high school, i wrote down some vocabularies and have the notes. i memorized them every day, said the words many times, so i could memorize them in my mind” (student a). i learn new vocabulary by watching movies and take down note. i write every word that i considered unique and interesting, whether it is in the bus or from other books, or like everything that is new and interesting for me, especially when it comes to phrases, i would take that into my note (student b). the answers above display learners’ desire and involvement in learning new vocabularies. although the technique seems traditional, their contribution in learning new words is worth mentioning. they admitted that not every word had been written, yet only the specific words which they were curious about. similarly, other participant also confirms that she executed the same strategy which was preparing a special note, and then writing down what she had found, as reported below: whenever i watch a movie, read a book or an article, i keep my note with me. if i find a new word, i usually search the meaning and write it down into my note. i don't look for the translation, but the meaning instead, so i can see the synonym and antonym of the word. that is the way i expand my vocabulary (student f). the learners strongly realize that they have to enrich their lexical resources, thus they are willing to continue learning new vocabularies. they utilize self-regulation strategy, which means they are cognitively engaged in the process of vocabulary learning. another vocabulary learning strategy which nearly identical to the previous statement is demonstrated below: i feel like every day i never feel enough about vocabulary, i'm not satisfied if i only know one word for one meaning. finding the similar words that mean the same is really important. as a result, 346 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj i can use the words creatively or be a creative language user. besides, i also try defining the new words instead of translating. definition is more than translation. if i only focus on translation, i only get a little, but in definition i may expand every word, so that i could get more, not only words but phrases as well (student e). despite looking for the synonym and figuring out the definition rather than the translation are likely to become one of the most appropriate ways in expanding the vocabulary, not many learners are excited to do this. the strategies that have been done by learners represent cognitive engagement, showed by several indicators such as self-regulated learning or learning strategies implemented by them. not only the cognitive engagement, but also the behavioral engagement is belonged to the learners, assessed by their effort and tenacity in learning english vocabulary, as emphasize herein: i put a lot of effort for the vocabulary, because i think that the very basic part that we should have in mind. i can't speak or communicate if i don't have vocabulary bank in my mind (student b). the statement shows that learners are aware to the importance of expanding the vocabulary knowledge, which provide a noticeable impact to increase language proficiency. he actualizes his effort through rewriting technique, as it is believed useful in helping him to remember new words or phrases found, as mentioned below: firstly, i take new words and sentences into my vocabulary bank. secondly, i love rewriting my note. i have two books with the exact same writing i just basically copy my writing from the one book to the other. that’s the way where i can remember things quickly (student b) throughout learners’ journey in learning english, they confess, they have a great deal of experience when they are inappropriate in producing the language, for example when they mispronounce the words, make grammatical mistake, or produce the inaccurate translation. although these cases happen frequently, it does not make them discourage to learn and elevate their skill in english, as mentioned below: when i communicated with the foreigners, i misused certain words. i only translated the word literally. first, i felt i was correct, but then i realized the interlocutor did not understand my sentence. it became awkward and very embarrassing. this happened several times to me. but actually, i am thankful maru, m.g. and pajow, c.p, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement 347 language learning: the experience of successful learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj because i could experience such moment. i could learn from the mistake and know the correct one (student e). when it happened, the learner admitted that it was really unpleasant as well as unforgettable. he also felt ashamed. nevertheless, the learner then stated, such experience did not cease him to learn more. likewise, student b and c also point out that all of the mistakes are received as the chance and challenge to be better in the future. another displeasing experience also occurred many times to english learners especially when they have to deal with sentence structure, as the acknowledgment below: when i was asked: “what is the past tense of cut?” and i answered “cutted”. i then realized i was wrong, and my friends actually mocked me. it’s embarrassing, but when i got back home, i actually learned the related materials (student d). as the language learners, they realized that mistakes are inevitable, because it is believed as a part of learning. interestingly, learners do not show disengagement in facing the unexpected situations. they tend to have a positive perspective instead, in which it connects to the emotional engagement. therefore, learners’ preference to react positively on their mistakes reveals that they are emotionally engaged to the language they learn. c. continued language development and communicative competence in this phase, learners will continue to develop the process of learning, where it may last for an extended period of time. hence, the engagement will be necessary until this stage. the following statement reports several ways that learners undertake in the current situation, and shows the evidence that they still engage to the learning activity until this period: whenever i really want to listen to the podcast, i would listen to it all day long, like 8 hours a day or as much time as i can. but the way i do it, i do not like sitting in front of the table and do listening, but i just play the podcast and i do my activities instead (student b). the participant is really engrossed in listening to the english podcasts, and it yields an advantage to him. his speaking ability is really great now. he admits that it because he had done the most exciting pronunciation practice about five months, as the preparation to embark his part time job with an australian. he classified all of the australia’s podcasts and film documentaries and listen to them as much as he can every day. firstly, he started with less complex accent videos, and then gradually continued with the more challenging one. 348 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj learner’s strategy in listening extensively or listening to a wide range of english materials exposes themselves to a variety of language inputs which lead to the process of acquisition (ivone & renandya, 2019). extensive listening, therefore, involves cognitive and emotional engagement, which is displayed through learner’s time investment, enthusiasm and enjoyment. they also demonstrate the way they practice english, even though they do not live in the english-speaking country, as stated below: i talked to myself. it's like every time you remember the word or every time you recall a sentence from movie. if i consider that is pleasing to the ear then i would imitate it by talking to myself (student b). sometimes when i listen to a certain speech in my first language, i try to instantly interpret or translate it at the moment. for example, when i watch a video where a public speaker is delivering a speech in l1, i directly follow with the english translation. this is actually challenge me to learn and practice english more (student e). the two techniques above are not exactly the same, yet they are almost similar. they do self-talk in order to practice their oral skill. with regard to this, student f also states that self-talk benefit to her ielts preparation, particularly for speaking. she practiced to answer the speaking questions in front of the mirror. self-talk is apparently peculiar; however, it is very beneficial, they confessed. self-talk also refers to the self-regulated learning or learners regulate their own learning. turning to the learners’ success, all of them acknowledge that they have one remarkable milestone, which they consider as an achievement in their english learning journey. it is described in the following statement: having experience to talk with the native speaker and became their interpreter became the most memorable experience in my journey of learning english (student a). furthermore, four of the participants had ever been in the same event collaborating with the native speaker where they have a valuable chance to be an interpreter. two of them achieved an outstanding score in toefl and ielts official test which are 563 and 6.5 respectively. in addition, student f mentions, having 7 in ielts speaking test was beyond her expectation. the other competencies they have is proven by becoming a winner in university english debating competition (student c), and participating to the national debating championship. two of them had ever become the president of the prestigious campus organization namely english debating society. maru, m.g. and pajow, c.p, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement 349 language learning: the experience of successful learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by having the evidence of learners’ achievement, does not mean that it will be the final journey of their learning process. the participants report that nowadays, they still listen to the podcasts, english videos from youtube, reading a lot of books, or even take one step ahead to learn idioms and phrases through the conversation in the movies. learners do not conduct all of the activities simultaneously, yet every learner have their own preference which they consider as the most enjoyable and effective activities for them. as the learning process is a life-commitment, this phase should be a never-ending process. the respondents’ response as presented in the findings mark the answer to the objective of the study in investigating the form of language engagement that contribute to making of successful language learners in the context of english as foreign language. the successful learners seem to experience, develop, and practice following emotional, behavior and cognitive engagement. the following is the discussion of each engagement. the following is the discussion of each engagement. 1. emotional engagement the earlier process of language learning undergone by learners portray that they are distant from disengagement, as they show their positive attitude and involvement by exceedingly watching and listening to the english cartoons or songs, or playing a childhood game with relates to english. instead of having boredom in doing activities concerning english, learners show that they are interested in the target language. hence, these activities and attitude indicate the emotional engagement of the learners. the experience of having emotional engagement at the first period of the language development acquisition justifies the study of ivone & renandya (2019) in which having a considerable amount of listening and viewing activities facilitate learners to the implicit learning and lead to the process of language acquisition. the silent period serves as learners’ unconscious preparation before producing the language. being engaged emotionally in this phase is important because it is impossible for learners to undertake a lot of listening and viewing activities without necessarily being interested to them first. in other words, if learners do not have emotional engagement, they are more likely to be unable to grasp the inputs before they are ready to use the language. the emotional engagement can also be identified at the last stage of language learning acquisition. despite this constitutes the final phase, the learners show that they still need to be emotionally engaged. it is characterized by their willingness to learn english consistently. it is noteworthy that they typically undertake an appealing activity and integrate it to the learning 350 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj process. integrating learners’ interest with the english lesson is deemed as the most effective strategy to arouse their motivation as well as promote language acquisition (pamuji, waring & kurniawan, 2019). it implies that attempts related to the involvement of emotional drives to generate the interest in language can be forms of individual engagement in its particular context. 2. behavioral engagement behavioral engagement can be seen from their labors or active involvement in vocabulary learning. the learners perform their endeavor in enriching their vocabulary knowledge. moreover, the research findings indicate that participants as learners found themselves make a lot of mistakes whether in pronunciation, sentence structure, or translation in their learning process. however, they are not concerned too much with such mistakes, rather than how they can learn from the mistakes. it agrees with the insights asserting that dealing with the mistakes positively may contribute to the successful learning, compared with having anxiety toward the mistakes (kasbi & shirvan, 2017; maru, dukut & liando, 2018). such attitude toward mistake shapes conducive behavioral engagement, and later succeed the language acquisition. in that relevance, behavioral engagement is continuous. learners normally conduct similar activities to those of the silent period. watching movies, learning from youtube channels, reading lots of english books, and playing beneficial games, are certainly the way to have maximal language input (ivone & renandya, 2019; renandya, w. a., jacobs, g.m., krashen, s., & ong, 2019). as efl learners facing the circumstances that the learning process does not take place in english speaking country which may be lack of sense of language intuition and nuance as well daily context in its use, the participants show their endeavor to persistently behave in preserving good habits of language learning, such as investing a substantial amount of time in obtaining english inputs and practices. 3. cognitive engagement the findings seemingly further illustrate that learners’ strategies to elevate their english skill by investing a lot of time to practice are the form of the cognitive engagement. the cognitive engagement is defined by learners’ self-regulated learning such as preparing a special note, jotting down the new words, memorizing and even rewriting, or finding the vocabularies’ definition. having a positive attitude and willingness in this study corroborates a finding that the higher proficiency learners who outperformed the lower ones, because they solved the learning obstacles than just solely overlooked at it by possessing an awareness to regulate their own learning processes. further, not living in the english-speaking country does not delimitate learners to practice maru, m.g. and pajow, c.p, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement 351 language learning: the experience of successful learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj english. talking to themselves is one of the ways they have been undertaking and considering effective. three of the participants strongly agree that talking to themselves is useful. self-talk is a similar way conducted by a language learner which not only improve the pronunciation of uncommon words but also enhance learners’ fluency when talking about the common topics in particular. moreover, practicing through the collaboration with their friends, whether it is in between 1 – 2 persons or in the organization can excel their ability to be more communicative. this represents cognitive engagement when learners have autonomy learning to practice and develop their english-speaking skill. learners’ engagement is performed through their consistency in seeking out the language input as well practice it in their real life. positive attitude, enthusiasm and motivation show that they are emotionally engaged. last but not least, their effort and active involvement to commune with english language in the daily basis depict behavioral engagement. without having an engagement, learners will be less likely to stand out and be successful in learning english. conclusion to conclude, it is obvious from the findings that the respondents as successful learners enjoy their language acquisition after having encountered and undergone the learning process since the silent to communicative period. within these periods, they build, develop and practice a strong engagement with english. the findings showed that learners’ persistence and active participation to english every day refers to the behavioral engagement while the feeling of interest, pleasure, enthusiasm, and other positive traits indicate the emotional engagement. the autonomous learning and learning strategies towards english represent the cognitive engagement. these engagements serve as the determinant factors for their successful language learning particularly english as foreign language. the earlier and more learners engage with language, the more advantage they gain. it fosters, maintains, and sharpens learners’ skill. further, this study confirms and emphasizes that the proposition that language acquisition constitutes a process which undergoes phases and engagements. a successful learner is determined by the process. the engagement has also shaped the learners to encounter and to develop strategies and practices to guarantee the success of the language acquisition. the engagement itself constitutes a persistent and continuing process. it has to be the dominant color of the language learners particularly foreign learners. 352 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 337 – 353 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; 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(2012). developmental dynamics of student engagement, coping, and everyday resilience. in & c. w. s. l. christenson, a. l. reschly (ed.), handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 21–44). new york: springer. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing classrooms yustinus calvin gai mali english language education program, faculty of language and arts, universitas kristen satya wacana, indonesia email: yustinus.calvin@staff.uksw.edu received: 02-03-2016 accepted: 20-07-2017 published: 11-08-2017 motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing classrooms yustinus calvin gai mali yustinus.calvin@staff.uksw.edu english language education program, faculty of language and arts, universitas kristen satya wacana, indonesia abstract: this qualitative study explores motivational teaching strategies employed in english as a foreign language (efl) writing classrooms and designs a sample of lesson plans elaborating the strategies that were reflected from open-ended questionnaires of sixty-five first-year students at english language education program in a private university in indonesia. the data analysis reveals possible motivational strategies that are classified into dornyei’s (2001) framework of motivational teaching practice. based on the analysis, the study reinforces a view that teachers can motivate their students to learn and they use particular teaching strategies to motivate their students. eventually, this study hopes to provide insights for efl teachers espousing similar teaching practices, so they can enhance their students’ motivation, particularly in their efl writing classrooms.key words: motivational teaching strategies, motivation, efl writing, efl teachers abstrak: kajian kualitatif ini menyelidiki strategi pengajaran motivasional yang diterapkan pada kelas menulis bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing dan merancang suatu contoh rencana pembelajaran yang mengelaborasikan strategi pengajaran tersebut yang direfleksikan melalui angket terbuka dari enam puluh lima mahasiswa baru pada program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris di suatu universitas swasta di indonesia. analisa data menunjukan beberapa strategi pengajaran motivasional yang diklasifikasikan dalam kerangka praktek pengajaran motivasional milik dornyei (2001). berdasarkan analisa tersebut, kajian ini menguatkan suatu pandangan bahwa guru dapat memotivasi siswanya untuk belajar dan mereka menggunakan strategi pengajaran tertentu untuk memotivasi siswanya. pada mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 61 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj akhirnya, kajian ini berharap untuk dapat memberikan wawasan bagi guru bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing yang mempunyai praktek pengajaran serupa sehingga mereka dapat meningkatkan motivasi belajar siswanya, khususnya dalam kelas menulis bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing mereka. kata kunci: strategi pengajaran motivasional, motivasi, menulis bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing, guru bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing introduction some possible factors can ensure students’ success in their english as a foreign language (efl) learning, particularly in their indonesian efl writing classrooms, as the primary focus of the current study. one can be ascribed to students’ motivation explaining, “why they decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how long they are willing to sustain the activity” (dornyei, 2001, p.7). undeniably, motivation roles as one of primary determinants of students’ learning achievement (dornyei, 1994; harmer, 2007; reid, 2007), including a success of their language learning (mcdonough, 1983; ellis, 1994; kimura, nakata, & okumura, 2000; gass & selinker, 2001; alsayed, 2003; lifrieri, 2005; khamkhien, 2010). “without sufficient motivation, the brightest learners are even unlikely to persist long enough to attain any useful language proficiency” (dornyei & cheng, 2007, p.153). therefore, particularly in the context of efl writing, any attempts to find out insights into what motivates students to write is an important issue to consider (tran, 2007). the current study is a follow-up to my indonesian’s investigation (mali, 2015) that regarded positive teacher’s performance as the main factor that motivated students to learn in their indonesian efl writing classroom. the students mentioned that their teacher, for instance, cared for them, could teach them enthusiastically, and always started the class with a prayer. therefore, in this current study, i reinforce that teachers can motivate their students to learn (dornyei & csizer, 1998; chambers, 1999 in dornyei, 2001; oxford, 1998 in dornyei & ushioda, 2001; harmer, 2007) and believe in an underlying assumption that they use strategies to motivate their students (astuti, 2013), which henceforth i call as motivational teaching strategies. in this study, adapting ideas from dornyei (2001), schunk, pintrich, and meece (2008); kassing (2011); mali (2015), i define the term motivational teaching strategies as steps or techniques used by teachers to 62 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj enhance their students’ motivation to write in english. they are also motivational influences that are consciously used to achieve some enduring positive effects, such as to keep students writing and to help them complete their writing tasks. a spate of international studies has explored some motivational teaching strategies that teachers employ particularly in efl contexts, a situation in which people learn english in a formal classroom with limited opportunities to use the language outside their classroom (richards & schmidt, 2010). for instance, alsayed (2003) concluded his study by suggesting ways to improve students’ motivation level, such as by giving students’ positive feedback and rewards, increasing their self-esteem and confidence. rost (2006) theorizes three layers of motivation in language learning from which teachers can tap to help them become a motivating teacher. the first layer is to find learners’ passion for their goals in life, things they care about most and things that move them emotionally. in that case, teachers can help them to bring their passion into their classroom by introducing such hot elements as movies, songs, games, that can trigger their real interests, by organizing class activities around their theme of self-expression, by using teachers themselves as a model of enthusiasm and motivation for their students’ learning. the second layer is to change learners’ reality. learners, within efl settings, need more language instructions outside the classroom from which they can maintain a sufficiently strong connection to the target language and build their motivation for learning. therefore, it is necessary for teachers to help their students find more opportunities for doing their outside classroom learning, which can be done, for example, by directing them to quality language learning websites, developing an accessible library for them, and providing them with self-access quizzes, worksheets, and games. the third layer is to connect to learning activities. it illustrates students’ engagement, intention, attention, and memory in an activity that teachers have prepared. rost (2006) suggests some connecting principles that he employed in his teaching materials. for instance, teachers should make each learning activity as vivid and tangible as possible by using provocative topics, including visual aids to engage students’ attention. besides, they can provide various learning activities in which their students can try different learning styles. it is also important for teachers to give feedback to their mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 63 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj students covering all levels of their language progress, for elements of performance that affect their motivation, such as their success in an activity and their engagement level. cheng and dornyei (2007) explored other motivational teaching strategies. as a modified replication of dornyei and csizer’s (1998) hungarian investigation, they involved three hundred and eighty--seven taiwanese teachers of english and asked them to rate a list of forty-eight comprehensive motivational strategies dealing with how much importance they attached to the strategies and how often they implemented them in their day-to-day teaching practice. the results of the study would seem to indicate four motivational strategies; displaying motivating teacher behavior, promoting learners’ self-confidence, creating a pleasant classroom climate and presenting tasks properly. in oman, al-mahrooqi, abrar-ul-hassan, and asante (2012) carried out a more recent study to explore motivational teaching strategies as perceived by two hundred and eighty-six efl practitioners teaching in public schools, colleges, and universities in all oman regions. as a modified replication of cheng and dörnyei‟s (2007) taiwanese study, they asked their research participants to rate forty-eight strategies based on the importance and the frequency with which they used the strategies in their particular teaching contexts. based on their data analysis, they found that teachers’ performance in their classroom, such as setting a personal example with their behavior and promoting learners’ self-confidence, is perceived as frequent motivational strategies by the research participants. concerning indonesian and chinese learners, lamb and wedell (2013) undertook a large-scale study to explore perspectives of fourteen twenty-two-year old learners about their inspiring english teacher. more specifically, the participants were indonesian learners from fifty-five state schools and chinese learners from ninety schools and six universities in guangzhou. their study showed that indonesian learners valued clear and comprehensible lessons and teaching practices in a fun atmosphere but within a structure of the discipline. meanwhile, chinese students appreciated hard-working teachers who advised them and encouraged them to take specific steps to learn. at the same year, astuti (2013) conducted a case study in two different high schools; an international standard high school and a local high school, in a town in west sumatra, indonesia. she attempted to explore teachers and learners’ perceptions of motivational teaching strategies so that she could investigate a connection between the strategies and their impacts on learners’ learning motivation. the study suggests teachers to have a warm and 64 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj encouraging manner as it is considered as a motivating factor in the classroom learning. besides, the study highlights a relaxing atmosphere as a key factor for success in foreign language learning. in that case, teachers need to ensure that a learning environment is safe for students to learn a new language, so they can have the initiative to talk. with similar beliefs, “learning is easiest, most meaningful, and most effective when it takes place in a non-threatening situation” (gage & beliner, 1992, pp. 480-485, as cited in lopez, 2011, p. 54) mention) and creating a relaxed classroom atmosphere is seen as a motivational factor in an indonesian efl writing classroom (mali, 2015). within this present study, i address some gaps in research related to the motivational teaching strategies. the previous related studies that i have reviewed seem to focus on exploring the strategies generally towards students’ efl learning. to the best of my knowledge, i still found very limited studies that sought to examine the strategies to learn a particular english language skill, such as writing regarded as a way of learning that can improve students’ academic performance (white, 1986) and “an efficient tool to facilitate and to reinforce other language skills” (hughey, wormuth, hartfiel, & jacobs, 1983, p. 6). therefore, the primary purpose of this study is to explore teachers’ motivational teaching strategies employed in efl writing classrooms without providing research participants with items of motivational teaching strategies for which they need to rate (cheng & dornyei, 2007; al-mahrooqi, abrar-ulhassan, & asante, 2012). the aim of the study can be achieved by asking students to reflect their teachers’ teaching practices that they perceived to be motivating for them. furthermore, the study aims to design a sample of lesson plans involving motivational teaching strategies emerged from the students’ reflection. the lesson plan hopes to provide clear and practical illustrations on what teachers did to motivate their students, which seemingly has not been done by the previous related studies. on one hand, i clearly understand that “certain motivational strategies are culturally dependent” (cheng & dornyei, p.171), language learning situations can be varied from one to another (dornyei, 2001), and “teaching is sometimes said to be situated and can only be understood within a particular context” (richards, 2015, p.106). nevertheless, i still maintain that the current study can suggest applicable teaching strategies that possibly help efl teachers espousing similar teaching practices to enhance students’ motivation, particularly in their efl writing classrooms. mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 65 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj methodology the current study attempts to explore students’ perspectives on their teachers’ motivational teaching strategies employed in indonesian efl writing classrooms. it was clear, therefore, that i needed to collect personal responses from research participants that indicated my limited control over the exploration (malilang, 2013). therefore, i conducted a qualitative study that aims to hear silenced voices about particular issues (creswell, 2007), so the study could help me to understand social phenomena as perceived by human participants who were involved in the study (ary, jacobs, & sorensen, 2010). in particular, i approached the study using a content analysis that defines “the process of summarizing and reporting written data” (cohen, manion, morrison, 2007, p.475). a. research participants considering the accessibility to conduct the study, i involved sixty-five freshmen from three of five efl writing classes held in the first semester, academic year 2015/2016 at english language education program of a private university in indonesia. the numbers of the participants are not to be considered as a mean to generalize the results to a larger population. in this case, i hope that exploring the motivational teaching strategies since the beginning of the semester also provides an initial understanding of the strategies that teachers in the classrooms can use in enhancing their students’ motivation in writing classes held in the upper semesters. importantly, to keep the confidentiality of the current study, i kept names of the participants in initials. b. research setting in brief, the writing class, as the context of the current study, is one of language skill courses offered in the first semester at the study program. in that course, students learn english language aspects through creative writing in the forms of poems and a biography. at the end of the course, they are expected to possess some competencies, such as [a] to identify some features and language aspects addressed in poems, [b] to write some kinds of poems, such as metaphor, acrostic, narrative, and haiku, [c] to identify elements of sentence and paragraph writing, and [d] to write several kinds of paragraphs on various topics. some other competencies are [e] to understand and to identify a generic structure of a biography, some language aspects addressed 66 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj in biography and, [f] to write one biography. therefore, motivational teaching strategies discussed in this study were limited to the strategies the teachers used to motivate their students to write particularly based on the competencies mentioned above. c. data collection technique to begin with, i constructed an open-ended questionnaire, which allows research participants to provide a detailed and an unlimited number of responses (neuman, 2006) and which consists of a statement and two questions developed from kassing, 2011; astuti, 2013; mali, 2015. they are [1] tell about any motivational teaching strategies your teacher uses when s/he teaches you in the classroom; [2] how do you respond to the strategies that your teacher uses in the classroom?; [3] to what extent do those strategies help to motivate you to write in english and to help you complete your writing tasks? considering the english language proficiency of the research participants as the freshmen, i provided indonesian translations of the items [1-3] and allowed the participants to respond them using their first language, bahasa indonesia (l1). it was also done for i needed to ensure that they could completely understand those three items and, therefore, provide clear responses to the questionnaire. before data collection activities, i piloted the questionnaire in my class to “assess the appropriateness of the data-collection methods and make changes if necessary” (ary, jacobs, & sorensen, 2010, p.95), so i could ensure that the items on the questionnaire were understandable. then, i met teachers of the classrooms, explained the purpose of the study, and asked their permissions to distribute the questionnaire. obtaining their permission, i proceeded to administer the questionnaire to the participants on the first week of november 2015. to delve deeper information about the issues, i read their responses written on the questionnaire and circled some ideas that they needed to clarify further. on the third week of november 2015, i redistributed the questionnaire and asked the participants to clarify further their circled responses. within a week period, they submitted the questionnaire to their teachers from whom i obtained back all questionnaires to be analyzed. i excluded ten of sixty-five questionnaires because their responses were not related to the motivational teaching strategies and did not further clarify the circled responses. d. data analysis technique mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 67 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj the written responses to the questionnaire were analyzed using a content analysis that defines a process of summarizing, reporting written data, and examining emergent nature of themes from the data (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2007). more specifically, i read all the written data and underlined some responses indicating the motivational teaching strategies. initially, i quantified the strategies analyzed from the data and put them in a table to provide an overview of the teaching strategies. then, adapting what astuti (2013) has successfully done, i classified the analyzed responses into four main themes underpinned by dornyei’s (2001) integrated framework of motivational teaching practice, which is regarded as a comprehensive framework (cheng & dornyei, 2007) and has been developed for educational applications. in each theme, some excerpts of the written responses from the questionnaire were provided to support the discussions of the study. i presented excerpts of responses written in english as they were without any editing to maintain their truth-value (sawir, 2005). yet, i translated excerpts of responses written in the participants’ l1 to ensure the clarity of the information for international readers. finally, any motivational teaching strategies emerged in the themes were practically implemented in a sample of lesson plans that i expect to provide efl teachers with applicable and practical ideas that they can adapt to enhance their students’ motivation. findings and discussion i discuss motivational teaching strategies reflected from the written responses to the questionnaire and provide an overview of the strategies in a table. then, the strategies displayed in the table were classified into four main themes based on dornyei’s (2001) integrated framework, namely: (1) creating the basic motivational conditions, (2) generating initial motivation, (3) maintaining and protecting motivation, and (4) encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation. the themes help to illustrate what the teachers did in the classrooms to motivate their students to write. in essence, i found 120 statements indicating the motivational teaching strategies used in the classes. i summarized them in table 1 below. 68 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj table 1: an overview of the motivational teaching strategies no cited motivational teaching strategies number percentage 1. walking around the class to explain a learning material to a student directly and to give him/her feedback 11 12,95 % 2. re-explaining the learning materials that the students still do not understand 11 12,95 % 3. utilizing some supporting technologies 10 11,78 % 4. asking students to work in a group 9 10,58 % 5. making jokes 9 10,58 % 6. asking students to do a peer feedback activity 8 9,41 % 7. chatting with the students in the classroom 6 7,06 % 8. sharing learning strategies to the students 6 7,06 % 9. calling every student to show his/her written work 4 4,72 % 10. giving questions for each student to review the learning materials 3 3,52 % 11. starting the class with a prayer 3 3,52 % 12. asking students to greet and smile at each other 2 2,35 % 13. playing songs 2 2,35 % 14. sharing an experience of studying abroad 1 1,17 % total 85 100 % the strategies in table 1 were discussed and classified into four main themes in the subsequent parts. a. creating the basic motivational conditions dornyei (2001) mentions three interrelated conditions to enhance students’ learning motivation. the first condition is showing appropriate teacher behaviors and possessing a good relationship with students. to have a positive relationship with their students, teachers can show a sense of acceptance to their students, listen and pay attention to each of them, and be available for a personal contact. s7 shares her experience. excerpt 1 mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 69 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj my teacher likes to give questions for each student related to learning materials that he has explained. he aims to ensure that all students clearly understand his explanation. besides, he is never angry. he also cares for his students, so they feel comfortable. he always greets us, asks the progress of our study, and if we have gone to the church. moreover, when i cannot see him, i can ask him questions through his blog. (s7/id1) teachers also need to show their commitment to their students’ academic progress. for instance, they should provide concrete assistance, respond immediately when their students need their help, offer to meet their students individually to explain things, and show concern when things are not going well (dornyei, 2001). this concern is reflected in the responses of s8, s16, and s22 that observe how their teacher walks around the class, calls them one by one to read their written work, and provides them with feedback, which richards and lockhart (1996) believe as an essential aspect of teaching. excerpt 2 in his classroom, he is willing to walk around the class to explain a learning material to a student directly. it is very effective as a student can freely ask the material that s/he probably still does not understand. this technique motivates me. (s8/id2) excerpt 3 my teacher often walks around our desks to see whether what we have done is right. in some occasions, he asks every student to come to his table in front of the class and to show his/her written work. he will tell the student if there is something to improve. for instance, when i write supporting ideas in a paragraph, he tells me that some of the sentences are not related to the topic sentence in the paragraph. he asks me to revise them. (s16/id3) excerpt 4 she always gives us feedback. she called us one by one. personally, she gave us feedback like: “your biography is quite shallow. you should add more information to it.” she cares many details. (s22/id4) 70 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj excerpts 2-4 can be practical illustrations on giving positive feedback to students as a way to improve their motivation level (alsayed, 2003). dornyei (2001) explicates that it is necessary for teachers to show their enthusiasm by, for instance, sharing their personal interest in learning english and showing their students that they value english learning as a meaningful experience that can satisfy and enrich their life. this strategy is seemingly done by a teacher in the writing class as what s47 writes in her questionnaire. excerpt 5 my teacher always motivates us by sharing her experience when she was in the states. her experience teaches us to be able to think critically and maturely. (s47/id5). in a sense, excerpt 5 can be a demonstration of a motivating teacher behavior that cheng and dornyei (2007) believe as one of strategies to motivate students to learn. it also illustrates how teachers set a personal example of their behavior as a way to motivate their students to learn (al-mahrooqi, abrar-ul-hassan, & asante, 2011). nevertheless, it is important to bear in mind that students can think the expressions of enthusiasm and motivating personal examples by a teacher differently as they probably have different cultures from their teacher (dornyei, 2001). the second motivational condition is creating a pleasant and supportive classroom atmosphere. teachers can do it by possessing a good rapport with their students and by explaining to students that making mistakes is a part of learning. therefore, students can feel comfortable to take risks, as they know that they will not be criticized when they make a mistake. with a similar view, harmer (2007) reinforces the essence of having a good student-teacher rapport that “students are far more likely to stay motivated over a period of time if they think that the teacher cares about them. this can be done by building good teacher-student rapport, which in turn is dependent on listening to students’ views and attempts with respect, and intervening in an appropriate and constructive way” (p. 100). in this study, s18 and s28 appear to regard the issue as one of motivational teaching strategies done by their teacher. excerpt 6 mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 71 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj my teacher always helps students who find difficulties in understanding learning materials that he has explained. besides, he always supports his students in the classroom. in that way, i feel comfortable to be in the classroom as i can write enjoyably without being afraid to make mistakes. (s18/id6) excerpt 7 we can share with our teacher. she is never angry. if we still find difficulties in understanding a learning material or in our writing, she always helps us happily. she explains again the material that we still do not understand. (s28/id7) dornyei (2001) also notes the importance of humor in creating the pleasant classroom atmosphere as what s21, s34, s47 observe in their classroom. excerpt 8 my teacher is easy going. we can consider him as our friend but also as our teacher. we can talk and joke, but we are learning too. when she taught, there will be time for her became as our teacher, gave us materials, assignments. but after that, she would make the class relaxed. we can chat about everything. she gives us time to joke with her. she likes to tell her experience. one day, she told us about her ex-boyfriend. it is more comfortable to learn something new with relax and easy going teacher rather than learn with a serious teacher. (s21/id8) excerpt 9 she teaches us comfortably. in the middle of the class, she often makes jokes, and we laugh, so my class does not feel stiff. (s34/id9) excerpt 10 one day, my teacher made a joke. she told us a weird fashion style in a country compared with that in american style. (s47/id10) to some extent, that the teachers always starts their class with friendly questions, such as “how is your night? have you got a cup of coffee?” (s49/id11), “can i see your smile, my students? (s19/id12) and with an opening prayer can be other possible ways to relax the classroom atmosphere. 72 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj excerpt 11 in starting the class, my teacher always invites his students to pray. i feel proud of it. my other classes never start the class with a prayer. (s2/id13) excerpt 12 he motivates me. he never forgets to ask the students to pray before we start our class. he also reminds the students to pray every day and go to the church. it motivates me. (s4/id14) a prayer in the classroom as reflected in excerpts 11 and 12 accords with sutantoputri and watt’s (2012; 2013) view that religiosity becomes an important part of the students’ academic life since it appears to predict their motivational goals. in indonesia, the essence of the religiosity is highly appreciated as it becomes the first of five cores in pancasila, the indonesian national philosophy; belief in the one and only god (department of foreign affairs of the republic of indonesia, 1996). overall, excerpts 8-12 may be a clear demonstration on how the teachers create a pleasant classroom climate to motivate their students in their classroom (cheng & dornyei, 2007; astuti, 2013). further, teachers need to encourage their students to personalize their classroom environment based on their taste, which can be done, for instance, by playing music before or after the class. s4 and s5 experience similar things in their classroom by mentioning that “my teacher plays the music when the students do the exercise, so we feel enjoy” (s4/id15) and “my teacher sometimes plays some songs, so his students do not feel bored (s5//id16). the written responses provide practical examples for the first layer of motivation (rost, 2006) in which teachers can use songs in a classroom to trigger students’ real interest. also, ur (1996) believes that some entertainment, such as jokes (as depicted in excerpts 8-10) and songs, can produce enjoyment that possibly enhances motivation. the last motivational condition is ensuring a cohesive learner group with appropriate group norms. in this case, teachers can try to promote interaction and cooperation among their students as what s22 and s29 experience in their classroom. mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 73 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj excerpt 13 what i reflect on my teacher’s teaching strategies is she uses cooperative learning approach to teaching us. she likes to divide us into a group of three or four to discuss our writing and brainstorm our ideas. it helped us a lot while we are studying in the classroom. (s22/id17) excerpt 14 when my teacher asks us to write a biography, she tells us to work in a group and to discuss with our group mates to obtain detailed and broad ideas for our writing. in this case, i can exchange ideas with them and understand learning materials that my teacher has explained. (s29/id18) dornyei (2001) believes that promoting cooperation among learners is motivating one as it generates less anxiety, increases one’s effort to be successful in a group, and enhances his/her expectancy of success. moreover, working in a group, as reflected in excerpts 13 and 14, can encourage broader skills of cooperation, enable various contribution from group members (harmer, 2007), enhance motivation, contribute to a warm feeling in a classroom (ur, 1996), and give students a more active role in their learning (richards & lockhart, 1996). another thing that can create the motivational condition is by doing ice-breaking activities to start a class. the written responses of s5, s9, and s42 show some typical ice-breaking activities that the teachers use in their class. excerpt 15 before our teacher starts the class, he always asks us to greet and smile to one another. i think it is a good idea as it can better our mood. i believe that starting a morning with a smile is a blessing for us. (s5/id19) excerpt 16 he always asks us to greet and smile to our classmates (s9/id20) 74 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj excerpt 17 my teacher does not directly start the lesson. one day, she sang a song. though she looked like a child, what she did makes all students feel relaxed. (s42/id21) it is also necessary that teachers explicitly and clearly explain their students concerning rules of conduct in their classroom; including how the rules can enhance the learning. yet, the data would seem to show that the participants do not reflect them as strategies that their teachers implement in their classroom. b. generating initial motivation in this phase, teachers can motivate their students by promoting positive language-related values and attitudes covering intrinsic values, integrative values, and instrumental values (dornyei, 2001). intrinsically, teachers should raise their students’ intrinsic interest to learn english by highlighting aspects of the language learning that the students can possibly enjoy, and by making the first encounter with english as positive as possible. dealing with the integrative value, teachers should clarify positive dispositions of english language covering its culture, speakers, and influence, which can be done by sharing teachers’ positive second language related experiences in their class, bringing various cultural products, such as music, videos to their class, and supplementing a course book with authentic materials. meanwhile, instrumental values concern with explaining practical benefits that students can get when they master or are successful in learning the target language. the data (s4/id15; s5/id16) appears to prove that the teachers’ motivational strategies are in harmony with the integrative value of their students especially by playing some songs in their class to relax the classroom atmosphere and to affirm the use of songs as a motivational instrument (ur, 1996, rost, 2006). c. maintaining and protecting motivation “motivation needs to be actively nurtured” (dornyei, 2001, p.71). teachers, in that case, should vary their learning tasks and make them more interesting, which can be done, as revealed in the data, by integrating supporting technologies in the classroom. for instance, s5 and s12 regard the use of learner’s blogs as a motivating one. briefly, students can use their learner blog as journals to practice their writing in which they can develop mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 75 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj their sense of ownership and enjoy their practical writing experience (campbell, 2003). excerpt 18 he asks us to create a blog that can be used to submit or upload our assignments. we can also express our creativity in our blog. (s5/id22) excerpt 19 we use a blog, kind of a unique teaching strategy. we post, we comment to each other’s post, and we beautify the blog. it motivates me because it is easy to do and fun. (s12/id23) excerpt 20 my teacher sometimes asks his students to submit his assignments to their blog. he always asks us to read our classmates’ work and give some comments. the activity accustoms us to speak in english and enables us to learn from each other. (s17/id24) besides as a motivating technology in their class, excerpts 18-20 can be demonstrations on how a blog is perceived as something that is fun and interesting (yuen & cheung, 2013) and that can provide students “real learning opportunities to improve their written english as they were asked to read their classmates’ blogs and respond to them” (fellner & apple, 2006, p.17). in a sense, excerpt 20 also provides evidence on how a blog provides opportunities for students to act collaboratively in reviewing course-related materials and to review writings using the commenting feature of the blog (duffy & bruns, 2006). facebook, a social networking site accessible throughout the world and language learning tool either inside or outside the classroom (white, 2009), is another supporting technology that helps to motivate the students. s51 clarifies that “a learning method in my classroom is also online-based. for instance, the students submit their poem to facebook. i think facebook can make a learning process fun and create a new learning atmosphere. besides, every student can show his/her poem in his/her facebook account” (s51/id25/translated by the researcher). teachers should also protect their students’ self-esteem and enhance their self-confidence, so they can be motivated to learn. dornyei (2001) 76 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj suggests teachers provide a regular experience of success for students, encourage them, reduce their language anxiety, and share learning strategies they can employ to be successful in their classroom. some strategies revealed in the data are studying the learning materials before the class and stating points that the students write directly and explicitly as what s46 and s47 detail in their reflection. excerpt 21 my teacher requires her students to study the materials and to do the exercises before the class. when we have the class, we only discuss some exercises and materials that we have not understood. this saves our time. (s46/id26) excerpt 22 when we write a sentence, our teacher asks us to go directly to our points and state them explicitly. she said, “you are writing in english way, not in indonesian way. besides, she always motivates her students to ask her questions actively, so she does not need to explain all learning materials. she always teaches us to be a confident person. (s47/id27) in this phase, dornyei (2001) asserts that promoting cooperation among students becomes another way to maintain and to protect their motivation. obviously, as reflected in the data (excerpts 14, 15, & 21), the teachers seem to be successful in implementing this cooperative based activities to motivate their students in their classrooms. d. encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation the last motivational phase in dornyei’s (2001) framework encourages teachers to help their students positively deal with and reflect efforts they did their past learning experiences, so they can attribute them to something that can promote their future learning. the data indicate that the participants do not regard reflecting their past learning experiences as something that their teachers ask them to do in the class. nevertheless, the data shows that the teachers provide their students some feedback in a motivating way and do regular monitoring mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 77 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj towards their accomplishments and progress, things that dornyei (2001) highlights in this motivational phase. as it is clarified in the data (excerpts 6 & 7), the teachers have concerned with the issue as what s1 and s39 similarly experience. excerpt 23 my teacher sometimes calls and reminds me when i make some grammatical mistakes in my sentences. i feel that i have to be able to write better using a correct grammar. i read the handout again. (s1/id28) excerpt 24 my lecturer always reads our work and reminds us to pay attention to our grammar and punctuation carefully. (s39/id29) to sum, the discussions provide some evidence that the teachers employ motivational teaching strategies reflecting dornyei’s (2001) framework of motivational teaching practice in their efl writing classrooms. table 2 details the strategies. table 2: the motivational teaching strategies reflected from the students’ responses no motivational teaching strategies dornyei’s (2001) framework 1. starting the class with a prayer creating basic motivational conditions 2. asking students to greet and smile at each other 3. playing songs 4. making jokes 5. chatting with the students in the classroom 6. sharing an experience of studying abroad 7. giving questions for each student to review the learning materials 8. walking around the class to explain a learning material to a student directly and to give him/her feedback 9. calling every student to show his/her written work 10. re-explaining the learning materials that the students still do not understand 78 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 11. asking students to work in a group 12. asking students to do a peer feedback activity 13. doing strategy 3 generating students’ initial motivation 14. utilizing some supporting technologies maintaining and protecting students’ motivation 15. sharing learning strategies to the students 16. doing strategies 8-10 encouraging positive students’ self-evaluation reinforcing astuti’s (2013) view, the study indicates that some points in dornyei’s (2001) framework do not appear in the motivational strategies mentioned in table 1. the points are explaining rules of conduct in their classroom to enhance the learning, promoting intrinsic and instrumental values of learning to the students, encouraging students to possess positive attributions towards their past learning. some possible reasons for the missing points endorse the facts that certain motivational strategies are different from one culture to another (cheng & dornyei, 2007), that language-learning situations are various (dornyei, 2001), and that “teaching is sometimes said to be situated and can only be understood within a particular context” (richards, 2015, p.106). another essential idea is that all strategies revealed in this study are felt to be attempts to create a pleasant classroom atmosphere and possess a good rapport with students, regarded as motivational teaching strategies by related literature (gage & beliner, 1992, as cited in lopez, 2011; cheng & dornyei, 2007; harmer, 2007; astuti, 2013; mali, 2015). e. a sample on lesson plan this part continues to implement the motivational strategies depicted in table 1 in a sample of lesson plans that is designed, in this case, to teach how to write a paragraph as the competencies (c-d) to achieve in the writing class and that is situated within an efl writing classroom in the indonesian context. therefore, i clearly understand that the strategies in the lesson plan mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 79 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj may work with a teacher or a group better than another and may work better today than tomorrow because varied language learning situations are worldwide (dornyei, 2001). the lesson plan consists of two main parts, namely the classroom’s details and teaching and learning activities, and is shown in table 3. table 3: the lesson plan the classroom’s details (adapted from the classroom syllabus) course/semester writing i/ 1 academic year 2015/2016 time allocation 2 credits (2 x 50 minutes) competencies the students are to [1] identify elements of sentences and paragraph writing, and [2] to write several kinds of paragraphs on various topics. indicators the students are able to [1] identify a subject and controlling idea within a topic sentence; [2] to add a controlling idea to a sentence; [3] to write a topic sentence covering its subject and controlling idea, based on a given topic. teaching equipments [1] a student’ handout (developed from checkett & checkett, 2010; langan, 2011); [2] a laptop; [3] a projector [4] a set of speakers; [5] a white board; [6] two board markers; [7] students’ blog teaching and learning activities no activities time allocation a. pre-class activities 10” 1. the teacher comes earlier to the class. 2. the teacher prepares his/her teaching equipments. 3. the teacher plays songs while waiting for his/her students. b. opening activities 5” 80 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 4. the teacher stops the songs and is ready to start the class. 5. the teacher asks a student to lead and opening prayer based on his/her belief. 6. the teacher greets all students. (e.g. by asking the progress of his/her study; whether they have got their breakfast, and other related things) 7. the teacher asks all students to smile and greet one another. c. main activities 90” 8. the teacher asks students to work in a group of three-four students. 9. the teacher asks students to brainstorm definitions and related ideas of a paragraph and a topic sentence in their group. 10. the teacher asks every group to share their ideas by writing them on the whiteboard. 11. the teacher summarizes their ideas and displays them on the projector. 12. the teacher explains ideas in a paragraph, and a topic sentence stated in the handout. 13. the teacher asks their students to stay in their group. 14. the teacher asks them to do exercises in their handout (adapted from checkett & checkett, 2010, p.135-137); asking them to achieve the indicators [1-3] 15. the teacher asks them to discuss their answers with their group mates and to provide some necessary feedback to one another. 16. the teacher plays some songs while they are doing the exercises. 17. the teacher walks around the class to participate in the discussions. 18. the teacher may chat with some group members. 18. the teacher reads their work and provides some necessary feedback. 19. the teacher may suggest some strategies to write a good topic sentence. d. closing activities 5” mali, y.c.g. motivational teaching strategies in indonesian efl writing 81 classroom https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 20. the teacher tells the students to be ready for the exercises in the following meeting as they will discuss them. 21. the teacher tells the students to post questions to the blog in case they find difficulties in completing the tasks. 22. the teacher asks a student to lead a closing prayer based on his/her belief. 23. the teacher greets all students and reminds them to pray everyday and to thank their parents. 24. the teacher allows them to leave the class. 25. the teacher stays for some minutes in case there are some students plan to consult with him/her personally. 26. the teacher leaves the class. conclusion the current study has provided clear and practical illustrations on what the teachers did to motivate their students to write in their efl writing classrooms. obviously, the study confirms an idea that teachers can motivate their students to learn (dornyei & csizer, 1998; chambers, 1999 in dornyei, 2001; oxford, 1998 in dornyei & ushioda, 2001; harmer, 2007; mali, 2015) and an underlying assumption that they use strategies to motivate their students (astuti, 2013). strategies such as creating a relaxed atmosphere in a classroom (gage & beliner, 1992, p.480-485, as cited in lopez, 2011; cheng & dornyei, 2007, astuti, 2013) and possessing a good rapport with students (harmer, 2007; mali, 2015) would seem to enhance the students’ motivation in the context of indonesian efl writing classrooms and, therefore, to be considered as motivational strategies that possibly work in multicultural settings. nevertheless, efl teachers still need to make necessary adjustment on the strategies discussed in this current study to make them work based on to their classroom contexts. to what extent each motivational component as discussed in dornyei’s (2001) framework can motivate students better remains a mystery and, therefore, subjects to a further investigation. admitting the limited number of the research participants and the teachers to involve, i believe that the findings of the current study remain inconclusive. thus, i encourage future studies to explore other possible motivational teaching strategies reflected from a larger group of participants and teachers as well as from settings that are more diverse. finally, this study hopes to provide insights for efl teachers espousing similar teaching practices to enhance their students’ motivation, particularly in their efl writing classrooms. 82 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number 1, july 2017, pp. 60 – 85 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj references al-mahrooqi, r., abrar-ul-hassan, s. & asante, c. 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(2013). what students like and dislike about blogs: a two-case study. new horizons in education, 61 (2), 93-110. retrieved december 14th, 2014, from http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/ publications/retl62/01to20blackstone.pdf 6 481 cover online calvin.pdf 6 481 calvin p 60-85 guide for contributors the tragic elements in brad silberling’s (2004) lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events marcellina ariska p.n.1 and g.m. adhyanggono2 abstract: movie is a kind of literary works in addition to novels, poems or songs. there are some genres of movie; one of them is comedy. black comedy is its sub-genre. lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events is a black comedy movie which includes hamartia, anagnorisis, peripeteia, and catharsis. they are the key elements of aristotle’s theory of tragedy. in this paper, the writer shows the existence of those key elements in the movie. also, the writer explains the extent of tragic elements in affecting the story of this movie. this paper shows that from the perspective of aristotle’s theory of tragedy, lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events can be viewed as tragedy. key words: aristotelian theory, hamartia, anagnorisis, peripeteia, catharsis. 1 marcellina ariska p.n., s.s. <marcell.ariska@gmail.com> +6285866864637 is an alumnae of the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, whose thesis paper was defended in march 2013. 2 g.m. adhyanggono, s.s., m.a. <adhyanggono@yahoo.com> +6281225671315 is a full-time lecturer at the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 103 introduction lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events is an instance of black comedy movies. it is directed by brad silberling and is an adaptation of the bad beginning, the reptile room, and the wide window which are the first three books in a series of unfortunate events by lemony snicket. this movie is about the baudelaire’s orphans (violet, klaus, and sunny) who are adopted by a bizarre actor named count olaf. he attempts to steal the baudelaire’s’ fortune. the baudelaires try to get away from olaf any time they can but olaf can find them wherever they go. the baudelaires’ avoidance of count olaf leads these pitiful orphans into a series of unfortunate events. this paper focuses on aristotle’s theory of tragedy which includes hamartia, anagnorisis, peripeteia, and catharsis. aristotle was one of the important ancient philosophers from greece. he was born in stagira, a town in macedonia in 384 b.c. he influenced medieval science and logic and on literary theory. his name has been associated most often with his “concepts of tragic catharsis, anagnorisis, and unity of action” (nawaz 2011). according to hibbard (1954) and cooper (1997), tragedy is an imitation, not of men, but of an action and of life which arouses fear and pity. in tragedy people are tested by great suffering and must face decisions of eventual consequence. some meet the challenge with anger, while others demonstrate their ability to confront adversity, winning admiration and proving the greatness of human potential (brown 2012). hibbard says that: tragedy causes the emotions of pity and fear in the hearts of all men, then affords a pleasurable relief. http://www.answers.com/topic/catharsis http://www.answers.com/topic/anagnorisis celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 102-117 104 in other words, the spectator at a tragedy, following the tribulations of the tragic hero, himself suffers vicariously, is emotionally moved, and as a result of the experience, finds pleasurable relief (1954: 169). brown explains that “in tragedy things may not turn out as we wish, but we recognize the relation between the hero’s actions and the results of those actions”, and appreciates the honest depiction of realities in life. owensboro says that a character in tragedy is accompanied by a significant insight: a self-knowledge; an improvement not only in knowledge but also in wisdom; reconciliation with the universe; not cursing his/her fate but accepting it. key elements of aristotle’s theory of tragedy there are four key elements of aristotle’s theory of tragedy. they are hamartia, anagnorisis, peripeteia, and catharsis. hamartia is a “greek word means error, a mistake in judgment committed by a tragic hero” (“what is hamartia” 2003). “hamartia is the character's fatal flaw.” in other words, it is “an intellectual mistake or an error in judgment” (watson, 2012). golden’s translation supported that the term hamartia means miscalculation (brown 2012). the protagonist in tragedy is not a perfectly good man nor yet a bad man; his misfortune is brought upon him not by vice and depravity but by some errors of judgment (owensboro 2012). in mcmanus’ (1999) words, the protagonist brings his/her own downfall, not because he/she is sinful or morally weak, but because he/she does not know enough. according to perrine (1974): the hero’s downfall is his own fault, the result of his own free choice, not the result of pure accident m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 105 or villainy. accident, villainy or fate may contribute to the downfall but only as cooperating agents: they are not alone responsible. the combination of the hero’s greatness and his responsibility for his own downfall describes his downfall as tragic rather than as merely pathetic (perrine 1974). anagnorisis means a recognition or discovery. it is “the gaining of the essential knowledge that was previously lacking” (mcmanus, 1999). further, kennedy (1979: 943) states that “recognition or discovery (anagnorisis) is the revelation of some fact not known before, or some person’s true identity”. cooper (1997: 39) remarks that “a peripeteia occurs when the course of events takes a turn to the opposite in the way described” (p. 39). according to kennedy (1979: 943) reversal or peripeteia is an “action that turns out to have the opposite effect from the effect its doer had intended”). “peripeteia occurs when a situation seems to developing in one direction, then suddenly reverses to another” (“aristotle on tragedy”). reversal is “a series of incidents or a train of action tending to bring about a certain end but resulting in something wholly different” (hibbard, 1954: 170). the fortune’s change experienced by hero is different from the expectations of the audience (“vocabulario especializado”). according to paredes, catharsis is purification of plot events, so that the central character's errors become cleansed by his or her recognitions and suffering. through a course of events involving pity and fear, the purification of those painful or fatal acts, pity and fear, it archives the purgation. catharsis is also the purging of the emotions of pity and fear that are aroused in the viewer of a tragedy. therefore, it is related to the psychology of the spectator, the public is purged of its fear and celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 102-117 106 pity. catharsis is the purging or cleansing of pity and fear from the viewers as they observe the action; in this way tragedy relieves them of harmful emotions, leaving them better people for their experience. brown says that “catharsis helps to explain how an audience experiences satisfaction even from an unhappy ending” story. catharsis is the positive social function of tragedy. it purifies the audience's feelings of pity and fear so that in real life we understand better whether we should feel them. further, watson argues that catharsis purges pity and fear so that we can face life with less of these emotions or more control over them. the hamartia in lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events the first hamartia is in mr. poe’s car when the baudelaire’s children accept mr. poe’s decision to send them living with count olaf although they are really doubt about olaf. second, when the baudelaires meet juctice strauss in front of her beautiful house, they think that she lives with count olaf there. however, she is actually olaf’s neighbor whose house is across olaf’s. the children have lack of knowledge about the real olaf’s house so that they expect and hope for the wrong person and the wrong place. third, the baudelaires look at olaf’s horrible house which condition is so different from justice strauss’. they do not reject to live there and do not refuse to meet count olaf who is weird like his house. the fourth hamartia happens in the bedroom. klaus feels unfairness and blames his parents for everything awful happen to him and his sisters. it is not his parents’ fault; maybe somehow they have good plans for violet, klaus, and sunny, if only he realizes it as what violet does. fifth, when mr. poe arrives in the time olaf tries to kill the baudelaires in a train m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 107 crash, the children do not tell everything to mr. poe. they do not assure him and do not show him the time schedule. they tend to keep silent. sixth, violet and klaus do not reveal the actual occurence about the knife to uncle monty when olaf disguises as stephano. here violet and klaus should make themselves defensible and assure their uncle that stephano is count olaf who wants to take over the baudelaire’s fortune. stephano or count olaf should not get in the house; he should not stay at uncle monty’s home. seventh, in the night uncle monty asks the baudelaires to go to bed early, they just do what he asks them to do without any meaningful objection. the baudelaires should have revealed stephano’s true identity at this moment. eighth, in the night uncle monty’s death, the baudelaires should go out from their room to somehow save their beloved uncle from olaf’s wicked plan. ninth, in the case of uncle monty’s death, the violet and klaus should convince mr. poe and the sherrif about the truth of count olaf and the incredibly deadly viper. when olaf and his assistant bring violet and klaus out, violet and klaus could escape themselves from olaf’s grip by struggling to get loose. next, when sunny screams to show how friendly the incredibly deadly viper is, all people are surprised and look at sunny. klaus and violet should be careful and aware of the possibility that olaf can run away. at this time, they should hold olaf and his assistant tightly. tenth, the baudelaires are not careful enough and do not pay a lot of attention to their surroundings. when the children and mr. poe cross lake lachrymose to reach aunt jo’s house using a great raft, they do not realize that the raft rider is olaf who is in disguise (again). eleventh, when the baudelaires and aunt jo meet captain sham (disguised olaf) in the market, captain sham celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 102-117 108 seduces aunt jo so that she plans to take him home. aunt jo orders the children to stay in the market and continue shopping, and they do their aunt’s order. the baudelaires should have stopped shopping and followed her aunt. they should have left their aunt with captain sham only. the baudelaires commit great hamartia, indirectly letting captain sham endanger their aunt. the twelfth hamartia happens in the middle of lake lachrymose. the baudelaires leave aunt jo alone in the boat, do not hold her hand tightly or pull her to olaf’s boat. if only they did it, they could save aunt jo from the death which olaf deliberately does to her (letting her attacked by the lachrymose leeches). thirteenth, violet feels despair and plans to approve olaf’s willing to marry her. klaus ensures her that there is a solution for this problem, but violet does not think so. she gives up the struggle and the fight. the anagnorisis in lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events the first anagnorisis is the children know from justice strauss that count olaf is her neighbour, not her husband. later, they know the real olaf’s house. second, the baudelaires understand enough that olaf is an unfriendly and a rough man through his statements, most of which are about the baudelaire’s fortune. he hides something bad and wicked in him. third, klaus’ dislike towards sunny is shown while he is watching his parents taking care of sunny. later, he and his little sister are so close each other as if there is none can separate them. he realizes that the first impressions are often entirely wrong. fourth, in the time the baudelaires serve pasta puttanesca to olaf and his troupe in the dining room, the children realize that olaf wants to take over their fortune. it is revealed by his words. fifth, klaus feels angry towards his m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 109 parents. he thinks they do not have any plan for his future life and his sisters’. violet reminds her brother not to think wrongly about their parents who died suddenly in the accident. she realizes that it is not her parents’ fault. sixth, the baudelaires know that the room which olaf provides for them is uncomfortable to sleep in. a small sanctuary is successfully built due to violet’s ability to create something. it is a place where they can sleep in and can feel comfortable for a moment. indeed, in their hearts they know that the troubling world lay just outside. seventh, when count olaf confines the children in his car right in the middle of railway, they understand that olaf wants to kill them in a train crash. eighth, when the children start to live with uncle monty, olaf comes in disguise as stephano, the new assistant for herpetology of uncle monty. klaus and violet who open the door point him up as count olaf. ninth, when klaus and violet bring stephano’s luggage upstairs, klaus discusses his knowledge about uncle monty’s spyglass with violet. he knows that there is something to reveal. the tenth anagnorisis is got by klaus and violet. they discover that they can send a message even from an unpredictable object before. they write the term ‘imposter’ in petunia’s body and send it to uncle monty who is talking to stephano in the reptile room. eleventh, when the baudelaires are in aunt josephine’s house, they look at the photo album. when klaus asks her some questions, aunt jo feels upset and quickly grabs the photo album from violet’s hands. aunt jo does not want to tell the truth to the children. however, all those questions are still in klaus’ head and he realizes that probably the answers for most of his questions are summed up just in one term ‘yes’. twelfth, in the suicide note, klaus discovers something wrong in his aunt’s writing especially the celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 102-117 110 grammar and spelling. he suspects that the suicide note is not really written by aunt jo because she would not make all those mistakes. thirteenth, klaus realizes that it is a message instead of a merely suicide note. he figures it up by correcting all mistakes in aunt jo’s note until he gets two words: curdled cave. he understands that aunt jo is not dead; she is hiding in that cave. fourteenth, in the time the storm starts to devastate aunt jo’s house, ike’s room is in half-destroyed. klaus and violet can see what is in ike’s room. there are newspaper articles about fire and photos of places on fire. klaus notices that ike was investigating fires when he was alive. in this room, klaus also gets a picture of an eye within a pentagon. the fifteenth anagnorisis happens in the middle of lake lachrymose. klaus asks aunt jo about the eye picture but she does not tell the children explicitly. she states that there are good people and bad people in the world; the ones who start the fire and the ones who put them out. from her further words, the baudelaire’s children catch the fact that indirectly their parents died because they investigated fires intensively. sixteenth, when count olaf finds the baudelaires and their aunt in lake lachrymose, he says that nobody is going to believe a dead woman. from this utterance, the baudelaires get the point that olaf will let aunt jo dies in the middle of lake lachrymose. seventeenth, olaf arranges a play entitled ‘the marvelouse marriage’ in which violet and he, who are the leads, will get married. violet and klaus realize later that this marriage is for real. eighteenth, when violet tries to reject the marriage, her brother and she discover that sunny is captive on the top of the tower. sunny will be in danger if violet does not agree to the marriage. nineteenth, when klaus tries to rescue sunny, he finds a broken umbrella outside of tower. he m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 111 understands that he can use it to somehow climb the tower to reach the top of it. violet who is on the stage, knows klaus’ existence. she plans to waste olaf’s time in signing the marriage certificate. twentieth, in the time klaus reaches the tower top and sunny shows the eye behind, he picks up the eye picture from his pocket. when the sunlight comes in through the ventilators, shining brightly right towards the eye, klaus realizes that the eye just points to his house. he realizes that the incident of his destroyed-house which killed his parents was not an incident but olaf’s deed. the last anagnorisis is got by klaus. he prepares the eye and burns the marriage certificate using the complex light-focusing apparatus. the peripeteia in lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events there are two peripeteia in this movie. first, the narrator of the movie states that the baudelaire’s children went to peru, and together had wonderful adventures with their loving and wonderful guardian, uncle monty. he also indicates that the story ends. however, in the next seconds, the narrator tells that those are the words he desperately could type. he would give anything to say that the story ends here. nevertheless, his mission is not to weave happy endings. he must confess that the baudelaires’ troubles have only just begun (silberling, 2004). this is the turning point. it “occurs when a situation seems to developing in one direction, and then suddenly reverses to another.” (“aristotle on tragedy”). the second peripeteia happens in nearly the end of the movie. mr. poe and all audiences who come in count olaf’s play notice his villainy and arrest him. the narrator here says that “count olaf was captured, that olaf be made to suffer celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 102-117 112 every hardship” which he gives to the baudelaires (silberling, 2004). the baudelaire’s children have triumphed, a word which means, ‘unmasking a cruel and less talented arsonist and solving the mystery of the baudelaire fire.’ in the further seconds, the narrator explains that “count olaf vanished after a jury of his peers overturned his sentence. as for the baudelaires, what lay ahead for them was unclear.” in this scene, mr. poe just assures the children that the authorities will catch up with olaf very soon (silberling 2004). catharsis in lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events in the scene when the baudelaires are confined in their bedroom, the children build a small sanctuary made of a tent, silhouette of their parents, and a flashlight. the next scene shows the time when they are trapped in olaf’s car in the middle of railway. the children switch the track using the track switcher to avoid the train crashing the car. another fortune of the children is that the storm does not also destroy the floor layer so that the baudelaires do not fall into lake lachrymose. in addition, when the children are safe from damaged house, they cross the lake lachrymose to curdled cave. at this rare moment, they are happy because they can stay away from count olaf. these fortunes have role as catharsis which relieves the feelings of pity, sadness, and despair both for the baudelaires (as the main characters) and for the viewers of this tragedy. when the baudelaire’s children visit their destroyed house once again, they receive a letter from their parents, which is called as the letter that never comes. in the same envelope, klaus finds a golden spyglass, as same as each member of the club has. this spyglass plus the letter give the m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 113 children purgation of their pity and fear towards the lives they left behind and also towards their unclear lives ahead. and to complete catharsis for the audiences, the narrator gives long final statements which can make the viewers also feel that the baudelaires are fortunate, indeed. the influence of tragic elements to the story of lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events is a kind of black comedy movies. as people know, a comedy shows a lot of funny moments that make people laugh. “comedy is an imitation of characters of a lower type. it consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive.” (butcher). although black comedy is sub-genre of comedy, there is a difference between them. according to dixon, black comedy is “a type of comedy that makes things which you would not usually laugh at funny.” “it often utilizes shock value to get laughs and common themes include death, violence, insanity, racism and other things that are usually not seen as funny.” (“black comedy” 2010). comedy consists in ugliness which is not painful or destructive. meanwhile, black comedy often utilizes shock value and themes such as death, violence, insanity, or racism which mostly imply pain. this is why black comedy is little bit different from comedy. the black comedy features in lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events are the peculiar habit of sunny baudelaire who tends to bite, all olaf’s possession, behaviours, gestures, facial expressions, and his madness; the incredibly deadly viper; and aunt josephine’s anxiety. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 102-117 114 lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events movie is not pure comedy. it can also be defined as both drama and black comedy. comedy consists of ugliness which is not painful or destructive. black comedy often utilizes shock value and themes which mostly imply pain and often destruction. the terms ‘pain’ and ‘destruction’ here can be connected to tragedy because “tragedy causes the emotions of pity and fear in the hearts of all men” (hibbard, 1954: 169). pity and fear imply pain and usually these emotions are destructive. the title of this movie itself implies that this movie has an unhappy story. the existences of hamartia, anagnorisis, peripeteia, and catharsis make lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events can be viewed as a tragedy. further, there are features of tragedy which can be found. they are the baudelaire’s destroyed home, the uncomfortable bedroom, the list of works to do in olaf’s house, olaf slaps klaus in the dining room, klaus misses his home, the death of uncle monty, and the sadness in the place to visit before leaving. the hamartia, angnorisis, peripeteia, and catharsis as the key elements of aristotle’s theory of tragedy really have great extent in affecting the story of this movie. conclusion tragedy is aristotle’s famous theory. in a tragedy a tragic hero suffers due to hamartia and then knowledge comes of ignorance followed by a reversal in fortune with a feeling of purification in the character. hamartia (error in judgment), anagnorisis (recognition), peripeteia (reversal), and catharsis (purification) are the key elements in aristotle’s theory of tragedy. these tragedy elements can be found in lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events. the genre of this m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 115 movie is drama or black comedy. some scenes in the movie show the existence of black comedy features. this movie can also be considered as a tragedy instead of merely drama or black comedy because from the beginning to the end of this movie, there are many hamartia and anagnorisis. also, there are peripeteia and catharsis which complete the existence of key elements of tragedy theory. hamartia by hamartia is done by the tragic heroes (the baudelaire’s children) during the movie. they are indicated through judgment or actions that the baudelaires have or do without knowing that actually those judgment and actions are erroneous. next, the baudelaires get knowledge that was previously lacking. anagnorisis in this movie exists in a large amount, making the children discover some facts not known before. further, there are only two peripeteias or reversals in this movie, yet they have powerful role in reinforcing the tragedy elements. in addition, the existence of catharsis in lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events makes this movie can be called as tragedy. references brown, l. a. “aristotle on greek tragedy”. in http://larryavisbrown.homestead.com/aristotle_tragedy.html, retrieved 21 september 2012. butcher, s. h. “poetics”. in http://classics.mit.edu/aristotle/ poetics.1.1.html, retrieved 24 september 2012. cooper, d. e. (ed.). aesthetics: the classic readings. oxford: blackwell publishers, 1997. n.n. “drama”. in http://www.flashcardmachine.com/dramatest.html, retrieved 24 september 2012. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 102-117 116 hibbard, a. (ed.). writers of the western world. boston: houghton mifflin company, 1954. kennedy, x. j. (ed.). literature: an introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama. toronto: little, brown and company, 1979. mcmanus, b. “outline of aristotle’s theory of tragedy in the poetics”. november 1999. in barbara f. mcmanus cls 267 topics page, http://www.paredes.us/tragedy .html, retrieved 12 september 2012. nawaz, a. in “aristotle’s view about hamartia, anagnorisis, peripeteia, and catharsis according to poetics”, november 2011. in http://sunnyenglishliterature.blogspot.com/2011/11/ aristotles-view-about-hamartia.html, retrieved 17 april 2012. n.n. “aristotle on tragedy from the poetics of aristotle”. in http://faculty.gvsu.edu/websterm/tragedy.htm, retrieved 24 september 2012, n.n. “black comedy”, 2 october 2010. september 12, 2012, in http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=black% 20comedy, retrieved 12 september 2012. n.n. “vocabulario especializado de teatro”. in http:// www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfcca/vocteatro1.html, retrieved 21 september 2012. owensboro. “the nature of tragedy” in http://legacy.owens boro.kctcs.edu/crunyon/e261c/14renaissance/hamlet/nature_o f_tragedy.htm, retrieved 24 september 2012. paredes, r. “aristotle’s definition of tragedy”. in http://www. paredes.us/tragedy.html, retrieved 21 june 2012. perrine, l. literature: structure, sound, and sense. new york: harcourt brace jovanovich, inc., 1974. silberling, b. (director). lemony snicket’s a series of unfortunate events [film]. united states: nickelodeon movies, 2004. mailto:bmcmanus@cnr.edu m. ariska and g.m. adhyanggono, tragic elements in lemony snicket 117 watson, j. “aristotle’s tragedy”. in http://johnwatsonsite.com/ myclassnotes/texts/antigone/antigaristotletrag.html, retri eved 2 may 2012. n.n. “what is hamartia”, 2003. in http://www.wisegeek.com/whatis-hamartia.htm, retrieved 24 september 2012. 11-1.pdf 11-1.pdf f ii gl terfma 0 4 mar 2008 1":0. f~:v. i o;z.qls / p 103/08 tff-raf l~----'-'-----f english national examination for high school students in indonesia' rabayuningtyas agus wabyunil abstract: the importance of mastering english for indonesian students is getting higher due to the globalization in all sectors. one measure to improve the mastery of english done by the government is by implementing the english national examination with a passing grade of 4.25. there are two kinds of english national examinations in the school year 200412005 and 200512006. one is based on the 1994 curriculum and the other is based on the 2004 cu"icu/um. the english national examination in indonesia has included listening section since the school year 200312004. ever since the application of the examination in the school year 2004/ 2005 there have been many controversies about the national examination with the passing grade of 4.25 nationally. but the government still goes on with the national examination because it believes that the advantages outweigh the disadvantageous. the controversies, however, will decrease if the government does not use it to determine a student:r passing grade. key words: national examination, curriculum, senior high school, passing grade, score. , this article was the lit winner of a writing competition for senior high school teachers in semarang, held by the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university in may 2006. 1 dra. rahayuningtyas agus wahyunit m.pd. <iatifa _ ika@yahoo.com> is a fulltime high school teacher at sma negeri 4, ji. karangrejo raya 128 , banyumanik, semarang. 64 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 63 -75 introduction in this era of globalization, english is getting more and more important to be mastered by the indonesian people. the use of english as a means of communication is more badly needed today than before if they want to improve the condition of their life. in the world of education one of the urgent measures to uplift the quality of education in the country is by increasing the mastery of english. in comparison with the other countries of the world, indonesia is at the 112111 among 174 countries, and at the 12th rank among 12 countries in asia. it means that indonesia is at the bottom compared with the other asian countries. the rank of indonesian education in year 2004 is even worse than that in 2002 which was at the 110111, and in 2000 which was 1 09tb. this is a very sad condition because indonesia is the 4111 most populous country of the world after china, india and the united states of america. with the globalization in all sectors including trade, communication, education and tourism, the indonesian people have to master the english language well because this is the language that they use to communicate with people from other countries. this is the language that they use to exchange ideas, to promote everything they posses, to offer their products, to bargain in international trade, to understand other people's desire and thought, and also to get science and knowledge. it is clear then, that the mastery of the english language for indonesian people is crucial. they need to use the english language professionally. this also become the reason why english must be one of the subjects examined in indonesia's national examination. based on the 1994 curriculum for high school students, the objective of teaching english in the indonesian country is to enable the students to have the skills of reading, listening, speaking and writing in english through themes which are chosen based on their development and interest. for the students of the social majors [ip.s.] and science major [ip.a.], the mastery of the vocabulary is about 2500 words while the language major [bahasa] is 3000 words using appropriate grammar (gbpp bahasa inggris 1995:1). the 2004 curriculum has a similar objective with the 1994 curriculum, that is emphasizing the mastery of the four language skills. however, the term used in the latter curriculum differs a little. the 2004 curriculum states its objective as to enable the students to have english language competence which includes speaking and writing which are both receptive and productive b.a. waltyuni, english national examination 65 (kurikulum 2004 sma: 5). the objective of teaching english in indonesian country based on the 1994 curriculum and the 2004 curriculum are already in line with the need of mastering the language. by having good skills of receptive and productive english, the indonesian people will, indirectly, be able to catch up with other countries, improve the quality of education in their country, increase the economic welfare of the people and advance their technology. however, the teachers' dream has not come true. their ambition for indonesian students to have good skills of english has not been achieved yet. this is proven by the fact that many students of junior and high school failed to pass the english national examination in 2005. one example is the result of the national examination in batang, central java. according to the head of education department in batang, through his staff, drs. paham suhardi, most of the students who failed the national examination was caused by their failure to do the english examination (suara merdeka, 7 september 2005). english national examination for high school students what is national examination? national examination is a test to measure and evaluate the students' competence nationally by the central government after the process of teaching and learning (peraturan menteri pendidikan tahun 2005:1). in indonesia there are four subjects for high school students to be examined nationally by the government. they are indonesian language, english language, mathematics and economics. there are several purposes why the government holds the national examination. the government needs the students' results to: 1. determine the graduation of the students 2. select the students to continue to the higher level of education 3. map the quality of education or program of education 4. determine the quality of a school 5. control and give aids to improve the quality of education. before 2004, there were more subjects that were examined nationally in indonesian high schools, however the results were not used as requirements 66 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 63 -75 for graduation, and there was no passing grade either. as a result, the school could graduate a student although he got less than a three (3.00) in one of his national examinations as long as the average of all the subjects examined either school or national examination could reach a 6.00 (http:/ wwwtokohindonesia.comlmajalahl22lkilas-un.shtrnl, 2006). in the school year of 2005/2006 there are two different sets of examination for the third grade students because there are two kinds of curriculums implemented. one set is developed according to the 1994 curriculum and the other is based on the 2004 curriculum. the material of the examination is prepared by the central government, however, the multiplication of the items as well as the scoring ofthe results is done by the provincial government. the scoring is computerized and also handled by the provincial government. during the examination the students are watched by teachers from other schools. there are two teachers in one classroom watching the students do the examination. the teachers from the students' own schools are not allowed to be inside the room where the students are doing the examination because there might be a possibility that the teachers will help the students do the examination. in addition to the availability oflocal teachers there is also an independent team whose duty is to control the process of the examination. the independent team has to make sure that the examination runs well i.e. no cheating happens either by the students or by the teachers in the school. as soon as the students finish doing the national examination, the answer sheets are put in and sealed correctly and honestly into the envelope and delivered to the committee of the examination. the passing grade for the national examination in 2006 is 4.25 and the average mark for the national examination is at least 4.50. in 2005 the passing grade was also 4.25 but there was no requirement for an average mark. in 2004, the first time the national examinations of four subjects began, the passing grade was only 4.1 o. however, in that year, the government used the score conversion which created a lot of problem because of the unfairness and the inconsistency of the conversion. the conversion system increased the benchmark from a score on.ot to 4.01. this score conversion, of course, benefited the poor students but it disadvantaged the good students because it raised the scores of students who answered correctly less than r.a. wahyun4 english national examination 67 50% but lowered the score of the students who could answer correctly more than 50% (jakarta post, 19 february 2005). a. the english national examination in the school year 2003/loo4 since the school year 200312004 the english national examination in indonesia has included the skills of listening and reading. in the school year 200312004 there were 20 listening questions and 40 reading questions. the time allotted to do the exam was 120 minutes. the listening section consisted of 4 parts. part 1 tested the students' ability in understanding a statement or a question in english. part n tested the students' ability in understanding short conversations, part m tested the students' understanding of short texts and part iv tested the students' ability to describe pictures. in the reading section, there were 40 questions which tested the students' ability in understanding texts and language functions, such as tenses, conjunctions, conversational expression as well as vocabulary. the reading test itself consisted of 17 questions and the rest tested the students' understanding oflanguage functions and vocabulary. in short, the 2004 english national examination can be summarized into the following table: no. skill question subskilu number languagefunci10n 1. listening 1 7 statement/questions 8 12 short conversation 13-17 short texts 18-20 describing pictures 2 reading 21-37 understanding texts 38-50 language functions 51-60 vocabulary table 1 b. english national examination in the school year 100412005 in the school year 2004 12005 there were two kinds of national examination. one was national examination based on the 1994 curriculum and the other was based on the 2004 curriculum. 68 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 63 -75 1. the english national examination school year 2004/2005 based on the 1994 curriculum: the english national examination school year 200412005 was similar to the english national examination school year 200312004. there were 20 questions for listening examination and 40 questions for reading examination. the time allotted was also 120 minutes. the listening section consisted of 4 parts but the picture section was put in the first part. in the reading section, there were 4 reading passages with 16 questions, 17 language function questions and 7 vocabulary questions. the english national examination school year 200412005 can be summarized into the following table: no. skill question subskilu number language funcfion 1. listening 1 4 describing pictures 5 -10 statement/questions 11-15 short conversation 16-20 short texts 2 reading 21-36 understanding texts 37-53 language functions 54-60 vocabulary table 2 there was a little difference in the listening section between the english national examination school year 200312004 and the english national examination school year 2004/2005. in the english national examination school year 2003/2004, the listening section was read only once but in the english national examination school year 200412005, the listening section was read two times. so the english national examination school year 20041 2005, especially the listening section was less difficult than the english national examination school year 2003/2004 because the students had more time to listen carefully to the statements, questions, conversations or the texts. ra. wahyunl, english national examination 69 2. the english national examination school year 200412005 based on the 2004 curriculum: the first english national examination based on the 2004 curriculum was held in the school year 2004/2005. this english national examination only consisted of 50 questions. the questions from numbers 1 to 20 were the listening test and numbers 21 to 50 were the reading comprehension. there were no language functions at all which appeared in the english national examination based on the 2004 curriculum. there were two parts in the listening section. part i consisted of dialogues or questions and part ii consisted of mono logs. the listening section was read two times. the english national examination school year 200412005 based on the 2004 curriculum can be summarized into the following table: no. skill question subskllu number language funcfion 1. listening 1-15 short dialogues and questions 16-20 monologs 2 reading 21-50 reading texts table 3 c. the english national examination in the school year 2oosi2oo6 in the school year 2005/2006 there is also two kinds of national examination. one is based on the 1994 curriculum and the other is based on the 2004 curriculum. 1. english national examination school year 2005/2006 based on the 1994 curriculum: the 2006 english national examination is different from the two earlier english examinations. what makes it different is that this year's english examination only consists of 50 questions although the time allotted is also 120 minutes. the listening section only consists of 15 numbers which are divided into 4 parts. the parts are also similar to the two earlier english national examinations. part 1 is describing pictures, part ii is answering 70 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006:63-75 questions, part iii is understanding the dialogues, and part iv is understanding short texts. the reading section consists of3 5 questions. they test the students' understanding oftexts, the students' knowledge of language functions, and the students' vocabulary. the english national examination based on the 1994 curriculum can be put into the following table: no skill question sub skill! number language funcj10n l. listening 1-2 describing pictures 3-7 statements 1 questions 8-11 short dialogues 12-15 short texts 2 reading 16-30 understanding texts 31-45 language functions 46-50 vocabulary table 4 2. the english national examination school year 2005/2006 based on the 2004 curriculum: the 2006 english national examination based on the 2004 curriculum is also similar to the earlier english national examination. there are 50 questions which consist of listening section and reading section. the listening section only consists of 15 questions which are divided into 2 parts. part 1 tests the students' ability in understanding short dialogues or questions, while part n tests the students' ability in understanding monologs. in the reading section, there are only questions about the texts. no language function is included in the english national examination based on the 2004 curriculum. the following is the table of the english national examination school year 200512006 based on the 2004 curriculum: la. wahyunl,english national examination 71 no. skll..l question subskilu number language function 1. listening 1-9 short dialogues and questions 10-15 monologs 2 reading 16-50 reading texts tables types of test in the english national examination there are two types of test which schools usually use. they are objective test and non-objective test (kurikulum 2004, pedoman pengembangan penilaian 2005:21). to say whether it is an objective test or a non-objective test we can see it from the way of scoring. when the test is scored by different people and the result is basically the same, then it is an objective test. however, when the scoring involves subjectivity of the scorers, thus, the result from one scorer may be different from another, it is a nonobjective test. there are several types of objective tests, such as multiple choice, true false, and matching but the type used in the national examination, including english, is the multiple choice with five options. this type oftest is chosen by the government not only that the scoring is objective but it can also be computerized. however, there are some weaknesses of this type of test. it is difficult to construct a multiple choice test items because there are some requirements that have to be fulfilled, such as the length of all the options should be approximately the same, there must be only one correct answer, all the options must be grammatically correct when put into the stems, etc. another weakness is that this kind of test encourages guessing. that is why there are five options in the test for high school students. it is unfortunate that the multiple choice test can never test the ability to communicate in the target language nor can they evaluate actual performance. moreover, the students fmd it easy to cheat in a multiple choice test. even though there are many weaknesses in the multiple choice test, the advantages still outweigh the weaknesses. that is the reason why the government insists on using the multiple choice test in the national examination. 72 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 63 -75 the national examination controversies since the national examination of four subjects which was used as a passing grade injunior and senior high school was implemented, it has caused a lot of pros and cons. the government argues that the national examination is meant to improve the quality of education in indonesian country. with the passing grade of3.01 in the school year 200212003, 4.01 in the school year 2003/2004,4.25 in the school years 200412005 and 2005/2006, the government believes that all students will try hard to pass the exam. through this way the quality of the graduates will improve. by implementing the national examination with the passing grade which is getting higher, the government can control the quality of schools so that in the future every school in the nation can meet the minimum demand of the national standard (the jakarta post, 19 february 2005). perhaps, in this case, the government is right to have the ambition to try to catch up with other countries in the field of education but the inconsistent policy by the government has caused a lot of anxieties to the people of indonesia. . many people argue that the subjects taught at school are not only english, indonesian, mathematics and economics, but there are other subjects that are also important for the students in the future, such as chemistry, physics, and biology to mention some. by holding a national examination of only four subjects, it shows that the government has treated the other subjects unfairly. are the other subjects not important? if they are not important, why do the students have to take the subjects? why are they included in the curriculum? with the passing grade of 4.25, there is a tendency that the teachers only drill the students, thus neglecting the other educational aspect, for example creativity (zuhdi 2005:line 24). it is clear that creativity, which is one of the most important factors in education, will be able to help indonesia survive in the competitive world today. however, if this factor is neglected, indonesia will always be left behind. just by drilling, the teachers would make the subject uninteresting to students because they cannot have fun lessons. according to the 2004 curriculum there are three aspects of education, cognitive, psychomotor and affective. consequently, the graduation of students from a school should be determined by these three aspects. however, if the determination of graduating is only through the national examination la. wahyunl, english national examination 73 of three subjects which test only the cognitive aspects, it is, in my opinion, not in accordance with the curriculum. it must be noted that the condition of education in indonesia varies. the schools having complete facilities and good teachers probably find it easy to have students with a passing grade of 4.25 but what about the schools with very limited facilities such as in remote places of papua, sumatra, nusa tenggara and many other places in indonesia? one of my colleagues in sma 4 semarang told me that two of her nieces who lived in mataram of lombok had to be moved to semarang by their parents because their parents realized that the quality of education in their area was not as good as that in java. so, i believe it is not fair for the government to treat varieties of school in the same way. the government should have considered this before implementing the passing grade of 4.25 as a national scale. conclusion the english national examination for high school students in indonesia is till needed if the people want to improve the quality of education in their country because in the era of globalization the importance of mastering the language is getting more important them. however, it will be wiser if the government of indonesia does not use the passing grade of 4.25 for the subjects examined nationally in all schools in indonesia regardless of the schools with very limited facilities. there should be a different treatment to schools with complete facilities and schools with limited facilities. this will decrease the controversies that appear with regards to the national examination. the material in the examination of english for senior high school should not only consist of listening and reading passages without test of grammar and language expressions because in reality these two components are also important. grammar, for example, will be needed by the students when they want to do the entrance test to the university or when they want to take the toefl test to obtain a scholarship overseas. besides, it is also very important to enable the students to make grammatically correct english sentences. if the grammar is not included in the national examination, all teachers will tend to neglect this language component. teachers will not touch it because what is more important for them is to prepare their students for the components tested in the national examination. 74 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 63 -75 bibliography "banyak siswa tak lulus bahasa inggris un ii". in suara merdelca. http:// www.suaramerdeka.comlharianlos09/07/pani3.hbn retrieved 7 september 2005. departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. kurikulum sekolah menengah umum.garis-garis besar program pengajaran. mata pelajaran bahasa inggris. jakarta: departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 1994. departemen pendidikan nasional. kurikulum 2004: keranglca dasar. jakarta: departemen pendidikan nasional, 2003. heaton, j.b. writing english language test. london: longman, 1975. "kilas balik ujianakbir nasional".1n http://www.tokohindonesia.comlmajalah/22/ kilas-un.sbtml, retrieved 31 june 2006. "penduduk dunia". in http://id.wikipedia.orglwikiipenduduk,retrieved 31 june 2006. safari. penulisan butir soal berdasarkan penilaian berbasis kompetensi. jakarta: departemen pendidikan nasional, 2005. setiono. "the ethical treabnent of students' exam scores". in jajcarta post. 26 june 2004. "soal pendidikan indonesia juru kunci". in suara merdeka.http://www. suaramerdeka.comlharianl040si17ikot.4hbn, retrieved 17 may 2005. ujian nasional smaima tahun pelajaran 200312004. mata pelajaran bahasa inggris program ipalips. jakarta: balitbang, 2004. ujian nasional smaima tahun pelajaran 200412005. mata pelajaran bahasa inggris program ipalips kurikulum 1994. jakarta: balitbang, 2005. ujian nasional smaima tahun pelajaran 200412005. mata pelajaran bahasa inggris program ipalips kurikulum 2004. jakarta: balitbang, 2005. peraturan menteri pendidikan nasional republik indonesia nomor 20 tahun 2005 tentang ujian nasional tahun pelajaran 200512006. jakarta: departemen pendidikan nasional, 2005. ujian nasional smaima tahun pelajaran 200512006 mala pelajaran bahasa lnggris program ipalips kurikulum /994. jakarta: balitbang, 2006. ujian nasional smaima tahun pelajaran 200512006 mata pelajaran bahasa lnggris program ipalips kurikulum 2004. jakarta: balitbang, 2006. r.a. wahyunl, english national examination 7s "tur studi pendidikan di malaysia dan singapura". in suara merdeka http:// www.suaramerdeka.com/harianl0512/nas07.htm. retrieved 7 december 2005. yumarnamto, mateus. "national exam must not determine students' fate". in jakarta post. 19 february 2005. zuhdi, muhammad. "education and creativity. in jakarta post. 2 april 2005. logo: logo: introducing belaehili, an oral poetry from sent ani, papua wigati yektiningtyas-modouw1 abstract: this paper is partially taken from my research on sentani oral poetry, helaehili that is sung in mourning occasions or in funerals. it is also usually known as a song of· lamentation. the research was conducted in sentani, papua for almost 4 years (2004-2008). the data were taken directly from the field through recording. the data were then transcribed, translated into english and analyzed. through the research, it is found that helaehili is rarely heard. not many people, especially people who live near jayapura city and young generation, know the song. it is predicted that helaehili will extinct in some years. the research finds the composition, formula, theme, and notation of helaehili hopefully, this writing can help and motivate young singers (generation) to learn helaehili key words: helaehili, oral poetry, extinct background helaehili (also known as rimehili and dimehili) is a form of oral poetry found among sentani people, jayapura, papua, which is now rarely heard. helaehili songs, heard only in mourning occasions and 1 dr. w"igati yektiningtyas-modouw, m.hum. <wigati ....y@yahoo.com> at +628156876702 is a lecturer at cenderawasih university, abepura, papua who concerns in papuan folklore, especially sentani folklore. we yektiningtylls-modollw, helaehili, an oral poetry from sentani, papua 13 references danandjaja, james. "pendekatan folklor dalam penelitian bahan-bahan tradisi lisan". in metodologi kajian tradisi lisan . editted by pudentia mpss. jakarta: yayasan obor, 1998. ---. foklor indonesia: ilmu gosip, dongeng, dan lain-lain. jakarta: pustaka utama grafiti, 2002. dundes, alan. interpreting folklore. bloomington and london: indiana university press, 1980. finnegan, ruth. oral poetry: its nature, significance and social context. bloomington: indiana university press, 1977. hewson, lance and jacky martin.redeftning translation: the variational approach. london: routledge, 1991. kleden-probonegoro, ninuk. "pengalihan wacana: lisan ke tulisan dan teks". in metodologi kajian tradisi lisan. edited by pudentia mpss). jakarta: yayasan obor indonesia, 1998. lord, albert b. the singers of tales. london: harvard university press, 1981. nagy, gregory. homeric questions. texas: university of texas press, 1996. widyamartaya, a. seni menterjemahkan. yogyakarta: penerbit kanisius, 1989. yektiningtyas-modouw, wigati. helaehili dan ehabla: fungsinya dan peran perempuan dalam masyarakat sentani papua. yogyakarta: adicita karya nusa, 2008. 14 celt, volume 9, number 1, july 2009:1-15 appendix 1: major theme i kind-heartedness (joijae/elmoijae/e) (stanzas 1-4) major themen works/activities (melifoilmekafoi) (stanzas5-9) gentle minor theme 1 ----... .. (nimeyaele/habayaeje) minor theme 2 j-----+----.t... supportive (puma-pumaldamdam) minor theme 3 "----~. cheerful (iteteyaelelwaka-waka ) ~ gardening ___ .. j minor theme 1 l yalilonggi ~ in the field i harvesting ( nokoulhoboi) fishing l-..+ minor theme 2 i--r--+ i (pei/wau) in the lake catching fish (tanseraul meboiboi) w.yektin;ngtyas-modouw, he/aehili, an oral poetry from sentani, papua 15 appendix 2: 'ii:j ana ranime j i' le n i j. y ) i ~j. j n i i... i.~ ra~nl ~ me a na ---::-ra-nl-1... ~ )4 i j j 3 j j jj ill» n i 11. '') i me 1.ra i-gwayo-no o~mlme-ll-ya&fe mchdtoi-bol mi· re rae it yamno maeng.ge me khaijae4e he rei ~ bot mi 2.ra 1gwa yo-no 0 ~ mi i tae-ya~e mo-khoi boi ml re rae· it yamno maeng.ge ha baa-va&le he ~ rei ~ bot ml '·1j.~nl all p jjisj j j 11ljj1j1 1~yae mayanaaya we(e)baelte·yo~mo-lokhun dangpu mapuma khany~ yae mew ~ naeva we(ha)yae ysnhtl(ho(wa)mendangya le-ya-ie khany~ 2.yae mena-naeya we(e)baelte yo-mo-ldthim dangnel • si-ja&fe khanyeyae rna¥b naf¥8. we(ttayae)reyam.mo-lo(wa)mend~e)welboija&fb khanye," ~..---.. f' )iju ~ nl)} j ~ ii j1;t. ds. d.c. a/fine 1.khe, o mi kha.nye khe-ya--khe. o ml kh&nye khe-ya. 2.khe. o mi khanye iche-ya. khe. o • ml khanye khe-ya. microsoft word b3ea-a92b-934e-1698 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no. 2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia american dark romanticism characteristics in lenore 1khoe, yohana harsono and 2ekawati marhaenny dukut 1,2english department, faculty of language and arts soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia email: 1khoeyohana@gmail.com; 2ekawati@unika.ac.id received: 22-11-2019 accepted: 11-06-2020 published: 10-12-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj american dark romanticism characteristics in lenore 1 khoe, yohana harsono and 2 ekawati marhaenny dukut 1khoeyohana@gmail.com; 2ekawati@unika.ac.id 1,2english department, faculty of language and arts soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia abstract: analyzing the words and phrases used in edgar allan poe’s lenore can portray the characteristics of the dark romanticism era of the united states of america, which consist of 1) imagination, 2) nature, 3) symbolism and myth, 4) intuition and subjectivity, and 5) individualism. through a biographical and sociological approach, it was found that there were words in lenore that support the dark romanticism characteristics. the dark, creepy, gloomy, and dreary, words that hint the feeling of poe’s uneasiness while living a dark and difficult life in the 1800s in america were “no tear… weep now”, “grief and groan”, “stygian river”, “golden brown”, “hope”, “peccavimus”, “lenore” and “death”. key words: edgar allan poe, poem, romanticism era, dark romanticism, lenore abstrak: menganalisis kata-kata yang digunakan oleh edgar allan poe dalam puisinya lenore dapat memperlihatkan karakteristik dari masa dark romanticism yang dialami oleh negara amerika serikat, yaitu adanya karakteristik: 1) imagination, 2) nature, 3) symbolism and myth, 4) intuition and subjectivity, dan 5) individualism. melalui pendekatan biografi dan sosiologi maka ditemukan beberapa kosa kata dari puisi lenore yang mendukung masa dark romanticism yang dipenuhi dengan lingkungan yang gelap, menyeramkan, dan menyedihkan itu. beberapa kosa kata yang menandakan ketidaknyamanan poe dalam melalui kehidupannya pada tahun 1800an di amerika serikat adalah kata “no tear… weep now”, “grief and groan”, “stygian river”, “golden brown”, “hope”, “peccavimus”, “lenore” and “death”. kata kunci: edgar allan poe, puisi, era romantisisme, dark romanticism, lenore khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 283 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction american romanticism was influenced by the romanticicism movement that happened in england in the eighteenth century and continued onwards to the early nineteenth century (habich & nowatzki, 2010, pp. 4-5). according to wellek (1962, pp. 1-4), this era is characterized by a movement when the theme in the literary world experiences a change from classical and neoclassical conventions to the romantic theme. in the neoclassical movement “rationality and logic were emphasized and imagination was discouraged” (matthews, 2014, p. 2). the romantic movement included writers such as william wordsworth, samuel taylor coleridge and edgar allan poe. the romantic era was an era where poets tend to want nature and imagination of the calm and orderly country side to rule over the disordered city life. romantic poets believed that nature was god’s manifestation that the imagination can be risen to the fullest. in the romanticism era, there are five basic characteristics that makes romantic poetry stand out. the characteristics are the evidences for imagination, nature, symbolism and myth, intuition and subjectivity, and individualism (stobaugh, 2012, p. 315). in the literary world, the works of the romanticism period are divided into two: the light and dark romanticism (dinçer, 2010). the light romanticism contains every good thing that people want to achieve in life. the light side is very different from the dark romanticism that contains all of the bad things in human’s life. the works categorized in dark romanticism mostly have poetry that has an unhappy ending, because the poetry often contain dark, creepy, gloomy, and dreary tones. one of the authors who uses dark romanticism characteristics in his poems is the american, edgar allan poe. edgar allan poe is one of the major literature authors in american romanticism. poe is well known for his work that presents a romantic theme in a dark way. poe’s works are often inspired by his own life that is filled with the feelings of sorrow, despair, anger, and suffer from losing his loved ones. his experience of losing people that he loved has opened the gate for poe to be the father of works with the theme of death. most of his literary work end with the death of his fictional characters. the death that always appear in poe’s work is usually the death of a female character. this can be seen from poe’s works, such as eleonora, ligeia, berenice, morella, and lenore. poe loves to write the death of a woman character as his favorite star. it seems that he wants to share his own feelings when he sees two beloved women in his life, his mother and his wife, die in front of his own eyes. poe admitted that he 284 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj believes that the most poetical topic in the world is about the death of a young woman (poe, 1846). this article will discuss about his poem that gives a clear example of the death of young woman, ie. lenore. lenore is a popular poem written by poe in 1843. the title takes exactly the same name as one of his lovers, a young woman named lenore. in this poem, guy de vere is the man whose lover passes away because of illness. unlike the man in the raven who could not accept the reality of his lover’s death, the man in this poem accepts the fact that his lenore does not exist anymore. guy de vere talks to the narrator that he believes that his lenore is happier in heaven and is waiting for him. the girl’s name lenore in this poem is very interesting to be analyzed. it is because this name invites the readers of this poem to find out about the real identity of lenore and the reason why poe chooses her as the woman character in lenore. many people try to identify the figure of lenore in poe’s poems. there is a thinking that lenore is the name of a woman who gives a big impact to poe’s life besides poe’s wife, virginia. hammond (1981) is in support of this thinking, when he informed in an edgar allan poe companion: a guide to the short stories, romances and essays, the fact that lenore refers to poe’s wife, virginia clemm. a continually recurring theme in the poetry, as in the short stories, is the quest for eternal perfection as personified by a feminine character of rare beauty. just as ligeia, eleonora, and berenice symbolized for poe the elusive beauty he had found and lost in the person of virginia clemm, so annabel lee, helen, eulalie, and lenore personified for him his idée fixe of departed love, of happiness transitorily experienced but never to be tasted again… (1981, p. 155). there is proof that lenore is also a symbol of poe’s “darling little wife” in life of edgar a. poe (1879). didier says that “poe and his lenore’s” picture is on his desk and there is a sweet interaction between poe and virginia (1879, pp. 94101). didier also states that poe has written his and his wife’s love story in one of poe’s works, eleonora (1879, p. 58). the meaning of the title on “what shall we name the baby?” for eleonora according to wilson (2015, p. 104105) has the same meaning as lenore. this is supported by griffin (2014, p. 117) who points out that these names come from different language yet have the same meaning, that is, light. the names eleanora and lenore are commonly given to a baby girl. these names refer to a wealthy and elegant woman. it can be interpreted that khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 285 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj virginia gives a big impact to poe’s life until it affects poe’s works. didier (1879) writes that poe is hitting the lowest point of his life after virginia’s death. after her death, poe has changed himself into somebody else. he does not seem to care about his life anymore. there is no doubt to say that poe thinks that his wife is his light and life. didier says that poe writes the raven and lenore during the sickness of virginia and poe starts anticipating the possibility of virginia’s death in his poems (1879, p. 100). this is the reason why poe chooses lenore as the name of his woman’s character in lenore. lenore does not only show people about poe’s love towards virginia and his condition after virginia’s death but this poem also represents the characteristics of romanticism era that consist of dark romanticism side in its words and phrases. lenore is the works related to this period that does not only represent the characteristics of romanticism period but the words it uses in the poem also tells the condition of romanticism era environment. literature review a. biography of edgar allan poe edgar allan poe came from boston, massachusetts. elizabeth arnold poe had given birth to him on january 19, 1809. unfortunately, poe’s parents had passed away when he was in an early age. as a result, poe had to be adopted by allan’s family. poe’s foster parents, john and frances allan, had to take care of poe but in the fact only frances allan who insisted to take care after him. according to hammond (1981), poe became the heir of john allan, poe’s step-father, who was a successful exporter. in the new family, poe experienced the love of a mother from his step mother, frances keeling valentine allan. young poe got a good education because his step father really cared about his education. he entered the finest school in richmond and continued his education to university of virginia at charlottesville. it seemed that poe’s life was going to be bright because he was going to get allan’s inheritance. unfortunately, poe had to face sadness and emptiness when frances died. the death of france did not only give a big impact to poe’s psychology but also poe’s life and future. allan got married again and had his own children. his new wife wanted allan’s inheritance, that would become poe’s property, became her children’s. poe decided to leave allan’s family and moved to boston after having quarrel with his father. in boston, poe tried to 286 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj start his literary career. his first work was tamerlane and other poems. poe got married to his cousin, a thirteen-years-old-cousin, virginia eliza clemm. the marriage between cousins was not really common at the time. maria poe, virginia’s mother, did not have good trust to poe about the caring of virginia. it happened because maria thought about two conditions, poe’s financial condition and virginia’s very young age. thus, poe had to work very hard to make maria believe in him. the marriage life of poe and virginia was a happy life for poe. the feeling of loneliness that poe always had because of the death of his mother vanished as it was erased by virginia. virginia was the only one who followed wherever poe went, and whatever poe needed. she was also the love messenger between poe and a neighbor. she adored poe and accepted poe with all of her heart. it made poe feel that he was not alone anymore and poe started to have a deep love toward his little wife. unfortunately, virginia passed away when she was really young due to her illness, tuberculosis. once again, poe had to face the sorrow feeling caused by the death of his beloved person. during his life, poe had to experience the death of several women that he loved: his mother, his foster mother, and his young wife. according to didier, the death of elizabeth arnold poe and frances keeling valentine allan was still mysterious. there was no further information about their death. in life of edgar allan poe, didier (1879) just said that both of them died because of natural causes. fortunately, case & semtner (2009) gave a fact to people about the causes of their death. interestingly, the reason of their death was tuberculosis just as the reason of virginia’s death. the death of his loved women brings poe into sadness and loneliness that lead him into his own illness. b. background of american romanticism era the romanticism era was the movement when literary works’ theme changed from classical and neoclassical conventions, when people were against the using of individualism and imagination and shifting to the romantic theme that gave the priority to individualism and imagination (wellek, 1962). the romanticism era happened because the war at the time had caused a great depression that led people to want to nurture hope and optimism of the 18th century. the first place that has this movement was germany but this movement rapidly spread to england, france, and america. khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 287 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in the united states of america, this movement happened during the period of national expansion and reform. it was the time when americans realized the identity and voice of american. though americans recognized it and wanted to have a better life, the condition of environment did not support it. taylor (2009, pp. 307-326) says in environmental sociology from analysis to action that people from laboring class and people from middle to lower class had to live in a very bad environment. taylor (2009, p. 309) states that their houses were located in crowded, insecure, and unhealthy environment. their houses were also too expensive for them because they just got a very little wages despite the fact that they had been working for long hours in abominable working place. during this time, people from middle to lower class did not find a safe and clean open space like a ball field or park. it was because they just find under developed places and parks where there were full of homeless and unemployed people. during the 1800s, people experienced the condition of having lack of sanitation, clean water, and public open space. it made many people die because they suffered from poverty and poor health. there was no medical support, either from doctors or from medicines, available at the hospital to cure the unhealthy people so people could only wait the death. there were many diseases that killed people. one of the diseases was tuberculosis. according to frith & villemin (2014), tuberculosis became an epidemic and caused million deaths during the 18th century to 19th century. people who had this disease were people who came from the low class in society. tuberculosis was also called “the robber of youth” (frith & villemin, p. 32) and was connected to the conditions of society at the time when people experienced the condition of being extremely poor and lack nutrition. this condition gave effect to the literary world in america. this is why the death theme in american literature could not be separated from the romanticism era because at the time people experienced death by seeing people who suffer and die every day. this experience of death and love from people whom was left by the death one gave a true feeling that made the american literature works look modern and gave the sense of pureness. c. literary writing in romanticism period dinçer (2010) states that romanticism era has two sides of literary writing, ie. “light romanticism” and “dark romanticism”. in light romanticism, the author provides all of the good things that people can get in their life. the works in light romanticism tells people that there are no bad people in the world and there is no failure that they can encounter. this side 288 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj emphasizes the fact that people cannot prevent everything which is changed in their lives but they have the opportunity to forget the past. it is very different from dark romanticism. in dark romanticism, the works will tell the bad side of individual. the individuals have to commit their fault and their destruction. in this side, ones are not successful to change their lives to become better. it is because the dark romanticism contains all of bad things of ones’ lives. the works of the dark romanticism always contain dark, creepy, gloomy and dreary tones mostly with unhappy ending. the dark romanticism is the side that poe has chosen to writing his works. it makes poe’s works have to tell about dark, creepy, gloomy and dreary tones. according to stobaugh (2012, p. 315), there are five characteristics of literary work in the romanticism era, those are, imagination, nature, symbolism and myth, intuition and subjectivity, and individualism. the romanticism characteristics are supported by fiedler (2003) who states that literature works that have romantic theme usually aim to sastisfy people’s emotional needs. that is why people in the romanticism era would prefer to think more about their emotion and feeling rather than their logic. they used to think more about love and praised nature. it made people have no reason to think that they would hate people or they would encounter failure in their life. they imagined and thought that they were better than others. the works in romanticism writing often give sentimental and unrealistic feelings to the reader. it is because the romantic works contain the strong emotional relation between the writers and the readers. the authors of the stories have to bring the feeling of fear, love, optimism, and anxiety as the main factors in their works. the value of the romantic writings that the writers write depends on how great they exaggerate and explain their works. method in this study, we use a qualitative method to collect the data. according to hennink, hutter, & bailey (2011, p. 8-9), it is difficult to define about the qualitative method because qualitative methods contain a wide range of techniques and philosophies, but the qualitative method is a method that consists of a deep investigation. researchers using the qualitative method are allowed to examine the experience that people have in their lives. this khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 289 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method gives to the researchers the descriptions of complex textual about how ones have experience about particular issue. shortly, it gives information about the human’s side of an issue. the information about human issues includes people’s behaviors, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and relationships. other factors like social norms, socioeconomic status, gender roles, ethnicity, and religion are also analyzed with qualitative research. this is why, in this article, the qualitative method is applied by studying and describing what is found through analyzing edgar allan poe’s lenore. findings and discussions in this section, we analyzed the words and phrases that give information about the romanticism era characteristics, which also represent the characteristics of dark romanticism era in the poem lenore, which was made by poe in 1843 (parker, 2005, lenore, pp. 193-194). a. “golden bowl” the beginning of the poem is opened by the unknown who talks to de vere. he opens the poem by stating: ah, broken is the golden bowl! the spirit flown forever! let the bell toll! -a saintly soul floats on the stygian river – and, guy de vere, hast thou no tear? -weep now or never more! see! on yon drear and rigid bier low lies thy love, lenore! come! let the burial rite be read -the funeral song be sung! – an anthem for the queenliest dead that ever died so young – a dirge for her, the doubly dead in that she died so young. (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 193, stanza 1, line 1) in our opinion, the using of the word “golden” is representing something which gives the promise that this thing will be very precious. the bowl itself is the container to accommodate that precious thing. if the bowl is broken like the bowl in this poem, it means that the thing, which is very expensive and full of successful promises, and cannot be used anymore. if the bowl is broken, then it is going to the trash, because there is no value anymore from this bowl. it makes us assume that this bowl represents lenore’s life that has to be ended by her sickness and the promise of happiness that must be 290 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ended because of lenore’s death. lenore could be married with guy de vere and could have a good family until she is old. unfortunately, the promise of happiness cannot be fulfilled because she dies when she is so young. this broken future can be related to poe and virginia’s life as discussed below. based on what didier (1879) said about poe and virginia’s marriage life, it seemed that they had a happy marriage. they were completely in love toward each other. they most likely dreamt about growing old together and have many children and grandchildren. it was possible because they were at a young age at the time, so they could try to make their dreams come true. the dream about having a better life means also living in a better environment. this is pronounced as a dream, because the condition of environment at the time did not support a good life for a family, so it becomes obvious that both of them had an imagination about a good environment where their children could live in. sadly, all of their dreams were vanished when tuberculosis killed virginia. so, their dreams were broken and it could not be repaired anymore. it brings poe to express his sadness feeling due to the loss of virginia and their dreams within the phrase “golden bowl” that can represent the dark, dreary tone and unhappy ending of the dark romanticism era. b. “stygian river” “stygian river” in this poem is located in the beginning of the poem when the narrator opens the conversation with guy de vere. the unknown narrator forces de vere to be sad and therefore, exclaimed “let the bell toll! -a saintly soul floats on the stygian river” (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 193, stanza 1, line 2). this phrase is categorized as the phrase that represents the myth and symbolism aspect. people around poe’s environment at that time was believing in a myth that the stygian river became a gate way from earth to the underworld. in this case, we believe that the narrator uses this river to say that the pure lenore is crossing the stygian river to go to heaven. this means that once lenore goes in the river there is no turning back for lenore to go to earth anymore. the river also symbolizes hatred. it is not because the myth of this river that presents about the myth of hatred and the underworld, but it is because the feeling of hatred belongs to “a saintly soul’’, which has passed away. this saintly soul, whom the narrator talks about is lenore. the fact that the pure lenore dies at a very young age makes de vere upset. de vere is not only sad but he is also angry about the fact that he could not be together with lenore anymore. he hates this fact and the narrator knows about it. this khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 291 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abhorrence is also felt by poe when in reality he could only sit and watched virginia die because of tuberculosis. there was ill feeling inside poe who hated the fact that tuberculosis was killing all of his loved ones and there was nothing that he could do to stop it. this is the reason why stygian river can appear as a symbol for a dreary tone, which is dark, and gives an unhappy ending. from “stygian river”, there is also an imagination aspect about the imagination of environment condition that poe wants to illustrate through his poem at the time. stygian river in his poem seems to also refer to the greek myth that becomes the gate for the dead to go to the underworld. in the greek myth, the river is not a dirty river where no trash can be found and no stingy smell can be detected. this river is very clean until the keeper of this river can easily take the dead to the underworld by crossing the river with a smooth sailing boat. this river is very different from the real stingy river that poe saw when he made this poem. the river that poe saw in his life was a dirty river because people would often throw trash or garbage into this river. this made the plants in the river grew wild and became dirtier because wasted things were stuck in the plants. it was very difficult for people to cross the river because a boat could be stuck in the plants or garbage, that people could not cross or enjoy the river. poe seems to want some good opportunity of having the river, when he wrote in second line of the first stanza that says “let the bell toll! -a saintly soul floats on the stygian river –“. the word “floats” can be the signal that poe wanted to float in the river by riding a boat. poe probably had a fantasy to spend some of his time with virginia in a boat or walked the river walk with her. regrettably, he could not do it because of the bad condition of the river. it was the reason why he decided to write lenore could be afloat in a river because he wanted the river to be clean from dirty garbage. poe chose stygian river to be his fantasy river because he had a reason. poe’s reason was related to the fact that the dirty river contained panthogen that killed people. in spite of the fact that the river was becoming the life source because it gave the water that people needed, this river also killed people because the water of this river contained germs. poe detected the bad smell of this river and saw the dirty condition; thus, he also saw the promise of death given by the river. poe imagined the river is killing people with its poisonous water. 292 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in poe’s eyes, the river is the symbol of death. he chose stygian river to become the river in lenore because in spite of fact that the river was described in the poem as clean, it contained the souls of death people. thus, the stygian river to poe, is also giving him the same creepy feeling like the real dirty, full of garbage river did to poe. c. “…no tear? -weep now…” this phrase appeared as the opening of the conversation between the narrator and guy de vere. the one who opened this conversation by using this phrase was the narrator when he said, “and, guy de vere, hast thou no tear? -weep now or never more!” (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 193, stanza 1, line 3). from this line, it could be interpreted that the narrator did not only ask de vere but the narrator also suggested him to cry at that moment. when guy de vere did not accept his suggestion, it showed up the individualism and gloomy characteristic of the dark romanticism era. guy de vere was told to be in his sadness from losing his lover, thus, it is fine for him to show his sadness to others. the narrator, however, did not see the signal of his sadness. it made the narrator gave him the question. as a reader, we may expect that de vere was very sad and he was having a will to cry. in the poem, it was described that even though de vere wanted to shed tears, he also had a will to look strong. de vere most likely thought that if he weeps and seems week, he would be underestimated by the narrator. he wanted nobody to take pity on him. thus, guy de vere desired not to be weak can represent his individualism despite the reality that he was in his sadness. this condition had a relation with poe’s life when he was alone after the death of his foster mother and virginia. when allan had married again after the death of his late wife, his new wife gave the signal that she did not like poe. it made poe decide to leave them. poe thought that he had to look strong because he did not want to be pitied by them and so, he started to live alone. he did not look for any help from others because he wanted to find a new life for him on his own. in reality, after the death of virginia, poe did the same thing. he did not look for any help or companion to help him overcome from his sadness. sadly, the loneliness created by himself led poe to run into alcohol. nevertheless, poe’s courage to survive on his own suggested that poe lived on to his individualism character. khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 293 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. “lenore” “lenore” is a girl name that becomes the title of this poem. this name also appeared in stanza 1 line 4 and stanza 3 line 3. the person who mentioned this name was the unknown narrator. the narrator brought in the name into the conversation when the narrator said “see! on yon drear and rigid bier low lies thy love, lenore!” (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 193, stanza 1, line 4). the narrator mentioned this name again, twice, in this part of conversation. in this part, the narrator was described as arguing to guy de vere about lenore’s death, and was saying the following: peccavimus; but rave not thus! and let a sabbath song go up to god so solemnly the dead may feel so wrong! the sweet lenore hath “gone before,” with hope, that flew beside leaving thee wild for the dear child that should have been thy bride— for her, the fair and debonair, that now so lowly lies, the life upon her yellow hair but not within her eyes— the life still there, upon her hair—the death upon her eyes. (parker, 2005, lenore, pp. 193-194, stanza 3, line 3) lenore in this poem became the symbol of guy de vere’s light. when lenore disappeared from guy de vere’s life, he was described as losing his light and guidance. guy de vere tried to accept the reality that his light has disappeared. he was almost successful to comfort his heartbreak but he still did not want to call her name. it made lenore represented a dreary tone and an unhappy ending. this symbolization related to poe’s life, when after virginia’s death, poe did not walk in the right path. he lost himself by running to alcohol. he thought that there was no guidance that led him to the right path and so he poured his sadness in alcohol consumption. the poem, lenore also suggested poe’s imagination of virginia, who could have grown up to be an elegant lady who could support him. in reality, although virginia was a graceful person, she was still a teenager when poe decided to marry her. she was still a 13-year-old-girl who married with her cousin who was 14 years older than her. virginia was an elegant lady in poe’s imagination. perhaps at virginia’s age at the time, virginia still did not have an idea about how hard life was because she was still in the age of enjoying life. when virginia became mrs. poe, she had to act older than her age. it made her need poe to help and lead her. though poe was happy to do it, he also imagined that it was virginia who would support him in his sorrows. unfortunately, due to her sickness, she 294 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj could not give her full support and could not help poe because she was the one who was more in need of poe. this is probably why poe created poems with the imagination of an older virginia, which was more elegant and stronger than the real virginia, who was suffering from tuberculosis. e. “death” the word “death” appeared twice in lenore. the first time was when guy de vere replied to the narrator about the death of the innocent: wretches! ye loved her for her wealth and hated her for her pride, and when she fell in feeble health, ye blessed her—that she died! how shall the ritual, then, be read?—the requiem how be sung by you—by yours, the evil eye,—by yours, the slanderous tongue that did to death the innocent that died, and died so young? (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 193, stanza 2, line 5) the second time “death” appeared was in the narrator’s answer to de vere in the next stanza when he stated “the life still there, upon her hair—the death upon her eyes.” (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 193-194, stanza 3, line 7). in the second stanza of lenore, guy de vere stated that death happened to the pure and young lenore, meanwhile the narrator said that the death existed only in her eyes. the death that de vere said was the death that naturally happened to all human beings. in this case, he was referring to the end of lenore’s life, which was natural. yet. this death, however, was different from the death that the narrator meant in the next stanza. because the narrator still saw lenore as still physically alive, the narrator took the chance to look at her eyes. it is here, that he knows that her spirit is gone. the narrator says this fact twice in stanza three when the narrator implies it in the previous phrase, “the life [is] upon her yellow hair but not within her eyes”. the narrator says the word death for two times, because he saw the death in lenore’s eyes for two times. the first time happened when lenore knew that she was diagnosed with tuberculosis and the second time referred to when she felt that she was going to die soon. lenore’s spirit of life was decreasing by time to time during her sickness to finally make her spirit die when she knew nothing could help her anymore. it is possible that, this was the death that poe saw in virginia’s eyes. khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 295 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as with any husband, poe must have supported virginia with the hope that everything was going be fine and that she was going to be cured. sadly, virginia knew the reality that she was going to leave poe because she could feel that tuberculosis was killing her slowly. she also knew that there was no medical treatment that could cure her. even if there was a medicine or medical treatment, the condition of the environment at the time, could bring other diseases that could kill her. this was the reason why although she smiled and acted happily, there was no hope and no spirit of life in her eyes. this was the death that poe met in virginia’s eyes when she was still alive. the word “death” in the poem represented the gloomy feeling, dark, and dreary tone of the romanticism era. f. “peccavimus” “peccavimus” appeared in stanza 3 line 1 when the unknown narrator said to de vere: peccavimus; but rave not thus! and let a sabbath song go up to god so solemnly the dead may feel no wrong! the sweet lenore hath "gone before," with hope, that flew beside, leaving thee wild for the dear child that should have been thy bride for her, the fair and debonaire, that now so lowly lies, the life upon her yellow hair but not within her eyes – the life still there, upon her hair -the death upon her eyes. (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 194, stanza 3, line 1) through the above stanza, the narrator has chosen to say “peccavimus” to symbolize the responsibility and punishment that de vere had to have. in the narrator’s opinion, he thought lenore’s death was the man’s fault and he wanted the man to take the responsibility. the reason why the narrator thought that lenore’s death was the man’s fault was because the man knew that lenore was going to die but he did nothing to prevent it. the feeling of sadness and unhappiness due to lenore’s death were the punishment that de vere had to have for his entire life. this kind of responsibility was also felt by poe. when poe realized that his wife was positive in having tuberculosis, he knew that she would die. knowing about virginia’s eventual death, poe described in stanza 3 of his believe that there ought to be ways of curing the dying virginia because he thought that it was his responsibility as a husband to save his lovely wife. sad to say, he could not do anything to make it happen. it happened because at the time it was very hard to maintain the healthy condition due to the 296 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj situation of dirty environment and poe’s economy condition. thus, poe could only stay by virginia’s side and watch her slowly die. perhaps at the time poe felt that he was evil because he did not prevent his wife’s death. it made poe felt in a despair until he wanted to take the punishment to be unhappy for his life. this was the reason why the word “peccavimus” bear the dark and gloomy feeling because it pushed someone to feel despair and sad. g. “hope” in lenore, the word “hope” appeared in the third stanza when the narrator replied to guy de vere with a phrase “the sweet lenore hath "gone before," with hope, that flew beside” (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 194, stanza 3, line 3). reading this phrase, the word “hope” with capital “h” may make readers think more about its real meaning. we may perceive this word to refer to guy de vere. the reference is not to his body but to his soul and love that accompanied lenore to heaven. the narrator saw this fact, which was why he gave the capital h when he said the word “hope” to respect de vere. interpreting the poem about de vere, it could be said that he accepted the reality that lenore has gone, and he should live-on to the next life, but in reality, he still felt heartbroken. he was in sadness and despair, but he believed that lenore was happy and waiting for him in heaven. “hope” in this phrase could also symbolize lenore and de vere’s wish to be happy together in a marriage. it can be proven in stanza 3 line 4 when the narrator continued the previous line with the phrase “leaving thee wild for the dear child that should have been thy bride –“. the words “the dear child” in this line referred to the hope of marriage that de vere and lenore tried to make to happen. sadly, their hope could not come true because of the death of lenore. it made their dream of having a child became only a dream for lenore to bring to heaven. “hope” could also represent poe’s wish for poe and virginia to have a better life. in reality, poe tried to make a better life for them even if it was hard to do with his job as a writer at the time that did not produce enough financially for them. poe did not give up easily on their dreams, so he worked hard to make it happen. unfortunately, their wish of a better life with a child could not be fulfilled due to the condition of the environment and the death of virginia. this word contained poe’s feeling of unhappy and lifeless feelings after the depart of virginia. in other words, this word represented dreary tones and an unhappy ending, too. khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 297 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj h. “grief and groan” the phrase was located in guy de vere’s part when he wanted to talk to the unknown narrator for the last time. avaunt! to-night my heart is light. no dirge will i upraise, but waft the angel on her flight with a paean of old days! let no bell toll!—lest her sweet soul, amid its hallowed mirth, should catch the note, as it doth float up from the damnéd earth. to friends above, from fiends below, the indignant ghost is riven— from hell unto a high estate far up within the heaven— from grief and groan, to a golden throne, beside the king of heaven. (parker, 2005, lenore, p. 194, stanza 4, line 7) from the last stanza, it was interpreted that de vere believed he had to pass his lowest point of life to reach heaven. de vere thought that the lowest point of life was the time when he was in very deep despair or sadness of his life because of his late lenore. when seeing the phrase “from grief and groan”, it could mean that the despair or sadness that de vere wanted to say was not the feeling that could easily erased and forgotten. it is the strong feeling of when he could have a mind to give up his life and committed suicide. this strong feeling of sadness and pain could have made de vere cried out because he could not bear this heavy feeling. it was also proven by de vere when he said “from hell unto a high estate far up within the heaven –“shown in stanza 4 line 6. this line showed that the feeling of grief, that made him in the lowest stage of life, tortured him like hell. it can be interpreted that the feeling of sadness and pain that de vere had to experience referred to the life of poe. pain and sadness in this phrase can be said to refer to three things in poe’s life: poe’s hard life, tuberculosis, and the death of his beloved women. reference to poe’s hard life coincided with poe’s biography, where he was found struggling with his life after leaving the allan’s family. it must have been hard for poe, when he had to decide to leave his comfort zone. he had to lose everything to try and start a new life. he was still struggling to have a proper life even after he married virginia. the cause of his hard life came from the environment and situation at the time which did not support his dreams at all. even after poe worked to earn his well-deserved money, he still did not escape from poverty. it was because the salary or wages that poe had earned was little and everything was 298 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj expensive, so poe did not have enough money to cover all of his daily needs and it made him suffer with poverty. this phrase also refers to tuberculosis, because the pain caused by tuberculosis did not only come from the pain that virginia felt but it also came from the sadness that poe had when he watched virginia suffered and died because of this disease. poe could not do anything to prevent the death because the condition at the time did not support him to find proper help. thus, he could never forget the pain and sadness that came from the death of his beloved one. as shown in the poem, poe really put his gloomy feeling in this phrase. conclusion as learnt by looking into the biography and society of poe’s life, the poem lenore is found to show up poe’s experiences about losing his beloved mother and wife, who died due to tuberculosis. the death of his loved ones made him feel a deep sadness and grief that cannot be erased easily. the bad condition of environment at the time, thus, influenced poe to produce poems that show the dark romanticism era, which was filled up with a gloomy and dark life. thus, in addition to the phrases “no tear… weep now”, “grief and groan”, “stygian river”, “golden brown”, there are also the words, “hope”, “peccavimus”, “lenore” and “death” in the poem”. references case, k. a.; & semtner, c. p. (2009). edgar allan poe in richmond. didier, e. l. (1879). life of edgar a. poe. retrieved august 10, 2017 from https://www.eapoe.org/papers/misc1851/eld18791.htm dinçer, f. (2010). the light and dark romantic features in irving, hawthorne and poe. journal of international social research, 3(10), pp. 218–224. frith, j., & villemin, a. (2014). history of tuberculosis . part 1 phthisis , consumption and the white plague, 22(2), pp. 29–35. griffin, j. (2014). 1,107 baby names that stand the test of time jennifer griffin, p. 117. khoe, y.h., & dukut, e.m., american dark romanticism characteristics in 299 lenore https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj habich, r. d.; & nowatzki, r. c. (2010). romanticism and transcendentalism. new york: facts on file, inc. hammond, j. r. (1981). an edgar allan poe companion (first edit). london and basingstoke: the macmillan press ltd. loughran, e. (2008). critical companion to edgar allan poe: a literary reference to his life and work. school library journal (vol. 54). matthews, a. (2014). american transcendentalism and dark romanticism. https://www.academia.edu/8808289/transcendentalism_and_dark_r omanticism_in_america mcgraw-hill education. (2015). american literature and history: american romanticism (1800-1860). parker, m. p. (ed). (2005). collected works of poe, volume v. (v, vol. v), lenore, pp. 193-194. hennink, m., hutter, i., & bailey, a. (2011). qualitative research methods, pp. 8-9. james, s. (2012). world literature: cultural influences of early to contemporary voicest, p. 315. stobaugh james. (n.d.). world literature student james stobaugh google buku. retrieved february 20, 2018, from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=d7y_2djq7u4c&pg=pa315&lpg =pa315&dq=stobaugh+romanticism+characteristics+the+imagination+w as+elevated+to+a+position+as+the+supreme+faculty+of+the+mind&sour ce=bl&ots=6nhbq6qmsd&sig=oswfwvjfjhex_-klgxjgjnrcca&hl=id&sa=x&v taylor, d. e. (2009). american environmentalism: the role of race, class, and gender in shaping activism 1820–1995. environmental sociologyfrom analysis to action, pp. 307–326. wellek, r. (1962). introduction: a history of dostoevsky criticism. dostoevsky a collection of critical essays, pp. 1–15. wilson, s. (2015). simply the best baby name book, pp.104-105. 300 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 282 – 300 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj appendix: lenore ah broken is the golden bowl! the spirit flown forever! let the bell toll!—a saintly soul floats on the stygian river; and, guy de vere, hast thou no tear?—weep now or never more! see! on yon drear and rigid bier low lies thy love, lenore! come! let the burial rite be read—the funeral song be sung!— an anthem for the queenliest dead that ever died so young— a dirge for her the doubly dead in that she died so young. “wretches! ye loved her for her wealth and hated her for her pride, “and when she fell in feeble health, ye blessed her—that she died! “how shall the ritual, then, be read?—the requiem how be sung “by you—by yours, the evil eye,—by yours, the slanderous tongue “that did to death the innocent that died, and died so young?” peccavimus; but rave not thus! and let a sabbath song go up to god so solemnly the dead may feel so wrong! the sweet lenore hath “gone before,” with hope, that flew beside leaving thee wild for the dear child that should have been thy bride— for her, the fair and debonair, that now so lowly lies, the life upon her yellow hair but not within her eyes— the life still there, upon her hair—the death upon her eyes. “avaunt! to-night my heart is light. no dirge will i upraise, “but waft the angel on her flight with a paean of old days! “let no bell toll!—lest her sweet soul, amid its hallowed mirth, “should catch the note, as it doth float up from the damnéd earth. “to friends above, from fiends below, the indignant ghost is riven— “from hell unto a high estate far up within the heaven— “from grief and groan, to a golden throne, beside the king of heaven.” taken from: collected works of poe, volume v, pp. 193-194 the voices of the afro-american in literature: a study on slavery femmy dahlan i abstract: literary work could portray both the life from the real world and also functions as a media to voice the injustice experienced by certain society. slavery in america can be seen through three literary works written by afro-american writers. these three writers describe how slavery had destroyed the lives of the slaves in the southern part of america. the slaves were treated cruelly by the owners which bring bitterness to them. the lives of the slaves at that timewasfoll of torture both physically and mentally. key words: afro-american literature. injustice. slavery introduction the flfst people of african descent were bought to jamestown, vrrginia, by.a dutch man to be sold to the english settlers. records show that they came as indentured servants rather than slaves and they were free to buy land after their term of services just like any other white indentured servants. eventually. they were forced into legal slavery in 1661 and another law the following year decided the fate of children born in the colony would be bound or free according to the status of the mother. the effects of both economic and racial attitudes had driven those english settlers to practice slavery in the new world though england itself had no tradition of slavery. buying the negroes for labor force in the plantation turned to be more profitable than employing them as indentured femmy dahlan, s.~., m.hum is <femmy_dahlanl@yahoo.com> is a fulltime lecturer of the faculty of humanities, bung hatta university, padang. 14 celt, volume 8, number i, july 2008: 1-15 from home and family members to suffer greatly. the whites had regarded them as someone who can be treated like livestock in the most inhumane ways. the brutal actions of the whites towards the black left a scar in the heart of the black american, a scar that also become the dark history of america. though the southern states were making profits from the plantation through the forced labor of the blacks for hundreds of years, nevertheless, their own conduct leads to their own destruction. the luxurious living they were fond of ended through the disagreement between the southern states and the northern states over slavery. the four years of civil war tum the southern white lives upside down just like the shattered lives of millions of slaves in their hands. because ofthe institution of slavery both whites and blacks suffered as a consequence. it can be deduced that the black american writers use literature as a mean to criticize as well as to protest the cruel treatments received from the whites during slavery. through these three works their generation will realized the kind oflives their ancestors had lived. as for the whites the three works will remind them of their brutality. it can also be concluded that the three works serve as a mental evidence of the american history. bibliography bergman, peter m. the chronological history of the negro in america. new york: the new american library, 1969. davie, maurice r. negroes in american society. usa: mcgraw-hill book company, inc., 1949. equiano, olaudah. "the interesting narrative of the life of olaudah equiano, or gustavus vassa, the african". black writers of america: a comprehensive anthology. ed. richard barksdale and kenneth kinnamon. new york: the macmillan company, 1972:7-38. haley, alex. roots. new york: dell publishing, 1976. hymowitz, carol and michaele weissman. a history of women in america. new york: bantam books, inc., 1981. logan, rayford. the negro in the united states: a brief history. usa: d. van nostrand company, inc. 1957. f. dalila", the voices of the afro-american literature 15 roper, moses. "a narrative of the adventures and escape of moses roper, from slavery. black" writers of america: a comprehensive anthology. ed. richard barksdale and keneth kinnamon. new york: the macmillan company, 1972:210-218. tindal, george b and david e. shi. 1989. america: a narrative history. usa: w.w. norton and company, inc. 1989. wright, donald r. african americans in the colonial era: from african origins through the american revolution.lllionis: harlan davidson, inc., 1990. __ . african americans in the early republic: 1789-1835. illionis: harlan davidson, inc., 1993. logo: 11-2.pdf a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students' ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta purnama nancy lumban batu sekolah tinggi ilmu pelayaran, jakarta, indonesia email: nancy.lumbanbatu@gmail.com received: 07-01-2020 accepted: 29-02-2020 published: 03-06-2020 heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students' ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta 1purnama nancy lumban batu 1nancy.lumbanbatu@gmail.com 1sekolah tinggi ilmu pelayaran, jakarta, indonesia abstract: this study focuses on looking at how indonesian students view themselves as indonesians and as members of certain ethnic groups concerning their ability to speak in the local/heritage languages. this article also covers their attitude towards their heritage languages in comparison to english, as a foreign language. the data for this study were collected through paper-based questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. it is found that participants with the ability to speak in their local language felt more confident in stating their ethnic identity. there was also a lead to confusion of their ethnic identities, for those few who can't speak any local language. these youths are proud indonesians, with their indonesian languages. however, as predicted by rini (2014), among other languages in indonesia, english will still be a more important foreign language. this study adds that english appears to be more important than any local language to these indonesian students. key words: language, heritage language, identity, ethnicity, ethnic identity abstrak: studi ini berfokus pada bagaimana mahasiswa indonesia memandang diri mereka sendiri sebagai orang indonesia dan sebagai anggota kelompok etnis tertentu dalam kaitannya dengan kemampuan mereka untuk berbicara dalam bahasa daerah/warisan. artikel ini juga mencakup sikap mereka terhadap bahasa daerah mereka dibandingkan dengan bahasa inggris, sebagai bahasa asing. data untuk penelitian ini dikumpulkan melalui kuesioner dan wawancara semi-terstruktur. dalam studi ini ditemukan bahwa peserta dengan kemampuan berbicara dalam bahasa lokal mereka merasa lebih percaya diri dalam menyatakan identitas etnis mereka. ada juga yang menunjukkan kebingungan tentang identitas etnis mereka, bagi beberapa orang yang tidak dapat berbicara bahasa batu, n.l., heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students’ 25 ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj daerah. para mahasiswa ini bangga sebagai orang indonesia, dengan bahasa indonesia mereka. namun, seperti yang diprediksi oleh rini (2014, di antara bahasa-bahasa lain di indonesia, bahasa inggris masih akan menjadi bahasa asing yang dianggap lebih penting. studi ini menambahkan bahwa bahasa inggris tampaknya lebih penting daripada bahasa daerah apa pun bagi siswa indonesia ini. kata kunci: bahasa, bahasa warisan, identitas, etnis, identitas etnis introduction ethnicity was once astounding when talking about indonesia. indonesia boasts its thousands of islands and hundreds of different ethnicities, not less than 1340 ethnicities (kominfo, 2017). recently, it was published that there have been 718 local languages identified all across indonesia, and the number is still growing. with that many languages, indonesia is second only to papua new guinea with the most languages spoken across the globe (sunendar, 2019). it is acknowledged that 14 local languages have perished, and 341 languages need more attention, as they are slowly dying. sunendar claimed that it is likely due to our lack of awareness and knowledge of how vulnerable our cultural heritage is. bearing this in mind, it is interesting to find out how important these local languages from the young generation's perspective are. the government insists on preserving the diverse languages, but what about the youths? it is reported that currently, the youth (aged 19 – 30) sits as the highest population in indonesia (utomo, 2019). this paper investigates how indonesian youth look at the local/ethnic language in correlation to their identity, either as a member of their ethnic group or as indonesian. the research questions are formulated as follows: 1. how do the languages they speak affect their identification of themselves? 2. what are the attitudes of indonesian students towards their heritage languages? 26 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 24 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review a. identity and language the simplest definition of identity is' who i am.' yet identity is far from simple. it's a complex subject (kirk & okazawa-rey, 2013). if someone asks me who i am, what comes to mind is that they want to know my name. if the person asking knows my name, then s/he to know more than just a name. who are you? it is not easy to answer this question because whoever is deep is never completely grasped and articulated in words. had i been asked these questions, i just said: "i'm nancy. a woman, a teacher, a mother, an indonesian, or a christian. and on what do they rely on? i never really thought about it. as people think about identity, in the indonesian context, many times it is "the ethnic". physical features can be most easily identified. how do they look? what's your race? what's your ethnicity? many times, i have been told, "you don't look like a bataknese" despite my answer to my ethnicity. identity is a complex subject (tatum, 2000); it is what distinguishes us from one another, and at the same time it is what brings people together. it is developmental and changes over time. (kirk & okazawa-rey, 2013) describes identities formation at different stages; micro, meso, macro and global identities. the microelement is self-definition and interaction with individuals and issues from an individual or a personal point of view. the meso stage is where the identities of our cultures and/or our families are perceived, formed and challenged. the macro relations are between and from a national point of view between people, concerns and groups. eventually, connecting people, problems, and groups from a global perspective is the global stage. (kirk & okazawa-rey, 2013) structured the social categories to present inequalities in the societies, divided them into the dominant and the subordinate (this domination is not discussed in this paper, though). in terms of language (as the last category) they claimed english as the dominant over all other languages. this might be true in the indonesian context (a third world; a subordinate nation). how important is language in shaping whom we think we are? the way we think influences the way we speak, but the influence also goes the other way. research have shown that changing the way people speak affects their way of thinking. for example, teaching people new color terms improves their ability to discriminate colors. and a new way of speaking about time teaches people a new way of thinking about it. one way of dealing with this issue is to batu, n.l., heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students’ 27 ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj study bilingual people. studies have shown that bilinguals change their way of looking at the world depending on the language they speak (boroditsky, 2011). thus, language plays an important role in shaping the way we think. this includes the way we think of who we truly are. another important element is the upbringing, the social setting where we were raised. the ability to speak a certain language gives another identity to the speaker (rini, 2014). a broad connection exists between language and identification. language defines the ethnic group that we belong to, our status in the social stratification, and also determines the power we hold in our society. our social identity is created by our language and also our future possibilities are determined by language. with other factors placed in mind, language then plays a major role in determining who we are and what our future possibilities are. b. ethnic identity and heritage language decades ago phinney (1990) reviewed 70 studies on ethnic identity. ethnic identity is a dynamic, multidimensional structure that refers to one's identity or self-conception as part of an ethnic group. ethnic identity varies in terms of development and meaning over time. this indicates a continuum of growth from early identification to immediate quest for a positive ethnic identity–typically in adolescence. the desired outcome of the cycle of ethnic identity creation is a stable and trustworthy sense of ethnicity. it is believed that this established sense of self as an ethnic group representative includes positive feelings about one's own and others and is a source of positive selfassessment. ethnic identity is very important for immigrants, but over time and generations, it changes. retention of ethnic identity for later generations of immigrants depend both on attitudes in the ethnic group and on a broader social or historical context. it seems to be more sensitive to a bicultural culture, including national identity. however, the analysis of ethnic identity is incomplete and work is not translated into different environments. increased collaboration is needed among researchers from various countries. many studies have been conducted on how close ethnic identification and heritage language are. the studies i found were conducted concerning immigrants in the us setting. brown (2009) discussed how korean students did not feel secure to express themselves due to negative stereotypes towards their ethnicity. therefore, their heritage language was also endangered as there was not enough room for them to express it. lei (2013) on the other hand identified that heritage language learning could facilitate positive ethnic identification by the second generation of chinese americans. however, 28 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 24 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj learning and the use of heritage language does not necessarily lead to homogeneous ethnic identity. those chinese american youngsters were exposed to multilingual and multicultural environments. their diverse experiences helped develop their overlapping or (even) conflicting identities, which could be often very hard for them to step out of that identity dilemma. besides, their selection of language and participation in a community, therefore, was not set and static but fluent and conditional, because they adjust themselves in a multilingual and multiethnic culture to specific social, economic and political circumstances. in a quantitative study, it was also found that there is a positive relationship between chinese heritage language proficiency and ethnic identity, as there was also a positive and strong relationship between self-esteem and ethnic identity (yu, 2015). method this study adopts qualitative methodology as it tries to describe a phenomenon on the languages are spoken among some indonesian students and how their languages affect their views on their identities. due to the availability of access, the participants of this study were the students of a boarding academy. they were also members of the academy's english club, students in the second and fourth years of study. the data for this study were collected through paper-based questionnaires distributed to 30 students, aged between 19 – 24 years old. of the 30, 29 returned, and 27 were considered acceptable to be used as the source of the data. the questionnaire comprises of 2 parts. the first part was open-ended questions on the languages they speak. the second part is close ended, on personal and communal identity. the latter part was adapted from a premade questionnaire (cheek & briggs, 2013). the results of the questionnaires were tallied and tabulated using microsoft excel 2010, a simple user-friendly data processing tool. for further insight, 4 of the 27 participants were chosen to participate in a semistructured interview. they were chosen based on their responses to the questionnaires. the 4 interviews were transcribed and used as an additional technique to support or to clarify the findings of the questionnaire. batu, n.l., heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students’ 29 ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results and discussions a. languages and self-identification indonesian as the national language and english as the international language has overruled the local languages in indonesia. most of the students participating in this study reported speaking 2 to 3 languages. the languages they speak ranging from indonesian, english, and local languages. most of the respondents claimed indonesian to be their first language, and only 3 claimed to acquire their local languages (melayu, balinese, and javanese) as their mother tongue. in the second language, english has gained more attention. only 3 participants admitted their local languages (sundanese and palembangnese) to be their second languages. another 4 participants stated their local languages as their third languages, respectively bataknese, makassarese, and javanese. english was more like a language learned at school as a subject or occasionally practiced at home with their parents. indonesian was mainly used in the daily interaction and english used in classrooms or when interacting with fellow members of the english club, or as they put it on the questionnaire: to speak with certain people. table 1: languages spoken languages first second third indonesian 24 0 0 english 0 21 6 local language 3 3 4 other foreign languages 0 1 4 in addition to this finding, most of the respondents were not so keen in learning or acquiring their local (heritage) language. most of them wanted to learn and acquire better english and or other foreign languages, like mandarin, korean, german, or japanese. this statement is in contrast to their answers on whether their heritage/local languages should be preserved; they all agreed that those languages should be maintained. they didn't speak the language and did not think they wanted to learn the language. the answer could have occurred because they thought it would be an ideal answer to such questions. this finding confirmed budianta’s (2007) claim that indonesian 30 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 24 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj has become the most important identity for the indonesians of various ethnic groups. however, komang (a pseudonym), whose first language was her local language insisted on heritage language maintenance. she thought everyone should maintain their local languages to preserve cultural diversity in indonesia. she denoted that language was one of the unique features of cultures, besides the dances and the songs. the role of the parents at home was significant in her case. despite being able to speak in english and other foreign languages, her parents trained their children to speak in their local language at home first, before other languages. she was proud of her ethnicity, as well as being able to communicate with people from different ethnic groups or foreigners. there are two main approaches to the understanding of ethnic phenomena (regmi, 2003). the primordialist approach considers common descent as the more important factor. the other approach is situational/subjective/instrumental. it emphasizes the members' perception of being different from others and its implications to the present status and the understanding of contemporary reality, but there are no final answers. when asked about ethnicity, interesting answers came out. indonesians used to adopt the patrilineal system. yet, instead of having 11 different groups, there were only 10 ethnic groups claimed by the respondents. from one of my interviewees, neneng (a pseudonym) stated that she even put sunda as her ethnic group because her friend said that her ethnicity should follow her mother's. even though her name sounded sunda, she was not sure if she was sundanese. should she be allowed to choose, she preferred to identify herself as a jakartan, where she lived, rather than a sundanese. steven (a pseudonym), another interviewee, was even more confused when asked about his ethnicity. he was not sure. he said he thought he was a javanese because he lived in jakarta, a city geographically located on java island. to them, ethnicity was more like a locality; the place they belong to, as it was also shown in their response to the part of the questionnaire, where they were asked on their collective and individual identity. different from what hofstede claimed of indonesian to be collectivist (“hofstede insights,” n.d.), my young respondents showed more confidence at the personal level of identity than a collective one. the claim might be false or there might be a shift in culture dimensions of indonesian (mangundjaya, 2013). the following charts help explain the phenomenon. batu, n.l., heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students’ 31 ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chart 1: personal values and moral standards their responses to statements related to their identity, of who they were, ranged from somewhat to extremely important, with the majority in the extremely important area. the responses have more varieties at the collective identity level. to some of them, race and ethnic background were not important at all. the place where they lived and were raised was even more important to their identity than their ethnic background. this could be the reason why most of my respondents stated that they were betawi or javanese because they lived in jakarta. and it has not been related to any local/heritage languages. chart 2: personal self-evaluation/opinion 32 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 24 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chart 3: race and ethnic background chart 4: places where they were raised and lived in the questionnaire, steven wrote that he spoke 2 languages: indonesian and english. from the interview, i learned that he could speak 4 languages, adding 2 local languages (of chinese origin) such as konghu and hokkien. these two chinese origin languages have been acknowledged as indonesian heritage languages (“peta bahasa,” n.d.). however, to steven, they were family languages. konghu was used to communicate within the family, and his mother spoke in hokkien to his father. he thought those languages had no relation to any ethnicities. again, he preferred to be identified as a jakartan. jadi ketika ditanya dari suku apa, (steven) bingung harus jawab suku apa. namun ketika ditanya (steven) orang mana, (steven) orang jakarta. batu, n.l., heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students’ 33 ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj jika ditanya “who are you?” jawabannya “saya (steven), orang jakarta, keturunan tionghoa, bisa bahasa konghu dan hokkien”. identitas yang paling penting untuk saat ini bagi (steven) adalah orang jakarta. lahir, besar dan tinggal di jakarta. (steven, 20 y.o) table 2: claimed ethnic groups father 11 groups: manadonese, balinese, bataknese, betawi, riau, javanese, padang, papuan, palembangnese, melayu, minangnese mother 14 groups: manadonese, minangnese, bataknese, betawi, sundanese, riau, javanese, melayu, palembangnese, bugis, balinese, banjarese, sumatran, makassarese self-identified 10 groups: manadonese, balinese, bataknese, betawi, javanese, palembangnese, melayu, sundanese, makassarese, papuan. the fact that most of them thought that the place where they lived (and were raised) played a more important role in shaping their collective identity has also shown in how they grouped themselves living the dormitory-life: birds of the same feathers flock together. yet, the feathers discussed here were not the race or ethnic group background, but the place where they came from. instead of grouping based on their being sundanese, bataknese, or javanese (this would have been an extremely large group), mollucas, or madurese, they flocked with the students from the same place. they had lampung team, bandung team, bekasi, borneo, and so on. b. attitudes towards heritage languages although they claimed themselves to belong to a certain group of ethnicities, it did not always mean that they speak the local language. in practice, most of them were not aware that the languages were heritage to preserve. the contrast of how they feel about the languages is shown in the chart below: 34 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 24 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chart 5: reasons for having an ethnicity group participants who did not speak their local languages stated that they wanted to acquire other foreign languages. they had no intention to acquire nor to learn about any local languages. as the opposite, respondents who spoke their local languages stated that they were proud of their local languages stated that they wanted to be better in their local languages. kalau orang indonesia tidak bisa berbahasa indonesia akan menurunkan nilainya. namun untuk orang daerah yang tidak menguasai bahasa daerahnya itu tidak mengurangi nilainya. (neneng, 19 y.o) she thought that indonesian people must be able to speak indonesian, if not they would devaluate themselves. however, it is not a problem if people can't speak their local languages. your value would be the same. despite claiming to be able to speak in 5 different languages, she ranked her sundanese to be her fourth language, after indonesian, english, and korean. all my respondents were proud of indonesian, as shown in the above chart. however, most of them were looking forward to global communities and interactions. instead of wanting to add local languages to their language repertoire, they wanted to learn more foreign languages, like japanese, mandarin, korean, german, dutch, french, arabic, or spanish. english is still the most favorable language to learn among these students. learning of english in indonesia, especially for the youth, is like what (crystal, 2006) describes the learning of english in japan. young children cannot avoid being exposed to english in such domains as advertising, television, the internet, and pop music, and inevitably develop a considerable passive knowledge of (some domains of) english. batu, n.l., heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students’ 35 ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chart 6: pride to be an indonesian citizen chart 7: languages to learn there is an increased awareness of english vocabulary through the assimilation of loanwords into japanese. and the popularity of english motivates a degree of spontaneous active (often non-standard) use, both in speech and writing, as when children (or adults) imitate discourse exchanges they have encountered in english-language films or make use of idiomatic expressions they have seen in internet interactions. with the development of technology, the chance of learning english outside formal education increases. it is up to the people whether they want to use it or not. 36 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 24 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chart 8: being students who can speak english in addition to identity, being able to speak a foreign language, like english, gives a new identity. it distinguishes those who can speak english from those who can't. those who speak english belong to a different group than those who do not. this is the identity they want to show. in indonesia, mutual intelligibility and the need for identity go hand-in-hand; the difference in the need for identity is not on showing indonesian accent, but on showing the ability to speak english (rini, 2014). conclusion this study was initially aimed to find out how indonesian youngsters see themselves as indonesian as well as a member of their ethnic groups, related to the languages they speak. however, the findings as gathered from the questionnaires and interviews have led this to a slightly different direction, heritage language and the identification of their ethnicities. about the languages they speak, most respondents claimed that they can speak 2-3 languages. these languages included indonesian as the first language, english as the second, and local languages as the third language. indonesian was mostly used in all kinds of settings and for different purposes. english and the local languages were used in closed communities, within the family, or with friends from the same ethnic groups. most of them thought that it was of importance to maintain their local languages, but they mostly used indonesian to interact in their communities. even in the family, only a few of them are practicing the local language. batu, n.l., heritage language and ethnic identity: a study on students’ 37 ethnic identity and self-identification in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj participants with the ability to speak in their local language felt more confident in stating their ethnic identity. there was also a lead to confusion of their ethnic identities, for those few who can't speak any local language. as shown on the graphs, most of them thought the place where they lived was very important to who they were. they are proud indonesian, but they wanted to acquire english and other foreign languages, like japanese, korean, or german because they want to be a part of global communities. this includes being part of the global coverage of social media. these youths are proud indonesians, with their indonesian languages. however, as predicted by rini (2014), among other languages in indonesia, english will still be a more important foreign language. this study added that apparently english is even more important than any local languages in indonesia. references boroditsky, l. (2011). how language shapes thought. scientific american, 304(2), 62–65. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0211-62 brown, c. l. (2009). heritage language and ethnic identity: a case study of korean-american college students. international journal of multicultural education, 11(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v11i1.157 budianta, m. (2007). diverse voices: indonesian literature and nationbuilding. in language nation and development in southeast asia (pp. 51-73). institute of southeast asian studies. cheek, j. m. &, & briggs, s. r. (2013). instrument title: aspects of identity questionnaire (aiq-iv). crystal, d. (2006). into the twenty-first century. in l. mugglestone (ed.), the oxford history of english. oxford: oxford university press. hofstede insights. (n.d.). retrieved december 4, 2019, from https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/indonesia/ kirk, g., & okazawa-rey, m. (2013). identities and social locations: who am i? who are my people? in women’s lives : multicultural perspectives (6th ed., pp. 49–58). new york: mcgraw-hill. 38 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 24 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kominfo. (2017). suku bangsa | indonesia.go.id. retrieved december 3, 2019, from https://www.indonesia.go.id/profil/suku-bangsa lei, j. (2013). ethnic identification and heritage language learning among chinese american teenagers. in american international journal of social science (vol. 2). mangundjaya, w. l. h. (2013). is there cultural change in the national cultures of indonesia? the international association for cross-cultural psychology conference, pp. 59–68. peta bahasa. (n.d.). retrieved december 3, 2019, from https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/ phinney, j. s. (1990). ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: review of research. psychological bulletin, 108(3), 499–514. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499 regmi, r. (2003). ethnicity and identity. occasional papers in sociology and anthropology, 8, 1–11. rini, j. (2014). english in indonesia: its position among other languages in indonesia. beyond words, 2(2), 19–40. sunendar, d. (2019). sekapur sirih bahasa dan peta bahasa di indonesia edisi keenam. jakarta. tatum, b. d. (2000). the complexity of identity: “who am i?” in m. l. adams, m., blumenfeld, w. j., hackman, h. w., zuniga, x., peters (ed.), readings for diversity and social justice: an anthology on racism, sexism, anti-semitism, heterosexism, classism, and ableism (pp. 9–14). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24436-1_17 utomo, w. p. (2019). indonesia millennial report. in idn research institute (vol. 01). yu, s.-c. (2015). the relationships among heritage language proficiency, ethnic identity, and self-esteem. fire: forum for international research in education (vol. 2). culture research in the recent work of itamar even-zohar harry avejingl abatrtu:t: even-zohar is highly reganjed among scholars of translation studies for his theoretical contributions in the area of "polysystem theory". this paper presents an introduction to evenzohar's more recent work in the area of"cuiture research" (which he distinguishes from cultural studies). it locates his thjnking lvithin a framework deriving from russian formalism and, more recently, russian semiotics. the major focus in his papers in culture research (200412005) is on culture as a socio-semiotic system, allowing for both reflection and action. a significant term in discussing systems is "repertoire", the rules and materials which govern the production and use of given cultural objects. even-zohar's papers seek to place repertoire within a broader framework, and to allow for the invention and transfer of repertoires between various social groups. the work of idea-makers is particularly important in this transfer. tile paper concludes with a consideration of the relevance of "culture research" to translation studies. it suggests that his ideas are of limited use but may provide the basisfor further reflection on the roles of translators and translations, especially in new nation states. key words: translation, itamar-zohar, culture research harry aveling <haveling@latrobe.edu.au> is an associate professor of indonesian and malay in the department of asian studies at la trobe university, melbourne, australia, and adjunct professor of southeast asian literature at ohio university. he has translated extensively from malay and indonesian literature, and co-translated from hindi. he holdu the degrees of doctor of philosophy, in malay studies, from the national university of singapore, and doctor of creative arts, in writing, from the university of technology, sydney. h. aveling, culture research on the recent work ofitamar even-zohar 167 which would seem to be equally applicable to culture research. these are: a "tendency to propose universals based on very little evidence"; an ''uncritical adoption of the formalist framework" and some of its concepts which "underlie, yet seem inappropriate to .. . [his] complex model of cultural systems"; ''the problem of locating the referent"; and, finally, "even-zohar's own methodology and discourse", with its assumed scientific objectivity and assumptions of total completeness (1993: 120-3). these problems (which are obviously not "minor" at all) suggest the need for further conceptualisation of even-zohar's more recent premises. they do not necessarily negate the premises, but certainly call for caution in their application, while encouraging us to do better ourselves. references arnold, matthew. culture and anarchy. london: cambridge university press, 1869/1960. aveling, harry. '''!\vo approaches to the positioning of translations: a comparative study ofltamar even-zohar's polysysiem studies and gideon toury's descriptive translation studies and beyond. in celt, vol. 4, no.2, december2004: 136-149. beattie, john. other cultures. london: cohen and west, 1964. champagne, r.a. "a grammar of the languages of culture: literary theory and yury m. lotman's semiotics". in new literary history, vol. 9, no.2, winter 1978: 205-210. dimic, m.v. and m.k. gamin. "the polysystem theory: a brief introduction, with bibliography". in problems of literary reception. edited by e.d. blodgettanda.g.purdue. university of alberta. 1988: 177-196. online at http://www.tau.ac.ivitamarez/ps/dimic-ps.htm erlich, victor. russian formalism, history doctrine. the hague: mouton, 1969. even-zobar, jtamar. papers in historical poetics. tel aviv: the porter institute for poetics and semiotics, 1978. papers previously published in various places and available on-line at http://www.tau.ac.iv-itamarezlez_vitalezpublications.htm. 168 celt, volume 8, nmnber 2, december 2008: 154-169 __ • "polysystems studies". in poetics today, vol 11, no.1, 1990. papers previously published in various places and available on line at ht1p:liwww.tau.ac.illitamare7lpaperslfilc-dep.htm. _---'."some replies to lambert andpym". in target, vol. 10, no.2, 1998: 363369. _---'."short biographical description", 2003. on line at http://www.tau.ac.iji -itamarez/ez_vita/ez..eng html _---'. papers in culture research, 2005. papers previously published in various places and collected at ht1p:/iwww.tau.ac.ili-itamarezlez_vitalezpublications.btm. gentzler, edwin. contemporary 1hmslation theories. london: routledge,1993. house, 1u1iane. "universality versus culture specificity in tl'8iislation". in alessandra, 2002. riccardi. d-anslation studies: perspectives on an emerging discipline. cambridge: university press, 2000. lambert, 1086. "itamar even-zohar's polysystem studies: an inten:iisciplinary perspective on culture resealch", canadian review of comparative liierature, vol 24,no.1,march 1997: 8-14. lotman, 1.m., b.a. uspeosky, v.v. ivanov, v.n. toporov, and am. pjatigorskij. "theses on the semiotic study ofcullures (as applied to slavic textsy'.1n the tell tale sign: a survey of semiotics. edited byt.a. sebeok. lisse: the peter de ridder press, 1975: 57-84. lotman, yu.m., b.a. uspensky and g. mihaychuk. "on the semiotic mechanism ofculture".innew literary history, vol. 9, no.2, wmter 1978: 211-232. matejka, l. and k. pomorska (eels). readings in russian poetics, cambridge: mit press,l971. nam fung chang. "polysystem theory: its prospect as a framework for translation research". in 7b7get, vol. 13,no.2,2001: 317-332. pouwer, j. translation at sight: the job of a social anthropologist. victoria university ofwellington, 1968. pym,anthony. method in translation history. manchester: stjerome press, 1998. robey, david and ann 1efferson and david robey: modern literary theory. london: batsford. 2001. h. avelhig, culture research on the recent work of ltamar bven-zohar 169 sales salvador, dora. ''in conversation with ltamar bven-zohar about literary and cultural theory". in clcweb library of research and information, september 2002. on line at http://clcwebjoumal. lib.purdue.edulclcweb023/sales( even-zohar)02.html. ann shukman. literature and semiotics: a study of the writings ofyu. m. lotman. amsterdam: north-holland, 1977. shukman, ann. "soviet semiotics and literary criticism". in new literary history, vol. 9,no.2,1978: 189-197. swidler, ann. "culture in action: symbols and strategies". in american sociologicalreview, vol. si,no.2,aprili986: 273-286. venuti, lawrence. "american tradition". in routledge encyclopedia of 'iranslation studies. edited by m. baker. london: routledge, 1998. weissbrod, rachel. "translation research in the framework of the tel aviv school of poetics and semiotics". in meta, vol. xun, no.1, 1998: 1-12, on line at www.eruditoiglrevueimetali998/v43/nl1004s92ar.html. 1 the cultural conflict of the american indian people: a brief overview on two american indian fictions rahmad mdayatl and rizki februansyah2 abstract: indian people are indigenous people of america, who had livedfor centuries and long before the coming of european people to america in 15003. there are many tribes, even more than a hundred, among the indian people. each of them lived in group and has their own characteristics, such as language, custom, and culture. the contact between the indian people and the european people brought a new era especially for the indian people, which later changed the life of the indian people from traditional into modem. it bears a cultural conflict for indian people as can be seen in the works of indian fictions such as house made of dawn and auntie angie's cheyenne affair, both written by indian people, n scoll momaday and adrian c louis, respectively. in all cases, both novels represent the problems of cultural conflict encountered by the indian people when they lived between two cultures, traditional and modem ones. this emerges in the writers' portrayals of their indian young generation characters as the result of the changingfrom traditional to modem life. key wortis: indian people, contact, cultural conflict, traditional, and modern rahmad hidayat <ilmi_syarif@yahoo.com> at +6285649060957 is an euglish lectmer of sunan girl university, sidoarjo, and state islamic institute (lain) ofsw18dampei, surabaya. 2 rlzkyfebruansyah <rlzidfebruansyah@yahoo.com>at+628121594825.isa lecturer of the english language and literature study program, cultural sciences department, faculty of social and political sciences of jenderal soedirman university, purwokerto. 152 celt, volume s. number ~ december 2008: 137-153 environmentaj place.. hofise mode 0/ dawn and a.wrtie aiigie's cheyenne affair, written by n. scott. momaday and adrian c. louis respectively, can . . be also read as theamerican indian works to criticize the modem way oflife since they criticize the negative impacts to the life of the youdg american indian generations. in house made o/dawn, abel reflects confusion and loss of identity when he goes back to his coidiil1idity after leaving it for a long time. while the portrayal of the young american indian generations in auntie angie's cheyenne affair exemplifies how they are entrapped in a modem life in the city of america in which it c1umges their attitudes and behaviors far from american indian wayofiife. in terms of the illustration of young american indian generations in the two fictions, ad of them represent the cultural conflict as the impact of adjustment problems. this results in deviant attitudes and behaviors represented by abel and mariana two knives and her american indian friends. culturally, they &ce many ditl'erences of way oflife in the city when they leave their own coidiil1idity as american indian people. it is hard for them to hold the american indian way of life due to the changing of the environment where they live. they feel that living in the city, which offers modem life, caneasi1ymin their traditional values. to conclude, the two fictions explore the disparity of between traditional and modern way of lives. abel and the old american indian woman realize that traditional american indian lifestyle offers good moral values, although many people (especially the white ones) think that it is old and out-dated. by holding american indian moral values, both writers seem to argue that the american indian generation can become wise men and will not lose their identities as human being. references abrams, m.h. the mirror and the lamp: ronumtic theory and the critical 7radition. london: oxford university press, 1976. barretta. carole. (ed).brerlctmbrdlan history. salem press, inc. 2003. r. bultzyilt iuid r. febnlllllsym, the cultural conflict of american indians 153 crawford. bartholow v; alexander c. kern, morris h. needleman. american literature. new york: bamesandnoble, inc., 1966. guerin, wtlfml l. (ed). a handbook of critical approaches to literature. oxford university press., 1999. debo, angie. a history of the indians of the united states. the university of oklahoma press. 1970. harrison, lawrence e and samuel p. huntington (eels). culture maners: how values shapehumanprogress. the perseus books group. usa., 2000. hirscheelder, arlene (ed). native americans (a history in pictute3). new york: dorling kindersley publishing, inc. 2000. hoxie, fredereick e. encyclopedia of american indian. the university of oklahoma press, u.s.a. 1996. hughes, j. donald american indian ecology. the university oftexaa at ei paso: texaswestempress, 1983. leahy, todd historical dictionary ofnativeamerican movements. the scarecrow press, inc. 2008. louis, adrian c. wild indian & other creatures. nevada: university of nevada press, 1996. kitano. h.l. harry. race relatio1l3. prentice hall, inc. new jersey. 1985. momaday, n. scott. hmue made of dawn. new york: harpercollins publisher, inc., 1999. ross, marc howard. cultural contestation in ethnic conflict. cambridge university press, 2007. velie, alan r. american indian literature: an anthology. university of oklahoma press, 1991. weinstein, allen and david rubel. the story of america. freedom and crisis from settlement to superpower. dkpublishing, inc. new york, 2002. willdns, david e .. american indian politic3 and the american political system. usa: rowman and littlefield publisher, inc., 2002. www.usinfo.state.gov. adrian c. louis, in stories of adrian auntie angie's cheyenne affair. in http://wwwenglisb.uiuc.edulmapsl poets/glilouisl stories.htm, 2008. microsoft word 6a62-96e2-49de-6ae1 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia indonesian efl students’ tendencies in writing academic essays hikmah zalifah putri & bambang yudi cahyono 1graduate program in elt, faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, indonesia 2english department, faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, indonesia email: 1hikmahzalifahputri@yahoo.com; 2bambang.yudi.fs@um.ac.id received: 02-09-2020 accepted: 08-10-2020 published: 30-12-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj indonesian efl students’ tendencies in writing academic essays 1 hikmah zalifah putri and 2 bambang yudi cahyono 1 hikmahzalifahputri@yahoo.com; 2 bambang.yudi.fs@um.ac.id 1 graduate program in elt, faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, indonesia 2 english department, faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, indonesia abstract: this article aimed to find the tendencies exhibited by indonesian students of english as a foreign language (efl) students in writing an academic essay in english. a content analysis method is employed as the method of the study. the data of the study were the final draft of the essays written by efl students of the english department of a reputable university in east java, indonesia. the essays were analyzed by looking for the shared properties in each part of the essay. the data were analyzed by extracting the most common properties in each essay which are (a) thesis statement, (b) coherency, and (c) concluding remark. the results showed that the students tended to forget to use definite and indefinite articles, misuse the definite and indefinite articles with plural forms, to use of nouns and pronouns inconsistently, to use an english sentence with an indonesian rhetoric pattern, and to not include a summary of the subtopics discussed in their body paragraphs. the result may be use as reference for future writing classes in indonesia. key words: writing tendencies, contrastive rhetoric, opinion essay abstrak: artikel ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kecenderungan mahasiswa indonesia yang mempelajari bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing dalam menulis esai akademik dalam bahasa inggris. metode analisis isi digunakan sebagai metode penelitian. data penelitian berupa draf akhir esai yang ditulis oleh mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan bahasa inggris 302 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj di salah satu perguruan tinggi terkemuka di jawa timur, indonesia. esai dianalisis dengan mencari karakteristik yang sama di setiap bagian esai. analisis data dilakukan dengan memfokuskan pada karakteristik paling umum dalam setiap esai yaitu (a) pernyataan tesis, (b) koherensi, dan (c) simpulan esai. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa cenderung lupa menggunakan kata sandang pasti dan tidak pasti, menyalahgunakan kata sandang pasti dan tak pasti dengan bentuk jamak, menggunakan kata benda dan kata ganti yang tidak konsisten, menggunakan kalimat bahasa inggris dengan pola retorika bahasa indonesia, dan tidak mencantumkan ringkasan subtopik yang dibahas dalam paragraf utama esai mereka. hasilnya dapat dipakai sebagai referensi di kelas menulis selanjutnya di indonesia. kata kunci: kecenderungan menulis, perbandingan retorik, esai opini introduction the way people put their thoughts in the form of writing has always been influenced unconsciously by the preference of their cultural rhetoric pattern. kaplan (1966) found out that non-english writers often employ rhetoric and a certain sequence of thought in their writing that contrasts the rhetoric and thought sequence of those who are native in english. it is generally known that western and asian students have a very different rhetorical pattern when it came to writing academically in english. western students tend to be direct and are encouraged to write in a way that makes their intention clear. for asian students, their culture prefers indirectness. asian students compose their writing in a roundabout way. they also put on high faith in their readers to be able to find the main point of their writing. these rhetorical differences might develop from the learning approach that the students from both cultures have. western students are encouraged to be critical during the learning process. instead of only memorizing what is given by the teacher, the students try to find more information on their own and to speculate the possibilities of the answer to problems. this leads the students to have the chance to extend their prior knowledge and contribute their idea at the same time. asian students, on the other hand, are the complete opposite. one may say that asian learning culture is only imitating or memorizing what has been told to them by the teacher. kaplan (1988; 1987) speculated that a person who speaks two languages should organize their thoughts differently when they use the languages. this putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 303 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj seems obvious as the two languages have characteristics which are different form each other. however, he argues that this act is unconscious. the person is not aware of the influence of the first language (l1) on the way they organize text logic, of the nature that the second language (l2) has its own text logic, or of the fact that there is a difference between l1 and l2. that is why in the case that the l1 is vastly different from the l2, this difference can become a problem. the rhetorical pattern of the students owns culture affects the preference in the value and writing style employed by the students’ local writing community (xu, huang & you, 2016). in most cases, students from a certain institution in indonesia pick on these preferences and officially make these preferences as their standard on writing. usually, the students will write an essay based on how other students write their essays. the most common act when a student is stuck while writing is to copy the work of the students of the earlier year cohorts. even though not all the works are internationally acceptable, this practice still happens in south-east asian countries, including indonesia. a research study conducted by loi, evans, lim, and akkakoson (2016) found out that in writing the discussions part malay students showed dependency on the context, while english discussions are independent and standalone. the research also revealed that malay discussion from all the subjects’ articles showed similarity in which they did not put much on the explanation of the unexpected outcome and the limitation. meanwhile, efl indonesian students showed difficulty in expressing their main ideas in a sentence (husin, & nurbayani; 2017). this is because indonesian students tend to write in the indonesian way and translate the writing into english. translating an indonesian sentence into english in writing an essay has become a common practice among indonesian students although this creates problems in getting the main point across. this might be caused by the fact that some students did not get any teaching on how to write academically (martinez, lirola & irwin; 2016), they lack the ideas in writing, controlling, and organizing the ideas, and they do not refer to rhetoric pattern that can assist them to write in english (nurhayati, 2016; yunhadi, 2016). despite the clear indication that writing in english requires the rhetorical framework of thought of the language, indonesian students still hold on to their language text logic. this leads to the students to exhibit some tendencies in writing english. because of their rhetorical pattern in writing, some students are inclined to write in a certain way. these tendencies affect 304 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the quality of the writing of the students especially if they are different from what is acceptable in an international setting. therefore, this research aims to find the indonesian efl students’ tendencies and the implications on teaching academic writing essays. the research questions are: 1. what are the tendencies exhibited by efl students when writing an academic essay? 2. to what extent does the students’ local institution rhetoric pattern affect their writing? literature review a. the role of first language most of the difficulties faced by second language (l2) learners were imposed by their first language (l1). fries (1945) and lado (1957) argued that based on the contrastive analysis hypothesis the learner’s l1 knowledge might interfere with the l2. this could be seen from the structural linguistics that dissects the differences between languages taxonomically. from the behavioristic psychology it is believed that language learning was linked to a particular view of language learning as a series of habits that could be developed only through practice and reinforcement. in terms of writing in another language, the students might find that their view of english as a language is affected by their writing environment rhetoric patterns that have become an example for practices and had become the writing preference of the students. the contrastive analysis hypothesis also discusses how interference or a negative transfer that happens in l1 and l2 are completely different from one another. in the case where the l1 and l2 were similar then l1 would actively aid l2 learning or having a positive transfer. in terms of writing academically, if indonesian writing pattern is similar to the writing pattern of english language, it can be inferred that a positive transfer happens and the knowledge of the writing pattern in indonesian should aid the writing process in english. however, if the two languages are different. there would be some sort of interference during the writing process. putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 305 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. contextual variation in language-learner language language-learners' language contains errors. errors are important sources of information because they demonstrate conclusively that learner does not simply memorize target language rules and reproduce them in own utterances. one of the major explanations from second language acquisition (sla) theory is that learners’ errors are not systematic in any simple way. a learner rarely produces the same error in all contexts of use. there are two types of context variation. ellis (1989) divides contextual variation into two types. they are: 1. situational context learners use their knowledge of the second language differently in different situations, for example, learner produces errors when learner communicate directly; they do not have time to monitor the output. however, if they have the opportunity to monitor in producing language, they will not produce errors. 2. linguistic context learners produce errors in one type of sentence but not in another, for example, errors in the third person singular of the english simple present tense may not occur regularly in the second clause of complex sentences. c. rhetoric pattern during the process of composing a written text, there is a certain rhetoric pattern that is used by the writer. this pattern is heavily influenced by the writer’s first language and different languages that may have a different rhetoric pattern. this difference in the rhetoric pattern would cause some trouble, especially if the writer is not aware of that difference. kaplan (1966) stated that non-english writers often have this trouble. they unconsciously employ a certain thought process that contrasts the rhetoric pattern usually used in writing english. as a result, there would be some sentences or parts of the written text that did not make sense in the english context even though it makes perfect sense in the writer’s first language. therefore, when writing in a different language, the writer should be able to organize their thought in the rhetoric pattern of the target language. kaplan (1988; 1987), however, emphasized that non-english writers will unconsciously use the rhetoric pattern of their first language when writing in english. there are two reasons for this, as explained by kaplan. the first is the 306 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lack of awareness of the influence that the writer’s l1 has on their thought process and the lack of knowledge that english has its own thought process. lastly, the writer simply did not know that there is a difference between writing in their l1 and writing in english. they might have thought that because writing is universal the way everyone conveys messages and ideas will be the same. method a. type of research this study followed a content analysis method of research that can be achieved by collecting the final drafts of the participants’ writing, codifying, analyzing, listing the tendencies exhibited by the students’ and comparing them to the writing regulation set by the lecturer. b. research participants the participants of this study were 29 students of the english department of universitas negeri malang, a reputable state university in east java, indonesia. the students attended the argumentative writing course with four semester hours. the students are required to finish two pre-requisite courses which are paragraph writing and essay writing. the objective of the argumentative writing course is to help the students in making two kinds of essays: opinion and argumentative essays. the first half of the course was spent to write opinion essays and the second half was used to learn argumentative essays. the lecturer used a writing process approach in the teaching of argumentative writing. the students had to start their writing with a plan in the form of determining title and points of development. then the students had to write down a draft of their essay in a few meetings. the students were given occasional feedback by the lecturer regarding their essays and some revisions were made. the students were given time to revise and improve their essays before the essays were submitted as scheduled. the students’ essays were submitted in the middle of the course in the form of hard copy. data were collected from the students’ submitted essays which were the final versions of their essays. there were totally 29 opinion essays. the data were then codified and analyzed to see the tendencies exhibited by the putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 307 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students in their essays and then compared them to the writing regulation set by the lecturer. the students were required to write the introduction part, body part which consist of three paragraphs, and the conclusion part with a specific instruction made by the lecturer (see table 1). table 1: rubric for opinion essays part of essay length aspects to be evaluated introduction 3-5 sentences general introduction of the topic, thesis statement (contradictory statement). body paragraphs 1 8-12 sentences topic sentence, points that support the thesis statement. 2 8-12 sentences topic sentence, points that support the thesis statement. 3 8-12 sentences topic sentence, points that support the thesis statement. conclusion 2-3 sentences concluding signal, re-stating of the thesis statement in other words, summary of the points stated in the body part. personal comment for the introduction part, the students are expected to write in about three to five sentences consisting of a thesis statement in the form of contradictory statements. in the body part, the students are required to write three developmental paragraphs with the expected length of eight to twelve sentences in each paragraph that will describe the students’ opinion of the topic and support the thesis statement. the addition of examples, statistics, quotations, or other data are encouraged in these paragraphs. lastly, the conclusion part of the opinion essay must include concluding signals and the thesis statement written in different words or summary of the points stated in the body paragraph in two to three sentences. students are also asked to write a personal comment regarding the topic that they have chosen. the essays for this study were the final version of the opinion essay that has been checked and revised during the class. 308 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. research procedure the following steps were the procedures for this study: 1. categorizing based on the lecturer’s rubric for an opinion essay, the shared properties of the opinion essays are categorized into codes. 2. coding the codes for this study are thesis statement (ts), coherency (c), and concluding remark (cr). each code is given weight with the distribution of 20% for ts, 55% for c, and 25% for cr. 3. collecting the essays were collected after the students have revised their final draft and submitted it to their lecturer in the middle of the semester. 4. listing with the codes as guidance, the most common codes that appear in the students’ writing were stated as the students’ tendencies in writing an opinion essay. 5. comparing the last step was comparing the results with the expectation from the lecturer as stated in the rubric for opinion essays. the results of the analysis were reviewed to see whether the teaching process is suitable enough in helping the students meet the exercise. results and discussion a. results the tendencies exhibited by the efl students when writing an academic essay in this research are categorized into three parts. those three parts are (a) thesis statement, (b) coherency, and (c) concluding remark. putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 309 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1. thesis statement in the case of writing the thesis statement for the opinion essays, the lecturer has specified the criteria on what is expected from the students which is in the form of contradictory sentences. almost all the students have followed the instruction to use contradictory sentences for their thesis statement. however, student 5 used an interrogative sentence instead of a contradictory sentence. essay 5: “so how to prevent this happened to our family or closest person? what should we do to avoid this action keep occurring in indonesia? i will give you a 3 bright explanation to prevent bullying from occurring in indonesia.” from the analysis of all of the essays, there are two tendencies exhibited by the students in writing their thesis statement. the first is the lack of the indefinite (a/an) and definite article (the) when the sentence required one. some students show a bit of confusion for the use of the indefinite article with the plural form of the word. here are the examples in the thesis statement: essay 1: “although education is important for youngster, in my opinion, there are many youngsters in indonesia who did not get proper education because of three reasons.” essay 25: “even though indonesia already have a child protection organization, i believe that indonesian government should create a straight rules for bullying that caused by underage children.” essay 5: “i will give you a 3 bright explanation to prevent bullying from occurring in indonesia.” the other tendency is on the lack of focus on the controlling ideas stated in the thesis statement. all of the essays have good thesis statements. 310 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the preference for arranging the ideas for the essay is by indicating the pattern of organization or indication of subtopics. the students have a strong tendency to indicate the subtopics they wanted to discuss in the body paragraphs. according to oshima and hogue (2006), this kind of arrangement of ideas is called the logical division of ideas. the most common phrase used by the students to indicate their subtopics is “because of three reasons”. essay 13: “although the parents think that reading habit not beneficial, i believe that reading habit need to be applied and get more attention from parents because of three reasons.” essay 26 “eventhough many people in society consider cross-gender art as something strange and inappropriate, i believe this tradition is worth preserving because of three reasons.” 2. coherency oshima and hogue (2006) describe coherence as being logical and smooth in transitioning between one sentence to the other. there should not be a sudden jump in writing. each sentence must hold together for them to be coherent. this is what makes the whole essay makes sense. there are four ways to achieve coherence (oshima & hogue, 2006). they are the repetition of key nouns, the consistent use of pronouns, the use of transition signals to link ideas, and the arrangement of ideas in a logical order. a) the use of consistent nouns and pronouns for the consistent use of nouns and pronouns, like what has been stated in the thesis statement section, there is some confusion for the use of plural and singular forms. for the essay to be coherent, it is advisable for the writer to choose what pronouns they wanted to refer to a singular subject or a plural subject. around twenty-one students have shown some tendencies to use the singular and the plural forms of the noun interchangeably. this causes them to have to switch between using a singular pronoun or a plural pronoun. putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 311 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj essay 1: “....why many youngsters in indonesia did not get proper education....... this problem needs to be solves quickly in order to improve its youngster quality.” essay 27: “in 2020 ministry of communication will enforce new rules. that rule is every smartphone that its imei does not register in the ministry of communication (black market phone) will be blocked.” there is also inconsistency on the subject-verb agreement as shown below: essay 12: “....it is so pitiful to see the victim is hut, but the bullies is really fine.” essay 8: “...some research said that person who are good at playing games have better levels of brain creativity than other children” b) the arrangement of ideas in a logical order almost all of the students have chosen to indicate the number of subtopics that they would discuss in the body paragraph. although this is one of the three acceptable ways to arrange ideas in essay writing according to oshima and hogue (2006), the downside is a lack of control in the students’ body paragraphs. some students’ have two ideas in one paragraph instead of one. the lack of detailed subtopics in the thesis statement means that the topic sentence for each paragraph in the body paragraphs became too broad. because of this, some students tend to write down another idea that does not have any connection with the topic sentence. essay 8: “the second reason why women should work is not underestimated by men. according to a new survey ou of 312 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj australia where men reported......... and also to increase a woman’s confidence that they can also be financial independence.” essay 15: “next, she is beautiful. although she used drugs, she is in the jail, and she was a man, she looks so beautiful. ........ . that is the reason why lucinta luna is beautiful and always cares about her body.” c) translation from indonesia to english the overall essays show good quality of writing except several tendencies that make them completely different from what is expected from english writing. however, there are several sentences -especially complex sentences that feel like an english sentence with an indonesian rhetoric pattern. it feels a little bit confusing because some choices of words or the order of words might make sense in indonesian but when translated into english, the equivalence of the word might not make a complete sense. essay 16: “all in all, kampus merdeka will be enforced because it will be benefitial to students and campus, it can be something assisting to build this nation, ans it will be able to lift up the name of indonesia.” essay 12 “the second reason to support bullies must get a penalty that make them not bullying other again is to make deterrent effect for the bullies.” 3. concluding remark in ending the essay, it is important to make a good concluding remark that summarizes the whole ideas presented beforehand in the body paragraphs. for this specific essay, the lecturer specified the use of concluding signals, the restatement of the thesis statement in different words or summarizing the controlling ideas, and personal comment. putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 313 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the specification for concluding remark set by the lecturer was in line with what oshima and hogue (2006) state as the functions of concluding remark. they are summarizing the subtopics, paraphrasing the thesis statement, and conveying a message to the reader. however, some of the students did not include a summary of the subtopics discussed in their body paragraphs. there is even a student who wrote down another idea not discussed previously. essay 5: “don’t let bullying get you, that person is sad enough to be the one who starts talking about people. just ignore it, walk away or change the topic if you two were in a conversation beforehand. if the action is really serious, consult someone else, preferably an adult, or ask that you can move classes.” essay 14: “to conclude, the stucked water channel and no water infiltration place are caused by human itself while the high intensify rain is cause by nature. therefore, the government should give extra attention to the problems if the do not want the flood to happen again in the future.” essay 23: “all in all, before applying this system, the government and the schools should consider its disadvantages. also the school is responsible for making the environment pleasant for students, thus they will not get bored all day in the school gates. because the goal of this system is to improve the quality of the schools not to add burden for students, parents, even teachers.” 4. institution rhetoric pattern for this research, the institution rhetoric pattern used is the rubric for opinion essay that the lecturer has shown to the students before they write their opinion essay. the rubric served as a guide for the students in how the opinion essay is expected to be. after comparing with what oshima and hogue (2006) had explained in their book about how to write an academic essay as expected by english-native writers. it can be concluded that the rubric is in line with the book. 314 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj almost all the students have followed this rubric when writing their opinion essay. only several individuals seemed to write a certain part of the essay differently. for example, as has been shown earlier, one student did not write the thesis statement as a contradictory sentence but as an interrogative sentence instead. after comparing the students’ final writing with the rubric, we can conclude that the students have written the way that is accepted by native english writers. even though there are still some tendencies that are caused by the different thought pattern in how to convey a message in indonesian and english, the text organization conforms to the english academic essay text organization. this happened because the rubric for opinion essays created by the teacher has been an excellent guide for the students. b. discussion according to kaplan’s (1987) theory of contrastive rhetoric, the thought pattern of l1 will be used unconsciously when the l1 writers want to write in l2. he said that the act is unconscious because (a) the l1 writers are not aware that a certain pattern exists and influences them when they write in l2, (b) they are not aware of the fact that l2 has its thought pattern, and (c) they do not realize that there is a difference in thought pattern between l1 and l2. this thought pattern is linked with the culture of the language that is accepted by the people as the right way of writing. this acceptance has made the rhetorical pattern to be internalized in the local writing community (loi, evans, lim, & akkakoson, 2016). this leads to certain tendencies that still exist despite the awareness of the writers of this contrastive rhetoric between l1 and l2. first, the students' essays showed the confusion of the use of definite and indefinite articles. when the articles are supposed to be used, some students did not use them. meanwhile, when they used plural forms, they include the indefinite article (a) even though it is grammatically incorrect. this might happen because of the way indonesians write singular and plural forms. in english, the singular forms required the use of a indefinite article (a/an) for a general noun or the use of the definite article (the) for a specific noun that both the writer and reader already knew. however, in indonesian, there is no such a thing as definite and indefinite articles. grammatically, an indonesian sentence requires the word “sebuah” to show a singular form and the repetition of the noun word for plural. for example, the word table which is “meja” in indonesian should be written as “sebuah meja” to show the putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 315 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj singularity of “meja-meja” for the plural form. this is correct grammatically but if a writer decided not to include the word “sebuah,” the reader can still understand that the word is in the singular form. this rhetoric pattern might unconsciously be transferred while writing in english. that is why most of the students tend to miss the definite and indefinite articles when they write the singular forms. next, the students’ essays showed the inconsistency of nouns and pronouns. one of the requirements for an essay to be coherent is to have a consistent nouns and pronouns. this means that when the writer chose a noun or a subject, they have to be consistent about the form they want to use, either the singular form or the plural form. if the writer chose to address the subject in the plural form, then wherever the subject is mentioned it should be in the plural form. the same can be said with the pronoun used. if at the beginning the writer changed the subject with the pronoun “he” then the pronoun “he” should be used. this also applies to how indonesian essays should be written (mulyana, 2005). some of the students’ essays showed inconsistency in this aspect. cholsy (2005) stated that the indonesian language does not have any specific marker when it comes to plurality in either written form or oral form. this might be caused by the pragmatic aspect of some indonesian words. based on how the sentence is constructed, the singular form used represents the plural form. haryanti, and fatimah (2016) explain that this is an intra-system shift because there is a different between two languages in how they translate the singular and plural form. this can be seen in one of the students’ essays where he wrote “youngster” or “anak muda” in the essay but in a few sentences, he wrote “youngsters”. based on the intra-system shift in translating these words, the writer used the system in indonesian where the use of plural and singular for the word “anak muda” didn’t change the message of the essay. however, this is only true in the case of translating english sentences into indonesian sentences. if it is the other way around, the system used in english should have been used instead. therefore, the use of a plural or singular form should be consistent because it might change the message of the sentence. third, the students’ body paragraphs showed the lack of controlling ideas. research conducted by yunhadi (2016) showed that indonesian students tend to have problems when they are developing an idea of a paragraph. he argued that this happened because of the mistake in developing ideas in the paragraph, where the students failed to limit the discussion of the paragraph. this might happen because of indonesian rhetoric to explain 316 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj things in a roundabout way. even though the students have written down their controlling ideas in the thesis statement, the rhetoric pattern of indonesian has made them unable to discuss the idea straightforwardly. lastly, there are some sentences in english with an indonesian rhetoric pattern. looking back at kaplan’s (1987) theory on contrastive rhetoric, the tendencies to write english sentences with an indonesian rhetoric pattern might have been because of the fact that the students are not aware of the fact that indonesian has a rhetoric pattern different from english and it influences how they write. while syntactically correct, the sentences are not semantically and/or pragmatically correct. the sentences were constructed not in a way that is accepted as correct english. the sentences made sense in indonesian but they do not make sense in english. conclusion most of the students can produce good quality writing. they can meet the requirement of what a good opinion essay should be. this is because of the rubric shared by the lecturer that served as a guide for the students when writing their essays. by sticking closely to the lecturer’s rubric, the students can make a good opinion essay. however, there are still some tendencies exhibited by the students that are not in line with the english rhetoric pattern. those tendencies are the confusion of the use of definite and indefinite articles, inconsistency of the use of nouns and pronouns, the lack of controlling ideas, and the existence of some sentences in english with an indonesian rhetoric pattern. these are things that are not mentioned in the rubric, but they are linked to the indonesian rhetoric pattern. so, it can be concluded that writing in english can be affected by the writer’s first language (l1) rhetoric pattern but the effect could be minimized with a correct guideline on how an essay should be written in english. references cholsy, h. (2005). plurality marker in french and indonesian language. jurnal humaniora, 17(1), 78-88. ellis, r. (1989). understanding second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press. putri, h. z. & cahyono, b. y., indonesian elt students’ tendenciesin writing 317 academic essays https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fries, c. c. (1945). teaching and learning english as a foreign language. ann arbor: university of michigan press. haryanti, d., & fatimah, s. (2016). translation of english subjects to indonesian and the application on teaching translation. the 3rd university research colloquium (urecol), 2, 11-20. husin, m. s., & nurbayani, e. (2017). the ability of indonesian efl learners in writing academic papers. dinamika ilmu, 17(2), 237-250. kaplan, r. b. (1966). cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. language learning, 26,1-20. kaplan, r. b. (1987). cultural thought patterns revisited. in u. connor & r. b. kaplan (eds.), writing across languages: analysis of l2 text (pp. 9-21). reading, ma: addison-wesley. kaplan, r. b. (1988). contrastive rhetoric and second language learners: notes toward a theory of contrastive rhetoric. in a. c. purves (ed.), writing across languages and cultures (pp. 275-304). newbury park, ca: sage. lado, r. (1957). linguistics across cultures: applied linguistics for language teachers. ann arbor: university of michigan press lirola, m. m., & irwin, d. s. (2016). challenges in the application of genre theory to improve l2 academic writing: effective reports and assessment. asian tefl, 1(1). 39-54. loi, c. k., evans, m. s., lim, j. m. h., & akkakoson, s. (2016). a comparison between malay and english research article discussions: a move analysis. sage open, 6(2), 1-11. lotfi, s. a. t., sarkeshikian, s. a. h., & saleh, e. (2019). a cross-cultural study of the use of metadiscourse markers in argumentative essays by iranian and chinese efl students. taylor & francis, 6(1), 1-14. mulyana. (2005). discourse study. yogyakarta: tiara wacana. nurhayati, d. a. w. (2016). using local drama in writing and speaking: efl learners’ creative expression. journal of english language teaching and linguistics, 1(1), 51–77. 318 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 301 – 318 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj oshima, a., & hogue, a. (2006). writing academic english (4" ed.). white plains, ny: pearson education. xu, m., huang, c., & yoxu, m., huang, c., & you, x. (2016). reasoning patterns of undergraduate theses in translation studies: an intercultural rhetoric study. english for specific purposes, 41, 68-81. yunhadi, w. (2016). the structural parts of paragraph writing by indonesian efl learners. international journal of efl, 1(1), 33-43. 11-1.pdf a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia promoting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study 1fitri budi suryani, 2dwi rukmini, 3dwi anggani 4linggar bharati, and 5rudi hartono 1,2,3,4,english education program, post graduate study, universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia email: 1fitri.budi@umk.ac.id; 2wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com, 3dwi_anggani@yahoo.com; 4rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com received: 15-11-2017 accepted: 14-04-2018 published: 23-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj promoting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study 1fitri budi suryani, 2dwi rukmini, 3dwi anggani 4linggar bharati, and 5rudi hartono 1fitri.budi@umk.ac.id; 2wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com, 3dwi_anggani@yahoo.com; 4rudi_fbsunnes@yahoo.com 1,2,3,4english education program, post graduate study, universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia abstract: the success of lesson study as an approach for teacher professional development in improving students’ learning has inspired the works on microteaching lesson study which is designed for student teachers in microteaching course. some studies show that microteaching lesson study brought about positive result to student teachers’ pedagogical ability and content knowledge. however, that microteaching lesson study influences student teachers in their teaching internship, that is the course taken after microteaching where student teachers teach real students in real schools, has not been revealed yet. this study aims at exploring the influence of microteaching lesson study on the english as a foreign language (efl) student teachers in teaching internship and to what extent the influence was to promote the efl student teachers’ life-long learning to teach. it is a qualitative study with semi-structured group interview as the instrument of the research. the subject of the study was ten efl student teachers who voluntarily participated in the study from twenty two student teachers. they had enrolled in a microteaching class that applied microteaching lesson study in the sixth semester and then took the teaching internship in the seventh semester. the finding of the study indicates that microteaching lesson study has considerably influences most of the efl student teachers in gaining life-long learning to teach as they already implemented the steps of microteaching lesson study in their teaching internship initiatively. finally, this study recommends teacher educators to adapt lesson study in microteaching course that can make the efl student teachers to keep learning to teach. mailto:fitri.budi@umk.ac.id mailto:wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com mailto:dwi_anggani@yahoo.com 268 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 267 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: microteaching lesson study, efl student teachers, teaching internship abstrak: kesuksesan lesson study sebagai pendekatan pengembangan profesional guru dalam memperbaiki pembelajaran siswa telah menginspirasi microteaching lesson study yang didesain untuk mahasiswa calon guru di kelas microteaching. beberapa penelitian menunjukkan bahwa microteaching lesson study membawa dampak positif bagi kemampuan pedagogi dan content knowledge mahasiswa calon guru. akan tetapi, bagaimana microteaching lesson study mempengaruhi mahasiswa calon guru selama praktek pengalaman lapangan belum ada yang meneliti. penelitian ini bertujuan mengeksplorasi pengaruh microteaching lesson study pada mahasiswa calon guru bahasa inggris dalam praktek pengalaman lapangan dan seberapa besar pengaruh tersebut dalam memajukan belajar untuk mengajar sepanjang hayat. penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif dengan instrumen interview semi struktur. subjek penelitian berjumlah sepuluh dari dua puluh dua mahasiswa calon guru bahasa inggris yang berpartisipasi secara suka rela. mereka telah mengimplementasikan microteaching lesson study di kelas microteaching di semester enam dan telah menyelesaikan praktek pengalaman lapangan di semester tujuh. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa microteaching lesson study mempengaruhi sebagian besar mahasiswa calon guru bahasa inggris dalam memperoleh ketrampilan belajar untuk mengajar sepanjang hayat melalui pengimplementasian microteaching lesson study dalam praktek pengalaman lapangan mereka. penelitian ini memberikan rekomendasi bagi para pendidik calon guru untuk mengadaptasi lesson study dalam perkuliahan microteaching yang dapat membuat mahasiswa calon guru bahasa inggris tetap belajar untuk mengajar. kata kunci: microteaching lesson study, mahasiswa calon guru bahasa inggris, praktek pengalaman lapangan introduction being a language teacher requires not only knowledge and skills such as content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge, but also the adaptive character to keep learning to teach. this learning to teach goes through for the whole life in which the process occurs not when ones firstly become teachers; rather such processes have started when they were still students, and continue when they become student teachers learning to be teachers at university. in other suryani, f.b., rukmini, d., anggani, d., bharati, l.,& hartono, r. promo 269 ting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj words, johnson (2009) states that learning to teach is a long-term, complex, developmental process. through the process that the student teachers experience during their education and training at unversity, they are expected to be ‘adaptive experts who can continue to learn’ (darling-hammond, 2006, p. 6). from sociocultural perspective, second language teacher education (slte) the term covers both second and foreign language teacher education views teachers as learners of teaching. they learn to teach by participating in social practices and contexts related to learning and teaching. the participation in language learning and teaching involves interaction in which the key factor to it is in the engagement. thus, it is significant to design activities that enable student teachers to be actively engaged in learning and teaching. such activities are present in microteaching lesson study. microteaching lesson study is the integration lesson study in microteaching course in which student teachers practice teaching. as it combines microteaching and lesson study, it incorporates as well the elements from both microteaching and lesson study. they include the teaching of small group of peers or real students, the shortened length of teaching time, the division of student teachers into group of three, the cycles of lesson sudy, and the use of video to capture the lesson. the combination of elements from lesson study and microteaching in microteaching lesson study provides student teachers with circumstances that can engage them in collaborative activities. the engagement enables student teachers to participate in direct experiences as teacher, starting from designing the lesson to teach, then implement it in teaching, until finally reflect on it and revise the lesson plan. as that process is gone through collaboratively rather than individually, it creates a social setting that becomes a prerequisite for the growth of human cognition. in other words, microteaching lesson study provides student teachers with a chance to learn to teach. some studies reveal that microteaching lesson study has benefitted the student teachers in learning to teach, improving their content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and technological pedagogical content knowledge (fernandez and robinson, 2006; cavin, 2007; fernandez 2010; macdowell, 2010; molina, 2012). those benefits were investigated right after the microteaching lesson study was completed. nevertheless, little is known about the impact of microteaching lesson study when the student teachers enroll in teaching internship, that is when they practice teaching in real 270 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 267 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj schools with real students in which they are not obliged to conduct the steps as in microteaching lesson study. the present study was guided by the following two research questions: 1. does microteaching lesson study influence the efl student teachers in their teaching internship? 2. to what extent is the influence of microteaching lesson study in the efl student teachers in their teaching internship to promote the efl student teachers’ life-long learning to teach? literature review a. microteaching lesson study microteaching lesson study is a modification of lesson study to be used in microteaching course for student teachers. it draws the elements from lesson study. lesson study is a successful teacher professional development originated in japan. lesson study is popular nowadays as it has proven some benefits mainly in improving teachers’ instructional strategies, concern about students’ need and performance, and collaboration with colleagues (meyer, 2005; kim, 2011; van sickle, 2011). some central elements of lesson study maintained in microteaching lesson study, as noted by fernandez (2008) include an overarching goal for the lesson, collaboration among teachers, the steps of lesson planning, implementation, observation, and revision, and a written reflective report on the lesson study work. thus, in microteaching lesson study the student teachers work in group of three to conduct such steps as research lesson planning, teaching and observing, and reflecting and refining the lesson plan. in research lesson planning, the student teachers design the lesson plan together which usually consists of identity of school, grade, semester, topic, skill, time allotment, method, media, and material, steps of teaching, assessment, and student sheet. there is one more feature that must appear in the student teachers’ lesson plan in microteaching lesson study that is the anticipation of students’ response. it is a prediction of what the students will react on the teacher’s steps of teaching. this feature is crucial since one of the focuses in microteaching lesson study is the student learning. during the research lesson planning, the student teachers also discuss what they will observe in the next step. the lesson is then taught by one of the members of the group, while the other two suryani, f.b., rukmini, d., anggani, d., bharati, l.,& hartono, r. promo 271 ting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj members will observe. in the next step, the result from the observation will be discussed and reflected by the group. this step will bring about the points of weaknesses and strengths from the teaching learning process that leads to the refinement of the lesson plan. the result of this process is then written as a reflective report on the work. then, the other member of the group will teach using the refined lesson plan. the process will thus be iterated again. since implemented in microteaching course, microteaching lesson study takes some elements from microteaching as well. these can be found in the reduced class size, the reduced lesson length, and videotaped lesson. the number of student teachers in microteaching is usually small, around 5 to 10 student teachers. the length of the lesson is also reduced from the usual 45 minute teaching time into 15 to 20 minutes. moreover, the lesson is videotaped for further analysis by student teachers if needed. b. sociocultural perspective on slte sociocultural perspective views the core of second language teacher education in teachers as learners of teaching. it informs the cognitive and social processes that teachers go through as they learn to teach. johnson (2009, p. 3) argues that sociocultural perspective provides second language teacher education with “a theory of mind that recognizes the inherent interconnectedness of the cognitive and social, and allows us to see the rich details of how teacher learning emerges out of and is constructed by teachers within settings and circumstances of their work”. sociocultural perspective also influences second language teacher education in perceiving language teaching. teaching is seen as creating learning opportunities in which individuals can participate in activities that provide them with direct experiences (johnson, 2009). such participation in language learning and teaching involves interaction in which the key factor to it is in the engagement. mercer and littleton (2007) emphasize the important role of engagement with the notion of ‘exploratory talk’. it refers to a kind of talk “in which partners engage critically but constructively with each other’s ideas” (littleton & mercer, 2010, p. 276). this is in line with lefstein (2010) who mentions that communication brings the potential sources of tensions between participants, between ideas, and between the concerns raised by each dimension. 272 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 267 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methods a. research design as the aims of this study were to explore the influence of microteaching lesson study on the efl student teachers in their teaching internship and to what extent that influence was to promote the efl student teachers’ life-long learning to teach, the design of this study is qualitative. it focused primarily on the efl student teachers’ views of the impact of their microteaching lesson study on their teaching internship program. b. context of the study this study took place at the english education department (eed) of muria kudus university. the eed has run a microteaching lesson study in one of the microteaching courses, i.e. microteaching e class. microteaching is one of the practical courses that is offered for the sixth semester efl student teachers after they pass some prerequisites courses such as introduction to linguistics, teaching method for young learners, teaching methods for adult learners, language assessment, language teaching media, and so forth. the efl student teachers enrolled in the six credit microteaching course and learned to teach in front of their peers and real students. each efl student teacher was given three chances of practicing teaching: twice in front of their peers, and once in front of real students of secondary schools. real students of secondary schools here means the students of secondary schools who were willing to come to the microteaching class to be the students taught by the efl student teachers. in the next semester, the seventh semester, the efl student teachers enrolled in teaching internship program, in which they practice teaching in real context of schools. hence, they have opportunity not only to experience real teaching with real students in schools, but also to gain insights and understanding as to how this profession of english teacher is about. during their teaching internship program, the efl student teachers were supervised by a practicing teacher from the school and a mentor from their university. none of the supervisors obliged them to do the steps as in microteaching lesson study. c. participants of the study all of the research participants in this study have enrolled in microteaching lesson study and have passed the microteaching course. they suryani, f.b., rukmini, d., anggani, d., bharati, l.,& hartono, r. promo 273 ting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj took the teaching internship program in the next semester (the seventh semester) where they taught in practicing schools, either junior high schools or senior high schools. the selection of the research participants was conducted voluntarily which means that only those who were willing to participate in this study were selected. ten efl student teachers from three different practicing schools agreed to participate in this study. there were three male participants and seven female participants. the number of female participants exceeded the male ones as this phenomenon is common in english education department. the participants of this study then signed the consent form explaining that they agreed to be interviewed after they completed their teaching internship. the topic of the study was revealed to the participants, but not the topic of the interview. they just knew it on the day of the interview. the purpose of this is to collect the natural data from participants as whether microteaching lesson study have impact on their teaching internship and to what extent the impact was to promote the efl student teachers’ life-long learning to teach. d. data collection interviews were conducted after the participants completed their teaching internship program. the group interviews were chosen in which the interviewees were divided into two groups and each interview lasted for about one and a half hour. the interview used indonesian language as the efl student teachers felt more free to speak up their thoughts using indonesian. there were only three main questions in the interview including whether microteaching lesson study influence their teaching internship, and if it does, then in what way it influences, and finaly to what extent it influences them regarding the life-long learning to teach. the type of interview conducted was semi-structured one. this means that from those three main questions, the other questions are possible to come up and asked. the interviews were recorded and then transcribed. e. data analysis the data obtained from the interviews were analyzed qualitatively following dornyei’s (2011). it consists of three steps: transcribing the data, precoding and coding, and interpreting and drawing conclusions. 274 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 267 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj findings the participants of this study have enrolled in microteaching lesson study for a semester in their microteaching course. microteaching lesson study draws the elements from lesson study as well as its steps and give the student teachers the collaborative experience during their microteaching class where they must teach in front of a small group of their peers or real students. the collaborative experience is realized in having the efl student teachers to work in group of three for their microteaching project. it is also found through the steps of microteaching lesson study starting from designing research lesson together within their group, teaching and observing, and refining the lesson plan. after completing their microteaching course and passed it, the efl student teachers joined the teaching internship program in the next seventh semester. this program lasted for three months and required the student teachers to teach in practicing schools, either junior high schools or senior high schools. in each practicing school, there were four to five efl student teachers. this study aims to investigate whether the experience of microteaching lesson study they had in their microteaching class influences their teaching internship program. from the ten participants practicing in three different schools, one acknowledged that she did not implement the steps of microteaching lesson study in her teaching internship program. the reason is that the practicing teacher asked her to work individually during the teaching internship although in her practicing school, there were five efl student teachers. as microteaching lesson study requires collaborative work with other student teachers, the individual work will cause the efl student teachers not able to implement microteaching lesson study during their teaching internship. the other nine efl student teachers noted that they implemented one or more steps of microteaching lesson study in their teaching internship. some even conducted all the steps although not exactly the same as those in their microteaching course they ever did. three students who happened to have their teaching internship in the same practicing senior high school explained that they always had discussion on the lesson plan when they were designing it. even though they all taught eleventh grade, they must design their lesson plan differently by themselves. however, they chose to discuss their designing lesson plan with their peers as the similarity in the grade they taught. furthermore, they stated that the suryani, f.b., rukmini, d., anggani, d., bharati, l.,& hartono, r. promo 275 ting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discussion helped them when they had difficulty with the lesson plan they were planning. they could share ideas one another on such matters as the material for teaching, the methods of teaching, and the media they used. they were also able to seek help from their peers to check their student sheet as some students were criticized by their practicing teacher for the mistakes they made in their student sheet. they noted that they did it willingly as they have got used to do it since the microteaching lesson study they ever experienced. nonetheless, their discussion did not include the anticipation of student response which is one of the components that they must prepare in microteaching lesson study. the anticipation of student response is used to predict the likely responses of students to the lesson taught. it is crucial in lesson study because the focus on lesson study is how the students learn. the anticipation of student response enables teachers to plan their lesson completely (stigler and hiebert, 1999). the absence of anticipation of student response in the efl student teachers might be due to the format of lesson plan they designed did not require the anticipation of student response. all lesson plan formats in high schools in indonesia usually include the information on the school identity, grade, semester, time that teacher teaches, the topic, method of teaching, steps of teaching, material used for teaching, learning sources, assessment, and student sheet. as the anticipation of student response is not stated in the format of the lesson plan they designed, the efl student teachers did not pay attention to it and focused more on the components in the format they were required. during the teaching practice, those student teachers also followed the second step of microteaching lesson study, that is implementing the lesson plan and observing their peer practice teaching. they did the observation when one of their peer was teaching. in addition, they video-recorded the process of their peer teaching. the difference of the second step in microteaching lesson study and in the student teachers’ teaching internship is that the student teachers did not prepare for their observation sheet. they did not have discussion previously on what to observe when their peer teaching. that’s why they did not take a note what they were observing. they said that they just watched and tried to remember what they thought important from their peer teaching. after all, they could play the recorded video if there was something they needed to watch again. this is the reason why they made the video recording of the teaching practice of their peers. the result of their observation was used as input for improving their lesson plan before they taught their classes. furthermore, they did reflection 276 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 267 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj on their peer teaching. the efl student teachers explained that the mistakes or flaws that their peers did during their teaching enabled them to learn not to do the same things in their own teaching. moreover, if they saw that their peers’ teaching practice had strengths or it worked well, they could imitate it and apply it for their class. those input becomes the source for the efl student teachers to refine and revise their lesson plan. however, the efl student teachers’ reflection on their peer teaching was conducted orally through discussion with their peers. none of them made written reflection on it. this is one of the differences between the reflection in microteaching lesson study and that in the teaching internship. the other difference is found in doing the revision of the lesson plan. the efl student teachers did not regularly and collaboratively had discussion when doing the revision of their lesson plan. instead, they often did it individually. the time constraint is the reason for this individual work as everyone might have different schedule. they were not always able to gather to discuss their lesson plan revision with their peers. for this reason, having it done individually becomes the solution in the teaching internship. the findings of this study shows that microteaching lesson study in the microteaching course have influence on the teaching internship of the efl student teachers. this is clearly seen from the fact that some efl student teachers initiated to implement the steps of microteaching lesson study in the teaching internship on their own. they willingly did that without any force or obligation from their mentor or practicing teacher. this indicates that the efl student teachers receive benefits from their previous experience of microteaching lesson study that urge them voluntarily to conduct it again in their teaching internship program. furthermore, the complex nature of teaching internship becomes one of the influential factors that makes the efl student teachers to implement the steps of microteaching lesson study in their teaching internship. some previous studies reveal that microteaching lesson study brings advantages for student teachers regardless of their fields of study. fernandez and robinson (2006) reported that microteaching lesson study is beneficial to the secondary mathematics pre-service teachers learning to teach. the recent research by fernandez (2010) showed that mathematics pre-service teachers’ engagement in microteaching lesson study deepened their understanding of the content and enhanced their ability to teach. molina (2012) stated that elementary pre-service teachers participating in microteaching lesson study grew in content knowledge as well as pedagogical content knowledge. this finding is in alignment with macdowell’s (2010) that shows pre-service suryani, f.b., rukmini, d., anggani, d., bharati, l.,& hartono, r. promo 277 ting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teachers deepened their pedagogical content knowledge after experiencing microteaching lesson study. even though this study does not investigate the benefits of microteaching lesson study that the efl student teachers received, they benefitted from microteaching lesson study as they continued to conduct the steps in microteaching lesson study during their teaching internship. as a matter of fact, the findings showed that the efl student teachers also experienced such benefits when they had their teaching internship. one of the benefits that efl student teachers attained is having input and feedback from their peer student teachers. one student teacher stated that when she had difficulty with lesson plan, having discussion with her peers could help her to solve her problems. not only she could gain input from her peers, but she also could see from different angles that her peers view. this raises awareness and adds new perspectives that enrich her knowledge and skill. another student teacher mentioned that the feedback that she got from her peers on her teaching performance helped her improve her next teaching performance. this is in line with richards and farrel (as cited in day, 2013, p. 2) who explains that one of the benefits of peer observation is ‘helping narrowing the gap between a teacher’s imagined view of teaching and what actually happens’. moreover, the collaboration experience helps student teachers in making a lesson work for their students (cavin, 2007). in other words, the efl student teachers felt that their content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge were improved through the collaborative steps of lesson study in their teaching internship. the other factor that might motivate the efl student teachers to implement the steps of microteaching lesson study in their teaching internship is that the complex environment and problems the efl student teachers encounter when teaching the real students in real schools as in the practicing schools. this condition is very much different compared to teaching a small group of their peers in microteaching class in their university. in the teaching internship, the efl student teachers act as real teachers with real students in real schools. their position and responsibility are considered the same as other teachers in those schools. in darling-hammond’s (2006, p. 6) term, they ‘learn not only to “think like a teacher” but also to “act as a teacher”’. therefore, they need to have better preparation and actions to be able to face the problems that might appear during their teaching internship. therefore, implementing the steps of microteaching lesson study in their teaching internship becomes their solution to deal with the complexity and problems of the teaching 278 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 267 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj internship program. by facing it together with their peers in a structured way like the steps of microteaching lesson study, those efl student teachers definitely engage in a meaningful collaborative experience. the engagement in the collaborative works like in microteaching lesson study can be a powerful source for the efl student teachers to face the complexities of the teaching internship. it provides the student teachers with what singh and richards (2009, p. 202) calls ‘communities of practice’ which ‘grant a primary place to the social activities being engaged in’. in these communities of practice, the efl student teachers are given opportunities to learn to teach where they are welcome to make mistakes and have flaws and at the same time get a chance to improve them. through the step of reflecting and refining, the efl student teachers can learn that it is fine and accepted if their teaching does not run as they already plan because they can reflect on it and refine it to make a better teaching. this helps them to avoid the desperate feeling when dealing with the problematic new teaching situation in real schools. instead, it fosters a conducive circumstance that makes them persistent and resilient to keep learning to teach not only after they complete their teaching internship, but also when they have become real teachers in the future. from the sociocultural perspective, such collaborative engagement contributes significantly to the formation of human cognition. as johnson (2009, p. 3) notes, “teacher learning emerges out of and is constructed by teachers within settings and circumstances of their work”. it is not transmitted from mentor to student teachers as held by traditional perspective on second language teacher education. moreover, teaching is seen as creating learning opportunities in which individuals can participate in activities that provide them with direct experiences (johnson, 2009). such participation in language learning and teaching involves interaction in which the key factor to it is in the engagement. the steps of microteaching lesson study have rich setting and circumstances that enable the efl student teachers to construct their learning to teach. all the steps of microteaching lesson study offer active participation from its members to interact in discussion, debate, and sharing. the first step of planning the lesson requires the student teachers to sit together to discuss how the lesson will be designed. they also must plan the focus of the observation that they will conduct in the second step. in the third step after teaching and observing, they again gather to see how the lesson goes as the plan. they do the reflection and finally make substantial changes to the lesson suryani, f.b., rukmini, d., anggani, d., bharati, l.,& hartono, r. promo 279 ting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj plan for the next teaching. wilson and peterson (2006) state that “the social occasions of conversation, discussion, joint work, and debate also play a critical role in learning”. in other words, wilson and peterson (2006) highlight that we learn by participating in groups as found in microteaching lesson study. the implementation of the steps of microteaching lesson study in the efl student teachers’ teaching internship enables them to construct their knowledge of learning and teaching that affect the formation of cognition. it is the key to learning to teach which they need for their future career as english teachers. learning to teach is a life-long learning because being a teacher necessitates to learn for the whole of life. the fast changing of world nowadays inevitably affects the classroom as well as the teaching. consequently, this requires english teachers to keep learning to teach. microteaching lesson study has helped shaping the spirit and good habits of the efl student teachers to continuing learning to teach through their conducting it in their teaching internship. conclusion the efl student teachers have implemented the steps of microteaching lesson study in their teaching internship because they have benefited from their microteaching lesson study when they had it in their microteaching course. in addition, the complexity of teaching internship becomes another factor for the efl student teachers to conduct microteaching lesson study during their teaching internship. even though the implementation of microteaching lesson study in the teaching internship is not exactly the same as that in the microteaching course, the differences found are only slight. in the teaching internship, the efl student teachers paid less attention to things dealing with administration. these include the absence of the anticipation of students’ response in the format of the lesson plan and during the discusson in lesson planning, the absence of observation sheet for observing the teaching, and the absence of the written reflection. compared with similarities of microteaching lesson study that the efl student teachers had conducted in the teaching internship, the absence of the administration do not strongly affect the benefits that the efl student teachers gain from the process. regarding that the efl student teachers have implemented the steps of microteaching lesson study twice in their microteaching course and in teaching internship, this fact reveals that microteaching lesson study influences the efl student teachers’ teaching internship. likewise, this reveals that microteaching 280 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 267 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lesson study implemented in the teaching internship promotes the life-long learning to teach of the efl student teachers. this learning to teach spirit and habits are crucial for efl student teachers to grow and develop their teaching professionality as well as to adapt with the complexity of the teaching world. accordingly, this study offers insight for teacher educators in preserving the spirit of life-long learning to teach of their efl student teachers through microteaching lesson study in microteaching course. the benefits that the efl student teachers attain will motivate them to continue having it during their teaching internship. finally, this can promote their spirit of learning to teach that will endure when they become english teachers. references cavin, r. m. (2007). developing technological pedagogical content knowledge in preservice teachers through microteaching lesson study. the florida state university. darling-hammond, l. (2006). constructing 21st-century teacher education. journal of teacher education, 57(3), 300-314. day, r. r. (2013). peer observation and reflecting in the elt practicum. dil ve edebiyat egittimi dergisi, 8, 1-8. dornyei, zoltan. 2011. research methods in applied linguistics. oxford: oxford university press. fernandez, m. l. (2008). developing knowledge of teaching mathematics through cooperation and inquiry. mathematics teacher, 101(7), 534-538. freeman, d., & johnson, k. e. (1998). reconceptualizing the knowledge‐base of language teacher education. tesol quarterly, 32(3), 397-417. johnson, k. e. (2009). second language teacher education: a sociocultural perspective. new york: routledge. kim, j. y. (2011). a case study of lesson study in a high school: implementation after the initial funding cease (doctoral dissertation, university of illinois at urbana-champaign). littleton, k. & mercer, n. (2010). the significance of educational dialogues between primary school children. in k. littleton & c. howe (eds.). suryani, f.b., rukmini, d., anggani, d., bharati, l.,& hartono, r. promo 281 ting efl student teachers’ life-long learning through microteaching lesson study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj educational dialogues: understanding and promoting productive interaction (pp. 271-288). london: routledge. macdowell, a. (2010). preservice teachers' use of lesson study in teaching nature of science (doctoral dissertation, georgia state university). mercer, n., & littleton, k. (2007). dialogue and the development of children's thinking: a sociocultural approach. london: routledge. mergler, a. g., & tangen, d. (2010). using microteaching to enhance teacher efficacy in pre‐service teachers. teaching education, 21(2), 199-210. meyer, r. d. (2005). lesson study: the effects on teachers and students in urban middle schools. (doctoral dissertation, baylor university). molina, r. v. (2012). microteaching lesson study: mentor interaction structure and its relation to elementary preservice mathematics teacher knowledge development. (doctoral dissertation, florida international university). singh, g. & richards. (2009). teaching in the course room. in a. burns & j. c. richards (eds.), the cambridge guide to second language teacher education (pp. 201-208). new york: cambridge university press. stigler, j. w., & hiebert, j. (1999). the teaching gap: best ideas from the world’s teachers for improving education in the classroom. new york: free press van sickle, j. a. (2011). lesson study's impacts on teacher perception of efficacy in teaching (doctoral dissertation, humboldt state university). wilson, s. m., & peterson, p. l. (2006). theories of learning and teaching: what do they mean for educators? working paper. national education association research department. 6.pdf (p.1) 006 dec2018.pdf (p.2-16) a self-study: llwprov1ngpedagogicalcontent knowledge of pronunciation teaching anis sundusiyaht abstract: this self-study was initiated when the writer closely worked with a chinese student, improving the student's pronunciation peiformance, for several weeks. the tutorial program was intended mainly to help the student improve his pronunciation. at the same time, the writer benefited the program to conduct a self study improving her pronunciation teaching practice and her understanding of that practice. a participatory observation, several interviews and a reflective writing were taken as sources to collect the data. during the program. the writer noticed some aspects of her content knowledge were transformed and evolved. the improvement of the writer's pedagogical content knowledge (pck), as a result of the tutorial practice, were discussed in terms of five components suggested by magnusson et all (1999): orientations of teaching, knowledge of curriculum, knowledge of student understanding, knowledge of assessment, and knowledge of instructional strategies. this study provides a useful inquiry for exploring how one's own practice can be used to improve teacher education courses and teacher education programs. anis sundusiyah,m.a.<anis_nahra@yahoo.com> +6281325 907091 is a lecturer and secretary to the elt department, school oftarbiyah (education), lain walisongo semarang. she received her second master in foreign language pedagogy (tesol) from ohio university, usa-a continuance of her previous study in applied linguistics at semarang state university. her current interests include english language teaching, language teacher's professional development and bilingual education. 74 celt, volume 9, number 1, july 2009:60-76 knowledge ofteacbing pronunciation, as well as sufficient courses or training to improve their own pronunciation knowledge and skills, with referring to either nativeness or intelligibility principles. this should be explicitly enforced in the curriculum and syllabus. final remarks shulman (1986) proposed a model of pedagogical reasoning, comprising a cycle of several activities of good teaching: comprehension, transformation, instruction, evaluation, reflection, and new comprehension. this scheme is applicable for almost all contexts and subjects of teaching, where most teachers will be likely to perform a self-reflection and to provide a wash back pertaining to their own instructional settings and practices. this self study is a part of my teaching reflection toward a new better understanding on the practice of effective teaching. my thought is open for any constructive responses, as well as changes, as this writing represents my pedagogical content knowledge that will keep evolving, while seeking for an improvement. references anderson-hsieh, j., r. johnson, r., and k. koehler. 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"intelligibility and the listener: the role of lexical stress". in tesol quarterly,vol. 39, no.3, 2005: 399-423. gilbert, 1. b. clear speech: pronunciation and listening comprehension in north american english. new york, ny: cambridge university press, 2005. hahn, l. d. ''primary stress and intelligibility: research to motivate the teaching ofsuprasegmentals". in tesol quarterly, vol. 38, no.2, 2004: 201-223. hutchings, p. and s.shulman. "the scholarship of teaching: new elaborations, new developments". in change, vol. 31, no.5, 1999: 10-1s. jenkins, j. "which pronunciation norms and models for english as an international language?" in english language teachers journal,vol. 52, no. 2, 1998: 119-126. 76 celt, volume 9, number 1, july 2009:60-76 jenkins, j. "a sociolinguistically based, empirically researched pronunciation syllabus for english as an international language". in appliedlinguistics, vol. 23,2002: 83-103. jenkins, j. "current perspectives on teaching world englishes and english as lingua franca." in tesol quarterly, vol. 40, no.1, 2006: 157181. levis, j. m. "changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching."1n tesolquarterly, vol. 39, no. 3,2005: 369-377. levis, j. "pronunciation and the assessment of spoken language". in r. hughes (ed.), spoken english, applied linguistics and tesol: challenges for theory and practice. london: palgrave macmillan, 2006. magnusson, s., j. krajcik, and h. borko,. "nature, sources and development of pedagogical content knowledge". in examining pedagogical content knowledge. edited by j. gess-newsome and n. g. lederman. dordrecht: kluwer academic publishers, 1999. patton, m. q. qualitative evaluation and research methods. london: sage publications, 1990. pennington, m. c. and j. c. richards. "pronunciation revisited". in tesolquarterly, vol. 20,1986: 207-225. shulman, l. s. ''those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching". in educational researcher, vol. 15, 1986:4-14. constructing singapore's cultural and political narratives: a study on lee kuan yew's control of the media to build singapore) buni yani 2 abstract: there are several ways how to understand culture and also politics in one country. one way is to look at the media that become the backbone of communication between the state and the people. the powerful media can be used to form people's understanding on "narratives" created by the state. the narratives on politics. freedom of the press. development. and economy are constructed in such a way that people cannot but accept what are presented through the media. singapore'sfoundingfather lee kuan yew and also his successors understood the powerful media could bring aboutfor singapore's culture and politics. that is wiry lee and his successors used the media to build andform singapore's culture in the first place. singapore's ethnic and cultural diversities which this paper has been presented at the international seminar on culture. englislr language teaching and literature organized by the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic uiversity, semarang on 16-17 january 2008. it originates mostly from his research while attending graduate classes at ohio university, u.s.a. bunl vani <buniyani@yahoo.com> teaches journalism at department of communication and public relations, faculty of social sciences, swiss german university, jakarta. he graduated cum laude from ohio university's master's program in southeast asian studies with his thesis on the politics of editorship of two indonesian newspapers reporting the maluku sectarian conflict. he worked as a journalist for the voice of america (voa) in washington, dc. u.s.a., and the australian associated press in jakarta. currently, besides teaching, he also writes and edits articles for academic journals and newspapers. he can be reached at his blog, www.buniyani2007.blogspot.com. b. ya,,;, constructing singapore's cultural and politocal narratives 57 (1992), but because a "place to hide" from information no longer exists. thus, competing discourses between economy and democracy in singapore will culminate in the people's consciousness that democracy is something embedded to capitalism and liberalism. the change in singapore, again i argue, will follow the contradictory scenario. if, in several countries the opening of the media has begun the era of political participation which ends with political reforms, in singapore the government will not deregulate its policy. thus, the change will be affected by global media which will be followed by the reforms in singapore media regulations, including its broadcasting system. this argument is based on the fact that singapore, even under goh chok tong and lee hsien loong (bg lee), still regard the old laws on the media as still being relevant in today's singapore. the laws which enable restriction on the media are everywhere draconian to support the repressive regime. founding father lee kuan yew's legacy on singapore's media restriction is on the way to its decay by the prevalence of global information. slowly, the people begin to "peep" this alternative source of information. and once they find the new and different "episteme" on this new source, it will become the beginning of the unpredictable demand era. although singapore has its own history to follow, but history (with h in capital letter)13 sometimes have common similarities. and the common similarities are that information has changed people in many aspects of life, including the way they understand the relationship between their economic success and political reforms materialized in democracy. bibliography ake, claude. democracy a"d development in africa. washington, d.c. : the brookings institution. 1996. ang peng hwa and yeo tiong min. mass media laws and regulations in singapore. singapore: asian media lnfonnation and communication centre. 1998. i) history (with h in capital letter) is the history in a more conceptual and general tenns, while history (in lower case) is the history in particular tenns, such as the history of singapore, the history of ethnic chinese, and so on. ..... 58 celt, volume 8, number i, july 2008: 43 58 chang, chinhong lim. interview for class project at ohio university's graduate program, 2001. fukuyama, francis. the end of history and the last man. new york: the free press. 1992. hachten, william a. "media development without press freedom: lee kuan yew's singapore," in journalism quarterly, 1987 (number of issue unidentified), 1987. huntington, samuel p. political order in changing societies. new haven: yale university press. ) 968. mcdaniel, drew. broadcasting in the malay world. norwood, new jersey: ablex publishing corporation, 1994. meyrowitz, joshua no sense of place: the impact of media on social behavior. new york: oxford university press, 1985. seow, francis t. the media enthralled: singapore revisited. boulder, colorado: lynne rienner publishers, 1998 . singapore broadcasting corporation (sbc) radio programs (undated) tan yew soon and soh yew pengo development of singapore's modern media industry. singapore: times academic press, 1994. tsan-kuo chang. the world news prism: changing media oj international communication. ames, iowa: iowa state university press. "reporting public opinion in singapore: journalistic practices and policy implications," in press/politics 4( i ): 11-28, 1990. internet sites: atimes.comlse-asial ah28ae05.html cia.gov en. wikipedia.orglwikilsingapore _ broadcasting_corporation en. wikipedia.orglwiki/lee _kuan _yew en. wikipedia.orglwikilmediacorp en. wikipedia.orglwikils inglish talkingcock.com time.comltime/magazinelarticlelo,9171,322685,00.html logo: the gender role change of scarlett o'hara as a portrayal of the high-class southern white women's life i rendra bening prakosoz, angelika riyandari and heny hartono3 abstract: the high-class old southern united states women had played their gender roles as wives, dolls, drudges, playmates, breadwinner and heroines for both their families and country. the coming of the american civil war in 1861 was one important event for these women to prove themselves as an independentfigure in the danger of invasion and famine without help from men. from their beginning gender role as a graceful wealthy plantation mistress then suddenly reduced into poverty, margaret mitchell portrays the struggle of these women in the figure of scarlett 0 'bara as the protagonist character of her only novel. key words: gender role change. scarlett 0 'nara, gone with the wind. introduction the old southern united states in antebellum era was a land in which the rich plantation masters with their families and slaves lived. in her book, i this article is a development of the thesis defended at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 2 rendra bening prakoso, s.s. <rendra _bening.j?rakoso _ tegal@yahoo.co.uk> is an alumnae of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata semarang and currently an education staff at the centre for language training soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 3 angelika riyandari, s.s, m.a <goen2ike@yahoo.com> and heny hartono, s.s, m.pd. <henyhartono@yahoo.com> are lecturers of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 150 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 149-156 america ~ women, gail collins (2004) explains that this wealthy society was a strong patriarchy system adopter. they believed that man is the master while the woman is his assistant. man is superior, strong and powerful while woman is inferior, weak and graceful. in reality, even the high-class women lived in a stunning world of parties and balls, their role was not more than an ornamental doll to display how rich their husbands and or fathers are. furthennore, from their childhood until they died there were many society's rules that must be obeyed. however, it is important to realize that these ethics have a tendency to bind women only and strengthen male position as the master of the society. while men could escape into the public realm: to town, to business, and to the outside world, women were described as a figure that spent their lives bounded to the domestic obligations, and therefore their happiness was more closely connected with family relations (clinton 1928:38). an ideal southern lady was expected to be able to do their two primary jobs at the same time: as a graceful lady of the plantation and as a busy manager of the plantation. this condition is clearly illustrated in the figure of ellen o'hara, scarlett o'hara's mother below: ellen's life was not easy, nor was it happy, but she did not expect life to be easy, and, ifit was not happy, that was woman's lot it was a man's world, and she accepted it as such. the man owned the property, and the woman managed it the man took the credit for the management, and the woman praised his cleverness. the men roared like a bull when a splinter was in his finger, and the woman muffled the moans of childbirth, lest she disturb him. men were rough of speech and often drunk. women ignored the lapses of speech and put the drunkards to bed without bitter words. men were rude and outspoken, women were always kind, gracious and forgiving (mitchell 1940:22). the coming of the american civil war in 1861 brought a great revolution that changed the high-class southern united states white women's gender role. the old concept expectan ideal southern figure is someone who is weak, graceful, and dependant on men's power, while a new concept believes that a woman should be able to defend her own life and be independent on men's power. rb. p,akoso, a. riyandarland h. hanono, gender role 151 the gender role change of the high-class southern women the coming of the civil war in 1865 forced all able-bodied men to leave their plantations to defend their country. as a result, the southern united states white women must play their important part of the war machine. they had responsibilities such as raising confederate monetary, soldier recruitments, and supplying the confederate forces with food and clothing. these women worked in the vacant are that was left by their husbands. some women worked in their plantations. some became the keepers of stores, inns, and saloons. some learned new trades. there were also several women who worked in a teaching field, government offices and factories (hymonitz 1978:141). this condition actually shows that the majority of southern united states women were forced to leave their old lifestyle. in spite of becoming housewives only, or having fun in parties, now they had to become managers, decision makers, head of families, and income earners. these roles are actually assumed as men's responsibilities and so this event became the rally point of the gender role change of the white southern women, especially the high-class one. the word gender role change in this case refers to the new opportunity to be involved in public life, something that they did not get before the coming of this event (collins 2004). like what has been explained in the two previous paragraphs, southern land now had outnumbered the number of men, this condition however made the women live in danger of the invaders from outside and the rebellion from the local slaves inside the country. from the country itself, it is important to realize that without necessary protection from nearby white male neighbors, slaves will be harmful for their mistress. this condition can be seen in this following quotation: plantation mistresses had been left alone a great deal before the war. but then their slaves were not expecting to be freed any minute, and white male neighbors were normally nearby. during the war, the women were truly alone, and very few of them seem to have welcomed an opportunity to demonstrate their leadership skills. they began to flood the confederate government with petitions asking that their men be exempted 152 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 149-is6 from duty in order to defend the lives and chastity of their wives and daughters from the local slaves (collins 2004: 189). as time goes by, when southerners began to lose the war, the condition became worse for all the southerners including the women. they were not only facing physical enemies such as invaders or ex-slaves that might be· attacking them anytime, but now they were also facing the bitterness of defeat and famine. scarlett o'hara, as a high-class southern woman, was affected by this difficult condition and was consequently forced to be an independent figure. she had to take her new duty as a breadwinner by working in the field without slaves and overseers in order to survive. it was beyond their comprehension that they no longer had a hundred slaves to do the work. it was beyond their comprehension that an o'hara lady should do manual labor (mitcheu 1940:163). when finally the condition grew better and the remaining men was already returned from the battlefield, it is interesting to find out that there were many of the southern women that refused to return to their old gender role. instead of returning to be a dependant plantation lady of the plantation, they prefer to be an independent breadwinner for their families, or at least as a financial supporter after their husbands or sods. the three stages of the gender role change having been familiar with the aid southern women history and the stream of stories of gone with the wind, it is important to realize that there are three important stages that had been passed by scarlett o'hara, so that she can be identified as a good representative for the high-class southern united states women's life. a. the first stage first, scarlett, in the novel, was born and grew up in georgia. o'hara's family isa wealthy and respectable plantation owner in the land of old south. this fact, however indicates that scarlett was a product of old south civilization, in which scarlett was born in a high-class social group and trained to be a lady of the plantation. if we read the story carefully, it is told that rb. prakoso, a. riyandari and h. hartono, gender role 153 scarlett had received so many courses from her family and mentors in an academy that was designed to transform her to be a southern lady. despite a succession of governesses and two years at the near-by fayetteville female education was sketchy, but no girl in the county danced more gracefully than she. she knew how to smile so that her dimples leaped. how to walk pigeontoed so that her wide hoop skirts swayed entrancingly, how to look up into a man's face and then drop her eyes and bat the lids rapidly so that she seemed a-tremble with gentle emotion. most of all she learned how to conceal from men a sharp intelligence beneath a face as sweet and bland as a baby's (mitche111940:22). h we read the quotation above carefully and compare it with the historical source, we can find out that scarlett o'hara as a young southern woman was trained to be only an ornamental doll for the southern society and did not prepare her to work as neither a family breadwinner nor housekeeper. so that we can conclude that actually the education in the old south was designed to prevent women to gain their independence from the power of men so there is a tendency to strengthen the patriarchy system in the old south. b. the second stage the second stage of the gender role change of scarlett o'hara is marked by the coming of american civil war in 1861. like what has been explained before, the southern women, including scarlett o'hara began to work to support the confederate army's finance. if we observe this fact carefully and compare it with the women condition in the previous stage, we will find out that in this stage, there is a quite big step concerning the gender role change. if it is illustrated that in the previous stage that a respectable woman should not use her hand to gain money, in opposition in this stage, women were needed to support the family's financ;:ial situation. scarlett o'hara and many other high-class southern women's gender role was no longer to become a fragile and dependant woman. oppositely, now they were expected by their society to use their hands to gain money for their country. from their old gender role as a graceful and dependant plantation mistress now a southern woman must become an independent figure of being an income earner, head of family, and decision maker. 154 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 149-156 as the war passed and the situation grows more difficult, scarlett o'hara and many other women, however, still had to live under the danger of famine and invasion. yet, around the end of the war, they were forced to keep themselves alive with no help from slaves and nearby white men. ifwe carefully observe this condition, we can find out that this actually becomes the peak of the southern women's gender role. scarlett o'hara who once lived as a daughter of a rich plantation owner was suddenly reduced to poverty and had to work in the cotton field in order to survive. this condition strengthens the interpretation that scarlett o'hara was experiencing a great gender role change. we can see that in the beginning of the story, scarlett o'hara who was born in the high-class social group has to suddenly reduce her position to the lowest stratum of south em plantation i.e. being a plantation worker. based on the paragraphs above, it can be concluded that this second stage is actually the climax point for scarlett o'hara as an independent breadwinner until the return of the southern men after the surrender of confederate army in 1865. c. the third stage the beginning of the last stage of the gender role change of scarlett o'hara was marked by the return of the men when the confederate army declares its surrender. ifwe read the novel and observe it carefully then we will find an interesting fact that there were many southern women who kept their position as the family breadwinners (including scarlett o'hara). some did so because of their own choice, and the others kept their position because of the situation. seemingly, there were many women that keeping their role as family breadwinner or at least as a fmancial supporter. scarlett o'hara's unwillingness to give up her wealth and life dependently to her husband, rhett butler, no matter how rich he was can be a clear example of this phenomenon. ifwe compare these situations with the situation in the second stage, we can find out that the men's return resulted in a decrease in the women's independency. the development of the southern women's independency can be seen in this following chart: rb. prakoso, a. rlyandarl and h. hanono, gender role iss ,., as can be seen in the chart, we can find out that in the first stage the line shows that the independency level of southern women is in the lowest level. however, as the beginning of the second stage, when the american civil war begun and the women were forced to work, the line is "increasing. this increase is continuing until the line reaches the end of the second stage i.e. the end of the american civil war in 1865. in the third stage we can fmd out that the level of women independency is decreasing. but, it is important that the chart shows that the southern women after the end of the civil war were more independent with those before the coming of the war. conclusion in brief, the gender role change of scarlett o'hara character in margaret mitchell's gone with the wind is a representative of the highclass southern united states white women's life in the american civil war era. from their early life as wealthy but dependent worrien, later on they are reduced to poverty, but with their struggle they were able to survive and develop a new life as independent and free women. this essay proves that scarlett o'hara as well as many other southern american white women had passed the three stages' of gender role change that gave them a chance to prove themselves that actually women can be successful breadwinners and heads of their families. the civil war here actually is a stimulator for the southern women to break the social chains so that they may make a big step to their independence. 156 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 149-1s6 next as a reader, i conclude that actually place, culture and time are . able to greatly influence not only the southern women but also women in general. i believe these factors may give the women a chance to develop themselves as an ;ndependent female figure otherwise women would only be bound in the golden cage of their patriarchy system. nevertheless, my argument should be researched further. to know whether the gender role change that happened to scarlett o'hara was, is, or will be experienced by women in general. bibliography arivia, gadis. filsafat berperspektij feminis. jakarta: yayasan juma] perempuan, 2003. __ . feminisme: sebuah kata hati. jakarta: pt kompas media nusantara, 2006. clinton, catherine. the plantation mistress. new york: pantheon books, 1982. collins, gail. america ~ women. new york: harpercollins publisher, 2003. handayani, trisakti and sugiarti. konsep dan teknik penelitian gender. malang: umm press, 2002. hymowitz, carol and michaele weissman. a history of women in america. new york: bantam books inc, 1978. magill, frank n. cinema the novel into film. pasadena: salem press inc, 1980. mitchell, margaret. gone with the wind, complete edition. new york: macmillan company, 1940. niven, john. the coming of the civil war, 1837-1861. illinois: harlan davidson inc, 1990. sumiarni, endang. jender & feminisme. yogyakarta: wonderful publishing company, 2004. ver stegg, clarence and richard hofstadter. a people and a nation. united states ·of america: harper & row publisher inc, 1981. wyatt-brown, bertram. southern honor ethics and behavior in the old south. oxford: oxford university press, 1982. zinn, howard. a people s history of the united states. the united states of america: harper perennial, 1990. logo: logo: readers' posmoning in rechard mann's plots and scbemes that brought down soeharto (psbds): a study on interpersonal meanlings1 sugeng puwantol abatract: the real cause of soeharto~ fall from the indonesian presidency remains a mystery. richard mann (1998) launched three significant rhetorical questions, i.e. (1) was president soehtzrto toppled by student demonstrators and people~ power? (2) was he brought down by the withdrawal of supportfrom the united states? (3) or, was his suddenfall brought about by all of the two plus large doses of oriental plotting and scheming? this article tries to investigate the readers'positioninginmann's plots and schemes that brought down soeharto (psbds) with a view to describing the appraisal system used in the textbook to achieve the desired interpersonal meanings, employing the analytical framework of appraisal theory (martin and rose 2003,' white 1998), an extended mode of halliday~ functional grammar (1994) and systemic functional linguistics (eggins 1994). the study yields some rhetorical strategies (strayers 2004) with which to align the readers. as well, the study pedagogically implies thatreaders should be aware of the writer's strategies as to what direction the readers are positioned in text, resulting in the importance of critical nuujing and cross-referencingtn order to folly understand a text. key words:" readers' positioning, interpersonal meanings, appraisal, rhetoricalstrategies i this article is a part of the dissertation the writer writes for his doctorate degree in english pedagogy ofunnes (2007). z sugeng purwanto <sgngpurwanto@yahoo.com> at +628122895927 is a fulltime lecturer of the english department, faculty of language and cultural studies, stikubank university. his doctorate degree was from unnes (2007) majoring in english pedagogy, and his ma in applied linguistics was from griffith university, australia (1996) 136 celt, volume 8, number 2, december 2008: 124-136 above facts negate richard mann's own rhetorical questions purposefully launched for marketing purposes. richard mann is a skiilful author. conclusion the writer has so far descnded how richard mann used seven rhetorical strategies (in strayer's terms, 2004) to align the readers into a negative attitude toward presient soeharto' regime, and positive attitude towards the reformists' movements to justify mann's stance. however, whatever strategies have been employed, the textbook, mann's psbds (1998), supported by other resources, finally concludes that the five star general soeharto resigned from presidency honorably and constitutionally. this study, therefore, supports the importance of critical reading (cr) in order for readers to be aware ofhowthey are positioned within a text. references eggins, suzanne. an introduction to systemic functio1ujl linguistics. london: pinter publisher, 1994. mann, richard. plots and schemes tiult brought down soeharto. jakarta, singapore: gateway books, 1998. martin, jr. and david rose. working with discoune-meaning beyond the clause. semarang : the state university of semarang (limited edition), 2003. strayer. persuasion through rhetoric. in bttp:/iwww.ipfw.edulpbil/ faculty/.strayer/persuasionthroughrhetoriclrc.ppt,2004. rretrieved on 21 august 2005. white, p.r.r. telling media tales: the news stoiy as rhetoric. unpublished ph.d thesis. sydney: university of sydney, 1998. retrlevedon 5 january 2004. purwanto, sugeng. "a critical discomse analysis of the author's rhetorical strategies to reveal the struggle of ideology in richard mann's plots and schemes that brought down soeharto". unpublished dissertation. semarang: the state university ofsemarang, 2001. suryakusuma, julia i. sex,powerandnation. jakarta: metaforpublishing,2004. guide for contributors a book review: the alchemist graphic novel the alchemist: a graphic novel paul coehlo (author), derek ruiz (adaptor), daniel sampere (illiustrator) usa: harperone, 2010, 208 pages isbn: 0062024329 reviewed by brian locker1 “people are capable, at any time in their lives, of doing what they dream of.” ― paulo coelho, alchemist 1 brian locker, bsced, bscsoc. <bdlocker@hotmail.com> +6285740980 048 is a member of the faculty of letters at soegijapranata catholic university b. locker, a book review: the alchemist graphic novel 119 what is the alchemist: a graphic novel and why is it important? created from the literary classic and best-selling novel of 30 million copies worldwide, the alchemist is created as a graphic novel for the first time to a new audience of visual readers. adapted by derek ruiz with art by daniel sampere, the graphic novel relies heavily on portraits to represent the details of the classic novel form. although new in form, the themes, symbols, and philosophical elements of the original are retained with an artistic twist. the main character’s journey is a time-honored tale. he ventures forth from his home, encounters trials and tribulations, and, in the end, discovers treasure within himself. but how could this graphic adaptation become so popular? in other words, what is the global appeal? as reviewer susan sylvia (2013: ¶13) explains, the plot is inspired by “the ruined man that became rich again through a dream,” a short story from one thousand and one nights, a product of the golden age of islamic literature. the author, paul coehlo, took four of the fable’s themes (personal quest, awareness of omens, soul of the word, and listening to one’s heart), and crafted the alchemist within two weeks in 1988 (sylvia 2013: ¶14). nearly 22 years later under coehlo’s supervision, derek ruiz retained these themes when modifying the content of the alchemist into graphic novel format as did the artist, daniel sampere, by drawing readers to the visual symbols of the plot such as the oasis, hawk, and pyramids (see below). the storyline can be seen as a remodel of a classic story, but more importantly, as both a reflection of paul coehlo’s life and as a product of 1960s spirituality—centrally focused on self-realization. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 118-124 120 as coehlo expressed in a past interview (elnadi, baghat and rifaat 2013), as a product of the 60s, he experimented with drugs, different religions, and mental institutions (including forced electroconvulsive therapy), before making his mark on literary history. i will begin with a brief description and summary followed by an analysis of what i find most appealing about the graphic novel’s philosophy. the setting is an undetermined time in spain and africa.the hero and protagonist, santiago, is a shepherd boy of the andalusian highlands who dreams of finding treasure near the pyramids. two dispatchers – an old gypsy woman and an old wise man, who turns out to be the biblical king of salem – tell the boy he must go to egypt to follow his dream. after selling his sheep and boarding a ship, santiago arrives in egypt and encounters a host of characters before completing his journey – including villains (thieves and enemy soldiers), a donor of magical knowledge (the 200 year old “alchemist”), helpers (“the crystal merchant” and caravan leader), a princess (fatima, santiago’s soul mate of a desert oasis), and a false hero (“the englishman”). b. locker, a book review: the alchemist graphic novel 121 the tone is simple yet purposely educational – so overly informational, in fact, that the graphic novel sometimes reads like a self-help book. for instance, when the king of salem declares, “there is a force that wants you to realize your personal legend” anyone familiar with the secret, a recent bestseller by rhonda byrne, would see the similarity. the author’s objective in narration, as sylvia (2013: ¶ 21) argues, combines simplicity in language (as in a fable) with symbolism and magical realism (a realistic setting with magical occurrences). the artwork is simple yet powerful besides the typical display of females with slim waists and large busts. the point of view is primarily third person omniscient combined with first-hand introspection from santiago, and the panels transition smoothly for the most part except for occasional disjointedness. ruiz retained important literary elements of the novel in-tact, while shortening and modifying the majority of the dialogue, for instance, including an occasional “baah” from a sheep. now, let us look more deeply into the philosophical elements. more specifically, let’s focus on how paul coehlo successfully integrated mythology, animism, and selfempowerment into a well written text, and how by doing so he targets a new age audience. furthermore, let’s see how sampere pictured these aspects in the graphic novel to draw in visual readers. the importance of alchemy, a pre-scientific chemistry concerned with transformation and longevity, is evident throughout the novel. the 200-year-old alchemist (whose face is patterned on coehlo himself) conquers mortality through alchemy, and learns, as santiago does, to converse with and transform into different natural elements, such as the wind. alchemy also allows santiago’s transformation of fear celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 118-124 122 into courage and ignorance into wisdom – a common theme throughout the graphic novel. other legends and myths include the story of melchizedek, the biblical king of salem; the ancient, hebraic divination devices, urim and thummim; the alchemic legends of the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life; and the story of narcissus in the prologue. coehlo (together with sampere’s imagery) blend these mythological elements together with symbols from history (including the pyramids and the abandoned church), as well as from nature (including the sheep, desert, a hawk, and the andalusia highlands). sampere targets these aspects with size, shape, and color to model the important ideas to the reader. furthermore, the complexity of these symbols helps differentiate this graphic novel from a comic book. in addition, by combining these myths and legends together with historical and natural symbols, coehlo develops sophistication in the plot that attracts an audience similar to that reached by “da vinci code” author dan brown years later, but without the suspense and conspiracy. the ‘going back to our ancient roots’philosophy of the graphic novel also includes animism, an important and b. locker, a book review: the alchemist graphic novel 123 appealing aspect of the novel’s theology. from the talking lake and goddess of the forest in the prologue to the talking wind (which unfortunately appears anthropomorphically in the graphic novel), desert, and sun later in the book, natural elements are animate subjects and part of the speech community. furthermore, within the story is a belief that everything is evolving and everything (animate and inanimate) deserves to evolve as evident when the alchemist warns of not respecting iron when trying to transform it into gold. viewing nature as living and intelligent mirrors the gaia hypothesis, as well as other aspects of the modern environmentalist movement, all of which appeal to modern and educated readers. within this evolving eco-system, wisdom depends on reading nature and omens. in the beginning as a shepherd, santiago listens to and watches nature for protection for him and his sheep. later, as santiago’s “reading” skills enhance, he is able to see deeper into the omens of the natural world in the form of visions – for example, with the hawk and the beetle (which are both pictured beautifully). and in the end, he is able to communicate verbally and transform directly into the wind itself. as such santiago’s stages of enlightenment correspond directly with santiago’s ability to connect with the natural world—indigenous spirituality at its core—and is another reason paul coehlo succeeds in attracting readers who are open to other spiritual viewpoints. coehlo’s message to the reader is simple: seek personal religious experiences outside of institutionalized dogma. the novel suggests ordinary people such as “the baker” and “the crystal merchant” become “sheep” through social customs, and once sheep, are unable to recognize and follow their personal omens. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 118-124 124 so why is the alchemist: a graphic novel successful? the answer, i believe, is that the novel’s language is simple; the moral messages of following one’s heart and reconnecting with nature appeal to a modern audience; and the graphic novel format attracts a new generation. bibliography coehlo, paul. the alchemist. new york: haper collins, 2006. elnadi, baghat and adel rifaat. “the beyond is accessible to those who dare.” interview with paulo coelho. unesco courier vol. 51, no. 3, 1998: 34-37. in http://www.accessmy library.com/coms2/summary_0286-9315934_itm, retriev ed 27 may 2013. sylvia, susan. “a brief synopsis and critical analysis of paulo coelho’s the alchemist”, masterplots, 2010: 1-4.in http://search.eb scohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db= lkh&an=1033 31mp410329820000434&site=lrcplus, re trieved 26 may 2013. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s 1969 propaganda poster etiido effiongwilliam inyang and basil s. nnamdi 1department of fine arts and design, faculty of humanities, university of port harcourt, choba, port harcourt, nigeria; 2department of philosophy, faculty of humanities, university of port harcourt, choba, port harcourt, nigeria email: 1etiidoinyang@gmail.com; 2docgurubeennamdi@gmail.com received: 19-05-2019 accepted: 8-06-2019 published: 31-07-2019 mailto:etiidoinyang@gmail.com mailto:docgurubeennamdi@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s 1969 propaganda poster 1etiido effiongwilliam inyang and 2basil s. nnamdi 1etiidoinyang@gmail.com, 2docgurubeennamdi@gmail.com 1department of fine arts and design, faculty of humanities, university of port harcourt, choba, port harcourt, nigeria 2department of philosophy, faculty of humanities, university of port harcourt, choba, port harcourt, nigeria abstract: the audacious declaration “big for nothing” in kevin echeruo’s propaganda poster during the nigerian civil war offers illumination to the forgotten undercurrents that drove the 30month war which in the last fifty years has contributed to the setting of agenda for separatist polemics in the nigeria nationstate. using largely the iconographic approach to visual description and interpretation, this study examines the cultural codes and representational conventions that inform contemporary artistic representational style as a cultural practice. the illustration not only approximates to one of the early visual indicators on the divisive national challenge rendered in highly coded visual and linguistic rhetoric of hegemonic power struggle by the elite class, but also a significant metaphor of contemporary frustration on nationhood and nationality for most nigerians. accordingly, this article broaches on the parameters of patriotism, nationality and self-determination to posit that the illustration represents the extremes of citizen dissatisfaction couched in a radical artistic narrative of a caricature. it submits that the strength of national allegiance and cohesiveness is a function of the reciprocity to its citizens. key words: nigeria civil war, biafra propaganda, nationalism, visual rhetoric, iconography mailto:etiidoinyang@gmail.com mailto:docgurubeennamdi@gmail.com inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 21 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: deklarasi berani “besar untuk sesuatu yang tidak ada” dalam poster propaganda kevin echeruo selama perang sipil nigeria menawarkan penerangan kepada arus yang terlupakan yang telah mendorong terjadinya perang 30 bulan dalam lima puluh tahun terakhir telah berkontribusi pada pengaturan agenda untuk polemik separatis pada bangsa-bangsa di nigeria. menggunakan pendekatan ikonografi untuk mendeskripsikan dan menginterpretasikan visualisasi poster itu, penelitian ini dapat mengkaji kode budaya dan konvensi representasional yang menginformasikan bahwa gaya representasional artistik kontemporer adalah sebuah praktik budaya. hasil kajian retorika visual dan tekstual dari poster menemukan adanya indikator visual awal tentang adanya tantangan nasional yang ingin memecah belah negara yang disampaikan melalui beberapa bahasa kode tentang perebutan kekuasaan hegemoni oleh para kelas elit. selain penemuan tersebut, hasil kajian poster menemukan adanya metafora frustrasi kontemporer tentang rasa kebangsaan bagi sebagian besar warga nigeria. oleh karena itu, artikel ini menggunakan parameter patriotisme, kebangsaan, dan penentuan nasib sendiri untuk mendukung penggambaran ekstrem ketidakpuasan warga negara yang dinyatakan melalui karikatur yang mempunyainarasi artistik radikal.. karikatur itu menyampaikan bahwa kekuatan kesetiaan nasional bergantung pada keterpaduan fungsi dan timbal balik dari warga negaranya. kata kunci: perang saudara nigeria, propaganda biafra, nasionalisme, retorika visual, ikonografi introduction nigeria gained political independence from great britain on october 1, 1960, and became a republic within the british commonwealth in 1963 with great expectations and euphoria of forging the most populous black nation into a strong regional power in africa. however, the questions about the new country’s preparedness for nationhood through the conscious unification of the multi-ethnic groups has remained elusive to the extent that its unity has remained at the tenterhooks qualifying it either as a 1914 amalgamation mistake or as a geographical expression. in today’s national discourse, the lingering taste of the popular phrase “mere geographical expression” by one of nigeria’s foremost nationalist chief obafemi awolowo has been variously used (afigbo, 2005, p. 240), and more recently by a popular columnist ray ekpu (2017) to discuss and clarify the elements of incongruity in the nation’s national question. the nigerian anti-colonial struggle was, as a result, fought 22 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj based on already instituted regional sentiments and anchored on a tripod of three major ethnic groups in little or utter neglect of more than 300 hundred ethnic groups in the country. these major ethnic groups were, and still remain, hausa/fulani, igbo and yoruba, respectively dominant in the north, south east and south-west nigeria. in effect, independence struggle and fight for national freedom that crystallised after ww2 in the early forties took place under covert battles for the institution of ethnic hegemony. the compromises derived from conciliatory arrangements for the actualisation of independence amounted to the marriage of convenience, which became all too glaring as the realities of the new republic began to emerge. regrettably, this conscious recourse to and perpetuation of separatists’ tendencies have tended to govern the political space and influenced the post-independence developmental strides in nigeria. these tendencies triggered the competition for control and patronage leading the political elite of the major tribes to jockey for domination of the federal bureaucracy and political space. as the nation progressed, the task for maintaining the unity of the association of culturally divergent ethnic groups and the apparent lack of political will to find common grounds for genuine association and cooperation as one united nation proved an arduous task for the emerging political leaders. the attendant post-independent spiralling crisis of the early and mid-60s led to a devastating 30 months civil war for the secession of the eastern region government with a new name “biafra” from nigeria. according to the secessionists, their decision to pull out of the nigerian nation was aimed at enforcing their rejection of the “impending threat of neocolonialism by the perceived hegemonic forces from northern nigeria” (inyang, 2018, p. 23). expectedly, and with the aid of the radio and the print media, the war became an arena for the ventilation of perceived betrayal and bitterness through a variety of propaganda materials that fueled the sentiments for the inviolability of one nigeria and the secession of biafra. the modern production of verbal and visual materials for the execution of this war not only constitutes part of the country’s heritage, but it also hints at the unique expression of its vagaries and reaction to its vicissitudes. until recently, the research into, and interrogation of published and unpublished cartoons, editorial illustrations, posters and various renderings of the biafran propaganda machinery to provide a multiple understanding to the unfortunate civil war in nigeria only attracted a casual mention with the insertion of a few posters, cartoons and photographs in books on the nigerian civil war with the aim of serving as supporting illustrations about historical events. nonetheless, the collection of unpublished cartoons and editorial illustrations inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 23 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj on the biafran war by the late professor uche okeke at asele institute, nnimo, and his efforts to preserve the visual narrative of the civil war may have instigated interest in the interrogation of these ephemeral artefacts. a brief assessment of these rare artefacts reveals the various shades of illustrative flair and profound metaphorical statements from the volunteer artists. these mostly unpublished original black and white renderings were devotedly drawn on sketch pads or available scrap sheets with passionate fidelity commensurate with the exigencies of their time. in many cases, the conceptual brief detailing the visual focus and theme for each illustration could be seen at the back of the drawing sheets. put together, these works seem to serve today as strong narratives that continuously push the frontiers of our understanding of the evolving realities of the nigerian state. the collection of these class of artworks on the biafra challenge to nigeria nationalism in dust-covered files and folders are, however, not limited to those in asele institute, nnimo. for instance, kevin echeruo’s nigeria big for nothing illustration (see figure 1) is one of such black and white multipurpose propaganda illustrations that was adopted by the secessionist’s government of biafra to be mass-produced as a poster, handbill and editorial illustration. figure 1: nigeria big for nothing, propaganda poster echeruo (1969) as cited by okereke (1979) 24 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj together, these graphic commentaries collectively constitute part of the elusive chunk of ready to publish visual expressions in cartoons, posters and propaganda illustrations that characterised biafra visual culture of the time strewn across the globe. these illustrations, some of which are lost irretrievably to memory remain as templates for rumination on their ideological promptings and underpinnings have drawn credence to the global concern because the 30 months war has impacted on international politics and showcased nigeria to the world. while it is yet challenging to locate the original pen and ink illustration in an identifiable collection, what appears as the only surviving sanctuary for the kevin echeruo’s artwork is the ba thesis by okereke (1979), which was dated approximately a decade after its production. beyond the early textual anxieties in this illustration that tend to betray patriotism and national pride, one might be quick to query the rationale for inviting a symbolic rendering of an artist into the growing polemics of the nigerian state. this paper offers an analytical study of kevin echeruo’s 1969 biafra propaganda illustration and the attendant issues it raises in today’s mainstream national discourse. in what follows, a brief history of the pre-civil war independent nigeria is anticipated. this is closely followed by an iconographic reading of kevin echeruo’s pen and ink stipple illustration. further to this, the paper shall explore the thematic context of the illustration within the framework of biafran visual propaganda against the conflicts that led to the expressive visual enterprises during the war. this shall be juxtaposed with separatist and self-deterministic rhetoric of the nigerian nation. in analysing this work, we argue that despite the shared set of concerns as propaganda material, kevin echeruo’s illustration represents the extremes of citizen frustration couched in a radical artistic narrative of a caricature. the work is an attempt to visualise a stereotypical country image. hence, it is a symbolic expression in conflicted nationalism and citizenship identity that have had far-reaching consequences on the understanding of cultural politics and the national psyche. literature review the idea of propaganda in the context of this work serves to support the principle under which information was relayed by the seceding biafran government to its audience in order to reinforce favourable attitudes and disposition among them towards the course of the war. however, propaganda, inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 25 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in all its forms, has become one of the most important forms of communication in our society. the success of any kind of propaganda is dependent on the psychological manipulation of its audience and various psychological techniques are employed to achieving them. graphic images, in the form of cartoons, posters, and other forms of visual illustrations therefore, serve to enforce the psychological impact of the political propaganda message by “shaping perceptions, manipulating cognitions, and directing behaviour to achieve a response that helps the desired intent of the propagandist” (jowett & o'donnell, 1986, p. 16). with the deluge of materials on secessionist and self-determinist tendencies in nigeria, only a few critical writings have broached the power of biafra propaganda and the overall effects on the growing secessionists and ethnic-nationalist consciousness. roy doron’s (2014), “marketing genocide”, arua omaka’s (2014), “the forgotten victims” and lasse heertens’ (2017), “spectacles of suffering”, are seminal attempts at reviewing the secessionist polemics in nigeria. their works, however, anchor on the genocide cliché of biafra and the minorities of eastern nigeria respectively. other attempts to harness the rhetorical power of the satirical propaganda cartoons and illustrations in the nigeria civil war between 1967 and 1970 have been broached in etiido inyang’s (2013); (2017); (2018), “a task that must be done”, “echoes of secession”, and “the elephant and the tiger ants” respectively, which provides a general overview of both the federal and secessionists visual propaganda campaigns. the tendency to revisit the submissions derived from these articles are also implicated in this article. on the other hand, the nature and structure of the post-civil war nigerian state equally come to evaluation here based on the perspectival allusions that have attended to the potentials and impediments for its growth and development. in light of these, publications from recent decades such as post and vickers, (1973); ojo, (1981); adebisi, (1989), as cited in ifidon, (1999), have paid attention to various concepts of ethno-regional class manipulations as the causative factor for crises in the nigerian state. it alludes to the strength of ethnic and regional competition for the control of the state and its resources. as a consequence, the potential to harness the human and abundant natural endowments of the state have been threatened. for an artwork that bears an already suggestive textual accompaniment, the significance of echeruo’s illustration appears to have found some urgency today in the nigerian project to merit a reappraisal in this paper. 26 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology three positions in art historical discourse are instructive for this engagement. the first is hegel’s (1956) suggestion in his 1835 seminal work – the aesthetik that although the art object was not made to serve the purpose of history, it, however, stands out distinctly as an activity of man that can be relied upon to chronicle time. the second is a re-articulation of hegel’s position by beat wyss where, the artwork is, “the proof of what has already been achieved; the receipt for the conquest of another level of culture” (wyss, 1999, p. 135), which must be abandoned only for use as a historical source of reality. the third position arises from george kubler’s assertion on the problematic of interpretation offered by the limits allowed by the transformational energies between the original event and the present, — an interpretation where he states there is “another stage in the perpetuation of the original impulse” (kubler, 1962, p. 20). further corroborated here, is foucault’s reference to history as a “presentist” engagement (munslow, 2006, p. 146). in all, the dilemma in the translation and reconstruction of historical evidence into facts in time for an illustration as the one above will become apparent. as a qualitative research engagement, this paper adopts the three-tier iconographic approach to art historical analysis of the 1969 illustration as espoused by erwin panofsky (1955, pp. 40-41) as its main method of analysis. iconography serves as a ready tool that allows for the systematic verbalisation of all material qualities on any piece of artwork vis-à-vis its historical circumstances. as laid out by panofsky, this method employs three levels of inquiry that ranges from ordinary identification of the visual representation, the description through familiarity with the modes of representation, and lastly the interpretation of the subject matter by the reading and reception of the intrinsic meaning which the artwork ultimately possesses. this process may involve considerable historical research in primary sources or a single reference to an authoritative secondary source which this paper adopts. for this reason, a synoptic review of the nigerian crises that led to the war and biographical information on the artist becomes expedient. a. pre-civil war independent nigeria: a synoptic review the signs for the struggle for power among the political elites had become all too obvious in the last decade before nigeria’s independence in 1960 leading to an open exhibition of secessionist tendencies (tamuno, 1970). this was as a result of mutual suspicion among politicians for the inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 27 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj control of regional and federal resources, accentuating in its wake, incentives for the cycle of violence that enveloped the young independent nation. the spate of intolerance arising from the competing struggle for the control of power and the penchant for manipulation of the political machinery to hold onto political power included divisive tactics of regionalisation, religion and ethnicity at the expense of national unity and nation-building. the consequent miasma of uncertainties enveloping the new nation coupled with the sustained media hype engendered the permutations of military intervention to stem the spiralling tide of political unrest in the country. as anticipated after a long spell of rumours, and perhaps informed by the precedents of military coups elsewhere in africa, young officers of the nigerian army overthrew the government on the night of january 14, 1966, in a coup, code-named “operation damisa.” by the next day, most of nigeria’s foremost leaders were either dead or missing. the coup’s aim as claimed by its leader chukwuma kaduna nzeogwu was to cleanse the federal cabinet to make room for a strong, unified and prosperous nation, free of corruption and internal strife. although many of the young officers were igbo, the coup which later earned a contrary perception was not necessarily an igbo coup. the coup plotters were mostly from the educated class of young military officers, who were incensed by the divisive politics of the political class and considered it expedient to act within the ambience of their avowed national interest. hence, the bloody coup signalled a new understanding in the nigerian visual iconography in a manner none of the earlier disturbances and killings could compare. the coup d’état took a life of its own. the realms of the new military government were handed over to general aguyi umunnakwe ironsi to bring the nation back to normalcy. however, rather than abate, the situation in the country spiralled away with new meanings and reactions leading to a counter-coup which took the life of the military head of state, general ironsi. a succession of uprisings on the may 29th, july 29th, and september 29th, 1966 particularly in major towns in northern nigeria targeted at the mainly at easterners in a spate of retaliatory killings continued without any significant control from the new leader yakubu gowon who became the head of state after the killing and overthrow of umunnakwe ironsi’s unitary government. the announcement of secession of the eastern region of nigeria on 30th of may 1966 by colonel emeka ojukwu after a series of failed conciliatory talks advanced a new sense of hope and liberation to the aggrieved people of eastern nigeria whose relatives were killed or escaped death in other parts of nigeria. the declaration of hostility in may 1967 prognosticated the failure of nigeria to realize the great dream of 28 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj becoming africa’s exemplar of black power and the paradigm of excellence for other emerging african and black nations in the world over. for a country already bedevilled by entrenched controversial structures as highlighted above it becomes easy to appreciate the conceptual background to echeruo’s illustration. it seems natural to deduce at this point that the crisis of unity paved the way for the consolidation of secessionist gains, and the need for complex political calculations became imperative. for biafra, it revealed a new thinking that the optimism of a quick triumph through military gains in the civil war against reunification to nigeria is farfetched, hence new themes geared at ridiculing the federalist became expedient. as the hostilities raged, kevin echeruo who by the circumstance of his birth found himself on the side of seceding igbos of south east under biafra, had to engage his artistic talents in biafran propaganda in deriding nigeria in its failed dream of a great nation despite its huge resources. he became part of an active group of artists responsible for developing propaganda visuals for the prosecution of the war. b. kevin echeruo, the artist in the last fifty years, the artist kevin echeruo who signed most of his illustrations and cartoons as “kech” occupies but a phrasal mention in the nigerian civil war discourse. on the one hand, he is seen as an upcoming poet deeply influenced by christopher okigbo, (achebe, 2012, p. 116). on the other hand, he is mentioned with emotional reminiscences as an exceptional visual artist. while simon ottenberg (2014), fondly remembers kevin with his first artwork purchase in nigeria, from an exhibition in enugu in 1960, his classmate in the university, obiorah udechukwu (1995), recalls his dexterity as a draughtsman. for one who was born into an aristocratic igbo family in umonumo, ehime mbano in south-eastern nigeria, the reason for the expression of national disgust and frustration in a constricted space of opportunities in nigeria may not be farfetched. reasons are, first, his father, eze j m echeruo, was the first regional manager of british petroleum in nigeria, a first republic politician and foremost minister from eastern nigeria. like most middle-class families of eastern nigeria, the echeruo’s invested significantly in the biafra war. second, his elder brothers michael and emeka played prominent roles in the war. while michael was director war information bureau, emeka was a director of engineering for the biafra land army charged with sustaining food production in a time of war. for kevin, not even his failing health could deter him from joining his brothers in the war effort. he was in his 2nd year in the university when the war broke inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 29 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj out. displaced from the university in nsukka by the rampaging federal forces, kevin invested most of his time in poetry, illustration and painting like his colleagues who shared the same sense of electric nationalism in biafra. he loved cartooning and started a cartoon strip among other sundry illustrations to add to the war narrative “adamu nigeria.” even though kevin is mentioned as one of the few fledgling artists and illustrators who contributed to the war effort in biafra, there seem to be very few of his illustrations available for assessment. to date, it is yet difficult to find his graphic illustrations in any print form beyond the plates available in the ba thesis. the nigeria big for nothing poster may have been a parting verdict of the prodigious artist who died of health complications from natural causes on october 1969 at the age of 23, a few months after he made this illustration. c. the “nigeria big for nothing” poster as seen in the figure in context, kevin echeruo’s illustration is composed of four disparate images – a penny, an ape, a tribar flag, and a cast shadow (see figure 1). these images are condensed into a single composite whole. it is rendered with an unmistakable mastery as a freehand stipple “pen and ink illustration” in a single colour. the graduation of the composite grains in this illustration is probably aimed at regulating the tranches of perceptual encounter that is offered by the visual narrative. in this encounter, the large frame of a bow-legged ape occupying the near totality of the left vantage space clutches down a vertically oriented tribar flag which shares a distinctive visual association with the nigerian national flag when rendered in black and white. the positioning of the flag presents a connection with the dense mid-day shadow cast down from the scorching sun over the head of what appears a petrified figure to reveal an unusual silhouette – the map of nigeria in a poetic and introspective illustration. the mood of the beast is animated with a receding forehead, a shiny dome and unusual scanty facial hair as signs of premature baldness. with ears stretched out on the sides of its sunken eyes, a drooping flesh connecting to the nostrils with the lips seems to indicate a hopeless attempt at a recovery from a congenital palsy. jotting out behind the left shoulder of the beast is a disc in a combination of embossed angular shapes, a circular opening and a textual referent – “penny” which immediately hints at its overall symbolism. the exaggerated penny – the size of what would instead serve as a hat – seems to dangle away behind the back of the ape leaving the head at the mercy of the scorching sun thereby amplifying what can be alluded as a pennywise symbolism. by these suggestive evocations, a dominating aura is captured in 30 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj an animated four-line text – nigeria big for nothing – amorphously drawn with the similar textural flair of the imageries thereby offering without any additional embellishment of colour an entertaining and readable picture. the characterisation of the typographic illustration exudes a composite unity of an effective poster layout whereby image and text would function together to deliver a cohesive and congruent idea. the composition of the four imageries in echeruo’s illustration is obviously directed toward the signification of negative and oppositional indexes of the nigerian nation. these can easily be found in the tiny nigerian map that seems cast down as the shadow of itself from the massive potbellied frame of the ape. the orientation of the flag is also suggestive of an aggrieved or reluctant patriot whose faith in the symbolism of the national flag has significantly waned. as shown in the illustration, the pointing down of the flag undoubtedly adds to the negative allusions and resentment to nationalistic ideals thereby contradicting with the positive conventions of waving and hoisting of the national flag as a tradition of patriotism that has endured for centuries. as mason (2010, p. 44) states, political cartooning can be accommodated in edward said’s list of cultural allusions. he posits that cartoons (which kevin’s artwork equally approximate) as a cultural discipline was exported to the colonies from britain and europe, and the codes, conventions and ways of signifying that are endemic to it had their origins in the rapidly industrialising urban environments of 19th century britain and europe.” the choice of an ape as a metaphorical representation for the nigeria nation that prides itself as the “giant” in the continent of africa is brought to focus in this illustration. perhaps taking a cue from edwin marcus’ 1939 pen and ink editorial illustration “under two flags” as cited in husband (2015, pp. 116-117), kevin echeruo’s illustration follows also in the use of animals for national representation. simian figures in current visual representation bear a historical connection with a nineteenth-century parody of irish nationals in england (sullivan, 1998). according to him, these portrayals tended to equate them with monkeys and implied that they were less than human and closer to the beasts. it is perhaps this brutish assessment that may have been extended to marcus’ illustration and that of kevin echeruo 30 years later. however, before the use of the ape in artistic representation, animals have afforded the artist with a variety of ways to relate animal behaviour to the human condition. tracing this evolution, fern (1990), recalls that what began merely as simple characterisations such as the “horse face” advanced to appropriate inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 31 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the qualities commonly associated with animals. satirists used the popular traits of these animals (rabbits as timid, birds as elusive, lions as noble, asses as silly and so forth) to poke fun and comment on the notables of the time. the allied forces during ww1 pursued a propaganda campaign that saw the emergence of the ape metaphor to qualify germany with the notoriety of a brutish and barbaric country. the 1917 american poster by h. r. hopps with a bold display caption “destroy this mad brute,” exemplify some of the earliest attempts to approximate this descent to barbaric savagery by the germany forces as one of the most striking american recruitment posters issued during the war (gullace, 2009). the stereotypical reference to the ape in kevin’s illustration becomes more interesting when juxtaposed against the association of blacks with primates – an association that dates back to the sixteenth century, when european explorers first encountered sub-saharan africa. this association provokes fundamental questions beyond the general character of caricaturing. what could have instigated kevin, being himself black and from a country that has only just seceded from nigeria to adopt such a derisive metaphor? did he overstep the bounds of self-assessment? however, there is more to these comparative allusions in the choice of the ape metaphor for reference to a nation. the striking difference between the representations of the image of the nation in this narrative can be easily identified. while the expression of the brutish savagery of a patriot is made apparent on the one hand, what comes across in the reference, on the other hand, is the expression of an imbecilic candour which kevin seems to illustrate about the nigerian nation. the substituted symbolism of an ape caricature becomes a strong representation with far-reaching consequences. mark sableman offers some insight into the context of artistic conceptualisation, which seems congruent for this analysis. he states: artists create their works within the milieu of their own culture, and often portray, describe, or critique their culture. culture consists of the shared symbols, beliefs, values, customs, behaviours, artefacts, and modes of living in a place or period. the constituent parts of culture, including its symbols and shrines, its values and manners, its leaders and idols, are basic and expected grist for art. (sableman, 2007, p. 193) 32 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj therefore, it is debatable if the circumstances of culture may have propelled the initiation of this symbolism and its corresponding textual accompaniment. what appears plausible, as inyang (2018, p. 41) suggests, is the revelation of “residual suspicions, mistrust, and self-preservation,” which had saturated the political space then. as is evident, details on the visualisation and production of this artwork are scanty. there is the strong likelihood that kevin echeruo’s illustration may have drawn its impetus from the secessionist propaganda campaign theme titled “[t]he clay-footed giant of africa.” this title covers ideas that are driven to embarrass or demoralise the nigerian government, their armed forces, and the people by showing the social, cultural and political contradictions in its makeup (biafra campaign appraisal committee, report no. 9, 1969). as far back as the early ’60s, some countries in and outside africa regarded nigeria as africa’s giant due to its large population, human and mineral resource endowments. a counter-narrative through the biafra campaign was aimed at demystifying that image of a black african paragon. used in the general context, “[t]he clay-footed giant of africa” represents a visual shorthand in the plethora of poetic expressions on the war to which obododima oha sought to draw comparative allusions on its complementary roles that ... some nigerian poets of the time, for instance, kevin echeruo and ogonna agu, were both poets and visual artists, and the desire to present poetry and graphics as two “kissing cousins” has persisted in nigeria, [thus] generating a spirit of cultural nationalism. (oha, 1998, p. 166) echeruo’s concept for this theme was but one in a series of interpretations that attempted to illustrate the amorphous contraption in post-independent nigeria. other artists, notably chuks anyanwu — the prolific civil war editorial cartoonist — engaged several metaphors aimed at spewing insults at the federal establishment in nigeria and the perceived principal actors in the war. poets, musicians and radio and newspaper commentaries also keyed into this campaign. to these activists, the new country biafra was all they needed to not only shed the nigerian identity but to destroy its much-touted “giant” status to the outside world. following caswell’s (2004, p. 13) argument, a “sense of moral duty, a desire to oppose what they believe to be wrong, and the need to work for the greater good,” may have inspired these works. inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 33 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by simple deduction, it is difficult to assume that echeruo may have been driven by anything else other than a new sense of patriotism and a shift of allegiance to his new country to invent this strong narrative on his former country owing to the unrestrained killings of easterners in northern nigeria. biafra’s secessionist leader, emeka ojukwu, during the “pogroms of may 29, july 29, and september 29, 1966” demonstrated a unique sense of leadership and concern on the plight of the easterners living in another part of nigeria to merit the eastern regional support for secession from nigeria. the ape archetype, thus, becomes part of the post-colonial hangover of learned symbolisms that found convenient expression in the civil war campaign. echeruo’s work measures up to the belief which streicher (1967, p. 431) holds that cartoons, provide an assortment of negative definitions and stereotypes, which are aimed at sensationalising and evoking public sentiments on the subject for self-defence and the cultivation of hatred. based on available historical antecedence, the best editorial cartoons or propaganda illustrations and posters seem to be those that reflect their creators’ raw indignation against the enemy. the combination of the ape illustration with the header text “nigeria big for nothing,” reduces the composition to schilperoord and maes’ (2009, p. 218) “x is y” metaphoric scheme. we can paraphrase the metaphors in this illustration by the composite action of the ape pointing down the flag within a cast afternoon shadow. the frills of associated national cues in the map and the tribar flag qualify the cartoon as an example of replacement in that the country nigeria is replaced by an “ape”. hence, the metaphorical objects involved here can be paraphrased as the “ape” and its shadow. assuming this was the case, could this massive frame and its illustrated attributes be worth just a penny? the penny symbolism for nothingness, therefore, becomes problematic. the metaphors employed by kevin echeruo in his illustration of the penny makes it challenging to apprehend whether it is the shape or the value of the penny symbol that approximates to the nothingness as suggested by the text in the illustration. the public opinion in biafra at the time based on the killings and homecoming of the easterners to the ancestral homes may have necessitated the conceptual frame of echeruo’s campaign and erased any concept of a united nigeria. therefore, any campaign that would diminish the survival of a “united nigeria” became its most immediate and ultimate objective. the improved campaign approach must be able to mobilise biafran morale to a high level of defiance to the “united nigeria” concept. it also aimed to sustain the ideology through an anticipated long-drawn war, to demoralise the nigerians and their allies successfully. 34 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as can be seen in echeruo’s illustration, some complex dialogues are advanced by the combinations of a textual and iconic form adopted for the composition. the primary objective of the composition as rendered is to approximate the ideas of unmistakable finality in the textual legend “nigeria big for nothing.” echeruo’s cognitive style in the conception of the image can be assessed against the viewer’s experience and meaning-making on the subject of nationhood, patriotism, and self-determination that climaxed in the nigerian nation within the war years. the illustration comes as a fitting subject of visual discourse that approximates the evaluation of visual style and the constancy or otherwise of verbal thoughts. baxandall (1988), argues that visual information is processed differently in the brain by everyone using a blend of culturally determined skills, which are innate or acquired latently by experience. the cultural factors influencing the visual characteristics differ from generation to generation and serve as an important index in the elucidation of the styles that they manifest. the cultural norms of each generation that determined this “style” can be described as “the period eye” (baxandall, 1988). by this assessment, the kevin echeruo illustration possesses an extended relevance in the discourse of patriotism and nationhood in nigeria beyond the circumstance that instigated its making in 1969. discussion a. is nigeria “really” big for nothing? the derisive attack aimed at devaluing nigeria as a country can be safely deduced if we are to take echeruo’s illustrative verdict by their accompanying symbolisms today. nonetheless, the artefact in focus — the poster — is caged in a second level polemical construct by being generally classified as an ephemera. elizabeth broun, in (heyman, 1998, p. 8) clarifies on its temporality, accordingly, they are intended to “affect their audience for only a short time.” if we must corroborate hegel as cited in wyss (1999), echeruo’s nigeria big for nothing illustration was not made to serve the purpose of history, but as a human act, it can be relied upon to chronicle time in the deposition of the artwork considering what at the time inspired its making. in other words, the cartoon, as proof of what has already been achieved will continue to signpost similar allegories created in time. inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 35 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in reference to the secessionist reality in nigerian history, the poster serves as a new platform for the continuance of its original idea and therefore offers a presentist value for the interpretations of the past. the pertinent question, therefore, is whether nigeria is genuinely a big-for-nothing nation. the subsequent discourse, therefore, underscores the pressing concern of this paper. to address the question of whether nigeria is actually big-for-nothing, this paper approaches the evaluation from two different perspectives. the first focus is on the assessment of the nigerian civil war era during which echeruo conceived and produced his illustrations for publication. the second focus places the illustration under the prism of today’s understanding being that contemporary events and situation that informed the choice of this paper. b. echeruo’s “big for nothing” poster in pre-civil war nigeria lacking in supporting parameters for evaluation beyond the bold visual metaphors identified in the description of the illustration in the preceding pages, it seems challenging to accept echeruo’s verdict of a sovereign nigerian state as a big-for-nothing nation. if nothing else, the immediate concerns of echeruo’s poster as a propaganda artefact of the civil war produced and released for publication in the throes of a bitter secessionist campaign in 1969 betray its sincerity. in the first place, one cannot but wonder what bothered echeruo about nigeria as big-for-nothing when he had already chosen not to belong to it by identifying with the rebel side. again, the fact that this proclamation of nigeria as big-for-nothing after secession proves that the illustration was strictly meant for propaganda and directed to his compatriot rebels. he must have intended his fellow insurgents to feel that biafra, their would-be nation, would be better, stronger and more progressive than nigeria. on the contrary, was he by the poster championing implosion on the federalist “one nigeria” campaign? echeruo’s illustration, therefore, approximates a propaganda gimmick aimed at self-boost and for ego massaging of himself and his biafran secessionists and as such barely depicts the actual and real nigerian conditions at the time. as seen above, the timing and motives of the illustration on “nothingness” rules out its possibility as an objective assessment since concrete facts now contained in historical documentation largely contradict the position of the illustration (metz, 1991); (falola & heaton, 2008). with educational and industrial centres sustained by their precolonial potentials, the economy was looking up with stable growth with each of the federating 36 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj region making steady progress. each region of the nigerian federation had its economic base predicated on peculiar agricultural produce which was exported for foreign earning while it also catered for the basic needs of the people. driven by regional competitiveness, the nigerian nation witnessed unprecedented growth during the period. for example, the northern region had groundnut as major produce, the western region had cocoa, and the eastern region palm-produce. each region was a significant world producer/exporter of its own peculiar agricultural product. nigeria, as a whole, was known as a world major food exporter as it had enough to feed its citizens and had excess to export as cash crops for foreign earnings. noteworthy is the fact that malaysia which is today a major exporter of palm oil got the plant introduced to them from nigeria. in fact, there is a virtual consensus that blames strong and powerful regions as the bane of the first nigerian republic that lasted from 1960 – 1966 as many nigerians insist that the fall was primarily as a result of each region being too powerful thereby weakening the centre. even the centrifugal manipulations could hardly explain the finality of the verdict on “national nothingness”. it is therefore unfortunate that echeruo’s illustration intended for his fellow secessionists could be deceitful to the uncritical observer of nigeria and its politics. echeruo’s biafran spirit of nationalism coupled with the euphoria of a possible independent nation separated from nigeria must have gingered him to castigate his [former] country. nonetheless, echeruo may be correct if, by his verdict, he was taunting the nations inability to harness its glaring potentials as its source of strength, hence biafra’s choice to secede. c. the metaphor of nigeria as a “big for nothing” nation left behind by less endowed counterpart african nations on the human development index (hdi), the relevance of echeruo’s 1969 illustration conjures the prophetic metaphor of a nation enmeshed in a conundrum of national crises. in fact, in 1989 the world bank also declared nigeria poor enough to be eligible (along with countries such as bangladesh, ethiopia, chad, and mali) for concessional aid (metz, 1991). despite abundant natural resources, nigeria today finds it difficult to accomplish its civil obligation mainly in the aspects of feeding and protection for its teeming population. other unsettling national problems range from infrastructural decay, insurgency from boko haram, through the rising crime waves, herdsmen/farmer clashes to frequent ethnoreligious conflicts. now nigerians, more than ever before, are largely divided virtually on almost everything due to over-politicization of nearly every national issue. inyang, e.e. & nnamdi, b.s. is nigeria really “big for nothing”? matters 37 arising from kevin nwabugwu echeruo’s propaganda poster https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj granted, that nigeria today approximates to the big-for-nothing metaphor posed by echeruo, one may be tempted to trace the present national woes to poor management of our diversity by our founding fathers and their successors in present-day nigerian leaders. with military incursion, nigeria found itself in a web of coups from 1966 to 1979; 1983 to 1999 during which nigeria five coup d’état to which seven heads of states were in command. this led to a summersault of policies by succeeding military regimes. despite the military intervention, corruption escalated astronomically, leading to the erosion of the nation’s traditional value system in governance (ibrahim, liman, & mato, 2014). more worrisome is the nation’s population estimated to hit the 300 million mark by 2050 (u. n. population division, 2017), with little to show to invalidate kevin echeruo’s doomsday verdict on the fourth republic nigerian state. attempts to capture the resources of the state has led to political manipulations and intrigues including hooliganism and election rigging at both state and federal levels. in all these, it does seem that rather than finding ways to rid the nation of these contraptions, justifications are sought to qualify official aberrations. a clear example is what is referred to in common parlance as the “nigerian factor,” a term used to explain away the corrupt tendencies and inefficiencies in governance. “this is nigeria,” comes as the ready refrain by the army of defenders who are often not in short supply to challenge anyone who dares to question these aberrant behaviours. conclusion as illustrated, the iconographic reading of echeruo’s illustration presents symbolism and metaphors that are out of tune with the pre-civil war nigeria. as a propaganda ephemera, it keys into the themes of the campaign to prosecute the war of secession, the concept of which may have been influenced by his personal loathing for the massacre of his co-easterners in 1966. however, the reductionist verdict of nothingness on nigeria opens up a variety of deductions in this paper. on the one hand, it could be seen as a logical way of encouraging his fellow biafrans to fight to realize their separatist agenda. if this were the case, the illustration could not qualify him as a social critic, the reason being that his intention lacks sincerity and objectivism, notwithstanding his prodigy as an artist. the poster qualifies as an expression of hatred with the desire to motivate the people of the eastern region as a war effort for the side he belonged. 38 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 20 – 41 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj on the other hand, the poster can be viewed as a predictive assessment of nigeria as a country. with the definiteness in echeruo’s judgement on nigeria, one could argue about his uncanny ability to forecast the future with his illustration being that the nation nigeria has remained in fits and start fifty years after the war, knowing that he passed on shortly after he completed this illustration. echeruo’s illustration serves as a metaphor to present-day nigeria and defines the capacity of art and artist in politics and political struggles. accordingly, echeruo’s verdict on nigeria aggregate to the limits of patriotism, nationality and self-determination. it is a representation on the extremes of citizen frustration couched in a radical artistic narrative of a caricature. national allegiance and cohesiveness are a function of the mutual reciprocity between the state and its citizens. this can be seen not only in the volte-face reversal of allegiance, not only witnessed in the echeruo illustration but by the radical separatists like boko haram seeking their eldorado in a divide and rule fragments of the nigerian state. the way out of this national quagmire demands massive public enlightenment and reorientation of the masses. in addition, the educational system needs to be reviewed and made to fit into some national agenda in the form of ideology, creed or philosophy geared towards the development of the patriotic citizenry. references achebe, c. 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(trans.) cambridge: university press. peer teaching as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal atik rokhayani, agung dwi nurcahyo, dwi rukmini, and ahmad sofwan department of english education, universitas muria kudus, indonesia department of english, universitas negeri semarang, indonesia email: atik.rokhayani@umk.ac.id; agung.dwi@umk.ac.id; wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com; sofwan1589@yahoo.com received: 21-08-2017 accepted: 10-10-2017 published: 21-10-2017 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj peer teaching as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal atik rokhayani1, agung dwi nurcahyo1, dwi rukmini2, and ahmad sofwan2 atik.rokhayani@umk.ac.id; agung.dwi@umk.ac.id; wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com; sofwan1589@yahoo.com 1department of english education, universitas muria kudus, indonesia 2department of english, universitas negeri semarang, indonesia abstract: one of the professional competences that should be owned by english teachers is classroom english skill since they have to deliver instructions in various classroom context. consequently, it becomes a challenge for teacher training and education institutions to prepare their student teachers with good english speaking skills for instructional purposes. student teachers usually have to complete a teaching internship program for one semester at school so as to engage them in a real situation of teaching experience. in that period of time, they will have to use appropriate classroom language when giving instructions to their students. therefore, student teachers should be provided enough opportinuties for practicing their classroom english skill. in indonesian english education department there is a compulsory course named ‘micro teaching class’ that should be attended by student teachers before they have a teaching internship program at school. this study aims at describing how peer teaching is practiced by the students of the english education department of universitas muria kudus as a simulation activity to use classroom english in delivering classroom’s instruction. the study will explore to what extent this simulation can help student teachers improve mailto:atik.rokhayani@umk.ac.id mailto:agung.dwi@umk.ac.id mailto:wiwidwirukmini@yahoo.com 104 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number1, july 2017, pp. 103 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj their communicative competence in classroom instructional process. key words: classroom english rehearsal, interactive classroom simulation, peer teaching, communicative competence abstrak: salah satu bagian dari kompetensi profesional yang harus dimiliki oleh guru bahasa inggris adalah ketrampilan berbahasa inggris untuk pembelajaran di kelas karena mereka harus menyampaikan beragam instruksi dalam berbagai konteks pembelajaran di kelas. oleh karena itu, hal ini menjadi suatu tantangan bagi lembaga pendidikan tenaga keguruan (lptk) untuk menyiapkan para mahasiswa calon guru dengan ketrampilan bahasa inggris untuk pembelajaran di kelas dengan baik. para mahasiswa calon guru harus mengikuti program magang mengajar (praktek pengalaman lapangan/pppl) selama 1 semester di sekolah-sekolah dalam rangka mendekatkan mereka dengan situasi yang riil dalam bentuk pengalaman mengajar. pada saat magang di sekolah tentunya mereka harus menggunakan bahasa inggris untuk pembelajaran di kelas dengan benar. maka dari itu, para mahasiswa calon guru harus diberi kesempatan yang cukup untuk berlatih menggunakan bahasa inggris untuk pembelajaran di kelas tersebut. di indonesia ada suatu mata kuliah wajib yang harus diikuti oleh para mahasiswa calon guru, yaitu mata kuliah micro teaching. mata kuliah tersebut harus mereka ambil sebelum mereka praktek mengajar di sekolah. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan bagaimana peer teaching (pengajaran teman sejawat) dipraktekkan oleh mahasiswa pendidikan bahasa inggris, universitas muria kudus sebagai sebuah kegiatan simulasi penggunaan bahasa inggris untuk pembelajaran di kelas. penelitian ini akan mengeksplorasi sejauh mana simulasi ini dapat membantu para mahasiswa calon guru untuk meningkatkan ketrampilan komunikasi mereka terutama dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa inggris di kelas. kata kunci: latihan berbahasa inggris untuk pembelajaran di kelas, simulasi kelas interaktif, pengajaran teman sejawat, kompetensi komunikasi rokhayani, a., nurcahyo a.d., rukmini, d. & sofwan, a., peer teaching 105 as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj introduction a teacher should be a good facilitator in the learning process of efl class since students need to be encouraged to develop their communicative competence by exposing them in an interactive communication setting. to cope with this demand, it is necessary for teacher training and education institutions to make their student teachers familiar with some instructional techniques which support their communicative competence. communicative competence is highly important to be trained to student teachers of efl class since it has been one of the compulsory competences that should be owned by professional prospective english teachers. they will have to teach english to their students which means they should help their students to communicate in english as a social means of communication. canale and swain (1980), canale (1983) in celce murcia and olshtain (2000, p. 16) proposed that communicative competence could be described as consisting of at least four components: linguistic or grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. it can be perceived that communicative competence help teachers use language in a multidimensional aspect of social interaction that they should introduce to their students. some instructional methods of efl, such as communicative language teaching (clt) and role play are necessary to be introduced to student teachers so that they will have inspirations to manage their teaching performance in such a way that interactive classroom can be conducted. method of communicative language teaching (clt) is considered to be the remark of paradigm change, from grammatical competence paradigm to communicative competence paradigm (richard, 2006, p. 3). role play is also an effective strategy to bring real social life into classroom which in turn can expose students to an active and interactive learning setting. an interactive classroom is the one which can engage students to participate in the learning process actively. if a teacher presents an interactive and communicative setting of learning activities, students’s disinterest can be avoided. nurcahyo (2015, p. 1) states, “student’s disinterest during a learning process in the classroom is an unexpected case for a teacher since it can make the learning objective of the class unsuccessfully achieved”. student’s disinterest occurs because students are not voluntarily attend the class so they need to be encouraged. to encourage students to be involved in the learning activities, students must feel incouraged and open-minded. as a sequence, the teachers should consider their students as growth mindset learners. morehead (2012) in heggart (2015) points out dweck’s remark which states, “a growth mindset students understand that their talents and 106 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number1, july 2017, pp. 103 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj abilities can be developed through effort, good teaching and persistence”. in line with the paradigm of growth mindset learner, student teachers should also make themselves aware of the importance of being growth mindset teachers because it will enable them to be creative teachers. a creative teacher usually has the sense of making an interactive classroom activities. to be able to conduct interactive classroom setting, a teacher should have powerful communication skill. powerful communication skill much relies on how teachers use classroom language. it deals with how teachers deliver instructions in the learning process. if the use of classroom language is well managed, teachers will be able to conduct interactive and effective class. therefore, student teachers should be provided with intensive training at the campus before they have real teaching activity in the internship program at schools. the intensive training of teaching in english education department is usually accommodated in micro teaching class. in micro teaching class, student teachers have intensive practice of peer teaching. love (2012) states, “peer teaching has students take on a teaching role in a school setting in order to share their knowledge with other students”. in the english education department of universitas muria kudus, a simulation activity in using classroom english in delivering classroom’s instruction is practiced by its students as would-be teachers. in this study, it explores to what extent this simulation can help student teachers improve their communicative competence in classroom instructional process. in peer teaching activity, the student teachers are expected to experience learning strategies of role play and communicative language teching (clt) which in turn can make them prepared to conduct interactive class in their teaching internship program at schools. literature review this study tries to explore the use of the instructional strategies of role play and communicative language teching (clt) in micro teaching class in form of simulation activity of peer teaching. peer teaching is a kind of classroom role play in which student teachers will play roles of being teachers and students as well. love (2012) suggests that there are some benefits to peer teaching as follows: a. consolidate learning: by teaching to a peer, students review their own learning, which allows them to strengthen their own knowledge and skills. rokhayani, a., nurcahyo a.d., rukmini, d. & sofwan, a., peer teaching 107 as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj b. increase confidence: this type of learning activity boosts self-confidence because students realize that the classroom teacher perceives them as experts and trusts them enough to share their expertise with a peer. c. develop communication skills: students must use strong communication skills to be able to provide clear directions, listen to feedback, and then adjust the next set of instructions accordingly so that their peer is successful d. assess learning: the teacher is able to assess students’ understanding of the material based on their ability to share their knowledge and skills with a fellow peer, that could not be accomplished using a paper and pencil test. peer teaching is expected to be a way to accustom student teachers to intensive rehearsal since they should do a simulation as if they were in a real classroom. peer teaching also exposes student teachers to a setting of peerreflection with their own friends. this may reduce psychological gap and in turn after the reflection they can make improvement on the way they teach. the concept and practice of communicative language teaching (clt) in this study are given to the student teachers in the frame of encouraging them to use classroom english. student teachers do intensive rehearsal of setting an interactive learning activity through the use of classroom english. this will help student teachers post themselves like in a real situation in a classroom serving as teachers who actively interact with students in an acceptable context of situation by using classroom english. in other chance, they will also be in the position of students that will also be engaged to give response using classroom english. this reciprocal feedback represents the implementation of a classroom simulation by using clt and role play collaboratively. therefore, student teachers will have a change of paradigm from teaching the english grammatical competence to english communicative competence paradigm (richard, 2006: 3). in this case, english grammar is taught without separating it from the contextual use. this approach is expected to condition student teachers to be prepared as creative teachers who always maintain interactive teaching style during their teaching internship program with a perspective of english as social means of communication. reciprocal model is familiarly perceived to be one of the characteristics of functional approach of language development theory. hence, students can naturally develop their language proficiency through 108 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number1, july 2017, pp. 103 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj social interaction in which they construct their communicative competence by using english functionally (brown, 2007, p. 37). methodology the study tries to investigate and describe the practice of peer teaching conducted by the students of the english education department of universitas muria kudus as a simulation activity in using classroom english in delivering classroom’s instruction. the study will explore to what extent the simulation activity can help student teachers improve their classroom english competence delivering instructions in a role played-teaching practice in micro teaching class. it is a also a study which explore the implementation of communicative language teaching (clt) and role play method in developing interactive learning process in the peer teaching activity in which student teachers will take in turns to teach and to be taught. the peer teeching activity will be followed up by a reflection session in which the student teachers have the opportunity to do a self reflection as well as to get criticism, correction and suggestion as well as assessment from one another. the subject of the research is the student teachers of the english education department of universitas muria kudus, indonesia. the student teachers are students who take micro teaching class in the sixth semester in which they are required to take this class as a pre-requisite subject for them to take a teaching internship program in the upcoming semester in a real school. the class is set in a simulation activity of peer teaching as described above. in the peer-teaching activity students will have the following learning experiences: 1. experience of being a teacher 2. experience of being students 3. exerience of using classroom english 4. experience of using clt and role play method 5. experience of peer-assessment on teaching performance 6. experience of peer-reflection on teaching performance rokhayani, a., nurcahyo a.d., rukmini, d. & sofwan, a., peer teaching 109 as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 7. experience of using song, game, and other media of learning from the five prospective learning experiences, number 3, 4, 5, and 6 are those which are highlighted in this study. the peer teaching activity applied in micro teaching class are subjected to the curriculum which have until now been implemented in secondary and high schools in indonesia, which are so called institutional based curriculum (ktsp) and curriculum of 2013. these two curriculum have similarity in the learning approach developed, i.e. both use scl (student centered learning) approach. clt and role play are methods considered in line with scl approach. in the same semester the student teachers actually also take the class of teaching design for adult learner (tdal). in this class, they get a training to practice designing a lesson plan, methods of teaching, create media of teaching, as well as strategies of teaching in a classroom. the result of the teaching design is then applied in the peer-teaching activity in micro teaching class. their experience in those courses will help them develop an effective and interactive class. when the peer-teaching performance is done, a triangular assessment is done by the lecturer as first assessor and two student-teachers serving as first and second assessors. the triangular assessment is done by referring to an assessment rubric which includes the following aspects: a. how do student-teachers do apperception using classroom english? b. how do student-teachers deliver the learning material using classroom english? c. how do the student-teachers relate the material with the real context of daily life using classroom english? d. how do the student-teachers encourage the participants to actively participate in learning activities using classroom english? e. how do student teachers create interactive class using classroom english? f. how do student teachers deliver instructions using classroom english? g. does the student-teacher do any follow up of the classroom activities using classroom english? the above questions cover the aspects on which the observation in the study is based. those questions, more or less, provide information to describe how 110 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number1, july 2017, pp. 103 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj student-teachers perform communicative classroom english communicative language teaching (clt) and role play method embedded in the simulation of peer teaching. peer-reflection on the peer teaching activity is done in the closing session of each meeting of micro teaching class. this activity allows lecturers and other students give evaluation, constructive criticism and suggestions to the teaching performance. through this activity, student-teachers will be able to grade their performance’s quality including the use of classroom english so as to motivate and encourage them to perfom better in the next chance. efforts to do improvement in a teaching’s performance will be evaluated in the following turns of peer-teaching performances, so each student-teacher will have more opportunities to have better performance of using classroom english in a clt and role play based instructional setting. peer teaching can be perceived as an implementation of a ‘socioaffective learning strategy’ as proposed by brown (2007, p. 146). learning can be done through a cooperation activity in which students are put in a setting of learning in such a way that they can learn together, get feedback from one another, collect information together and designing linguistic activities (brown, 2007, p. 146). results there are 36 student teachers attending the micro teaching class. they are divided into three big groups in order that they can have autonomous learning and practice in group outside the classroom. in the formal schedule, each student is planned to get three opportunities for doing the teaching performance referring to scl approach as the nature designed in the curriculum of ktsp and the curriculum of 2013. each teaching performance is assessed by three assessors; those are the lecturer serving as the first assessor and the other two of the student-teachers serving as the second and the third assessor. as the guidelines of assessment, the assessors are given assessment rubric containing the above mentioned points of question as the basis of previewing the extent of the use of classroom english in frame of actualizing clt and role play in the peer-teaching performance. to help the researcher explore the students’ responses towards the teaching and learning process, questions in the assessment rubric are used as the reference to grade and perceive the student-teachers’ skill in using classroom english and in managing interactive class using clt and role play. rokhayani, a., nurcahyo a.d., rukmini, d. & sofwan, a., peer teaching 111 as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj the study shows that in the beginning period of performance, many student-teachers have not yet optimally applied the clt method since they seem to have a problem of using classroom english. in fact, the proficiency of classroom english much influence the quality of the teaching performance. the more proficient they are in using classroom english, the more interactive their class will be. it is because clt demands a communicative instructions so as to encourage students to respond communicatively. in the first period of reflection, the performing studentteachers are then given some criticisms and suggestions by the lecturer and the other student-teachers as the first, second and third assessor. the reflection is done after the student-teachers do the performance. it is conducted so as to boost the improvement of their performance in the next performing session. in this stage, it is found that there are student-teachers or almost 60 % who get low score in instruction delivery management. based on the observation result most of them do not apply the clt method well because of their low classroom english proficiency. it is proven by their less interactive class compared with the others. some student teachers who have high proficiency of classroom english are found to be able to perform more interactive class. they can encourage the students to actively respond to teacher’s instructions in english. in the second period of peer teaching performance, it is found that the student teachers are more encouraged to make the classroom be more interactive. it can be seen from their effort to deliver more communicative and powerful instructions. it is true that there is no significant increase in quality of classroom english performance but at least there is a little change forward on the commitment and their effort to perform more communicative instructions. based on the assessment, there are still around 50 % of the student teachers who still get low score in classroom english performance but in the reflection session it shows that they are more prepared to conduct the teaching performance with better quality of classroom instructions. after they attend the simulation class of peer teaching, each of them can learn some strong points and weak points of their peer’s performance. it is in turn may give motivation and inspiration to them to find and prepare interesting or interactive class. they can peerperceive the teaching performance. if the feedback or response from the class participants (student-teachers serving as the students) are positive so it can be predicted that in the real class at school they will also get positive response from the students. 112 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number1, july 2017, pp. 103 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj meanwhile, in the final stage there is an increase though not significant on the student-teacher’s average score of classroom english performance. however, the observation shows that the student-teachers perform more interactive classroom management. based on the points of questions used by the researcher to assess the teaching quality of the studentteachers, there are several important points, as mentioned above, that should be fulfilled by the student-teachers to be considered as having qualified teaching performance, i.e. how student-teachers use classroom english in the activities, such as management of apperception, delivery of teaching material, level of relevance of the material towards daily life context, encouragement on student’s participants in the learning process, creativity on designing interactive class, delivery of instructions and giving follow up activities in the end session of the class. the research result shows that although the average score of classroom english performance does not show a significant improvent, there is a tendency (from the first up to the third stage) toward a growing motivation of making efforts for creative classroom setting. each of them is motivated and encouraged by their friend’s good performance. additionally, the reflection session has given a supporting drive for them to improve their proficiency of classroom english as the main need to perform interactive english class. based on the assessment rubric, observation, and video recording, it shows that the student-teachers have done good efforts to make their teaching performance be positively responded by the classroom participants. although most of them do not perform good proficiency of classroom englich, student-teachers cope with that weak point by strenghtening the other aspects of teaching performance such as modifying teachniques, media, and material of teaching. some student-teachers use teaching methods like cooperative learning, role play, genre based instruction, project based learning and suggestopedia, while regarding the techniques and strategies, most of them use game and group discussion to encourage the students to be active in the class. concerning learning media, some media like picture, audiovisual, quiz, games and short story are used by the student-teachers to stimulate the student’s participation in the class. it also shows that the student-teachers, along the three stages, have developed efforts to conduct good teaching performance so as to develop interactivity between teacher and students. the observation also reveals that the student-teachers who can manage their method and media of teaching to facilitate the participants (students) to learn english through meaningful classroom activities and real rokhayani, a., nurcahyo a.d., rukmini, d. & sofwan, a., peer teaching 113 as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj communication are those who get good attention (feedback) from the students. it means that whatever the method or media of teaching may be as long as the teachers can create an interactive classroom; the students will be encouraged to participate in the learning activities. it can be stated that if student teachers have good classroom english proficiency, in addition to performing appropriate technique, media and material of teaching, the classroom they design will be better and more interactive. although the learning achievement of the students of micro teaching class has not reached the expected average score, on the basis of learning process there is a progressive trend of learning outcome since the students get some consolidate learning experiences during the reciprocal teaching practice of the peer teaching activity. the learning experiences that the student-teachers get in the peer-teaching activity in micro teaching class are described as follows: a. student-teachers experience intensive rehearsal of teaching practice because they will be motivated to make continuous improvement on the teaching quality. b. student-teachers have the opportunity to develop their self confidence of teaching. the student-teachers will feel confident when they are given a trust to be the teacher. c. the public speaking skill of the student-teachers are gradually developed. d. student-teachers’ communicative competence increase since they are encouraged to practice providing effective instructions, understandable directions, listen to feedback, and etc. e. the student teachers’ literacy can be developed since they are given assignment to prepare teaching material that can be accessed from online or offline resources. f. there will be no psychological gap among the student teachers when performing classroom english. g. triangular assessment practically help students map the scope of evaluation on teaching performance. h. the reflection session helps the student-teachers improve their weak points of teaching performance in a reciprocal evaluation. 114 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number1, july 2017, pp. 103 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj i. in terms of affective aspect, through the simulation of peer teaching, student teachers feel secured, supported, encouraged and motivated to design an interactive teaching since they feel that they are not alone in learning; they have friends to share and consult with. from the above learning experiences, it can be pointed out that the three aspects of learning, i.e. affective, cognitive and psychomotoric aspects are stimulated to be able to give contribution on the development of student teachers’ teaching performance and classroom english proficiency as well. the learning environment, as the external factor, in micro teaching class gives suggestive drive to the student teachers during the learning process. they have the opportunities to do “trial and error” on teaching performance, to immitate their friends’ performance, to compare their strategy with their friends’ strategy of teaching and the other reflective learning activities. thereafter, these external factors nurturally influence the student teachers’ motivation of learning, efforts for making improvement, reduction of self inferiority and a drive of developing creativity. it is in line with the theory of behaviourism which maintains the important role of environment in human’s effort to improve competence and performance. at this point, it can be seen that in a learning process, students are intensively nurtured by teacher’s modelling, instruction, feedback and their friends’ performance. peer teaching as a classroom model for improving student-teachers’ classroom english can be perceived as a learning model which combines the essetials of three approaches in language teaching and learning, i.e. behaviourism, humanism and constructivism though humanism is the most apparent approach in this classroom model. in behaviourism approach, language proficiency is much determined by the extent of the stimulation activity of language performance as a nurturally possessed potential of the students. in this case, students are nurtured by “a learning by doing process” of teaching practice as a form of behaviouristic setting and also stimulated by a peer-working of responding, assessing, suggesting, criticizing and selfreflecting practice as the typical nature of humanistic learning approach (brown, 2007, p. 13). when student-teachers conduct the performance of teaching, they are considered as having done the effort of constructing a learning product. to be described in a connecting perspective of learning approach, in the peer teaching activities student teachers have been engaged in the realization of behaviourism, humanism and constructivism. in this point of views, student rokhayani, a., nurcahyo a.d., rukmini, d. & sofwan, a., peer teaching 115 as a simulation for communicative classroom english rehearsal https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj teachers are then finally made aware of the importance of conducting repetition of teaching practice to form a habit of using good classroom english for conducting interactive learning process as seen in behavioursm theory. student-teachers are put in “a working together learning setting” as commonly suggested by humanism concept. aditionally, they are encouraged to construct a learning product, i.e. teaching performances as highlighted in constructivism perspective. overall, student-teachers’ classroom language proficiency as a reflection of competence-performance teaching qualification has been intensively rehearsed in a peer teaching activity that is conducted in micro teaching class, in order to prepare them to cope with the qualification of the 21st-century teacher. as a 21st century teacher, it is ideal if, a teacher would prepare his/herself as a long life learner, collaborator, innovator, communicator and student facilitator as well as a technology-literate person. (palmer, 2015). conclusion from the above discussion, there are some concluding points that can be put forward in this article, those are: a. the peerteaching performance of the student-teachers in micro teaching class at the english education department of universitas muria kudus, has provided opportunities for students’ intensive rehearsals of a teaching simulation, to improve their classroom english proficiency; b. the student-teachers of the micro teaching class have done the efforts to design interactive class as the typical characteristic of teaching strategies; c. clt and role play have been implemented by the student-teachers in various extent such as modifying material, media, and strategies of teaching; d. to cope with the problem of classroom english proficiency, student teachers strengthen other aspects of teaching to maintain the interactive activities of the english classroom; e. triangular assessment, from lecturer and students, helps student-teachers map the scope of evaluation on their teaching performance; and 116 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature, volume 17, number1, july 2017, pp. 103 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj f. peer teaching can practically reduce the psychological gap between teacher and students in which in turn will help student-teachers to form a habit and confidence in organizing an active english classroom. references brown, h. d. (2007). prinsip pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa. jakarta: pearson education, inc. celce-murcia, m. & olshtain e. (2000). discourse and context in language teaching. united states of america: cambridge university press. heggart, k. (2015). developing a growth mindset in teachers and staff. accessed july 30, 2017 from https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/ developing-growth-mindset-teachers-and-staff love, c. (2012). peer to peer teaching – students become the teachers. accessed july 30, 2017 from http://www.technokids.com/blog/ teaching-strategies/peer-to-peer-teaching-students-become-theteachers/ morehead, j. "stanford university's carol dweck on the growth mindset and education." onedublinorg. june 19, 2012. nurcahyo, a.d. (2015). creative teaching for interactive classroom. a paper presented in english education international conference (eduticon), 4-5 november 2015, in universitas jambi richard, j. c. (2006). communicative language teaching today. new york: cambridge university press. retrieved on 30 july 2017 from http://faculty.mu.edu.sa/public/uploads/1347871288.356924906 420-jack-c-richards-communicative-language-teaching-today.pdf. tsisana, p. (2015). 15 characters of a 21st teacher. accessed august 14, 2017 from https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/15-characteristics-21stcentury-teacher http://faculty.mu.edu.sa/public/uploads/1347871288.356924906420-jack-c-richards-communicative-language-teaching-today.pdf http://faculty.mu.edu.sa/public/uploads/1347871288.356924906420-jack-c-richards-communicative-language-teaching-today.pdf https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/15-characteristics-21st-century-teacher https://www.edutopia.org/discussion/15-characteristics-21st-century-teacher 8 1072 cover online atik.pdf (p.1) 8 1072 atiek p 103-116.pdf (p.2-15) a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia students’ perceptions on english fun fair as an implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes 1ardela indri apriliani and 2listyani 1,2english language education program, faculty of language and arts, universitas satya wacana, salatiga, indonesia email: 1112016034@student.uksw.edu, listyani.listyani@uksw.edu received: 21-12-2019 accepted: 08-12-2020 published: 05-06-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students’ perceptions on english fun fair as an implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes 1ardela indri apriliani and 2listyani 1112016034@student.uksw.edu, 2listyani.listyani@uksw.edu 1,2english language education program, faculty of language and arts, universitas satya wacana, salatiga, indonesia abstract: english fun fair is one of the implementation models in project-based learning (pbl) which involves learning through various tasks and collaborative learning. particularly, the project was implemented in speaking for social purposes classes at an english language education program, at a private university in central java, indonesia. the study aimed to investigate students' perceptions of the influence of english fun fair which consisted of the benefits and challenges of the project. the participants of the study were fifty (50) students from 2016, 2017, and 2018 academic year who had taken speaking for social purposes course and had done english fun fair. to gain data more deeply, the researchers used a qualitative method. the instruments used were open-ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. in the questionnaires, the participants answered some questions related to this study. after that, as a follow-up of the answers in the questionnaires, the researcher did interviews. besides that, the data showed that improving speaking skills was the most dominant benefit mentioned by the participants. however, problems in speaking skills also became a challenge which they experienced a lot. expectantly, the findings from this study can give views for efl teachers about the benefits of this project and for efl students can develop their speaking and other skills. key words: english fun fair, pbl, perceptions, speaking skills, speaking for social purposes abstrak: english fun fair merupakan salah satu penerapan projectbased learning (pbl) yang melibatkan pembelajaran melalui berbagai tugas dan pembelajaran kolaboratif. secara khusus, projek ini 74 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dilaksanakan pada kelas sepaking for social purposes pada sebuah program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris di sebuah universitas swasta di jawa tengah, indonesia. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui persepsi mahasiswa tentang pengaruh english fun fair, khususnya tentang tantangan serta manfaat, yang dirasakan oleh mahasiswa responden. responden penelitian terdiri dari 50 mahasiswa angkatan tahun 2016, 2017, dan 2018 yang telah mengambil mata kuliah speaking for special purposes dan telah mengikuti acara english fun fair. dalam penelitian kualitiatif ini, data diperoleh dari kuesioner dan wawancara semi tersruktur. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan ketrampilan berbicara merupakan manfaat paling utama yang dirasakan oleh responden. namun demikian, masalah dalam ketrampilan berbicara juga menjadi tantangan bagi banyak mahasiswa. diharapkan hasil penelitian ini dapat memberikan manfaat bagi guru ataupun dosen efl serta para siswa atau mahasiwa dalam mengembangkan kemampuan siswa/ mahasiswa dalam berbicara dalam bahasa inggris. kata kunci: english fun fair, pbl, persepsi, ketrampilan berbicara, speaking for social purposes introduction in this modern era, english is one of the languages which has an important role in international communication. along with the development of society, countries become increasingly multicultural. everyone's understanding depends on communication. it is because people who come from different countries will be confused in understanding each other if they do not use english in speaking. besides that, among the four skills in english, speaking becomes the most essential skill (ur, 1996). thus, english foreign language (efl) students have to master the speaking skill to communicate with each other. however, there are a lot of people in indonesia who still get difficulty in speaking english, especially for efl students. this can happen because they have to be proficient to speak english which is not their native language. furthermore, most students are not confident in speaking english. this is also supported by hadijah (2014) who stated that students face their own personal problem including lack of confidence, lack of practice in speaking, and shy to speak english. apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 75 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj on the other hand, there was a study conducted in islamic azad university of chabahar (iauc). the university applied project-based learning (pbl) as the model for teaching speaking. the result revealed that “pbl has significant effect on speaking ability of elementary adult efl learners” (behtash & sarlak, 2017, p. 129). at the private university in central java, indonesia, where the research was conducted, pbl was also implemented as one of the speaking class activities. one of the pbl models is english fun fair which is a project in speaking for social purposes classes. therefore, we perceived the need to investigate further about english fun fair. specifically, the research was aimed to answer the research question: what are students’ perceptions on english fun fair as the implementation of project-based learning (pbl) model in speaking for social purposes classes? moreover, the study aimed to explore students’ perceptions about the influences of english fun fair in learning process. hopefully, this study can be beneficial for elep lecturers and students, especially in improving students’ speaking skills. lecturers can take the information about the benefits of english fun fair as a project in speaking classes. also, they can give a contribution to pbl in teaching speaking. besides that, students can develop and enhance speaking skills and other skills in their learning process. literature review this section provided all the information related to the research. the first part explained the definitions of speaking. the second part analyzed the concept of teaching speaking. the third part explained the definitions of project-based learning (pbl). the fourth part described the advantages of project-based learning (pbl). the fifth part elaborated on the concept of english fun fair. also, the last part justified previous studies on project-based learning (pbl) and theoretical framework. a. the definitions of speaking there are various definitions of the speaking term itself. an interactive process which contains producing, receiving, and processing speech of sounds as the main instruments can be called as speaking (brown, 2001) as cited in suryani (2015). cameron (2005) as cited in suryani (2015) said that through speaking, people can understand the meaning which is expressed by other 76 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj people. besides that, the term speaking is not only how students can understand about sociolinguistic competence, for examples, why, when, and how to speak a language, but also, they have to master how the linguistic competence is produced, for examples, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (khorashadyzadeh, 2014). furthermore, burns in bachtiar (2006, as cited in abubakar 2015) stated that expressing ideas, information and feeling to people are part of verbal communication in speaking. therefore, based on the definitions above, speaking is a process to deliver information or ideas to other people through oral communication. b. the concept of teaching speaking according to widyaningsih & robiasih (2018), a teacher who teaches speaking must find a good strategy to teach speaking because a teacher's way in teaching speaking influences students' success in learning speaking. hence, teachers must apply good strategies which can develop students’ speaking skills. this thing is related to a statement which was said by anjaniputra (2013) that in various language programs, teaching speaking has an important role and teaching outcome is influenced by teaching strategies. teachers have to implement a good strategy which can arouse students' interest, so they can be encouraged to speak well. in addition, thornbury (2005) asserted that learners can apply their language use in real life and activate language knowledge automatization through communicative tasks. moreover, communicative tasks are the application of project-based learning (pbl) model. c. the definitions of project-based learning (pbl) there are several basic understandings about pbl. project-based learning (pbl) is a learning model which emphasizes students' activities and giving freedom to students to improve their potential in the learning process (ismuwardani, nuryatin, & doyin, 2019). then, it is similar to jacques, bissey, and martin (2016)’s opinions which stated that pbl emphasizes students to work in groups or individually in order to they can improve their knowledge, skills and analyze several challenges and problems in their daily life. besides that, pbl is a model which teaches students to more focus on learning concepts. in addition, mali (2016) claimed that project-based learning is a learning model through a project which focuses on studentcentered, learner autonomy, collaborative learning, and learning through various tasks. apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 77 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj furthermore, according to cintang, setyowati, & handayani (2017), there are several roles for teachers and students in pbl. in implementing pbl, teachers do not have a dominant role in teaching. it is because they only have some roles such as facilitator, supervisor, motivator, and evaluator. on the other hand, students have more active roles than teachers in pbl. they have a lot of activities, compared to teachers. moreover, based on marisah & robiasih (2017), there are four stages of applying pbl in learning speaking. first, deliberation of preparing the activities. second, devising the project activities which will be done. third, implementing the project activities in a group. fourth, making reflection and doing evaluation by giving feedback both from teachers and students in other groups. d. the advantages of project-based learning (pbl) there are a lot of advantages of pbl which can improve students’ skills in the learning process. according to westwood (2008), there are some advantages in applying pbl. first, students can improve their collaborative learning and team working skills through pbl. it is because students can work together with each other in a group to produce good results. second, almost all curriculum fields are suitable to be applied pbl model. in the learning process students are required to be active, so through pbl, they will be more involved in the learning. third, students can improve their motivation and self-determination because they have the responsibility for their own learning. when students do a good project and get satisfaction, they will be more motivated in learning. in addition, in applying pbl model, students learn through facts and use high-level thinking. it is because in doing a project, students will find some problems. consequently, they can hone their thinking skills to be able to analyze each problem critically, so they can complete their project. besides that, students could learn various knowledge and skills through pbl (tamim and grant, 2013). it happened because pbl was done in groups, so they had to discuss the project such as giving ideas or suggestions and solving problems. moreover, students can apply their learning into practice directly through project work (booth, 1986). through pbl students can learn into real life because they apply the materials which have learned before. 78 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj e. the concept of english fun fair project-based learning (pbl) is one of the models which often uses in speaking. one of the implementations of pbl in speaking for social purposes course is english fun fair. mali (2018) postulated that english fun fair is a project where students can learn to communicate english with other people outside their class. then, he stated that students work in a group to make and sell food or drinks. after that, students have roles as sellers and other people have roles as customers. based on the definition above, this project is carried out in groups where students and other people play roles in the project. according to mali (2018)’s research, the students had to be explained the goal of the project before they did it. besides that, the lecturers had to teach materials related to the project because they had to apply the materials directly. in addition, the students were given a deadline to do some preparation, for examples, dividing some jobs of each group and deciding what food or drinks to be sold. in english fun fair, the students were assessed by their lecturers about their performances, such as the way they spoke in english. furthermore, in this fair, visitors could buy some tickets which were given to students when they bought students’ food and drink in every stand. thus, the students had to attract visitors to buy their product, so they could collect a lot of tickets. moreover, the students could apply their materials which have taught by their lectures, for examples, greeting people, handling conversation, and selling products. after the fair was finished, the students could exchange all the tickets they got into money to the committee. from the money they gained, students could participate in charity activities both outside and inside the university by granting the money (sinanu, 2017 as cited in mali, 2018). f. previous studies on project-based learning (pbl) there are several studies related to the implementation of pbl in learning speaking. tamim and grant (2013) did a study to examine teachers’ opinions about the implementation of pbl. this study involved six teachers who taught in four until twelve grades from public and private schools. through this study, they found that one of the pbl impacts could develop students’ communication skills because students worked in a group. they could be more engaged in the learning process to share ideas with their apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 79 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj friends. therefore, this study only focused on teachers’ way in teaching speaking. another study in 2015 was conducted by behtash and sarlak in islamic azad university of chabahar (iauc), iran. the university applied pbl as the model for teaching speaking. in this study, they investigated how pbl could influence iranian efl beginners in learning speaking. the participants were forty-five iranian adult efl students at elementary level. the result declared that they believed efl students could get a positive effect in improving their speaking skills through pbl (behtash &sarlak, 2017). the similar study about english fun fair as the pbl implementation was carried out by mali (2018) in at a private university in central java, indonesia. the participants were speaking for social purposes students. this study explained about english fun fair was a project which was used for assessing efl students in their speaking performances. however, he only concerned about how the implementation of pbl itself. therefore, this study was different from mali’s study. it happened because the researchers focused on how the students’ perceptions which had experienced english fun fair as the implementation of pbl. g. theoretical framework in conclusion, learning speaking needs a good learning model which can motivate students. one of the models is project-based learning (pbl). pbl requires students to be active in learning speaking. then, one of the implementations of pbl is english fun fair project. students can develop their communication skills in doing the project with their friends. through the project, teachers teach students to learn through real experiences, so they can think more creatively. besides that, the use of pbl model can make students improve their abilities to solve problems by discussing with their group. method the study was intended to point out how english fun fair could influence students’ learning process. to achieve the research objective, the study used a qualitative method. according to mason (2002), there are some characteristics of the qualitative method. first, the method has as an interpretive position which related to how to understand, experience, and 80 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj produce the world of social. second, based on data retrieval methods which are susceptible and adjustable in a real context, accordingly, through the qualitative method; a scientifically systematic investigation tries to build a holistic, mostly narrative which aims to give information about a social or cultural phenomenon to researchers (astalin, 2013). a. context of the study the study was conducted in the first semester of 2019/2020 academic year. the location of the study was at english language education program, faculty of language and arts in at a private university in central java, indonesia. the study was taken in this program because it has speaking for social purposes classes which were related to this study. the reason for choosing the class was students had to do a project named english fun fair as one of the activities. b. participants the participants of the study were fifty (50) students in elep, at a private university in central java, indonesia they were ten (10) participants from the batch 2016, eighteen (18) participants from the batch 2017, and twenty-two (22) participants from the batch 2018 who had taken speaking for social purposes course and had done english fun fair project. the participants were selected by using convenience sampling. it was because of the accessibility and availability of the participants in conducting the study to get the maximum results (etikan, musa, & alkassim, 2016). then, they had gained experience and knowledge in doing english fun fair. also, they could show their responses regarding the project related to the research question. c. data collection methods in this study, the researchers used two kinds of instruments to collect the data. the first instrument was open-ended questionnaire. dornyei &taguchi (2010) stated that through open-ended questionnaire, people can express their opinion more freely. this open-ended questionnaire consisted of five questions. the researchers translated the questions into indonesian, so the participants could answer them easily. therefore, they would understand more about every question and gave responses more deeply (please refer to appendix a). on the other hand, to support the questionnaire data, the researchers conducted a semi-structured interview. there were three students who were apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 81 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interviewed. the interviews used indonesian which is the participants’ first language. the purposes of the interviews were to follow up on the questions in the questionnaires and to clarify the answers from the interviewees. the interviewer can expand and investigate the interviewees' responses more deeply through a flexible interview which named semi-structured interview (rubin & rubin, 2005 as cited in alsheenqeti, 2014). by conducting the interviews, the researchers could ask probing questions to the interviewees while using the interview protocol. d. data collection procedures the researchers did those following steps to collect the research data. first, the researchers asked permission to the lecturer. second, the student respondents were asked to fill the questionnaires. after collecting the data by using the questionnaires, the researchers conducted the semi-structured interviews. before doing the interviews, the researchers gave some explanation about the interviews’ questions, so the participants could prepare some answers. then, the interviews were recorded by using a voice recorder in a handphone. after the interviews were done, the recordings were transcribed. e. data analysis procedures the data analysis was taken from the questionnaires and interviews. after collecting the data by using the questionnaires, the researchers read all the answers. then, the questionnaire sheets were classified to find out several participants who filled out the interview consent to be interviewed. the the interview results were then transcribed. afterward, the data were analyzed using thematic analysis. based on braun and clarke (2006), thematic analysis focused on reading and coding the data. finally, conclusions were drawn from the findings. findings and discussions this section presented the result of the questionnaires and interviews data. based on the data results, there were various perceptions from fifty (50) participants about english fun fair. the participants’ perceptions were the drawn into two themes, namely the benefits of english fun fair and the 82 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj challenges of getting involved in english fun fair. each theme was supported by some excerpts from the questionnaires and interviews data. a. the benefits of english fun fair according to the data analysis, there were some benefits which the participants got from the project. they expressed their experiences which included some aspects, such as improving students’ speaking skills, improving students’ self-confidence, developing collaborative skills, learning “how to sell techniques”, and getting fun in the learning. table 1 displayed the data which had analyzed into several sub-themes. table 1: the benefits of english fun fair students’ perceptions number of participants improving students’ speaking skills 46 (36,51%) improving students’ self-confidence 25 (19,85%) developing collaborative skills 9 (7,14%) learning “how to sell” techniques 19 (15,07%) getting fun in the learning 27 (21,42%) total number 126 (100%) the table above presented several benefits which the students gained in the project. those aspects could influence students in the learning process. improving students’ speaking skills became the main benefit which students gained. however, the minor benefit was developing collaborative skills. 1. improving students’ speaking skills improving students’ speaking skills was one of the many benefits mentioned by the majority of the participants. forty-six (46) participants (36,51%) said that they could improve their speaking skills both during and after doing the project. some participants asserted: excerpt 1: …when i offered my products, i had to speak english, so it was very helpful in improving my speaking skills. apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 83 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (student 1’s interview answer, december 6, translated by the researchers) excerpt 2: one of the speaking for social purposes class goals is communicating by using english. thus, i had to speak english in public, so it could improve my speaking skills in english. (student 2’s interview answer, december 6, translated by the researchers) excerpt 3: in this project, i was forced to speak english spontaneously, although i had prepared before doing the project. therefore, i could be motivated to speak english indirectly because i had to use english during the project. (student 3’s interview answer, december 6, translated by the researchers) from the excerpts above, the participants could enhance their speaking skills through english fun fair. it was because they had to speak english in public spontaneously while selling their products. a similar finding could be found in marisah & robiasih (2017)’s research. based on their research, applying a project in learning could improve students' speaking skills indirectly because they got a lot of chances to speak english. another research was conducted by behtash & sarlak in islamic azad university of chabahar (iauc), iran. they claimed that through pbl, efl students could get a positive impact in developing their speaking skills (behtash & sarlak, 2017). therefore, the project was very useful for improving students' speaking skills. 2. improving students’ self-confidence another benefit which faced by twenty-five (25) participants (19,85%) was about self-confidence. they believed about how they could improve their self-confidence. excerpt 4: i could become more confident in speaking english, after doing english fun fair. also, i used to speak english without looking at a note. 84 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (student 1’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) excerpt 5: through the project, i had to be confident in selling products. it was because i had to speak english in promoting and selling the products, so i could increase my confidence. (student 2’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) based on some excerpts above, both during and after doing the project, the participants could increase their self-confidence. it happened because they had to promote and sell the products by using english. the findings above were supported by some researchers who did a study at a university in palembang. jaya, hermansyah, & rosmiyati (2019) postulated that students could build their self-confidence through project-based learning. moreover, the result of the study by marisah and robiasih (2017) indicated that in doing a speaking project, students had a lot of chances to speak english, so they could boost their confidence indirectly. hence, the project was very beneficial because the participants could improve their self-confidence. 3. developing collaborative skills english fun fair is a project which is done in a group. hence, nine (9) participants (7,14%) also responded to the questionnaires that they could enhance their teamwork skills in doing the project with their friends. one of the participants’ statements was: excerpt 6: based on my experience, i could enhance a cooperative attitude in my group. i learned how to work with my friends in a group in order to produce a good result. (student 3’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) the excerpt above showed that collaborative skills could be improved through the project by interacting with friends. then, there was a relation between collaborative learning and team work with the students’ english apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 85 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj learning. the students could learn from each other in a group. thus, the students who had good skills in english could help their friends to learn english, so they could get good grades in this project. since this project is one of the implementations of pbl model, there are some statements which support the finding. this is similar to westwood’s (2008) opinion which stated that through pbl, students can improve their team working and collaborative learning skills. it happens because they have to work together with their friends in a group to produce good results. in line with the statement, mali (2016) said that students can learn collaboration directly with their friends in a group project. consequently, the participants could enhance their collaborative skills in the project. 4. learning “how to sell” techniques there were nineteen (19) participants (19,07%) who mentioned that they could learn a lot of selling techniques through english fun fair because the project required the students to sell a product. since the project was the implementation of pbl, the participants could learn through real experiences. they could develop their english skill while selling their products. a participant said: excerpt 7: through english fun fair, i got new knowledge about selling techniques. then, i could practice selling by speaking english with a lot of visitors. (student 4’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) from the excerpt, it could be seen that the participant could learn english while applying the selling techniques. the participant’s statement was supported by mali (2018)’s research. he stated that through the project, students tried to offer and sell their products to visitors by interacting in english. therefore, besides improving english skills, the selling techniques could be learned through the project in the real context. 5. getting fun in the learning the next benefit of english fun fair was about getting fun in the learning. this speaking project was done outside the class in which the 86 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students had to speak english by selling things to visitors. thus, twenty-seven (27) participants (21,42%) claimed that their speaking was not monotonous because they could learn it by applying some materials in the class into a real situation. this was what a participant mentioned: excerpt 8: the concept of english fun fair is fun and unique. it happened because i learned to speak english by selling some products with my friends. also, i had to make a stand to sell the products, so visitors could be interested to buy it. (student 5’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) according to the excerpt above, the project was fun learning because the participant could learn english in a real context. similarly, chiang and lee (2016) in their study pointed out that vocational high school students in taiwan enjoyed practicing pbl because they could share their experiences with their friends. then, they felt happy when they could help their friends in doing the project. also, seidel &aryeh (2002) as cited in agustina (2016) said that students could learn fun activities, work with their friends in a group, and solve some problems through project-based learning in a real context. accordingly, fun learning needed to be applied to the students, so they did not get bored quickly. it was because when they enjoyed learning, they could learn easily. b. the challenges of getting involved in english fun fair besides several benefits which the participants obtained from english fun fair, they also faced some challenges when they did the project. the challenges were divided into four aspects. those were finding an appropriate concept, difficulties to finance the project, problems in team collaboration, and problems in speaking skills. the data results were grouped into some subthemes as shown in table 2. table 2: the challenges of getting involved in english fun fair students’ perceptions number of participants apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 87 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj finding the appropriate concept 11 (25%) difficulties to finance the project 6 (13,64%) problems in team collaboration 5 (11,36%) problems in speaking skills 22 (50%) total number 44 (100%) based on table 2, the data indicated that there were four challenges which the students faced. speaking skills were the highest challenge. meanwhile, the lowest challenge experienced by students was team collaboration. 1. finding the appropriate concept according to eleven (11) participants’ responses (25%), they stated that one of the challenges they faced was when finding the concept. they had to make a concept which could attract a lot of visitors to buy their products. some participants mentioned: excerpt 9: the challenge which we faced was we had to create a creative idea about what products which would we sold in english fun fair. it was because creating an idea is an important thing to make an activity. we had to make many visitors could be interested to buy our products. (student 6’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) excerpt 10: before doing english fun fair, my friends and i had to think about what products which we would sell. we had to sell interesting things. also, we had to create a good decoration for our stand, so many visitors could be attracted to visit our stand. (student 7’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) although finding the concept was difficult, they tried to discuss it with their friends by collecting various ideas. then, they voted to decide the most chosen ideas. considering in doing a speaking project, the first thing to do is 88 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj finding a concept or theme. an interesting and unique concept can make a good impression on the project. it also determines the success of the project itself. 2. difficulties to finance the project another challenge which six (6) participants (13,64%) faced was about funds. since the project required the students to sell products, they needed a lot of funds for preparing the project, for examples, buying the materials and decorating their stand. this was what one of the participants mentioned in the questionnaire: excerpt 11: in making a creative project, we needed much money. our group had limited funds, so we tried to save the money in preparing the project. (student 8’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) it is indeed difficult to finance a project because funds have an important role in preparing a project. if the funds are insufficient, the project can be hampered or cannot work well. hence, the participants tried to save their money. they minimized the purchase of things which were really needed. on the other hand, based on the questionnaires, there were several roles of lecturers and students in dealing with the challenges. the first challenge was finding the appropriate concept. the lecturers provided some examples of concepts, so the students got an insight into the concept. while the students collected several ideas and then, they chose the best idea. the second challenge was difficulties to finance the project. to solve this problem, the lecturers gave some ideas and suggestions to the students to buy affordable items, for example, giving a shop recommendation which sold cheap products. besides that, the students also minimized the buying cost in order to save their money. 3. problems in team collaboration though many participants could improve their collaborative skills through this project, other participants could not improve it. it was because five (5) participants (11,36%) had problems with their friends in a group. they had problems in gathering their friends to discuss their projects. it happened apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 89 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj because they had different class schedules. besides that, they got difficulties in bringing ideas together because some people had limitations to share their ideas. as a participant asserted: excerpt 12: one of the challenges which i faced when doing english fun fair was my friends in my group itself. my friends and i got difficulty in controlling them, so we could not unite all ideas to get a decision. (student 9’s questionnaire answer, november 14, translated by the researchers) the statement is supported by beebe and masterson (2003) as cited in burke (2011). they asserted that one of the disadvantages of working in a group is some group members do not have many opportunities to share their ideas in making a decision. it is because a person dominates the group discussion, so other group members did not get satisfaction. in addition, a study showed that another problem of group project was differences in group members' schedules. the problem caused some group members could not work optimally because they had limited time to work together (labeouf et al., 2016). thus, to handle those problems, the students looked for the right time where all members of the group could gather and discuss the project together. then, to unite the idea, each person in a group had to share the ideas. next, they voted to determine the most chosen idea. in addition, burke (2011) stated that to solve the problems which occur in a group, the instructor can help the group in making some ways to deal with unproductive group members. 4. problems in speaking skills in this project, twenty-two (22) participants (50%) got difficulty related to speaking skills itself. they mentioned a lot their difficulties in speaking english in public. some participants said: excerpt 13: i still felt afraid when i spoke english. i felt that my mouth was trembling. then, i focused on accuracy than fluency 90 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj because grammar was the most important thing for me. therefore, i could not speak english fluently. (student 2’s interview answer, december 6, translated by the researchers) excerpt 14: during the project, i still got difficulty in speaking english. particularly, when i found some new vocabulary and i did not know the meaning. (student 3’s interview answer, december 6, translated by the researchers) the findings were similar to some studies about problems in speaking class generally. rahmaniah, asbah, & nurmasitah (2018) said that students faced several aspects of problems in speaking english. there were vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, fluency, and comprehension aspects. besides that, hadijah (2014) in her study also concluded that a lack of vocabulary and stutter of speaking were several reasons of speaking problems. consequently, the students did several things to solve those problems such as practicing to speak english continuously and learning vocabulary with their friends. moreover, based on hadijah (2014)’s study, teachers had to motivate their students to enhance their speaking skills. it happened because when they had good speaking skills, they could handle their problems. therefore, the results of the study revealed that the students got some benefits and challenges in english fun fair. the students could improve their speaking skills, self-confidence, and collaboration skills. in addition, they could learn the selling techniques and get fun in the learning. moreover, the students perceived the concept, the finance, team collaboration, and speaking skills were several challenges which influenced their learning process. conclusion this study presents about students' perceptions towards english fun fair. as mentioned before, the research question is what are students’ perceptions on english fun fair as the implementation of project-based learning (pbl) model in speaking for social purposes classes? based on the findings, there apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 91 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj were a lot of students’ perceptions about english fun fair. from the perceptions, it could be concluded that there were various benefits and several challenges which the students learned from english fun fair. as the benefits, the students could improve their speaking skills and self-confidence. it happened because they learned how to speak english well in a real situation which they could boost their motivation to be confident in speaking. then, the students could improve their collaborative skills since the project was done in a group, so they could learn by working together with their friends. besides that, they could learn the selling techniques and get fun in the learning. through this project, the students learned to speak english while selling their products to people. hence, their speaking learning was not monotonous in class because they could practice it in a real context. however, the students still encountered some challenges in english fun fair. the students got difficulties in finding the concept because they had to decide what theme and product to sell. besides the concept, they had financial problems because they had to buy or make the product which needed a lot of funds. in addition, the students faced a challenge related to team collaboration, such as gathering with friends and bringing out some ideas. furthermore, they also had problems in speaking skills since they had to speak in public. this study also has a limitation. it only focused on the speaking project which was project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes. according to the findings, there are several other aspects which may be possible to occur in other speaking activities like difficulties to master materials and anxiety problems. therefore, for future study, it will be better if the study does not only focus on a speaking project but also focus on another speaking activity. in addition, this study proposes several recommendations about the benefits of implementing pbl in speaking class. lecturers can take some benefits of the project as a reference in teaching speaking. also, they can contribute in teaching speaking by implementing pbl. furthermore, for students, they can enhance their speaking and other skills which support their learning process. references abubakar, m. s. (2015). improving the second-year students’ speaking ability through project-based learning (pbl) at mtsn model makassar. 92 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 73– 95 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj eternal, 1(2), 216-228. doi: https://doi.org/10.24252/eternal.v12.2015.a5 agustina, n. (2016). assessment of project-based learning in science class. jurnal siliwangi, 2(2), 137-150. retrieved from http://jurnal.unsil.ac.id/index.php/jspendidikan/article/viewfile/95/6 5 alsheenqeti, h. (2014). interviewing as a data collection method: a critical review. english linguistics research, 3(1), 39-45. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/el r.v3n1p39 anjaniputra, a. g. (2013). teacher’s strategies in teaching speaking to students at secondary level. journal of english and education, 1(2), 1-8. retrieved from http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/le/article/download/577/434 astalin, p. k. (2013). qualitative research designs: a conceptual framework. international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research, 2(1), 118124. retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/baa7/c8f5577b0b1798b5e9f559f5cba e32bf1a36.pdf behtash, e. z., & sarlak, t. (2017). the effect of project-based learning (pbl) on the components of speaking ability of iranian efl beginner learners. journal of applied linguistics and language research, 4(3), 119-130. retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2b4d/379bbc3e2d88d8917e5eeddc39 11e9171d92.pdf?_ga=2.109389765.1906654413.1561211508177607081.1561211508 booth, d. l. f. (1986). project work. oxford: oxford university press. braun, v., & clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/1478 088706qp063oa burke, a. (2011). group work: how to use groups effectively. the journal of effective teaching, 11(2), 87-95. retrieved from https://uncw.edu/jet/articles/ vol11_2/burke.pdf apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 93 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chiang, c. l., & lee, h. (2016). the effect of project-based learning on learning motivation and problem-solving ability of vocational high school students. international journal of information and education technology, 6(9), 709-712. doi: http://10.7763/ijiet.2016.v6.779 cintang, n., setyowati, d. l., & handayani, s. s. d. 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(2019). implementation of project-based learning model to increased creativity and self-reliance of students on poetry writing skills. journal of primary education, 8(1), 51-58. doi: https://doi.org/10.15294/jpe.v8i1.25229 jacques, s., bissey, s., & martin, a. (2016). multidisciplinary project-based learning within a collaborative framework. international journal of emerging technologies in learning, 11(12), 36-44. doi: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v1 1i1 2.5996 jaya, a., hermansyah, & rosmiyati., e. 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(2016). faculty and student issues with group work: what is problematic with college group assignments and why? journal of education and human development, 5(1), 13-23. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/jehd.v5n1a2 mali, y. c. g. (2016). project-based learning in indonesian efl classrooms: from theory to practice. indonesian journal of english education, 3(1), 89105. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15408/ijee.v3i1.2651 mali, y. c. g. (2018). project-based efl speaking activity: the english funfair. accents asia, 10(2), 61-68. retrieved from http://www.issues.accentsasia.org/issues/10-2/mali.pdfm marisah, a., & robiasih, rr. h. (2017). the implementation of project-based learning to improve vocational students’ speaking skills. journal of english language and language teaching (jellt), 1(2), 27-32. retrieved from http://jurnal.ustjogja.ac.id/index.php/jellt/article/download/1868/ 1037 mason, j. (2002). qualitative researching (2nd edn). london: sage publications. retrieved from https://dl114.zlibcdn.com/download/book/1201 041?token=90 6ea3170ee70a35ba311f4bebde6cff rahmaniah, r., asbah, & nurmasitah. (2018). the speaking difficulties encountered by non-english students in language classroom. journal of english language teaching and linguistics (jeltl), 11(2), 22-25. doi: https://doi.org/10.317 64/leltj.v12i2.749 suryani, l. (2015). the effectiveness of role-play in teaching speaking. eltin journal, 3(2), 106-109. doi: https://doi.org/10.22460/eltin.v3i2.p%25p tamim, s. r., & grant, m. m. (2013). definitions and uses: case study of teachers implementing project-based learning. interdisciplinary journal of apriliani, a.i. & listyani, student’s perceptions on english fun fair as an 95 implementation of project-based learning in speaking for social purposes classes https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj problem-based learning, 7(2), 72-101. doi: https://doi.org/10.7771/15415015.1323 thornbury, s. (2005). how to teach speaking. harlow: pearson education limited. ur, p. (1996). a course in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. retrieved from https://dl140.zlibcdn.com/ download/book/1162252?token=3fca040e1010d3d8d87bb40d3164a1c 5 westwood, p. (2008). what teachers need to know about teaching methods. camberwell: acer press. retrieved from https://dl114.zlibcdn. com/ download/book/863366?token=6836afaa0bc668ae735bce3aa1a05c8c widyaningsih, d., & robiasih, rr. h. (2018). teacher’s strategies in teaching speaking skill for eleventh grade students at sma bopkri 2 yogyakarta. journal of english language and language teaching (jellt), 2(1), 46-58. retrieved from http://jurnal.ustjogja.ac.id/index.php/jellt/article/download/ 2714/1549 hereditary experience in kelly's poem henriono nugroho 1 abstract: this article concerns with a stylistic analysis on a poem in terms of systemic functional linguistics and verbal art semiotics. the writing uses library research, qualitative data, documentary study, descriptive method, and intrinsicobjective approach. the semantic analysis results in both automatized and foregrounded meanings. then the automatized meaning produces lexical cohesion and in turn, it produces subject matter. meanwhile, the foregrounded meaning produces the literary meaning and in turn, it creates theme. finally, the analysis indicates that the subject matter is about the human characteristics, the literary meaning is about parental sadness and happiness, and the theme is about hereditary experience. key words: automatized meaning, foregrounded meaning, subject matter, literary meaning, theme. introduction generally, there are several theories of stylistics: formal, functional, feminine, pragmatic, affective, cognitive, pedagogical and critical (webber 1996). particularly the functional stylistics includes functionalism, systemic functionalism, tagmemics, prague school functionalism and west coast functionalism (matthiessen 1995). based on systemic functional linguistics, i dr. henriono nugrobo <h-nugroho@hotmail.com> +6285655119445 is a senior lecturer in the english department, faculty of letters, jember university. 28 celt, volume 9, number 1, july 2009:16-29 verbalization symbolic articulation theme consistenly literary meaning theme fo~grounded~eruring the deep level the deeper level the deepest level of meaning of meaning of meaning the first the second the third order meaning order meanin~ order meaning table 8: meanings of verbal art semiotics meaning which is also called the second order meaning and literary meaning. at the stratum of theme, the deeper level of meaning creates the deepest level of meaning which is also called theme and the third order meaning. in summary, there is a symbolic relation between lexicogrammar and theme in verbal art. the meanings in the poem are outlined in table 8. references butt, david. "randomness, order and the latent patterning of text". in functions of style. edited by david birch and michael o' toole. london: pinter publishers, 1988. butt, david et ai. using functional grammar. sydney: macquarie university, 1995. eggins, suzanna. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publishers, 1994. halliday, mak. language as a social semiotic. london: edward arnold, 1993. halliday, mal( and ruqaiya hasan. language, context, and text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. melbourne: deakin university press, 1985. halliday, mak and christian matthiessen. construing experience through meaning: a language-based approach to cognition. berlin: de gruyter, 1999. h. nugroho, hereditary experience in kelly's poem 29 hasan, ruqaiya. linguistics. language and verbal art. melbourne: deakin university press, 1985. ___ . "the analysis of one poem: theoretical issues in practice". in functions of style. edited by david birch and michael 0 toole. london: pinter publishers, 1988. ___ . "on teaching literature across cultural distances". in the language-culture connection. anthology, series 37. edited by joyce e. james. singapore: seameo regional language center,.: 1996. martin, j.r. "process and text: two aspects of semiosis". in systemic perspectives on discourse. edited by benson and graves. norwood, new jersey: ablex, 1985. ___ .english text system and structure. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing, 1992. matthiessen, christian. lexicogrammatica/ cartography: eng/ish systems. tokyo, taipei, dallas: international language sciences publishers, 1995. pi~ g.a. ''text and contextual conditioning in spoken english: a genre based approach". unpublished phd thesis. sydney, australia: university of sydney, 1988. logo: microsoft word 9fe8-fc39-3d37-6193 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia fables as media of environmental education for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua 1wigati yektiningtyas and 2evalina silalahi 1program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris, fkip, universitas cenderawasih; jayapura, indonesia 2sekolah papua kasih, jayapura, indonesia email: 1wigati_y@yahoo.com; 2evalinsilalahi@gmail.com received: 17-10-2020 accepted: 20-10-2020 published: 30-12-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fables as media of environmental education for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua 1 wigati yektiningtyas and 2 evalina silalahi 1 wigati_y@yahoo.com, 2 evalinsilalahi@gmail.com 1 program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris, fkip, universitas cenderawasih; jayapura, indonesia 2 sekolah papua kasih, jayapura, indonesia abstract: fable is one of sentani verbal folklore that was passed down by parents to children to teach morals. one of them is about the importance of preserving environment. nowadays, unfortunately, fable is not frequently told anymore. children and even most sentani people do not recognize it. from long observation, sentani children do not pay attention much to the nature as well. data of fables were obtained from some informants, i.e. tribal chiefs (ondofolo, khote) and elderly people in east sentani (ayapo, waena, and asei island) and central sentani (sentani and ifale) in 2017-2018. by adopting sociocultural approach, this paper aims to discuss about (1) the natural environment of sentani people, (2) the use of fables in environmental education for children. this study found that (1) fable is creative and innovative materials in teaching children about environment: nature, fauna, and flora that can be done informally, nonformally, and formally, (2) children have emotional ties with the fables and want to learn more, and (3) it is an alternative way of revitalizing sentani fables and disseminating the socio-cultural values embedded in them. this study is benefecial to motivate sentani children to learn more about their ancestor’s heritages, love their environment, and be proud of their identity. key words: fable, environment, sentani folklore, revitalization abstrak: fabel merupakan salah satu folklor verbal sentani yang dahulu dituturkan secara oral dari para orang tua ke anak-anak untuk menyampaikan berbagai ajaran moral. salah satunya adalah tentang pentingnya merawat lingkungan. saat ini, fabel sudah jarang 236 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dituturkan lagi. anak-anak bahkan sebagian orang sentani tidak mengenalinya. melalui pengamatan yang cukup lama, anak-anak sentani kini tidak lagi memperhatikan lingkungan hidup mereka. data fabel dikumpulkan dari para informan, yaitu para pemangku adat (ondofolo, khote) dan para tua-tua adat di sentani timur (ayapo, waena, dan pulau asei) dan sentani tengah (sentani dan ifale) pada 2017-2018. dengan menggunakan pendekatan sosial-budaya, paper ini bertujuan untuk membahas (1) lingkungan alam masyarakat sentani dan (2) penggunaan fabel dalam pendidikan lingkungan bagi anakanak. studi ini menemukan bahwa (1) fabel merupakan materi yang kreatif dan inovatif untuk mengajarkan anak-anak tentang lingkungan: alam, fauna, dan flora yang dapat dilakukan secara informal, nonformal, dan formal, (2) anak-anak mempunyai hubungan emosi dengan fabel yang dipelajarinya dan ingin belajar lebih banyak fabel, (3) penggunaan fabel sebagai pengajaran merupakan cara alternatif dalam merevitalisasi dan diseminasi fabel sentani dan nilai sosialbudaya yang terdapat di dalamnya. studi ini bermanfaat untuk memotivasi anak-anak sentani untuk terus mempelajari dan mencintai pusaka budaya leluhur mereka, mencintai lingkungan hidup mereka, dan bangga akan indentitas mereka. kata kunci: fabel, lingkungan, folklor sentani, revitalisasi background the people of sentani people who live on the shores of lake sentani, jayapura and on some large and small islands spreading from the east to the west of this lake have a wealth of cultural heritage that is no longer recognized by most of their own people and children of sentani, one of which is fable. fables with legends, myths and fairy tales are a classification of folktales. plants and animals are the main characters in the fable that can talk and behave like humans (abrams, 2014, p. 6). in the past, in the sentani community, fables were passed down by parents to their children and grandparents to their grandchildren at night before going to bed and during the day as a time medium of giving advice, knowledge of taboos, customs and beliefs as well as various moral values, i.e. recommendations and prohibitions (yektiningtyas & karna, 2013, p. 83). however, at this time the fable is no longer well circulated. in fact, ironically, many people, especially those who live in cities or near cities and children no longer recognize them. yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 237 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj one of the knowledge and morals embedded in the fable is environmental education. as a traditional society, the old sentani people were very integrated with nature so that in their daily life, they tried to maintain their existence. two informants ibo and ohee on may 2018 said the old sentani people felt they lived because of nature, and as a consequence, inversely, they respected and preserved nature. they did not cut trees carelessly, did not exploit natural products, did not spend their crops greedily, did not pollute lakes and rivers. they even maintained soil fertility. several sentani fables tell the knowledge and views of the old sentani people about the importance of conserving nature, various types of flora and fauna, as well as examples of respecting and protecting their nature. a fable entitled "ebeu and nangga" tells about the views of the sentani people about the importance of preserving natural conservation. one of the characters died because he greedily finished the food. in "black pig and white pig", there is a story about a family who got a miraculous blessing because they took care of the animals. "the cassowary and her children" and "the sparrow and the cassowary" (yektiningtyas-modouw, 2018) tell about a dense forest filled with various kinds of trees, i.e. ironwood, khukhu, mehali, soang/hoang and various kinds of sago palms, as well as various fauna, large and small, such as cenderawasih, cassowary, hawks, cuscus, crows, sparrows and yoyae birds. all of these are told to live in peace. the four fables above provide different pictures of the nature and life of the sentani people today. mountains, hills and forests have become deforested due to illegal logging. lake sentani and rivers are full of rubbish, and rivers dry up due to illegal sand mining. as a result, floods often occur in sentani. for example, a large flash flood occurred in march 2019 which claimed hundreds of lives and significant material losses. in addition, currently the life of fauna is not conserved. birds of paradise, cassowaries, and other large birds cannot be or are rarely found anymore. the little birds are hunted just for fun. there are fewer fish in lakes and rivers because their habitats are full of pollution. even children do not care about their environment, too. they destroy trees and hunt birds. this phenomenon cannot be ignored. based on the above background and the previous research result on “preservation of sentani language using folktales” (2018) that sentani children like fables, this paper aims to explore sentani's fables as media to teach the importance of environment for children, namely protecting the natural environment, fauna and flora around them in informal, nonformal, and formal education. this is in line with the ideas of court & rosental 238 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (2007, p. 409); normawati (2016, pp. 205-206); ernawati (2017, pp.125-126); sukmawan & setyowati (2017, pp. 304-305) who claim that fables can be used to build the character of children, in this case, is the character of loving animals, plants, like cleanliness and beauty of nature. children are prioritized in this paper because they are the future generation of the sentani pople who will continue their socio-cultural life. children can learn to take care about their environment and do not make or imitate the same mistakes that have been done by previous generations. hopefully, children can learn the importance of protecting their environment, get to know more fables as one of the cultural heritages of their ancestors, and are eager to explore more so that they will love and respect their own identity. literature review the word "fable" comes from the latin "fabula" which means "little story". abrams (2014, p. 6) says that fables are short stories that provide moral examples or principles of human behavior and actions and usually in conclusion either the narrator or one of the story characters conveys the moral message of the story. fables are one of the oldest and most enduring forms of folk literature. a fable presents a concise fictional story, in prose or poetry, which features mythical creatures, animals, plants, inanimate objects or anthropomorphic forces of nature that are given human abilities such as verbal communication which illustrate or lead to interpretations of moral lessons. according to bhattacharya (2019, pp. 48-49), fable is not just a story with the character of an animal or plant but also a metamorphosis, personification or metaphor of human life. so that in the fable, animal/plant characters are "animated" so that they can speak, think, and behave like humans. the purpose of using animals or plants as characters is to avoid offensive feeling by the listeners/readers. therefore, fables are preferred because with animal and plant figures, fables can provide social criticism and moral teachings more effectively, because listeners can get story messages without feeling offended and angry (yektiningtyas, 2011, pp. 78-79). for example, a sentani fable entitled "the sparrow and the cassowary" tells about an arrogant and cunning bird who liked to bully small birds around him. in real life, if someone is arrogant, cunning and oppresses others hears this story, s/he will not be offended because what is told is only an animal but in it there yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 239 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj is a value of moral truth (abrar, 2016, p.46; juanda 2018, pp. 295-296). ibo in interview on december 2018 said that through fables, the sentani people can see their own goodness, struggle, persistence and even ignorance, pride, cunningness through animal or plant figures in the fable. fable is a medium as a mirror for reflection: reflecting on behavior, words and even media of laughing at oneself. one of the knowledge and morals spoken in the fable is love for the environment. as a traditional society, old sentani people were closely integrated with nature so that in their daily lives, they really maintained their environmental existence. they did not pollute the lakes and the rivers and they did not cut trees down carelessly. if they had to cut trees for essential purposes, they would select trees that could be cut down, for example quite old trees. when making a garden, not all big trees were cut down. interestingly, they replaced the trees that were cut down by planting new trees (yektiningtyas-modouw, 2011, pp.366-367; chiparausha & mavhunduse, 2018, p. 709). this is related to local wisdom and knowledge of the sentani people that large trees store water which is needed for the growth of new plants. this habit is implicitly recounted in one of sentani's famous fables entitled "ebi and kandei" which tells about close friends, namely ebi the bird (a small bird resembling a sparrow) and kandei the fish (glossamia beauforti) the endemic fish of lake sentani who paid attention much on their environment. the closeness of the old sentani people to nature and their desire to protect nature also occured because they felt at one with nature (yektiningtyasmodouw, 2011, pp. 365-368; finnegan, 2003, pp. 76-77) and thought that they lived because of nature. protecting the environment is also related to the myth of the sentani people about harmonious relationships, namely the vertical relationship between humans and gods, the horizontal relationship between humans and humans, and the harmonious circular relationship between humans and nature (yektiningtyas-modouw. 2011, pp. 56-58). this was also highlighted by an infomant pepuho who said in january 2019 that the views and ways of the old sentani people in protecting nature was proved by their healthy and prosperous life with clean water sources, thick forest, abundant fish and garden products. they were free from floods as well as landslides. this is inversely proportional to the existence of modern sentani society today. the lake is polluted with plastic waste and other household waste. as a result, the lake becomes shallow and dirty, the fish, especially the endemic 240 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sentani fish, cannot live well and are starting to become extinct (ohee &keiluhu, 2018, p. 80). the river has become dry due to illegal sand mining and the mountains are deforested due to illegal logging. the result of the modern sentani people's indifference to their environment is the existence of floods, landslides, forest fires, very hot air and various diseases that arise, for example, diarrhea, skin diseases, asthma, etc. it is for this reason that sentani children need to be educated about the importance of having a good natural environment and respect it (dewi, 2017, p. 39; lustyantie, et.al. 2019, pp. 392-393). method a. research type this reasearch is a qualitative one. this study is the development of a multi-year 2017-2018 research entitled "preservation of sentani language using folktales" which was funded by drpm, ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia. three main findings in this research are (1) sentani folktales can be used as interesting materials to learn sentani language, and (2) sentani children like their ancestral folktales, especially fables. since fable is a socio-cultural product of the sentani people, this paper uses a socio-cultural approach, which underlines the relation of the text of the fables with context of the nature and socio-culture of the sentani people (laurenson and swingwood, 1972, pp. 1115). this paper carefully examines the philosophy, tradition, and ecological knowledge of the sentani people related to their natural environment. b. research subject the subject of the research is fables collected from informants in east sentani (ayapo, waena, and asei island) and central sentani (ifale and sentani). from the data collected in 2017 and was enriched in 2019 there were some fables obtained as seen in the following table. table 1: table of fables data collected in east and central sentani no. areas fable titles 1 east sentani ebi and kandei the sparrow and the cassowary yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 241 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the limited number of fables collected proves that fables are not well acknowledged by most of sentani people. on december 2018, some informants, namely pepuho, hendambo, puraro said that those fables are not circulated anymore. they even suggested to have documentation of sentani folktales so that sentani children can read their own tales. some parents like felle, nere, and mokay are also afraid to see the fact that their children know tales like “bawang merah and bawang putih”, “legenda danau toba” and “cinderella” more than their own tales. c. research procedure data of fables were collected from several informants: tribal chiefs (ondofolo and khote), sentani elders, and parents, in east sentani (ayapo, waena, and asei island) and in central sentani (ifale and sentani) through close observation and interview. fables were told mostly in indonesian and some in sentani language. they were then rewritten using children language, i.e. using simpler language that can be easily followed by the children. the so called “children fables” were written in trilingual stories: using sentani, indonesian, and english languages. the term of children fables also underlines the importance of having suitable topics, contents, and styles for children (court & rosental, 2007, p. 408). for this paper, indonesian version was used while other writing versions will be used for other purposes. since the essence of the fables shown in the table is general, so for purposes of this paper, the fables were selected purposively that is telling or describing the environment and the views of the sentani people about the environment, namely (1) "ebi and kandei", (2) "the sparrow and the cassowary", (3) "ebeu and nangga", (4) "tepaisaka and kilipase", (5) "black pig and white pig", (6) "an arrogant cassowary", and (7) "the cassowary and her children". two fables, "ebi and kandei", "the sparrow and the cassowary", were published in 2018, "ebeu and nangga" was published in 2021 while the rest are still in unpublished document. yokhu and emfeu ebue and nangga 2 central sentani tepaisaka and kilipase black pig and white pig an arrogant cassowary kilibahe the kangaroo and kilibahe the dog the cassowary and her children 242 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to obtain a valid and representative interpretation of fable data, focus group discussions (fgd) were conducted with traditional stakeholders (ondofolo and khote), parents, representatives of parents, representatives of early childhood and elementary school teachers, representatives of sunday school teachers, representatives of the sekolah adat sentani (sentani customary school) as well as children's representatives in july 2019. those fables were then tried out to teach about environment informally in some tribal chiefs’ and the elders’ houses in east and central sentani and nonformally in sekolah adat sentani, hobong (central sentani) and sentani folklore reading community in waena (east sentani). formally, environmental teaching using fables was also done in sd yppk pulau asei and paud hadassah (east sentani). teaching-learning process was done in two months (october-november 2019). monitoring and evaluation were done to know the children’s and teachers’/parents’ response. the terminology of children in this paper is those children at the age of 3-12 years old or those who are in early childhood education and elementary schools. finding and discussion a. natural environment of sentani people sentani people are blessed by god with a beautiful and fertile geographical area. they live on the shores of lake sentani and islands in lake sentani which spread across three areas, namely the east, the central and the west sentani areas. according to circulated myths, residents living in east sentani (asei island, ayapo village, and puai village) were the first to live in the sentani area before finally spreading to the central and western areas of lake sentani (yektiningtyas-modouw, 2011, pp. 42-45). therefore, sentani people recognize the term of raliwai (rali means “the east” and wai means “the west”) which refers to the sentani people who spread from the east to the west. sentani people themselves use the term buyaka to describe their place of residence. in sentani language, bu means “water” and yaka means “an empty place” because they live in an empty area surrounded by water (lake). this term is actually intended to distinguish sentani people who live in the lake area from those who live on land, namely the moi, nimboran, and kemtukgresi ethnic groups (yektiningtyas-modouw, 2011, pp. 44-45). in the past, this beautiful lake was also inhabited by various types of endemic fish, i.e. himem/temeng yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 243 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (glossogobius sentaniensis), red rainbow fish/hewu (glossolepis incicus), kandei/getegete (glossamia beauforti), kahe (glossamia wicmani), kanseli (neoarius velutinus), rainbow fish/hewu (chilatherina fasciata), snake-head cork, red cork/ kahe (gluris margaritaceus) and sentani cork/black cork/kayou (oxyeleotris heterodon) (ohee & keiluhu, 2018, pp. 82-83). this fish is the main source of food for sentani people. in addition, in some places of the lake, there are types of lake weed where these endemic fish spawn. around lake sentani, there are sago hamlets. various birds also live in the lake area, including cranes, kumkum, and ebi as main the character in a famous fable "ebi and kandei". the people of sentani are grateful because they are surrounded by fauna, even though they are not easy to find now, for example cenderawasih, kangaroos, cassowaries, crocodiles, turtles, etc. clean lake sentani water is also used as a source of clean water for the sentani people who live on the islands. to the north of the lake, there is the cyclop mountain or some call them dobonsolo/ hobongsolo/robongsolo which is filled with dense forests with various types of trees. forests also fill other sentani lands. several types of trees that grow in the sentani area are ironwood trees (intsia bijuga), soang trees (xanthostemon sp.), matoa trees (pometia sp.), and kombouw trees (ficus variagata) which have almost disappeared due to human ignorance in managing nature. several rivers also flow in sentani, namely the koyabu river, the hubai river, the makaole river, the kleblouw river, the taban river, the klandili river and the abeale river. besides producing fish, these rivers are also a source of clean water for the community. in addition, in these rivers there are various stones that are used by the community to make axes, both axes for cutting trees and special axes that are used as a dowry (roboni) (yektiningtyas-modouw, 2011, pp. 8-9) the natural beauty of sentani, fauna, and flora become the characters and setting of the fables, which unfortunately some of them have become extinct. b. the use of sentani fables in environmental education for children through the selected fables, namely "ebi and kandei", "the sparrow and the cassowary", "tepaisaka and kilipase", "black pig and white pig", "an arrogant cassowary", "ebeu and nangga", and "the cassowary and her children”, this paper discusses the views and ways of the old sentani people in preserving their environment, which are presented in some of the fables mentioned above, both explicitly and implicitly. the discussion focused on (1) 244 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the natural environment: water, land, mountains and forests, (2) fauna, and (3) flora. for the old sentani people, water, land, mountains and forests were very important to them because they felt they were part of nature; they depend on nature and inversely they have to take good care of it (finnegan, 2003, p.76; ahi, et.al., 2014, p.2; chiparausha & mavhunduse, 2018, p. 709). some informants, namely ibo, pepuho, and monim on november 2018 also underlined that mistakes in managing land, water, forests and mountains will result in reduced yields of fish and gardens or crop failure, floods, forest fires, landslides, and even illness. the old sentani people’s attention to the environment and their local wisdom in caring for nature is shared by them through their fables to their children and grandchildren so that they also have an awareness of the importance of a good environment. for example, a fable entitled "ebi and kandei" which tells about close friends, namely ebi (a bird) and kandei (a fish) who planned to make a garden. in the story, the two friends are told going along the edge of the lake, from one island to another in search of the right land for gardening. arriving at their intended place, the two of them immediately got off and looked at the place there. after that, kandei asked ebi, “what do you think? let us do gardening in this place”. they saw that the vegetation there was very fertile because the land was covered with topsoil carried by the river. (yektiningtyas, 2018, p. 10) from the above story, it can be seen the local wisdom of the sentani people in gardening. they chose fertile land that helped them in producing good crops in the future. the fertile land was not only god's grace since sentani people lived near water sources and dense forests, but also because the people were wise in managing the land. pepuho, an informant in 2017 said that in order not to become barren, the sentani people did not burn land to open gardens. they always cut trees down and uprooted the weeds. they kept moving from one place to another place to make new gardens and let the old places fertile again. in "ebeu and nangga", "tepaisaka and kilipase", as well as "ebi and kandei", the characters in these fables are told rowing through lake sentani which was clear, clean, and filled with various types of fish. on their way, they did not pollute the lake by throwing trash. in our interview, ibo, ohee, and monim on december 2017 also said that clean lake or river in the old sentani yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 245 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj community did not come automatically. they maintained it by not littering. they even managed the water purposes such as for drinking/cooking, washing and bathing that were strictly obeyed. those who still believed in “god of water” trusted that if the lake became dirty, god would be angry and would not send them fish anymore (yektiningtyas-modouw, 2011, pp. 56-57). fauna is also described in sentani's fable, both explicitly and implicitly. in "the sparrow and the cassowary", "ebi and kandei", "ebeu and nangga", “black pig and white pig”, "tepaisaka and kilipase" and "an arrogant cassowary", various animal figures are told which unfortunately are rarely seen in sentani now. for example, cassowaries, cuscuses, ebeu (turtles), and kangaroos cannot be easily found in sentani. in "tepaisaka and kilipase" which tells about the feud between a dog and a kangaroo show us different phenomena as follows. the dancers’ whole bodies were decorated with various bird feathers, such as cenderawasih, mambruk, cockatoo, kumkum and flowers and various kinds of leaves. kilipase himself put a bird of paradise as a decoration on his head and brought a holoboi 1 (yektiningtyas &gultom, 2018, p. 205) through the pieces of the story above, it can be seen some fauna which are no longer easily found, for example, such as cenderawasih, mambruk, cockatoos, and kumkum birds. likewise, in "ebi and kandei", it was told some fauna like crocodiles (kayikulung), birds of yese, ayebalo, and olaiwa which are rarely seen today. in "an arrogant cassowary" it is described an arrogant cassowary who lived in a beautiful forest filled with various animals which are now becoming rare. in ancient times, in the forest, there were some animals that lived peacefully, namely the eagle, the wafur and the cuscus. one day there was a group of butterflies singing and sucking honey. unexpectedly, the cassowary came and got angry. the cassowary regarded that the flowers belonged to him. (yektiningtyas &gultom, 2018, p. 198) the kandei fish (glossamia beauforti) as the main character of "ebi and kandei" is hard to find and even if it does exist, the price is already very expensive. ramses-ohee, a 90 year-old waena ondofolo, on july 2018 explained 1 holoboi is a string bag from sentani. 246 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj that when he was a child, he used to see a variety of fauna identified and mentioned in the above fables: cenderawasih, cassowary, kangaroo, crocodile, turtle, eagles, mambruk, cockatoo, kumkum, kandei fish, etc. according to him, at that time the fauna were easily found because their habitat, both lakes and forests, were very supportive: clean lakes and dense forests. in addition, the community did not hunt these animals for fun. the local wisdom of the sentani people, which teaches the causal balance between humans and nature, was properly maintained. people were aware that if nature was damaged or even extinct, they would experience famine, disease, and even death (yektiningtyas-modouw, 2011, p. 366; ahi, et.al., 2014, p.3; chiparausha & mavhunduse, 2018, p. 709). besides telling about water, land, mountains, forests, and fauna, fables also tell about various kinds of flora around the sentani people. "the cassoway and her children" tells about a cassowary and her children who lived in a dense forest that produced many kinds of fruits which became their food. they could also play among the trees. "an arrogant cassowary" and "the sparrow and the cassowary" also tell about a dense forest full of trees as their habitat (normawati, 2016, p. 202). in some of these fables, there is no explanation about the types of trees usually found in sentani forests, for example in the kampwolker forest and in mount cyclop, but according to ibo on july 2018, the forests in sentani used to be overgrown with special trees like ironwood (intsia bijuga), soang/hoang tree (xanthostemon sp.), matoa tree (pometia sp.), and kombouw tree (ficus variagata). the soang or hoang tree, according to ohee on july 2018, is a special tree because the wood can last hundreds of years. this can be proven by the poles of the stilt houses on asei island that are still firmly standing even though the house was built hundreds of years ago. it is said that the longer the wood is in the water, the stronger it will be. in fact, according to them, previously this soang wood was used as a dowry (robhoni) because of its quality. meanwhile, in the past, khombou bark (ficus variagata) was used as clothing for the sentani people and is now used as a canvas for bark painting (malo) produced by the people of asei island and it is the only painting in papua. in addition, through “the cassowary and her children” it is told about a cassowary and he children took a walk in the sago forest. although it is not explicitly stated in the story, sentani people know some types of sago (metroxylon sp.), which in sentani society are known as fi, among them are yeba, follo, ninggi, bane, isa, mano, yameha, otekulu, and para (yektiningtyas -modouw, 2011, p. 189). the lake weed as mentioned in "ebi and kandei", "ebeu and nangga", "tepaisaka and kilipase" is in fact divided into at least four types, namely neli, fakhou, hului, and fewake (yektiningtyas yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 247 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj modouw, 2011, pp. 188-189). just like the fauna discussed above, these types of flora are no longer easy to find. the trees have been logged illegally with no replanting. sago forest has been sold and turned into offices, shops and housings. a dirty lake killed the lake weed and affects the fish's life because the fish spawn among the lake weeds. the result of this damage is floods, reduced food and very hot temperatures, which all lead to the emergence of various diseases. ibo and ohee in on january 2018 underlined the old beliefs and local wisdom of the sentani people about flora. their belief in a "god of tree" who lived in large trees made the old sentani people not greedy in utilizing trees, even for the needs of making houses, boats, and food. they planted new trees to replace trees that were felled down. they maintained a balance between the availability of flora for a certain time and the needs of their life for food. c. reflection on the importance of environmental learning observing several fables that tell about the environment of the sentani people, the views and ways of old sentani people in preserving their living environment and the phenomena of natural damage, namely water, land, forests, mountains, fauna and flora, this paper underlines the importance of social awareness in the form of the revitalization of fables, which is to revive the fables by actively retelling the children, informally at home, nonformally in learning communities and sekolah adat sentani, as well as formally at school through integrated curriculum. children are considered as an important generation to pay special attention to because they will continue the lives of the sentani generation in the future. the existence of sentani people in the future depends on children who love, take care of nature and are proud of their identity. gusal (2015, pp. 3-4), silalahi (2015, pp. 35-40), ernawati (2017, pp. 125-126), and juanda (2018, p. 298) in line with this paper also highlight the important benefits of fables in building children's character and as a medium for education for the soft skills of life. these days there is a shift in the sentani family traditions. if in the past, grandparents and parents often told their children and grandchildren fables, where now children prefer to watch tv. ideally, as the first and foremost informal educational institution, families have big roles in giving examples of good attitude and teaching their children about environmental education before sending them to sunday school or formal school teachers (abu-ravia & yaari, 2012, pp. 170-171; yektiningtyas and morin, 2020, p. 124). by 248 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj providing them with enough good knowledge and parental examples, children will not be easily distracted by bad habits that occur in today's society, for example various non-educational games, smoking, inhaling aica aibon glue, and other crimes. a child observer, mebri-noya on january 2018 said that many children today are affected by this bad activity. it is hoped that by reviving the habit of storytelling from parents to their children it will avoid them from this bad influence and make them to feel happier at home. some parents in the discussion on january 2019 assumed that the fable used to teach about the natural beauty of sentani and the view of the community on the importance of a clean and healthy living environment will train children to care about the cleanliness of their rooms, houses and their home environment. in addition to building good emotional relationships between parents and children, according to vigotsky (fani & ghaemi, 2011, p. 1550) storytelling also provides scaffolding to children in forming good character and personality and basic knowledge of the natural and socio-cultural environment. sekolah adat sentani and learning communities in sentani are expected to take part in storytelling and teach about the importance of preserving their environment. thus, they can provide reinforcement about the knowledge that parents have previously conveyed at home (yektiningtyas and morin, 2020, p. 125). empirically, the authors have also done storytelling activities like this in sekolah adat sentani (sentani customary school) in hobong, central sentani, and sentani folklore reading community in waena (east sentani) which has received positive responses from the children and parents. they were passionate about hearing the stories and trying to connect them with the nature, fauna, and flora in their environment that they have seen and lived in. they even said that they wanted to listen to more fables and asked the parents/grandparents to tell them, this is highlighted by monim, the principal of hobong customary school in 2018. this phenomenon is called as "emotional ties" by lazar (2002, p.19) which is one of the effectiveness of using fables as learning sources. formally, because fables contain satire, advice, or moral values, fables are an effective way of advising people and those who are being advised do not feel that they are being lectured. therefore, fables are also effective media to be used in formal education in early childhood education and elementary schools in integrated language learning, social studies and science (brumfit, 1987, pp. 22-24; lazar, 2002, pp. 15-19; ernawati, 2017, pp. 125-126; juanda, yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 249 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2018, p. 298). this is also related to the spirit of the 2013 curriculum (kemendikbud, 2016) which provides oppotunities as much as possible for teachers to explore natural and socio-cultural learning contexts at school. there is a mistaken opinion in society that the curriculum (content) shapes the context (natural environment and socio-culture). the truth is that "content is shaped by context" (modouw, 2021, pp. 33-34; laurenso & swingwood, 1972, pp. 11-15). thus, the richness of the curriculum depends on the ability, willingness, and readiness of teachers to explore the environment and use it in learning activities. this is in line with swingwood’s idea about the importance of infusing socio-cultural context in teachinglearning process. in connection with the sentani fable, fables can be used as innovative and creative materials for students to learn the importance of the environment. in addition, similar to lazar’s idea (2002, p.19) on the close relation between the learner and literary work, fables as part of the cultural heritage of the sentani people will make students have an emotional connection with what they learn so that learning becomes more enjoyable (yektiningtyas and modouw, 2017, pp. 44; juanda, 2018, p. 297). there are certain advantages that students get when they study material that has a connection with local nature and culture. they understand quickly the learning materials given, have more emotional attachment, and the classes atmosphere are interesting and challenging (lazar, 2002, pp. 15-19; yektiningtyas & modouw, 2017, pp. 43-44). it is easier for them to describe some names of fish, birds, and trees. in addition, they are also enriched in terms of knowledge of the sentani fables and the moral values, culture and local wisdom embedded in them. it is like the saying "once rowed two three islands exceeded". culture and education cannot be separated. by introducing fables to children at home, learning centers/community agents, and schools, it is hoped that children can learn the wisdom of old sentani people in managing nature. in addition, fables can provide knowledge about fauna that have been extinct or nearly extinct. sentani endemic fish that are starting to become extinct because people do not keep the lake clean can be reintroduced. according to ohee & keiluhu (2018, pp. 82-83), the extinction of these endemic sentani fish, one of which is the kandei fish (glossamia beauforti), also as one of the characters in "ebi and kandei", is the result of the failure of the sentani people in maintaining the cleanliness of the lake. the lake 250 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pollution causes various lake weed as a place for fish laying eggs also dead. besides, the introduction of fish from outside of lake sentani also threatens the life of endemic fish, some of which are betik (ababas testudineus), tambakan (helostoma temmincki), sepat siam (trichopodus pectoralis), toraja cork (channa striata), read louhan (amphilopus iabiatus), black louhan (a. citrinellus), mujair (oreochromis mossambicus), nila (oreochromis nilotica), mata merah (systomus rubripinnis), nilem (osteochillus vittatus). through fables, children can also be introduced to fauna that have never been found in their life, but mentioned in the fables, such as cenderawasih, kangaroos, cuscus, cassowary, mambruk, kumkum, turtles, eagles, cockatoos, etc. from the trials in some tribal chiefs’ homes in october-november 2019, it was found that children loved listening to fables and there were some significant changes of children habbits in maintaining their environment: they liked cleaning their room, house, and yard. they did not throw garbages to the the lake and rivers. some parents said that the children did not destroy trees and hunted small birds anymore. teachers and parents in sekolah adat sentani, folklore reading community, paud hadassah, and sd yppk pulau asei said that children could enthusiastically explain species of flora as well as fauna in sentani and decided to preserve them. they can also recognize trees that rarely grow in sentani forest due to the illegal logging, for example ironwood trees, soang trees and khombouw trees and various types of sago. in addition, environmental education through the use of fables provides awareness for children not to repeat or imitate the lifestyle of the modern sentani people, for example polluting the lake and the rivers, defoliating forests and mountains which results in the reduction or extinction of several types of fauna and flora. interestingly, children understand that various natural disasters such as floods, landslides and forest fires and various diseases threaten people's lives when nature is damaged. parents also said that their children prefer reading story books and listening to folktales telling to watching tv or playing games on the mobile phone. puraro, a parent on november 2019 also underlined that children need to be taught from an early age to keep their room, yard, school and environment clean by not littering, not hunting birds with slingshots and destroying vegetation. sandra-monim, one of the parents also witnessed that she and some parents were challenged by the initiative of using fables in teaching environment in sentani. she was aware that she was too busy that she ignored their children and her own cultural heritage. she decided to relearn and tell it to her children. yektiningtyas, w., & silalahi, e., fables as media of environmental education 251 for sentani children in jayapura regency, papua https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conclusion as part of the cultural heritages of sentani, fables are literary works that are rich in knowledge, socio-cultural values, and moral-spiritual teachings. one of the knowledge, philosophical values, and moral teachings contained in the fable is the importance of the environment. sentani's beautiful and wellordered nature, the richness of fauna and flora with various views of the old sentani people about its existence and how to protect it are told in the fables. when nature is damaged, most of sentani's endemic fauna and flora become extinct due to human negligence and ignorance. education is needed through the revitalization of the fable by retelling it to children as the relay generation of the sentani people who will determine the future and existence of the sentani people. the delivery of fables can be started at home as the first and foremost educational institution, which is then supported by the community through fables telling in community agents or customary schools which are also responsible for the existence of the sentani’s cultural heritage. these two activities can be formally strengthened in schools so the schools can build the content of the curriculum obtained from the natural and local cultural context of the sentani people. by using fable as an environmental education material, it is hoped that children will gain knowledge about the importance of environmental conservation. fables as one of the cultural heritages of sentani can be recognized by children as their heirs. in summary, this paper concludes a number of things, namely (1) the fable is an alternative and innovative material in delivering environmental education: nature, fauna and flora 2) children have emotional ties with the fables and want to learn more, (3) the inclusion of fables in environmental education is also a revitalization of sentani fables and the dissemination of socio-cultural values embedded. the attention of the local government of jayapura regency via the department of education and culture is expected to support by providing various research facilities on the fables and other sentani cultural heritage as well as training teachers in their teaching-learning process. environmentrelated agencies can also think about the reservation of flora and fauna which almot extinct in sentani which is mentioned in fables, for example, ironwood (intsia bijuga), soang trees (xanthostemon sp.), kombouw (ficus variagata) and several types of sago, cenderawasih, cassowary, kangaroo, crocodile, turtle, hawk, mambruk, cockatoo, kumkum, kandei fish, etc. 252 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 235 – 255 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; 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(2018) “preservation of sentani language using folktales" (drpm research report). jayapura: universitas cenderawasih. great disruption in southern society as reflected in john grisham's the testament tatit hariyanti l abstract: at the dawn of the twentieth century. especially after the invention of internet the world began to transform itself into information age which was characterized by the production more of two things people value most in a modern democracy freedom and equality. freedom of choice has exploded and hierarchies of all sorts, have come under pressure and begun to crumble. people were trapped in a globalized and homogenous condition. accompanying rhe shift there arouses social disorders which is indicated especially by the decline of family values . as that of other industrialized countries, when the united states becomes more advanced it is assumed that all its states experience the same condition. there seems no place for distinctive feature. the southern states which always claim and are claimed to be distinctive from the rest will . therefore. be interesting and worth observing. taking john grisham's work. the testament. which is set in virginia in the year of j 996s, as the main source, this study is done under the notion that literary works could serve as mental evidence of what happens in society. the result demonstrates that southern society experience the same condition. the increasing individualism in turn exerts great influence on thefamily life. the bond becomes more loosen and distrust rises. key words: southern society. distinct. decline,family bond. distrust dra. tatit hariyanti, m.hum. <tatithariyanti@yahoo.com> is a state lecturer of the faculty of letters, yogyakarta university of technology. she acomplished her undergraduate degree at the faculty of letters. gadjah mada university in 1986, masters degree at the same university in 1998 and now is taking a doctoral degree at the same university. she is writing her dissertation entitled "will and testament in southern culture" and this article is part of her dissertation. t. hariyatiti, great disruption in southern society: the testament 29. bibliography cash, w.j. the mind of the south. new york: vintage books. 1941. chester, r. 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"the novel as literary form and as social institution".in sociology of literature and drama. edited by elizabeth dan tom bums. uk: penguin books, 1973. logo: untitled-1 challenge and change in scholastic journalism as related to the teaching and learning of english language arts stacy haynes-moore1 it is a wintery saturday morning and a small group of student writers and editors wait outside publications room 70 eager for me to unlock the school door. the group is ready to work. they abstract: changing notions of ‘literacy’ impact and complicate ways in which english language arts educators adapt curriculum in meaningful ways for students. in this paper, i position scholastic journalism as authentic, 21st century ela coursework. i provide an historical overview of scholastic journalism. i emphasize impacts of media law, emergent technologies, and redesigned school literacy goals to the ways in which scholastic journalism negotiates acceptance within ela curriculum. key words: scholastic journalism, new literacies, english language arts electives, student publications, media curriculum 1stacy haynes-moore <stacy-haynesmoore@uiowa.edu> +13195584581 is a ph.d. student at the university of iowa college of education, office of teaching and learning, language, literacy and culture, iowa city, ia 52242-5500, u.s.a. she is also a language arts teacher at kennedy high school, cedar rapids, iowa 52402-2212. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 134 arrived at school promptly at 8 a.m., anxious to begin the proofreading, editing, and final design touches to their student newsmagazine that must be electronically transmitted by noon to the newspaper publisher. this production routine occurs nine times a year, with the saturday session marking the culmination of work by the student editorial board. during the school day, the seb leads their classmates to establish goals and mini-deadlines for the monthly publication cycle. lively discussion ensues with the story brainstorming session, which usually spills into two or three days of students’ classes. they pitch and argue angles until editors prioritize the line-up of school news, features, sports, and editorials. as their faculty adviser, i am not asked or required to approve their decisions; i am a certified journalism educator and adhere to the principles of scholastic journalism. expectations are to provide them instruction, communicate media trends, guide students’ use of technology, develop editorial leaders, and advise students on issues of media law and ethics (downes, hayes, furnas, and newton 2012, journalism education association, 2013). high school media teach students about access of information in a democracy; sharpen students’ writing, research, and language; and ask students to engage in a collaborative production (dvorak, lain, and dickson 1994). scholastic journalism is hands-on studentcentered learning. changing notions of student literacies what scholastic journalism means and what it encompasses today is dynamic (brasler and aimone 2010, haynes-moore 2011a, pell 2012). program directions reflect society’s broadened notions of literacy and learning (gee and hayes 2011, hull and moje 2012, ito et al. 2008, lankshear s. haynes-moore, challenge and change in scholastic journalism 135 and knobel 2006). twenty-first century literacies invite classroom teaching to embrace practices that are social, collaborative, and continuously evolving (gee and hayes, 2011, ito et al. 2008). literacy involves people in participation, relationships, and interactions (jenkins, purushotma, clinton, weigel, and robison 2007, luke and moje 2009). today’s students harness new technologies that extend the ways in which we learn and communicate (buckingham 2011, halverson and shapiro 2012, herrington, hodgson and moran 2009, ito et al. 2008, jenkins, purushotma, clinton, weigel, and robison 2007, lankshear and knobel 2006, new london group 1996, newkirk and kent 2007). journalism classrooms illustrate such ideas of 21st century learning. student production processes prove to be as valuable as the final results. with each monthly production cycle, editors consult with peers and address concerns about writing and storytelling. designers build visual mock-ups. reporters revise copy. web reporters churn out timely stories for the school audience. photographers capture sports and fine arts activities. a business manager makes sales calls. a social media manager writes tweets. page editors hold design meetings. subscriptions personnel organize spreadsheets for the mailing system. organizational leadersthe student editorial board – charge ahead toward deadline, though they may feel weary managing their team and finding solutions to last-minute problems. there emerges in this process a shared sense of engagement. journalism students learn and work together to produce a product. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 136 overview of the current state of high school journalism scholastic journalism programs are closely connected with english language arts (applebee 1974, dvorak 1985, 2006, ncte 2012). program goals directly tie to standards of school literacy curriculum, aiming to foster students’ abilities to write, respond, discuss, and use technologies in languagerich practices (common core state standards initiative 2012; devoss, eidman-adahl, and hicks 2010, hull moje 2012). working on a school publication is “authentic measurement at best: a synthesis of analysis and critical thinking, planning and relating to audience beyond the classroom, and performancebased outcomes” (graff 2003). the international reading association, national council of teachers of english, and common core state standards guide academic expectations of english curriculum. in 2002, the ncte and ira encouraged integrating journalism curriculum with english classrooms. overall, scholastic journalism maintains a foothold (dvorak 1998, 2002, 2008, goodman, bowen, and bobkowski 2011). kent state center for scholastic journalism reports that 96 percent of u.s. public high schools offer student media programs and student newspapers operate in 64 percent of the nation’s public high schools (goodman, bowen, and bobkowski 2011). networks for training and support are available from state, regional, and national organizations, including the journalism education association, quill and scroll, student press law center, columbia scholastic press association, and national scholastic press association (columbia scholastic press association 1998). these organizations frame the standards for scholastic journalism (downes, hayes, furnas, and newton 2012). currently, the common core standards s. haynes-moore, challenge and change in scholastic journalism 137 initiative (2012) supplements literacy goals already established by the ncte and ira. the common core describes aims of english language arts as developing and broadening student literacies in ways that prepare students for college and the workplace. this framework includes reading, writing, speaking, listening, language, media, and technology. as illustrated in figure 1, student experiences in scholastic journalism can be mapped to desired core literacy goals. common core standard (2012) scholastic journalism practice reading: students should read a diverse array of texts in a range of subjects. students are expected to build knowledge, gain insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their perspective. students read national and local texts such as books, essays, columns, and online articles to build knowledge about issues and perspectives. example: student reporter writing about gun control reads a variety of texts to better understand the issue and controversies surrounding this topic. writing: students should write with logical arguments based on substantive claims, sound reasoning, and relevant evidence is a cornerstone of the writing standards, with opinion writing. research is emphasized. students write editorial, opinion, and review stories, making claims based on fact and research, using evidence in writing. example: student reporter argues for healthier cafeteria foods, using evidence from a variety of text and people sources to substantiate her claims. speaking and listening: students should gain, evaluate, and present increasingly complex information, ideas, and evidence through listening and speaking as well as through media. students students plan an interview and prepare questions for sources, conduct interviews, listen and take notes/record ideas, and respond to source information with discussion. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 138 should collaborate to answer questions, build understanding, and solve problems. example: student reporter and his team plan and prepare questions for the school superintendent about the budget cuts to fine arts. they set a meeting with the superintendent, conduct the interview as a professional reporter might, ask questions, record notes, and engage in conversation about the issue to question and build understanding of the circumstances surrounding the cuts. language: students should grow their vocabularies and appreciate the nuances of words, and steadily expand their repertoire of words and phrases. students practice revision and editing skills as they produce print, broadcast, and social media reporting. example: student editors copy edit and work with reporters to improve final drafts. they work on language choices and expression; correctness of grammar, spelling, and mechanics; and use of associated press style rules specific to journalism. media and technology: skills related to media use (both critical analysis and production of media) are integrated throughout the standards. students learn a variety of computer technologies and software in order to produce quality and professionallooking media. example: student page designers plan their page layouts using particular software for graphics and design (adobe photoshop, illustrator, and indesign). figure 1: comparisons of core and journalism practices. s. haynes-moore, challenge and change in scholastic journalism 139 as we examine the kinds of literacies taught and valued at school, and reevaluate what literacy means and what it should look like in this 21st century, schools will “realize the importance scholastic journalism should still have in today’s school curricula” (konkle 2009:22). notably, journalism students perform literacies better than peers who do not participate in school media; journalism students earn better grades, achieve higher act scores, and earn better grades as college freshmen (dvorak 2008, dvorak, lain, and dickson 1994). significant historical movements within high school journalism even in this era of challenge and change for schools, journalism programs remain significantly connected within the curriculum of english language arts. for purposes of this paper, i briefly discuss three key historical movements that impact scholastic journalism as it relates to its inclusion in ela: legal battles waged over student expression, technologies that modernized classroom processes, and educational reform as framed by the common core. a. history: battles waged over student expression three legal cases directly shape student expression and impact the perceived value of journalism in ela. in addition to these landmark rulings, nine states (including iowa) have since passed laws protecting free expression by student journalists (student press law center 2013). tinker vs. des moines public schools (1965) first challenged the limits of student expression when an iowa school suspended students who wore black armbands to protest the vietnam war. the u.s. supreme court celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 140 ruled against the school and opened new freedoms for student speech, as long as the expression did not substantially disrupt school operations (reque, hathaway tantillo, babb, mcintosh, and denham 2001). in 1988, a case from a missouri high school reversed the progress of students’ speech rights. a hazelwood, mo. principal censored students reports about divorce and teen pregnancy, describing the wrting as inappropriate for school audiences. in hazelwood v. kuhlmeier, the court ruled in favor of the administrator. hazelwood did not recognize its school newspaper as a public forum and the case gave administrators the right to prior review. because of this ruling, today’s advisers and staffs may yet feel nervous about approaching reports of controversial content as they may fear school repercussions (reque, hathaway tantillo, babb, mcintosh, & denham 2001, student press law center 2013). a third case shaping scholastic journalism occurred in 1986 with the school suspension of a student who used sexual innuendo during an assembly speech. the courts upheld the suspension. in fraser v. bethel school district, the court determined that schools could control student exposure to ‘obscene’ language at school. more recent cases of students’ arguments with schools about free speech rights – such as morse v. frederick (2002) and doninger v. niehoff (2007) cases – continue to impact the perceived value of scholastic journalism. the cases highlight continued tensions among students, advisers, and school administrators (student press law center 2013). not all school administrators, faculty, or ela departments are comfortable with the practices of the journalism classroom (anderson 2011, graff 2003, hall 1984, haynes-moore 2011, hollbrook 1986, konkle 2010, murray 2008). curricular goals of the journalism classroom can be at s. haynes-moore, challenge and change in scholastic journalism 141 odds with the school-sponsored activities of ela classrooms in which teachers orchestrate the learning of their classrooms with clearer limitations of student expression. the curricular controls and teaching practices one might anticipate in an ela classroom don’t neatly align with the philosophies and best practices of a scholastic journalism classroom. scholastic journalism is the ornery sibling of the ela family tree. b. history: influences of technology a second historical influence on scholastic journalism is the influence of emergent technologies. until about the mid 1980s, journalism students pounded their stories using typewriters. they scaled photos using proportion wheels, created layouts with x-acto knives and grid paper, and decorated pages using line tapes. students cut and pasted stories onto page grids to prepare camera-ready pages. some ranks of journalism advisers and student alumni may well remember their fingers burning from the hot wax used to affix stories to page layouts (pell 2012). computer technologies significantly impacted publications. computers, word processing, design software, and desktop publishing influenced the processes of reporters, photographers, and designers who composed their school publication (brasler and aimone 2000, koziol 1981). in the 1980s, computer layouts could produce more sophisticated-looking publications through desktop publishing and by the 1990s students were taking advantage of color, graphics, modern packaging, and modular design (brasler and aimone 2000, cuban 1993, harrower 2002, knight 1981). most recently, demonstrated by the tumult of the print industry, the advent of mobile technology, tablets, and social media significantly shape publication processes and products (pew 2012). celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 142 with this explosion of 21st century digital tools there is an affordance for journalism students for creativity and innovation. digital technologies bring revolutionary benefits to teaching and learning (gee and haynes 2011, lankshear and knobel 2006). students can access more information and more quickly to better inform, entertain, and build forums of engagement (digital media resources 2013, dvorak 1994, halverson and shapiro 2012, ito et al. 2008, jenkins, purushotma, clinton, weigel, and robison 2007). however, this rapid era of technology also makes it tricky for scholastic journalism programs to meet school expectations (pell 2012). some schools may be uninterested or unable to support new technologies (dvorak 1994, konkle 2010) and online communications can pose challenges for school officials to monitor and control the dissemination of information (haynesmoore 2011a). such digital technologies complicate what and how students report. c. history: reimagining literacy a third historical movement directly affects how scholastic journalism is embraced in ela. we are in the midst of educational reform, particularly with new udnerstandings of what it means to be literate for workplace and society (gee and haynes 2011, hull and moje 2012, ito et al. 2008). common core literacies connect with scholastic journalism in that they are cross-curricular and ask students to demonstrate literacies in english, social sciences, science, and technical subjects (common core, 2012). students must learn effective writing, which includes writing with digital technologies (devoss, et al. 2010, journalism education association 2013, national council of teachers of english, 2012). s. haynes-moore, challenge and change in scholastic journalism 143 differing perspectives of scholars and classroom educators fuel discussions about what reading and writing practices “should” look like in english classrooms; these debates impact society’s understanding of literacy as a flexible and evolving process of communication (herrington, hodgson, & morgan, 2009; luke, freebody, and land 2000). school literacies are shared practices that involve human language, including productions of images, audio, video, graphics, and multimedia (gee and hayes 2011; herrington, hodgson, and moran 2009, hull and moje 2010). this shift in thinking about what it literacy means, and how schools might achieve literacy goals with students, holds great potential for the recognition of journalism as a vital coursework in english language arts. roots of english electives in the high school curriculum school publications have not always been considered significant. programs emerged in the 1890s as popular afterschool literary societies in which students congregated to share their writing. these groups would publish a magazine, book of poetry, or yearbook, and gradually these activities became part of school curriculum (applebee 1974, jaekle 1972, konkle 2009, hill and snyder 1930, logan 1965, murphy 1974). english curriculum in the 1890s focused on spelling, grammar, rhetoric, and composition (christenbury 1979, smith, strong, guthe, and bemis 1899). in 1892, the committee of ten encouraged schools to treat english as a serious study and in 1912 the ncte and its english journal elevated english as a worthy endeavor (applebee 1974). english departments of the 1960s restructured to include electives such as drama, debate, and journalism (christenbury 1979, palmatier and martin, celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 144 1976, santora 1979), though such electives were sometimes a “dumping ground” for low-level students (olman 1993). english teachers developed journalism programs by taking cues from the professional press. students’ work mimicked the design and reporting of city papers (brasler and aimone 2010, harrower 2002, knight 1981). social and political unrest motivated students to write about the vietnam war, drugs, sex, racial problems, and family problems. students discovered a power in writing, and this attracted new participants as students sought to express themselves and add their voices to the community (knight 1981). enrollment increased. programs gained recognition for cutting-edge research, writing, and design (brasler and aimone 2010, logan 1965). journalism educators documented the ways students engaged in meaningful and relevant learning (dvorak 1985, hall 1984). in 1984, the national council of teachers of english passed a resolution to officially accept journalism courses focused on the collecting, writing, editing, interpretation and evaluation of information (holbrook 1986). this affirmed journalism as a worthy course placed in english curriculum. today’s scholastic journalism programs add podcasts, blogs, broadcasts and social media into their curriculum (digital media resources 2013, dvorak 2002, goodman, bowen, and bobkowski 2011). implications for classroom practices i suggest six actions to strengthen and reinforce the value of scholastic journalism as related to the teaching and learning of english language arts. 1. teach writing. new technologies will emerge, schools will introduce new standards, and employers will discover yet-tos. haynes-moore, challenge and change in scholastic journalism 145 be-imagined 21st century jobs. being able to write well will weather such changes. writing with purpose, voice, clarity, and evidence is an essential skill. writing in journalism is an experience of producing a product for an authentic audience. student writing reflects an ability to organize ideas, use multiple resources of information, think critically, collaborate, revise, and edit language. 2. get certified. one hopes that journalism advisers would pursue training and advanced learning through local, regional, and national workshops. many grants are available for development. veteran advisers are eager for younger or newer colleagues to take advantage of these opportunities. we know our classroom instruction and student learning improves from highly qualified teachers. we must be knowledgeable of current media practices, technologies, laws, and instructional methods to help our programs maintain credibility with our ela department, school, district, and community. advisers should be certified and be able to promote the values and needs of the program. our ela colleagues must be certified to teach speech and drama electives; why is the journalism adviser not also highly qualified? 3. build relationships. seek connections between your student programs and professional media. invite television, radio, newspapers, magazines, photographers, advertising agencies, and social media producers to visit with students, study products, and discuss technique. these professionals reinforce the high expectations of literacy needs in the workplace. they also bring relevance to scholastic journalism. area media are vocal supporters of first amendment rights and these professionals can speak about these issues with students, principals, parents, and school boards. call upon these professionals to help teach technology and media trends; it can celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 146 be overwhelming to keep up with the changing world of journalism when there is more to one’s teaching job than the journalism elective. nurturing community connections will bring positive, public attention to the school and the networking may open opportunities for student job shadows, internships, and jobs. 4. communicate success. newspapers are only a format; journalism is not dying, in fact, the need for our students to be sharp critical thinkers who are able to express themselves in a multiplicity of ways is crucial. there may exist misconceptions about what journalism is and what it means for today’s students. advisers must illustrate to their administration and colleagues that their students are practicing and learning valuable literacy skills. align students’ work with ncte and ira standards. produce a school video or speak to the pta about how the common core plays out when students engage in research and writing. advisers know that learning occurs in the midst of the chaos of the journalism classroom. seek to show how the learning experiences of journalism are at minimum comparable to, if not better than, traditional ela classrooms. 5. secure technology. schools that say they embrace journalism as a healthy member of their ela family should treat the program as such; this means that advisers must be vocal about the program needs and not shy asking for materials and technology upgrades. if we aim to reach 21st century learning expectations, we should expect that 21st learning tools are available to help us get our students there. 6. recruit diverse learners. journalism classrooms are energyfilled spaces that should attract students of any gender, race, class, ethnicity, or culture. diversity of people on staff enriches learning as students socialize and collaborate. journalism s. haynes-moore, challenge and change in scholastic journalism 147 students today are also not only writers, but photographers, videographers, social media junkies, youtube aficionados, and graphic arts specialists. advisers might find staff members from art, speech, theatre, web, or business classes. watch for students who may practice these literacies outside of the school day, too. diversity of participants and stronger registration numbers adds support for the journalism elective as an important component of 21st century curriculum. concluding remarks: moving scholastic journalism forward scholastic journalism is in sea change learning to effectively approach and teach literacies. this movement is not unlike those of past decades in which english language arts teachers hotly debated what students should know, learn, and be able to demonstrate. healthy skepticism and speculation about changing communications impact our ways of thinking about literacy. evolution of technologies continues to add new twists to wondering about adapting our program curriculum in relevant and meaningful ways. scholastic journalism must adapt -and quickly – as our history as an elective in ela reminds us that we must not be complacent. references applebee, a. tradition and reform in the teaching of english: a history. urbana, il. retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/ 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10.2307/815178 pell, c. “on being tired, but mostly inspired”. in scholastic source newsletter. aejmc scholastic journalism division: scholastic source. retrieved from http://aejmc.net/scholastic/wp celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:133-154 154 content/uploads/2012/12/sjd_sourcedec12email1.pdf, winter 2012. the pew research center. “project for excellence in journalism: the state of the news media 2012”. retrieved from http://stateofthemedia.org/, 2012. reque, j., s. hathaway tantillo, j. babb, m. mcintosh and b. denham, b. introduction to journalism. mcdougal littell, 2001. santora, r. “recent trends in the teaching of literature”. in english journal. vol. 68, no. 6, 1979:38-42. doi: 10.2307/815922 smith, w., e. strong, k. guthe, c. bemis. “elective work in the high school courses, should elective work be provided and encouraged?” inthe school review, vol. 7, no. 4, 1899:232245. chicago, il: university of chicago school of education. retrieved from http://books.google.com/ student press law center. “know your rights”. retrieved from http://www.splc.org/knowyourrights/, 2010. cover celt december 2013_revisi_1 celt vol 13 no 2 december 2013_revisi_2# cover celt december 2013_revisi_2 guide for contributors catering students’ needs to promote aesthetic experience in efl literature class with reference to response-centred curriculum1 iskhak said2 abstract: the success of literature instruction is dependent upon not only the teaching strategies, but also the well-developed curriculum, which accommodates student needs. teaching practice of literature in the multicultural contexts has to do with teachers’ beliefs in approaching to their day-to-day practice endowed in the curriculum they are concerned with. in this respect, the existing literature curricula should ideally reflect aesthetic experiences that enhance students’ freedom and enjoyment with literary works assigned. the present study examines how three case high school english teachers from different sites with different multicultural entities in west java, indonesia, developed literature curricula in such a way that their students got ‘free room’ to express what they wanted and needed to say and to do. following the traditions of a qualitative multi-case and -site study, the present study investigated the process of teaching literature in language studies streams of the three sites by occupying classroom observation and interview, and administering questionnaires as well. the 1 this article is a part of the thesis the writer wrote for his doctorate degree in efl literature pedagogy. 2 iskhak said, m.pd. <ishkhak.said@yahoo.com> +628122179216 is a full time lecturer from galuh university, ciamis, west java. said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 67 findings revealed that, in their classroom practices, the three cases endeavored to cater their students’ needs through developing negotiated response-based literature curriculum that led to varied and unique activities in the forms of celebrations showing their personal engagements in responding to literature assigned. yet, their different schooling systems and contextual factors, and the subjects’ perspectives in literature pedagogy and their lived-through literary reading experiences, have made each case indicate typical and unique phenomena, which is in accordance with the spirit of school-based curriculum. key words: response-based approach, freedom, enjoyment, multicultural introduction designing teaching strategies for creating conducive classroom practices cannot be separated from the realm of curriculum development. as the advocates suggest (e.g. cox 1999, langer 1995), the trends of literature instruction also have to do with the basics of approaching to reading practices. the underlying theories the teacher occupies will greatly affect his/her proposed premises that support the process of designing instructional planning. for example, under the umbrella of reader-response theory, teaching literature will lead to response-based instruction, relevant and corresponding to the principles of response-centered curriculum that promotes students’ active roles in their own creating meanings (cox 1999: 20). the present study was grounded from three cases of literature instruction conducted by three high school english teachers from different sites in west java with multicultural celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 68 entities. on the basis of the emerging data, the study implicitly reflected that the three case study teachers have uniquely employed typical day-to-day practice for literature classes with reference to their school-based curriculum promoting students’ enjoyment and freedom in expressing their ideas and feeling. with regard to the interplay between curriculum and classroom practice, philosophically speaking, there is an important ideological drive underpinning classroom practice. ornstein (2009) argues that “teaching, learning, and curriculum are all interwoven in school practices and should reflect a school’s and a community’s philosophy.” regarding the existing trends of literature teaching, seen from the time frame, there has been evidence showing that the paradigm has shifted from teacher-centered to student-centered approach; from information-based to aesthetic experience-based strategy. which is much supported by reader-response theory, a literary criticism promoting reader’s engagement (see rosenblatt 1978, 1991). previous studies on curriculum development for literature suggest that teacher’s day-to-day practices have its relationship with her/his way of developing curriculum. for example, applebee et al (2000) suggest that diversity in classroom teaching dynamics is masked by the teacher’s perspectives in approaching to teaching pedagogy. yet, the teaching of literature at high school in indonesia in relation to its curriculum development has a scant attention (cf. kristiyani 2007). regarding the pitfalls of literature pedagogy, langer (1995: ix) argues that students’ intellectual, social, and personal development is often underestimated. in addition, guitierrez (2001) affirms that recent development in literary analysis and language pedagogy reveals its inadequacies. said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 69 the success of literature instruction is in fact influenced by its curricular orientation. the recent school-based curriculum (the so-called kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan/ktsp) should be developed by each school, which is characterized by school’s typical entities and its different schooling system. thus, local content embedded from each school should be one of the bases of developing curriculum for any subject, including literature. in a sense, the developed curriculum should cater students’ different needs shaped and influenced by their socio-cultural contexts. trends of teaching literature also go hand-in-hand with the principles of curriculum development. the development of curriculum for literature, as advocates suggest, has relationship with its underlying theories and philosophies illuminating the chosen teaching pedagogy. for example, the sophistication of literary criticism also gives significance to both literature instruction and curriculum development (agee 2001). in this regard, agee’s study suggests that classroom practices of literature instruction were once influenced by teachers’ understanding about teaching literature focusing on information-based approach or text-based analysis promoting close reading. previous studies (e.g. hamel 2003, langer 1995) indicate that there have been shifts from new criticism to reader-response, which promotes readers roles as active meaning makers. reading literary works is a process which is sometimes differently conceptualized. for example, rosenblatt (1978, 1991) sees it a process of transaction between readers and texts. readers, in this sense, are active meaning makers who tend to bring their own experiences by showing idiosyncratic individual entities. each individual has their own different wants, needs, expectations, and ways of interpretation. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 70 pedagogically, taking into account those idiosyncrasies teaching literature needs philosophical understanding. purves, rogers and soter (1990) argue that reader-response strategy plays significant and meaningful construction to empower students’ aesthetic experiences. purves et al further argue that students are ideally invited to respond to literary works after reading, and they can activate their capacities ranging from knowledge (cognitive domain) to very personal (affective) domain. rosenblatt also suggests that reading can take place from the orientation which is information-based (“efferent” or to carry away) to emotional ways (‘aesthetic’). reader-response theory has much influenced the developing trend of response-centered curriculum (cox 1999). in this curriculum, as purves et al (1990) argue, literature instruction is designed merely to help students aesthetically engage in literary works. not to help them answer such a multiple-choice questions, or information-based assessment (see also aveling 2006). response-centered curriculum, as purves et al further argue, can make students 1) feel secure in his/her response; 2) know why she responds the way she does; 3) respect the responses of others and also recognizes differences from others; and 4) recognize that there are common elements in people’s responses and recognize similarities with others. in this trend, students are brought to freely utter wide range of expressions through talking to others, sharing ideas, questioning-answering problems, and discussing with their poor, and critical interpreting texts assigned. freedom, enjoyment, engagement, and classroom democracy are offered to students within their diverse classroom. in this way students’ multicultural awareness can be enhanced (see lie 2001). in addition. this project-based curriculum (posner 1997: 150) allows for process-based literature instruction, which virtually emphasizes on students’ experience of freely said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 71 and expressively engaging and enjoying literary works assigned. response-centered literature curriculum basically offers students social engagement. parallel to purves’s et al (1990) views, cox (1999: 20) also mentions that in this kind of curriculum students get involved in interaction, cooperation, and collaboration. in a sense, there is interplay between rosenblatt’s reader-response theory and vygtotsky’s social constructivism views (beach 1993: 105). beach further argues that “learning evolves from social interactions and collaboration...” and “...response is often driven by social need to share those responses with others.” since learning takes place in social context (see also kaufman 2004), classroom can function as a place for creating literary criticism or ‘classroom criticism’ (reyes 2007) so that all members of the community can get involved in literary enjoyment and critical thinking process through social events in the classroom. needs analysis in curriculum development is indeed a systematic process. brown (1995: 36) argues that needs assessment refers to “ the systematic collection and analysis of all subjective and objective information necessary to define and validate defensible curriculum purposes that satisfy the language learning requirements of students within context of particular institutions that influence the learning and teaching situation.” basically, needs analysis is aimed at meeting students’ hopes and/or expectations in their learning goals (crookes 2009, stern 1983, richards and rogers 2001, white 1988). in addition, brindley (1989) argues that needs analysis is aimed at “trying to identify and take into account a multiplicity of affective and cognitive variables which affect learning, such as learners’ attitudes, motivations, awareness, personality, wants, expectations, and learning styles.” catering celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 72 students’ needs and interests in creating conducive literature classes needs empirical investigation. in this respect, brown (1995) asserts that needs analysis can help teachers appropriately design the lesson planning. as such, studies on the curriculum development in literature pedagogy needs exploring. previous studies reveal that needs assessment can give significances to literature curriculum development. for example, we’s (2008) study, regarding the materials expected, using young adult literary books can improve students’ literacy. pedagogically speaking, goel (2010) suggests that reader-response theory gives significant implications to classroom practices. while the studies of needs analysis for literature instruction in multicultural context are limited, as its nature reflects, the present study gives the accounts. the proposed research question for this study is, “with reference to response-centered curriculum, how do the three english teachers approach their teaching through catering their students’ needs to make them expressively enjoy literary works in free ways?” methodology the present study occupied a qualitative multi-case and site study (berg 2007, bogdan and biklen 1998, hood 2009, renzi 2005, stake 1994, yin 1984). based on the emerging data revealed from process-based inquiry through observations and interviews, the study was intended to portray the curricular dimensions of uniquely patterned classroom practices of three case study high school english teachers from different sites promoting response-based instruction. differences and uniqueness reflected by each case are illuminated by its diverse context of each high school consistently offering language studies stream (language studies program), and schooling said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 73 systems. moreover, the three subjects also had different academic and professional experiences. site a, the religious spirit-driven private high school located at the centre of bandung city was well-managed school with adequate facilities. its student body indicated diversity in socioeconomic, racial and ethnical, and cultural backgrounds. the english teacher, salman (pseudonym), graduated from faculty of letters (literature) and was concerned with project-based classroom activities (see posner 1992), emphasizing literary celebrations with higher order tasks. his best classroom practices were much influenced by his past academic experiences when he was at college. site b, the state-owned high school located in the southern part, suburban area of southern bandung regency, was a medium-sized high school with vision-based management. it also had a good academic reputation. its student body reflected diversity in socio-economical backgrounds. the teacher of site b, anna (pseudonym), graduated from english education department of teachers training college. she was concerned with literature instruction to make students creative in writing literary responses. her past literacy (reading and writing) experience in her college with her professor who was committed to writing influenced her way of teaching. site c, a small-sized state high school, situated in a town in eastern part of west java (tasikmalaya), about three-hour ride from bandung, belonged to medium-sized high school and had good academic reputation. its student body also indicated diversity in socio-economical and cultural backgrounds. the english teacher, siti (pseudonym), graduated from english education program from teachers training college. her rich past literacy experience such as reading articles when she was celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 74 young, had made her concerned with promoting moral values and building students’ good characters. voluntary basis was taken into account in choosing case study teachers and focal students as the purposively selected subjects. the inquiry included observation by videotaping the classroom practices, administering grounded questionnaires (alwasilah 2002), interviewing the subjects, and analyzing documents and artifacts. the expected data were grounded from the emerging phenomena concerning curriculum development for their day-to-day practice of literature classes. the collected data were the categorized and analyzed to construct ‘the themes’ as grounded theories. an analysis of each case preceded its cross-case analysis by which the shared points of the three cases indicated the similarities or ‘commonalities’ and differences as uniqueness. both similarities and uniqueness of the cases are then considered as new insights for pedagogical significances for syllabus and curriculum development. findings and discussion as the aim of the present study shows, the discussion of curriculum development grounded from each case suggests that each teacher had their own ways of approaching to literature teaching pedagogy. different context and its schooling system, and academic and professional experience have shaped their typical and unique entities in their classroom practices. the research findings revealed the subjects’ perspectives or “voices” of their curricular stances and preferred day-to-day classroom practices (applebee 1993, 1997, applebee et al 2000). the coverage of salient points ranges from defining and choosing materials (literary genres) to assessment strategies. said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 75 analysis of each case will precede cross-case, and pseudonyms will be used to display the findings. a. case study: salman’s orientation, “literature for enjoyment and freedom” salman’s conception of literature teaching pedagogy is driven by his redefinition of literary works. he argued that literature refers to artistic works which have artistic values, and cover three literary genres such as poetry, prose, and drama. he was also concerned with another genre, film. he tried to develop the syllabus by referring to bsnp’s (2006) guidelines, though some adjustments and negotiations were made to cater students’ needs and interest. students were once let to browse drama text and film script from internets. he tended to more focus on film and drama than poetry. poetry class was designed to enable students to enjoy the assigned texts and then recreate their own texts. drama class made students active in practicing the dialogue many times in front of the class and performed their own script at the multimedia room for their final examination. in addition, students were required to present reviews of film they had enjoyed, the dead poet society, through classroom or teacher-led discussions. to enhance students’ knowledge of literature, salman preferred to implement theory into practice’ strategy. yet, to him, enjoyment should come first. he had such an experience in enjoying literature at his college when his professor tended to play a role as his partner or facilitator. students deserved freedom and chances to freely express their feelings or thoughts and wants. in his literature class, laughs and repeated practices of pronouncing words and utterances of provided dialogues dominated the classroom dynamics. such a conducive celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 76 atmosphere led to process of shaping a critical community, the so-called ‘classroom criticism’ (reyes 2007). in response-centered literature curriculum the emphasis of learning process sis on students’ active roles. as the findings of observation revealed, salman always played as a friend of his students. his students were made to feel close to him as they enthusiastically always asked for his advice, inputs, corrections and opinions. once, when practicing drama in the classroom, he acted as a film director-like to give instructions to his students to act out the drama well. other examples of typical students’ responses were reviewing film, and creating their own and performing drama. in film review, students presented their critical analysis about the moral values and textual elements of the film, the dead poet society. before performing drama for final examination (final course of study), students in group initiated the topic inspired by local story, legend of jaka tarub. in creating new model of story, students tried to modify the story with their own context and multimedia. students’ writing and creating the story needed teacher’s corrections and refinement to make the story-script sound feasible to perform. such a dynamic classroom reflected the good model for showing students a professional world, which is beneficial for their futures. salman’s concern was also subject to the benefits of studying literature for language proficiency improvement (see also carter and long 1991). he always willingly helped his students to improve their pronunciation in practicing dialogues and their grammatical mastery when writing responses. he acknowledged that by studying and enjoying literary works students can learn a lot about linguistic aspects of the literary works assigned. said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 77 on the basis of students’ subjective experience and enjoyment, the teacher was concerned with qualitative assessment. he claimed that there was no correct or right answer in students’ responses to literature. students’ courage, joy, and self-confidence were paramount in the instruction process. students seemed to behave as they were: there had been no burden in their learning process. yet to assess drama performance, for example, he paid attention to the proper ways of pronouncing and using vocabulary and grammatical points. b. case study: anna’s approach to “teaching literature with enjoyment and creative thinking” as purves et al (1990) suggest, in response-centered literature curriculum the teacher should give students a room for free expressions. anna was concerned with contemporary literary works covering english poems. drama. and film (for example. slumdog millionaires) and a narrative, a text-type of genre-based approach. she underscored that the objective of teaching literature was to amuse students as readers and help them to improve the target language. her way of selecting materials was based on students’ needs and level of’ language mastery. some english literary works written in simple way were chosen to make readers feel easy to understand. the designed activities in classroom embraced range of aesthetic responses such as reviewing film by which students expressed their critical comments on the story. using worksheet or journaling paper, students deserved chances to say what they thought about the good and the bad of the characters, the quality of the story, and other aesthetic aspects of the film. reading aloud and performing students’ own created poems were intended to promote students’ self celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 78 confidence and enjoyment. another example of celebrating event included film making project, which was very challenging to students. students creatively and collaboratively prepared themselves to create a film script. one student acted as director-like of a film production. and the others played as actors and actresses. all prepared scenes were then videotaped. to anna, teaching literature also has to do with a way to increase or grow students’ language acquisition, or to make students have good command and competence of both spoken and written english. considering the lower academic entry behavior of students of language studies stream (compared with natural sciences and social sciences), anna was committed to design more challenging literature instruction to improve their english achievement. she acknowledged that there had been a proof showing that most students of the program achieved better scores in final examination. to sum up, teaching literature, for anna, was aimed at making her students enjoy literary works, promoting students’ creativity and critical thinking, and enhancing second language literacy as well. c. case study: siti’s approach to “teaching literature with moral values enhancement, freedom and enjoyment, and literacy development” graduated from the english education program of teachers training college, siti was concerned with pedagogical implications of literature instruction to characters building and literacy events. to help grow students’ better characters and personalities, she selected literary works that offered good moral values. for example, she chose freedom writers, a film about multicultural issues. selected literary genres included english poems, short stories, drama, song, and said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 79 film. she did not introduce novel to the students for the limitation of time and insufficiencies of the books. her concern of improving students’ language literacy improvement (reading and writing) was supported by her past experience of being flooded by varied reading materials and other written sources at home. in classroom practice, she always helped her students to correctly write critical responses to literary works assigned by using scaffolding strategy, social process thus took place in the framework of vygotsky’s social constructivism (see kaufman 2004). corrections were given to improve to improve students’ vocabulary, grammatical accounts, arid spelling. by reading aloud an english poem, and performing drama in front of the class, as siti claimed, students could improve their oral/spoken english skill and self-confidence as well. giving students chance to write their own drama also led to the process of promoting creativity and freedom. the class was divided into several groups and each was required to write script/dialogue and perform it. after being revised, the text/script was acted out. acting out with well-prepared stage and costumes, students felt joyful and happy in celebrating their literary responses. laughs and informal talks dominated the class as if they had got invoked in real and natural communities of society. acting as caregiver or a guide, siti sometimes gave directions and advice to students to better act out the drama. siti’s literature class also promoted multicultural awareness. for example, after writing freedom writers, students were let to make a critical review on it. evaluative comments, emotional involvements, and other critical responses to the work were appreciated by the teacher. one focal student acknowledged that by watching the film, she could get insights celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 80 of how multicultural education played an important role in diverse context at which race discrimination should be avoided. from students’ experience of enjoying the film, there was also another indication of multicultural awareness as its determinants showing good cooperation and collaboration among students amidst the diversity of socio-economical and cultural backgrounds. d. cross-case analysis uniqueness and typical entities of each case’s curricular tendencies have been greatly shaped by different sociocultural contexts of each site, the subjects’ perspectives and/or voices about reading and enjoying literary works, and teachers’ approaches to choosing their teaching pedagogy and conceptualizing learning principles. within emerging phenomena embedded from the three cases, theme have been some shared points of curricular aspects affecting their day-today practices as the shaped patterns of classroom cultures and routines. those similarities have become ‘commonalities’ embracing certain curricular aspects such as the types of selected literary genres and types, objectives of teaching, classroom dynamics (teacher-student interaction), material development and the use of teaching and learning media, and assessment strategies. the three cases basically offered students the same paints such as freedom, enjoyment, and literacy improvement or language growth. through project-oriented curricular enhancement (posner 1995, p.179), driven by their interests and needs, students were elicited to aesthetically get involved in living through the assigned literary works. students had equal position in the classroom in expressing their voices as their teacher did. there was no discrimination among them. yet, said, catering student’s needs to promote aesthetic experience 81 there were similar patterns of response events shared by only two cases or others. for example, being influenced by their past academic background, case b and c tended to emphasize on pedagogy-illuminated literature instruction. to compare with, case a and b were concerned with long-termed project for final course of study to enhance enjoyment and language or literacy growth, such as creating and performing local storybased drama and making film. the differences existing among the cases were due to the variety of chosen materials, intensity of classroom dynamics, pedagogical stances and orientation, and foci of the assessment. for example, the dead poet society, the film concerning democratic literature teaching pedagogy was chosen by case study a. while case study b was concerned with a film (slumdog millionnaire) offering social issues, case c chose freedom writers, the film showing how multicultural awareness is developed at academic context. in classroom practices, case study a indicated a very relaxed situation: the classroom was informally arranged. in case study a’s classroom situation, teacher-led discussions frequently dominated. to compare with, in case study c’s classroom, teacher’s scaffolding strategy, an effort of giving help and corrections to students’ works, was evident. different ways of assessment were also other indications. while case study a, for example, was more concerned with performance-based assessment. case study b and c focused more on written and spoken mastery or competencies reflected in their literary responses. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 66-86 82 conclusion and suggestion as the evidences suggest, the dynamics of literature classroom practices tended to be influenced by how curricular aspects were developed by the teachers. curriculum development as negotiated process, has been reflected by teachers’ perspectives, the contexts shaping and being shaped by, schooling system, and students’ accounts, all of which corresponded to students’ needs. response-based literature curriculum and teaching under the influence of rosenblatt’s reader-response theory, can lead to the more democratic class. the present study suggests that each case, to some extent, has implicitly accommodated their students’ needs by, for example, offering free choices in material development, qualitatively assessing their performances, freedom for expressing ideas and feelings, and 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june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia black panther: a characterization study of erik killmonger’s machiavellianism 1aldila tania agatha, 2ni luh nyoman seri malini, 3i gusti agung istri aryani 1,2,3english department, faculty of humanities, udayana university, denpasar, bali, indonesia email: 1francelee808@gmail.com, 2seri.malini@unud.ac.id, 3ig.aryani15@gmail.com received: 14-01-2020 accepted: 29-02-2020 published: 01-06-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj black panther: a characterization study of erik killmonger’s machiavellianism 1aldila tania agatha, 2 ni luh nyoman seri malini*,3i gusti agung istri aryani 1francalee808@gmail.com, 2seri.malini@unud.ac.id *ig.aryani15@gmail.com english department, faculty of humanities, udayana university, denpasar, bali, indonesia abstract: the study discusses and analyzes the characterization of a secondary character in the movie black panther, erik killmonger whose status as a villain is described as a machiavellian; a person known to be gruesome and unreliable to acquire everything he desires by any means whatsoever. the black panther is a two-hour-and-14-minute feature film produced by marvel studio. the study functions as a source of knowledge for everyone who wishes to comprehend the deeper issue of a secondary character in a movie who does not get enough recognition, unlike the main character. this study used to collect and observing methods based on yin‟s study entitled qualitative research from start to finish (2011) to acquire the data, black panther movie along with the movie script. a qualitative research method is used to answer the problems of the study. it examined killmonger‟s characterization by using three theories; i.e. the tridimensional aspects by egri (1960), black nationalism by young & levy (1970), and high machiavellianism by christie & geis (1970). a discussion of black history counts as a great necessity to give a clearer sense of the character‟s background who is described as an african-american male. lastly, a descriptive method to analyze the problems and present the analysis is chosen to complete this study. the results of this study found innovative discussions on a machiavellian character on the parameters of self-determination, nationalism, and racial prejudice. killmonger‟s machiavellian character is categorized to have cold emotionality, lack of empathy, and manipulative features. the study results also delivered fundamental truths about the current political and cultural situation in the united states, in which people still seek persistence in their everyday lives based on racial boundaries reflected by killmonger‟s mission as an african-american. 2 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: characterization, machiavellianism, black nationalism, tridimensional aspects, erik killmonger abstrak: penelitian ini mendiskusikan serta menganalisis karakterisasi pemeran pendukung dalam film black panther, erik killmonger yang statusnya sebagai penjahat menggambarkan sosok machiavellian; seorang yang dikenal keji dan tidak dapat dipercaya, serta akan melakukan cara apapun dalam mencapai keinginannya. film black panther yang diproduksi oleh marvel studio memiliki durasi selama dua jam dan 14 menit. fungsi penelitian ini adalah sebagai sumber pengetahuan dalam pemahaman pentingnya pemeran pendukung dalam suatu film yang kurang mendapat perhatian dari publik, bertolak belakang dengan peranan seorang pemeran utama. penelitian ini menggunakan metode collecting dan observing yang didasarkan pada buku yin yang berjudul qualitative research from start to finish (2011) untuk mendapatkan data yang berupa film black panther beserta naskah film tersebut. metode penelitian kualitatif digunakan untuk menjawab masalah-masalah dalam penelitian ini. metode ini mengkaji karakterisasi killmonger dengan menggunakan tiga teori; tridimensional aspects oleh egri (1960) black nationalism oleh young & levy (1970), dan high machiavellianism oleh christie and geis (1970). penelusuran mengenai sejarah orang kulit hitam (black history) mendukung penelitian ini sebagai dorongan karakter dalam bertindak sebagai pria berkebangsaan afrika-amerika. selanjutnya, metode deskriptif dipilih sebagai metode terbaik dalam menganalisis masalah serta mempresentasikan hasil analisis penelitian ini. penelitian ini menghasilkan sebuah pembahasan inovatif dalam karakter machiavellian yang memiliki parameter determinasi pribadi, nasionalisme, serta prasangka rasial. karakter killmonger sebagai seorang machiavellian dikategorisasikan sebagai pribadi yang memiliki emosi yang dingin, empati yang kurang, serta manipulatif. hasil dari penelitian ini juga menyampaikan kebenaran mendasar dalam situasi politik dan budaya di amerika serikat, dimana masyarakat kerap berpikir dan bertindak berdasarkan batas-batas rasial yang juga direfleksikan dalam misi killmonger sebagai seorang berkebangsaan afrika-amerika. kata kunci: karakterisasi, machiavellianism, black nationalism, tridimensional aspects, erik killmonger introduction according to encyclopedia britannica (2010), literature is a body of written works that includes aesthetic execution. it is classified into a variety of systems, including language, genre, and national origin. the limitation of literature is categorized into two forms; fiction and non-fiction. over the years, it is unfortunate to sometimes witness the author‟s lack of complexity to each character in his or her fictional literary work. for instance, gertrude from agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza3 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hamlet (1609) was expressed as a flat character whose views did not change until the end of the story. she remained passive and did not take any actions until she willingly became the victim. authors in the past often over exploit the use of flat character or a simple character who only has one trait. in contrast, tyrion lannister from the tv series game of thrones (2011) showed his development as a round character. he was once a drunken and playful prince who often got mocked because of his small stature. by the end of the series, tyrion had transformed himself with wisdom and maturity. he proved himself worthy as an intelligent man and a responsible advisor of queen daenerys targaryen. the contrast between gertrude and tyrion‟s characterizations draws a silver lining of what makes a character interesting and unique according to his or her dimensions. therefore, the article supports klarer (1998) who claims that the use of three dimensions in a character which consists of physiological, sociological, and psychological qualities helped authors improve a story to have a deeper structure so that a developed analysis in one‟s character could be achieved. farner (2014) stated round characters found in antagonists, secondary characters and villains have complex personality features and are less predictable (p. 171). consequently, the article observed and proved farner‟s statements to be true. villains have quite a reputation as „the bad guy'. at times, they are underrated, even despised. villains‟ portrayal today has transformed maturely into sympathetic ones. their motives may vary, but their main intentions usually revolve around utilitarianism. mulgan (2020, pp. 2-3) formulated that utilitarianism insists on the value of well-being. it promotes acts in any situation which brings maximum pleasure or happiness. the urgency to examine the use of three dimensions (physiological aspect, sociological aspect, and psychological aspect) in a secondary character who was also a villain was counted as the main reason for conducting this article. the presence of erik killmonger as a villain in the black panther movie was unique because he displayed machiavellianism. aïn et al., (2013) explain machiavellianism as a personality trait characterized by specific patterns of social cognition skills and manipulation (p. 1). people with machiavellian characteristics believe they are suited with power by gaining prevalence in any conceivable way. therefore, the study covers killmonger‟s motives of being a machiavellian by tracing back on history (civil rights movement) as a quintessential bedrock of analyzing killmonger‟s being because his life goals are as well reflected by the famous civil rights activist, malcolm x. the activist was dealing with a life-threatening mission on black nationalism and 4 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj black revolution during the racial segregation era in the united states. according to marable (2011), malcolm x believed that black people constituted a „nation within a nation‟. this promotes the enactment of black nationalism which emphasized racial solidarity to obtain freedom in the black community. his mission was later proceeded by the black panther political party which fought off police brutalism and racial injustice. the study‟s goal was to answer three major problems such as killmonger‟s machiavellian character strengthened by killmonger‟s tridimensional aspects, the influence of history in killmonger‟s portrayal. based on the background above, the study attempts to answer the following three research questions: 1. what are the three dimensions of erik killmonger‟s character applied in the movie? 2. how did history influence the portrayal of erik killmonger? 3. how is erik killmonger's machiavellian character expressed in the movie? literature review a. black nationalism black nationalism describes social thoughts, attitudes, and actions formed in racial solidarity to the comprehensive and sophisticated ideologies of pan-negroism and pan-africanism (young & levy, 1970, p. 27). panafricanism promotes the life values of the african civilizations and the struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, and neo-colonialism (falola et al., 2013, p. 71). meanwhile, pan-negroism desires political unification of the „black belt' us south with africa to form a black super-state, and expansion. b. machiavellianism christie & geis re-introduced machiavelli‟s (1985) view on machiavellianism by developing a test for measuring a person's level of machiavellianism called the mach – iv test. the test resulted in the interpersonal strategies and behavior of „high machs‟ and „low machs‟. high machiavellian seeks power by manipulating others with a lack of empathy and distrust in others. on the contrary, low machiavellian seeks power with high emotional intelligence and a high percentage of trust in others. high machiavellian is categorized as follows: agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza5 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1. high machiavellians are characterized by interpersonal manipulation, such as the use of flattery, deceit, cynical, and amoral viewpoints to promote their goals. 2. high machiavellians are oriented toward conditions, as they may change their attitude, approach, and behavior under different circumstances. 3. high machiavellians tend to initiate and control the structure of a relationship (reflecting their goal-directed power orientation). method the primary data source of this study was taken from the black panther movie. the study applied collecting and observing methods based on yin's book (2011) qualitative research from start to finish in collecting the data. collecting data refers to compiling or accumulating objects for the study such as printed materials, graphics, archival records, and physical artifacts. this study first collected the data of the black panther movie (https://privateproxy.vet) and black panther movie script (https://www.scripts.com) from the internet. nonetheless, all the data needed preliminary collecting and note-taking techniques to limit the study‟s field in analyzing the major problems which revolved around killmonger‟s characterizations of the physical aspect, sociological aspect, and psychological aspect expressed in a machiavellian character. preliminary collecting functions to eliminate unimportant data in the data source such as the presence of other characters in the movie, because this study only puts its focus on killmonger‟s characterizations. note-taking serves as an important technique in this step because notetaking avoids retrieving the same material in the data source as well as in the literature review. these techniques helped giving boundaries to the objects of this study. observing method was chosen because it best represented the ways of collecting data without others‟ interference or reports which could filter the perception upon the problems and form a premature bias. black panther movie as the study's primary data source was observed deeply; by watching, rewatching, and highlighting erik killmonger‟s tendency of being a high machiavellian through his speeches (diction, slang, confrontational statements) and his whole presence (physical appearance, choice of wardrobe) to answer the study‟s problems reading books and articles related to black https://privateproxy.vet/ https://www.scripts.com/ 6 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj nationalism and highlighting several big moments, and comparing to killmonger's vision of black nationalism was necessary to find similarities and differences between killmonger and the actual situation. the last step was relating the findings to the historical figure malcolm x and his development in the black panther political party by reading his autobiography, speeches, and related articles. by doing this, the study was reliable enough because it contributed depth to the issue. interpreting and concluding were chosen as the best phases of analyzing the data due to the problems of this study. as the study enhances the characterization of a character, one needs to interpret and represent the character‟s features, sayings, and goals and conclude in order to create a credible analysis. interpreting is a way of giving meaning to the assembled data in a study. however, one must have a strong reason and proof to interpret a problem and conclude a solution. there are modes that can be used in the interpreting phase, description and explanation. for instance, the study initially described one of killmonger‟s physiological dimensions as to be a brown-skinned african american male. the study precisely described what a brown-skinned person is and what an african american person looked like. with a proof of selected conversation in the black panther movie, the study explained the relation between a brown-skinned african american in general and killmonger‟s presence in a descriptive manner. the explanation phase mainly concerns how or why events came about. the concluding phase connects a study‟s interpretation of its data. the conclusion involves the significance and the implication in one‟s study. by the end of the analysis, the study served a conclusion consisting of major points of each discussion and findings in a descriptive manner. the study also probed the topic with various thesis readings and interpreted the results with the character‟s state. this would help understand a character‟s being, his ways to represent himself, and his multifaceted approach to dominate triggered by an unfortunate social, historical, and cultural background. results and discussions the following is the analysis of killmonger‟s tridimensional character aspects (physiological, sociological, and psychological) as an african-american agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza7 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj male who had to go through racism his entire life, is proven by the history of africans and slavery along with its impacts on his tendency to be a machiavellian. a. tridimensional aspects egri (1960, p. 48) defined that every human being has three dimensions, which are physiological, sociological, and psychological aspects. it is believed that without these aspects, a story would not be a literary success because it consists of another „familiar‟ and boring characters as they do not explore many dimensions in their presence. 1. brown-skinned american black male (physiological dimension) . this section mainly discussed about killmonger‟s heredity and sex as an american black male. it was found that his identity as an american black who lived under suppression had designed his ways of thinking. killmonger‟s personality is considered to be unique because he is created to be the only character in the movie whose parents were two different races, unlike the other characters who are pure africans. this fact makes his personality to be different considering he is in a society that differentiates everybody based on his or her race. [data 1] “your uncle fell in love with an american woman. they had a child.” (coogler, & cole, 2016, p. 71) [data 2] “you're erik stevens. an american black operative. a mercenary nicknamed killmonger.” (coogler, & cole, 2016, p. 79) figure 1: killmonger’s cousin meeting a shaman 8 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj data 1 showed the conversation between killmonger‟s cousin and a shaman, revealing killmonger‟s wakandan father who had a child with an american woman which inferred to be white skin. killmonger was born from interracial parents; a black african father named n‟jobu and a white american mother whose name was not mentioned in the movie, therefore, killmonger is defined as colored. there were some scenes in the movie that showed slight differences between killmonger‟s lighter skin (left) and other wakandans such as, t‟challa and w‟kabi (right) whose skins were darker. this, however, had further meanings other than just a topic about shades. people‟s perspectives on how skin color influences a person‟s identity and his or her status in society create intolerance that leads to racism. issues of race and racism were imperative in regards to this issue. a great philosopher of the 18th century, immanuel kant once proclaimed black was stupid because of his dark skin (1754). he also mentioned how negroes in general and all species of men are naturally inferior to the whites (1754). these statements that influenced a lot of people gave proof about how whites already perceived blacks to be the „lesser race‟ for generations. the statement above indicated how a mixed-race person is seen in society, hence, killmonger was never to be put in one category: a white man or black man. identity crisis might encounter killmonger and other african americans as they couldn‟t be described as too white (american) or too black (african). they got called lesser race by american and an oppressor or american by african, proven by data 2 when shuri, killmonger‟s cousin described him as an american black government agent but not african american. however, shuri‟s term justifies killmonger‟s identity. shuri defined killmonger as a man who was born and raised in america and happened to have biracial parents (african and american). moreover, according to ajiboye (2015, p. 70), african american is a person whose descendants were separated from africa in the 16th century and brought to america to become slaves. shuri emphasized the word american black to say killmonger is a foreigner because he was not born in wakanda, and, as the princess of wakanda, shuri represented wakanda‟s views on how they see killmonger as nothing but an outsider. had it not been different for americans, killmonger lived his life as an outlander because of his dark skin. agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza9 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. african american in oakland (sociological dimension) coogler as the director of black panther intentionally put a strong sociological background in killmonger‟s character. killmonger was situated to be born and raised in oakland, california where the black panther political party was first originally founded. the party‟s mission had inspired so many people and it became the basis of the black lives matter international movement in 2013 which founded by alicia garza and opal tometi. it protested against racial profiling for black people, police brutality, and racial inequality in the united states criminal justice system (friedersdorf, 2017). in a survey held by harvard t.h. school of public health in 2017, as much as 71% african-americans felt fewer employment opportunities because of their race, 61% felt they were paid less than whites, and 64% agreed that their children did not have the same chances as white children to get a good quality of education. they were in an unfortunate condition in which discrimination was still ongoing, and this only led to bigger problems such as drugs, alcohol, and prostitution which is involved greatly in their lifestyle up until now. selling drugs was a quick choice to provide their needs because jobs were limited and it did not need a lot of educational skills which they lacked. harvard's survey in 2017 illustrated that african-americans who live in majority-black neighborhoods are facing a higher percentage of discrimination. moreover, they implemented negative values toward their community in contrast to african-americans who live in non-majority black areas (harvard, 2017). this result was proven in the data below where n‟jobu, killmonger‟s father grew to become a radicalized black who wanted to better oakland, majority-black neighborhood, “the hardships he saw there radicalized your uncle”. [data 3] scene: prince n’jobu meets king t’chaka king t‟chaka visited n'jobu in his apartment in oakland to question his motives for why he betrayed wakanda by smuggling vibraniums in order to weaponize and fight the oppressors. even though his job was initially to be a spy in a war dog assignment which tasked in collecting information across the globe to ensure the safety of the kingdom (01:05:22 – 01:06:15). zuri : your uncle took a war dog assignment in america. your father placed me there to observe unbeknownst to him. 10 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj your uncle fell in love with an american woman. they had a child. the hardships he saw there radicalized your uncle. n‟jobu: i observed for as long as i could. their leaders have been assassinated. communities flooded with drugs and weapons. they are overly policed and incarcerated. all over the planet our people suffer because they don’t have the tools to fight back. with vibranium weapons, they could overthrow every country and wakanda could rule them all the right way. (coogler, & cole, 2016, p. 71) the horrible living surroundings proved by data 3 “the hardships he saw there radicalized your uncle” made n‟jobu felt responsible to help those in need because he came from wakanda, a wealthy nation that never experienced racism. he was attached to his new assigned place, oakland where everything is never good for black people. “all over the planet our people suffer because they don‟t have the tools to fight back. with vibranium weapons, they could overthrow every country and wakanda could rule them all the right way”. he was conditioned as a central intelligence to live like them; in a mediocre apartment in the ghetto area over the years and did nothing but to observe. eventually, he teamed up with zuri, who was at the time faking his identity as james. n‟jobu sabotaged his mission and smuggled vibranium to work on his new task; liberate all black people and make wakanda hold the absolute power to conquer racism. 3. ambitious (psychological dimension) an ambitious person is driven by ambition, by means he/ she has a desire to be successful, powerful, or famous. this category was indeed seen as one of killmonger‟s strong presentation to hold power and to be king of wakanda. his upbringing was shown in the following scene: [data 4] scene: ross reveals killmonger’s identity okoye, a wakandan general, informed shuri and t‟challa that an outsider had entered wakanda‟s border. everett ross, a cia agent was there to reveal killmonger‟s identity (1:12:45 – 1:13:09). ross : erik stevens. graduated annapolis age 19. mit for grad school. joined the seals and went straight to afghanistan where he wrapped up confirmed kills like it was a video game. started calling him killmonger. he joined a jsoc agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza11 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ghost unit. now, these guys are serious. they will drop off the grid...so they can commit assassinations and take down governments. t‟challa: did he reveal anything about his identity? (coogler, & cole, 2016, p. 76) it was found in data 4 that killmonger went by the name of erik stevens, an american name, as to deceive people with his identity as a wakandan. he seemed to do well with his educational background as he was an alumnus of mit. it can be inferred from his background that he was most likely ambitious in his ways to achieve success. according to barsukova (2016a, pp. 79-80), psychological characteristics of one‟s ambition are identified into seven units, i.e. “goals, achievement motivation, self-attitude, attitude to other people, attitude to professional activity, self-regulation, and cognitive characteristics”. killmonger's goals in the scene above told everyone clearly that he was not somebody who should be taken for granted. most of the people would recognize him smart because he graduated from the massachusetts institute of technology, an ivy league university which excelled academically, high selectivity in admissions, and social elitism. he also went to annapolis military academy and graduated at 19 years old. it appeared that killmonger did not choose mediocrity when it came to education and career choice, he made sure that he was always on „top‟. he was always so consistent; knowing that he became a leader of the jsoc ghost unit which allowed him to practice his meticulous tactics and assassinating people. according to barsukova (2016b, pp. 80), willingness to sacrifice things in order to fulfill one‟s ambition fits in the attitude to the professional activity category. killmonger‟s ambitions drove him to educate himself in one of the finest university in the world, dedicate himself in the navy seal, live solitarily so that he would not feel any emotional attachments with anyone, and finally leave his american identity and life so that he could move to wakanda and claim his birthright to be king of wakanda. b. influence of black history british voracious needs were notoriously responsible as the roots of black history. it all began in august 1619, as one of its colonies, namely the united states of america, was chosen to be the home of the enslaved africans brought by the plenty amounts of ships. this was called the atlantic slave 12 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj trade. enslaved africans were forced to do what americans most valued at that time: agriculture. centuries went on, america‟s worth was perceived highly, and the practice of slavery became common until they grew alongside their oppressors as african americans. in addition to calling „enslaved africans‟, the term african-americans was also known as another way to call rapist descendants whereas all the fathers must have once been the masters of women slaves. slavery was seen grotesque; in a way that the africans held a strong belief they were also a part of the nation so that they had to work and bleed for them, even though resentful neglect had always been shown in the minds and acts of the opposite side, the white men. the strength of us political domination was mainly caused by its economic relationship, exploiting the people and natural resources of the third world so that its industrial development grew large and the power of controlling international markets was in their hands. the practice of slavery went on until a massive group of people wanted to make a change and seek freedom. the 1950s and 1960s were popularly known as the period of the rise of the civil rights movement era. malcolm x (1965, p. 175) stated the loyalty of black slaves were not seen and appreciated by white men as their oppressors. he specifically pictured the horror of bombing, fire hoses, and other crimes as the feedback from whites for blacks‟ loyalty. asia, africa, and other third world countries were considered as non-white. the dissatisfied african americans towards america‟s imperialist government, mainly the racial segregation system which forced the whites and blacks to be separated in all activities, such as eating in restaurants, attending schools, using public restrooms had made them nothing but more eager for such change. malcolm x, as one of the leading figures of the civil rights movement, condemned the status quo as modern-day slavery, in which blacks were not equipped with proper education, limitation to knowledge sources, a proper living situation that made them used to live off the wealthy ones as means of robbery, drug abuse, and prostitution. malcolm x (1964) said that there was no place for black people to live properly as long as whites took the power in economy and politics. social degradation depends on whites. erik killmonger had a different approach to what malcolm x was thriving to do in respect of achieving black nationalism by the black revolution. he once made a distinction between the negro revolution and the black revolution in his speech entitled „message to the grass roots'. martin luther king jr., an american christian minister, made his way to help break down the segregation law in 1955 by enhancing the negro revolution agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza13 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj which he ignited the spirit of christianity by advancing civil rights through nonviolent protests. in an interview by alex haley in (1965), martin luther king jr. stated what a negro revolution was. the negro revolution seeks for integration and not independence. meanwhile, the black revolution demands freedom, justice, and equality to fight off oppressors and reconcile themselves to live in a community. erik killmonger wished to fulfill malcolm x‟s failure in militant approach by not just separation, but world domination as wakanda was told to be the strongest country possessing the greatest natural resources (vibranium) on the african continent and earth. initially, revolutionary black nationalism wishes to overthrow existing (imperialist) political & economic institutions as a prerequisite for the liberation of black americans and did not exclude the use of violence (young & levy, 1970, p. xxvviii). however, black nationalism according to malcolm x had three different philosophies. the political, economic, and social philosophy meant that blacks should control every part mentioned in their community. with that being said, he desired to create an independent society and fight off capitalism with a militant approach; that was to take an extreme and violent approach to cease the current corrupting government system. black revolution was said by malcolm x (1965) to be based on a revolutionary black nationalism. the thought developed into erik killmonger‟s primary psychological stance of why he should be king. he had an urging initiative to exploit vibranium, wakanda‟s most valuable resource to fight nowadays‟ oppressors in america. it had already taken him and all oppressed africans for so long to get even. therefore, he made the first command on his first day as the king of wakanda to arm the oppressed with all powers to achieve the modern black revolution. it can be observed from his speech below: [data 5] scene: killmonger throne erik killmonger leads the first meeting as king with elders and generals (01:29:55 – 01:30:43). killmonger: you know where i‟m from…when black folks started revolutions, they never had the firepower…or the resources to fight their oppressors. yeah, all that ends today. we got spies embedded in every nation on earth. already in place. we're gonna send vibranium weapons out to our war dogs. they‟ll arm oppressed people all over the world. it's time they know the truth about us! we're warriors! the world's gonna start over, and this time, we're on top. (coogler, & cole, 2016, p. 92) 14 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj killmonger‟s machiavellian character took up malcolm x‟s militant leadership, proven by data above “we‟re gonna send vibranium weapons out to our war dogs. they‟ll arm oppressed people all over the world”. killmonger did well as a leader who managed war dogs, wakandan‟s central intelligence agent all over the world. his mission to arm people made him a militant whose mission to use force in solving problems. those sentences above were inspired by the activist‟s famous saying, „by any means necessary‟. differ from what malcolm x desired out of black nationalism; separatism put its focus on pride, justice, and equality, killmonger had a much more thrilling initiative on diminishing the current oppressors and twisted their positions into the oppressed ones. he sought his opportunity as a legitimate candidate for a king to justify his well-thought plans. c. killmonger’s machiavellianism the analysis below showed how big the influence of malcolm x‟s „by any means necessary‟ manners adopted in the characterizations of erik killmonger. as a high machiavellian, killmonger was known to be an exsoldier who was brave enough to be despised by his own country just to show his ideology of a greater good. n‟jadaka (killmonger‟s real name) was raised differently among other wakandans as an african american in a multicultural society in which had different perceptions towards certain races. thus, grew his motivations to enunciate his ideas in complex qualities as a high machiavellian, cold emotionality, lack of empathy, and manipulation 1. cold emotionality cold emotionality or cold cognition can be defined as the ability of cognitive processing of information that is independent of emotional involvement (roiser, 2013, p. 139). people with cold emotionality prioritize logic over emotional matter. as a person of cold emotionality, killmonger managed to achieve his ultimate goal in any logical way possible and not caring about the good or bad outcome in which he had to take responsible of. killmonger motives might be proven by his wanting to develop and strengthen his mentality during the years of his service in the u.s navy seal (the united states of navy sea, air, and land) from such a young age. he became a leader of the joint special operation command ghost unit as a mercenary who led assassinations and took down governments. his intelligence and genius tactics made him a skilled operative and an expert martial artist. as if he had set frameworks to build his character based on his educational and professional journey, killmonger tirelessly heading to his final goal; bring agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza15 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj justice to every african who had been oppressed. hence, his tendency to eliminate those who in vain had been his way to survive which simultaneously detached himself from fundamental emotions which common people should have. this is where cold emotionality took over. [data 6] scene: killmonger vs. t’challa after showing up unnoticed, killmonger challenged t‟challa in a battle to fight his rights as a king of wakanda. witnessed by all four wakandan tribes, killmonger was to show his persistence to overthrow his cousin‟s throne and life (01:18:01 – 01:18:48). t‟challa : this is your last chance. throw down your weapons, and we can handle this another way. killmonger: i lived my entire life waitin' for this moment. i trained, i lied, i killed...just to get here. i killed in america, afghanistan...iraq. i took life from my own brothers and sisters right here on this continent. and all this death... just so i could kill you. (coogler, & cole, 2016, pp. 81-82) figure 2: t’challa and killmonger’s fight killmonger‟s statement above made clear of his likeliness to kill people like it was a „video game‟. the scene was visually important as an effort of killmonger to pragmatically warn his cousin‟s comfortable royal rights had 16 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj nothing if compared to the „hard life‟ he had to put up with. he held no doubts about killing his own families if that was what he had to do to reach greatness because killmonger thought he deserved the throne. the scene was visualized by acts of removing his shirt, uncovered his body full dappled with patterned scarification; an african body art tradition represented strength, courage, and bravery. meanwhile, in killmonger's case, each scar represented each killing. people started naming him killmonger instead of his legal name, erik stevens because of his thirst for killing is represented in his body. in killmonger vs t‟challa scene, killmonger emphasized his intonation in words, such as, “i trained”, “i lied”, “i killed”, “i killed in america, afghanistan, iraq” (coogler, & cole, 2016, pp. 81-82), as his sacrifice to get to wakanda; he did unforgiven things just to create a greater good for all people. he did all those logical things because he wanted to be recognized as strong. 2. lack of empathy a high machiavellian is most likely to be lacking emotional intelligence as well as empathy as one of the elements. it is proven by killmonger in the following scene where killmonger is expected to be sad losing his father but did otherwise. [data 7] scene: ancestral plane n‟jadaka and had a conversation with his father‟s spirit in the ancestral plane (01:27:18 – 01:27:48). n‟jobu : they will say you are lost n‟jadaka : but i‟m right here. n‟jobu : no tears for me? n‟jadaka : everybody dies. it's just life around here. n‟jobu : well, look at what i have done. [camera shoots killmonger dressed up as n‟jadaka crying and wiping his tears] i should‟ve taken you back long ago. (coogler, & cole, 2016, pp. 89--90) empathy is divided into two parts: cognitive and affective. cognitive empathy is defined as the capacity to recognize and understand another person‟s mental state (smith, 2010). based on the data above, it was best to analyze killmonger's affective empathy; the ability to feel and share another agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza17 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj person‟s emotions. empathy involves the ability to match other emotions, while others believe that empathy involves being tenderhearted toward another person (lopez, et al., 2011, p. 267). a research conducted by (heym et al., 2019) showed that dark triad traits (narcissism, psychopathy, and machiavellianism) shared at least one affective empathy deficit reflected in selfishness and tough mindedness. killmonger's lack of empathy was shown in the sentence of data 7, “everybody dies. it‟s just life around here” (coogler, & cole, 2016, pp. 89-90), when his father was expecting love from his son expressed in tears of grief. n‟jobu‟s regrets made killmonger show his emotions of guilt and a slight recognition of what he had become. the word „lost‟ might represent how far the damage killmonger had done to himself, unconsciously. n‟jobu might have planted so many lessons of becoming a tough person into his son without realizing the tables would be turned on him. in this state, killmonger had failed to feel his father‟s emotional level in which he was hoping for some kind of sorrow over his death. he had been detached so much from empathy and the ability to care for others as he slowly had gained power solemnly to better current society. he could not waste his time for the emotional state of consciousness that eventually resulted in tough mindedness, unsentimental in temper or outlook. consequently, killmonger as a high machiavellian was often connected with alexithymia; personality characterized by the inability to identify and describe emotions experienced by oneself or others. killmonger might think that his father‟s death was just another case of black nationalism which had gone bad. any african americans who fought for their independence were more likely to die in violence. therefore, killmonger grew to show fewer emotions and keep moving forward. he learned to keep the secure path in his mind to not be emotionally attached to others because empathy increases the potential vulnerability of either party. therefore, „live in them‟ was not the choice for him to pursue. he ignored his sense of emotional attachments so that his enemies could not sense his fear or vulnerability as a tool to threaten him. 3. manipulative killmonger‟s quality as a high machiavellian is seen by his ability to manipulate others and keep control of the people for his own good. machiavellianism and manipulative behavior are social constructs in any of social and philosophical manifestations (ibragimov et al., 2018a, p. 404). in current developing political and economic states, one of the communicating 18 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj problems involves machiavellian adults who tend to manipulate others in which they also employ tactics accompanied by a sense of rivalry and manipulation (ibragimov et al., 2018a, p. 405). at times, killmonger is inclined to influence others so that they would have a different perception of him through indirect tactics. intending to close any opportunities for some strangers to follow his steps in terms of working with klaue, an international criminal and underground black-market arms dealer, killmonger involved himself in a relationship to seek a partner whom he can trust; linda, as his criminal associate and lover. they teamed up as criminals and got involved in klaue‟s routine of smuggling valuable antiques. according to brewer et al., (2015), machiavellian men and women do however enter long-term relationships, and these provide valuable opportunities for manipulation and exploitation of the partner. even the movie did not give a complete look of how deep their relationship was, it can be seen that linda was emotionally manipulated by his lover, proven by the following data: [data 8] scene: killmonger kills linda by the time killmonger shot the pilot because of his betrayal towards klaue, the criminal grabbed linda as a hostage, killmonger did not make the shot to kill him (01:02:23 – 01:02:43). killmonger : oh, i ain‟t worried about the money, bro. i know you good at it. on our way back, just drop us off in wakanda. klaue : you don‟t want to go there, boy. killmonger: yeah, i do [shows gun]. klaue : drop it! or your little bonnie and clyde routine ends today. put your gun down now! linda : i’m sorry [panting]. i’m sorry, erik. it’s gonna be okay. killmonger : [shoots linda] (coogler, & cole, 2016, pp. 68) agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza19 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from the scene above, we could observe how linda manifested her love and devotion to erik‟s side. by saying “i‟m sorry, it‟s gonna be okay”, linda gave killmonger her approval of killing her because klaue took her hostage. on the other hand, killmonger did not think twice to get rid of her, another obstacle to get into his way to wakanda. in relation to an international article entitled proposing a multidimensional machiavellianism conceptualization by rauthmann and will (2011), high machiavellians tend to “manage” their appearance and demeanor in social situations; emphasize and/or exaggerate positive aspects. in the process of their relationship, killmonger made some efforts for himself to create an ideal image of a lover according to linda in which they would do anything as long as they are together. high machiavellians also tend to initiate and control a relationship (christie & geis, 1970). this explained killmonger‟s dominating side on taking control of his romantic relationship with linda, reflected in the way he had become the leading „actor‟ in their criminal acts, such as smuggling wakanda‟s natural resources and killing people; linda was always the one who supported him. the following scene showed killmonger‟s ability to manipulate the nation‟s guard, w‟kabi, as a way to prove himself worthy to enter wakanda. it was important to bear in mind that wakanda was not a country that everyone could easily enter. wakandans created the usual third-world country façade with its high-tech systems at the country‟s border so that any foreigners could not see the extravagant urban life inside. that being said, with its tight security system, killmonger had to present himself legitimately for the guards to let him in. [data 9] scene: killmonger enters wakanda killmonger entered wakanda‟s border bringing a body bag of ulysses klaue. he was asked by w‟kabi, leader of the border tribe (01:08:04 – 01:08:07). w‟kabi : what is this? killmonger : just a little gift. (coogler, & cole, 2016, pp. 73) it appeared that killmonger designed and ran his plans meticulously; from working alongside ulysses klaue, involving himself in a relationship with a functional sidekick, until murdering them cold-bloodedly. this kept killmonger gaining his power and maintaining it so that his idea of the perfect 20 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj monarchy and black domination would be realized the same way lucius junius brutus killed his children to save rome in 6th century bc. the data above might also be inferred as a way to seek support from w‟kabi whose parents were bombed by klaue. his prolonged hatred had been causing him hunting for klaue‟s head for three decades. therefore, killmonger wanted to seek for w‟kabi‟s support by killing klaue, proven by the sentence of “just a little gift”. w‟kabi‟s personal matters were taken as advantages by the villain; as killmonger walked his first steps in wakanda, he might have just obtained his presence as a recognition of a hero instead of a criminal. killmonger manipulated w‟kabi into thinking he was the real hero to kill a criminal like klaue but in reality, he intentionally killed klaue, the man he was working just to create the „hero-like‟ image. machiavelli (1985, p. 40) supported ways in creating alliances with people and seek for supports so that a machiavellian could be protected at all costs. killmonger was smart enough to use his tactics on w‟kabi, wakanda‟s royal advisor for the sake of protection because he knew he, as an outsider, as his father mentioned before, would not be welcomed in his own country. surely, w‟kabi, as wakanda‟s general, became the first person to defend killmonger after he claimed his throne, as king of wakanda. killmonger‟s attempt to free wakanda from isolation was successfully supported proven by the following scene: [data 10] scene: throne killmonger led the first meeting as king after defeating t‟challa. he persuaded elders and generals to be supportive of his black revolution mission (01:30:50 – 01:31:16). okoye : wakanda has survived for so long…by fighting when only absolutely necessary. w‟kabi: wakanda survived in the past this way, yes. but the world is changing, general. elders, it is getting smaller. the outside world is catching up… and soon it will be the conquerors or the conquered. i’d rather be the former. (coogler, & cole, 2016, p. 92 the data above was proof that killmonger‟s attempt to manipulate w‟kabi had succeeded. he let w‟kabi defended him on purpose so it did not seem that killmonger pushed his way onto the revolution. w‟kabi became the agatha, a.t., malini, n.l.n.s, & aryani, i.g.a.i, black panther: a characteriza21 tion study of erik killmonger‟s machiavellianism https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj second person in wakanda who fully saw killmonger‟s plan as necessary access to gain independence among blacks, proven by his sentence, “the outside world is catching up…and soon it will be the conquerors or the conquered. i‟d rather be the former” (coogler, & cole, 2016, p. 92). conclusion this article showed the complex behaviors known as machiavellianism of a secondary character named erik killmonger in the black panther movie. the study discussed a complete outlook of his character in three dimensions; namely physiological, sociological, and psychological. the study resulted in the elaborated analysis of three great parts. firstly, killmonger‟s appearance as an african-american male was supported by his sociological surroundings in oakland, the united states which one of the worst states in the united states experiencing racial segregationism. furthermore, his psychological dimensions were known to be ambitious and militant nationalist who wished to end racism. secondly, black history explained killmonger‟s behavior as an angry african-american who was not happy with his living conditions and came to a conclusion for actualizing malcolm x‟s mission on black nationalism; a call for blacks into a solidarity that excessively seeks freedom, equality, and justice, in order to prosper independently in politics and economics. this part of the analysis was supported by malcolm x‟s speech as it resembled killmonger‟s mission. lastly, killmonger‟s high machiavellian most-seen qualities in cold emotionality, lack of empathy, and manipulative efforts. the results of his tridimensional elements and influence of black nationalism were validated in his high machiavellian qualities. he was portrayed to not hesitate to eliminate and make a fool of anything or anyone who got into his way because he was the only person in the movie who could think of the liberty of black people by implementing the black revolution. materials of the study might help readers to appreciate intricate efforts a writer should go through in creating a character, regardless of its status, primary or secondary character. in the course of the study, innovative questions and incoming problems need to be solved. it is necessary to continue the study on the character development understanding and its connections to the current situation in the united states in which people continuously seek for equality, not just by race but also social class and economic status. 22 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 1 – 23 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj acknowledgment we would like to thank and appreciate our lecturers and colleagues at the english department, faculty of humanities, udayana university. we should also express our appreciation to ms karin jones ostr i.r who contributed to expand our perpective on literature during her period as a guest lecture at the english department, faculty of arts, udayana university. references aïn et al. 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(2013). hot and cold cognition in depression. cns spectrums, 18(3), 139–149. smith. a. (2010). cognitive empathy and emotional empathy in human behavior and evolution. the psychological record, 56(1), 3–21. yin. r. k. (2011). qualitative research from start to finish. new york: the guilford press. young. a. f., & levy, l. w. (1970). black nationalism in america. new york: the bobbs-merrill company, inc. learning strategies towards reading skills development fazri nur yulur ridha atka amanda2 abstract: identified as the core skill in academic setting. the importance of reading skill is deniable. this study investigated reading strategies employed by 8th graders of a public school in bandung. it aimed at identifying the most frequent-used reading strategies and di;scoverlng their similarities and differences between higher and lower achievers. this study employed questionnairea and interviews to collect data. the findings of this study suggested that cognitive strategies are the most frequently-used strategies. both higher and lower achievers were identified using nine high-frequency strategies. the differences were in identifying appropriateness and willingness to use the strategies. and students' intereat in reading materials. as a conclusion. higher and lower achievers might have different reading strategies due to time allotment. readingfrequency, and strategic investment. therefore. highlighting reading strategies is vital. and having a more comprehensive. integrated classroombased reading study is strongly required. key words: language learning.languoge learning strategies. reading comprehension. reading strategies. fazri nur yusuf. <fazrinuryusuf@yaboo.com> or <fazrinuryusuf@upi.edu> at +628122185303 is currently a faculty member of the depamnent of english education, faculty of languages and arts education, universitas pendidikan indonesia (up!), bandung. he took his bachelor and masters degree at the same place, upi. his research interests are efl methodology for youngsters and adults, curriculum and pedagogy, and esp. 1 ridha aska amanda, <ridha_amanda@yahoo.com> at +6281573197495/ +625901209 is a bachelor graduate from the depamnent of english education, faculty of languages and arts education, universitas pendidikan indonesia (upi), bandung. she is currently an english instructor at a reputable english course in jakarta. en. yusuf lind r.a. amiindti, learning strategies towards reading skills 121 channel their energy in the right direction (oxford 1990: 158). brown claims that having a clear purpose may help readers to focus more on their attention and their expectation on the reading, and it may decrease potential misleading information (200 1: 306). in this study, we found that lower achievers did not try to find the meaning of unknown words. they just skipped the words. they also had negative attitude towards a text they read. they said they believe that even though they read the texts more than once, they will never be able to fully comprehend them. lower achievers often stop reading the texts when they had no interest in them they will continue reading when they read the texts they like. this supports what carrell (1998) states: learners who are not interested in the texts they are reading and are unwilling to use reading strategies might not be able to improve their reading skills. conclusion when reading english texts students use numerous strategies to help them comprehend what texts are about. each student employs different reading strategies. there is a possibility that higher and lower achievers use similar strategies. high and low achievers have different time allotment in reading, reading frequency, and strategy investment. the failure of employing the reading strategies might be due to the appropriate use of a certain type of reading strategy, the willingness to use the strategies, and the students' interest in reading materials. our study found that learning tasks might affect students reading strategies in order to meet students' expectations. also, implementing the strategies would be meaningless when students are not interested in the reading materials. references aeny, medina. "students' reading strategies and their achievement in reading comprehension (correlational study toward vocational school students)." unpublished paper, 2007. alderson, j.e. and a. h. urquhart. reading in a foreign language. new york: longman, 1984. 122 celt, volume 8, number 2, december 2008: 109-123 baker, wtlliam, and kamonpan boonkit learning strategies in reading and writing: hap contexts. in regional language centre joumaj, vol.3s, no.3, 2004: 299-328. barr, rebecca. et al. handbook of reading research volume h. new york: longman, 1991. boudah, daniel j. and kevin j. o'neill. learning sttgtegies. in http://eric.mgldigests/e577.html, 1999. brown. h. douglas. teaching by principles an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: longman,2001. carrell, patricia l. can reading strategies be successfolly taught? in http://www.jalt-publications.orgltltlfiles/98/mar/carreu.html, 1998. retrieved inaugust 2008. chen, yueh-miao. ''the learning strategies of taiwanese university students: english majors versus non-english major and males versus females". in indonesianjelt, vol. 1,2005:203-219. gunawan, fitrah. students' perceptions regarding the teaching of reading in the second year at madrasah aliyah negeri 3 in palembang. unpublished paper, 2000. . ismini. the effectiveness of reading strategy training in developing students' readingability. unpublished paper, 2003. lenz, keith. an introduction to reading comprehension. available at http://www.specialconnections.ku.edulcgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/ main.php?cat=instruction&section---rc/main, 2007. retrieved in june 2009. lessard-oouston, michael. language learning strategies: an overview to l2 teachers. available at http://iteslj.orglarticles/lessardclouston .html, 1997. o'malley m. j. and anna uhl chamot. learning strategies in second language acquisition. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1990. oxford, rebecca l. language learning strategies: an update. available at http://www.cal.org/resourcesldigestloxford01.html, 1994. retrieved in september 2008. __ . language learning strategies: what every teacher should know. new york: newbury house, 1990. pusat kurikulum. kurikulumbahasalnggris sma 2006. jakarta: depdiknas, 2006. f.n. yusu/llnd r.a. amllnda. learning strategies towards reading skills 123 sukarlan. strategies used by high achievers in comprehending expository text: a case study at sltps in indramayu. unpublished paper, 2003. syafrizal. the correlation between students' reading-related language learning strategies and their reading achievement. unpublished paper, 2000. weiner, harvey s. and charles bazerman. reading skills handbook. boston: houghton miftlin company, 1988. reading writing by womeni harry aveungl abstrgd: differences in gender may produce differences in the style of writing. it is my intension here to show that the style used by female in contrast to male writers results in a number of significant differences. some of them are caused by the writers' cultural background. being a teacher, i would like to share with others how the gender andfeminist theories can be applied to analyse writings by women. key words: women s writings. literature. translation i this paper was delivered in the 2nd international seminar on english language studies held by sanata dharma university. yogyakarta, indonesia with ateneo de manila university. philippines; held on 5-6 may 2003. ·1 request it to be published by celt journal so that many more can take advantage of the discussion offered. this paper owes much to my teaching in the course" applications of literary theory in efl contexts" on behalf of la trobe university at the vietnam national university, hanoi, in january 2003. i am grateful to both institutions for this opportunity. 2 harry avehng, phd.<h.aveling@latrobe.edu.au> is a regular contributor to celt journal. his home base is at the department of asian studies at la trobe university, melbourne, australia. and is also adjunct professor of southeast asian literature at ohio university and at the graduate studies of universitas indonesia. he has translated extensively from malay and indonesian literature. his recent book, the bilingual anthology secrets need words: indonesian poetry 1966-1998 (ohio university press, athens ohio, 2(01). has been short-listed for this year's new south wales premier's prize in translation. he holds the degrees of doctor of philosophy, in malay studies, from the national university of singapore, and doctor of creative arts, in writing, from the university of technology, sydney. 104 celt, volume 6. number 2, december 2006: 103 -121 introduction there are many reasons for including the study of literature as a part of the english syl1abus. literature in english' provides examples of the english language used in its "most effective, subtle and suggestive" forms (povey 1987:4). it can give important insights into social behaviour and attitudesof english-speaking and other societies. it can present our students with some of the major questions about life which confront all hwnan beings. although students are sometimes afraid that literature is "difficult", careful1y chosen literary texts can be used with both developing and highly proficient students. such texts can be used for their own intrinsic merit, and as a means of encouraging the four basic language skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. in this paper i would like to address some gender issues relating to femininity (and masculinity) which are connected with the teaching of literature. the questions i hope to set for our consideration are these: 1. are there significant differences between writing by women and writing by men? what are these differences? 2. if there are differences, how can we deal with them in our teaching? 3. are there cultural factors which will impede or assist our female students in responding to these differences? 4. are there cultural factors which will impede or assist our male students in responding to these differences? my concern with these questions is that of a teacher of literature, interested in gender and feminist literary theory, the majority of whose students are women. (i. am also a translator, and most of the best writers i have translated over the past five years have been women). i have to say in advance that i do not think that the paper will provide definitive answers to any of these questions. it is, nevertheless. important to raise them in this seminar setting, in the hope that other participants may have comments and insights based on their own experience which can help us together to reach better answers. my approach depends on european theoretical texts but it is , i use this term deliberately. it includes literature from great britain and the united kingdom. america, the former british colonies, and writing translated into english h. aveljng, reading by women 105 important that these questions should also be contextualised within a framework of southeast asian thought and daily practice. women and writing "a man's book is a book. a woman's book is a woman's book," christiane rochefort has noted (cited in marks and de courtivron 1980: 183). the tendency to classify writing by women as "women's writing", and to extend to it the same attitudes which society shows towards women, is a persistent fact in many cultures. it has the effect of marking this writing off as different from, and often inferior to, writing by men which is commonly considered normative. "[woman] is defined and differentiated with reference to man, .. simone de beauvoir has written, "and not he with reference to her; she is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. he is the subject, he is the absolute she is the other" (cited in sellers 1991 :5). this is part of a wider mode of perceiving and organising the world history, philosophy, government, laws, and religion which is specifically masculine (sellers 1991 :xiv). literature teachers can sometimes feel that most of the texts we teach are by male authors, about the effects of the actions of men on other men and women, and are somehow intended for male readers. throughout much of history, women have been restricted in their right to create written works of art and, commonly, to read or listen to them as well. mary eagleton (1986) lists a long catalogue of "reasons why this might be so": "inequalities in the educational system, lack of privacy, the burdens of child bearing and rearing, domestic obligations", and "equally decisive", she suggests, "were the constrictions of family and social expectations". as a consequence of these restrictions, even though the amount of writing about women by men is very extensive in many cultures (in indonesian literature, for example, it almost forms the basis of the modem canon), the amount of available writing by women appears in most cases to be very sntall. as vrrginia woolf remarks at the beginning of a room of one ~ own: ;,. 106 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 103 -121 when you asked me to speak about women and fiction ... [i] began to wonder what the words meant. they might mean simply a few remarks about fanny burney; a few more about jane austen; a tribute to the brontes and a sketch of haworth parsonage under snow; some witticisms ifpossibie about miss mitford; a respectful allusion to george eliot; a reference to mrs gaskell and one would have done (woolf2000). the full extent of this absence is, in fact, open to debate. in a rather striking metaphor, elaine showalter has claimed that, with a new historical awareness of the importance of writing by women, ''the lost continent of female tradition has arisen like atlantis from the sea of english tradition" (eagleton 1986: 11). the biased reception of writing by women, however, admits of no such uncertainty. critical reviewing of women's writing has frequently tended to belittle it as intellectually light, "domestic", and essentially trivial. in a review of wuthering heights published in the atheaeum in 1850, for example,· the reviewer stated simply in one sentence: "to those whose experience of men and manners is neither extensive nor various, the construction of a self-consistent monster is easier than the delineation of an imperfect or inconsistent reality." then eagleton (1986:72) repeated again his kind remark that the publication of the novel, together with its 'biographical note', to which most of his remarks in the two thousand word article had actually been devoted, is "a more than usually interesting contribution to the history of female authorship in england" as if works by female authors were normally not interesting at all. we can see today that this attitude is obviously unfair to women writers. it is also unfair to women and men readers, including our students. how did it ,<orne about? .', ~ .. let me rehearse some of the basic principles of feminist literary criticism. they begin with the recognition that "female" and "male" are h. al'e/ing, reading by women 107 biological characteristics, while "femininity" and ""masculinity" are acquired, learned, cultural gender identities, as stimpson writes: ""we cannot understand history, politics and culture until we have recognized how influential the structures of gender and sexual difference have been." further, "men, as men, have controlled history, politics, culture. they have decided who will have power, and who will not; which realities will be represented and taught, and which will not. in so doing, men have relegated women, as women, to the margins of culture, if not to silence and invisibility" (stimpson 1987). if we as teachers are to challenge this situation, it is important that women's lives and experience be seen differently from those of men and addressed in their own terms. to this end, we need a new awareness of the validity of women 's subjectivities, bodies and bodily functions (mezei 1988). recent feminist writing has placed an emphasis on six areas of women's lives and subjectivity which have an influence on writing by women. the first is that of women's bodily experience (1) itself: sexuality, menstruation, childbirth, child-rearing, breastfeeding, reverential attentive love, connection (rather than separation), menopause, and, frequently, rage. these topics, so often unspoken in men's literature, have a central relevance for women's writing. in an interview with xaviere gauthier, julia kristeva has suggested that ""women generally write in order to tell their own family story (father, mother and/or their substitutes). when a woman novelist does not reproduce a realfamily of her own, she creates an imaginary story through which she constitutes an identity: narcissism is safe, the ego becomes eclipsed after freeing itself, purging itself of reminiscences" (marks and de courtivron 1980:166). it is around this focus on ""a shared and increasingly secretive and ritualized physical experience" that female subculture has developed in many societies, including those of southeast asia. this domestic subculture (2) offers common values, conventions, experiences and behaviours, to its members. iii nineteenth century england, for example, women followed the roles of daughter, wife and mother; they practised the doctrines of evangelical christianity, with its strong emphasis on duty and suspicion of imagination; and there were strong legal and economic constraints on their mobiiity (showalter cited in eagleton 1986: 14). the bonds of this subculture relied on intimate and deep female friendships. within this sphere, the rhythm of women's lives was assumed to be non-progressive, repetitive, static (rather 108 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 103 121 than public, competitive, aggressi ve, egocentric, like their husbands ).it offered a smaller range of characters and had the potential, in kathryn rabuzzi's interesting insight, to be differently oriented towards the idea of plot (donovan cited in benstock 1987:105). the technical term used to describe this condition of oppression is "patriarchy". patriarchy (3) privileges traditional gender roles. it describes men as rational, strong, protective and decisive, and women as emotional, weak, nurturing and submissive. patriarchy justifies giving women less access to leadership and decision-making procedures, less economic opportunity, less education and fewer religious roles, as a natural consequence of their more limited abilities. as lois tyson (whom i am following closely here) notes: "patriarchy continuaily exerts forces that undermine women's selfconfidence and assertiveness, then point to the absence of these qualities as proof that women are naturally, and therefore correctly, self-effacing and submissive" (tyson 1999:85). in this way, women's bodies are subverted, undermined, deformed, and betrayed, while women's experience, and writing, is relegated to oblivion. for some critics, the existence of a separate feminine subculture, dominated by patriarchy, has led to a different sense of morality (4). judith kegan gardiner in her essay "gender, values and lessing's cats" suggests that: ''the good, the true, the beautiful, love, freedom and justice all traditionally mean different things for men and women", because they are embedded in larger, sexist ideology systems, in different ways. for a woman to be beautiful means one thing to her and another to the man who observes or possesses that beauty. truth suggests sexual fidelity (otherwise women are dismissed as deceitful, changeable and unreliable). love, gardiner suggests, "is the center of a woman's life, her joy, her vocation, and her duty; for men, it is either a fringe benefit or a noble distraction from a full and accomplished life". freedom, or independence, for men is associated with work and adventure. she quotes the words from a song, "freedom's just another word for nothing left to lose", and asks whether a woman could ever think this (gardiner cited in benstock 1993:87). norine voss even suggests, as a consequence of her study offeminide autobiographies, that: ''to be successfully feminine me~.to learn concealment, dec~it, the graceful falsehood. hiding the signs of agirig, flattering a boss, suppressing unfeminine emotions of anger or rebellion, deprecating or concealing intellectual and athletic ability, h. avellng, reading by women 109 playing roles that have little connection with the real person all these are part of almost any woman's repertoire" (voss 1986:229). . nevertheless, for some theorists being "both outside of dominant values and inside the society that lives by them" (gardiner cited in benstock 1993: 112) can also seen in a positive way. ellen bayuk rosenman suggests that exclusion gives women a critical perspective, a new angle of vision on their society. their lack of privilege enables them to question the apparent naturalness of patriarchy (1995:38) this outsider status is, in fact, "a form of integrity" (1995:44) as christine rochefort proudly declared: "we don't belong to the same civilization" marks and de courtivron 1980: 186). a further consequence of the separate spheres inhabited by men and women is the sense that men and women use language (5) differently. the male usage is frequently the norm, while the female use is downgraded or derogated. men, it is sai~ are more concerned with factual descriptions of the world; their voices are capable, direct, rational, humorous, unfeeling, strong (in tone and word choice) and blunt. women's speech is more personalised, and more interested in describing in detail relationships and human actions. men, in deborah tannen's terms, use "report talk", women use "rapport talk" (montgomery et. at 1992:84-85). christiane makard puts this attitude to language in far more positive terms. women's speech, she suggests, is "open, nonlinear, unfinished, fluid, exploded, polysemic, attempting to speak the body i.e., the unconscious, involving silence, incorporating the simultaneity oflife as opposed to or clearly different from pre-conceived, oriented, masterly or 'didactic' languages" (baym in benstock 1987 :22). perhaps as a consequence of these qualities, the positive, subversive, stylistic attributes of a specific women's language in literature may include the greater use of irony, ellipsis, euphemism, litotes, reticence, pretermission, digression, and so on. women's voices are also quite capable of assuming power. she can be angry, strong, decisive, sure of her judgements, acutely aware of male deficiencies and her own lost opportunities (lanswer 1993:511 and ozick cited in eagleton 1986 :85-86). there is a dark side of this presumed openness to the unconscious. throughout the ages, women have been consistently identified with maooess, anti-reason, primitive darkness, mystery; this new excitement about the primordial powers of women may simply serve to reinforce traditional 'feminine' stereqtypes (clement in sellers 1991 :118). 110 celt, volume 6, number2,december 2006: 103 -121 these different dimensions offemale experience bring us to our fmal area, writing by women (6). in some cultures, the very idea of a woman who creates or writes literature for public consumption is an anomaly. in french, for example, the word "writer" does not have a feminine form. there is the word "poetess", but gauthier describes it as being "a ridiculous word ... synonymous with foolish innocence, nature ... or old-lady, respectability" (elaine and courtivron 1980: 161) tentatively, pam morris suggests: "many feminist critics have argued that women writers encode their experiences differently from men, that their imaginative world is articulated by means of a different range of symbolism and imagery, that their structures have been developed from different sources and traditions to those of male writers" (morris 1993). .. other writers are more emphatic. marguerite duras ties writing by women to the female body: i think 'feminine literature' is an organic, translated writing ... translated from blackness, from darkness. women have been in darkness for centuries. they don't know themselves. or only p'oorty. and when women write, they translate this darkness ... men don't translate. they begin from a theoretical platform that is already in place, already elaborated. the writing of women is really translated from the unknown, like a new way of communicating rather than an already formed language. but to achieve that, we have to turn away from plagiarism. (husserl-kapit cited in marks and courtivron 1980:174). still the most authoritative account is that of helene cixous' powerfully lyrical essay "the laugh of medusa" (marks and courtivron 1980:245-264)4, which, as jane gallop says, ''more than any other text •.. defmes ecritur~ feminine" (1992:42). in prophetic mode, the essay opens: 4 originally published in french in l'arc, 1975, the essay was translated into english in signs, summer 1976, and is reprinted in new french feminisms, pp. 245-264. for simplicity, page references are included in the text above. also included in this book is a translation ofcixous' "sorties", pp. 90-98. h. avellng, reading by women 111 i shall speak about women's writing: about what it will do. woman must write her self: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies for the same reasons, by the same law, with the same fatal goal. woman must put herself into the text as into the world and into his\ory by her own movement (gallop 1992:245). cixous writes "as a woman, toward women ... woman in her inevitable struggle against conventional man" (gallop 1992:245). it is man who has repressed women, made them afraid and ashamed, "led them to hate women, to be their own enemies, to mobilize their immense strength against themselves, to be the executants of their virile needs" (gallop 1992:248). the history of reason is one with "the phallocentric tradition". woman must "write [her] self. [her] body must be heard. only then will the immense resources of the unconscious spring forth." (gallop 1992:250). for cixous, "women are body" (gallop 1992:257). therefore: women must write through their bodies, they must invent the impregnable language that will wreck partitions, classes, and rhetorics, regulations and codes, they must submerge, cut through, get beyond the ultimate reserve-<iiscourse, including the one that laughs at the very idea of pronouncing the word "silence", the one that aiming for the impossible, stops short before the word "impossible" and writes it as "the end". such is the strength of women that, sweeping away syntax. breaking that famous thread gust a tiny little thread, they say) which acts for men as a surrogate umbilical cord, assuring them otherwise they couldn't come that the old lady is always right behind them, watching them make phallus, women will go right up to the impossible (gallop 1992:256). the essay is filled with those qualities of "rashness, daring, mockery, sudden alternations of the reckless and the sly, the wildly voluble and the laconic" which can so thoroughly undercut 'the male mode' (eagleton 1986:201). for, having afl'mned "feminine writing", cixous also insists: 112 celt, volume 6, number2,december 2006: 103 -121 it is an impossibility to define a feminine practice of writing, and this is an impossibility that will remain, for this practice can never be theorized, enclosed, coded which doesn't mean that it doesn't exist. but it will always surpass the discourse that regulates the phallocentric system; it does and will take place in areas other than those subordinated to philosophicotheoretical domination. it will be conceived of only by subjects who are breakers of automatisms, by peripheral figures that no authority can ever subjugate (gallop 1992 :25 3). teaching writing by women let there be no misunderstanding. feminism is not only an "an intellectual and social movement, an a heuristic tool"; it offers itself as a complete "redefinition of knowledge and power" (green and kahn 1993: 1). it questions ''the most basic institutions of literary studies: how we evaluate literature, how we constitute knowledge about it, how its study is determined by the structure of the academy, and how it is separated from other disciplines" (wardhol and hemdl 1993). ultimately it is not about equality for men and women within the present system, but the complete "transcendence or transformation ofthe present over-rigid defmition of gender as difference" (morris 1993:5). in rethinking how we do literary criticism, and how we teach it to our students, feminist criticism can encourage us to undertake various new responsibilities. a first task is to 'retrieve' the past by rediscovering the scores of novelists, poets and dramatists whose work has been obscured by time. in doing so, we need to rediscover the continuity between these writers from one decade to another not just from one great woman to the next. as a part of this expansion ofthe curriculum, we should be including more women writers within our syllabi, not only our own regional writers who already write in english but also by the translation of our own indigenouslanguage writers. literature in english is a place where this can take happen. secondly, we need to be more aware in our examination of existing texts. many of which are written by men. we should not only be able to analyse the images of women in the works we are studying;"the existing criticism of the female authors who have been studied in some detail, and reassess the standards of literature we consider to be "good" (donovan h. aveung, reading by women 113 1989:2). we must also be able to see the gaps and omissions that have to do with women in texts, the absences, as well as the stereotypes and unfair assumptions, the denials and destructive forces that are also inscribed there. in mineke schipper's words: "who is not speaking? who has no right to speak? who does not see? whose view is not expressed? who does not act? who has been deprived of the right to act? who is powerless to act, to take the initiative; who is forced to submit to the acts of others?" (1985: 15). we need to teach our students how to read texts in their ideological contexts (donovan 1989:xvii). thirdly, as elaine showalter suggests, the next phase of feminist criticism is one that focuses on "women as writers ... its subjects are the history, styles, themes, genres and structures of writing by women, the psychodynamics of female creativity; the trajectory of the individual or collective female career; and the evolution or laws of a female literary tradition" (donovan cited in benstock 1987:99). we need to develop courses that are about women writers, just as there have always been courses which have been exclusively about men writers. some at least of the following names emily dickinson, djuna barnes, gertrude stein, h.d., hannah arendt, margaret mead, suzanne langer, rachel carson, dorris lessing, margaret drabble, margaret atwood, toni morrison, alice walker, maya angelou, maxine hong kingston as well as indonesian writers such as toeti heraty, dorothea rosa herliany, ayu utami, dewi lestari, oka rusmini, malaysian writers such as shirley geok-lin lim and beth yahp, philippine writers such as linda ty caspar, edith tiempo, marjorie evasco, merlinda bobis, ma. luisa aguilar-carino, vietnamese writers such as ho xuan huong, nguyen thi thu hue, pham thi hoai and duong thu huong ... the possibilities are many should be familiar to all, and not just the best, of our students. in so doing, we should not "essentialise" all women, in all places and times, as being ''the same", or get caught up in harsh prescription ("a woman must ... be like this, do that, etc. "). there is a place, however, for a "strategic essentialism", which can recognize "multiple selves, identifications, and instabilities in the self' as a way of exploding ''the rigid boundaries of traditional gender roles~' as well as ''the potentially claustrophobic rooms an identity politics relies on for personal and political empowerment" (neely 2000: 186).s 114 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 103 -121 finally, the mere study of such ideas is insufficient. robert scholes has suggested that: "our true aims as english teachers can be summed up as a desire to increase the textual competence of our students: to help them gain the ability to read with interpretive and critical acumen and to write with clarity, power, and grace. in short, we would like our students to be able to function textually in a society that constantly bombards them with texts." (scholes 1990). as a thoughtful teacher of english, scholes is interested both in helping students to understand how texts work and in "giving them practice in the generation of texts themselves", in both reading and writing, theo!)' and practice. within the educational institution as a way of living more intelligently in society. catherine stimpson puts this more forcefully when she insists that: "we must also act, politically and culturally, in order to change history. theory and practice must meet, engage each other, wed." (stimpson in benstock 1987). in the classroom i find scholes' statement extraordinarily reassuring, as i'm sure you do. a sensitivity towards issues of gender, both feminine and masculine, in literature and society does not require us to confront the dean, divorce our spouse, or destroy our underwear. rather, it is a way of doing better what we already claim to be doing: teaching students to read and write in better and more sensitive ways. over the past two decades, reader response theories have challenged the way in which we teach, in general, and the way in which we teach students to read texts, in particular. these theories are interested in encouraging stud~nts to examine the ways in which they themselves read texts. lois tyson has pointed out some of the ways in which different reader s carol thomas neely. "loss and recovery: homes away from home", in changing subjects, p.186. an extremely important essay on dealing with student concerns about their ignorance ofthe cultural backgrounds of writers from societies with which they are not familiar is sally mcwilliams: "trajectories of change: the politics of reading postcolonial women's texts in the undergraduate classroom", in (ed.)amaj amireh and lisa suhair majaj (2000): going global: the transnational reception of third world women writers, garland publishing, new york, pp. 252-283. h. avellng. reading by women 115 response theories focus on different points in the interaction between the text and the reader tyson 1999: 153-173). wherever we rest in this discussion, however, it seems clear that the emphasis in the teaching process should move from us, the teacher, to the student, the reader. students read in d.ifferent ways, because they come from a variety of genders, classes and ethnic communities. we can no longer dictate the one single ''true'' meaning of a text, which our students must learn and give back to us. if we are teaching the four basic skills, and can accept different content, properly presented, on its own merit, that should be no problem. (as one of my women students in hanoi sagely said earlier this year: "the teacher must now know more than one answer, that's all.") our teaching changes when we recognise and make room for the significant differences which exist among our students. we will be led to ask, for example, what difference does it make to the experience of literature, and thus to the meaning of literature, if the reader is a woman, and the experience of the reader is that of a woman? for too long women have been taught the way men read. as has often been said, "rrt needs feminist theory" (and other types of social theory as well) for it to be a complete account of the processes of reading. feminist literary criticism is a way of allowing our women students to deal honestly with their own. responses to what they are reading. it enables them to be free to see texts more clearly from their own perspective and, where appropriate, ''to learn to read against the grain of emotional language and imagery, and to construct oppositional positions within the text from which to challenge its dominant values and gender assumptions" (morris 1993 :29). this way of reading can empower women for their future lives after the academy. but what about our men students? "can a man read as a woman?" as elaine showalter asks can he, in other words, surrender his "paternal privileges"? (marcus cited in benstock 1987:81) can he ever "learn to be silent", as marguerite duras demands (duras cited in marks an coutrivar 1980:111). annette kolodny has argued that this is virtually impossible: "male readers who find themselves outside of and unfamiliar with the symbolic systems which constitute .female experience in women's writings, will 116 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 103 -121 necessarily dismiss those systems as indecipherable, meaningless, or trivial." men are at a disadvantage because they cannot understand the "sex related contexts out of which women write" (kolodny 1980 cited in adams and searle 1986:502). (kolodny includes in these contexts, "historically, the iyingin room, the parlor, the nursery, the kitchen, the laundry, and so on" (1986:507). yet, as lenefer robinson and stephanie ross point out, "when put this baldly, the argument can't be right. many men do have experience of typically female tasks; many women lack this." this argument, too, is essentialising: it relies on stereotypes about the domestic world as essentially female, and economic and political worlds as essentially male. to read well is to read carefully and attentively; these may be feminine traits in many cultures, but they are not exclusively female traits (robinson and ross cited in hein 1993:105-118). the answer to the questions asked by showalter and duras calls, perhaps, for a different kind of question: "can this man, with that background, and" importantly for us as teachers, "with this kind of training, learn to read that woman's writing in a more insightful, open, and less dominating way?" and i would suggest that it might end in the sense that a man does not need to learn to read as a woman at all, but rather as a more sensitive, less patriarchal man, who is capable of understanding his own masculinity and being at ease with it. there is no need for "critical cross-dressing", in either direction. we can also empower our men students in a totally different way from the old knightly armour-plating they have been used to wearing. conclusion in conclusion, i offer you a small zen-like fragment from a session which i attended at the 2002 conference of the american literary translators association on "translating writing by women". the words were these: "you mirror me. where is the real you?" "behind the mirror". the mirror is language. as teachers of language, it is our privilege to help students to begin to see how language, including the language ofliterature, articulates, shapes and defmes social as well as subjective experience, and to help them use language in more powerful, creative and liberating ways to get beyond the illusions which imprison us all. h. aveung, reading by women 117 bibliography baym, nina "the madwoman and her languages: why i don'tdo feminist literary theory". in feminist issues in literary scholarship. edited by shari benstock. bloomington: indiana university press, 1987. benstock, shari. feminist issues in literary scholarship. bloomington: indiana university press, 1987. sellers, susan. language and sexual difference. basingstoke hamps: macmillan, 1991. de beauvoir, simone. thesecondsex, penguin, harmondsworth, 1949. in language and sexual difference: feminist writing in france. by susan sellers. macmillan, london, 1991. donovan, josephine. "towards a women's poetics". in feminist issues in literary scholarship. edited by shari benstock. bloomington: indiana university press, 1987. donovan, josephine (ed.). "b ibliographical introduction". in feminist literary criticism: explorations in theory, 2nd ed. lexington: university press of kentucky,197s/1989. duras, marguerite. "interview". new french feminisms, : an anthology. edited by elaine marks and isabelle de courtivron amherst: university of massachusetts press, 1980. eagleton, mary (ed.). feminist literary theory: a reader. oxford: basil blackwell, 1986. __ . "bibliographical introduction". in feminist literary theory: a reader. edited by mary eagleton. oxford: basil blackwell, 1986. gardiner, judith k. "gender, values and lessing's cats". in feminist issues in literary scholarship. edited by shari benstock. bloomington: indiana university press, 1987. __ . "radical optimism, maternal materialism and teaching literature". in changing subjects: the making o/feminist literary criticism. edited by g. greene and c. kahn. london: routledge, 1993. green, gayle and coppelia kahn. "introduction". in changing subjects: the making o/feminist literary criticism. london: routledge, 1993. 118 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006; 103 121 husserl-kapi. susan. "interview". in signs. winter 1975. reprinted in new french feminisms: an anlhology. edited by elaine marks and isabelle de courtivron amherst: university of massachusetts press, 1980. kolodny, annette. "dancing through the minefield". in feminist studies, 1980. reprinted in critical theory since j 965. edited by h. adams and l. searle. tallahassee: university press of florida, 1986. lanswer, susan. "toward a feminist methodology". in feminisms. by r.p. warhol and d.p. hemdl. new brunswick new jersey: rutgers university press, 1993. ozick, cynthia."women and creativity: the demise of the dancing dog". in feminist literary theory: a reader. edited by mary eagleton. oxford: basil blackwell, 1986. marcus, jane. "still practice, a !wrested alphabet". in feminist issues in literary scholarship. edited by shari benstock. bloomington; indiana university press,1987. marks, elaine and isabelle de courtivron "are women writers still monsters?". in new french feminisms: an anthology. amherst: university of massachusetts press, 1980. __ . "is there such a thing as women's writing?" in new french feminisms: an anthology. amherst: university of massachusetts press, 1980. __ . "oscillation between power and denial" in new french feminisms: an anthology. amherst university of massachusetts press, 1980. mcwilliams, sally. "trajectories of change: the politics of reading postcolonial texts in the undergraduate classroom". in going global, the transnational reception o/third world women writers. edited by amalamireh and lisa suhair majaj. new york: garland publishing, 2000. mezei, kathy. "tessera". mapping literature. edited by d. homel and s. simon. montreal: vehicule press, 1988. moi, toril. sexualirextual politics, ]"d ed, london: routledge, 198512002. montgomery, martin el ai. ways o/reading, 2"" ed london: e.~utledge, 1992/2002. morris, pam. literature and feminism. oxford: blackwell, 1993. neely, carol thomas. "loss and recovery: homes away from home". in changing subjects: the making 0/ feminist literary criticism. edited by g. greene and c. kahn. london: routledge, 2000. h. aveling, reading by women 119 ohmann, carol "emily bronte in the hands of male critics". in feminist literary theory: a reader. edited by mary eagleton. oxford: basil blackwell, 1986. ozick, cynthia "women and creativity: the demise of the dancing dog". in feminist literary theory: a reader. edited by mary eagleton. oxford: basil blackwell, 1986: 85-86. povey, j.f. "literature in tesl programs". in incorporating literature in esl instruction. by howard ~age, englewood cliffs: prentice-hall, 1984. robinson, jenefer and stephanie ross: "women, morality, and fiction". inaesthetics in feminist perspective. edited by hilde hein. bloomington: indiana university press, 1993. rosenman, ellen bayuk. a room o/one s own: women writers and the politics 0/ creativity. new york: twayne, 1995. schipper, mineke. ''introduction''. in unheard wonu. by allison and busby, london: oxford press, 1985. scholes, robert. "toward a curriculum in textual studies". in aesthetics in feminist perspective. edited by b. henricksen and t. morgan,. urbana: university of illinois press, 1990. showalter, elaine. "a literature oftheir own". in feminist literary theory: a reader. edited by mary eagleton. oxford: basil blackwell, 1986. stimpson, catherine. "introduction". in feminist issues in literary scholarship. edited by s. benstock. bloomington: indiana university press, 1987. lyson, lois. critical theory today, new york: garland, 1999. voss, norine. "'saying the unsayable': an introduction to women's autobiography". in gender studies. edited by judith spencer: bowling green state university press, 1986. warhol, r.p. and d.p. hemdl. feminisms. new brunswick, new jersey: rutgers university press, 1993. warhol, robyn r. and diane price hemdl (eds.). feminisms: an anthology o/literary theory and criticism. new brunswick, new jersey: rutgers university press, 1993. woolf, virginia a room o/one j own. london: penguin, 192912000. 120 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 103 121 appendix how do i love tbee? let me count tbe ways elizabeth barrett browning (england) how do i love thee? let me count the ways. i love thee to the depth and breadth and height my soul can reach, when feeling out of sight for the ends of being and ideal grace. i love thee to the level of every day's most quiet need, by sun and candlelight i love thee freely, as men strive for right; i love thee purely, as they turn from praise. i love thee with the passion put to use in myoid griefs, and with my childhood's faith. i love thee with a love i seemed to lose with my lost saints, i love thee with the breath, smiles, tears, of all my life! -and, if god choose i shall but love thee better after death. silent love nguyen baa chan (vietnam) you have never seen me. i'm the soft sunlight of dawn. you always wake up later than my pure love. you have never heard me. i'm the whisper of the night in the buds on the tree. you are never alone. you have never recognised me. the faces of so many women. remain in your memory. none of them is me. many tiny petals have fallen from your mind and one of them is me, whom you never knew. h. ave/lng, reading by women 121 translated by nguyen bao chan and harry aveling. nothing dorothea rosa herliany (indonesia) unending, ourbed is surrounded bysomesortofangels. unlit, our bedroom is like a coffm. uncovered, our house is like a grave. what do you hope to create from this clay? there is no sky. there are no windows in the walls. you prefer the floor. it is quiet. safe. i never thought i could live this way. jouissbnce marjorie evasco (philippines) we have loved. we know from having survived wars, betrayals, executions, skulls hang around our necks . like amulets or prayer beads. flesh is fragile, intimate. any moment touchlessness can rend us fatal to festering. we must love, with body even as sure decay sets in. 1992 translated by harry aveling logo: guide for contributors making the best use of a textbook in indonesian tertiary efl reading classrooms1 anna marietta da silva2 abstract: nowadays, efl reading textbooks have adjusted their level of linguistic difficulties to their prospective users and provide texts about a variety of topics, detailed explanation of reading skills and practices, not to mention the smart lay-out and good quality of paper, all aiming at facilitating both students and teachers to successfully learn and teach reading, respectively. however, having qualified reading textbooks, teachers cannot take for granted that their students will directly appreciate reading and the textbook selected for the course because in some places extensive reading may not be part of the people’s routine, and may not be considered to be very important by the authority. this article provides several useful techniques to take a full advantage of textbooks in 1 the article has been presented to the seventh conference on english studies (conest 7), november 26-27, 2010, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, jakarta. 2 anna marietta da silva, s.pd., m.hum. <anna.silva@atma jaya.ac.id. +62215703306 ext. 629 is a full time lecturer at the department of applied linguuistics, graduate school of atmajaya catholic university, jakarta. a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 21 efl reading classrooms in the aforementioned context. key words: reading textbook, indonesian context, teaching techniques introduction it is fairly common to efl reading teachers to use textbooks given the facts that a vast number of good quality english reading textbooks have been written to meet the demand of the widespread english as a foreign language (efl) reading programs or courses in asian countries, indonesia inclusively. excellent books usually present texts of various topics ranging from lifestyles to science, with clear objectives within each unit, texts of reasonable length adjusted to the language proficiency level of the efl learners, and a friendly lay-out including good-quality paper, colorful pages, big fonts, a complete reading sequence, explicit and comprehensible explanation about each of the reading skills to learn along with various practices corresponding to the learned skills, not to mention the clear instruction. hence, using a text book, the efl reading teachers and students may have efficient teaching and learning, as well as the warranty of the language and content of the text-book as presumptively it has been written and edited by the language and teaching specialists. however, care should be taken when using textbooks in indonesia, where reading is not a habit, and where english is not spoken as a second language. in many efl classes in indonesia, asking students to read is like having a mountain to climb because most students do not appreciate reading even in their own native language. the first root cause of the problem may be the absence of writing tradition in most cultures in celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 22 indonesia: their values and tradition are inherited from one generation to another orally. therefore most indonesians are accustomed to listening to and talking about their ancestors and history, instead of reading it. the second reason can be the lack of critical reading habitude in the national curricula from the new order in 1966 where the military-background rulers dominated the country until even recently when the civilians came to power since 1998 in what so called the reformation era. from the new order until the reformation era the political interference into education in the form of heavy emphasis on rote learning (not critical learning) cannot be avoided. the result is the low appreciation of reading by most indonesian students, including the university students. in addition, indonesians are by and large multilingual people: their first language can be their local language, and their second language indonesian. english then becomes a third or maybe fourth language; hence its use is very limited, which makes students (even those of the english department) often feel nervous when they have to converse, read, let alone write in english. the circumstance, in some way, directly challenges teachers to enable their students go through a process of familiarizing themselves to reading academic english texts (and why not indonesian texts too) in the textbooks and other sources. hence, in this paper i will express my personal reflection about using a textbook in teaching reading courses to first semester students of the english department, faculty of education of atma jaya catholic university of indonesia. a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 23 defining reading in an indonesian efl classroom it is undoubted that reading is not simply glancing at a text from the beginning until the end as fast as possible, nor is it gazing at a text word by word carefully. nuttall (1996: 1, 4) argued that reading is an activity in which a reader is connected with the writer by means of a text: its meaning. that indicates reading requires the reader to be able to figure out the meaning of the text conveyed by the writer (cf. hudson 2007: 33). just imagine a painter is connected to a painting lover because of the message spread from the painting. hence, in the process of understanding the intended meaning of a text a reader may utilize a bottom-up, top-down, or interactive approach. using the bottom-up approach, (bloomfield 1933 cited in dubin and bycina 1991: 196); (goodman 1970 cited in brown 2001, p.298), a reader comprehends a text by making use of her/his language capability (nuttall 1996: 17), a capability which according to brown (2001, p.299) must be ‘sophisticated’, which indicates that the reader is versed in “ . . . letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markers . . . “ of the language used in the text. the top-down approach, on the contrary, does not rely heavily on the linguistic knowledge. the approach enables readers to get the meaning of the text by relating their schemata to the text and predicting the meaning of the text. therefore a reader is encouraged to use all knowledge and experiences to approach the reading text (dubin and bycina 1991: 97), (nuttall 1996, p.16), (brown 2001: 299), and (hudson 2007: 33). factually, a reader needs to combine the two approaches because not all readers possess ‘sophisticated’ linguistic knowledge, neither do they share the same background knowledge or experience relevant to the text, which is why the celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 24 interactive approach is applicable. in the approach the bottomup and top-down approaches are complementary: reading is viewed as a ‘bidirectional’ activity in which the reader does not only read the text thoroughly by applying her/his linguistic knowledge but also uses her/his schemata to make prediction prior to reading the text (dubin and bycina 1991: 197); (hudson 2007: 34) because prediction functions to activate the schemata for an easier comprehension of a text (nuttall 1996: 13). in the context my efl reading classes, i see the abovementioned notion positively in a way that despite of the low reading habit of most indonesian students, perhaps including mine, i think those who choose english to be their major have potential capability in learning a foreign language. the clear proof is that they have passed the entrance test required by the english department. besides that, i believe that to a certain point, these young adults have been exposed to many readings ranging from indonesian textbooks, announcements, advertisements, letters, and other texts from which they would perceive the same thing: meaning. so, it may be rather irrelevant for me (and other teachers, too) to always question or debate the low reading habit and the government policy. the most important question teachers need to raise is then how to deal with such situation and at the same time help the students acquire the reading skills. in other words, the most important thing teachers should do is to attract students’ attention and generate their motivation to read. thus, i think there should be a personal comprehension in recognizing what reading is prior to teaching the subject. the basic idea is to view reading as a relationship between a reader and a writer (nuttall 1996), as is illustrated in figure 1. it is shown there that once a person reads any text, she or he is a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 25 automatically connect her/himself to the message or meaning of a text, and indirectly to the writer. in the figure the act of the writer’s communication of her/his idea is represented by an arrow pointing from the writer to the book, and the reader’s action to perceive or interpret the text using her/his linguistic knowledge and schemata is symbolized by an arrow that goes from the reader to the text. the meaning perceived by the reader is represented by an arrow that goes from the text to the reader. so, reading is always a meaningful two-way communication: every reading material from the simplest to the hardest, always have meaning and messages conveyed by the writer, which will be received by the reader. the implications are first, teachers should make use of as many available day-to-day texts as possible, be it in indonesian or english, because people are usually more interested in texts that are beneficial for them, i.e. providing factual and actual information that will up-date their knowledge. writer reader figure 1: the connection between a reader and a writer celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 26 achieving the purpose of an efl reading program using a textbook in the context of teaching efl reading in a university level, the purpose of a reading program designed by teachers is to enable students to grasp, and interpret the meaning of the text in the foreign language adequately by themselves. yet, an adequate reading does not compel students to read every word in a text; instead, students simply read what they need in line with their purposes. so in the end of the reading program or course, students are expected to be motivated to read by themselves for any purposes that they wish to accomplish, and to make reading as their habit (nuttall 1996: 31, 171–172). nevertheless, to make students read independently needs a lot of effort from both students and teachers, primarily from the students, hence making the best use of a textbook. in order to create independent readers, students can be exposed to and given chances to learn using a number of reading strategies while reading the texts. a good textbook will clearly present, and explain the strategies, thus enabling students to master them. therefore, it then depends on how the teachers transfer the knowledge to the students that the students will be reading using the strategies. the first strategy is relating schemata to the text, or asking readers to recall their knowledge and experience with regard to the topic and content of the text. the second way is to skim or to find out the topics and main ideas of the text by reading in a glance each first and last sentence of the paragraph in the text. the third technique is to ask questions about the text in advance, or to stop reading temporarily and ask for further clarification and examples. the fourth way is to predict the content of the paragraph or text. the fifth strategy is to read paragraph by paragraph, or section by section, and to take notes while reading. the sixth technique a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 27 is to scan the text to find out important information, details, similarities, and differences. the seventh way is to guess the unknown words using all information available in the text, such as: context, syntax, morphology, and phonology. the eighth way is to study pictures and diagrams provided in the text as they function to explain, to clarify, and largely to make readers understand a text appropriately. the next way is to make inferences from the title and headings. the tenth strategy is summarize the text (knight et al. 1985), (padron and waxman 1988) (dubin and bycina 1991: 200), (gebhard 1996: 199), and (nuttall 1996: 10). in the end, having practiced reading using a number of techniques, students should be able to automatically choose their preferred techniques to understand the meaning of texts, and will expectantly find enjoyment in reading, even reading the textbook. therefore, i suggest that teachers should employ the textbook in such a way that both teachers and students will not be trapped in monotonous teaching and learning process. i explored two ways to make use of a textbook so that will fruitful for students: 1)“make friend” with and 2)“add a friend” to a textbook. i will explain the first. to “make friend” with the textbook and the text means to get to know more about the content of the book in general before specifically dealing with each text. but for me, making friend here does not merely facilitate students’ relationship with the textbook, but also my relationship with my students. so, in the initial session of my reading 1 course, consisting of two classes of 14 and 26 students, respectively, i firstly asked my students to observe their textbooks in detail from the front cover until the back cover (grabe and stoller 2001: 194) in order to make them familiar with the material they will read for one semester. i expected that my students would have some curiosities about the topics presented in the textbook, which furthermore will celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 28 encourage them to read the texts. another purpose of the activity was to give an overview of the english academic genre, which was absolutely not the same as the genres of the texts my students have been familiar with outside the classroom. in addition, making friend may also mean applying the interactive approach (dubin and bycina 1991: 197); (hudson 2007: 34): using schemata to understand a text. hence, in every class meeting, i encouraged students to activate their schemata prior to reading because schemata, i think, would directly connect students to the text they will read. using schemata, students were given a fair chance to comprehend the texts: they were prepared to deal with the text beforehand. so, in the prereading part i always gave my students a wide opportunity to recall whatever they had in mind about the topic text through various activities such as giving them questions, playing short movies, showing them pictures, playing games, having them sharing stories, and experiences or ideas which are relevant to the themes of the texts. another feature of “making friend” with the textbook was to read the texts enthusiastically as if one was having a conversation her/his friend, and in groups as if one was having fun together with her/his peers. the underlying reason was that teenagers normally prefer to have fun together with their friends (friends are very important to them, they sometimes may even be more important than their parents and teachers), which i then incorporated in my class. therefore, i never asked my students to merely read the texts, and do the exercises afterwards, but i require them to read actively (hudson 2007: 107–111) with their friends: in pairs or in groups of three to four persons (though individual reading was encouraged, too). reading actively means reading for purposes to understand the meaning of the text by doing some activities while reading the texts. of course, the activity required an initial explanation a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 29 about the objectives of the lesson, including the reading skills to learn in that session. because each exercise in the text-book used usually focused on one or two particular reading skills, instructing students to do the exercises while reading meant giving them reasons to read as well as facilitating them to acquire the reading skills. the exercises may consist of not only the w-h or multiple-choice questions, but also the mindmapping tasks, table completion, chart organizing, diagram drawing, making or completing tables or graphic organizers, sentence and paragraph completion, matching words with their definitions. another interesting and fun activity was drawing the texts (lindstromberg 2004: 101) in which students were asked to draw anything they had in mind about the texts, so they might draw the details, main idea, or summary of the text, and even their interpretation of the text. actually the primary goals i wished my students to achieve were (1) to familiarize themselves with adequate reading, which in turn would make them able to read selectively to serve various purposes of reading in their daily lives; (2) to train them to comprehend texts holistically by recognizing the detailed and general information in the text to be able to create a mental framework of the text (dubin and bycina 1991: 200); (gebhard 1996: 199); and (nuttall 1996: 10); and (3) to avoid boredom and sleepiness that will hinder them from getting the meaning of the text. the last yet, most fascinating feature of “making friend” for me was to know my students’ reading habit. so, in our first meetings, i distributed simple questionnaires asking about their reading background (appendix 1). the main purpose was to avoid holding unrealistic expectation for my students’ success in acquiring english reading skills and to prove my general presumption that students choosing english to be their major should like reading english texts. in addition, i believed that celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 30 knowing who my students are in relation to their reading like and dislike would help me design activities suitable for them, at least the ones that are relevant to their interests. hence, i used the simple questionnaire from grabe and stoller (2001: 189– 190) which listed several questions asking students’ favorite texts, reading frequency, and attitude toward reading itself. the questionnaires showed that my students had been accustomed to reading mostly indonesian texts (not english texts), which include teen magazines (25%), novels (25%), comics (14%), newspaper (13%), internet articles (11%), other texts including biographies, books on various topics, and lastly bibles (2%). note that most of the teen magazines are the indonesian versions of world-class magazines, while the novels are generally teenage novels or popularly known in indonesia as teen-lit (teen literature). teen-lit were their favorites here because of its choice of topic (usually about love and life of teens in big cities) and the language used: conversational indonesian used by youths in cities put in printed version. meanwhile, the newspapers frequently read were those published by an indonesian’s leading newspaper & publishing group. next, as has been predicted, not many of the students spend much time to read. only sixty-eight percent spent 1-10 hours per week to read; another twenty percent spent 11-20 hours, and thirteen percent spent 21-30 hours. the fact did not seem to be relevant with their confession that sixty-three percent of them liked reading (whereas around twenty-eight percent read only once in a while, and ten percent did not like reading), which may suggest further research. however, my students expressed their wishes of being able to read english texts, such as magazines, newspapers, fiction novels, classic literary works, and biographies. therefore, i held a positive thought: in spite of my students’ unfamiliarity with english texts, they had had a certain degree of reading indonesian texts a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 31 and desires to read in english fluently which hopefully would motivate them learning the reading skills in english. secondly, teachers can also “add a friend” (inspired by the “add a friend” option in facebook™ social e-networking) to the textbook, which in this context means providing supplementary texts relevant to the topics presented in the textbook. in my classes, i always provided students with various real-life texts (nuttall 1996: 170, 172, 177; nation 2006: 6) ranging from blurps of novels, advertisement, stories, newspaper or magazine articles, application, goods packaging information which they have to scan, skim, paraphrase, infer, interpret or summarize (nuttall 1996: 204–206). i gave special emphasis on indonesian newspaper articles that may directly appeal to students’ interest, such as articles about national or international public figures, trendy lifestyles, successful young people, or up-to-date and unique events. there were two reasons for that: (1) i wanted to tell my students that indonesian newspaper or e-newspaper can be interesting reading materials, (2) i intended to make them befriended with sources from which they can read other issues about the national and global economics, politics, society and culture once they feel the need of knowing such issues, and (3) research has shown that there is a positive relationship between the success in reading in l1 and l2 (nuttall 1996: 58) and (hudson 2007: 65–74). in addition, i specifically focused on english magazine articles telling about indonesian popular stars and whereabouts. my goal was to show to my students that they may start befriended with english texts whose topics they have known, so that they would not feel numb before the texts, nor find it difficult to understand them. on top of that, realizing that they could understand english texts easily (even if they were about common topics), students would unconsciously become celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 32 confident of taking the next challenge: dealing with other readings in english. the last aspect of “add a friend” to a textbook is by having students do the independent reading or sustained silent reading (krashen 2003: 18); (nation 2009: 5) for around thirty to forty minutes after they had completed reading the complementary and supplementary texts. purposively, i supplied my students with around sixty books in indonesian and english (mostly in indonesian) such as novels, short stories, poems, plays, biographies, comics, histories, exhibition catalogue, and guide books. the provision of indonesian books was based on two reasons: first, research has shown that learning l2 can be facilitated by l1 (as i have mentioned in the previous paragraph), and second, students, who are accustomed to indonesian texts, need relatively some time to be familiar with english texts. implicitly, i directed my students to be free to decide when they were ready to take the challenge reading the english texts. hence, students were allowed to bring their own reading materials to read in the classroom during the independent reading session. besides that, they were also permitted to borrow the books that i collected. all in all, i encouraged students to be familiar with various possible texts they might deal with in their daily life to serve their individual reading purposes. conclusion to sum up, reading does not mean understanding a text word by word, nor does it mean loud reading. reading goes beyond that: to understand the meaning conveyed in a text is the heart of reading. in an efl reading course the purpose is to create independent readers who are highly motivated to read a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 33 because they feel the need of and find pleasures in reading. though making indonesian students enjoy reading is not something that teachers can do with one hand tied behind their back because of the cultural and political reasons that should not make teachers give up. instead, with a good textbook available nowadays, teachers need to redefine reading in indonesian tefl context. bearing in mind that reading a text is connecting a reader to a writer through the medium of the meaning of a text, teachers need to employ the texts presented in the textbook and the supplementary texts by active reading and applying a number of reading strategies so that students will not think and feel that using a textbook is tedious. in such effort teachers should always remember that it is the message of the text that students should explore maximally. hence, textbook should be manipulated in a way that it will ease the teaching learning activities. references: brown, h. d. teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy, 2nd ed. new york: pearson, 2001. da silva, anna m. “fun learning with textbook in a reading course”. paper presented to seventh conference on english studies (conest 7), atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, jakarta, 26-27 november 2010. dubin, f. and bycina, d. “academic reading and the esl/efl teacher”. in m. celce-murcia, teaching english as a second or foreign language, 2nd ed. boston: heinle & heinle, 1991: 195-215. gebhard, j. g. teaching english as a foreign or second language. michigan: university of michigan press, 1996. celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 34 grabe, w. and stoller, f. l. “reading for academic purposes: guidelines for the esl/efl teacher”. in m. celce-murcia, teaching english as a second or foreign language, 3rd ed. boston: heinle & heinle, 2001: 187-203. hudson, t. teaching second sanguage reading. oxford: oxford university press, 2007. knight, s., padron, y. and waxman, h. c. “the cognitive reading strategies of esl students”. in tesol quarterly, vol. 19. no. 4, 1985: 789-792. krashen, s. d. explorations in language acquisition. portsmouth: heinemann, 2003. lindstromberg, s. language activities for teenagers. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2004. nation, i. s. p. (2009). teaching esl/efl reading and writing. new york: routledge, 2009. nuttall, c. teaching reading skills in a foreign language. oxford: heinemann, 1996. padron, y. and waxman, h.c. “the effect of esl students perceptions of their cognitive strategies on reading achievements”. in tesol quarterly, vol. 22, no. 1, 1998: 146-150. appendix 1: table of students reading background no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english 1 ab 3-4 magazines magazine: slam newspaper: jakarta i enjoy reading because i can get more anything a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 35 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english post book:information. 2 ak 21 novels, comics magazine: animaster newspaper: c n r book: harry potter novels i enjoy reading because it opens my mind. literature 3 al + 6 novels, magazines magazine: teen vogue, cosmo girl newspaper: book: children’s bed time stories i enjoy reading but it depends on my mood and the book. shakespear ’s work 4 ama + 4 comics magazine: newspaper: book: detective conan comics, kung fu comics i enjoy reading as it makes me feel better when i feel bored and confused about something. biographies of famous bands 5 at 14 novels, magazines, comics magazine: go girl, asian hits, asian star newspaper: a plus book: ilana tan’s and orizuka’s novels, chicken soup series i enjoy reading as it can stimulate my imagination and creativity. novels, comics, and magazines 6 aw 14 novels, website, magazines magazine: gadis newspaper: i enjoy reading sometimes anything celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 36 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english book: teen novel, shinchan comics just to kill the time. 7 bmp 20-24 news, novel magazine: chic newspaper: kompas, bola book: novels by dan brown, and dewi “dee” lestari i like reading. fables and folklores 8 cs 21 e-articles magazine: harper’s bazaar, vogue teen others: facebook, twitter, websites on facts, & gossips i sometimes enjoy reading when the topic is interesting for me. fashion magazine 9 elv 20 novels magazine: go girl newspaper: -book: twilight saga i enjoy reading as it can refresh my brain. shakespear ’s work 10 f 2 novels, comics, magazines magazine: asian plus newspaper: kompas book: bible i sometimes enjoy reading, depending on the book. newspaper and novels 11 ia 3 magazines magazine: gogirl, gadis newspaper: i enjoy reading because i can get more novel a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 37 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english book:information and knowledge. 12 ibc 2 magazine, book about traveling magazine: men’s health newspaper: book: traveling book i enjoy reading because it will improve my knowledge and inspire me to do things. history 13 in 14 magazines, novels, comic, website magazine: girlfriend newspaper: book: inspiring novels, comics i enjoy reading as it can broaden my horizon and relaxing my mind. dictionary and newspaper 14 kb 2-3 bible magazine: bobo newspaper: kompas book: bible i enjoy reading because it’s interesting, fun and increase my knowledge. announce ment 15 kll 2 comics magazine: newspaper: bola book: no, i prefer listening or watching things. harry potter and lord of the ring novels 16 lerf 14 novels, comics magazine: high end teen newspaper: kompas book: humorous books i enjoy reading my favorite books. humorous books 27 lw 5 e-articles magazine:newspaper: i enjoy reading as it gives me news about sports, lifestyle celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 38 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english book: information in my leisure time. and technology 18 lww 3 magazines, novels magazine: kawanku, cosmogirl, other teen magazines newspaper: kompas book: novels by raditya dika i enjoy reading because it can reduce stress and it’s entertaining. teenage novels 19 mcw + 1 magazine, books about interior design, books about psychology magazine: gogirl, cosmogirl newspaper: kompas, jakarta post book: i don’t enjoy reading because i don’t like reading too much. books about kids 20 mlp 24 novels, magazine, comic, magazine: gadis, gogirl, b’girl, kingdom newspaper: book: teenlit novels, twilight saga novels, romantic comics i enjoy reading. na 21 ms 3 on-line magazines, novels, newspaper magazine: newspaper: kompas book: romantic or i enjoy reading sometimes, depending on the shakespear ’s work, harry potter novels. a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 39 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english funny novels circumstance around me. 22 nas 14 teen novels magazine: newspaper: book: teen novels i enjoy reading teen novels as i can have free imagination. na 23 nc 3 magazines, e-articles, newspaper magazine: cosmo girl newspaper: kompas book: go ask to alice i enjoy reading because it can help you find things you don’t know before. many things 24 nc 3 teen novels, comics magazine: cover girl newspaper: book: harry potter novels, detective conan comics i enjoy reading because it can make me relax and forget my problem. harry potter novels 25 ns 3 newspaper: lifestyle section magazine: go girl newspaper: seputar indonesia book: harry potter and twilight saga novels sometimes i enjoy reading because i don’t like reading very much. biographies 26 nw 4 novels magazine: bazaar, chic newspaper: book: i enjoy reading. novels celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 40 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english fiction novels 27 pkh 14 newspaper, scientific texts magazine: newspaper: kompas book: i enjoy reading. newspaper 28 rc 2 spiritual books, bibles magazine: newspaper: book: your face tells all i don’t enjoy reading too much because i prefer watching to reading. entertainin g reading materials 29 rdp 3 novels, magazines magazine: gadis, gogirl newspaper: kompas book: chicken soup for teenage soul i enjoy reading as it can give us knowledge and entertain us. novels 30 rp 3 magazine magazine: teen magazines newspaper: book: i sometimes enjoy reading, depending on the book or magazine i read. biographies 31 s 10 newspaper, lesson books magazine: f1 racing newspaper: kompas book: i sometimes enjoy reading when the topic is interesting for me. science 32 se 29 novels magazine: go girl newspaper: -book: anne of green gables i enjoy reading very much. i’m a book worm. pride & prejudice, anna karenina, midsummer night dream a. m. da silva, making the best use of a textbook 41 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english series, books about music 33 ta 3 horror comics, running texts, newspaper magazine: intisari newspaper: book: horror comics i sometimes enjoy reading, depending on the book/topic. na 34 tl 9 newspaper magazine:newspaper: book: i enjoy reading because i can get much information and intermezzo. anything 35 ts 1 yahoo articles magazine: newspaper: book: i enjoy reading as i can update my knowledge. newspaper 36 ve 14 books about art magazine: newspaper: book: i enjoy reading books about art as it inspires my imagination. poems 37 x 2 magazines, internet, books magazine: computer newspaper: kompas book: comics i enjoy reading because it can improve my knowledge. bible 38 yl 4 novels magazine: cosmopolit an girl newspaper: book: i enjoy reading as i can know about things i don’t know twilight saga celt, volume 13, number 1, july 2013 : 20-42 42 no. students time spent for readin g per week (in hours) materials students usually read favorite magazine/ newspaper / book/ others attitude toward reading english texts students wish to read when they can read easily in english alita at first before. 39 yna 3 newspaper, novels, magazines magazine: any newspaper: any book: any i enjoy reading because it trains your brain and test your knowledge. the count of monte cristo 40 yw 5 magazines magazine: girlfriend newspaper: book: i don’t really enjoy reading. thick novels logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre analysis sudar english language education, faculty of teacher training and education, muhammadiyah university, purworejo, indonesia email: rofiqsdr@gmail.com received: 25-12-2019 accepted: 01-01-2020 published: 10-06-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre analysis sudar rofiqsdr@gmail.com english language education, faculty of teacher training and education, muhammadiyah university, purworejo, indonesia abstract: this study aims to investigate the production of speeches by native and non-native keynote speakers in the 4th eltic conference. the speeches spoken by native and nonnative speakers are investigated from a genre analysis. particularly, it is from rhetoric and linguistics perspective. the writer uses descriptive qualitative research. it is stated that speeches spoken by native and non-native have different rhetoric and linguistics styles when they were delivering their speeches in the conference. the native speaker delivering the speech is fully expressive and used linguistics styles based on the context. while the non-native delivers the speech formally and refers to references that was used. it meant that a native speaker uses rhetoric and linguistics styles naturally, while non-native speaker in delivering the speeches is still interfered by the first language styles. key words: analysis, eltic conference, genre, linguistics, native and non-native key-note speaker, speeches, rhetoric abstrak: studi ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji ucapan-ucapan yang digunakan oleh pembicara utama asing dan pembicara utama domestik pada seminar nasional eltic yang ke 4 di universitas muhammadiyah purworejo.ucapan –ucapan yang yang digunakan oleh pembicara utama asing dan pembicara utama domestik dikaji dengan mengunggakan teori analisa genre. teori tersebut khususnya mengkaji dari rhetorika dan unsur kebahasaanya. penulis menggunakan kualitatif deskriptif dalam mengkaji ucapan yang diproduksi oleh penutur asing dan penutur domestik. dalam penelitian ini ndinyatakan bahwa ucapan yang diproduksi oleh penutur asing dan ucapan yang diproduksi sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 167 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj oleh penutur lokal memiliki gaya rhetorika dan kebahasaan yang berbeda ketika mereka menyampaikan penuturan dalam seminar. penutur asing menyampaikan penuturan penuh dengan expresi dan menggunakan unsur kebahasaan sesuai dengan konteksnya. sedangkan penutur lokal lebih cenderung untuk menyampaikan penuturanya secara formal dan mengacu pada referensi yang mereka gunakan. hal ini menunjukan bahwa penutur asing menggunakan rhetorika dan unsur kebahasaan secara alami, sedangkan penutur lokal menyampaiakan penuturanya dalam seminar dipengaruhi oleh rhetorika dan gaya bahasa pertama. kata kunci: analisis, seminar eltic, genre, linguistics, pembicara utama asing, pembicara utama domestik, ucapan-ucapan, retorika introduction speech is one of interested linguistics phenomenon to be investigated. speech is possible to be investigated from different angles of linguistics philosophy, for example; speech function analysis, discourse analysis, systemic functional linguistics analysis, etc. in this study the researcher would like to investigate the speeches from rhetorical genre and linguistics analysis. swales (1997) identified the term genre simplify distinctive of any types of discourse both spoken and written with or without literary aspirations. further, swales classified genre into four sides, first is genre folklore studies, second is genre in literary studies, third is genre in linguistics, and fourth is genre in rhetoric. this study focuses on genre in linguistics and genre in rhetoric. particularly, it is about rhetoric and linguistics speeches developed by nativeand non-native keynote speakers in the 4theltic conference. chandler (1997) described that the term “genre” is specifically, he argued genre is from the french and it is originally from latin. it was “kind” or “class”. according to candler, daniel, the word “genre” mostly used in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and linguistics. based on these descriptions, this study focuses on genre particularly is about genre of rhetoric and linguistics. furthermore, swales (1990) as cited in toledo (2005) argued that a genre comprises a class of communicative events, members of which share some set of communicative purposes. also, swales (1990) as cited in davit (2009) stated 168 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj that genre is about rhetoric and linguistics to explain the communicative purposes trough text analysis. furthermore, miller (1984) as cited in davit (2009) identified that whole of genre is to share social action. refers to these ideas, it is described that genre is covered the rhetoric and linguistics which used in the society, where the people in the society achieved all the communicative purposes. finally miller (1984) as cited in davit (2009) argued that philosophically, rhetorically, and linguistically, utterances are the unit of communication purposes. literature review a. genre analysis why is genre necessary to be investigated in language learning? candlin (1993 cited in vijay k.1997) mentioned that genre analysis is the field of applied discourse study. it meant that genre is a language approach to analyze the languages in a certain context of situation and also context of culture. different genre has different context of situation and context of culture. related to the philosophy of genre, every genre has different rhetoric and also different linguistic features. that is the urgent of understanding the genre in the process of learning, teaching and using a language in real society. furthermore, vijay k. (1997) identified clearly that genre analysis is a study by looking at the situated linguistic behavior in institutionalized academic or professional setting both in the rhetoric and linguistic context. miller (1984) cited swales (1990), vijay k. (1997) and tainen (2012) said that genre is the analysis of classification of rhetorical action. further, swales (1990) as cited in tainen (2012) mentioned that genre analysis has five criteria, they are (1) genre is a class of communicative events, (2) genre has to share communicative purposive, (3) genre instances in their prototype, (4) genre establishes constraints on allowable contribution in terms of content, positioning, and form, and (5) discourse community’s nomenclature for genres is an important source of insight. first in communicative event, the use of a language is not only talking about the language itself but also about the participants, discourse, historical of environment production and reception of discourse. second in communicative purposes, there is a share set of communication. third, in properties and features, every genre should be represented. fourth, there sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 169 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj should be a rationale behind the genre. it meant that a genre has the rationale which is reflective in the content, positioning, and form of constrains and stylistics choices. the fifth is about the discourse community, which happened in the communicative events that produces rhetorical action. vijay (2000 as cited in tiainen2012) identified that there are four main goals of genre theory. the four main goals of genre are (1) to represent and account for chaotic realities of the worlds, (2) to understand and account of the private intention of the author, to recognize the communicative purposes in society, (3) to understand how the language is used and shaped by people in the socio-critical environment, and (4) to offer the effective solution of pedagogical and other problems in applied linguistics. talking about genre particularly in education is very necessary. genre is used not only in relation with education, but also, in everyday genres, such as personal conversation, making gossip, privacy speeches, and another individual genre. gee (2005 as cited in kress, 2009; and in collin, 2012) argued that genre is not only analyzing formal genre, but also informal genre for example, in everyday conversation, and traditional genre made by people in any level of societies. halliday (1978 as cited in devit, 2004; and in collin (2012) described that genre is about the language used analysis in a social context. further, halliday also stated that there are three dimensions of language according to the systemic language function (sfl), they are tenor, field, and mood. tenor is about the role of social actors; field is about what is happening and the purpose. then, mode is about how to help predict register, which is the configuration of semantic resources that a member of culture is associated with a situation type. furthermore, fairclough (2003 as cited in collin, 2012) argued that genre is as a social action. fairclough (2003, as cited in collin, 2012) also argued clearly that rhetorical genre approach of analysis has three sides of genre analysis namely (1) the way of acting, (2) the way of representing, and (3) the way of being. genre in education is very necessary to investigate and to discuss. hanafi, shamsudin, & signh (2012) strongly argued that genre is a reflective analysis. it is a reflection of how a language is being used by language users. according to them, genre in academic use is necessary to understand to produce a scientific discourse in both spoken and written discourse. swales (1990, as cited in nagao, 2019) seriously identified that genre is categorized as communication events that hold some communicative purpose. it meant that genre is used as a communicative tool in the social context of discourse 170 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj community to understand the generic structure and lexicogrammar for achieving communications goals. fahruddin & hassan (2015, as cited in nagao, 2019) clearly discussed that genre in linguistics is different from genre in rhetoric. it is necessary to identify the differences and characteristics of genre in linguistic and genre in rhetoric. this article aims to differentiate and investigate the two differences of each. the philosophy that underlined the discussion of speeches spoken by native-and non-native keynote speakers in the eltic conference is about genre in linguistics. the concept of genre is not only related to the rhetoric speech, but it is also related to the systemic linguistic. halliday (1978, as cited in swales, 1997) identified three variables of linguistic features, they are (1) field, (2) tenor, and (3) mode. first, field indicates the type of activity in which the discourse operates its content, ideas, and institutional focus. further, tenor is about the status and the relationship of the participants in the text, while mode is about the channel of communication. martin (1985, as cited in swales, 1997) described that genre includes a range of literary forms and others, for examples; poems, narratives, expositions, lectures, seminars, recipes, manuals, appointment making, service encounters, news broadcast and so on. based on this description, types of genre stated by martin (1985) and swales (1997) state that the genre of a seminar is regarded as a register. related to the discourse structure, it has a beginning, middle, and end. rhetorically, genre has four types they are, expressive, persuasive, literary, and referential (swales, 1997). here, the aims of speech will be on the speakers, which are expressive in discourse terms. next, the aim of speech is on the receiver, which in discourse is termed persuasive. then, the type of genre, which focuses on the linguistics form or code, is termed as literary. lastly, with the genre aiming to represent the realities of the world, it is termed as referential. b. rhetoric linguistics and rhetoric are the main theories concerned with in the investigation of the material for this article. the philosophy of rhetoric, is argued by hyland (2002) that rhetoric is essentially the role of discourse toward some end; and how language can be used to persuade, convince, or elicit support. sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 171 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hyland (2002) also identified that there are two types of rhetoric namely; classical and modern rhetoric analysis. classical rhetoric is organized into a series of categories which describe the composition and delivery of text into several types such as; invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery, which have different strategies that can be used. then, in modern rhetoric analysis, it tends to focus on the subdivision and particularly the appeal of non-evidential or artificial proof. next, rhetoric analysis attempts to understand the organization of genres and it interpreted to show features of discourses as representing a persuasive version of the speaker’s experiences. another scholar, hatch (1992) identified that there are five basic rhetorical organization, they are: (1) it is talking about what happened (which is named narrative, or temporal organization) (2) it is about the look, sound, smell of something, and named as description, (3) it is talking about the look like, or unlike, and is named comparison or contrast, (4) it is about the expression of something to have, the probability, certainty, and cause of it, and is thereby, named causal and evaluative, and (5) is about the problem solving, for example it is about a possible solution, assessment of solution, the prediction, or the best solution. in analyzing the rhetoric of the text, these types of rhetoric must be analyzed to see form of rhetoric is used by the speaker because each type of rhetoric has different styles. hatch (1992), described the characteristics of eight types of rhetorical organization of genre are as the following. first, narrative is a kind of genre that tells about the universal cultures which is in the form of storytelling traditions. cultures of tradition of mostly all group of societies have it. in analyzing the narrative genre, the first focus is on the orientation. orientation is talking about the time, and the setting of the story, also, when and where the story happened. second, the narrative genre usually uses the copula be. it is in the form of there is or there are sentences. third, the narrative genre has time orientation, place orientation, and identification of the characters. fourth, a narrative genre has an abstract, which summarizes or depicts the important parts of the story. fifth, the narrative genre has a goal, which should be written in the narrative genre. sixth, narrative genre has the problem, which is discussed in the story. seventh, the resolution is about the actions used to achieve a goal. lastly, the eight character of a narrative genre is evaluation. it is about the comments of the readers and why the story is being told. it can be summarized that the rhetorical organization of narrative genre are orientation, using copula be, time orientation, place orientation, abstract, goal, problem, resolution, and evaluation. 172 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in the rhetorical organization there is also description genre. description genre is a genre which describes how to use something. description genre is also describing an object, person and phenomena. it uses copula be, relative clauses, prepositional and adverbial phrases. rhetorical organization is also about procedure genre. it is about how to set up or how to operate something. the general characteristic of procedure genre is using temporal order, or purpose clauses. next, rhetorical organization also talks about argumentation genre. the argumentation genre usually uses a zig zag solution, where the authors are usually using the pattern: pro, con, pro, con, pro; or the pattern: con, pro, con, pro, con. talking about linguistics features, halliday (1985), eggin (1997) and gerrot (1995), who are cited in utomo (2010) describe those including communicative purposes, generic structure, and linguistics features. furthermore, gerrot (1995) and eggin (1997) like cited in utomo (2010) state that linguistics features focused also on tenses and transitivity. with regards to transitivity, according to gerrot (1995) and eggin (1997) as cited in utomo (2010) inform that transitivity is about what kind of processes used in the speeches. halliday (1985, as cited in utomo, 2010) mentioned that there are six types of process, namely; material process, mental process, behavioral process, verbal process, rational process, and existential process. gerrot (1995 as cited in utomo, 2010) modified the process into seven parts, where six of them are similar and is added in the meteorological process. thus, based on the descriptions of the theories above, the two sides of the analysis of genre can be divided into systemic linguistic philosophy and rhetoric philosophy to include the following processes (see figure 1): figure 1: systemic linguistics and rhetoric frame work of study by sudar (2020) sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 173 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method a. type of research this is a qualitative descriptive research of language and communication. in accordance to gall, borg, & gall, (1996, as cited in marshall, 2006), there are three genres of qualitative research: (1) individual lived experience, (2) society and culture, and (3) language and communication for both spoken and written process of the discourse analysis. b. research subjects, data and source of data the main data of this study is the verbal language of speeches spoken by native and non-native keynote speakers of a national english conference held on 5th october 2019. the speeches are analyzed by using the theories of linguistics and rhetoric analyses theorized by halliday (1978), which has the three variables of field, tenor, and mode in the discourse structure, the beginning, middle, and ending of the speech takes into account of swales (1997) tenses of the present, past, and future. with regards to the transitivity, which analyzes the material mental, behavioral, verbal, rational, existential, and meteorological process, gerrot (1995) and eggin’s (1997) theory of the rhetoric focuses on the expressive, and persuasive aims of the speech on receiver. swales (1997) rhetorical organization, which consisted of the narrative’s description and argumentation procedure is also used by the researcher. c. research procedure and analysis technique in acquiring the data, the researcher conducted a recording of speeches spoken by the native and non-native key-note speakers. the recording data is then transcribed and analyzed using the theory of data analysis founded by mile & huberman. there are three steps to analyze the qualitative data, namely; data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification. this idea can be designed into the following figure 2: data collection period […………………………………………………………… ] data reduction / anticipatory/……………………………………….] during post 174 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj data display [.. …………………………………………………….] analysis during conclusion drawing/verification [……………………………………………………] during post figure 2: qualitative data analysis. miles &huberman (1994, p. 10) results and discussion based on the data analysis, the native and non-native speaker speeches investigated from the theories of speech developed by some experts can be laid out like seen in table 1. table 1: speech analysis by native and non-native halliday, (1978) cited, swales, (1997): field, tenor, and mode of speech discourse structure of speeches, swales, (1997): speeches: beginning, middle, and end. gerrot, (1995) & eggin, (1997) cited in utomo, (2010): the tenses of speeches: present, past, future, and type of process rhetorical theory swales (1997), and rhetorical organization, evelyn, hatch, (1992) field: native and nonnative speaker were talking about the education in the in the 4.0 technology era. tenor: native and non-native are the main speaker in the conference. mode: native and non-native speaker both native speaker and non-native speaker produced the speeches in the conference by performing the beginning, middle, and ends’ speech. native speaker preferred to perform his speeches in form of present tense. native speaker would like to use material process, mental process, and verbal process. non-native speaker preferred to use simple present and native-speaker preferred to use persuasive rhetorical genre. non-nativespeaker was more interested to use description rhetorical genre sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 175 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj communicate to the audiences in the conference direct communication. simple past tense in delivering the speeches. non-native speaker also preferred to use mental process, relational process, and existential process. based on the utterances of spoken discourse from the linguistic side of the field section, the research on linguistic analysis firstly finds that the activity conducted by the native keynote speaker, was an annual conference in english language teaching and learning. the content of the native speaker was about the existence of information technology in english language teaching. in the speech, he delivered his ideas about the 4.0 industrial era, which has high and significant influence on teaching and learning english. he said that the 4.0 industrial era was preceded by 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 era, which has their own characteristics, and that anything related education can be implemented through technology. using tenor, which is about the status and the relationship of the participants in the text, this research finds that as a native keynote speaker, he has full authority to speak freely and frankly about his ideas and knowledge about the influence of it, in the 4.0 era related to english language teaching and learning. with regards to the relationship between the native-keynote speaker and audiences in the national conference was as a speaker and hearer. the native-keynote speaker was the main speaker, and the audiences, which consisted of lecturers, teachers of english language education, and english language education students are the hearer in the conference. using mode as the channel of communication, the research finds that the communication between the native-keynote speaker and the audience were conducted orally, and directly in the room of the conference. the second linguistic analysis is from the discourse structure, which consisted of a beginning, middle, and end section. through analyzing the beginning speech of the native keynote speaker, it finds that he said the following: ; //“education 4.0 ohhh noooo become education 4.0, ohhhhhh.// education 4.0 is a direct reflection of industrial revolution 4.0.” // with expressive utterances. 176 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj analyzing the middle section of the native key note speaker’s speech, he said the following: //”the industrial revolution 4.0 has brought many significant changes in human life. // it has fundamentally changed.//the way people move and has a big influence on many aspects of human life, including in economy, security systems, politics, and education.”// through the middle part of the discourse it is found that the native keynote speaker still spoke about the it in the 4.0 industrial era. the speech about it in the 4.0 era was not only related to education but also related to any level of human needs. this information is found in the ending speech of the native keynote speaker, where he said the following; //”in this way, hopefully, we can take maximum advantages and opportunities// brought by the revolution industry 4.0 era for the future national education.”// the third linguistic analysis of speech by the native key note speaker is analyzed from tenses used for the present, past, future and transitivity forms of material process, mental process, behavioral process, verbal process, rational process, existential process, and meteorological process. the linguistic analysis about the tenses finds that there are thirty clauses using the present tenses. further, there are six clauses using the past tense, and there are two clauses of spoken discourse used by the native key note speaker, which uses the future tense in his spoken discourse. it means that the tenses used by the native-key note speaker is various he spoke the utterances based on the context and also the content of the speeches. concerning the processes used by the native keynote speaker, there four types of process. there were eight material process, and ten mental processes, eighteen verbal processes, also eighteen relational processes. then, the behavioral process was the last type of process used by a native-keynote speaker the next analysis of speech of spoken discourse by the native key note speaker is from the rhetorical philosophy and rhetorical organization of genre. the first, from the rhetorical philosophy, the analysis revealed that the spoken discourse used was persuasive rhetorical genre. it meant that the speech aimed to encourage the audiences to understand and to implement the it in the 4.0 industrial era to the english teaching and learning. he said that it in the 4.0 industrial era is significant because it has changed human’s life styles, which includes the change of educational system, due to the use of the blended learning system between it and the conventional system. the native keynote speaker also described the characteristics of it in the 4.0 era, which has strengths and weaknesses for the english teaching and learning process. sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 177 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj meanwhile, the speech analysis spoken by the non-native key note speaker in the eltic national conference revealed that the filed, or activity conducted by the non-native keynote speaker was also a speech delivered at a national english conference. in his speech, the non-native key note speaker explained that the industrial revolution 4.0 era has different characteristics from previous era. because of this, education should adapt to the recent era. it meant that education, particularly english language education should relate to the technology in 4.0 industrial revolution era, at least by using blended learning. with regards to tenor, the non-native key note speaker and the audiences were found as the main speaker and the hearers. although speaking second after the native speaker, as a key note speaker in the conference, the non-native speaker has full authority to speak freely and frankly about his ideas and knowledge particularly about the characteristic of industrial revolution 4.0 and it’s benefits for learning english. he said that 4.0 industrial revolution has some characteristics and it has significant effects to teaching and learning english. analyzing the mode, which is the channel of communication, the research finds that the communication between non-native keynote speaker and the audience are conducted orally, and directly in the room of the conference. analyzing the he second linguistic analysis, which is the discourse structure, the research finds that the beginning speech of the non-native keynote speaker was explaining about the characteristics of the 4.0 industrial revolution era. the beginning speech was as follows//”in industrial revolution, there are some key features that are internet of things, artificial intelligence, new materials, big data, robotics, argument realty, cloud computing, additive manufacturing 3d printing, nanotech and biotech, genetic editing, and elearning.”// it meant that education, particularly teaching and learning english should be adapted to this era. this idea was continued throughout the middle of his speech in the conference, where he said the following: //”english language teaching must be fitted to the needs of industrial revolution 4.0. // english language teaching must be objectives, //it meant that the results is based on the process and the fact. //objectives of teaching english helps students //to acquire their linguistics competence, communicative competence, hot critical thinking, analyzing, evaluating, reasoning, and creating to complex problem solving skills, active learning 178 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj skills, collaborative skills, interpersonal skills, intercultural global skills, and digital literacy skills”//. the stress that students and teachers should adapt to the 4.0 industrial revolution era was further stressed at the end part of the speech, which noted the following; //”there are eight futures of 21st century teachers be adaptive, focuses on life-long learning skills, be communicative, be visionary, show leadership qualities, be role-models, be collaborative and be risk takers, (malaysian ministry of education).// based on the statements above,//it can be concluded// that elt can be enhanced through the presence of industrial revolution 4,0 by means of shifting the teaching paradigm from offline to online modes of learning.// //the methodology is digitalized teaching media;// the strategy is internet –based task –force; and //the assessment is online and auto-scored examination.”//. looking at the discourse structure of the speech spoken by the non-native keynote speaker, the research finds that it has good cohesiveness and logical coherence. it meant the discourse structure developed by the non-native keynote speaker was linguistically standardized. the third linguistic analysis of speech by the non-native keynote speaker was analyzed from the tenses: present, past, future and transitivity of material process, mental process, behavioral process, verbal process, rational process, existential process, and meteorological process. the result of the analysis revealed that there were forty nine clauses using the present tenses. further, there was one clause using the past tense of spoken discourse used by the nonnative keynote speaker in his spoken discourse. in other words, he mostly spoke the utterances based on facts reported with the present tense. the types of processes used by the nonnative keynote speaker found was twelve material processes, and nine mental processes. the relational processes were found as the highest number of process, and the last type of process used was the existential process. there are two existential process which are performed by non-native key note speaker, when he was performing his speech in the conference. referring to the description above, it is clear that relational process is rarely often used by non-native keynote speakers. the next analysis of speech of spoken discourse by the non-native keynote speaker is from the rhetorical philosophy and rhetorical organization of genre. the rhetorical philosophy analysis revealed that the spoken discourse spoken by non-native keynote speaker was persuasive rhetorical genre. he said that english teachers should adapt to the changing of technology for teaching and learning process. sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 179 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in the rhetorical organization analysis, the analysis revealed that the spoken discourse developed by non-native keynote speaker was rhetorical description genre. he described the understanding of the english teachers and students about the relationship between the industrial revolution 4.0 era and the english language teaching and learning. he said that 4.0 industrial revolution era is different from previous era, that is why the english teachers should adapt to the changes of technology. . conclusion referring to the data analysis, based on the rhetorical genre, it is found that the native and non-native key note speakers in the conference have used a different genre. the native key-note speaker used persuasive genre, while the non-native key note speaker used description genre. then, in communicating the ideas, it is found that the native keynote speaker spoke his ideas expressively, meanwhile, the non-native keynote speaker focused on describing the characteristic of industrial revolution of 4.0 and its implication to the teaching and learning english. referring to the linguistics analysis, the utterances of the native keynote speaker used tenses with more variety, as he used the process of clauses with different styles. it meant that the native keynote speaker preferred to speak his speech based on the context and the contents of the speeches. however, in comparison, the non-native keynote speaker uses more simple tenses. it meant that the non-native keynote speaker preferred to speak the contents of his speech with a simple style, so his speech was easy to understand by the audience. furthermore, the non-native keynote speaker is found to have used the relational processes, which was reflected in his simple style of speech. actually, both native and non-native keynote speaker have similarities in their speeches. both native and non-native keynote speaker encouraged the audiences to understand well the change of industrial revolution 4.0 era to the teaching and learning of english. this is why both emphasized that teachers and learners must adapt themselves with the industrial revolution 4.0 era that heavily relies on it technology. 180 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references bhatia, v.k. (1997). genre analysis today. in revue beige de philologie et d’historie, tome 75, fast, 3. languages at literatures modern. retrieved from https://www.persee.tr/doc/rpbh_00350818_1997_num75_3_4188. chandler, dl. (1997). an introduction to genre theory. http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/documents/intgenre/intgenre.html. collin, r. (2012). discourse in genre: a new approach to the study of literature practice. journal of literacy research, 44(1), 76–96. retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/journalpermission.nav.doi:10.1177/1086296 x11431627 http://jlr.sagepub.com. davit, m. j. (2009). genre performances: john swale’s genre analysis and rhetorical –linguistic genre studies. university of kansas. hanafi, s. & signh, s. (2012). revisiting genre analysis: applying vijay k. bhatia’s approach. the 8th international language for specific purposes (lsp) seminaraligning theoretical knowledge with professional practice. procedia-social and behavioral sciences 66-370379. www.sciencedirec.com. hatch, e. (1992). discourse and language education. in cambridge language teaching library. cambridge university press. hyland, k. (2002). teaching and researching writing. london office. edinburg gate. london: harlow cm20 2je. retrieved from www.pearsoneduc.com/linguistics marshall, c.. (2006). designing qualitative research. sage publication, inc. 2455 teller road, thousand oaks, california 91320. e-mail: order@sagepub.com. miles, b. m., huberman a. m. & saldana, j.. (1994). qualitative data analysis. sage publication, inc.2455 teller road, thousand oaks, california 91320. nagao, a. (2019). the sfl genre-based approach to writing in efl contexts. asian-pacific journal of second and foreign language education. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-019-0069-3 http://www.aber.ac.uk/ http://www.sciencedirec.com/ sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 181 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj shamsudin, h. & signh, s. (2012). revisiting genre analysis: applying vijay bhatia’s approach. in the 8th international language for specific purposes (lsp) seminaraligning theoretical knowledge with professional practice. procediasocial and behavioral sciences 66(pp. 370–379). retrieved from www.sciencedirec.com. swales, j. (1997). genre analysis: english in academic and research settings. cambridge university press. the edinburg building, cambridge, cb2 2 ru, united kingdom. tiainen, k. (2012). a genre analysis of academic research blogs. university of helsinki. utomo, s.. (2010). the rhetorical structure of barack obama’s and hillary clinton’s debates during democratic campaign period of american presidential election in 2008. a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the doctorate degree in language education. post graduate program, state university of semarang. appendices: (1). “education 4.0 ohhh noooo become education 4.0, ohhhhhh”. “education 4.0 is a direct reflection of industrial revolution 4.0//// and focuses on how information technology and educational practices blend together.// //education 4.0 more focuses on what is possible with the technology available.////teachers and students have already adapted in using information technology in the classroom for the last 15-20 years.//// however now we focuses on rethinking the concept how to deliver teaching content in the way that is more effective for 21st century student using the available technology.//// for the 21st century learners, the old lecturing model of the teacher talk and student listening is no longer relevant.// //engagement with student should be more focused on activities that promote collaboration to encourage critical thinking and student’s creativity.// //this is because 21st century students need these higher level thinking skill in their careers.// //ultimately, by merging approaches and methods with the information technology available,//// teachers will act less as a complete source of knowledge ////and as more as a facilitator in the learning process.//// by understanding this, teachers can develop meaningful 182 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 166 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lessons that engage their leaners in activities// //that are more relevant for their needs//. //the industrial revolution 4.0 has brought many significant changes in human life.// it has fundamentally changed //the way people move and has a big influence on many aspects of human life, including in economy, security systems, politics, and education.// the industrial revolution 4.0 has brought positive influences on the effectiveness and efficiency of resources and production cost in many industries.//yet, it also has an impact on reducing employment, and emergence of a number of new challenges which are not necessarily easier.//in education sector, particularly today’s educator is obliged to make self-adaption and certain change to successfully utilize all the potential benefits brought by the industrial revolution 4.0 era.//otherwise, they will be left behind,// and it is not impossible “die”.//among the adaptations and changes,// that teachers must do is shifting the mind about the role of the teachers in their learning process. //they also need to conduct adaptation programs, such as adjusting curriculum content which to prepare students relate to the 21st century abilities,// and also it needs to choose and apply various current learning models which is suitable for millennial students.// //this is included to practice blended learning and to use social media for teaching learning.// in this way, hopefully, we can take maximum advantages and opportunities// brought by the revolution industry 4.0 era for the future national education”.// (spoken by native keynote speaker). (2).//”in industrial revolution, there are some key features that are internet of things, artificial intelligence, new materials, big data, robotics, argument realty, cloud computing, additive manufacturing 3d printing, nanotech and biotech, genetic editing, and e-learning.//. english language teaching (elt) in industrial revolution era has cyber activities.// it meant that everything is now digitalized and integrated in a system,// printed papers are getting less and less, //and online business is now everywhere. // consequently, wherever we exists,// there is an internet now.// all of us almost can access internet now,// so there is no reason not to use internet because //it is more effective.// in industrial revolution 4.0 there are so many challenges of english teaching profession.//they are creating inclusive and collaborative teaching and learning, equipping teachers with competences in it, using it – based media of instruction, and using one-line assessment.// how can elt be enhanced in response to industrial revolution 4.0?// english language teaching must be fitted to the needs of industrial revolution 4.0.// english language teaching must be objectives,// it meant that // the results is based on the process and sudar, native and non-native speeches in the 4th eltic conference: genre 183 analysis https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the fact.//objectives of teaching english helps students to acquire their linguistics competence, communicative competence, hot critical thinking, analyzing, evaluating, reasoning, and creating to complex problem solving skills, active learning skills, collaborative skills, interpersonal skills, intercultural global skills, and digital literacy skills.// digital literacy is capabilities// which fit an individual for living, learning and working in a digital society.// elt also have many methods and strategies to improve the teaching learning to the students.// teachers in elt also have to be clear to make assessments,// because assessments are so important for students,// whether they are on learning process good or not.//learning assessment, assessment suitable for cyber learning atmosphere: open-book and internet access evaluation.//recently, one-line test using software applications, for example question writer.// it helps students to minimize cheating,// helps teacher to correct the answer quickly and of course //it can reduce using of paper,// teacher also make writing academic paper to their students,// it can enhance student’s knowledge and creativity.// teacher on elt process is better making presentations.// it helps students to explore their minds and make students be brave to show their opinion in front of their friends.//digitalized teaching materials, to deal with digital natives,// teachers use digital teaching materials.//in industrial revolution 4.0 era there are many sources to access internet in order to enhance instructional purpose.// one of them is social media, social media for instructional purposes.//its advantages are easy to be used,// it can be accesses anytime and anywhere,//it makes possible for teachers and students to interact with respect to personal and academic encounters.// moreover, in this era, there are paradigm to learning process,// that are teachers are as facilitators,//students can access to any forms of information, and multiple ways of communication are prioritized.// there are top ten skill of future employees; complex problem solving, critical thinking, creativity, people management, coordinating with others, emotional intelligence, judgment and decision making skill, service orientation, negotiation, and cognitive flexibility.//there are also eight futures of 21st century teachers; be adaptive, focuses on life-long learning skills, be communicative, be visionary, show leadership qualities, be role-models, be collaborative and be risk takers, ( malaysian ministry of education).//based on the statements above, it can be concluded// that elt can be enhanced through the presence of industrial revolution 4,0 by means of shifting the teaching paradigm from offline to online modes of learning.//the methodology is digitalized teaching media;//the strategy is internet –based task –force; and //the assessment is online and auto-scored examination.”//. (spoken by non-native keynote speaker) theeffec~nessofteacbing learning strategies for listening: a theoretical assumption wakako kobayashii abstrtu:t: ofthefour language sldlls, listening is often considered to be the most crucialfor the language learner since listening is a highly interactive sldll and many sla researchers have demonstrated its significant role in language acquisition (vandergrift 1996). the appropriateness, and effective usage of listening strategies can help learners to facilitate the language process. oxford (1989) states that there is a relationship between learner's variables and the choice of language learning strategies (llss). therefore, the use of appropriate ll$s, especially metacognitive strategies are significant to improve and advance learners' listeningprojiciency because their language level will rise. key words: listening strategies, language learning strategies (llss), metacognitive strategies, teacher education introduction krashen (1982) asserts that comprehensible input is a necessary and indispensable condition for language learning when considering the relationship between input and adjustments and message comprehension. in his input hypothesis, krashen (1985) states that if the learner can comprehend the language that contains linguistic items oexis, syntax, morphology) at a slightly above the learners current level (i + 1) , then, slhe can achieve the further development in learning, especially in listening and 1 wakako kobayashi <wakakoba@mbh.nifty.com>; <wakakoba _10 17@ yahoo.co.jp> is a doctoral candidate of temple university and works as a lecturer in chua university and kunitachi college ofmusic injapan. 106 celt, volume 8, number 2, december 2008: 99-108 incongruous with useful experience; i understand that it does not mean he completely rejects the effects of teaching llss. training is effective only . _ .. under specific condition and teachers should employ teaching strategies that are incongruous with useful experience. however, it is somewhat surprising, that there have been few empirical quantitative studies that have attempted to evaluate the success of the strategies training, as ellis (1994) and larsen and freeman (1991) have argued. summary and implications for teachers as far as i have discussed and after reviewing llss related articles, i concludewithmyagreementwithe11is (1994) who regards it is clear that the teaching oflearning strategies will receive an increasing attention in teacher education, since the sla researcher have not yet developed this academic field. empowering learners by having them develop llss might help them to not only cope with classroom tasks, but also continue to learn, which is to promote self-autonomous learning. moreover, learners' variables, such as age, gender, proficiency, cultural and educational backgro\dld, etc. and situational factors such as task difficulty, informal and formal setting, and goals, etc. will inevitably influence and interact with the choice of llss. lastly, i also agree that the right and appropriate choice of llss may determine the rate and level of the achievement as well which is considered to be significant for both teachers and learners. it is for these reasons, that i suggest research to be done to prove the rise oflearners' listening strategies as a point to improve the overall skills of the english language. references anderson, anne and tony lynch. 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"a review of second language listening comprehension research". inmodernlanguagejournal, vol. 78,1994: 199-221. stern, helena. "what can we leam from the good language leamer 1" in canadian modern languagereview, vol. 31, 1975: 304-318. stern, helena. fundamental concepts of language teaching. oxford: oxford university press, 1983. tarone, elaine. "conscious communication strategies in interlanguage: a progress report". in principles of language learning and teaching., 2nd eel. edited by h. brown eta!. englewood cliffs, n. j.: prentice hall, 1977. underwood, mike. teaching listening. london: longman, 1989. vandergrift, laurens. "the listening comprehension strategies of core french high school students". in the canadian modern language review, vol. 52,1996:200-223. weinstein, chris and robertayer. ''the teaching of learning strategies". in handbook of research on teaching, 3m eel. edited by wittrock. new york: macmillan, 1986. a critique of traditional pedagogical methods in the teaching of english language skills cecilia titiek murniati l abstract: this paper is a critique of traditional pedagogical method in the teaching of english skills. in indonesia. the emphasis of the teaching of english skill is on preparing students for jobs and standardized tests. while these purposes are necessary to improve students'languagejluency. they are insufficient to equip students with skills they need to perform beyond college life. this paper argues that the focus of english teaching in college should be on the improvement of higher order thinking skills and the fostering of self-authorship. the paper uses socio-cultural theories of learning to discuss selfauthorship and offers pedagogical implications on the basis of those theories. key words: socio-cultural theories of learning. self-authorship. pedagogy introduction recent developments in the teaching of english necessitate both curricular and pedagogical changes. hinkel (2006:110) suggests that "recognition of the essential roles of the teacher and the learner and of the need for situationally relevant language pedagogy has brought about the dra. cecilia titiek murniati, m.a. <celiajalu@yahoo.com> is a lecturer at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. she is currently working towards her doctorate degree in the higher education administration. educational policy and leadership studies, university oflowa college of education, u.s.a. c. t. murtliati, a critique of traditional pedagogical methods 73 to get students involved in meaningful interactions, the integration of skills seems to be an inevitable approach from socio-cultural theories. language skills can no longer be regarded as separate knowledge. rather, they are closely connected and complementary. teachers of english in higher education need to be cognizant of the needs of students to learn and gain knowledge from peers, teachers. and even outsiders to develop their selfauthorship. a final word: the future of the curriculum and pedagogy in the teaching of l2 skills globalization and technological advancement demand on-going transformations and improvements in all spheres of life including higher education. in response to those changes. it is imperative that teachers of english in higher education institutions and policy makers take into account the current development in the teachingofl2 skills as well as the changes of sociopolitical and cultural aspects of society to make informed decision in regard to curricular or pedagogical transfonnations. socio-cultural theories oflearning are useful frameworks to adopt if the focus ofl2 pedagogy is to improve learners' communicative and cognitive development. bibliography angelo. t. a. "a 'teacher's dozen': folll1cen general. research-based principles for improving higher learning in our classrooms". in. college and ui/in?rsily c"rrim/"m: dc.',·e/oping ami c"llimling programs ofsii/{(i' iltal e,,/uliic:c sfllciclil learning. edited by l.r. lattuca. j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad. boston, ma: pearson custom publishing. 2005: 452-459. bakhtin. m. tlte dialogic imaginalion: f,jllr essays. austin: university of texas press. 1981. brock. c. h. "exploring the use of book dub with second-language learners in mainstream classroom". in the book ci"b coi/i/('cliol/: !.ilertlc.\" lcarl/ing al/d classroom talk. edited by s.1. mcmahon <lild t.e. raphael. new york. ny:tcachcrscollegepress.191j7: 141-158. freedman, s. w. and a.f. ball. "ideological becoming: bakhtinian concept to guide the study oflanguage. literacy. and learning". in bakitlill;(j1i per.'l'('{"lil't's 011 74 celt, volume x. number i. july 20()r: 59 75 l(liigllag('. litt'ra<:\'. alul leaming. edited by a.f. bajl and a. w.freedman. cambridge: cambridge university press. 2004: 3-33. freire. p. pl.'clagugy ofthl.' opprt'ssec/. new york. ny: seabury. 1973. hinkel. e. "current perspectives on teaching the lour skills". in tesol qliart('r/i: vol. 40. 2006: 109-13\. hyland, k. "genre pedagogy: language. literacy and l2 writing instruction". in ./olll'lwi olseconcl i.angllage writing. vol. 16.2007: 148-164. johnson. m. a philosophy (!(sl.'concllungllagt· llcli"isitioll. new haven. ct: yalc university press. 2004. kompas. (2007. july 4). "guru belum siap perubahan konsep". in http:// www.kompas.com/kompas-cetakj0707104/jogjali039322.htm. retneved 5 december 2007. lee, c.d. nnd p. smagorinsky. "introduction: constructing meaning through cojlaborative inquiry". in j~rgotskian perspectil'e oil literary research: cons/nu:tingmmeaning through collaborative inquiry. edited by in c.d. lee and p. smagorinsky. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2000: lis. nation, p. "how large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening?" in the cunadian mac/ern language review, vol. 63, no. 1,2006: 1-12. nation, i. s. p. learning vocabulalj' ill another language. cambridge: cambridge university press, 200 i. magolda, m. b. "the developmental nature of self-authorship: the world of students". in college and university curriclllum: developing and cultivating programs of study that enhance sliidelll learning. edited by l.r. lattuca, j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad. boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2005: 393-408. marton, f. and s. booth. "what docs it take to learn?" in collegl.' and uniwi"sity curriculum: developing and cultivating programs of study that ellhancl.' sludem learning. edited by l.r. lattllca. j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2002: 378-392. mcmahon, s. i. and t.e. raphael, t. e. "the book club program: theoretical and research foundations". in the book club connection: literalj' learning and classroom talk. edited by s.1. mcmahon and t.e. raphael new york. ny: teachers cojlege press, 1997: 3-25. . mentowski, m. "thinking through a curriculum for learning that lasts". in collegl.' c.t. murniati, a critique of traditional pedagogical methods 7s and university curriculum: developing and cultivating programs of study that enhance student learning. edited by l.r. lanuca, j.g. haworth and c.f. conrad. boston, ma: pearson custom publishing, 2005: 336-361. shor, i. empowering education: critical teachingforsocial change. chicago, il: chicago university press, 1992. vandergrift, l. "listening to learn or learning to listen?" in annual review of applied linguistics. 24. 2004: 3-25. vygotsky, l.s. mind in dociety: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, ma: harvard university press, 1978. wenger, e. communities of practice: learning. meaning. and identity. new york, ny: cambridge university press, 1998. logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia applying metacognitive strategies in comprehending english reading texts 1*zulfadli a. aziz, 2chairina nasir, and 3ramazani 123english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia email: 1zulfadli.aziz@unsyiah.ac.id, 2chairina.nasir@unsyiah.ac.id, 3ramazani@ymail.com received: 01-02-2019 accepted: 08-06-2019 published: 31-07-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj applying metacognitive strategies in comprehending english reading texts 1*zulfadli a. aziz, 2chairina nasir, and 3ramazani 1zulfadli.aziz@unsyiah.ac.id, 2chairina.nasir@unsyiah.ac.id, 3ramazani @ymail.com 1,2,3english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia abstract: comprehending english text is still regarded as hard for students. metacognitive strategies have been considered effective in overcoming reading difficulties by many researchers. the objective of this study is to describe the application of three types of metacognitive reading strategies (global strategies, problem solving strategies, and support strategies) used by the students of senior high school (sman) 1 ingin jaya, aceh besar. it is a descriptive qualitative study. metacognitive awareness of reading strategies inventory (marsi) questionnaire suggested by mokhtari and reichard (2002) was used to collect the data. the result of the study revealed that the students generally showed moderate awareness of all strategies and held a preference of using problem solving strategies, followed by support strategies and global strategies respectively. the study also showed that high performance students used the strategies more frequently than low performance students. it can be concluded that the more students aware of using metacognitive reading strategies, the better their performance is in reading skill. therefore, teaching the students to use metacognitive strategies can be a solution in enhancing students’ reading ability. key words: reading comprehension, metacognitive reading strategies, low and high performance students abstrak: memahami wacana bahasa inggris masih dianggap sulit bagi siswa. strategi metakognitif telah dianggap efektif dalam mengatasi mailto:zulfadli.aziz@unsyiah.ac.id mailto:chairina.nasir@unsyiah.ac.id aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 139 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kesulitan membaca oleh banyak peneliti. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menggambarkan penerapan tiga jenis strategi membaca metakognitif (strategi global, strategi pemecahan masalah, dan strategi dukungan) yang digunakan oleh siswa sekolah menengah atas (sman) 1 ingin jaya, aceh besar. penelitian kualitatif deskriptif ini menggunakan angket metacognitive of reading strategies inventory (marsi) yang disarankan oleh mokhtari dan reichard (2002) untuk mengumpulkan data. hasil penelitian mengungkapkan bahwa siswa umumnya menunjukkan kesadaran moderat dari semua strategi dan memiliki preferensi menggunakan strategi pemecahan masalah, diikuti oleh strategi dukungan dan strategi global masing-masing. selain itu, siswa berprestasi tinggi menggunakan strategi lebih sering daripada siswa berprestasi rendah. dapat disimpulkan bahwa semakin sadar siswa menggunakan strategi membaca metakognitif, semakin baik kinerja mereka dalam keterampilan membaca. oleh karena itu, mengajar siswa untuk menggunakan strategi metakognitif dapat menjadi solusi dalam meningkatkan kemampuan membaca mereka. kata kunci: pemahaman membaca, strategi membaca metakognitif, rendah dan siswa berprestasi tinggi introduction teaching english in senior high schools in indonesia aims at, among other things as stated in the english syllabus for senior high school levels, enabling students to read and comprehend the text in the forms of interpersonal and transactional written discourse, formal and informal functional texts, and several genres of text such as recount, narrative, descriptive, procedure, news item, factual report, analytical exposition, etc. however, based on the initial observation conducted at some schools in banda aceh and aceh besar it was found that it seems to be hard for the students in comprehending english texts. the results of several tests given by the teachers showed that most of students received unsatisfactory scores in reading comprehension. they said it was difficult for them to find the main ideas and the detailed information in the texts in a short time because they had to read and translate the text word by word. students can actually use some strategies to develop their reading ability. reading strategy is defined as the way of accessing the meanings of the text which are employed flexibly and selectively in the course of reading (richard & schmidt, 2002, p. 444). using reading strategies has been believed to be helpful to successfully comprehend 140 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj passages despite the complex nature of reading process in the second language reading research (see bernhardt, 2005; grabe, 2004). one of reading strategies is metacognitive strategy. it functions to monitor or regulate cognitive strategies which involve thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring of comprehension or production while the learning process is running, and evaluating of learning at the end of learning activity (ozek & civelek, 2006, p. 2). such strategy is very critical for second/foreign language readers. ahmadi, et al. (2013, p. 235) suggest that learning metacognitive reading strategy can solve the problems faced by readers since it is the effective way to facilitate their reading comprehension in the field of english as a foreign language (efl) studies. as an important effort that students can use in improving their reading skill, the application of metacognitive strategy can be implemented differently by low performance students to result high performance ones. the results of many studies reveal that successful learners show a higher degree of metacognitive awareness, which enables them to use reading strategies more frequently than unsuccessful learners (zhang & wu, 2009). it means that poor readers rarely use reading strategy, whereas it is crucial for them to improve their reading ability. it has been revealed that readers’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies is closely linked to their language proficiency (zhang & seepho, 2013). sheorey and mokhtari (2001) examined the differences in the reported use of reading strategies of native (l1) and nonnative (l2) english speakers when reading academic materials. they found that students’ reading ability was related to their metacognitive awareness and the use of reading strategy while reading, and it showed that proficient l1 and l2 readers had higher degrees of metacognitive awareness than non-proficient readers. this present study, focuses on finding out the metacognitive reading strategies used by students at a senior high school in aceh besar in reading comprehension. in this study, it is only focused on metacognitive strategies proposed by mokhtari and reichard (2002) in which they classify metacognitive strategies in three categories, namely global reading strategies, problem solving strategies, and support strategies. literature review in reading activities, readers are expected to comprehend the meaning of the text being read. therefore, the main goal of reading is to extract and construct meaning from the text (see sweet & snow, 2002). comprehension aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 141 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj is therefore the proficiency to understand not only the words but also the ideas in a text and the relationships that may exist between them (mcnamara, 2007). in reading comprehension a complex cognitive ability is required to integrate the meaning of the text with the prior knowledge of the reader and resulting in the elaboration of a mental representation (meneghetti, carretti & de beni, 2006). having an ability to read in every kind of reading materials is crucial for efl students in learning english in order to acquire the excessive amounts of knowledge and information. reading becomes a viable means of developing l2 ability that can facilitate or hinder academic success for many l2 learners across educational contexts (gorsuch & taguchi, 2010). keshavarz and mobarra (2003) state that being able in reading is the main manifestation in learning a language because the better one can read the more learned he or she is expected to be. it can be inferred that reading is the most needed skill that students have to master in learning english. by reading, students will be able to gain much knowledge and information so that it is easier for them to master other skills in language learning. a. language learning strategy learning strategies have been described by wenden and rubin (1987, p. 19) as any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by learners to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information. these are usually applied consciously by learners and which may result in actions to improve the learning of a second or foreign language through the storage, retention, recall, and application of information about that language (cohen, 1990, p. 4). according to richards, platt and platt (1992, p. 209), learning strategies are intentional behavior and thoughts that learners use during learning in order to better enhance them understand, learn, or remember new information. chamot and o’malley (1990, p. 1) have argued that readers should use some special thoughts or behaviors in order to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information. as the concious processes learners used in solving problems in language task (kara, 2015, p. 20), learning strategies can be a useful means that will help learners enhance their learning. b. reading strategy reading strategies can help students in improving their reading ability. reading strategies have been defined as specific, deliberate, goal–directed mental processes or behaviors, which control and modify the reader’s efforts to decode a text, understand words and construct the meaning of a text 142 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (afflerbach, pearson & paris, 2008). according to tovani (2000, p. 5), reading strategies are flexible intentional plans that readers use to help themselves make sense of their reading and meet the demands of the reading task. mokhtari and sheorey (2002) have composed three components of strategy for reading: 1) intentional, carefully planned techniques by which readers manage their reading process, 2) actions and procedures that the readers utilize while working directly with a text, and 3) fundamental support mechanisms intended to aid their readers in decoding the text. reading strategies have also been classified into three main categories, those are: cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social affective strategies (chamot & o’malley, 1990). cognitive strategies involve direct interaction with the text that contributes to facilitate comprehension, operate directly on oncoming information, and manipulate it in ways to enhance learning. meanwhile, metacognitive strategies sequential processes that one uses to control cognitive activities. the other one is socio affective strategies which have close relationship with social-mediating activity and interacting with others. c. metacognitive strategy metacognitive strategies are referred to as sequential processes that people use to control cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive goal has been met (chamot & o’malley, 1990). metacognitive strategies are regarded as high order executive skills that make use of knowledge of cognitive processes and constitute an attempt to regulate ones’ own learning by means of planning, monitoring, and evaluating (zhang & seepho, 2013). mokharti and reichard (2002) view metacognitive reading strategy awareness as the interest not only for what they indicate about the ways students arrange their interaction with the context, but also for how the use of strategies is related to effective reading comprehension. mokhtari and reichard (2002), furthermore, categorize metacognitive reading stategies into three types, those are global reading strategies, problem solving strategies, and support strategies. according to mokhtari and reichard (2002), global reading strategies are the set of generalized, intentional reading strategies oriented toward a global analysis of text that aim at setting the stage for the reading act and thoroughly planned techniques readers use to monitor their reading (e.g., setting purpose for reading, previewing the structure of the text, and making prediction). problem solving strategies, on the other hand, are the localized and focused strategies which appear to be oriented toward solving problems aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 143 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj when a text becomes difficult to read. problem solving are also the actions which readers utilize in the process of working directly with the text. support strategies, in mokhtari and reichard’s (2002) view, are fundamental support mechanisms to help readers undertand the text (e.g using of outside reference materials, using dictionary, taking notes) and other practical strategies that might be described as functional or support strategies. d. the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy in reading metacognitive strategies in reading are those strategies that are designed to increase readers’ knowledge of awareness and control. when faced with reading difficulties in reading comprehension, learners tend to use some metacognitive strategies to cope with these difficulties (wen, 2003). phan (2006) says that metacognitive processes have been understood to play an essential part in achieving comprehension. sheorey and mokhtari (2001) also believe that knowing the metacognitive strategies and being aware of the strategies used may aid students to be responsive as well as to be able to construct meaning from the text. research method this descriptive qualitative research analyzed and described the application of metacognitive reading strategies conducted by low and high performance students based on the framework of marsi adapted from mokhtari and reichard (2002). it was conducted at senior haigh school (sma) 1 ingin jaya, greater aceh. this school is one of the excellent schools in aceh besar which is equipped with good facilities. the subject of this study was the students of the third grade that was class xiia1. in selecting the sample, the purposive sampling was used which means that these students were selected because of some aims. the students were divided into two groups, namely high performance students and low performance students. they were classified according to the mean score they got from daily reading tests given by their teacher. the students who had reached the minimal passing grade of 75 were in the high performance student group; meanwhile, the students who had not reached the score were classified into the low performance group. the data were obtained through distributing metacognitive awareness of reading strategies inventory (marsi) questionnaire designed by mokhtari and reichard (2002) to the students in order to find out the types of 144 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj metacognitive reading strategies applied by high performance students and low performance students and how often they use the certain types of strategies. the questionnaire consists of 30 statements which were translated into bahasa indonesia related to the types of metacognitive reading strategies (e.g. global reading strategies, problem solving strategies, and support reading strategies), and each statement was accompanied by a-5 point likert-type scale. the data were then analyzed based on the scoring rubric of metacognitive awareness of reading strategies inventory (marsi). results a. the application of metacognitive reading strategies used by all students the total number of respondents filled out the questionnaire were 28 students, in which 6 were males and 22 were females. their ages ranged from 16-18. from the results of the questionnaire it shows the students’ mean scores of overall and each subscales of reading strategies which indicated how often they use the strategies (overall strategies, global reading strategies (glob), problem solving strategies (prob), and support reading srategies (sup)). the averages of overall strategies of each student were resulted from the total scores for all statements divided by the number of overall strategies. likewise, the averages of three sub-categories of metacognitive strategies counted by dividing the sum of scores by the number of statements for each subscales as presented in table 1 below. table 1: students’ mean scores of the use of overall and three sub-categories of metacognitive strategies students overall score glob score prob score sup score std 1 2.5 2.0 3.8 2.2 std 2 2.4 2.1 2.5 2.9 std 3 2.5 2.3 2.8 2.6 std 4 2.3 2.0 2.6 2.3 std 5 2.6 2.6 3.0 2.3 std 6 2.5 1.8 3.0 3.0 std 7 3.0 2.7 3.8 2.9 std 8 3.5 3.2 3.9 3.6 std 9 2.7 2.4 2.5 3.4 aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 145 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj std 10 3.5 3.2 3.8 3.9 std 11 3.2 2.3 4.1 3.7 std 12 3.6 3.4 4.4 3.2 std 13 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.4 std 14 4.0 4.2 4.1 3.7 std 15 3.9 3.2 4.3 4.4 std 16 2.5 2.5 3.6 1.7 std 17 2.2 1.7 3.0 2.3 std 18 2.4 2.2 2.8 2.6 std 19 3.1 2.9 3.5 3.1 std 20 1.5 1.5 1.6 1,4 std 21 3.4 3.2 3.4 3.7 std 22 2.4 2.0 2.6 2.7 std 23 3.5 3.2 3.8 3.7 std 24 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.0 std 25 2.4 2.1 2.5 2.8 std 26 3.6 3.4 3.8 3.8 std 27 2.9 2.6 3.1 3.0 std 28 4.1 4.4 3.4 4.4 from the table above, it shows that the students got varied mean scores of metacognitive strategy usage which means that each student used the strategies in different frequency. based on the mean scores got by students as shown in the table above, they can be classified into three categories of metacognitive strategy use; those are low, medium, and high. as determined by mokhtari and reichard (2002) in scoring rubric of marsi, those who got the mean score 2.4 or lower were classified into low which means that they used the metacognitive strategies at least usage. if the mean score got was 2.5 to 3.4, it means that ones used these strategies at medium usage. furthermore, those who got mean score 3.5 or higher was classified into high usage of metacognitive strategies. according to this standard, therefore, the students can be classified into the three groups (low, medium, high) based on their mean scores obtained from the questionnaires. table 2 shows the classification of students’ overall strategies usage. studying the table, it can be inferred from the table that from the total of 28 students, 8 students (28.6%) were grouped into low usage, 12 students (42.8%) were grouped into medium usage, and 8 students (28.6%) were grouped into high usage. generally, the result reveals that most of students (71.4 % students from high and medium group) have had good metacognitive awareness of reading strategies which means that they tend to 146 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj use the metacognitive strategies frequently to cope with their problems in reading. however, there were still a number of students who showed low awareness of reading strategy in which leads them to rarely use strategies while reading. table 2: students’ overall strategies usage students overall score classification std 1 2.5 medium std 2 2.4 low std 3 2.5 medium std 4 2.3 low std 5 2.6 medium std 6 2.5 medium std 7 3.0 medium std 8 3.5 high std 9 2.7 medium std 10 3.5 high std 11 3.2 medium std 12 3.6 high std 13 2.3 low std 14 4.0 high std 15 3.9 high std 16 2.5 medium std 17 2.2 low std 18 2.4 low std 19 3.1 medium std 20 1.5 low std 21 3.4 medium std 22 2.4 low std 23 3.5 high std 24 3.3 medium std 25 2.4 low std 26 3.6 high std 27 2.9 medium std 28 4.1 high apart from overall reading strategies, there are also average scores of each student for the three sub-categories of metacognitive reading strategies. statistically, the sum of all items’ mean scores for each sub-category divided by the number of items in each category results the mean scores of each type of aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 147 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj strategies (global reading strategies, problem solving strategies, and support strategies). consequently, this result indicates the most favorable subcategories of strategies used by the students as presented in table 3 below table 3: students’ preference in using the three sub-categories of metacognitive strategies types of strategies mean prob 3.27 sup 3.02 glob 2.66 the table 3 above shows that the highest mean score was in problem solving strategies which automatically means that the students preferred to use this type mostly, followed by support strategies and global reading strategies. it can be said that generally when facing problems in reading, students used problem solving strategies frequently to overcome the problems as well as supported by support reading strategies and global reading strategies. the percentage of students’ usage of metacognitive reading strategies as explained before, the results from marsi questionnaire also showed the most and least frequency of each metacognitive reading strategy used by students. the result obtained from the mean score of each statement was represented from the total scores of each statement divided by the total number of students. the detail results were listed in the table below. table 4: frequency of metacognitive reading strategies used the most and the least strategy mean when text becomes difficult, i pay closer attention to what i’m reading. (prob) 3.82 i use reference materials such as dictionaries to help me understand what i read. (sup) 3.75 i read slowly but carefully to be sure i understand what i’m reading. (prob) 3.68 i try to get back on track when i lose concentration. (prob) 3.68 when text becomes difficult, i re-read to increase my understanding. (prob) 3.50 i have a purpose in mind when i read. (glob) 3.25 i discuss what i read with others to check my understanding. (sup) 3.25 148 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj i underline or circle information in the text to help me remember it. (sup) 3.18 i paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what i read. (sup) 3.18 i think about what i know to help me understand what i read. (glob) 3.14 i try to guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases. (prob) 3.07 when text becomes difficult, i read aloud to help me understand what i read. (sup) 3.04 i take notes while reading to help me understand what i read. (sup) 3.04 i preview the text to see what it’s about before reading it. (glob) 3.04 i go back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas in it. (sup) 2.96 i try to picture or visualize information to help remember what i read. (prob) 2.96 i check to see if my guesses about the text are right or wrong. (glob) 2.89 i check my understanding when i come across conflicting information. (glob) 2.79 i stop from time to time and think about what i’m reading. (prob) 2.75 i adjust my reading speed according to what i’m reading. (prob) 2.68 i decide what to read closely and what to ignore. (glob) 2.64 i think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose. (glob) 2.64 i skim the text first by noting characteristics like length and organization. (glob) 2.57 i try to guess what the material is about when i read. (glob) 2.57 i use tables, figures, and pictures in text to increase my understanding. (glob) 2.54 i ask myself questions i like to have answered in the text. (sup) 2.50 i summarize what i read to reflect on important information in the text. (sup) 2.32 i critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text. (glob) 2.21 i use typographical aids like bold face and italics to identify key information. (glob) 2.14 i use context clues to help me better understand what i’m reading. (glob) 2.14 the average score for each statement indicated how often the students use each strategy for the marsi questionnaire while reading english texts. as explained before, three levels of usage were identified low (average score of 2.4 or lower), medium (average score of 2.5 to 3.4), and high (average score of 3.5 aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 149 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj or higher). the statistical result as presented in table 4.4 above revealed that 5 of the 30 strategies (16.7%) fell in the high usage group, 21 strategies (70%) had mean scores between 2.5 and 3.25 which indicated medium usage of these strategies, and only 4 strategies (13.3%) were reported to be used with low frequency (mean scores below 2.4). this shows that the respondents mostly displayed medium awareness of metacognitive reading strategies. according to table 4, the most metacognitive reading strategy used by the students was “when text becomes difficult, i pay closer attention to what i’m reading” as problem solving strategy. moreover, “i use reference materials such as dictionaries to help me understand what i read” was the second most used of reading strategies applied by the students as support strategies. additionally, three of the strategies which is classified as problem solving strategies followed the two aforementioned strategies as the top five of the strategies used most; those were “i read slowly but carefully to be sure i understand what i’m reading”, “i try to get back on track when i lose concentration”, and “when text becomes difficult, i re-read to increase my understanding”. from the five strategies which is classified into high usage (mean= 3.503.82) as well as used most by the students, four out of the five strategies mentioned were problem solving strategies and only one was support strategies. this result is consistent with the fact that problem solving strategy was the most favorite strategy used by students as explained before. related to this result, it revealed that when the problems arose in reading, the students frequently used 1) problem solving strategies such as paying closer attention to the text, 2) reading slowly but carefully, 3) trying to get back when losing concentration, and 4) re-reading the text. it can be concluded that the students need more time available when reading because they are concentrating on the text to comprehend it by reading slowly and carefully, as well as when losing concentration, they are trying to get back to the text by rereading the text. in addition, they also applied support strategies which was using dictionaries to help them understand the text. because the students had problems in vocabulary mastery, dictionaries may be the essential aids for them in translating unknown vocabulary or phrases into bahasa indonesia so that they got the meaning of the text. therefore, setting much more time for reading can be a solution to let students applied those strategies and as a result they are able to comprehend the english texts well. it can be inferred from the findings that there were strategies which were identified as the least used. the bottom five metacognitive strategies used were 150 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj “i use context clues to help me better understand what i’m reading”, “i use typographical aids like bold face and italics to identify key information”, “i critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text”, “i summarize what i read to reflect on important information in the text”, and “i ask myself questions i like to have answered in the text.” four out of the bottom five metacognitive strategies used fell in the low usage which had a mean score between 2.14 and 2.32 and only one strategy that was classified into medium usage (mean score 2.50). furthermore, the three lowermost strategies were global strategies while two of the remaining strategies were support strategies.tthis is in line with the previous finding that global strategies and support strategies had lower mean score compared to problem solving strategies. it also indicates that the students rarely used global reading strategies particularly using context clues, using typographical aids to identify key information, and analyzing and evaluating the information in the text critically. students regard that it is hard to use context clues to comprehend the text because they did not really understand what the context clues itself is. besides, finding the key information in the text, it is also considered difficult by the students because it is an effect of their limited vocabulary, thus, they hardly ever used typographical aids to identify key information as a reading strategy. analyzing and evaluating the information in the text critically was applied infrequently by the students since this strategy seems complicated for them to do. the other two support strategies which were summarizing the text and asking themselves questions to be answered in the text indicated occasionally employed by the students when they are reading. it can be concluded that the students had not mastered these strategies to assist them in comprehending english text so that they have to learn about those strategies and use them when reading. b. the application of metacognitive reading strategies used by low and high performance students the application of metacognitive reading strategies applied by low and high performance students is revealed in the data analysis. there were 15 low performance students and 13 high performance students which henceforth were linked to their application of metacognitive strategies (see table 2 above which indicates the classification of students’ overall strategies usage). the following two tables presents the classification of overall metacognitive reading strategies usage applied by low performance students and high performance aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 151 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students respectively. according to the tables there is a difference of the average scores obtained by low and high performance students. in table 5, the students’ mean scores were between 1.5 and 3.0 which means that they applied metacognitive reading strategies in low and medium usage. from the total number of low performance students which were 15 students, 8 students (53.3%) fell into low usage, whereas 7 students (46.7%) fell into medium usage with average scores 2.5-3.0. it shows that most of these students got low mean scores, whereas, there was none of the students, who got high mean scores. it means that these students were not ready to adopt metacognitive reading strategies in understanding english texts and it was the cause for the metacognitive awareness of applying reading strategies to low performance students, which is still far from the expectations of the teacher. table 5: the application of overall metacognitive reading strategies used by low performance students students mean classification std 1 2.5 medium std 2 2.4 low std 3 2.5 medium std 4 2.3 low std 5 2.6 medium std 6 2.5 medium std 7 3.0 medium std 13 2.3 low std 16 2.5 medium std 17 2.2 low std 18 2.4 low std 20 1.5 low std 22 2.4 low std 25 2.4 low std 27 2.9 medium in contrast to table 5, table 6 shows the mean scores received by high performance students which had a range between 2.7 and 4.1. it indicates that they applied metacognitive reading strategies in medium and high usage. only 5 of 13 students (38.5%) were reported, however, to apply in medium usage, where the remaining 8 students (61.5%) fell into high usage. interestingly, none of the high performance students were grouped in low usage. it means 152 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj that high performance students not only got good scores in reading but also they tend to got high mean scores in this inventory which showed that they were aware to use metacognitive reading strategies when the difficulties in reading appeared. table 6: the application of overall metacognitive reading strategies used by high performance students students mean classification std 8 3.5 high std 9 2.7 medium std 10 3.5 high std 11 3.2 medium std 12 3.6 high std 14 4.0 high std 15 3.9 high std 19 3.1 medium std 21 3.4 medium std 23 3.5 high std 24 3.3 medium std 26 3.6 high std 28 4.1 high of the research also makes use of the marsi questionnaire, which revealed that the application of metacognitive reading strategies used by low performance students differs from high performance students. although both groups fell into medium usage, none of the low performance students used the strategies in high usage. on the contrary, none of the high performance students reported to use the strategies in low usage. in line with this, it can be argued that high performance students showed high awareness of metacognitive strategies which leads them to use reading strategies frequently, whereas low performance students find it hard to use those strategies in enhancing their reading proficiency. it suggests that the students’ awareness of applying metacognitive reading strategies is closely linked to their reading proficiency. therefore, those who have problems in reading can take into consideration to apply metacognitive reading strategies since these strategies will be effective to assist them to cope with the problems likeexperienced by the high performance students. aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 153 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 7: low and high performance students’ preference in using the three subcategories of metacognitive strategies students types of strategies mean low performance students prob 2.88 sup 2.47 glob 2.14 high performance students prob 3.72 sup 3.66 glob 3.26 the mean scores of overall strategies obtained by students can be analyzed further by using the three sub-scales of strategies (global strategies, problem solving strategies, and support strategies) result, which weremostly used by the students. the following table 8 and 9 presents both low and high performance students’ favorite types of strategies. table 8: frequency of metacognitive reading strategies used the most and the least by low performance students top five metacognitive reading strategies bottom five metacognitive reading strategies i use reference materials such as dictionaries to help me understand what i read. (sup) i critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text. (glob) i try to get back on track when i lose concentration. (prob) i use typographical aids like bold face and italics to identify key information. (glob) when text becomes difficult, i pay closer intention to what i’m reading. (prob) i use context clues to help me better understand what i’m reading. (glob) i try to guess meaning of unknown words or phrases. (prob) i summarize what i read to reflect on important information in the text. (sup) i read slowly but carefully to be sure i understand what i’m reading. (prob) i discuss what i read with others to check my understanding. (sup) it can be inferred from the table above that both low and high performance students seem to prefer using problem solving strategies rather 154 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj than support strategies and global strategies even though these two groups attained different mean scores for each type of strategies. it shows that high performance students obtained higher mean scores than low performance students for each type. it is an agreement with the findings explained in previous section that generally all students prefered to use problem solving strategies followed by support strategies and global strategies. it also demonstrates that high performance students tend to get higher mean scores than low performance students not only for overall strategies but also for the three sub-categories of metacognitive strategies. considering the types of strategies preferred by the students, the strategies used most and least by both groups of students can be also analyzed by adding up the score of each statement, and then divided by the total number of students from each group. the following tables show the strategies used most and least by both groups of students the in more detail. table 9: frequency of reading strategies used the most and the least by high performance students top five metacognitive reading strategies bottom five metacognitive reading strategies i read slowly but carefully to be sure i understand what i’m reading. (prob) i use tables, figures, and pictures in the text to increase my understanding. (glob) when text becomes difficult, i pay closer intention to what i’m reading. (prob) i stop from time to time and think about what i’m reading. (prob) when text becomes difficult, i re-read to increase my understanding. (prob) i summarize what i read to reflect on important information in the text. (sup) when text becomes difficult, i read aloud to to help me understand what i read. (sup) i try to guess that the material is about when i read. (glob) i use reference materials such as dictionaries to help me understand what i read. (sup) i check to see if my guesses about the text are right or wrong. (glob) the two tables above revealed that both low and high performance students used such strategies mostly as using reference materials (dictionaries), paying closer attention to the text and reading slowly but carefully to understand the text. however, high performance students were helped by reaziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 155 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reading the text and reading aload when text becomes difficult, while low performance students tend to try to get back when losing concentration and guessing unknown words or phrases. the strategies used most by low performance students seem to be almost the same with high performance students which means that those strategies were helpful for them. though, the frequency of using these strategies was significantly different for both of groups. the differences can be seen in applying the least used strategies. the low performance students had difficulty in analyzing and evaluating information critically, identifying key information, using context clues, summarizing the text, and rarely discuss with others for better understanding. the high performance students are seen occasionally using tables, figures, and pictures in the text, stopping from time to time to think about the text, summarizing the text, guessing the material, and checking the guesses about whether or not the text is right or wrong. from the explanation above, it can be summarized that in applying the metacognitive reading strategies, low and high performance students preferred the same type of having problem solving strategies. this supported the reading strategies and global reading strategies. discussion reading is one of the four language skills which has to be mastered by students in achieving their english learning goals at school,which answers the curriculum’s demands. mastering this skill will not only be useful for students’ achievements in learning english formally, but also it is essential in their daily life to access the richness of information. however, comprehending english texts is still considered hard by most students as a consequence of their lack of vocabulary mastery and grammar knowledge. applying reading strategies can be taken into consideration to have good impact for students so that they are able to comprehend english text. among the strategies, metacognitive reading strategies are believed to be the effective aids in helping students to overcome their problems in reading. as informed earlier, the resaerch s found that the strategies used by the students were problem solving strategies such as paying closer intention to the text, reading slowly but carefully to be sure, trying to get back when losing concentration, and re-reading for better understanding. this result coincides 156 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 138 159 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj with the findings in genc (2011, p. 654) who studied the reading strategies used by low proficient efl learners in turkey. they found that the problem solving strategies especially for the statements stated above fell into the high usage and were most frequently used by the students. furthermore, using reference materials (dictionaries) to increase understanding as support strategies which also fell in the high usage was considered as the top five mostly used strategy is in accordance with genc’s (2011, p. 654) study. the findings also indicated that the least frequently used strategies in which fell into low usage were global strategies. however, compared to support strategies, global strategies was in the lowest position. the students were not ready to adopt some strategies like using context clues, identifying key information, critically analyzing and evaluating text, summarizing text, and asking self questions in solving their difficulties in reading. this result is a little bit different with genc’s (2011, p. 654) in which they found that support strategies were the least frequently used compared to global strategies. one possible explanation of this difference can be the result of different culture, teachers, motivation, personality, and so on. nevertheless, the two stated studies’ findings above that the lowest usage of critically analyzing the text and asking self questions are in line with this present study. generally, based on statistical result, it showed that high performance students were better in showing metacognitive awareness which made them to use the strategies more frequently than low performance students. although they tend to use the same types, however, it indicated a significant dissimilarity in frequency. this result was supported by zhang & wu (2009) who stated that successful learners showed a higher degree of metacognitive awareness, which led them to use reading strategies more efficiently than unsuccessful learners. in addition, sheorey and mokhtari (2001) also added that proficient readers showed higher degrees of metacognitive awareness than non-proficient readers which enabled them to use more strategies. moreover, in her study, kara (2015, p.20) revealed that in overcoming the problems in the text, proficient readers applied more strategies. based on the explanation above, the fact that high performance students showed higher degree of metacognitive awareness which enabled them to use the strategies more frequently than low performance students, to revealthat reading proficiencywas positively related to metacognitive awareness of using reading strategies, was in accordance with zhang and seepho’s research. like zhang and seepho’s (2013) this study indicated that there was a significant aziz, z.a. nasir, c. & ramazani, applying metacognitive strategies in 157 comprehending english reading tests https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj positive correlation between metacognitive strategy use and english reading achievement. referring to all the facts explained before, applying metacognitive reading strategies in reading has been proven to be an effective solution in overcoming problems in reading that may appear. this result has been supported by sheorey and mokhtari (2001) who believed that knowing the metacognitive strategies and being aware of the strategies used may aid students to comprehend the text. phan (2006) also supported that metacognitive strategies play an essential part in achieving comprehension. conclusion the marsi questionnaire revealed that most students have applied metacognitive reading strategies in high and medium usage rather than low usage. from the total number of students, 8 students (28.6%) showed high usage, 12 students (42.8%) fell into medium usage, and 8 students (28.6%) had low mean scores which indicated they were in low usage. the most favorable of three sub-scales of metacognitive reading strategies used by all students was problem solving strategies, followed by support strategies and global strategies respectively. this article also that high performance students tend to show higher degree of metacognitive awareness which assist them to use reading strategies more frequently than low performance students. in addition, both low and high performance learners preferred to use problem solving strategies, followed by support strategies and global strategies respectively even though they showed significantly different results in the frequency of using those strategies. references afflerbach, p., pearson, p. d., & paris, s. g. 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(1992). longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. essex: longman. sheorey, r., & mokhtari, k. (2001). differencess in the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies among native and non-native readers. system, 29, 431-449. sweet, a. p. & snow, c. (2002). reconceptualizing reading comprehension. in c. c. block, l. b. gambrell, m. pressley (eds.), improving comprehension instruction (pp. 17-53). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. tovani, c. (2000). i read it, but i don’t get it: comprehension strategies for adolescent readers. portland, maine: stenhouse publishers. wen, q. f. (2003). the successful way of learning english. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. wenden, a. l. & rubin, j. (1987). learner strategies in language learning. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. zhang, l. & seepho, s. (2013). metacognitive strategy use and academic reading achievement: insights from a chinese context. electronic journal of foreign language teaching , 10 (1), 54-69. zhang, l. j. & wu, a. (2009). chinese senior high school efl students’ metacognitive awareness and reading-strategy. reading in a foreign language, 21(1), 37-59. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia “you sure there's nothing more to say?”: indonesian youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements 1bobi guntarto and 2nurina sevrina 1journalism department, faculty of communication science, universitas multimedia nusantara, tangerang, indonesia; 2yayasan pengembangan media anak (ypma), jakarta, indonesia email: 1bobi.guntarto@umn.ac.id; 2nurinasevrina@gmail.com received: 15-06-2019 accepted: 05-07-2019 published: 31-07-2019 mailto:1bobi.guntarto@umn.ac.id mailto:2nurinasevrina@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj “you sure there's nothing more to say?”: indonesian youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements 1bobi guntarto and 2nurina sevrina 1bobi.guntarto@umn.ac.id, 2nurinasevrina@gmail.com 1journalism department, faculty of communication science, multimedia nusantara university, tangerang, indonesia 2yayasan pengembangan media anak (ypma), jakarta, indonesia abstract: local identity, to some extent, has been influenced by globalization, mainly through the new media. as a form of digital media, youtube video advertisements play a crucial part in promoting global products to the locals. in indonesia, the majority of youtube visitors are young people; thus, young people have become the main targets of the advertisements. the video advertisements may contain representation, values or references of youth culture, which are critical for young people in building their identity. this paper sets forth to explore indonesian youtube advertisements of line, an instant messaging (im) application developed by naver korean company. the authors examine line youtube video advertisements using textual analysis, in order to learn the portrayal of indonesian youth culture on the videos. digital media, bahasa gaul, and traditional or dominant cultures, as well as social connectivity, are essential for indonesian youths in shaping youth culture and their identity. the title of this paper “you sure there’s nothing more to say?” is taken from one of the dialogues in the videos, which implies that youth culture and identity portrayed in the advertisements appreciate face-to-face social communication of young people more than individualization. it is also argued that if used aptly, youtube video advertisements could contribute effectively to preserving local identity as a strategy of glocalization; thus, not all advertisements of global corporations may threat local identity. guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 69 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: glocalization, youtube ads, indonesia, identity, youth culture abstrak: globalisasi telah mempengaruhi identitas lokal pada taraf tertentu, terutama melalui media baru. sebagai salah satu bentuk media digital, video iklan youtube berperan penting dalam mempromosikan produk-produk global kepada masyarakat lokal. pengunjung situs youtube terbanyak di indonesia adalah anak muda. oleh karena itu, anak muda di indonesia menjadi target dari iklaniklan yang terdapat di youtube. video iklan tersebut dapat mengandung representasi, nilai, atau referensi budaya anak muda (youth culture), yang merupakan bagian utama untuk kaum muda membangun identitas mereka. makalah ini mengeksplorasi video iklan indonesia yang diproduksi oleh line, sebuah aplikasi ponsel untuk instant messaging yang pertama kali dikembangkan oleh perusahaan korea selatan bernama naver. video iklan youtube line diteliti melalui kajian tekstual (textual analysis) untuk mempelajari bagaimana youth culture tercermin dalam video iklan line. media digital, bahasa gaul, budaya tradisional dan dominan, dan juga hubungan sosial merupakan hal-hal penting bagi anak muda indonesia untuk membentuk youth culture dan identitas mereka. judul makalah ini “you sure there’s nothing more to say?” yang diambil dari salah satu dialog pemeran dalam video menyiratkan bahwa youth culture dan identitas dalam video iklan lebih menitikberatkan pada budaya anak muda yang mengapresiasi komunikasi tatap muka secara langsung daripada individualisasi. jika digunakan secara bijak, video iklan youtube dapat berperan secara efektif dalam menjaga identitas lokal sebagai salah satu strategi glokalisasi. maka dari itu, tidak semua iklan dari perusahaan global merugikan identitas lokal. kata kunci: glokalisasi, iklan youtube, indonesia, identitas, budaya anak muda introduction globalization plays a significant part for young people through digital media. besides using digital media for staying updated particular trends or lifestyles, young people also use it to spread ideas or styles that they have created. in other words, youths give impacts and are influenced by globalization. 70 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in this globalization era, young people and digital media are associated with youth culture. youth culture is a collective expression of youth’s social experiences through constructing distinct lifestyles in leisure time and formal life (feixa and nofre, 2012). buckingham (2008) asserts that studies on youth culture and its relations to digital media have focused on two essential perspectives. one is the view on the way young people use the media, which depends on their social situation. two is on how the media provide symbolic resources for young people to construct their identity. similarly, feixa and nofre (2012) state that youth culture could be learned from young people's “social conditions”—the generation, class, ethnic, or gender—as well as “cultural images”—the perceived ideas and symbols assigned or taken by young people, such as music, languages, and practices (p. 2). studying youth culture from the perspective of cultural images is crucial, especially in this globalized world. it provides an understanding of symbolic attributes or cultural phenomena assigned and taken by young people in the age of globalization. analyzing youth culture through the perspective of social conditions will result in different characteristics for each territorial identity. therefore, this study aims to take a viewpoint on cultural images and analyses how youth culture is represented in youtube video advertisements. youtube is one of the most visited sites today. the regular users of youtube are young people (perrin in dehghani, niaki, ramezani, & sali, 2016). youtube was founded in 2005 as a platform where users can view, post, and share videos online as well as leave comments to the video (dehghani et al., 2016). since being owned by google, youtube has become a site dominated by professional and commercial videos (morreale, 2014). there are various types of youtube advertisements, including video advertisements which can appear before, during or after the main video (google, n.d.a). in this respect, youtube has become a more useful site for promoting global values on the locals. while previous studies have focused on marketing effectiveness through social media (hajli, 2014; rohm, kaltcheva, & milne, 2013), the content of youtube video advertisement has never been analyzed. discussing video advertisement content is prominent because not only it targets young people primarily but its content may also provide resources for young people in forming an identity. particularly in the case of youtube, dehghani et al. (2016) posit that youtube advertisements have a significant influence on young people’s purchase intention due to its relevance to youth lifestyles. as a form of media, video advertisement contributes to attracting young people guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 71 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj into the culture of consumption (best, 2011); naafs & white, 2012). best (2011) adds that the culture of consumption leads young people to build their identity as an individual or as a group member. for instance, they change their styles of hair, clothing, or choices of transportation in order to define themselves and the group where they belong. in response to the issue of globalization in youth’s life, this paper examines a case study of youtube video advertisements of line, an instant messaging (im) application developed by naver korean company. as an im application, line is recognized as one of the top mobile applications downloaded by internet users in indonesia (bohang, 2017). due to the popularity of the line application in indonesia, its video advertisements may have an impact on a large group of the young generation in indonesia, as the primary user of the internet. thus, line video advertisements on youtube become a relevant topic to be raised. this study is motivated by a research question: how is the representation of youth culture in line youtube video advertisements? the researchers aim to analyze the portrayal of local indonesian youth culture in youtube video advertisements released by a global corporation as an impact of globalization on the locals. as previously discussed, besides youtube advertisements have significant effects on young people, its content may also affect the formation of youth identity for them. therefore, it is crucial to investigate further how video advertisements portray youth culture, which may contribute to the ways indonesian youths construct their identity in a globalized world. literature review a. youth culture in the globalization era globalization is the era where digital media strongly influence youth culture. digital media enables locals to experience global values and to connect cultures among nations (buckingham & kehily, 2014). because young people are among the locals who make use of new media daily, it is easy for them to express themselves, learn, and experience other cultures through digital media. lukose (2014) suggests that young people are recognized as the vanguard in globalization, specifically in using new media, including social media and other digital technologies. it is a tool for young people to communicate with others and represent themselves (buckingham 72 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj & kehily, 2014). besides, the new media content may give young people an image of what they need to be (buckingham, 2008). furthermore, youth culture has impacts on how young people establish their identity. culture is the collection of learned perceptions that individuals apply in making meaning of their identity (heaven & tubridy, 2003). the media consumption, symbolic meaning, representation, and consumption practices enable the constitution of youth identity (mccreanor, greenaway, barnes, gregory, 2005). therefore, similar to youth culture, establishing youth identity is closely related to digital media. one of the primary factors in building an identity for young people is digital media practice (drotner, 2008; stald, 2008). according to brown (cited in ward, 2003), regarding the relationship between young people and the media, they are the ones who utilize digital media for spreading cultural pursuits and are influenced by their actions on digital media. in globalization, young people are both the agents and targets of global media products, such as lifestyles, fashion, language, and music (best, 2011; buckingham & kehily, 2014; lukose, 2014). it is essential not to overlook the existence of society or groups when discussing youth identity. even though numbers of scholars of modern studies agree that the use of digital technology of young people leads to individualization, identification with others whom young people assume similar to them is what constructs youth identity (buckingham, 2008). best (2011) adds that young people try various kinds of identifications in order to get an acquisition in their ethnic or peer groups. additionally, they use digital media, particularly mobile phones, to expand their networks, to create groups, and to gain group recognition for establishing their youth identity. it is through online chatting and im that young people learn about communication for further exploration of their identity (buckingham, 2008). to a certain extent, some often consider that youth culture and its association with the new media are negative issues. the press coverage mostly covers the risks and misuses of digital media and technologies for young people (burgess & green, 2009). news and other mainstream media tend to portray young people as dangerous and rebellious (heaven & tubridy, 2003; levinsen & wien, 2011). nevertheless, ward (2003) argues that it is the consumers, who choose to absorb those portrayals on the media. moreover, the media representation is not the descriptions of the real young people are in life (buckingham, 2008). thus, at the age of globalization, it is vital to guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 73 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj notice that young people are expected to be responsible of what they consume because they are the ones who have been using the new media to get informed or to spread cultural pursuits. in summary, globalization has exerted its effects on youth culture, primarily through digital media. youth culture is closely related to how young people build identity. in this regard, the new media, society and groups hold a crucial part. youths have become agents of spreading cultures, lifestyles, and trends in order to express themselves in the globalization era. at the same time, they are the targets of the global products and might also take examples of what they want to be from the global values that they have experienced. globalization also affects indonesian youths. the following discussion will focus on youth culture, particularly in indonesia. b. youth culture in indonesia young people in indonesia commonly have been influenced by globalization. the geographical factors and social conditions contribute to determining how globalization would affect young people (buckingham & kehily, 2014). thus, the majority of indonesian youths experience globalization in their ways. due to their proximity to access to new media, young people who live in the city tend to keep updated about the current global trends (setiawan in naafs & white, 2012). on the other hand, the ones who are a little unfortunate financially, they consume products that bayat and herrera (cited in naafs & white, 2012, p. 13) call as “cheap globalization”, for instance buying fake global-brand shirts or listening to pirated international cds. global lifestyles are pervasive among young people in indonesia and drive them to establish a unique youth identity. the association of young people with global media products, such as music, fashion, mobile phone, and the internet, is identified as being gaul (‘companionable/affable’) (slama, 2010, p.320). the development of the media in globalization has resulted in a “global lingua franca” (e.g., in the form of a tv channel or celebrity lifestyles) for young people (buckingham & kehily, 2014, p. 9). although indonesian young people may live in different parts of indonesia, to a certain extent they consume similar global products and act correspondingly. furthermore, new media and technology have become crucial to indonesian young people. online interactions and mobile phones are spaces where they can fulfil their emotional needs (slama, 2010; stald, 2008). 74 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj according to slama (2010), some examples of emotional needs are making friends online, having a discussion about their private life with their online peers, managing their personal feelings, and experiencing romance. hence, consuming global trend is significant for young people to construct their identity and to communicate their existence and sense of belonging within their peer groups (best, 2011). additionally, globalization has impacted language usage and learning. although many indonesians love their local languages and use bahasa indonesia daily, they have started to study foreign languages and incorporate them into communication (zentz in cohn & ravindranath, 2014). the majority of indonesian young people also use a foreign language, mainly english, for communication (tamtomo, 2012). therefore, languages play a role in constructing not only youth identity but also indonesian local identity. a user’s identity may be revealed through the use of language in dialogues and other communicative elements (stald, 2008). besides english, indonesian young people tend to use indonesian youth language or bahasa gaul. bahasa gaul is “a speech variety associated with indonesian youth and based on indonesia’s national language”, containing abbreviations of original bahasa indonesia as well as borrowings from the local and english language (smith-hefner, 2007, p. 184). because young people in general using bahasa gaul only among their peers, this youth language supports the construction of youth identity. indonesian young people are still primarily using national language (bahasa indonesia) or their local language. in order to show local identity, indonesian youths switch back and forth speaking in bahasa gaul, bahasa indonesia, and local language during a conversation (tamtomo, 2012). as an impact of globalization, new media contribute spreading youth language among young people, hence, increasing its appeal to indonesian youths regardless of their ethnic groups (smith-hefner, 2007). however, the embrace of global lifestyles by indonesian youth is often regarded as disrespecting the traditional or dominant cultures. in this context, youth culture is also referred to youth subcultures, which exist commonly as confrontations or rejections to the dominant or parent culture (buckingham, 2008; heaven & tubridy, 2003). indonesian young people’s lifestyles are often criticized for symbolizing "too much materialism, individualism and a loss of important cultural and religious values" (naafs & white, 2012, p. 14). for instance, slama’s (2010) study reveals that internet guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 75 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chatting is opposing javanese culture. online chatting enables the users, particularly women, to talk openly about anything, yet, javanese women are expected to be more embarrassed and remain calm when talking to other people (slama, 2010). furthermore, as a form of slang, bahasa gaul is considered by many as destroying the proper indonesian language (smithhefner, 2007). perceiving youth culture as resisting the traditional culture is a matter of perspectives. studies focusing on adult and parents’ point of views are commonly the ones which state that youth culture is against the dominant culture (buckingham, 2008; buckingham & kehily, 2014; naafs & white, 2012). however, young people have the desire to establish an identity which can distinguish them from other groups—mainly adults and children (heaven & tubridy, 2003). slama (2010) and smith-hefner (2007) argue that the practice of youth culture stays within young people’s private sphere, which means that they carry it out among their groups. it is uncommon for young people to use bahasa gaul when communicating with adults or to become more open in public than in online chatting. moreover, valera (2014) asserts that even though global products influence local youths, they are not ready to resist traditional values or accepting global values unquestioningly. young people also show keen interest in the global cultures which incorporate traditional elements, such as manggarai rap music in east nusa tenggara (yuliantari, 2016). therefore, in understanding youth culture, it is paramount to evade adults' authority and try to comprehend from the young people's perspective instead. the latter perspective will lead to the importance of examining the social experiences, lifestyles, and behavior that young people commonly consume and do. to conclude, globalization gives impacts on young people's relations with global media products, notably the internet and mobile phones. the new media are the primary source for young people to access global trends and the tools for them to create their lifestyles. the use of mobile phone, the internet, online chatting as well as youth language are some of the reflections of what indonesian embrace to form their identity. although many parents and adults recognize their cultures as opposing the traditional culture, for young people, youth culture is their desire to constitute their identity in a society and is mostly being practiced within their peers privately. 76 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology this project is a qualitative analysis of the portrayal of youth culture in youtube video advertisements produced by line corporation. in this globalized era where the internet is integral to young people’s lives, youtube is one of the most visited sites by young people and eventually, advertisements on youtube influence a large number of young people (dehghani et al., 2016). moreover, google has released the indonesia youtube ads leaderboard, which listed two of line youtube advertisements in the top five in 2014 and 2016: line aadc 2014 mini drama and line indonesia tvc – hari pertama kerja itu rasanya… respectively (deliusno, 2015; deliusno, 2017). the algorithms of organic (popularity) and paid (promotion) views, watch time, as well as audience retention are the factors determining the ranking list (google, n.d.b). this paper selected the two videos mentioned above because not only the fact that the videos have gained popularity among youtube visitors but the videos also have the higher possibilities for attracting young people as the main visitors of youtube. the research question focuses on the representation of youth culture on line youtube video advertisements. in order to answer that, textual analysis is a suitable method. the textual analysis enables the researchers “to try to obtain a sense of the ways in which in particular cultures, at particular times, people make sense of the world around them” (mckee, 2003, p.1). it is a method to understand the most likely interpretations and descriptions of a text (frey, botan, & kreps, 1999; (mckee, 2001). mckee (2003) assert that this methodology does not try to find the truth or accuracy behind a text; it focuses on the ways “texts tell their stories, how they represent the world, and how they make sense of it” (p. 17). meanwhile, the qualitative approach is used to delve further into the meanings associated with the text (frey, botan, & kreps, 1999). the videos were watched several times to examine the visual and auditory parts that depict the main characters’ development as well as circumstances in order to build their identity. each video advertisement has a unique narrative. the plot is crucial to be included in the analysis because it gives valuable insight into the progress of the main characters’ interaction with others, which constructing youth identity relevant to the theoretical frameworks. guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 77 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj line video advertisements line aadc 2014 mini drama (line indonesia, 2014) tells a story about the reunion of cinta and rangga, the main characters of 2002 indonesian film ada apa dengan cinta (aadc). cinta and rangga were in a relationship during high school. however, they had to break up because rangga moved to new york, leaving cinta behind in jakarta. since then, they have lost contact with each other. twelve years later, when rangga has a business trip to jakarta, he decides to text cinta on line application and invites her for a reunion. cinta is surprised to get the text from rangga and confused whether she should meet him or not. because cinta is not replying to rangga’s texts until his last day in jakarta, rangga apologizes to cinta through line chat. he is about to leave the waiting room at the airport when cinta approaches him from behind. surprised, rangga walks towards cinta, and they smiled at each other. in the end, rangga and cinta finally mend their relationship. line indonesia tvc – hari pertama kerja itu rasanya (line indonesia, 2016) presents denny’s first day of work in jakarta. at his new office, he meets lina, another new member. while lina seems to be working hard during the day, denny feels like he is the only one doing the worthless job. then, he finds out that everyone else, including lina, is working together via line application on their computers. later that day, denny’s manager asks him to run errands. however, during his duty, he lost the flash drive his manager gave to him. thus, he asks lina for the file, which then she sends through line application on the computer. to return lina’s kindness, he decides to buy some foods for lina on the way back to the office. when denny texts lina to ask what kind of foods she likes, he realizes that he has mistaken lina’s chat room with the office group chat room. consequently, his co-workers order the food and denny has to buy the foods for all of them. finally, all the members at denny’s new office gather happily and eat the meals. results and discussions globalization serves local young people channels to global products and lifestyles. young people’s association with global trends becomes crucial in constructing youth identity. line youtube video advertisements play a role in maintaining the cultural image of youth that may influence the way indonesian young people build their identity. the observations of the 78 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj portrayals of indonesian youth culture in the advertisements settle on youth’s relationships with digital media, language, traditional cultures, and social groups. a. digital media in the globalization era, young people have easy access to digital media. digital media provide young people with symbolic references to build their youth identity (buckingham, 2008). one of the symbols is online chatting on the mobile phone. not only it is useful for communication but it also allows the users to fulfil their emotional experience (stald, 2008). aadc and hari pertama portray young people as consumers of digital media. both video advertisements represent how youth and digital media, particularly mobile phones and the internet, are inseparable. owning a mobile phone is considered essential in youth culture (slama, 2010). the main characters in the videos, cinta, rangga, denny, and lina, seem to be engaging with mobile phones not only when they are working but also during leisure time. furthermore, mobile phones are connected to the internet, which enables them to communicate through line, the im application on their mobile phones. particularly in hari pertama, denny and lina also use line on computers in the workplace. in order to fulfil their emotional experience, the main characters are expressing emotions through online chatting. therefore, expressing emotions is vital in forming youth identity. they experience feelings such as sorrow and regret for rangga in aadc, and grateful for denny in hari pertama from the online conversations they have on line. through online chatting, rangga in aadc contacts cinta to meet up and asks her for forgiveness as well. similarly, denny in hari pertama is intended to thank lina’s kindness by asking what food she wants to eat through instant messaging. these portrayals create an image of youth as an individual who appears to be more open through online chatting or im. it follows slama’s study in 2010 on young people’s way of utilizing internet chatting as a medium to communicate their personal feelings. similarly, stald (2008) state that mobile phone is the mediator for its users to express their feeling. to conclude, aadc and hari pertama have portrayed youth identity which closely related to digital media in this globalized era. the advertisements suggest that im enables young people to have easy access and to connect with others living far from them. besides, the videos convey that guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 79 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj digital media influence young people to be expressive about their thoughts and feelings. b. youth language the use of language for young people in indonesia signifies their youth and local identity. globalization has influenced the majority of indonesian young people to learn and speak english. indonesian youths also use indonesian youth language or bahasa gaul, which consists of bahasa indonesia, local language, and the english language (smith-hefner, 2007). the usage of bahasa indonesia and local language borrowings in bahasa gaul depicts how local identity plays part in youth language (tamtomo, 2012). young people in aadc and hari pertama have depicted the use of bahasa indonesia mainly, with the incorporation of the english language and bahasa gaul when communicating with each other. the characters in aadc and hari pertama borrow english words into their dialogues. in aadc, when cinta shows rangga’s chats with her friends, one of cinta’s friends says, “hah? kok dia nggak pake profile picture sih? (‘huh? why does not he use any profile pictures?’)” (line indonesia, 2014, t. 03:19). cinta also mixes bahasa indonesia and english language when she says, “gue masih belom juga nih bales message-nya rangga (‘i have not replied to rangga’s message’)” (line indonesia, 2014, t. 05:57). the word “message” is repeated a few times in aadc when referring to the texts received or sent through the line application. the borrowed english words mentioned above have proper bahasa indonesia terms, for instance, “profile picture” means foto profil; “message” means pesan. however, the characters in aadc prefer to use the english terms to the ones in bahasa indonesia. additionally, cinta communicates in english with her co-worker, yet, it is unknown whether or not cinta is working in an international corporation through the video only. hari pertama video mainly consists of denny’s voice-over, unlike in aadc video which contains dialogues and narrations of the main characters. however, similar to aadc, denny’s narration in hari pertama contains a mixture of english language. some of the borrowed english words in denny’s narration are the features of the line application, such as “group chats”, “note”, “line today”, and “id”. moreover, denny also borrows english words to replace some words in bahasa indonesia. when he rides a bus and decides to read the news, he says, “baca ‘line today’ dulu ah, biar update (‘i 80 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj am going to read line today first to stay updated’)” (line indonesia, 2016, t.0:10). furthermore, denny uses english words such as “meeting”, “log in”, “perfect” and “file”, replacing its bahasa indonesia terms for rapat, masuk, sempurna, and berkas, respectively. furthermore, the video advertisements also portray the use of local language borrowings in bahasa gaul. most of the local borrowings in both videos are from javanese and jakarta local language. javanese-borrowed words that repeatedly appear in both aadc and hari pertama are pantes (‘proper/fitting’) and banget (‘very/excessively’). compared to javanese borrowings, gaul words which adopted from local dialect jakarta are more frequent to be featured in the dialogues and narrations in both video advertisements. in aadc, some of these words are gue (‘i’), lo (‘you’), sebenernya (‘actually’), nunjukkin (‘to show/convey’), and pengen (‘to want’). meanwhile, in hari pertama, words such as cewek (‘girl’), tukeran (‘to exchange’), ngerjain (‘to work’), and bener (‘correct/right’) are used often. in addition to young people’s speech style, language symbols also appear visually in aadc and hari pertama. the main characters use english as their language setting of the line application on their phones. however, when the characters are texting each other via line, they are using bahasa indonesia and bahasa gaul. therefore, one can assume that cinta, rangga, denny, and lina are familiar and able to understand english, even though it is not their native language. the video advertisements have portrayed youth language use through the visual and auditory aspects. as globalization impact, young people in the videos suggest that it is common for using bahasa gaul and the english language for communication. the video advertisements also imply that the language switch and incorporation of bahasa gaul with english, bahasa indonesia, and local language are factors that establish youth identity and the way young people preserving local identity as indonesians. c. traditional and dominant cultures what is interesting about these video advertisements is the portrayal of youth culture that embraces traditional and dominant cultural values. this is against an idea, which saying that youth culture is rejecting traditional values due to globalization (giddens in best, 2011). it indicates that indonesian youth are not willing to reject the values of previous generation altogether guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 81 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (valera, 2014). the narrative and the setting of the video advertisements play a significant role in representing dominant values embraced by young people. indonesian poems are the highlight of the traditional culture in aadc. cinta and rangga appear to love indonesian poems. they have a biography of a notable indonesian poet in the history titled aku. furthermore, cinta and rangga’s narration on aadc is in the style of indonesian poem. contrasted with their use of english language daily, their interest in indonesian literacy is well-represented throughout the video advertisements. the setting on hari pertama reveals a dominant culture in indonesia: muslim culture. indonesia is a muslim-majority country; thus, it is not surprising when islamic values are more visible in public (naafs & white, 2012). denny seems to be a muslim, portrayed through the first scene of the video advertisements. his narration describes that the first day of fasting in ramadan month also happens to be his first day of work. furthermore, he utters a few islamic words on his narrations. for instance, denny says bismillah (‘in the name of allah’) before starting to introduce himself at the new office and says alhamdulillah (‘praise be to the lord’) when he finally solves a problem and can make other people happy. both video advertisements have suggested that youth culture is not dismissing entirely indonesian traditional and dominant culture. the portrayal of youth identity implies a message that although indonesian youths are the primary consumers of global media products, they recognize that indonesian culture and religion are integral parts of their lives. d. the presence of social groups social groups become an important matter within indonesian youth culture. the interaction of an individual with groups is critical regarding the formation of youth identity (buckingham, 2008). on top of that, the unity and collectiveness in social groups is one of the critical keys to build local identity for indonesians in this globalized era (brata, 2016). the narratives of the video advertisements describe that young people may seem to be individualistic but at the end of the story, they connect with others. the plot development of aadc and hari pertama depict how young people’s online interaction affects their offline communication with others. in aadc, internet chatting makes young people aware of feelings that could only be expressed directly in person. cinta realizes that compared to instant 82 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj messaging, it is more important to reveal emotions by meeting directly with others. she learns it when she seems to be reluctant to respond to rangga’s chats but then one of her friends asks her, “bener gak ada yang mau lo sampein lagi? (‘you sure there is nothing more to say?’)” (line indonesia, 2014, t.07:00). in the end, cinta does not reply to rangga’s chats but decides to meet him. this plot suggests that cinta does not need to reply to rangga’s texts because words she intends to say and the feeling she needs to convey are best to be expressed in person. if cinta’s unresponsiveness to rangga’s chat has succeeded in mending their relationship, in hari pertama, denny’s relationship with his co-workers becomes stronger because of chats on instant messaging. denny learns that internet chatting contributes to building his offline networks with people around him. furthermore, he develops gratitude and admiration towards lina after she expresses her kindness and thoughtfulness through online chatting. for instance, lina explains the meaning of an unfamiliar term for denny at a meeting and helps denny out when he is in trouble. instant messaging supports denny to get along well not only with lina but also with people at his office. he accidentally sends a picture of foods to the office group chat, although it was intended for lina only. because of that, he decides to buy foods that his co-workers have ordered on his way back to the office. during the ending scene where they are eating together, denny seems to be accepted by and can successfully engage with his new colleagues due to denny’s effort in maintaining the relationship through im when he was away from the group. thus, internet chat supports the social interactions of young people in hari pertama. in this context, the main characters’ engagement with digital media shows that young people seem to appreciate face-to-face communication by not using any mobile phones when talking to others. in most of the scenes where cinta, rangga, denny, and lina use mobile phones, they appear to be alone. however, when they gather with others, they hardly engage with mobile phones, except for cinta when she talks specifically about rangga’s chats and for lina when her colleagues are exchanging their line id with each other. they seem to enjoy their moments when meeting with others. the plots in aadc and hari pertama give an insight into the significance of social interaction for youth culture and local identity. young people in the videos use digital media as tools for learning about social interaction: cinta for realizing that there are things which texts online cannot guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 83 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj describe and denny for creating new networks with his co-workers in the office. the videos imply the maintenance of local identity when the main characters rarely use mobile phones during a social gathering. therefore, young people seem to value more unity and togetherness than individualization for indonesian youth culture and local identity. conclusion line youtube video advertisements have constructed and preserved the local youth culture and youth identity for indonesian youths effectively. the video advertisements portray youth culture in the globalized era through young people’s engagement with mobile phones and the internet, their use of youth language and english language, their embracement of dominant and traditional values, and their social connections. young people have utilized new media, languages, and values to build their youth identity. interacting with peers and groups becomes important for young people. social groups allow them to identify similarities or differences with others by using the attributes of digital media, languages, and conventional or dominant values. hence, globalization supports young people to create their own group identities based on that alikeness. therefore, one can say that line video advertisements encourage the idea of digital media—in this context are mobile phones and online chatting— are not replacing face-to-face communication. instead, it is a medium for young people to strengthen their offline relationships with their groups when they are apart. it agrees with stald’s (2008) study that mobile phone is supporting “the maintenance of social groups and the feeling of belonging to a group” (p. 161). additionally, the video advertisements have implied that indonesian youths are social people. although they may seem to relish their time using mobile phones and the internet, they still place more value on social connectivity than individualism. the narratives of the videos convey that they reunite and build new connections with others by direct social meetings. the symbolic references of the characters have depicted that young people leave their online lives during group interaction and seem to appreciate their moments together. one interesting note is that the advertisements also maintain the value of local identity through young people’s interactions. young people’s use of 84 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 68 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj youth language and the switch between bahasa gaul, bahasa indonesia, local language and english during a conversation imply how youths identify themselves as locals. using english words in a conversation indicates that globalization gives impact to indonesian young people but the young people still mainly speak and interact using their native and local language. the video advertisements have depicted indonesian local identity through the social connectedness in the portrayal of young people. the way young people in the videos maintain their relationship with others online and offline, their efforts to build or mend the relationship, their struggle to express their feelings and to be acknowledged by others are indicating unity. unity is one of essential values for indonesians which is also reflected in local wisdom (brata, 2016). thus, this portrayal of unity, connectedness, or togetherness of young people is a crucial image for strengthening the local identity, and even further, the national identity in this globalization era. it is essential to understand that this portrayal of youth culture is not without a problem. young people in both video advertisements are depicted to be living in an urban area, specifically jakarta. the advertisements represent the lifestyle of jakartan youth through their speech styles, appearance, and behavior. jakartan young people seem to be the source of what youth should appear to be; hence, the majority of youth in indonesia try to imitate their ways of life as a symbol of their generational solidarity and modernity (sneddon in smith-hefner, 2007). therefore, based on the youth culture portrayed in the video advertisements, line video advertisements seem to convey a message that young people should behave and think similar to those living in the metropolitan city. however, to say how exactly the meaning of young people intended by the producers of line advertisements is left unclear due to the focus of this study which is into what is visible and observable in the video advertisements. in the era of globalization, line youtube video advertisements have adequately maintained youth culture and the attributes to youth identity through its narratives, characters, and settings. they have represented that youth culture is related to how indonesian young people make use of digital media, emerge bahasa gaul and foreign language for communication, still embrace the dominant and traditional cultures, and most importantly, appreciate direct social interaction in their lives. because the majority of young people access youtube, this cultural image on youtube video advertisements may influence young people on guntarto, b. & sevrina, n., “you sure there’s nothing more to say?”: indonesian 85 youth culture represented in youtube video advertisements https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj forming their identity. therefore, youtube video advertisements could be utilized for glocalization strategy by global corporations, especially in maintaining a local culture and local identity for its viewers. moreover, future research should include advertising personnel in order to examine further the actual intention and messages that the advertisements made for young people. acknowledgement this paper has been presented at the american studies international conference (asic) in the faculty of cultural sciences, gadjah mada university, indonesia, during 25-26th october 2018. references best, a. 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(2012). multilingual youth, literacy practices, and globalization in an indonesian city: a preliminary exploration. tilburg papers in culture studies, 41. retrieved from https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/30357941/tpcs_41_tamtomo.pdf ward, l. m. (2003). understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of american youth: a review of empirical research. developmental review, 23, 347-388. doi: 10.1016/s0273-2297(03)000133. yuliantari, a. p. (2016). “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music. celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, 16(2), 201-216. narrating the indian nation a nonindian perspective: a study of william dalrymple's the last mughal and rudyard kipling's kim syamala kallury2 and suman sigroha3 abstract: this paper deals with tile issue of tile rise of nationalism in indian context as a result of tile events of 1857. and attempts to study the perspectives of two non-indian writers interested in indian nation. namely rudyard kipling and william dalrymple in tlleir novels kim and the last mughal respectively as opposed to tile indian nationalist perspectives seen and portrayed in later narratives by indians. thefonner is afictional representation of the mutiny of 1857 whereas tile latter is a fictionalized historical account. published almost a hundred years apart. and coming at different defining moments in india's history. the two novels kim (/901) and the last mughal (2006). both talk of a common set of events. it is one endeavor to see the different dimensions explored by these two writers. key words: india. nationalism. kim. the last mughal this paper has been presented at the international seminar on culture. english language teaclling and literature organized by the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic uiversity, semarang on 16-17 january 2008. dr. syamala kallury <sjeallury@hotmail.com> ph: +9810263803. is a staff member of the sso i, department of huss, lit delhi, india. analyzing i iterature is one of his interest. suman sigroha, m.a. <suman.sigroha@gmail.com> ph: +9810750600is a master of english and psychology. he is currently a research scholar (english) at the department ofhuss, lit delhi, india. s. kallury and suman, narrating the indian nationnon-lndian perspective 41 that shook the foundations of east india company and led to the advent of british imperial rule in india. the paper attempts to give an idea ofa nation that existed in the minds of the people of the times and to see whether there was any existence of an indian national identity, of which the revolt of 1857 could have been the genesis. though this analysis is rather limited, it has managed to make clear that both works are in agreement as to the superior nature ofthe british rule, that law and order under the native rulers was in a poor state, and that common people were constrained to favor the imperial rule because of these reasons. it is interesting to note that a beginning for national identity emerges from the writings ofthese non-indian accounts-fictional as well as historic. regional identities of caste and class and religion were strong at the time of the narratives. the notion of one nation was beginning to be fonned as a result of the common british rule. however it can be said that the national identity did find a beginning in these events but was not very pronounced as it provided only the genn of the idea that spread widely during the successful struggle for independence that was to follow. bibliography anderson, benedict. imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread o/nationalism. london: verso, 199 i . dalrymple, william. the last mughal. the fall 0/0 dynasty. delhi. /857. new delhi: penguin, viking, 2006. kipling, rudyard. kim. london: wordsworth editions ltd., 1994. misra, amresh. "an agitpropped 1857". in sunday hindustan times, new delhi, 29 july 2007. ozkirimli, umut. theories 0/ nationalism: a critical introduction. london: macmillan press ltd., 2000. logo: microsoft word c837-ac15-83e0-afef a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of “a scandal in bohemia” suwarni wijaya halim english language and culture department, faculty of social science and humanities, bunda mulia university, jakarta, indonesia email: suwarni@bundamulia.ac.id received: 02-04-2020 accepted: 20-08-2020 published: 01-12-2020 mailto:suwarni@bundamulia.ac.id https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of “a scandal in bohemia” suwarni wijaya halim suwarni@bundamulia.ac.id english language and culture department, faculty of social science and humanities, bunda mulia university, jakarta, indonesia abstract: for many years, it is believed that a good translator should be invisible in conducting his or her work. the more transparent and invisible the translator is, the better the quality of translation becomes. however, many experts argued that it is actually impossible for the translators to translate without leaving their thumbprints behind. thus, the notion of translator style appeared. studying and exploring the topic of translator style would provide more corroborative support on the view that translators are not merely a mirror of the original author; in fact, they are creative individuals with distinct linguistic characteristics and behaviors, and that translation is not inferior to writing. the objective of this study is to analyze the style of two indonesian translators of sir arthur conan doyle’s “a scandal in bohemia.” moreover, this research also aims to enrich the literature of translator style in the indonesian context since there are only a few studies about this particular topic in the indonesian context. this research is qualitative in nature and utilized both corpus-assisted methodology and manual text analysis to gain the data. the findings show that the two indonesian translators had fundamental differences in their translation. translator a’s style in translating is more oriented to target text and target readers whereas translators b are more inclined to adhere to the style of the original author and the source text. key words: translator style, literary work, short story 196 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: selama bertahun-tahun, banyak pihak yang meyakini bahwa seorang penerjemah yang baik seharusnya transparan dalam melakukan pekerjaannya. semakin transparan penerjemahnya, semakin baik kualitas terjemahannya. namun, banyak ahli berpendapat bahwa sebenarnya tidak mungkin penerjemah menerjemahkan tanpa meninggalkan jejak. oleh karena itu, gagasan mengenai gaya penerjemah muncul. mempelajari dan mengeksplorasi topik mengenai gaya penerjemah akan memberikan dukungan yang lebih kuat pada pandangan bahwa penerjemah bukan sekadar cermin dari penulis asli; pada kenyataannya, mereka adalah individu yang kreatif dengan karakteristik dan perilaku linguistik yang berbeda, dan kegiatan penerjemahan itu tidak kalah penting dengan kegiatan menulis. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis gaya dua penerjemah karya sir arthur conan doyle yang berjudul "a scandal in bohemia" dalam bahasa indonesia. selain itu, penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk memperkaya literature mengenai gaya penerjemah dalam konteks indonesia karena hanya ada beberapa studi tentang topik ini dalam konteks indonesia. penelitian ini bersifat kualitatif dan menggunakan metodologi berbasis korpus dan analisis teks secara manual untuk mendapatkan data. temuan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kedua penerjemah memiliki perbedaan mendasar dalam terjemahan mereka. gaya penerjemah a dalam menerjemahkan lebih berorientasi pada teks target dan target pembaca sedangkan penerjemah b lebih cenderung untuk mematuhi gaya penulis asli dan teks sumber. kata kunci: gaya penerjemah, karya sastra, cerita pendek introduction translator style is an area of translation studies that is under-researched in the past but has gained more and more attention. in her seminal paper in 2000, baker stated that one of the reasons why there has been little interest in researching the style of individual translators was because of the belief that “a translator cannot have, indeed should not have, a style of his or her own [...]” (baker, 2000, p. 244). what could have caused such a belief to emerge? the first cause is the assumption that translation is marginal to the actual writing. it is because many people believed that the process of translation is less creative and less engaging compared to the process of writing. translators do not have to create the text themselves in the first place; in fact, they only need to convey the message of the text into other halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 197 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj languages by using the text created by the writer as a template. since the effort and burden to creatively compose the text falls on the writer, many people deemed that translators have an easier task, which then borne the belief that translation is secondary to the writing. the second cause is the expectation that translators should act as an invisible bridge in doing their job, giving the impression that they did not exist. it was as if the author of the source text was fluent in the target language, and the target readers were reading the text which was directly composed by the original author. thus, the notion of translator style should not have existed in the first place since it is expected that the translators convey the author’s style and message faithfully to the target readers without any interference from other external factors. as a result, the notion of translation invisibility became significantly popular in the past. venuti mentioned that in the past, “a translated text [...] is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent ...” (2008, p. 1). for many years, the subtlety and the ability to remain invisible in the translation has been one of the most sought-after quality in the process of translating. the more transparent and invisible the translator is, the better the quality of translation becomes. however, as time passed and as the study on the nature of translation progressed further, more and more researchers believed that it is actually impossible for the translators to translate without leaving their thumbprints behind. baker argued that “... it is impossible to produce a stretch of language in a totally impersonal way as it is to handle an object without leaving one’s fingerprints on it” (2000, p. 244). she further demonstrated her arguments by attempting to establish the methodology for analyzing the translator style. baker (2000) used the translational english corpus (tec) to analyze the style of peter bush and peter clark, two distinguished british literary translators in translating source texts from different languages. the result shows that peter bush and peter clark used distinctive patterns, particularly in type/token ratio, the average length of the sentences, and reporting structures. hence, more and more researchers are interested to try to conduct investigations for a similar purpose: to prove that translators are not merely a mirror of the original authors. some researchers employed manual 198 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj contrastive and text analysis to pinpoint the translator style in many results of translation. for instance, marco (2004) analyzed the style of two catalan translators, namely josep carner and carles riba in translating the works of henry james and edgar allan poe by paying considerable attention to the aspect of structural calque applied by both translators. he also analyzed the transitivity pattern of the original authors and compared it with the transitivity pattern produced in the translations by the two translators. another researcher, masubelele (2015) analyzed the translation of d.b z. ntuli’s short story, which was written in isizulu, into english by c.s.z. ntuli. the researcher compared and contrasted the source text and the target text and found that the translator actually included much more information into the translation as a way of compensating differences in cultures. this is especially apparent in terms of the translation of cultural-specific items, sentence structures, and the use of descriptive terms. then the scope of the research was broadened due to the advancement of technology. many researchers followed baker’s footsteps by utilizing data from corpora. wang and li (2011) used a corpus-based approach to conclude the translator style belonging to two chinese translators, namely xiao and jin, who translated james joyce’s “ulysses”. the result shows that both translations are indeed different in lexical and syntactical level. mastropierro (2018) suggested the use of key clusters to identify the translator style. he compared two italian translators’ translation of “at the mountains of madness” by h. p. lovecraft. the result shows that key clusters can be a good indicator of identifying the translator style. the studies above have exemplified varieties of topics, data, and methods in analyzing translation work for the purpose of identifying the translator style. however, there are only a few studies about this particular topic in the indonesian context. it is probably caused by the fact that most of the previous researchers used literary work by one author and compared and contrasted its different versions of translation by two (or more) translators. however, in indonesia, it is very rare to find a literary work that has been translated more than once by different translators. moreover, most of the studies explained above used either manual or automatic means in analyzing the translator style. there are only a few studies in this area that employs both means when in fact, it would actually provide stronger and more convincing arguments. in order to fill this gap and to enrich the literature of this topic in the indonesian context, the researcher is interested in analyzing the translation of halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 199 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sir arthur conan doyle’s story “a scandal in bohemia,” which is a part of a larger collection of stories entitled “the adventures of sherlock holmes.” as far as the researcher’s awareness, the translated version of the book has been published twice by different publishers. the first version was translated by dra. daisy dianasari (hereinafter, translator a) and published by pt. gramedia pustaka utama in 1992 whereas the second version was translated by ismanto, et al. (hereinafter, translators b) and published by penerbit indoliterasi in 2014. this research would attempt to answer the following research question: how are the styles of translator a and translators b in translating “a scandal in bohemia”? to answer the research question, the researcher would employ both manual and automatic means in studying the translators’ style. in other words, the researcher would conduct both manual text analysis and the method of corpus linguistics. by employing both means, hopefully, more comprehensive results could be achieved and more interesting insights about the research topic could be gained. this research only focuses on one story by sir arthur conan doyle entitled “a scandal in bohemia” and its translations in indonesian as explained in the previous section. the analysis would be highly textual and descriptive as the research focuses on the area which emphasizes and highlights differences between two groups of translators. literature review a. translator style the notion of translator style is different from the notion of translation style (saldanha, 2011). translation style concerns about the style in which the source text is written and how that particular style is reflected in the translation. on the other hand, the translator style focuses more on the translators’ idiosyncrasy and characteristics which are unique, specific and consistent throughout the whole translation. baker defined translator style as “a kind of thumb-print that is expressed in a range of linguistic—as well as non-linguistic—features” in the translation works produced by translators (2000, p. 245). meanwhile, saldanha defined translator style as: 200 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a way of translating which is felt to be recognizable across a range of translations by the same translator, distinguishes the translator’s work from that of others, constitutes a coherent pattern of choice, is ‘motivated’, in the sense that it has a discernable function or functions, and cannot be explained purely with reference to the author or source-text style, or as the result of linguistic constraints (2011, p. 31). baker (2000) explained that the study on translator style should not be limited to the study on the usage of specific strategies in dealing with translation problems, but also extend to the specific ways the translators use the language. baker also emphasized the analysis of language patterns, which involves “describing preferred or recurring patterns of linguistic behavior [...]” (2000, p. 245). similarly, lynch & vogel (2018) suggested scrutinizing patterns of grammatical elements in the text instead of focusing on the content words, such as nouns or verbs. they believed that the patterns of “stylistics elements such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and other closed-class words” provide information and indication on the style of the translators (lynch & vogel, 2018) since translators often, consciously or unconsciously, use these elements in their own ways when they are translating texts. aspects, such as the usage of tenses, could also indicate the style of translators. wang and li added that the translator style can also be seen and concluded from “the selection and organization of words, the long or short sentence structures, the plain or oratory way of speech” (2011, p. 82). from the definitions above, it can be concluded that the notion of translation style focuses on the idea that individual translators have their own characteristics and idiosyncrasies when they are translating. they might or might not be aware that they display distinct linguistic behavior. in order to identify whether the way of translating indeed belongs to the translators or it is just a mere reflection of the content of the source text, it is necessary to pay considerable attention to the patterns of linguistic behaviors of the translators and compare and contrast them to the patterns of linguistic behaviors that belong to other translators. b. previous studies li, zhang, & liu (2011) conducted a study to examine the styles of two groups of translators, namely hawkes and minford, and yang and yang. halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 201 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj both groups of translators translated the chinese novel entitled hongloumeng from chinese into english, and the researchers sought to conclude the styles of both groups of translators, compare them, and try to examine the reasons why both groups of translators translated the text the way they did. to analyze the data, the researchers built a parallel corpus, which includes the original text in chinese, the english translation by hawkes and minford, and the english translation by yang and yang. they then used wordsmith 4.0 and a type of software that integrates asp (active server page) and microsoft access database to analyze the data. the researchers followed baker’s methodology (2000) by only comparing across the target texts instead of comparing the source text and the target texts, and they focused on the type/token ratio, richness of vocabulary, and average length of the sentences. the result of their analysis shows that hawkes used more words and longer sentences, yet yang had more word varieties in the translation. li, zhang, and liu speculated that both translators might have had different ideologies in translating and might have used different strategies in dealing with cultural-specific concepts. similarly, wang & li (2011) also used the corpus-assisted methodology to analyze the translators’ style by looking at the chinese translation of ulysses by james joyce. wang and li created a two-million-word bilingual corpus of which consists of three subcorpora—composed of the original english version, the translation by xiao, and the translation by jin—and a comparable corpus containing other translation and writing work by xiao. the result of the analysis shows that xiao and jin have their own idiosyncrasies which are subtle but habitual. on the lexical level, for example, one of the stylistic differences is the fact that xiao apparently prefers to reflect colloquial nature by using more words that express emotion whereas jin prefers more detached manner in his/her way of translating. however, on the syntactical level, xiao and jin actually exhibited similar behavior in term of translating postpositioned adverbial clauses. both were apparently influenced by the source text and translated the clauses in the post position as well despite the fact such positioning is less common in chinese. masubelele (2015) did not use the corpus-assisted methodology in her study. instead, she employed manual discourse analysis in order to analyze the translation of d.b z. ntuli’s short story, which was written in isizulu, into english by c.s.z. ntuli. the main theory that masubelele used is baker’s theory of equivalence at word level. in this research, the researcher compared and contrasted the source text and the target text and found that the 202 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj translator actually included much more information into the translation as a way of compensating differences in cultures. this is especially apparent in terms of the translation of cultural-specific items, sentence structures, and the use of descriptive terms. similar to masubelele, giugliano (2017) also conducted manual analysis in his pursuit in describing the style of translator, specifically contrastive linguistic analysis. the source of data that he used in his study was a collection of poems by robert frost and the italian translation by giovani giudici. he started his analysis by describing robert frost’s style and giudici’s style before analyzing the translations. some stylistic points (such as markers of turn-taking, syntactical complexity, deixies, metre in translation and so on) were analyzed, and the frequency of the occurrences were calculated. in the end, giugliano concluded that the translator’s creativity is indeed apparent in the translation. some linguistic features in the source text were, in fact, reduced in the translation, yet some other features were enhanced instead, proving that the translator actually interfered a great deal in the process of translation instead of translating the source text as it was. the research by masubelele (2015) and giugliano (2017) is fundamentally different from the research by li, zhang, & liu (2011) and wang & li (2011). it is because li, zhang, & liu (2011) and wang and li (2011) only focused on the comparison across the translation works without comparing the works to the source text in their process of identifying the translator style. masubelele (2015) and giugliano (2017), on the other hand, compared the translation work with the original work in order to discover the style of the literary translator. each of the research above is useful and informative for this research. the aim of this research is similar to previous studies. however, the researcher will use different datasets in different language pair. typically, the studies that have been conducted previously only employed either manual or automatic means in the process of identifying the translator style. in this research, the researcher would attempt to combine both means in order to get more comprehensive and valid information on the translator style. halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 203 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method the sources of data are two translation works. the translation work that the researcher would analyze further was originally written in english by sir arthur conan doyle, and it is a part of a larger compilation of short stories entitled “the adventures of sherlock holmes.” the story that the researcher would like to focus on is entitled “a scandal in bohemia” in english and its translations in indonesian, “skandal di bohemia.” the story tells about one of the cases that mr. sherlock holmes and mr. john watson went through and solved, and in this story, a female character namely irene adler was introduced. table 1: information on source of data 1 st version 2 nd version title “skandal di bohemia” “skandal di bohemia” publisher pt. gramedia pustaka utama penerbit indoliterasi year of publication 1992 2014 translators translator a (dra. daisy dianasari) translators b (ismanto, et al.) there are several limitations regarding the source of data (see table 1). first, the translations were published by two different publishers. each publisher might have had different agenda and might have provided distinctive translation brief and instructions. however, the researcher unfortunately could not obtain the relevant information to confirm the notion. second, there are more than twenty years of time span between the first and second version, so the language used during those times might be different. finally, the researcher could not manage to find information about the translators’ background, so the analysis on translators’ motivation and reasoning might be very limited in nature. despite the limitations, the researcher thought that using both of these translations as the source of data is an appropriate decision considering the dearth of foreign literary works in indonesia that have been translated more than once by different translators into indonesian. the researcher believed that these translations could provide opportunities for the researcher to delve deeper into the field of translator style and reach the conclusion about the 204 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj style of indonesian translators of “a scandal in bohemia.” as a result, the researcher decided to use both the translations as the source of data. a. type of research this research is qualitative in nature. crocker explained that “qualitative research mostly focuses on understanding the particular and the distinctive, and does not necessarily seek or claim to generalize findings to other contexts” (2009, p. 9). he also specified that the primary data of qualitative research is usually textual, and numbers do not play a central role in qualitative research; instead, they only act as support for the textual data (crocker, 2009). this research, meanwhile, focuses on two translation works and attempts to find out and comprehend the individual translator style which is unique for each translator. thus, the result of the research might not be generalizable to other translators. moreover, numbers or any quantitative aspects would not be the major focus of this research. they would only provide additional information. therefore, looking at the definition and characteristics of qualitative research, the researcher believed that the qualitative approach would suit this research best. b. research instruments there are two main research instruments in this research. as explained in table 1, the research would use both manual and automatic means in order to elicit information about translator style in translating. the first instrument is the software wordsmith tools 7.0 which was created by scott (2016). wordsmith tools 7.0 is a corpus analysis toolkit that is designed specifically to assist in the process of text analysis. by using this software, the researcher could get much useful information, such as the type/token ratio, concordances, lexical bundles, and so on, which would be beneficial in discovering the translator style (baker, 2000; li, zhang, & liu, 2011; wang & li, 2011). the second instrument is the researcher herself. for the manual aspect, the researcher would act as the primary instrument in this research because the researcher would be manually comparing and contrasting both translation works in order to identify the unique features in both translations. halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 205 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. research procedures to collect the data, the researcher inputted the files of both translations into wordsmith tools 7.0 in order to acquire further information about the type/token ratio, average sentence length, and keywords. after the information was acquired, the researcher provided elaboration and examples to explain the phenomena. the researcher then manually compared the translations by both translators. the researcher focused on the elements that might be problematic for the translators and analyzed how the translators dealt with those translation problems. the elements were then grouped under the relevant categories in order to gain insights on each translator’s individual style in translating. afterwards, the researcher explained the implication of the findings on the body of the knowledge. results and discussions a. type/token ratio type/token ratio (ttr) is a measure to identify the diversity of vocabulary. by identifying the ttr, the researcher could analyze the extent of vocabulary used by translator a and translators b in translating the source text, which in turn could help the researcher analyze the lexical behavior of each translator. ttr is calculated by dividing the number of types (distinct words) with the number of tokens (all words) of the text. the higher the ttr, the more diverse the vocabulary whereas the lower the ttr, the more limited the vocabulary. in this case, instead of using raw ttr, the researcher would use standardized type/token ratio (sttr) because according to baker, 2000 and li, zhang, and liu (2011), sttr provides a more reliable overview of the diversity of vocabulary. it is because the calculation of sttr is repeated every 1000 words which will ensure the credibility of the result. below is the information on ttr and sttr that the researcher acquired after running both translations into wordsmith tools 7.0: 206 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 2: ttr and sttr translator number of types number of tokens ttr sttr translator a 1,907 6,846 27.86% 49.05% translators b 1,912 7,549 25.33% 47.46% from table 2 above, it can be seen that the number of types between both translators is quite similar, but according to the number of the tokens, translators b used considerably more words than translator a. the result also shows that translator a has slightly higher ttr and sttr compared to translators b, which means that translator a used more diverse vocabulary compared to translators b. one of the examples of the usage of diversity in terms of vocabulary can be seen from the way the translators translated reporting verbs in the source text. reporting verbs are commonly used to signal dialogues in novels. some examples of reporting verbs are “said”, “commented”, “remarked”, and so on. in the case of the translations, some reporting verbs were translated identically by translator a and translators b. for example, both translators translated reporting verb “said” into kata or berkata. however, in other cases such as the reporting verb remarked, translator a translated it as komentar whereas translator b translated it as menukas. b. average sentence length type/token ratio (ttr) is used to acquire information on the behavior and style of the translators from the lexical point of view. the researcher was also interested to investigate their behavior and style from the syntactical point of view. therefore, the researcher also analyzed the average sentence length in both translations. this information can be acquired by dividing the number of sentences with the number of tokens. using the same procedure to acquire the value of ttr and sttr, below is the information on the average sentence length: table 3: average sentence length translator number of sentences number of tokens average sentence length translator a 676 6,846 10.13 translators b 636 7,549 11.87 halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 207 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from table 3, it can be seen that translator a constructed more sentences than translators b. the value of average sentence length also shows that translators b tended to use more words in a sentence compared to translator a. there are two possible explanations for this finding. this might mean that translator a either prefers using more concise wordings in a sentence or prefers dividing long and complex sentences into several shorter sentences. the example presented below in table 4 illustrated these phenomena. table 4: example of average sentence length source text but for the trained reasoner to admit such intrusions into his own delicate and finely adjusted temperament was to introduce a distracting factor which might throw a doubt upon all his mental results. (doyle, 1892) translator a tapi bagi dirinya sendiri, hal-hal begitu malah akan mengacaukan seluruh pemikirannya. (doyle, 1992) translators b namun, bagi seorang pemikir yang terlatih, memasukkan gangguan semacam itu ke dalam wataknya yang lembut dan seimbang berarti memperkenalkan sebuah faktor pengacau yang barangkali dapat menyebabkan kesangsian atas semua hasil pikirannya. (doyle, 2014) in the example above, translator a used 11 words while translators b used 31 words in translating the same excerpt. hence, there is an impression that translator a chose to use more concise and brief wordings in the process of translation whereas translators b are more inclined to keep their translation as close as possible to the source text. c. translation of problematic parts by comparing the translations manually, it is evident that both translators have their own distinctive ways of translating the story. the following excerpt exemplifies one of such phenomena: table 5: translation of problematic parts (example 1) source text “i think, watson, that you have put on seven and a half pounds since i saw you.” “seven!” i answered. (doyle, 1892) 208 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj translator a “kurasa, watson, beratmu naik tiga tiga perempat kilo dibanding terakhir kali aku melihatmu.” “cuma tiga setengah kilo naiknya,” jawabku. (doyle, 1992) translators b “watson, kukira kau sudah bertambah berat tujuh setengah pon setelah terakhir kali aku melihatmu,” “tujuh,” jawabku. (doyle, 2014) in the example seen in table 5 above, in translating the measurement for watson’s body weight, translator a converted and adjusted the measurement and the metric into kilograms whereas translators b used the same measurement and the metric as the source text, which is the equivalence of “pounds” in indonesian, pon. pound is a common metric to use in england whereas indonesians are more familiar with kilograms or grams as the metric for weight measurement. that might be the reason why translator a decided to adjust the translation so that the translation does not sound foreign to the target readers. meanwhile, translators b translated “pounds” into pon, which is the equivalence in indonesian, and this metric is not entirely unknown to indonesian people. it is, however, used less compared to kilograms or grams. another instance can be seen from the way the translators translated the cultural term “sovereign” as illustrated in the following table 6: table 6: translation of problematic parts (example 2) source text “‘the church of st. monica, john,’ she cried, ‘and half a sovereign if you reach it in twenty minutes.’ (doyle, 1892) translator a “'ke gereja st. monica, john!' teriaknya. 'kubayar satu koin emas kalau kau bisa menempuhnya dalam dua puluh menit'. (doyle, 1992) translators b “gereja st. monica, john,” serunya, “dan setengah sovereign kalau kau bisa sampai di sana dalam waktu dua puluh menit.” (doyle, 2014) sovereign is defined as “any of various gold coins of the united kingdom” (“sovereign”, n.d.). although the idea of using gold coins as a means of payment is not a foreign concept for indonesian readers, the word sovereign could still be classified as a cultural term since it is unique for the context of the united kingdom. translator a translated the term into a more general translation, which is koin emas whereas translators b transferred the term “sovereign” from the source text into the target text. halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 209 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj translator a might think that the translation koin emas (“gold coin”) would provide a more concrete image for the indonesian readers since most indonesians would recognize what koin (“coin”) looks like and how valuable emas (“gold”) is. in comparison, translators b copied the term directly from the source text into the target text. another difference can be seen from the way the translators handled proper names. below is the example that illustrates such a difference. table 7: translation of problematic parts (example 3) source text “... stay where you are. i am lost without my boswell ...” (doyle, 1892) translator a “... tinggallah sebentar. aku bingung kalau tak ada yang mendampingi ...” (doyle, 1992) translators b “... tetaplah di sini. aku tersesat tanpa boswell-ku ...” (doyle, 2014) in the story, dr. watson intended to leave mr. holmes so that mr. holmes could leisurely receive his mystery guest without any disturbance. however, mr. holmes urged dr. watson to stay. in table 7, it can be seen that translator a rendered the proper name “boswell” into yang mendampingi whereas translators b transferred the name as it is in their translation, which is “boswell.” the name “boswell” might refer to james boswell, a scottish biographer of samuel johnson, an english writer. according to encyclopedia britannica, james boswell is considered as “one of the world’s greatest diarist” (james boswell, n.d.). in the whole course of the sherlock holmes series, dr. watson frequently documented mr. holmes’s actions when solving cases, which earned him the unofficial role as mr. holmes’s biographer. by stating that mr. holmes would be lost without his boswell, the author intended to point out the similar characteristic between dr. watson and james bowell and highlight that dr. watson was mr. holmes’s partner and biographer. by translating the name into yang mendampingi, translator a minimized the possibility of the readers misunderstanding the reference and the content of the utterance although she, in return, did not adhere to the author’s style. meanwhile, translators b adhered to the source text and transferred the name directly into the target text, yet there is a possibility that the target readers might not understand the reference since james boswell might be an unfamiliar figure in indonesian culture. 210 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the last instance of the translation of problematic parts can be seen from the way the translators translated the term “née” as illustrated in the following table 8: table 8: translation of problematic parts (example 4) source text irene norton, née adler (doyle, 1892) translator a irene norton, d/h adler (doyle, 1992) translators b irene norton, née adler (doyle, 2014) according to merriam-webster dictionary, the term “née” is used “after a married woman's name to identify the family name that she had when she was born” (née, n.d.). in the story, the character irene adler got married to edward norton, and she changed her name into irene norton. as seen in the table, translator a translated the term into d/h whereas translators b kept the term in their translation. the term “née” does not exist in the great dictionary of the indonesian language and might not be a familiar term for indonesian readers. therefore, translator a in this case might be trying to find the equivalence of such term in indonesian, possibly, in order to ensure that the target readers understand the meaning that the original author would like to convey. thus, she chose d/h as the ideal translation. according to kusno (2015), d/h was the abbreviation of dahulu (“once upon a time in the past”), and it was used back then during the transfer of the sovereignty from the government of the netherlands to the government of indonesia. before the independence of indonesia, most of the landmarks, roads, and buildings were named in dutch. after the transfer of sovereignty, however, some names were changed into indonesian names. to avoid confusion during the transition period, people used d/h in order to provide information on the new and the old names. kusno (2015) provided lapangan banteng d/h waterlooplein as an example. it means that lapangan banteng was once named waterlooplein. by translating the excerpt into irene norton, d/h adler, the meaning that the translator conveyed is essentially similar to the meaning that the original author would like to convey (“irene norton whose maiden name was adler before she got married”) despite the fact that the translator used abbreviation in indonesian instead of transferring the term into the target text. on the other hand, translators b decided to do exact opposite of translator a. translators b directly transferred the term into their translation halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 211 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj without providing any further explanations. this phenomenon shows that translators b might prefer translating the text in a faithful manner. this is evident from the way translators b directly copied the term. d. degree of formality by conducting the manual comparison, it can be seen that both translators have distinctive ways of translating the conversation between mr. holmes and dr. watson. this is particularly evident in the expression of formality in the translations. the following excerpts in table 9 illustrates this phenomenon. table 9: rendition on degree of formality source text “indeed, i should have thought a little more. just a trifle more, i fancy, watson. and in practice again, i observe. you did not tell me that you intended to go into harness.” “then, how do you know?” (doyle, 1892) translator a “wah, seharusnya aku lebih teliti. cuma selisih sedikit, kan? dan sekarang buka praktek lagi, ya. kenapa tak omong-omong?” “lho, bagaimana kau tahu?” (doyle, 1992) translators b “seharusnya memang aku memikirkannya lebih dalam lagi. sedikit hal kecil lagi, watson. kuamati bahwa kau sudah berpraktik lagi. kau tak memberitahuku bahwa kau bermaksud masuk ke dalam sebuah kekang.” “lalu, bagaimana kau bisa tahu?” (doyle, 2014) seeing again table 8, it is found that the original author used the standard form of english language for the conversation between mr. holmes and dr. watson. in the source text, there are no instances of colloquialism, non-vernacular language, or particles that might signify informality. however, the translations of the excerpt by both translators are very distinctive. translator a deliberately added interjection such as wah, kan, ya and lho in her translation. meanwhile, translators b closely followed the source text and translated it faithfully. in indonesian, the interjections which are mentioned above wah, kan, ya and lho) are commonly used to express ranges of emotive functions (kusno, 1986, as cited in widiatmoko & waslam, 2017). in indonesian, these interjections could be considered as markers of colloquialism and are usually 212 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj found and used in casual conversation, especially in the conversation between people who know each other very well. in the story, mr. holmes and dr. watson were close to each other even though mr. holmes and dr. watson had not met for a while since dr. watson got married. on several occasions, this can be seen from the way they fondly addressed each other as “my dear holmes” or “my dear watson.” by displaying colloquialism in the conversation, translator a might want to convey that mr. holmes and dr. watson had a close relationship, and they were comfortable with each other; thus, speaking casually and informally to each other is a normal occurrence. translators b, on the other hand, decided to translate according to the source text. they translated the conversation in standardized english into a conversation in standardized indonesian. e. discussion and further implication as seen in the results, from the analysis of the lexical richness and average sentence length, it can be summarized that both translators exhibited an almost similar level of diversity in terms of vocabulary. however, compared to translators b, translator a preferred conciseness in rendering the source text into the target text. this is particularly evident from the way translator a deliberately translated the source text as simple as possible despite the complexity of the source text. meanwhile, translators b preferred to stick as close as possible to the source text by replicating the complexity of the source text into the target text. from the analysis of the overall text, the researcher would like to highlight that translator a exhibits freer and more flexible approach whereas translators b are more faithful in translating the story. compared to translators b, translator a exerted greater effort to accommodate the target readers and to ensure the target readers’ comprehension, convenience, and ease of reading. this is especially evident from the way translator a dealt with elements that are problematic in the source text such as cultural terms, degree of formality, and so on. meanwhile, translators b preferred to stay faithful to the source text. minimal focus and effort were given to accommodate the target readers which is evident from the lack of explanation on terms that were directly transferred from the source text. based on the observation of the findings, the general overview of the translators’ style could be acquired. translator a’s style in translating is more oriented to target text and target readers whereas translator b is more inclined to adhere to the style of the original author and the source text. halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 213 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj even though both translators translated the same source text, it is very clear that both translators have their own ways of translating the text and dealing with the issues. on the theoretical level, what can be inferred from the observation on both translators’ style in translating the story? this observation further cements that when translators translate literary texts, their individuality and creativity often bleed into their translation, and according to boase-beier (2006, cited in wang & li, 2011), it is an unavoidable occurrence. it shows that the notion of translation invisibility might not be prevalent and valid in real translation practice and therefore, should not be considered the standard in determining the quality of translation. of course, it is a job of the translators to be the bridge between the original author and the target readers who might not speak and understand the same codes and signals of communications. however, attempting to be a truly invisible bridge is an impossible undertaking as the previous studies and this research have illustrated and highlighted. no matter how good the translators are, there would always be some parts in which the translators have to compromise in order to deliver the original author’s message and intention to the target readers, and that form of compromise might come out in distinctive ways across different translators as seen in this research. on the practical level, it shows that literary translators should be granted more space and opportunities to be creative in translating literary work. of course, the main purpose of translating is to convey the stories in the target language and to allow the target readers to access the mind of the original author. however, the freedom to be creative in translating the story and solving translation issues should be celebrated and encouraged more among literary translators. furthermore, in the area of translator training, it is important to emphasize to the student translators that literary translation is different from scientific translation, and in literary translation, their individualistic style and creativity in translating the source text would be welcomed and appreciated. thus, on a broader note, the teaching and evaluation methods for training translators in the area of literary translation should be adjusted as well in order to accommodate the aspect of creativity. conclusion translator’s style is one of the subtle aspects of translation practice. from this research, it was found that both indonesian translators of doyle’s 214 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj “a scandal in bohemia” have their own distinctive styles in translating the story. translator a was more target-reader-oriented whereas translators b was more source-text-oriented. this can be seen from the analysis that the researcher conducted on several findings that were generated from both automatic and manual data collection procedures. despite the fact that this research is small-scale in nature, it further cements the notion that translators have their own styles in translating, and therefore, the quality of their work should not be judged on the basis of whether or not they are able to be invisible in their undertaking. creativity is a part of their craft, and it appears in an individualistic manner. it also further emphasizes that translation is not merely the mirror of the original source text. it is a creative process that warrants further appreciation from the readers and thus, should not be treated as lesser activity compared to the writing activity. this research focuses on the distinctive styles between the indonesian translators of doyle’s “a scandal in bohemia”. of course, the difference of style might be influenced by other factors outside of the translators themselves, such as the translation brief, the instructions from the clients and publishers, the interference from the editors, and so on. however, since the researcher treated the final translation product as the reflection of the translators’ style, those external factors were not analyzed. for further study, the researcher would suggest future researchers conduct closer investigations on those external factors in order to generate more comprehensive findings. moreover, as baker (2000) stated, it might be a good idea to focus on the translators’ background as well in order to identify the motivation and the reasons why certain translators translate the ways they do. references baker, m. (2000). towards a methodology for investigating the style of a literary translator. target. international journal of translation studies, 12(2), 241–266. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1075/target.12.2.04bak boswell, j. (n.d.). encyclopædia britannica. crocker, r. a. (2009). an introduction to qualitative research. in heigham & r. a. crocker (eds.), qualitative research in applied linguistics: a practical introduction (pp. 3–24). palgrave macmillan. halim, s.w., translator style: an analysis on two indonesian translations of 215 “a scandal in bohemia” https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj doyle, a. c. (1892). scandal in bohemia. in the adventures of sherlock holmes (pp. 1–16). george newnes. doyle, a. c. (1992). skandal di bohemia. in d. dianasari (ed.), petualangan sherlock holmes (pp. 7–46). pt. gramedia pustaka utama. doyle, a. c. (2014). skandal di bohemia. in a. asnawi & sutrisno (eds.), sherlock holmes: a collector’s edition (pp. 3–25). indoliterasi. giugliano, m. (2017). what the analysis of style in translation can say. disentangling styles in giovanni giudici’s translations of poetry. lingue e linguaggi, 21, 107–127. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1285/i22390359v21p107 kusno, g. (2015). singkatan bahasa indonesia yang antik dan lucu. kompasiana. li, d., zhang, c., & liu, k. (2011). translation style and ideology: a corpusassisted analysis of two english translations of hongloumeng. literary and linguistic computing, 26(2), 153–166. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqr001 lynch, g., & vogel, c. (2018). the translator’s visibility: detecting translatorial fingerprints in contemporaneous parallel translations. computer speech and language, 52, 79–104. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csl.2018.05.002 marco, j. (2004). translating style and styles of translating: henry james and edgar allan poe in catalan. language and literature, 13(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0963947004039488 mastropierro, l. (2018). key clusters as indicators of translator style. target. international journal of translation studiesarget. international journal of translation studies, 30(2), 240–259. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1075/target.17040.mas masubelele, r. (2018). do literary translators have a style of their own? lessons from c.s.z. ntuli’s translation of d.b.z. ntuli’s short story: uthingo lwenkosazana (the rainbow). journal of literary studies, 13(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/02564718.2015.1084819 née. (n.d.). merriam-webster dictionary. 216 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 195 – 216 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj saldanha, g. (2011). translator style: methodological considerations. the translator, 17(1), 25–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2011.10799478 scott, m. (2016). wordsmith tools version 7. lexical analysis software. venuti, l. (2008). the translators’ invisibility: a history of translation (2nd ed.). routledge. wang, q., & li, d. (2011). looking for translator’s fingerprints: a corpusbased study on chinese translations of ulysses. literary and linguistic computing, 27(1), 81–93. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqr039 widiatmoko, b., & waslam. (2017). interjeksi dalam bahasa indonesia: analisis pragmatik. pujangga jurnal bahasa dan sastra, 3(1), 83–97. 20 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume xx, number x, month year, pp. xxx – xxx putri, s. p., explanatory study of student-teacher interactions, students’ academic motivation, and teacher’s motivation in english classes explanatory study of student-teacher interactions, students’ academic motivation, and teacher’s motivation in english classes 1stephanie priyanto putri, 2hendi pratama, and 3sri wuli fitriati 1esphe88@yahoo.com, 2hendipratama@mail.unnes.ac.id, 2sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id 1,2,3 post-graduate, faculty of english language education, universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia abstract: no study underlines the correlation between student-teacher interactions, students’ academic motivation, and teacher’s motivation in english classes. student-teacher interactions are said to be one of the factors that affects students’ academic motivation in learning english. having positive student-teacher interactions enables the students to increase their self-confidence and improve their academic performance. besides, it affects teacher’s motivation in teaching. this study aimed to explain the correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation, to what extent teacher utilizes student-teacher interaction, and the teacher’s perception of the utilization of these interactions in english classes. the researcher used mixed-method as the design of the study. the subjects of this study were the 137 eighth-grade students in the academic year of 2022/2023 at karangturi junior high school semarang. this study employed questionnaire, class observation, and in-depth interview. furthermore, the findings showed that there was a significant correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation in learning english. the teacher utilizes these interactions by asking questions and giving directions. besides, the teacher agreed that student-teacher interactions are very effective for the students and the teacher. key words: student-teacher interactions, academic motivation, teacher’s motivation abstrak: tidak ada penelitian yang menggarisbawahi hubungan antara interaksi antara guru dan siswa, motivasi akademis siswa, dan juga motivasi guru dalam mengajar di kelas bahasa inggris. interaksi antara guru dan siswa disebut sebagai salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi motivasi siswa dalam belajar bahasa inggris. adanya interaksi ini memampukan siswa untuk meningkatkan kepercayaan diri dan hasil akademis mereka. selain itu, interaksi ini juga bisa meningkatkan motivasi guru dalam mengajar. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan hubungan antara interaksi guru dan siswa terhadap motivasi akademis mereka, sejauh mana guru menggunakan interaksi ini di kelas, dan persepsi guru mengenai penggunaan interaksi ini di kelas bahasa inggris. peneliti menggunakan metode gabungan dalam penelitian ini. subyek untuk studi ini adalah 137 siswa kelas 8 tahun akademik 2022/2023 di smp karangturi semarang. studi ini menggunakan kuisioner, observasi di kelas, dan interview. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa ada hubungan signifikan antara interaksi antara guru dan siswa dan motivasi akademis siswa dalam belajar bahasa inggris. guru menggunakan interaksi ini dengan memberikan pertanyaan dan memberikan pengarahan. di samping itu, guru juga setuju bahwa interaksi antara guru dan siswa sangat efektif untuk guru dan siswa. kata kunci: interaksi guru dan siswa, motivasi akademis, dan motivasi guru. introduction no student’s success can be achieved without the help provided by the teachers. students might think that they can be successful academically when they solely depend on themselves. three elements in determining a student's academic success and effective english language teaching are teachers, students or learners’ participation, and learning environments. bhattarai (2021) mentions that teachers have an important element in achieving effective english teaching and learning. being a teacher requires content knowledge, communication skills, affective skills, and personality traits. in the past, teachers might only have their roles as teachers and instructors. they did not pay attention enough to how their students dealt with their difficulties and motivated the students when they were about to give up. they might deliver the lessons, give instructions to the whole class, and give scores on their tests or homework. therefore, students are afraid to convey their difficulties and are reluctant to interact with their teachers. according to dincer and goksu (2013), some characteristics for english teachers to be effective teachers are pedagogical knowledge, subject knowledge, socio-affective skills, and personality traits. thus, teachers who do not have socio-affective skills in establishing student-teacher interactions and delivering the materials without paying attention to how their students solve their problems, motivating them to keep up with the lessons, and believing their learning processes will create ineffective teaching and learning processes in the classroom. the presence of student-teacher interaction is vital in the classroom. having ineffective student-teacher interactions hinders the students to ask some questions and convey their difficulties to the teachers. it further leads them to have low motivation in learning, low academic performance, and low confidence when learning english. creating an effective student-teacher interaction affects both students’ academic motivation in learning and teachers’ motivation in teaching. aultman et al. (2009) mentioned that these student-teacher interactions bring impacts for teachers by providing effective teaching and learning and elevating their expertise in teaching. therefore, although student-teacher interaction is dominated in focusing on the impacts on students, it is also vital to figure out the importance of student-teacher interaction for teachers. research that emphasizes and focuses on the correlation between student-teacher interactions is nearly found. thus, it is essential to dig this topic up to gain new insight about the importance of these interactions towards teacher’s motivation. the research about student-teacher interactions which affect students’ academic motivation has been previously conducted by a lot of researchers. opdenakker et al., (2012), chouinard et al., (2017), and henry and thorsen (2018) had already investigated on how student-teacher interaction in the classroom affects students’ academic motivation in learning english. they believed that student-teacher interaction in the classroom can either motivate or demotivate the students in learning english. further, pianta (2005) as cited by shefi and chis (2016) stated that student-teacher interaction is vital to develop students’ academic motivation. besides, students who have the connection with the teacher have more ability to maintain their motivation. other researchers had also conducted some studies that emphasize the implementation of student-teacher interaction in english classes. oreshkina and greenberg (2010) and makarova (2021) underlined the importance of student-teacher interactions that can influence classroom participation and behavior. this finding is in line with the theory proposed by camp (2011) who mentioned that students who do not have positive and supportive interaction with the teacher usually have to struggle to get satisfying academic results. furthermore, there is also a possibility that student-teacher interaction affects students’ academic motivation and their academic achievement. be (2017), buah (2017), and jafari and asgari (2020) evaluated the correlation between student-teacher interactions, motivation, and also students’ academic achievement. they figured out that having interacted with the teacher in the classroom, the students are possible to elevate their motivation which can further affect their academic achievement. in other words, when the students want to have better motivation in learning that can facilitate them to increase their academic results, they should have more student-teacher interactions in the classroom. lastly, few people pay attention on the impacts of teacher’s motivation to students’ academic success. teacher’s motivation is defined as some factors that drive teachers to do their professional job in their workplace. kotherja and kotherja (2012) stated that when teachers are motivated, they feel happy and positive in teaching their students in the classroom. further, it brings positive influence for students too. this finding goes the same with studies conducted by hung (2020), taştan et al. (2018), and azubuike and oko (2016). these studies believed that how well a teacher is motivated or demotivated in conducting the class affects the students’ academic performance. there has not been many researches that focus on the correlation between student-teacher interaction, students’ academic motivation, and teacher’s motivation. most of the researches concern on the correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation or students’ academic achievement. in fact, this topic needs more exploration from other researchers so that more people will be aware of the importance of establishing these interactions for both students and teacher. based on this aforementioned explanation, the researcher feels curious to conduct a study on the correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation, to what extent teacher utilizes student-teacher interaction to improve students’ and teacher’s motivation, and teacher’s perception of the utilization of these interactions to improve students’ academic motivation and teacher’s motivation in english classes. the researcher believes that this research will be valuable for further research. literature review this part puts the spotlight on the literature review in relation to the student-teacher interaction, flander’s interaction analysis, academic motivation, and teacher’s motivation. this literature review is classified into the followings. a. student-teacher interaction student-teacher or learner-instructor interaction is one of the interactions occurs between students and teacher in the classroom. swan (2003) mentions that learner-instructor or student-teacher interaction usually exists when teacher who works as the instructor tries to stimulate the students to feel motivated and to facilitate them in the process of learning. moreover, be (2017) states that student-teacher interaction needs reciprocal relation between the teacher and the students. in other words, when the only party who dominates the interaction and there is no feedback or response from another party, it can be said that the student-teacher interaction does not occur as it requires reciprocal relation or action. in the past, the role of teacher in the classroom might dominate the interaction as teacher delivered the materials whereas the students passively listened to the content delivered by the teacher. for the past few years, the teacher’s dominance in student-teacher interaction in the classroom has changed to focus more on student talk. kostadinovska-stojchevska and popovikj (2019) mention that in order to establish effective student-teacher interactions in the classroom, there should only be 30% of the teacher talk while the remaining should be focused on student talk. in addition, nilon (2005) as cited by kostadinovska-stojchevska and popovikj (2019) also believes that the percentage of teacher talk should be around 70% while the remaining 30% is for student talk. further he explains that this percentage might vary from time to time due to the objectives of the syllabus chosen by the school and teacher’s pedagogical perceptions and principles. by putting more highlight on student talk, students can actively participate during classroom discussion and practice their skills in the target language, especially english. students might find it challenging to establish student-teacher interactions in the classroom. some factors underline why they find it hard to create these interactions in the classroom, which are classified into general and cultural factors. according to congmin (2016), the general factors consist of students’ proficiency level, students’ age, students’ character, students’ interests, and motivation. students’ proficiency level is the dominant factor that affects how students interact with their teacher in the classroom. when the students do not have a high proficiency level in the target language, it is impossible for them with limited linguistics or vocabulary resources to respond fluently to what the teacher has previously uttered. further, he mentions that students of different ages usually show different outcomes in the student-teacher interaction that occurs in the classroom. children usually make irrelevant interactions, and they will depend on the teacher’s guidance or assistance in the classroom. in contrast, adult learners can do their tasks independently without depending too much on the teacher and produce more relevant responses to the teacher’s utterances. besides, cultural factors also become obstacles for students in establishing these interactions in the classroom. based on an observation between western and chinese students, congmin (2016) found that chinese students depend significantly on teacher talk. thus, they become receptive to listening to the teachers rather than being responsive to them. therefore, it can be concluded that cultural factors also shape how students establish student-teacher interactions in the classroom. b. flander’s interaction analysis to observe and make analysis about student-teacher interactions verbally in the classroom, this study employs flander’s interaction analysis categories (fiacs). flanders (1970) as cited by sharma and tiwari (2021) highlights that fiac can be a suitable tool for observing verbal interactions between students and teacher which take place in the classroom. thus, non-verbal gestures will not be considered as interactions. fiacs has some indicators in student-teacher interactions, namely teacher talk, pupil talk or student talk, and silence. as the scope of this research does not include silence, thus, silence will not be put into consideration. furthermore, flanders (1970) as cited by amatari (2015) specifically elaborates the teacher talk and student talk, as follows. 1. teacher talk – indirect influence four indicators in teacher talk indirect influence will be elaborated as follows. a) accepts feeling accept feeling refers to the acceptance of students’ feeling or attitude in a non-threatening way. it is not always positive but it can also be negative. reminiscing past moments also belong to this subtype of teacher talk. some examples of this subtype are “how are you today?”, “how do you feel?”, and “what have you been feeling lately?”. b) praises or encourages the term praises or encourages refers to the action where the teacher provides encouragement and gives praises to the students for their excellent and positive behavior and other achievements they get. sometimes it does not have to be a verbal affirmation for the students to hear. however, it is also possible to show behavior such as nodding head, smiling, or clapping. some common examples of verbal praises or encouragement are “good job,” “great!”, “very good!”, “nice!” and many more. c) accepts students’ ideas accepting students’ ideas means that the teacher sometimes agrees with what the students have stated or mentioned. the teacher usually clarifies and develops students' ideas to make a better statement or sentence. an example of this subtype is “i got your point.” d) asks questions this term refers to the action where the teacher asks questions to the students to get responses from the students. the questions asked by the teacher are usually related to the content of the lessons taught before. 2. teacher talk – direct influence three subtypes of teacher talk direct influence consist of lecturing, giving direction, and justifying authority or criticizing. a) lecturing providing facts, knowledge, content, lessons, and also procedure belongs to this subtype. hence, teacher gives explanation from sources of knowledge for students during the teaching and learning processes. b) giving direction different from lecturing, giving directions occurs when the teacher gives commands or directions for the students in doing something like a task, test procedure, and many more. c) justifying authority this term refers to the action where teacher criticizes students for their unacceptable behavior. by showing this action, teacher facilitates students to have better behavior or attitude in the classroom. 3. student talk – response student talk consists of response and initiation. student talk response occurs when students provide responses to what the teacher has initiated before during the student-teacher interaction. 4. student talk – initiation on the other hand, student talk initiation exists when students initiate the interactions with the teacher in the classroom. it could be another topic they feel interested in, something to give opinion, or even questions they need answer from the teacher. all of these indicators need to occur in order to establish student-teacher interaction in the classroom. wagner (1994) as cited by shackelford and maxwell (2012) emphasizes that student-teacher interaction must be reciprocal and mutual as it needs two objects and actions. thus, when the only party dominates another and gets no reply, this interaction cannot occur. c. academic motivation establishing positive student-teacher interactions in the classroom affects students to have their motivation in learning academically. academic motivation is an internal drive that keeps people learning or working to fulfill their desire in the academic life. based on vallerand et al. (1992), academic motivation is one of the most essential psychological concept in education which is linked to learning, persistence, curiosity, and performance. when students do not have academic motivation, they will not have curiosity and persistence in learning which may lead to their academic performance. furthermore, academic motivation has three vital elements especially in language learning, namely desire, effort, and also effect (gardner and gliksman, 1982). desire makes someone wants to achieve something in their life specifically in acquiring a language. effort shows how far students want to do everything to achieve their desire whereas the effect shows the learners’ reaction emotionally to the language learning. desire leads everything and how much effort you have may affect the effect or results you gain in the future. in fact, both students and teacher gain the benefits from having motivation. d. teacher’s motivation not only students but also teachers increase their motivation by having student-teacher interaction in the classroom. teacher’s motivation is a powerful drive that pushes and stimulates teacher to keep doing the professional job they have so that they could show significant improvements hung (2020). asemah (2010) as cited by azubuike and oko (2016) further adds that teacher’s motivation refers to a group of desires, needs, and other forces owned by the teacher to do the desired things academically in a productive manner. shortly, teacher’s motivation is what pushes teachers to remain to their professional job. sometimes it is possible to have different motivation in teaching, for example, someone taught english because he enjoys teaching. however, later on they might teach because they need salary although they do not do it wholeheartedly. method the data for this research were numeric and nominal. to make this research viable, both quantitative and qualitative research methods were employed. numeric data especially discrete data was utilized as this research deals with numbers whereas nominal data was suitably chosen as it shows named categories. the numeric data showed the result of data obtained from students’ point of view while the nominal data in qualitative checked the data from teacher’s point of view and supported the data from the students. moreover, the study refers to the theory of fiacs to analyze the interaction between students and the english teacher in the classroom. a. type of research this research combines quantitative and qualitative type of research, specifically explanatory sequential mixed-method design. creswell (2014) mentions that explanatory sequential mixed-method is a research design that is initiated from quantitative followed by qualitative research. in answering the first research question about the correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation in learning english, quantitative research design specifically questionnaire was utilized. this is vital because dawadi et al. (2021) claim that in collecting data from a large number of participants, quantitative research increases the possibility to generalize findings from a wider population. in addition, in answering the second research question about to what extent the teacher employs student-teacher interaction to improve students’ and teacher’s motivation in english classes and the third research question about teacher’s perception on the utilization of student-teacher interaction in improving both students and teacher motivation in english classes, qualitative research design through observation and in-depth interview were employed. following the theory proposed by dawadi et al. (2021), in showing deeper understanding of the topic investigated and honoring the participant as the source of the research, qualitative research design is suitable to use as it provides depth to the study whereas quantitative research design brings breadth to the study. thus, mixed-method design is suitable to be employed in this study. b. research subjects all the 8th-grade students divided into six classes in the academic year of 2022/2023 at karangturi junior high school and their english teacher were chosen as the research subjects of this study. in sum, there were 137 students consisting of 64 boys and 73 girls and an english teacher. the reason underlining why choosing 8th-grade students is because they have been quite familiar with the teacher whereas the 7th-grade students might still feel awkward with the teacher and the 9th-grade students might create bias during the research. thus, all the 8th-grade students were suitable to be the research subjects. furthermore, there were three variables employed in this study specifically two dependent variables and an independent variable. student-teacher interaction occurred in the classroom was the independent variable while students’ and teacher’s motivations in english classes were the dependent variables utilized in this study. the reason for having student-teacher interaction and the other two dependent variables was because i wanted to present the significant correlation among all variables for the research subjects at english classes. c. research procedures in achieving the research objectives of this research, three instruments, namely a questionnaire, classroom observation, and in-depth interview, were utilized. first, two types of questionnaires were utilized to find the correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation in learning english. moreover, the researcher employed classroom observation to explain to what extent the teacher employs the student-teacher interaction to improve students’ academic motivation and teacher’s motivation. lastly, an in-depth interview was used to answer the last research question about the teacher’s perception of the utilization of student-teacher interaction for improving students' and teacher’s motivation. 1. questionnaire first, i constructed nine statements based on the indicators on fiacs (flander’s interaction analysis categories) for the first questionnaire. for the second questionnaire, the author adopted the questionnaire from vallerand et al. (1992) to measure students’ academic motivation. these two types of questionnaires were available to access by the students through google form. this research procedure was essential so that i could show the correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation in learning english. 2. classroom observation then i modified an observation sheet from ottevanger (2001). during the classroom observation, the researcher recorded the student-teacher interactions that occurred in the classroom. whenever the statement on the observation sheet existed in the classroom, the researcher ticked the observation box on the left side of each sentence. besides, the author also took notes for any other vital information concerning the explanation or additional information about each statement. conducting the classroom observation facilitates the researcher to support the data gained from the questionnaire, provide the situation in the classroom, and answer the second research question. 3. interview lastly, interview was modified based on the theory proposed by nugent (2009). i did the in-depth interview with the english teacher of 8th-grade students in the academic year of 2022/2023 in karangturi junior high school semarang. this interview was recorded so that there would not be any missing information during the interview. the aim of having this interview is to show the teacher’s perception about the student-teacher interaction to improve students’ and teacher’s motivation in english classes. results and discussions the results of this study provide insights of the importance of student-teacher interactions in the classroom. specifically, the results were elaborated into the followings. correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation in learning english the researcher used spss especially pearson correlation coefficient in answering the first research question. to conduct pearson correlation coefficient, there were a few assumptions to fulfill. they were test of normality and test of linearity. having conducted these two tests, the researcher found that the research data were in a normal distribution and there was a linearity between the variable of student-teacher interaction as the x variable and students’ academic motivation as the y variable. having conducted the correlation analysis, the researcher referred the result of the data with the scale of correlation coefficient scoring table as follows. figure 1 correlation coefficient scoring table the following table shows the correlation analysis between the variable of student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation. table 1: pearson correlation analysis correlations interaction motivation interaction pearson correlation 1 ,174* sig. (2-tailed) ,042 n 137 137 motivation pearson correlation ,174* 1 sig. (2-tailed) ,042 n 137 137 *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). referring to figure 1 concerning the correlation coefficient scoring table, the result showed that there is a significant correlation between the variable of student-teacher interaction as x variable and students’ academic motivation as y variable. the result of correlation coefficient scoring table showed 0.174 meaning that there is a significant correlation, however, it has very low degree of correlation. in the following table 2, linear regression was conducted to find out the influence between the independent and dependent variable. table 2: model summary in simple linear regression output model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 ,174a ,030 ,023 5,309 a. predictors: (constant), interaction from the output of the simple linear regression analysis, the r score is 0.174 meaning that both variable have a very low correlation. moreover, the r square showed 0.030 which means that the student-teacher interactions as the independent variable has the contribution of 3% towards the dependent variable. in other words, the remaining 97% is assumed to be affected or influenced by other factors other than the independent variable. table 3: anova table in simple linear regression analysis anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 119,360 1 119,360 4,235 ,042b residual 3804,844 135 28,184 total 3924,204 136 a. dependent variable: motivation b. predictors: (constant), interaction in describing the relationship between two variables whether it is positive or negative and linear or nonlinear, the researcher employed simple linear regression. by referring at the significance score (sig.), the relationship can be found. when the significance score is less than 0.05, it means that the regression model is linear and vice versa. as the significance level is 0.042 which is less than 0.05 meaning that the regression is linear and the linearity criterion is fulfilled. table 4: coefficient table in simple linear regression analysis coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 29,453 3,463 8,506 ,000 interaction ,253 ,123 ,174 2,058 ,042 a. dependent variable: motivation lastly, coefficient table shows the regression equation from variables utilized in this study. from the table, the regression equation is motivation = 29.453 + 0.253 interaction. the constant element of 29.45 shows that this variable is not affected by any kinds of student-teacher interaction existed in the classroom. in other words, when there is zero (0) interaction between students and the teacher, the motivation found is 29.453. in addition, the regression coefficient 0.253 points out that in every student-teacher interaction occurred, student’s motivation in learning english increases 0.253 point. in contrast, when there is no student-teacher interaction occurred, it affects the reduction of motivation for about 0.253. thus, the student-teacher interaction has the positive relationship with the motivation. furthermore, in ensuring whether the regression coefficient is significant where x variable affects y variable, the researcher did the hypothesis by making a comparison of the significance level (sig.) with the 0.05 probability. from table 4, it shows that the significance level is 0.042 which is less than 0.05 meaning that the student-teacher interaction (variable x) is significant enough to affect students’ academic motivation in learning english (variable y). to what extent teacher utilizes student-teacher interaction in every teaching and learning process in the classroom, teacher and students make interactions in the classroom. in answering to what extent the teacher utilizes student-teacher interaction to improve students’ academic motivation and teacher’s motivation, the researcher employed observation in this study. this observation was undertaken in a class that was considered as the class with the most active students in classroom discussion. (1) teacher talk – indirect influence having conducted the classroom observation, the result showed that the teacher dominantly gave indirect influence by asking questions. in sum, there were 20 times where the teacher asked questions including open and closed questions. some examples of this teacher talk indirect influence were: “is it a party?” (data o8) “you should ask for help in class, correct?” (data o18) “must or should?” (data o19) another dominant teacher talk indirect influence is praising or giving encouragement to students. by praising or giving encouragement, the teacher believes that it can help students to show more active participation in english classes. a few examples of praising students were: “okay, nice try!” (data o2) “alright, it is correct!” (data o11) “so, all answers are correct.” (data o11) giving feedbacks to students facilitates the students to show more willingness to take part, answer, or give responses during the classroom discussion. however, showing exaggerating praises is not a good idea either. thus, the teacher knew exactly when to show encouragement or give praises to students. by doing this, students would learn and do their best to answer correctly during student-teacher interaction. lastly, the teacher also indirectly influenced the students by accepting their feeling. she would greet all her students in the beginning of english class and ask how their feeling was to light the mood up, such as: “good morning, how are you today?” “so you just had mathematics test?” (datum o1) by accepting students’ feeling, students might feel less tense before having the lesson. it helped the students to feel relaxed yet serious at the same time during the teaching and learning processes. (2) teacher talk – direct influence in teacher talk direct influence, the teacher dominantly gives direction, lecturing, and criticizing students’ attitudes. during the classroom observation, the teacher gave directions for eleven times by saying: “i am going to mention three rules and you need to guess.” (data o3) “make a sentence, the verb i will give you is wear.” (data o8) “take your handout page 16. open your handout page 16 part 1 until 5” (data o14) “part 1 number 2 should be must and should. please ignore the ‘not.’ must and should.” (data o14) the teacher mostly gave directions for students when they need more guidance and help. secondly, the teacher four times did the lecturing during english class. she did not make lecturing as the dominant element in teacher talk direct influence as she only delivered the lessons by providing examples through games or quiz. a few examples of lecturing were as follows. "yeah… so must is like you have to do it and if should it is for a suggestion or an advice” (data o7) “should is like 80%. as i previously mentioned. it is like a suggestion yeah… you give advice to someone, so this someone is going to do that. when it is must, you need to do, you have to do it” (data o17) shortly, the teacher did not take much time for lecturing because the rest of the time could be used for students’ practicing time, classroom discussion, and others. in addition, the teacher rarely criticized students’ behavior or attitude during english classes. during the observation, the teacher warned two students who forget bringing their handout and two other students who fooled around in the class. having shown this action to the students enables students to change their unacceptable behavior to be better or acceptable. (3) student talk lastly, the students made more responses during the student-teacher interaction than initiation. as the teacher had initiated the interactions, students responded her by giving various responses. a few examples of students’ responses were as follows. “wear?” “wear? what do you mean?” (datum o8) on the other hand, there was only a student who initiated the interaction with the teacher in the classroom by asking their english test result. teacher’s perception on the utilization of student-teacher interaction furthermore, the teacher agrees that the presence of student-teacher interaction is essential to occur in the classroom. in applying these interactions, she uses presentation and discussion so that students are able to give responses and teacher can ask for comments from the students other than the presenters. when students are baffling about something to ask or to give comments, teacher can guide them so that they can understand the topic discussed well. once the students can answer the questions well, the teacher would praise them to motivate them. when the students find it difficult to solve something, both students and teacher work together to let the students know that their idea is important too. in addition, there is no exact percentage on who takes the lead in the class whether it is the teacher or the student. when explaining new lessons, the teacher will dominate the interactions. however, when it comes to group discussion or presentation, students will be the ones taking the lead. during the observation, there were 145 interactions divided into 73 teacher talk and 72 student talk. generally, the teacher chooses an interesting topic for the discussion to manage turn-taking to exist. the students sometimes find it difficult to participate in the discussion due to their lack of knowledge and confidence or they might feel scared to be laughed when making mistakes. in order to prevent it, the teacher helps them by choosing another student to give additional information, change the topic, give the answer, or close the discussion. it helps the students to believe in the teacher where they can convey their difficulties in learning english. based on the data gained from the interview, the english teacher considered the effectiveness of student-teacher interaction for students in the classroom. having given a specific topic, students can try to explore the critical thinking, practice speaking in the class, and increase their motivation to learn vocabularies they are not familiar with. similarly, these interactions are also impactful for teacher’s motivation. by establishing student-teacher interactions, the teacher can learn to participate more during the discussion, especially about new topics she has not been familiar yet. during the classroom discussion, the teacher usually chooses a topic that makes students feel interested to take part, give opinion, and add information. these interactions will work smoothly when students are interested in the related topic whereas the teacher knows a lot about the topic as well. thus, the teacher can navigate the interactions well. besides, the teacher can also learn something new from students’ points of view. the results of this study showed that student-teacher interactions are impactful not only for students but also for teacher. it is essential to dig more on the impact of student-teacher interaction towards teacher’s motivation as nearly no study pays attention on teacher’s side. by emphasizing and exploring more on the correlation of student-teacher interaction, students’ academic motivation, and teacher’s motivation, the teaching and learning processes in the classroom can be improved academically. conclusion from the findings, i concluded that there is statistically significant correlation between student-teacher interaction and students’ academic motivation. this finding is in line with a few previous studies conducted by nugent (2009), liu and chiang (2019), and jafari and asgari (2020) who emphasize the positive and significant correlation between these two variables. second, teacher employs student-teacher interaction in improving both students’ and teacher’s motivation by asking question as the indirect influence. in triggering students to give more responses and be more active during classroom discussion, teacher usually asks questions in a friendly way. this finding is identical with what have been proposed by yan (2006) and sakka et al. (2022) who state that asking questions usually dominated the teacher talk in the classroom. thus, it underlines that the teacher still dominates the student-teacher interaction in the classroom discussion by asking questions. lastly, the teacher also sees the same way when it comes to the effectiveness of student-teacher interaction to improve students’ academic and teacher’s motivation in english classes. by establishing these interactions in the classroom, students can practice their speaking skills including their pronunciation and vocabularies, sharpen their self-confidence to deliver their opinion in the class, and learn something they have not been familiar with. on the other hand, teacher also learns something new from the students through these interactions. when giving specific topic to discuss in the classroom, teacher needs to understand some information about this topic, so that once the students give responses or ask questions, the teacher is able to answer and give additional information about the topic discussed. besides, she can learn new things from students’ points of view. the same result has been mentioned by sun and wu (2016) who agree that the effectiveness of student-teacher interaction is impactful for both students and teacher. based on the previous findings, there were some suggestions concerning the student-teacher interaction for teachers, students, policymakers, and future researchers. having understood the importance of these interactions, teachers should facilitate the students to initiate more interactions in the class to make their learning more effective. for students, they should show more responses during classroom interaction so that their academic motivation can be improved, too. the policymakers can raise awareness to set rules about how many teacher and student talk in percentages to make the learning process work effectively in the classroom. lastly, future researchers can explore teacher’s motivation more and improve the instruments to make greater research diversity. references amatari, v. o. 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(2006). teacher talk and efl in university classroom. chongqing normal university & yangtze normal university, china. ___________________________________________________ in submitting your manuscript, please also write 15-20 words for celt journal to use as subject index. interaction classroom interaction student-teacher interaction motivation students’ motivation academic motivation teacher’s motivation education english education english efl learner fiacs teacher talk student talk https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj microsoft word b578-14d6-7f03-d59b a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia self-correction in writing a paragraph 1fergina lengkoan and 2sanerita tresnawaty olii 1,2english education department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, tondano, indonesia 1ferginalengkoan@unima.ac.id; 2tresnawatyessy@gmail.com received: 03-12-2020 accepted: 26-12-2020 published: 30-12-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj self-correction in writing a paragraph 1fergina lengkoan and 2sanerita tresnawaty olii 1 ferginalengkoan@unima.ac.id; 2 tresnawatyessy@gmail.com 1,2 english education department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri manado, tondano, indonesia abstract: a paragraph is a subject consisting of a writer's developed related statements. in writing a paragraph, the students make sure their paragraph is in the correct format. this qualitative study describes students' writing development in a paragraph and the impact of self-correction. the study participants were 15 students in the second semester of a basic writing class at the english education department. the tests implemented were pre-test and post-test after five meetings of treatment. in the treatment, the students gave feedback about the paragraph, punctuation, capitalization, simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and compound-complex sentence. the results showed that self-correction benefited students' writing skills, and there was a development in their writing skills. this study suggested that self-correction was an effective method and was shown to be an appropriate method to improve the students’ writing skills. keywords: self-correction; writing skill; paragraph abstrak: sebuah paragraf adalah subjek yang terdiri dari pernyataan terkait yang dikembangkan oleh seorang penulis. dalam menulis paragraf, siswa memastikan paragraf mereka dalam format yang benar. penelitian i mendeskripsikan perkembangan a menulis siswa dalam sebuah paragraf dan dampak koreksi diri. partisipan dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 15 siswa pada kelas basic writing semester kedua di jurusan pendidikan bahasa inggris. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kuantitatif dan menggunakan tes tertulis. tes yang dilaksanakan adalah pre-test dan post-test setelah 5 pertemuan. dalam setiap proses menulis siswa memberikan tanggapan tentang paragraf, lengkoan, f. &olli, s.t., self-correction in writing a paragraph 379 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj tanda baca, kapitalisasi, kalimat sederhana, kalimat majemuk, kalimat kompleks, dan kalimat kompleks majemuk. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa koreksi diri bermanfaat bagi keterampilan menulis siswa dan ada peningkatan keterampilan menulis mereka. penelitian ini menyarankan bahwa koreksi diri adalah metode yang efektif dan terbukti menjadi metode yang tepat untuk meningkatkan kemampuan menulis siswa. kata kunci: koreksi diri; keterampilan menulis; paragraf introduction writing in english is one of the skills that students must learn and master. (richards &richards, 2002) argue that writing is the most challenging skill for the second language and foreign language learners. writing in english is divided into academic writing and creative writing. according to oshima & hogue (2017), “academic writing is the kind of writing used in high school and college classes. whereas creative writing is the kind of writing, you do when you write stories. it is also different from personal writing, the kind of writing you do when you write letters or e-mails to your friends and family (ubro et al., 2020). informal writing is creative and personal, so it is possible to use slang, abbreviations, and incomplete sentences. however, in formal academic writing, students should avoid slang or contractions. complete sentences should be written and organized in a certain way. when students learn to write, they have to learn to write a sentence before writing a paragraph (bambulu & pelenkahu, 2021). harmer (2004) stated that the students should pay attention to what to write and how to write. this research answered the problem of how self-correction impacts students’ writing paragraphs. the previous research by fahimi & rahimi (2015) found that selfassessment instruction prepares students to plan and revise their texts and evaluate their writing progress. in a self-correction exercise, students function as writers and correctors. cahyono & amrina (2016) studied peer correction and self-correction in teaching writing to indonesian efl students. they found that self-correction is an effective technique to apply in writing. they suggest that peer feedback and self-correction should be done by using guideline sheets. in their study, they compared three groups. they concluded that regardless of the types, feedback conducted in efl essay writing courses is 380 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 378 – 386 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj likely to improve the students‟ ability in writing essays. both peer feedback and self-correction are beneficial to improve the students’ writing skills. in addition, rohim (2018) stated that many mistakes are also frequently found when the students start to write. the mistakes come from the lack of skills in writing. the researcher reports how self-correction has impacted the students’ writing paragraphs as their competence in writing a paragraph has increased. literature review fata et al. (2018) stated, writing is an activity that arranges the words into a sentence, sentences into a paragraph, and paragraph into a good text. without the formula and rules, the words and the sentences could not be arranged to be a good paragraph. another definition of writing comes from raimes (1983). it is the skill in which we express the ideas, feelings, and thoughts arranged in words, sentences, and paragraphs using eyes, brain, and hand. there are also components and parts to master in writing, like correct use of punctuation, capitalization, sentences, and paragraph. oshima, a. & hogue (2017) adds the definition that a paragraph is a group of related statements that a writer develops about a subject. in the first sentence, the specific point, or idea, of the topic and the rest of the sentences in the paragraph support that point. a good paragraph is, thus, essential in academic writing. like stated by wirantaka (2016) a good paragraph is critical as it helps the readers to understand the content of the writing. in teaching writing, especially a paragraph, the researcher used selfcorrection. as informed by andrade & du (2007), self-correction is a process in which the students reflect on and evaluate the quality of their work and their learning, judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, identify strengths and weaknesses in their work, and revise. this is in accordance to ganji (2009) who believes that the students’ self-correction can have a long-lasting effect on their memory, because they are involved in the process directly and actively, and this can activate the operations necessary for long-term retention. in self-correction, the students started knowing and correctly writing a paragraph, including the punctuation, capitalization rules, and sentences. another statement from bitchener et al. (2005) also informs that self-correction is an indirect feedback where the teacher provides students with choices that would allow them to discern the correct form by themselves. lengkoan, f. &olli, s.t., self-correction in writing a paragraph 381 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as a standard and a tool for students in doing self-correction, before applying self-correction, the students are given in advance some informative explanation about the essential parts of a paragraph, the rule of capitalization and the kinds of sentences. method this article reports the paragraph writing of fifteen students of the english education department who were studying at universitas negeri manado. in collecting data, a written test was used. the treatment of selfcorrection was given to the students after the pre-test. after the treatment, in five meetings, the students were given a post-test. the students were asked to make a paragraph that consisted of a topic sentence, supporting sentences, both major support sentences and minor support sentences, and a concluding sentence, and they wrote the topic on covid-19. there were some steps that the writers took in collecting and analyzing the data. first, the researcher prepared the class condition where the students were ready to follow the test done online by using edmodo where the students wrote a paragraph as the pretest. then, five meetings were used to teach them on the way to do the self-correction on their writing. they learnt on the punctuation, capitalization, topic sentence, supporting sentences and concluding sentence. in order to do that, they also learnt on the kinds of sentences , such as simple, compound, and complex sentences. then, the students wrote a paragraph with an allocation time of 60 minutes, and they had to submit it in the edmodo application. then, the researcher gave feedback and instructions to the students to correct their paragraphs by themselves. finally, the researcher gave a post-test and analyzed the data. the test was given to the students to see the impact of self-correction in writing paragraphs and also give them scores. the rubric and study zone used for the scoring is described below: table 1: basic writing rubric punctuation/capitalization topic to score good fair poor (3 pts) (2 pts) (1 pts) 382 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 378 – 386 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj punctuation beginning of all sentences is capitalized. all “i” are capitalized. all sentences end with a punctuation mark. all proper nouns are capitalized. (0-2 mistakes) beginning of most sentences are capitalized. most “i” are capitalized. most sentences end with a punctuation mark. most proper nouns are capitalized. (3-4 mistakes) beginning of some sentences are capitalized. some “i” are capitalized. some sentences end with a punctuation mark. some proper nouns are capitalized. (5 or more mistakes) capitalization beginning of all sentences are capitalized. all “i” are capitalized. all sentences end with a punctuation mark. all proper nouns are capitalized. (0-2 mistakes) beginning of most sentences are capitalized. most “i” are capitalized. most sentences end with a punctuation mark. most proper nouns are capitalized. (3-4 mistakes) beginning of some sentences are capitalized. some “i” are capitalized. some sentences end with a punctuation mark. some proper nouns are capitalized. (5 or more mistakes) as understood from table 1, scores were given on the punctuation (p), and capitalization (c). this is continued to scoring the main idea (m) and supporting sentences (ss). because students often make 0-5 mistakes the scores ranged from 100 to 50, or 10 to 5. table 2: paragraph writing rubric 3 2 1 main topic strong main idea restated in the closing sentence adequate main idea restated in the closing sentence weakly stated main idea weakly restated in closing sentence supporting sentences three or more supporting sentences per paragraph two supporting sentences per paragraph one supporting sentences per paragraph lengkoan, f. &olli, s.t., self-correction in writing a paragraph 383 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this research is quantitative in nature. according to bryman (2001) quantitative research approach is the research that places emphasis on numbers and figures in the collection and analysis of data. as a statistical data, eyisi (2016) stated that a researcher could apply the following formula to count the students score: score = x 10 the data of this research was presented in the computation of a mean score ( , where the mean of t1 was compared to that of t2 to ensure the effect of the teaching technique applied. using that formula, it was found the mean of the pre-test and the post-test by using this formula: results and discussions to get to the answer of the research problem of how self-correction impacts students’ writing paragraphs, the writer compared the score from the pre-test and the post test. the following is the data on the students’ scores. this score was given based on the writing rubrics that the research used. the score was given on the five aspects in their paragraphs. they are the punctuation, capitalization, main idea or topic sentence, and supporting sentences. the sentences they made are in various forms like simple, compound and complex. the score was based on the correct forms of sentences and also the relevance of the sentence on the topic. although the sentence is grammatically correct, it was considered as mistakes if they were not relevant. table 3: computation of mean (x) of the pre-test and post-test students number pre-test scores (x) post-test scores (x) 1 4.1 6.6 2 5 7.5 3 5 8.3 4 5 6.6 5 4.1 7.5 384 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 378 – 386 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 6 5.8 9.1 7 5.8 8.3 8 3.3 6.6 9 6.6 9.1 10 3.3 6.6 11 5.8 7.5 12 5 7.5 13 7.5 9.1 14 4.1 7.5 15 3.3 7.5 ∑ 73.7 115.3 4.91 7.68 the result of pre-test showed that the highest score was 7.5 and the lowest one was 3.3. the highest score was seven point five (7.5) achieved by one student, one student got six point six (6.6), three students got six point five (6.5) or 7.69%, one student got six-point twenty-five (6.25) or 3.85%. two students five point eight (5.8), four students got five (5), three students got four point one (4.1), three students got three point three (3.3). after being given treatment by self-correction, the researcher did post-test and the result of post-test showed that the highest score was 9.1 and the lowest one was 6.6. fifteen students took the post-test, three students got nine point one (9.1), two students got eight point three (8.3), six students got seven point five (7.5), and four students got six point six. figure 1: mean score of pre-test and post-test lengkoan, f. &olli, s.t., self-correction in writing a paragraph 385 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by calculating the average of the students’ score, data can be presented like shown in figure 1. it shows that the mean score in the pre-test and posttest is different. in the pre-test, the average was 4.91 and in the post-test the mean was 7.68. the gain from 4.91 to 7.68 was 2.77. this means that the students show an improvement in their writing skills. conclusion it can be concluded that self-correction is effective in developing students’ skill in writing paragraph, self-correction has an impact in students’ writing, and there is development from students’ writing skill from bad to good. it can be seen from the result of the pre-test and post-test, where the post-test scores were higher than the pre-test ones. references andrade, h., & du, y. (2007). student responses to criteria referenced selfassessment. assessment and evaluation in higher education, 32(2), 159– 181. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930600801928 bitchener, j., young, s., & cameron, d. (2005). the effect of different types of corrective feedback on esl student writing. journal of second language writing, 14(3), 191–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2005.08.001 bryman, a. (2001). social research methods. oxford university press. cahyono, b., & amrina, r. (2016). peer feedback, self-correction, and writing proficiency of indonesian efl students. arab world english journal, 7(1), 178–193. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol7no1.12 bambulu, d.o., & pelenkahu, n. (2021). the effectiveness of task-based language teaching in teaching writing. journal of english culture, language, literature and education, 9(1), 44–57. eyisi, d. (2016). the usefulness of qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods in researching problem-solving ability in science education curriculum. journal of education and practice, 7(15), 92–100. 386 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 378 – 386 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fahimi, z., & rahimi, a. (2015). on the impact of self-assessment practice on writing skill. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 192, 730–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.082 fata, i. a., bahri, s., & muridhal, m. (2018). from picture to text: the use of picture in elt writing class. celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, 18(2), 297. https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2.1654 ganji, m. (2009). teacher-correction, peer-correction and self-correction: their impacts on iranian students’ ielts essay writing performance. the journal of asia tefl, 6(1), 117–139. www.earticle.net harmer, j. (2004). how to teach writing. pearson education limited. longman. richards, j.c. & w. a. r. (2002). methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current practice. cambridge university press. oshima, a. & hogue, a. (2017). introduction to academic writing (third edit). pearson longman. raimes, a. (1983). techniques in teaching writing. oxford university press. rohim, a. (2018). ananalysis of students’ paragraph writing. syntax literate: jurnal ilmiah indonesia, 3(3), 12–16. ryoo, m. l. (2004). the effects of teacher feedback on efl students’ writing in a korean university class. journal of asia tefl, 1(1), 115–130. ubro, p., wowor, d. j., & samola, n. (2020). teaching recount text through quantum teaching strategy to improve students’ writing skill. journal of english culture, language, literature and education, 8(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.53682/eclue.v8i1.1766 wirantaka, a. (2016). paragraph writing of academic texts in an efl context. journal of foreign language teaching & literature, 1(2), 34–45. the analysis of covey's the seven habits of mghly effective teens translation version marcella rahayu, 1 and emuia nidik aydawati2 abstrljct,' many translation books have undergone the process 0/ translation, but some o/them contain problems o/translatlon, which may lead to the spread o/inaccurate in/ormation. the problema may occur because the translation works contain distortion in it. the idnds 0/ distortion itsel/ vary in types. there/ore, in this study the writer explores the translation o/covey's seven habits/or highly effective 7bena toflndwhat idnds o/distortlons, which the bookhos. the writer tries to classify the weak points in the translation version. the result o/this analysis shows that there q1'8 six types 0/ distortions found in translation version. they q1'8 the distortion 0/ idiom, paraphrase, diction, under translation, over translation and mistranslation. keywords,' translation, distortion o/idlom, paraphrase, diction introduction books have become an important source in people's life, that is, as the source of knowledge, inspiration, wisdom, guidance, etc. one that becomes the writer's attention is self-help book. some of self-help books have become best sellers in indonesia such as cash flow quadrant by r. tiyosaki, chicken soup, and the seven habits of a highly effective teens. one of the success factors for those imported books is that it is translated marcella rabayu is <marcyrahayu@yahoo.co.id> is an alumnae and currently a part-time lecturer of the faculty ofletters soegijapranata catholic university. a emdla ninik ~dawati <emilianinik@yahoo.com> is a full-time lecturer of the faculty ofletters soegijapranata catholic university. m. rtlhayu and e.n. a¥dgwati, the seven habits of highly effective 181 translator needs an editor or a proof reader before it is published massively. this is aimed to prevent from publishing translated works which contain distortions that can lead readers to misunderstand some of the messages or decreasing the value of the text or books. references abdellah. "wbatevery novice translators should know". in 7ranslationjoutiitll, 2002. azar, betty schramfer. understanding and using english grammar. 2nd edition. englewood cliffs: prenticeha1l, 1989. basnet, susan. 7ranslation studies. new york: routledge, 1988. covey, sean. the seven habits of highly effective teens. new york: fnmklin covey co, 1988a. __ .the seven habits of highly effective teens. translated version. jakarta: gramedia, 1988b. ellis, rod. the study of second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press, 1994. hadi,sutrisno.statistik.yogyakarta:andiyogyakarta,2000. hariyanto, sugeng. of poetry 7ranslation. english language education. vol 2, no.1, 1996: 91-104. in other words. universitas terbuka. james, carl. contrastiveanalysts. essex: longman group ltd., 1980. kumiasari, triwik. "suka duka penerjemah harry potter". nova. vol. xvi, no. 803,2003: 10-11 national university of singapore. "an application of relevance theory to the translation of implied meaning in literary works".inrelc. vo132, no.1, 2001: 133-134. newmark, peter.approaches to 7ranslation. herfordshire: prentice hall, 1988. zaky, magdy, m.. "translation and language varieties". in 7ranslation journal. http://accurapid.comljoumal, 200 1. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . improving reading comprehension skills among english language students with learning disabilities according to some variables mohamad ahmad saleem khasawneh king khalid university, saudi arabia email: mkhasawneh@kku.edu.sa received: 13-04-2021 accepted: 10-06-2021 published: 30-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj improving reading comprehension skills among english language students with learning disabilities according to some variables mohamad ahmad saleem khasawneh mkhasawneh@kku.edu.sa king khalid university, saudi arabia abstract: this study explored the effect of developing reading comprehension among english language students with learning disabilities using the reading speed strategy, identifying the effect of both gender, and teaching method on developing reading comprehension. to achieve the aim of the study, a test was prepared to measure reading comprehension after ensuring its validity and reliability. the study population consisted of all (200) students studying english language in the schools of the directorate of education for the second irbid region for the second semester of the academic year 2020/2021. the study was applied to a sample of (80) male and female students, who were selected in the simple method. the participants were distributed into two experimental groups, which received the training, and another two control groups, which studied the same educational material in the traditional method. the test was applied to the study groups before starting the implementation of the study to ensure the equality of groups. the results showed clear differences in the mean scores of the experimental group students and those of the control group students, and in favor of the experimental group. the results also showed that there were no differences between the mean scores of the students' scores attributed to gender. key words: reading comprehension, english language, learning disabilities, reading speed abstrak: ketelibatan american jews in industry film hollywood lebih dari sekedar cerita sukses kaum immigrant di america. datang dalam jumlah yang besar umumnya dari eropa timur, bangsa yahudi azkenazic ini ,kemudian berkontribusi membangun hollywood dan khasawneh, m.a.s. improving reading comprehension skills among english 173 language students with learning disabilities according to some variables https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj manjadikannya sebagi ikon film dunia. meski cukup dominan, bangsa yahudi cukup hatihati dalam industry ini. anti-semitism, perang dunia hingga great depression adalah hal –hal yang membuat mereka tidak nyaman berada dalam sorotan kamera ataupun berbicara tentang identitas mereka di antara mayoritas kristen yang merupakan penonton utama industri hollywood. namun demikian kondisi ini berubah setelah perang dunia kedua dan gerakan masyarakat sipil di tahun 1960. jahudi dan judaism kemudian muncul dalam berbagai macam representasi, yang tidak hanya merubah image mereka di hollywood, namun juga penerimaan masyarakat amerika secara lebih luas. fokus pada tiga film, ben hur: a tale of christ, penelitian ini mengungkapkan bagaimana bangsa yahudi merepresentasikan diri mereka lewat film-film yang diproduksi khususnya lewat film-film yang bertemakan religious, hingga perubahanperubahan yang dilakukan sebagai bagian dari yahudi amerika. menggunakan teori politik representasi oleh stuart hall serta analisis wacana kritis dari fairclough dan leuween sebagai pendekatan, riset ini focus pada analisis teks dan gambar sebagai tanda yang merepresentasikan yahudi dan judaisme dalam filmfilm tersebut terkait pada film sebagai konstruksi, para pembuat film ini kemudian mampu merekonstruksi yahudi dalam wajah yang berbeda di film – film yang diproduksi. representasi ini berupa kontruksi image sebagai respon dari stereotype yang selama ini berkembang di masyarakat khususnya terhadap hubungan yahudikristen. politik representasi ini juga memungkinkan mereka menyampaikan berbagai pesan pada audience tentang identitas mereka sebagai sebuah tradisi budaya dan agama. kata kunci: yahudi amerika, film hollywood, politik representasi, wacana introduction reading comprehension is the heart of the reading process. the educational system, with all its categories, seeks to provide students with this skill to help them increase the level of awareness and to be owners of basic reading skills that enable them to understand vocabulary. reading comprehension also helps students to perceive the different meanings of the read text, and the ability to analyze and evaluate. reading comprehension skills are very important in determining the success or failure of the student in academic life. the development of reading speed skills for students is important in the basic stages, as the student in these stages is expected to be 174 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 172 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj able to read quickly, and they are expected to read to benefit from new information (elizabeth, juliana & bloom, 2010). students who read slowly due to their lack of speed in reading will not develop reading speed as other students who read quickly (anderson, wilson, and fielding, 2010). because reading speed is so important to students, they should be trained to acquire this skill to achieve understanding. the faster the comprehension increases, the faster students can access important information, or obtain quick facts. there is no doubt that every student needs this kind of reading to keep pace with the rapid developments in this era (bani issa, 2010). because of using traditional methods in schools to teach reading, a generation appeared that had reading difficulties, and many skills that students must master in reading are missing. reading disability, if not addressed early, prevent students’ progress and continued with them into other grades (khasawneh, 2021). reading comprehension is a product of conscious reading that broadens and develops students' experiences, activates their intellectual skills, and provides students with the necessary information to solve many personal problems, to identify tendencies and increase them in breadth and depth, and develop a sense of self and the selves of others. it is appropriate for them, and pushes the mind to curiosity, reflection, and thinking, raises the level of understanding in social issues, raises the spirit of criticism for books, magazines, and newspapers, and makes the individual feel a sense of belonging to culture (raslan, 2015). students face many difficulties in reading in english language, which constitutes an obstacle to their education and limits their activities and tendencies towards learning. therefore, it is important to find more effective methods through the use of methods that attract their attention and excite them, and to eliminate the problems that they may face in learning to read (rahimi & babaei, 2021). the problem of weakness in reading speed is one of the biggest problems that students face, especially in the basic education stages. this creates negative effects represented in the weak level of comprehension among students. addressing this problem still needs more action to be take, several studies tackled such an issue in a different context, but few arabic studies have been conducted on developing reading speed skills. therefore, there is an urgent need to develop an experimental program to improve reading speed skills for students with learning disabilities to present results on which educational applications are based to raise the level of students in reading speed and then raising their level of understanding and khasawneh, m.a.s. improving reading comprehension skills among english 175 language students with learning disabilities according to some variables https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj comprehension. therefore, it is hoped that the current study will contribute to filling a gap in this area (quinn, wagner, petscher, roberts, menzel, & schatschneider, 2020). this study aims to identify the effect of using the reading speed strategy on developing the reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities in english language compared to the traditional methods. this study is considered one of the experimental studies concerned with investigating the effect of using reading speed strategy on developing reading comprehension. therefore, this study will work on designing a program to develop the skills of comprehension and speed in reading speed to be applied to students to improve their skills. the results of this study could help in improving students' level of reading speed and the subsequent increase in their level of comprehension. the results of this study are limited by the size of the study sample. the study was applied to students with learning disabilities. the age of students included in the study was (8-11) years old. the study is also limited to irbid city in jordan and the academic year 20202021. literature review reading comprehension should elevate students to the level of awareness and cognition so that they become readers who possess reading skills that enable them to comprehend the linguistic units at advanced levels. it also helps students to raise their ability to accurately comprehend the reading, understand the vocabulary, the perception of the surface and deep meaning, and the ability to understand the aim and significance of the writer to make objective judgments about the text. abu riach (2009) defined reading comprehension as the process by which previous experiences and features of the reader are used to form meaningful meanings for each reader in a specific context, and that process includes selecting specific ideas and understanding them in one sentence. fadlallah (2015) stated that comprehending the reading material, especially in educational situations, is a guarantee of upgrading the learner's language, providing him with rich ideas, being familiar with useful information, acquiring the skills of criticism, and accustoming him to expressing opinions and passing judgments, and helping him to pursue everything new. jad (2013) defined reading comprehension as a complex process that goes on at different levels, requires mental capabilities and 176 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 172 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abilities, and needs a lot of practice, training, interpretation, analysis, balance, and criticism. it is clear from the above that reading comprehension is important for students, and that it is the main goal of the reading process. indeed, some educators regard reading and comprehension as one thing. therefore, reading comprehension skills must be present in the curriculum and the classroom due to the importance of comprehension in language communication, and understanding the linguistic message between the writer and the reader (harthi, 2020). several studies have been conducted to investigate reading comprehension among students, and these studies have come up with different results. bani issa (2010) conducted a study aimed at identifying the effect of paul skelly's method of reading speed and reading comprehension among outstanding students in the elementary stage in jordan. the study sample consisted of (60) students. the results of the study showed differences in reading comprehension skills and differences in reading speed skills on the two tests due to paul skelly's method and in favor of the experimental group. randy, andrea, christine, & emily (2011) conducted a study aimed at accelerating the reading ability of children with slow reading ability. reading was the first element among all groups, as children with low reading ability showed low goals in speed compared to their children's counterparts, and it indicated that the speed component was negatively associated with adult age. babayigit (2019) examined the speed of reading texts students in the primary stage. the study used the survey of quantitative research methods. the sample of the study included 732 students. the study collected data from three primary schools in the areas of yozgat province during 2018. the instrument of the study depended on measuring the number of words a student can reads in a minute. the results indicated the presence of clear difference in the reading rates of the text, especially between lower cased and upper cases letters. the results revealed that reading lowercase letters text was 13% higher than reading capital letters. the results also showed that secondary school students scored higher in reading aloud better than primary school students did. durukan (2020) investigated the effectiveness of a training based on fast reading on comprehension skills among secondary school students. the study was applied to a sample of 40 students from the 8th grade in trabzon city. the study was based on the experimental approach, for which a pretestkhasawneh, m.a.s. improving reading comprehension skills among english 177 language students with learning disabilities according to some variables https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj posttest method was applied to one group. before applying the study, the reading speed and comprehension levels of the students were identified. the participants received 20 hours of speed-reading training every other day for 5 days. the results of the study indicated significant improvement in the level of students after the implementation of the study. deniz and yavuz (2020) investigated the types of reading error and reading speeds among students with special learning difficulties. the study used the case study model and was applied to a sample of 34 students from grades 3–8. these students were identified as students with lds in konya in the 2019–2020 academic year. the results of the study revealed different types of errors students with lds have shown. these errors included misreading, hesitating while reading, repeating, omitting a word or skipping a line, substituting a sound/syllable or a word, pausing while reading, correction and reversing sounds. method a. population and sample the study population consisted of all students of the fifth grade of primary school in government schools in the second irbid district. the sample of the study was (80) male and female students. table (1) shows the demographic information of the study sample. table 1: demographic distribution of the study sample group males females total experimental 02 02 02 control 02 02 02 total 02 02 02 b. research instrument the reading comprehension test consisted of 20 items of a multiplechoice type and each item was assigned one mark. the test time was determined to be 40 minutes, and the pre-test was used to ensure the 178 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 172 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj equivalence of the study groups. the same test was used after the completion of the implementation of the work plan. c. validity and reliability of the instrument to ensure the validity of the instrument, the correlation coefficient was calculated. the correlation coefficients are shown in table (2) below. table 2: the correlation coefficients of the study instrument item no. correlation coefficient item no. correlation coefficient 1. 236.0** 17. 23920** 2. 230.6** 18. 23000** 3. 23000** 19. 23099** 4. 23600** 20. 23006** 5. 230.0** 21. 236.0** 6. 2.690** 22. 23020** 7. 230.6** 23. 2366.** 8. 230.6** 24. 236..** 9. 23002** 25. 230.2** 10. 23000** 26. 23092** 11. 23000** 27. 23000** 12. 23000** 28. 2306.** 13. 230.0** 29. 23009** 14. 230..** 30. 23000** 15. 23000** 16. 23000** overall **0.822 results and discussions to answer the questions of the study, the mean scores and standard deviations of the sample's marks were calculated on the reading comprehension test as shown in table (3). khasawneh, m.a.s. improving reading comprehension skills among english 179 language students with learning disabilities according to some variables https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 3: the mean scores and standard deviations of the sample's scores in the posttest according to the study variables group gender control experimental standard deviation means score standard deviation means score 0.22 .0..9 ..06 .9.0. males 0.00 .0.00 ..20 02,92 females 0.00 .0... ...0 02..0 total it is evident from table 3 that the mean score of the experimental group of male students was 19.81 with a standard deviation 3.56. the mean score of the female from the experimental group was 20.90 with a standard deviation 3.08. on the other hand, the mean score of the control group of male students was 14.39 with a standard deviation 4.00, and the mean score of the control group of females was 14.28 with a standard deviation 4.47 the experimental group of males and females reached 20.35 with a standard deviation 3.32, while the total sum of the mean score of the control group was 14.33 with a standard deviation 4.24. it is noticed that there are apparent differences between the mean scores of the groups of the study. to verify the statistical significance of these differences, the two-way anova analysis was used as shown in table 4. table 4: results of the two-way anova analysis for the post-test according to the study variables source of variance sum of squares freedom value mean square f-value sig. method .0.6,020 . .0.6,020 9.,600 2,222 * gender 0,0.0 . 0,0.0 2,0.0 2,000 interaction between method and gender .0,00. . .0,00. .,.. 2,090 error .00.,020 ..9 ..,02. total ..00,002 .00 180 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 172 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj it is clear from table 4 that the results were as follows: a. results of the first question it is evident from table 4 that the calculated f-value was 93.657 with a level of significance 0,000. this indicates the existence of statistically significant differences at α = 0.05 on the reading comprehension test attributable to the teaching method (speed reading, traditional method) in favor of the experimental group that studied using speed reading strategy. the reason for this result is that the use of speed-reading in teaching is considered a different method from the usual ways in which students learn to read. the change in the method of teaching led to great activity, suspense among students, and a tendency towards learning to read. perhaps the reason for this result is that the speed-reading program is characterized by providing the student with the opportunity to participate in the learning and teaching process, being self-reliant and increasing self-confidence, which in turn increases motivation, interaction, and participation in the learning process. b. results of the second question it is evident from table 4 that there are no statistically significant differences due to the gender of students, as the calculated f-value was 0.412 and its level of significance was 0.522, which is not statistically significant at α = 0.05. the reason for this may be that the speed-reading strategy included educational units from the arabic language book for the sixth grade, prepared by the ministry, and intended to be taught to students, whether males or females. this result can also be attributed to the fact that the speed-reading action plan is designed to suit both genders. it provides elements of excitement for male and female students, and it attracts the attention and involvement of the student in the learning process through exercises that are suitable for students of the basic sixth grade of both genders. this strategy also increases their motivation towards learning, as the speed-reading action plan is concerned with developing reading skills for all students, male and female, and it did not target a specific group of students, but rather viewed the student as an educated individual with abilities and skills seeking to develop and improve them. the reason for this result can be attributed to the tendency of students of both genders to get rid of the routine method and shift to modern khasawneh, m.a.s. improving reading comprehension skills among english 181 language students with learning disabilities according to some variables https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methods, which makes them serious in their dealing with the speed-reading strategy. it helps students realize that they are facing a method that increases their activity and level of motivation and opens horizons of knowledge for them. conclusion considering the findings of the study, the researcher recommends the diversification of teaching methods to be suitable with the educational position, with a focus on the method of speed-reading, which the study revealed its positive effect. the study also recommends paying more attention and focus on helping students to develop their attitudes towards speedreading, from teachers and parents, by encouraging students to speed-reading, and increasing their demand for it, as this has a positive impact on their reading comprehension. acknowledgements the authors extend their appreciation to the deanship of scientific research at king khalid university for funding this work through small research groups under grant number (rgp.1 /40/42) references al-dhanhani, r. (2008). the effectiveness of a language educational program in developing reading and listening comprehension skills for basic stage students in the united arab emirates. ph.d. thesis, amman arab university for postgraduate studies. al-mousah, m. h. a. (2020). the effect of a strategy based on the communicative approach in reading comprehension for tenth grade students in jordan. journal of educational and psychological sciences, 4(18). anderson, r.c., wilson, p.t., & fielding, l.g. (0202) growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of school. reading research quarterly. 182 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 172 – 183 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj andre, d. christine, e & renee, o. (2011). the validity of reading comprehension rate: reading speed, comprehension, and comprehension rates. psychology in the schools. babayigit, ö. (2019). the reading speed of elementary school students on the all text written with capital and lowercase letters. universal journal of educational research, 7(2), 371-380. bani issa, m. (2010). the effect of paul skelly's method on reading speed and reading comprehension of outstanding students in the basic stage in jordan. phd thesis, yarmouk university, irbid, jordan. deniz, s., & yavuz, m. (2020). investigation of reading error types, reading levels and reading speeds of students with special learning difficulties. cypriot journal of educational sciences, 15(4), 686-698. durukan, e. (2020). impact of speed-reading training on reading speeds and comprehension skills of secondary school students. cypriot journal of educational sciences, 15(2), 184-193. elizabeth, b.m, juliana, s.m, & george, w.h. (2010). reading fluency: implications for the assessment of children with reading disabilities. ann of dyslexia, 60, 1-17, 2010. fadlallah, m. (2015). levels of reading comprehension and skills required for arabic language book questions in general education stages in the united arab emirates. reading and knowledge magazine. harthi, y. m. (2020). the effectiveness of the use of robinson's strategy sq3r in developing reading absorption skills with my timeless language course for middle-class second-graders. journal of educational and psychological sciences, 4(25). jad, m. l. (2013). the effectiveness of a suggested strategy in developing some reading comprehension skills for second-grade middle school pupils. reading and knowledge magazine. kotzer, m., kirby, j. r., & heggie, l. (2021). morphological awareness predicts reading comprehension in adults. reading psychology, 1-21. khasawneh, m. a. s. (2021). an electronic training program to treat errors of reading aloud in the english language among students with learning difficulties during the emerging covid-19. educatio, 5(3). khasawneh, m.a.s. improving reading comprehension skills among english 183 language students with learning disabilities according to some variables https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj khasawneh, m. (2020). the effect of the spread of the new covid-19 on the psychological and social adaptation of families of persons with disabilities in the kingdom of saudi arabia. health psychology report, 8(1). khasawneh, m. a. s. (2020). the problems facing students of english with learning disabilities from their teachers' point of view. journal of research and educational research evaluation, 9(2), 70-77. khasawneh, m. a. s., & alkhawaldeh, m. a. (2020). the effectiveness of phonological awareness training in treating deficiencies in auditory processing among children with learning disabilities among elementary cycle students in saudi arabia. international journal of language education, 4(3). pollack, m. s., shelton, a., clancy, e., & lemons, c. j. (2021). sentencelevel gist: literacy instruction for students with learning disabilities in co-taught classrooms. intervention in school and clinic, 1053451220944378. quinn, j. m., wagner, r. k., petscher, y., roberts, g., menzel, a. j., & schatschneider, c. (2020). differential co-development of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension for students with and without learning disabilities. journal of educational psychology, 112(3), 608. qodri, m. (2020). reciprocal education in teaching critical and creative reading comprehension skills. jurnal pendidikan bahasa arab dan budaya islam, 1(02), 77-90. rahimi, m., & babaei, s. a. (2021). the relationship between reading strategy use and reading comprehension as mediated by reading rate: the case of eye movement training by rapid serial visual presentation (rsvp). teaching english with technology, 21(1), 94-111. randy, g. andrea, d. christine, n. & emily, p. (2011). word correct per minute: the variance in standardized reading scores accounted for by reading speed. psychology in the schools. 48(2), 87101. raslan, m. (2015). teaching arabic language. cairo: house of culture for publishing and distribution. riash, m. a. (2009). learn to read fast. amman: house of culture for publishing and distribution. untitled-1 role of memory in shaping characters’ identity in mahesh dattani’s final solutions suman sigroha 1 abstract: while writing of contemporary issues mahesh dattani constructs a sense of a shared urban cultural identity, which is upper-middle class, professional, english speaking and a ‘cityfied’ identity. memory plays a very important part in the plays. public memory is time and again juxtaposed with personal memory, and it becomes a means to explain and justify the political acts committed for personal interests. this paper looks at how memory, personal as well public, shapes the identities (social, personal and religious) of characters in mahesh dattani’s final solutions. incidents are important, but 1 dr. suman sigroha is assistant professor, english literature, school of humanities and social sciences,, indian institute of technology (iit) mandi, mandi-175001, himachal pradesh, india. he can be reached at <suman.sigroha@gmail. com> <suman.sigroha@iitmandi.ac.in> with phone number 01905-237994 (office). prior to teaching at iit mandi, he taught english literature to honors undergraduate students at hindu college, university of delhi. though he did research on the representation and stereotyping in fictional narratives written by the british authors located in india, at present his areas of research interest and teaching include modern literature, graphic and popular fiction, romance fiction, and modern translations. he specifically look at the place of men, women and children and representation as well as stereotyping of the other (race, class or caste based) in various fictional narratives. he finds the journey from the text to the motion picture fascinating and tries to unravel its various facets with his students at iit mandi. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 227 – 238 228 only to explain why and how the people populate his plays, acting in ways that they do. the psychological action is of greater relevance than any physical action that takes place in the play. he reveals his characters by placing them in situations where they are forced to analyze themselves in the light of what happened in their lives in the past. key words: mahesh dattani, final solutions, memory, identity, religion introduction a psychological concept, deriving from the works of erik erikson that finds place in anthropology, sociology, political science and literature, identity is still highly debated. essentially comparative in nature, it is the sense of belonging and acceptance that marks the identity of an individual or a group. it is either the sameness or the difference that gives an identity of either belonging or alienation. this is as true of a social group or a culture or a religion as it is true of an individual, religion or faith being one of the important markers of this identity formation. the conception of one’s religion is the shared identity of a person with others not only of the same faith, but is also the boundary that sets her/him apart from those of other faiths. and this sense of belonging is given, and not inherent. it is developed over a period of time, starting from birth itself. however, this sense of identity is based on individual’s memories and their interpretation later on. this selective retention and recall of memories is what is of interest in identity formation, and consequently how people think and act and share this sense of belongingness or otherness. we see this process of identity formation, change and a questioning of the ‘given’ identity time and again in mahesh dattani’s final s. sigroha, role of memory in shaping character’s identity 229 solutions. the fluidity and yet the rigidity of this religious identity, shaped by individual and collective memories, is what is being analyzed in this paper. the paper studies the role of memories, selective retention of some and the recall of a few self-enhancing memories in shaping not only an individual but by extension a community and hence, the culture. in his plays mahesh dattani writes of contemporary issues, all the while constructing a sense of a shared urban cultural identity. it emerges from a study of his plays that this urban identity is upper-middle class, professional, english speaking and a “cityfied” identity. it is urban both because of its treatment of the language as well as depiction of history. language is of the times, and reflects the current milieu. while this history does not hark back to a common inherited culture, but is more personal and immediate. he believes that his plays are a “true reflection of my time, place and socio-economic background” and his “business is holding a mirror up to society” (dattani 2000). final solutions: the play the play, final solutions, has a recognizable and realistic structure. written in an easy language to which the readers can relate, dattani has made imaginative use of space, and treats of not just the physical space but personal and political spaces as well. the positioning of the horseshoe-crescent encircling the stage and sloping towards the audience, that achieves the effect of making the audience one with the mob, is innovative. it is as if the “fourth wall” of the drama gets transformed, and gives rise to the feeling that the mob that features in the play is always present, that the issues just need to be vocalized on stage and even these stragglers will join in. confined within this crescent is a space suggestive of a room that has but just a celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 227 – 238 230 hint of furniture, only the kitchen and the puja room being ‘detailed’. this detailing is symbolic of the importance of these two places in the home, being the symbols of culture and religion that act to either unify or divide people. these are the two physical spaces that have a unique power in bringing together not only the people and creating memories but also of identity formation. seen as a woman’s space throughout literature, these are the two spaces where the tenets of culture and religion are propagated in a traditional indian household. however, these two get appropriated and used as tools, as can be seen happening in final solutions, by different people men and women alike for their own purposes. there is an interesting intermingling of the past and the present in the play. the audience sees that the past is ever present and gives direction to the present, and that memories are what people make of them. this continuation of the past in the present is seen even in the characters in the play. the characters do not change, or are different from any of those in the past; they are just replaced by others who, though they appear different and modern in outlook, remain basically the same and have similar issues to deal with. basically, final solutions is the story of a gujarati family that consists of four people – grandmother (daksha/ hardika), father (ramnik), mother (aruna), and daughter (smita); and their encounter with two muslim boys – javed and babban (bobby), who arrive at their house seeking refuge from a blood-thirsty mob during communal riots. how every character is jolted out of his/her sphere as a result of this meeting is shown in the play. they are forced to question their previously held views, memories of past incidents, and their personal conceptions of faith. written in the aftermath of the demolition of babri masjid, this play essentially explores the ‘communal’. each character is seen trying to come to terms with his/her s. sigroha, role of memory in shaping character’s identity 231 conception of faith and religion, for it forms the very basic characteristic of his/her nature and hence identity, and determines all the actions and reactions to various persons and situations. memory and identity memory plays a very important part in the play. public memory is time and again juxtaposed with personal memory, in that the former becomes a means to explain and justify the latter. through interplay of recall of memories, the audience sees that the political acts are committed for personal interests. happenings of the past are contiguous with and impinge upon the incidents of the present night, and vice-versa. the action of the play is seen as happening through the eyes of hardika, not as it happens but again as a representation of her memory of it. an interesting element of the play is the presence of hardika and daksha, shown to be two different, though at the same time, same characters (dattani 2000: 165). because of this ‘sameness’ of the two characters, the names are used either interchangeably or together in this paper. the play opens with a reading of daksha’s diary. a diary is something that contains personal memories, written from a point of view of being read by an-other some time in the future. though this ‘other’ might be another person, it is more often an evolved self. it has all the self-consciousness of a personal memory becoming public in a future time. dattani has interestingly put in two characters to play the grandmother, dakhsha the newly married young girl, who is reading from her diary; and hardika the grandmother, who is listening to this diary recitation. the difference between these two is in that while daksha still holds independent views and is celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 227 – 238 232 a sort of a rebel, hardika has come to accept her husband’s point of view concerning her friendship with her muslim neighbours. however, in spite of being two different characters they are not different, their thoughts, memories and actions are seamlessly interwoven as the following diary entry shows, and i wrote. a dozen pages before. a dozen pages now. a young girl’s childish scribble. an old woman’s shaky scrawl. yes, things have not changed that much. (dattani 2000:167) almost all the characters are haunted by their past. their actions appear conditioned by their experiences in the past and their personal memories of those experiences. hardika’s present mental state has been conditioned by her personal experiences with zarine and her family, looked at from her husband’s point of view. and her reaction to the arrival of the two strangers, javed and babban, is a reflection from her past. she has reasons to hate muslims because a communal mob had killed her father and she thinks she lost her freedom and has been confined to the house by her husband because of her association with zarine. presence of javed and bobby is to her dislike because to her they represent all that is bad with their religion. however, her world is shaken and she no longer has a ‘memory’ to rely upon when her son finally tells her the family secret that zarine’s family was made the scapegoat by her husband to grab their shop, political upheaval used for personal gain. suddenly her conception of her reality and truth, and past and memories is no longer the ‘truth’ as it was till that moment. she has no past or “memory” left to depend upon. yet she clings to that shattered universe tenaciously, “i still am not willing to forget...”(dattani 2000: 225). it is not the forgetting that is important here, it is rather the selection of prevailing memories and her identification with them. if she forgets, she will no longer be able to know herself. she remembers because s. sigroha, role of memory in shaping character’s identity 233 she wants to retain an identity, any identity that is available to her. ramnik is also plagued by what happened in the past. knowing what happened years ago, he is ashamed of his father’s and grand-father’s act of arson to lay their hands on zarine’s father’s shop. because they were planning to set up a mill as well, it was perhaps more an act of jealousy rather than of communal hatred. religion merely served to justify the actions later on. ramink tries very hard to be non-communal. he time and again laughs sarcastically at his wife aruna as she goes about her rituals and ceremonies. he feels a need to save the two boys from the wrath of the communal mob in an effort to atone for the mistakes committed by his family in the past. he even offers a job to javed thinking that it would redeem him of his sense of guilt. but he is no liberal, and it is just a blind that blinds even his own self, and which javed manages to tear apart. he represents the ‘urban, educated, secular’ middle-class, which believes that it is non-communal but the truth is somewhat different. ramink is in the trap of his own memories of the wrongs done in the past. every action of his is an effort to come to terms with the happenings of the past. he is always in a state of conflict because of this ever-present war within himself. his sense of identity and belonging to either middleclass or to his religion is at the mercy of the happenings of the past and his memories of the same. javed, who used to be a hero to his friends as an adolescent, was rudely shaken by an incident that acted as a catalyst in making him a rabble-rouser. he becomes the person who throws the “first stone”, and the one who sets the ball of communal hatred rolling. he witnesses the derogation of his own self and that of his religion. as is shown in an incident in the play, because of his religious identity his mere touch is celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 227 – 238 234 enough to contaminate a letter, and by extension a hindu neighbour. he is shaken and suddenly, he is no longer sure of himself, and his identity. he turns to the only way he knows to fit in and that is to harm the other in order to protect his religion and faith. but he finds out his mistake and realizes that people like him are made use of to stir up emotions and fury to make personal gains, and is again shaken to his core. even though like others javed is also being constantly troubled by the tenuous nature of his conception of identity and its fluid nature, he is the only one in the play who is proud of his identity and has a sense of reality, and has a clear vision to see the things as they are. he is the only one to see through ramnik’s pseudo-secular facade. you can offer milk to us. you can have an angry mob outside your house. you can play the civilized host. because you know you have peace hidden inside your armpit. (dattani 2000: 192) and again, i believe in myself...it’s people like you who drive me to a corner and i have to turn to myself and my faith...at least now i am not ignorant of my history and faith...you do something more violent. you provoke!...you hate me because i showed you that you are not as liberal as you think you are. (dattani 2000: 198) despite being shaken and stunned, javed is the one who has a clear conception of his faith, identity and social milieu. he is the one who is best adjusted in the whole gamut of characters in the play. s. sigroha, role of memory in shaping character’s identity 235 aruna, ramnik’s wife, makes a hindu counterpart to javed. like him she has confidence in her faith. she is a strong believer, takes pride in her religion and inheritance and finds protection therein. she is neither confused nor wavers till her daughter smita attacks her faith. daksha/ hardika had once questioned the blind faith held by her mother in an idol god because that god had failed to protect her father. smita and aruna reflect daksha/hardika’s own situation, though in two separate characters. the former resents the blind idol worship being practiced by the latter, and shatters her own perfect world when she gets the opportunity to vocalize what she has always wanted to in front her mother aruna. at smita’s telling her the falsity and hollowness of her faith, aruna does take a stand before crumbling in the face of opposition, and i will not have it all perish to accommodate someone else’s faith. i have enough faith and pride to see that it doesn’t happen. i shall uphold what i believe is the truth...because i will not accept that from someone who is not proud of her inheritance. you cannot criticize what you are running away from. you will be prejudiced...i have always taken pride in my religion. i was so happy knowing that i was protected. (dattani 2000: 210, 211) despite this aruna still has a conception of identity and holds on to it though a little tenuously. javed acknowledges the similarities between himself and her when he says, what i told babban, you told her...you wouldn’t listen to her criticism because she was not proud of her–what did you call it?– inheritance. i said religion. same thing i suppose. we are celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 227 – 238 236 not very different. you and me. we both feel pride. (dattani 2000: 214) babban and smita are the two characters who think they are different, who think that they do not belong and hence are the rebels. yet as the play progresses, they come across as the ones who are shown to have no conviction and are simply lost. they question but do not have the courage to go against the dictates of their religions. they lack conviction, both in themselves as well as in their respective religions. babban dislikes being clubbed with javed for he sees the latter as a communal fanatic. but the fact is that since he lacks faith in his own religion, and tries to hide his identity behind borrowed names like “bobby”, he does not have a sense of strong identity like javed. ...i was ashamed of being myself. he wasn’t...like being apologetic. for being who i was. and pretending that i was not a part of my community. for thinking that i could become superior by not belonging. (dattani 2000: 201) smita feels stifled by the rituals that her mother makes her follow, and like babban wants to be free of it. however, she cannot be honest. the reality is that things are as they were in daksha’s times. the present is no different from the past, and she cannot escape it. hardika rightly points it out to her that she is a fool if she thinks that things are any different now from her own times, that she has freedom to say things she likes, choose her own friends or go where ever she wishes. but not belonging makes things so clear. i can see so clearly how wrong you are. you accuse me of running away from my religion. maybe i am...embarrassed...spirit of liberalism ran in our blood. (dattani 2000: 211) s. sigroha, role of memory in shaping character’s identity 237 though she advocates freedom and liberalism, smita cannot escape being who she is, caught in the vortex and too weak to fight her way out, as is reflected in her decision to deny her love for babban. instead of owning it and fighting for it, she even lacks conviction in her love. the two characters that began as the strongest, and surest and apparently had a clear idea of who they were, end up as the two who are most unclear about their own identities. the rebels fail to ultimately even stand up for their convictions because ultimately they do not have any. conclusion the play is titled final solutions, suggesting that there is more than one solution to the problem of conflicts (personal and political) based on religion, and having an impact on identity and role of memories. the implication of such a suggestion being that every person has a different solution to offer. but is there any solution in the play, let alone solutions and those too final? the incident of the night has played havoc with the life of each character, but it has failed to provide a solution to the problem. the play ends in an ambiguous and disturbing manner. only babban has a solution which is that they all believe and have faith and tolerate. and there are no takers for it! all others have just questions and a sense of loss and defeat. everyone is shaken by the stirring of memories, same memory and yet different for each character. all of them feel a loss of identity, though each one of them continues to hold on to that earlier identity and pool of memories because there is no other solution yet. as hardika puts it, “i still am not willing to forget...we do not speak to each other. we move in silence. and i-i remain confined.” her confinement, which celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 227 – 238 238 began with the acceptance of what her husband wanted her to believe, continues, as does every other character’s. references dattani, mahesh. collected plays. new delhi: penguin books, 2000. ed. mehrotra, arvind krishna. an illustrated history of indian literature in english. delhi: permanent black, 2003. fearon, james d. “what is identity (as we now use the word)?.” 1999. http://www.stanford.edu/~jfearon/papers/iden1v2.pdf iyenger, k.r. srinivasa. indian writing in english. new delhi: sterling publishers private limited, 1996. jandt, fred e. an introduction to intercultural communication: identities in a global community, 6th ed. california: sage publications, 2010. neuliep, james w. intercultural communication: a contextual approach, 5th ed. california: sage publications, 2012. yamin, saira. “understanding religious identity and the causes of religious violence.” in peace prints: south asian journal of peacebuilding, vol. 1, no. 1, 2008. ysseldyk, renate, kimberly matheson and hyme anisman. “religiosity as identity: toward an understanding of religion from a social identity perspective.” in personality and social psychology review, vol. 14, 2010: 60. 5_suman sigroha_2013_13_2(227-238) cover celt december 2013_revisi_1 celt vol 13 no 2 december 2013_revisi_2# cover celt december 2013_revisi_2 untitled-1 can efl learners' learning styles impact their performance on writing skill under direct and indirect corrective feedbacks? mojtaba maghsoudi1 and sahar saeedi 2 abstract: this study presents the findings of an investigation of the impact of teacher error corrective feedback on 180 field-dependent/ field-independent (fd/fi) male and female pre-intermediate and advanced iranian efl learners writing skill. the participants were separated into two experimental groups and one control group and were asked to write three paragraphs of about 100-150 words around three different topics, each in odd days of a week; then they received direct (in experimental group 1), indirect (in experimental group 2) and no correction feedback (in control group). the results based on mean scores, standard deviation, multivariate analyses and 1-way anova showed that there was not any significant difference between the fd/fi learners' writing skill scores who had received corrective feedback on their errors; however, as indicated by the second finding of the present study it would be better to feedback field-dependent/-independent efl learners indirectly. it 1motjaba maghsoudi, ph.d. in tefl <maghsudim@yahoo.com> is lecturer at farhangian university, iran (shahid bahonar branch, arak). 2sahar saeedi, m.a. is a student at the department of english language teaching, science and research branch, islamic azad university, arak, iran. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186156 was also indicated that, learners' learning styles had made a significant change in their writing skill scores. key words: error corrective feedback, direct corrective feedback, indirect corrective feedback, learning style, field-dependent and field-independent introduction there is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for second language (l�) learners to master. the difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but also in translating these ideas into readable text. the skills involved in writing are highly complex. l� writers have to pay attention to higher level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skills of spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on. the difficulty becomes even more pronounced if their language proficiency is week (richards and renandya 2002). however, according to carter and nunan (2002), even as late as the ����s, l� writing was not viewed as a language skill to be taught to learners. instead, it was used as a support skill in language learning to, for example, practice handwriting, write answer to grammar and reading exercises, and write dictation. students copied sentences or short pieces of discourse, making discrete changes in person or tense. the teaching philosophy grew directly out of audio lingual method: students were taught incrementally, error was prevented and accuracy was expected to arise out of practice with structures. in the 1990s, writing trends and research focused on composing and revising processes, contrastive analysis/error analysis, coherence/cohesion, the process-product classroom, communicative competence, collaborative learning, computerassisted language learning (c.a.l.l.), and proficiency testing m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 157 (reid 1993). teaching writing to advanced ells became a particular focus (reid 1993). these methods and trends were in contrast to earlier methods. in 1996, truscott’s interest in advanced esl writing examined the question of whether grammar correction belonged in l2 writing courses, and responses and a debate to his conclusions followed. as we move further into the new millennium, it will be interesting to look back and see what kinds of trends in esl/efl writing has emerged. with increased state testing and standards, the emphasis on accuracy and form in writing seems to be re-emerging as a significant trend. on the other hand efl/esl writing teachers and researchers have never denied the important role of correct use of vocabularies in writing understandability. in that regard, the present study explores the role of grammatical, semantic and cohesion/coherence direct and indirect corrective feedback in the efl learners’ writing skill enhancement. lightbown and spada define feedback as: “an indication to a learner that his or her use of the target language is incorrect. corrective feedback can be explicit (for example, in response to the learner error ‘he go’no, you should say “goes”, not “go”) or implicit (for example, ‘yes, he goes to school every day’), and may or may not include meta-linguistic information (for example, “don’t forget to make the verb agree with the subject” (2006:197). among the strategies used in written corrective feedback are “direct” and “indirect”. direct or explicit feedback occurs when the teacher identi���������� ���� ��� � ��� ����� ������ form, while indirect feedback refers to situations when the teacher indicates that an error has been made but does not provide a correction, thereby leaving the student to diagnose and correct it. additionally, studies examining the effect of celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186158 indirect feedback strategies have tended to make a further distinction between those that do or do not use a code. coded feedback points to the exact location of an error, and the type of error involved is indicated with a code (for example, ps means an error in the use or form of the past simple tense). un-coded feedback refers to instances when the teacher underlines an error, circles an error, or places an error tally in the margin, but, in each case, leaves the student to diagnose and correct the error (bitchener, young and cameron 2005). direct corrective feedback has also included oral metalinguistic explanation, such as in the form of class discussion, a mini lesson where the rules and examples are presented, practiced and discussed or one-on-one conferences (bitchener 2008, bitchener and knoch 2009). this study (ferris and roberts, ibid) is important because it compared two types of indirect feedback. the findings indicate that students who received both underlining and coding did slightly better in revising their grammatical errors than those receiving underlining only, but there did not seem to be an immediate advantage to more explicit coded indirect feedback for the students in the study. not surprisingly, both groups did better in revising errors than the control group receiving no feedback. this study provides support for indirect corrective feedback and it considers indirect corrective feedback as more likely to lead to long-term learning (ferris and roberts 2001). providing effective feedback to help learners in their writing development can be a daunting and confusing task for teachers. particularly complex is identifying which aspects to address in a student’s writing and how to do so to best help the learner improve. m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 159 witkin (1973, as cited in maghsudi 2008), a pioneer in learning styles, defined learning styles in terms of a process. he argued that learning styles are concerned with the form rather than the content of the learning activity. learning style refers to individual differences in how we perceive, think, solve problems, and learn (maghsoudi 2008). witkin's work (as cited in maghsoudi 2008) concentrated on determining to what extent a person's perception of an item was influenced by the surrounding field in which the item appeared. he wanted to determine if “some people saw the tree, while others saw the forest”. according to him whereas fielddependent people see the forest, field-independent learners see the tree within the forest. in theory, there are as many learning styles as there are learners, and the practical implication of learning styles for teaching-learning interactions are numerous. nevertheless, in recent years, only a few of the possible number of styles have received the attention of l2 researchers; one of the most well researched areas is “field independence” (fi) or “field dependence” (fd). fi / fd refer to how people perceive and memorize information (maghsudi 2008). cassidy (2004) states that field-independent learners are characterized as operating with an internal frame of reference, intrinsically motivated with self-directed goals, structuring their own learning, and defining their own study strategies. fielddependent learners on the other hand are characterized as relying more on an external frame of reference, are extrinsically motivated, respond better to clearly defined performance goals, have a need for structuring and guidance from the instructor, and a desire to interact with other learners. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186160 a. statement of the problem and purpose of the study teaching english second language (l2) writing differs from teaching other language skills in the way that, even as late as the 1970s, l2 writing was not viewed as a language skill to be taught to learners. instead, it was used as a support skill in language learning to, for example, practice handwriting, write answers to grammar and reading exercises, and write dictation. and then, writing skill was considered as a passive skill that had no production and also neglected by l2 teachers and learners in l2 classrooms. considering writing skill as a supportive and passive skill and also neglecting this skill in the l2 learning domain has led l2 learners not to pay enough attention to their writing skill. research findings in l2 writing domain indicate that written corrective feedback (wcf) is one of the most frequently used techniques in english writing classes. overall, based on the currently available evidence over the issue of wcf (see e.g. ferris 2006, rahimi 2009, bitchener 2005, and chandler 2003) concluding that feedback is effective in helping efl (english foreign language) students improve the accuracy of their writing, it is likely to show that the present study seeks to determine whether written direct or indirect corrective feedback affect iranian english learners' writing skill. this study also aims to find out whether there is any correlation between these feedback types and learners' fielddependency/-independency, that is, to find out whether direct and indirect corrective feedbacks affect field-dependent and field-independent learners' writing skill differently. m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 161 b. significance of the study providing feedback in a second language is vital to a student’s writing development. while making errors is natural in all aspects of language learning, second language writers face unique challenges in developing writing skills (evans, hartshorn, mccollum, and wolfersberger 2010). written corrective feedback gives learners information that they need to notice their errors. ferris (2002) suggests that students “need distinct and additional intervention from their writing teachers to make up their deficits and develop strategies for finding, correcting, and avoiding errors”. however, there has been controversy around corrective feedback. the significance of this study lies in the fact of confirming and showing the efficacy of two types of written corrective feedback (wcf) i.e. "direct" versus "indirect" feedback within a group of participants with providing feedback. this study helps efl learners to find out the importance of writing skill as an active and productive skill and to learn how to improve their writing skill through teacher's feedback. it also, paves the way for benefitting from the correlation between learning styles and direct and indirect corrective feedbacks. c. research questions and hypotheses: to meet the aims of this study the following research question and hypotheses were formulated: q1: does teacher's feedback impact efl learners' with different learning styles differently? celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186162 q2: does teacher's direct vs. indirect corrective feedback impact iranian efl learners' writing skill, with different learning styles, differently? q3: do efl learners with different learning styles differ in their performance on writing skill? h1: regarding their learning styles, iranian efl learners’ writing skill is influenced differently by teacher’s feedback. h2: direct and indirect feedbacks have different impact on the writing skill of efl learners with different learning styles. h3: efl learners with different learning styles differ significantly in their performance on writing skill. methodology a. participants as it is advised by most researchers all over the world, the more the sample size, the better the results will be, therefore, the present researcher did her best to expand the sample size of subjects in current project accordingly. 180 male and female pre-intermediate iranian efl learners in the age range of 15 to 20 at samin and allamehtabatabaei institute of boroujerd (one of the cities of lurestan province of iran) were randomly chosen and asked to participate in this study. the randomization process was exploited to grantee the maximum group homogeneity; however, they were homogeneous in terms of age, gender, proficiency level, type of institute, the method used at institute and number of hours devoted to teaching. m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 163 further filtering of subjects was done based on the scores of the transparency test and the learning style test. only those subjects who scored the intermediate level scores were discarded from this study. these subjects were classified in 3 groups of 60 and have been treated as two experimental groups and one control group. experimental group 1 has received "direct corrective feedback" and experimental group 2 has received "indirect corrective feedback". and no error corrective feedback was given to control group. subjects have been also homogenized based on age, gender and level of general english proficiency through a background questioner and the transparency test respectively. they were also controlled based on their learning styles (fielddependency-independency) through group imbedded figure test. b. instruments the different instruments used in this study include: 1. a background questionnaire in order to elicit participants’ background information, a background questioner including participants’ name, age, and gender was located at the top of the group imbedded figure test, which was used to investigate learners’ fielddependency/field-independency. this test has been composed of multiple-choice cloze passage, vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension 2. a general english proficiency test (transparency test) celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186164 sections. in order to have a reliable test of proficiency at the piloting stage the test was given to 15 students, who were selected randomly, and its reliability was estimated through the k-r21 formula as .85 and then the test was found reliable for the purpose of this study. the time allotted for taking this test was also determined at the piloting stage as 40 minutes. duration of the test was estimated by calculating the time spent by the fastest and the slowest students in answering the test divided by 2. thus, the time allotted for the test was: �� + �� � = �� this test is designed to distinguish field-independent from field-dependent cognitive types; a rating which is claimed to be value-neutral. field-independent people tend to be more autonomous when it comes to the development of restructuring skills; that is, those skills required during technical tasks with which the individual is not necessarily familiar. they are however less autonomous in the development of interpersonal skills (maghsoudi, 2008). 3. learning style test a number of instruments have been developed to measure a person’s learning style. one of the easiest to administer, especially in group situations, is the group imbedded figure test (geft), (witkin, oltman, raskin, and karp, 1971). the geft is a perceptual test, which requires the subjects to locate a figure within a larger complex figure. the geft which comprises of 18 complex figures can be administered in 20 minutes and can be quickly scored using answer templates from the test distributer. m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 165 4. an error correction checklist an error correction checklist (see appendix a) was developed to identify writing skills needed for efl preintermediate and advanced writers. this checklist is developed by the researcher and includes 20 skills classified under four categories: paragraph organization, mechanics of writing, language use, and cohesion/coherence. the score devoted to each skill is based on the students’ level of proficiency and the given feedback. the content of this checklist was induced from salem saleh khalaf ibnian (2011) and, based on the adopt and adaptation method, was revised by the researcher of the present study so that it might meet the aim of this study. ibnian (ibid) checklist included 16 skills classified under four categories including: content and organization, language use, mechanics of writing, and creative abilities. as cited in chandler (2003) azar’s guide for correcting compositions (1998) categorizes errors as 14 skills : singular-plural, word form, word choice, verb tense, add or omit a word, word order, incomplete sentence, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, article, meaning not clear, and run-on sentence. chandler (2003) has added verb voice (active versus passive) in addition to verb tense, word division in addition to spelling, and sentence structure in addition to run-on sentences and fragments, categories of idiom, awkward (not grammatically incorrect but quite infelicitous stylistically), subject–verb agreement, repetition or redundancy, pronoun, and need for new paragraph in order to cover all the errors subjects made even though most of them were not frequent. ferries & roberts (2001) used only five categories. subjects of both experimental and control groups have been asked to write three paragraphs around three different 5. pre/post paragraph writing test and its scoring scale celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186166 topics (topic 1: how do you help others? topic 2: how computers affect your free time? topic 3: what are the traffic problems in your hometown? how can you solve them?), each with two days interval in both pre-test and post-test phases of the study. the topics were chosen based on the most frequent topics used for writing skill in new interchange course books used for efl learning in iran english institutes. it was also tried not to choose genderbased topics to prevent the interference of the gender variable. according to the error correction checklist subjects’ paragraphs were scored out of 50 points. (see appendix a). the time allotted for writing a paragraph was determined at the piloting stage as 50 minutes. its duration was estimated by calculating the time spent by the fastest and the slowest students in writing a paragraph of about 100 to 150 words divided by 2. thus, the time allotted for the test was: ��+�� � = ��. c. design and procedures this study was implemented on the basis of a true experimental design. the reasons behind choosing such a design are: 1. versus experimental group a control group is available; 2. the subjects are selected and assigned to the groups randomly; 3. there is a treatment to have further comparison between preand post-test results. to achieve the objectives of this study the following procedures were conducted by the researcher: m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 167 1. development of the background questionnaire and the general english proficiency test (transparency test) along with their administration. 2. development of the error correction checklist and administration of learning style test (group imbedded figure test). 3. asking learners of all 3 groups (two experimental and one control) to write three paragraphs including around 100-150 words around three different topics, discussed in the earlier section, in odd days of a week. this phase was the pre-test phase of the study. 4. giving direct corrective feedback to experimental group 1 and indirect corrective feedback to experimental group 2. no error corrective feedback was given to control group. 5. repeating the step 3 of the procedure, that is, asking subjects to rewrite three paragraphs including around 100150 words around the same topics in the pre-test phase, in odd days of a week, after a 10 days interval. this phase was the post-test phase of the study. 6. analysis of collected data based on mean scores, standard deviation and repeated measure of variance, multivariate tests and 1-way anova. results and discussion this section presents, analyzes, and discusses the results of the study. there were three sources of data for the study: 1) the learning style test (the group imbedded figure test), 2) the general english proficiency test (the transparency test), and 3) writing paragraphs. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186168 a. the first hypothesis to investigate the effect of teacher's corrective feedback on writing skills of iranian efl learners with different learning styles (field-dependent/-independent) because of having two dependent variables of writing skill( pre-test and post-test), the data were analyzed based on repeated measures of variance. on the basis of their scores from the learning style test (the geft test), the subjects were first divided into two groups, these are: 1. field-independent: those subjects who scored 1 standard deviation above the mean (m+1 sd), and; 2. field-dependent: those subjects who scored 1 standard deviation below the mean (m-1 sd). the following table (table 1) shows the number of subjects within each dependent variable (the corrective feedback variable and the learning style variable). based on this table, 84 learners received corrective feedback and 42 learners received no corrective feedback. also 63 learners were field-dependent and 63 learners were field-independent. value label n feedback 1 feedback 84 3 control 42 learning style 1 field -dependent 63 2 field -independent 63 table 1: between subject factors the next table(table 2) indicates the data analyses based on the pre-test/post-test mean scores and standard deviation forthefd/fi learners in both feedback and control groups. m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 169 table 2: group statistics feedba ck learning style mean std. deviati on n pretest feedba ck field dependent 18.8214 4.73643 42 field independent 21.1250 4.50246 42 total 19.9732 4.73691 84 control field dependent 18.4643 4.79080 21 field independent 21.0952 4.77590 21 total 19.7798 4.90868 42 total field dependent 18.7024 4.71888 63 field independent 21.1151 4.55673 63 total 19.9087 4.77604 126 posttest feedba ck field dependent 30.8810 5.57768 42 field independent 33.1786 5.64317 42 total 32.0298 5.69512 84 control field dependent 21.2833 4.93073 21 field independent 25.0595 5.00119 21 total 23.1714 5.26425 42 total field dependent 27.6817 7.01539 63 field independent 30.4722 6.63418 63 total 29.0770 6.94286 126 celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186170 now, to investigate the significance of the interactive effect of the dependent variables (teacher corrective feedback and learning style), the following table (table 3) containing the multivariate analysis, has been used: effect val ue f hypoth esis df error df sig. time pillai's trace .886 950. 991 1.000 122.000 .000 time * feedb ack pillai's trace .710 299. 189 1.000 122.000 .000 time * learn ing style pillai's trace .010 1.29 3 1.000 122.000 .258 time * feedb ack * learn ing style pillai's trace .011 1.32 0 1.000 122.000 .253 table 3: the multivariate analysisfor the interactive effect of teacher corrective feedback and learning style based on the sig amount (sig=.000) for the effect of the writing skill variable in the first row, it was concluded that this effect is significant at any error level. in other words, learners writing skill score in the post-test phase has improved comparing to the pre-test phase score. also according to the sig amount (sig=.000) for the interactive effect of the teacher corrective feedback and writing skill variables in the second row it can be observed that this effect is also significant at any m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 171 error level. in other words, there is a significant different between these two groups, that is, based on the mentioned mean scores in the table 4, the feedback group has outperformed the control group. however, based on the sig (sig=.258) for the interactive effect of writing skill improvement and learning styles variable in the third row, it can be concluded that this effect is not significant at the error level of .05, that is there is no significant difference between these two groups. in other words, there isn't any difference between the fd/fi learners writing skill scores in pre-test ant post-test phases. and based on the sig (sig=.253) for the interactive effect of writing skill improvement and learning styles variables in both feedback and control group in the fourth row, it can be concluded that this effect is not significant at the error level of .05, that is there is no significant difference between these two groups. in other words, there isn't any difference between the fd/fi learners writing skill scores in pre-test ant post-test phases. for a better understanding of the above report, the graphical presentation is presented. the following graph in the left side shows the estimated marginal means of writing skill scores of fd/fi learners in both feedback and control groups in the pre-test phase, and the graph in the right side shows the estimated marginal means of writing skill scores of fd/fi learners in both feedback and control groups in the post-test phase. in graph 1 you can see in the pre-test phase that there is no difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the writing skills of learners in teacher feedback group and those in the control group (green line graph on the first). there is no difference also between the estimated marginal mean scores of the writing skills of field-dependent learners in the celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186172 teacher feedback group and the control group (purple line graph on the first) in the pre-test phase. graph 1: linear chart of the mean difference between fd/fi learners writing skill scores of feedback and control groups in pre and post-test phases m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 173 however, there is a difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the pre-test writing skills scores of fieldindependent learners and field-dependent ones (the difference between green and purple lines in the first diagram). concerning the next graph, you can see that there is a difference between the estimated marginal means of fieldindependent learners writing skills post-test scores in the teacher feedback group and the control group (green line graph on the second). there is also a difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the field-dependent learners post-test writing skills scores in the teacher feedback group and the control group (purple line chart in the second). however, there is no difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the fieldindependent learners and field-dependent ones' posttest writing skills scores (between green and purple lines on the second graph). when the first and the second graphs of graph 1, are compared, there is no significant difference between the estimated marginal means of the field-dependent and fieldindependent learners' post-test writing skills scores, that is, the interactive effects of the two independent variables (teacher's feedback and learning style) on the dependent variable (writing skill) are not meaningful and significant. according to above mentioned report, the first hypothesis of this study is rejected. b. the second hypothesis to investigate the effect of teacher's direct vs. indirect corrective feedback on writing skills of iranian efl learners with different learning styles (field-dependent/-independent) because of having two dependent variables of writing skill( precelt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186174 test and post-test), the data were analyzed based on repeated measures of variance. the following table (table 4) shows the number of subjects within each dependent variable (groups that receive direct corrective feedback and indirect corrective feedback variable and the learning style variable). based on this table, 42 learners received direct corrective feedback and 42 learners received indirect corrective feedback. also 42 learners were field-dependent and 42 learners were field-independent. value label n group 1 direct feedback 42 2 indirect feedback 42 learning style 1 field -dependent 42 2 field -independent 42 table 4: between-subjects factors the next table (table 5) indicates the data analyses based on the pre-test/post-test mean scores and standard deviation for the fd/fi learners who received direct and indirect corrective feedback. group method mean std. deviation n pretest direct feedback field dependent 18.6071 4.91399 21 field independent 21.1310 4.54328 21 total 19.8690 4.84555 42 indirect feedback field dependent 19.0357 4.66321 21 field independent 21.1190 4.57344 21 total 20.0774 4.68212 42 m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 175 total field dependent 18.8214 4.73643 42 field independent 21.1250 4.50246 42 total 19.9732 4.73691 84 posttest direct feedback field dependent 29.9286 4.41103 21 field independent 31.3452 4.26136 21 total 30.6369 4.34320 42 indirect feedback field dependent 31.8333 6.51265 21 field independent 35.0119 6.32973 21 total 33.4226 6.54382 42 total field dependent 30.8810 5.57768 42 field independent 33.1786 5.64317 42 total 32.0298 5.69512 84 table 5: group statistics table 5 indicates that the mean score and standard deviation for the fd learners who received direct feedback in pre-test phase were18.60 and 4.91 respectively, and mean score and standard deviation for the fi learners who received direct feedback in the same phase were 21.13 and 4.54 respectively. also, the mean score and standard deviation for the fd learners who received indirect feedback in pre-test phase were 19.03 and 4.66, and these statistics for fi learners who received indirect feedback in the same phase were 21.11 and 4.57 respectively. in the post-test phase, the mean score and standard deviation for the fd learners who received direct feedback were 29.92 and 4.41, and mean score and standard deviation for the fi learners who received direct feedback in celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186176 the same phase were 31.34 and 4.26 respectively. mean score and standard deviation for fd learners who received indirect feedback in post-test phase were31.83 and 6.51, and these statistics for fi learners who received indirect feedback in the same phase were 35.01 and 6.32 respectively. to examine the significance of the interactive effect between the independent variables (learning style and direct/indirect feedback), the following table (table 6) can be helpful: effect valu e f hypothesi s df error df sig. time pillai' s trace .969 2484.27 2 1.000 80.00 0 .00 0 time * group pillai' s trace .262 28.382 1.000 80.00 0 .00 0 time * learnin g styles pillai' s trace .000 .000 1.000 80.00 0 .99 0 time * group * learnin g styles pillai' s trace .061 5.181 1.000 80.00 0 .02 6 table 6: multivariate analysis for the interactive effect between learning style and direct/indirect feedback based on the sig amount (sig=.000) for the effect of the writing skill variable in the first row, it was concluded that this effect is significant at any error level. in other words, learners m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 177 writing skill score in the post-test phase has improved comparing to the pre-test phase score. also according to the sig amount (sig=.000) for the interactive effect of the writing skill score and direct/indirect corrective feedback variables in the second row it can be observed that this effect is also significant at any error level. in other words, there is a significant different between these two groups, that is, based on the mentioned mean scores in the table 7, those subjects who have received indirect feedback have had a better performance than those who have received direct feedback. however, based on the sig (sig=.99) for the interactive effect of writing skill improvement and learning styles variables in the third row, it can be concluded that this effect is not significant at the error level of .05, that is there is no significant difference between these two groups. in other words, there isn't any difference between the fd/fi learners writing skill scores in pre-test ant post-test phases. and based on the sig (sig=.02) for the interactive effect of writing skill improvement and learning styles variables in direct feedback group and indirect feedback group in the fourth row, it can be concluded that this effect is significant at the error level of .05, that is there is a significant difference between these two groups. in other words, there is a difference between the fd/fi learners writing skill scores who have received direct/indirect corrective feedback in pre-test ant post-test phases. for a better understanding of the above report, the graphical presentation is presented. the following graph (graph 2) in the left side shows the estimated marginal means of writing skill scores of fd/fi learners who received direct/indirect feedback in the pre-test phase, and the graph in the right side shows the estimated celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186178 marginal means of writing skill scores of fd/fi learners who received direct/indirect feedback in the post-test phase. graph 2: linear chart of the mean difference between fd/fi learners writing skill scores of feedback and control groups in pre-test and post-test phases m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 179 in the first diagram above you can see that in the pre-test phase, there isn't any difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the writing skills of fi learners in direct and indirect feedback groups (green line in the first graph). there is no difference also between the estimated marginal mean scores of the writing skills of fd learners in the direct and indirect feedback groups (purple line in the left graph) in the same phase. however, there is a difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the pre-test writing skills scores of fieldindependent learners and fielddependent ones (the difference between green and purple lines in the first diagram). concerning the second diagram above you can see that there is a difference between the estimated marginal means of field-independent learners writing skills post-test scores in the indirect feedback group and the direct group (green line in the second graph). there is also a difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the field-dependent learners post-test writing skills scores in the direct and indirect feedback group (purple line in the second graph). there is a difference between the estimated marginal mean scores of the fieldindependent learners and field-dependent ones' post-test writing skills scores (between green and purple lines on the second graph). now when the first and the second graphs are compared, there is also, a significant difference between the estimated marginal means of the field-dependent and field-independent learners' post-test writing skills scores, that is, the interactive effects of the two independent variables (teacher's direct and indirect corrective feedback and learning style) on the dependent variable (writing skill) are meaningful and significant. according to above mentioned report, the second hypothesis of this study is accepted. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186180 based on the above results, there is also a difference between the post-test writing scores of the fd learners who had received direct feedback and those who had received the indirect one, but this difference is not as significant as the difference between fi learners who had received indirect feedback and those who had received direct feedback. in fact, fi learners who had received indirect feedback out-performed those fi learners who had received direct feedback. therefore, it can be concluded that fd learners benefit from different sorts of corrective feedback the same, while, fi learners benefit from the indirect feedback more than the direct one. c. the third hypothesis to investigate the effect of learning style on writing skills of iranian efl learners because of having two dependent variables of writing skill( pre-test and post-test), the data were analyzed based on repeated measures of variance. the following table (table 7) indicates the data analyses based on the pre-test/post-test mean scores and standard deviation for the fd/fi learners. method mean std. deviation n dependent field 18.7024 4.71888 63 independent field 21.1151 4.55673 63 total 19.9087 4.77604 126 dependent field 27.6817 7.01539 63 independent field 30.4722 6.63418 63 total 29.0770 6.94286 126 table 7: group statistics m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 181 the next table (table 8) indicates the results of the 1way anova for the significance of the interactive effect between learning style and writing skill. source type iv sum of squares df mean square f sig. intercept 151174.813 1 151174.813 2691.906 .000 method 426.400 1 426.400 7.593 .007 error 6963.719 124 56.159 table 8: results of 1-way anova for the significance of the interactive effect between learning style and writing skill. according to the sig amount in the second row of table 8 (sig=.000<.05), it is indicated that this effect is significant at any error level. therefore, there is a significant interaction between writing skill scores and learning styles of the iranian efl learners. in other words, there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the fd/fi efl learners writing skill scores. for a better understanding of the above report, the graphical presentation is presented. the following graph (graph 3) shows the estimated marginal means of writing skill scores of fd/fi learners in the pre-test and post-test phases. the graph indicates there is a meaningful difference between the writing skill scores of the fd/fi learners in the pre-test and post-test, and learners' learning styles has made a significant change in the their writing skill scores. therefore the third hypothesis of the present study stands accepted. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186182 graph 3: estimated marginal means of writing skill scores of fd/fi learners in the pre-test and post-test phases. conclusion according to hyland (2008), the cognitive dimension of learning styles distinguishes field –independent learners who are mainly analytic and prefer instruction that emphasizes rules, from field-dependent students who flourish in cooperative, experiential classrooms with plenty of interaction and feedback on their writing. while, the results of the present study indicate that there isn't any significant difference between the fd/fi learners' writing skill scores who has received corrective feedback on their errors. therefore, it is suggested that, to feedback efl learners on their writing products, teachers do not need to take their learning styles into account; however, as indicated by the second finding of the present study it would be better to feedback field-dependent/-independent efl learners indirectly. m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 183 according to ferris and roberts (2001) and bitchener (2005), indirect feedback is more effective than direct feedback because it requires the learner to engage in guided learning and problem solving which may contribute to long-term learning. according to the third hypotheses of this study, there is a meaningful difference between the writing skill scores of the fd/fi learners in the pre-test and post-test, and learners' learning styles has made a significant change in the their writing skill scores. therefore, it can be concluded that, because efl learners' writing skill is affected by their difference in learning styles, efl teachers would better to know their students' specific learning styles in order to be able to provide them with those techniques and strategies of writing skill which is more compatible with their individual styles of learning. references ahmadi et al. procedia social and behavioral sciences, vol. 46, 2012:2590–2595. ashwell, t. “patterns of teacher response to student writing in a multiple-draft composition classroom: is content feedback followed by form feedback the best method?” in journal of second language writing 9, 2000:227–257. bitchener, j. “evidence in support of written corrective feedback”. in journal of second language writing, vol. 17, 2008:102-118. bitchener, j. and u. knoch. “the value of a focused approach to written corrective feedback”. in elt journal, vol. 63, no. 3, 2008:204-211. bitchener, j. and u. knoch. “the relative effectiveness of different types of direct written corrective feedback”. system, vol. 37, 2009:322-329. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186184 bitchener, j. and u. knoch. “the contribution of written corrective feedback to language development: a ten month investigation”. in applied linguistics, vol. 31, 2010:193-214. bitchener, j., s. young, and d. cameron. “the effects of different types of corrective feedback in esl student writing”. in journal of second language writing,vol. 14, 2005:191 205. carter, r. and d. nunan (eds.). the cambridge guide to teaching english to speakers of other languages. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2002. chandler, j. “the efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of l2 student writing”. in journal of second language writing, vol. 12, 2003:267-296. ellis, r. “a typology of written corrective feedback types”. in elt journal, vol. 63, no. 2, 2009:97-107. ellis, r.,y. sheen,m. murakami, and h. takashima. “the effects of focused and unfocused written corrective feedback on japenese university students' use of english articles in narratives”. in system,vol. 36, 2008:353-371. evans, n.w., k.j. hartshorn, r.m. mccollum dan m. wolfersberger. “contextualizing corrective feedback in second language writing pedagogy”. in language teaching research, vol. 14,2010:445-463. fathan, a.k and e. walley. “teacher response to student writing: focus on form versus content”. in b.kroll. second language writing, cambridge uk: cup, 1990:57-68. ferris, d. treatment of error in second language student writing. ann arbor: university of michigan press, 2002. ferris, d. “preparing teachers to respond to students writings”.in journal of second language writing, vol. 16, no. 3, 2007:165-193. m. maghsoudi and s. saeedi, can efl learning styles impact writing 185 ferris, d. “second language writing research and written corrective feedback in sla: intersections and practical application”. in studies in second language acquisition, vol. 32, 2010:181201. ferris, d. and b. roberts. “error feedback in l2 writing classes. how explicit does it need to be?” in journal of second language writing, vol. 10, no. 3, 2001:161-184. ferris, d.r.“does error feedback help student writers? new evidence on the shortand long-term effects of written error correction”. in k. hyland and f. hyland (eds.), feedback in second language writing: contexts and issues. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2006:81-104, ferris, d.r.“the case for grammar correction in l2 writing classes: a response to truscut, j.” in journal of second language writing, vol.8, 1996:1-10. liang, y.“the effects of error feedback in second language writing”. in second language acquisition and teaching, vol. 15, 2008:65-79. lightbown, p. and n. spada. how languages are learned, 3rded. oxford: oxford university press, 2006 pan, y. “the effect of teacher error feedback on the accuracy of efl students writing”. in teflin journal, vol. 21, 2010. rahimi, m. “the role of teacher’s corrective feedback in improving iranian efl learners’ writing accuracy over time: is learner’s mother tongue relevant?”in reading and writing, vol. 22, no. 2,2009:219-243. richards, j.c. and w.a. renandya (eds.). “methodology in language teaching; an anthology of current practice”. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2002. saeedi, s. and m. maghsoudi.“can direct corrective feedback in learners’ mother tongue and in foreign language affect the efl celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013: 155 – 186186 learners’ writing accuracy differently?”in european online journal of natural and social sciences, vol. 2, no. 2, 2013. salem saleh khalaf ibnian. “brainstorming and essay writing in efl class”. in theory and practice in language studies, vol. 1, no. 3, 2011:263-272. sheen, y. “the effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on esl learners’ acquisition of articles”. in tesol quarterly, vol. 41, 2007:255-283. truscott, j. “the case against grammar correction in l2 writing classes”. in language learning, vol. 46, 1996:327-369. 2_mojtaba and sahar_2013_13_2(155-186) cover celt december 2013_revisi_1 celt vol 13 no 2 december 2013_revisi_2# cover celt december 2013_revisi_2 3 moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter didik rinan sumekto didikrinan@unwidha.ac.id english education department, widya dharma university, klaten abstract: this study aimed at revealing and discussing the life of arthur dimmesdale and hester prynne as depicted in nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter, which adopted the moral values set in the past nineteenth century massachusetts society. the research used the historical qualitative method by focusing on empirical facts found in the research site in accordance with the structural society existence in a particular period. data collection and interpretation technique was applied systematically by explaining and describing the actions and events of the story with facts about the puritan dogma. the findings showed that the moral values had described the life of arthur and hester, as the major character via (1) the satirical outline on the actual world of morality within massachusetts society; (2) the degree of puritan morality, hypocrisy, guilt and final painful expiation to arthur and hester, to which they had condemned, violated, and led to a consequence of punishment upon their moral hazard, since the law of god and the man–made law treachery were seductively done on behalf of love; and (3) the empirical understanding of the consequence and positive implication of life in struggling for honesty, honor, dignity, strength and endurance. key words: puritanism, moral values, treachery. abstrak: kajian studi ini bertujuan mengungkapkan dan membahas kehidupan arthur dimmesdale dan hester prynne seperti yang digambarkan dalam novel nathaniel hawthorne, the scarlet letter dengan mengadopsi nilai-nilai moral yang hidup pada abad kesembilan belas di kalangan masyarakat massachusetts. studi ini menggunakan 160 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 159-175 metode penelitian historis kualitatif dengan berfokus pada fakta empiris yang ditemukan di lokasi penelitian sesuai dengan eksistensi masyarakat pada periode tertentu. teknik pengumpulan data menggunakan teknik evaluatif yang diterapkan secara sistematis melalui pengungkapan dan pendeskripsian atas temuan fakta-fakta tersebut. hasil studi ini menunjukkan bahwa nilai-nilai moral yang menggambarkan kehidupan arthur dan hester, sebagai karakter utama dalam novel tersebut terkait (1) ungkapan secara satir pada dunia menyangkut moralitas di kalangan masyarakat massachusetts; (2) perlakuan yang tidak mengenakkan kepada arthur dan hester di kalangan masyarakat puritan terkait dengan moralitas, kemunafikan, rasa bersalah dan penghianatan yang begitu menyakitkan atas pelanggaran hukum tuhan dan manusia, serta konsekuensi hukuman yang mereka terima atas pelanggaran nilai-nilai moral yang berlatarbelakang cinta; dan (3) pemahaman empiris terkait implikasi positif dari kehidupan yang mengedepankan bagaimana kejujuran, kehormatan, martabat, kekuatan dan daya tahan hidup dibangun. kata kunci: puritanisme, nilai-nilai moral, penghianatan. introduction it was noted that people of england became the first american pioneers that came into the virgin new world and opened the first permanent white settlement in the continent of the 1607s (lemay, 1988, p. 4), so that they have become the first american frontier settlers in the colonial period. history recorded that america had undergone a long era of frontier experience from 1607 to 1890, when newcomers from all over the world established the continent into civilization (buchel & gray, 1994, p.131), within so brief a span of time that the growing nation started to lose their innocence image and freedom in nature as it had in its earlier periods (rubin, 1979, p. 199). winthrop (1639) as cited by (winthrop, 1985) heimert and debanco (1985, p. 87) preached a lay sermon to the men, women and children who were gathered in southampton to accompany him on a voyage to america to actualize an order to go into the wilderness where they planned to erect a new england in march 1630. these emigrants were puritans, departing england because of their belief that the assault on godliness was being mounted by the king’s bishops and would only increase in vigour. thus, according to coffey and lim (2008, p. 127) they had decided to uproot themselves and their families in order to find a colony where they could not sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 161 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter only preserve the religious reforms they had managed to achieve in their native land, but also to further advance the purification of worship and belief. the relationship between self-abasement and divine power in puritan theology, according to porterfield (1992, p. 39) had important implications for many aspects of puritan life. gatta (2004, p. 76) pointed out that in some respects, first puritans generation tried to armour themselves against the wilderness, to wall out the untamed and seemingly ungodly forces that surrounded them with the puritan theology that would have fared differently if the new england founders had landed first in other regions rather than on plymouth rock. what became important matters were about the interrelation among the historical, religious, socio-cultural, and civil perspectives about american puritanism that initially begun in 1607 to the early nineteenth century, like depicted in the scarlet letter. literature review a. historical and socio-cultural background in their long journey beginning from old england to new england, considered as the land of hope, many puritans were called by the english pilgrims to reach the new world and dwell the colony of plymouth in 1620 and massachusetts in 1630. they sought for freedom of religious conscience and economic security and/ or opportunity. during those years starting from 1620 to 1640 the puritan had spread along the coast from maine to what was suburban new york. by 1640, when virginia had 8,000 white people, the area of new england had 14,000, chiefly in massachusetts. for the next half century, the hardly and prolific puritans were free to develop their town government, economy, and way of life virtually undisturbed by the authorities in england (baugh, 1967). in the puritans’ first settlement period, they were far from democratic in politic and philosophy disturbance and the governmental system aligned was mainly intended to calvinism in geneva, henceforth, puritanism began to tower in the new world. but by this time, according to foerster (1962, p. 3) they had given to new england a special character which in some respects was evident to the present day. according to miller and johnson (1963, p. 380) puritans resulted from a way of life, and determined certain qualities of behavior peculiarly. clearly, the puritans believed that in the bible lay all true and proper laws for governing human conduct, if they voluntarily 162 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 159-175 discontinued to magistrate and minister the power of interpreting the code, before conceiving the doctrine of laissez faire. in other words, his, puritanism was reached from a social and economic point of view, to having been a philosophy of social stratification, which placed command in the hands of a properly qualified and demanding implicit obedience from the uneducated. from the religious point of view it was the persistent assertion of the unity of intellect and spirit faced from a rising tide of democratic sentiment suspicious of the intellect and influence of the spirit. puritanism held that the intellectual realm of holy subpoena was to be expounded by the right reason, within the social realm of the mentors of farmers and merchants. miller and johnson also emphasized that it was in the realm of logic that the revolt against scholasticism left the most important mark upon puritan culture. the protestant, reinforced by the humanist, or rather by his own humanism, found that scholasticism had become a stagnant and unproductive way of thinking. it had become smoother, irresponsible, and formal with the new learning demanding that rational men were about thinking straight forward and commonsense terms. they thought directly to the point and kept out of the tangled network of scholastic involutions. the scholastic way of settling this inquiry would have been through the syllogism; a schoolman might argue, for example, with all temporal things that were made, accordingly for the existence of the world. b. civilization and religiousness the earliest english puritans were religious members of the church of england and had no desire to produce a disagreement among nations. they wished to simplify of “purify” faiths and rituals, in order to diminish the authority of the bishops. unfortunately, no official break was intended because in early new england during the puritan period, there was no available leading, powerful and well-trained clergymen (bradley, beatty, and needleman, 1962, p. 132). at this moment, the meanings of puritanism could be distinguished, as follows: (1) puritanism signified an idea and practice of moral, religious, and other spiritual as well as material purity or purification, such as thoroughness, retreat, rigor, perfection, skilfulness, holiness, sanctity and sainthood, absolutism, or totality, including total, and methodical control or absolute self-control. in the sense of methodically seeking and attaining purity or perfection in respect to human sins, misconduct, or evils, most ethical and religious systems were to some extent puritan values (bell, 1977, p. 431); and (2) puritanism in the sense of puritanical simplicity and self-control, and puritans as moral saints and master count also assume various nonor quasi-religious forms, elements, sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 163 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter and faces, as in antireligious ideologies or secular “religions” (zafirovski, 2007, pp. 1-2). yet, the puritans in general were lovers of life, their clergy were well-educated scholars; they developed a pleasing domestic architecture and good arts and crafts on american soil; they liked the drink even if they hated the drunkard, since they feared both ignorance and emotional evangelism, made of their religious intellectual discipline (bradley, beatty, and long, 1962, p. 6-7). puritan theology often reflected a preoccupation with sexual feeling and behaviour, the self-regulation it promoted was not comfortable to sexuality. sexual impulse was only the primary arena of self regulation in puritan culture, and puritans controlled and gratified their impulses in other arenas as well. puritan thirst for adversity was part of a larger strategy of selfregulation that persisted and spread beyond the theocracies of seventeenthcentury new england at least partly because of its effectiveness as a means of economic and political success (porterfield, 1992, p. 89). another point of view, bremer (2009, pp. 35-36), said that the challenge for all men and women of faith had a particular revelation of the essence of god as the difficulty of explaining to others something totally beyond their experience. puritans often spoke of god by drawing analogies to man’s experiences, employing terms that might be used of human agents, using masculine pronouns, and speaking as if divine decisions were made in the same way as human ones. one reason for their opposition to painted, carved, or sculpted images of the deity was that such objects fixed in people’s minds a specific and therefore limiting view of god. puritans had a lot to say about the nature of man and the relationship between god and his creation. in the beginning, they asserted, god made humans, male and female, after his own image. they believed that god entered into a conditional promise– referred to by many as the “covenant of works”, which referred to adam and eve, offering them eternal life and happiness in paradise in return for their perfect obedience to god’s commands. man was created as a moral agent with free will. born with their understanding corrupted by original sin, which was embedded in their nature, men and women would commit their own violations of god’s law. on given occasions the individual chose to do that which was forbidden by the law, choosing what promised selfgratification rather than obeying the law of god. baugh (1967, pp. 25-34) exclaimed that puritans believed that nothing they did could influence whether they would spend eternity with god in heaven or damned in hell, it was extraordinary that they devoted the attention they did to behaving in a godly fashion. the simple explanation 164 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 159-175 was that they believed that god gave his law to be obeyed, and it was their duty to do so irrespective of any rewards they might receive. puritans who believed that they were numbered among the elect further explained their ability to adhere to god’s wishes by claiming that grace had made them more capable of perceiving god’s will and more successful in carrying it out. he continued to give a brief picture about puritanism that were five points of calvinist theology from which puritanism took its clues, namely: (1) total depravity–this asserts the sinfulness of man through the fall of adam, and the utter inability of man to work out his own salvation. god was all; man was nothing, and was the source of evil. god meant all things to be in his confusion, and deserve nothing but to be cast away; (2) unconditional election–god, under no obligation to save everyone saved or elected whom he would, with no reference to faith or good works. since all things were presented in the mind of god at once, he knew before-hand who would be saved and thus election or prohibition was predestined; (3) limited atonement– christ did not die for all, but only for those who were to be saved. if he did not die on the cross, none could be saved; and thus we had another evidence of god’s love toward mankind; (4) irresistible grace–god’s grace was freely given, and could neither be earned nor refused. grace was defined as the saving and transfiguring power of god, offering newness of life, forgiveness of sins, the power of resist temptations, and a wonderful peace of mind and heart; and (5) perseverance of the saints–those whom god had chosen have thenceforth full power to do the will of god, and necessary conclusion of the absolute sovereignty of god. puritans heartily believed that god so allpowerful. his true nature was incomprehensible to man, and yet he left many clues and hinted in his own holy word, the bible, and it was the duty of man to search the old and new testaments for a more exact knowledge of the will of god toward man. daily life was to be lived in strict conformity to the rules and regulations to be found in the bible, and all that man does, was to be done with the utmost intensity and zeal to the greater glory of god. in the social life, foerster (1962, p. 5) verified that puritans were married young, though by no means so young as often supposed. the average age for first marriages in early new england strikingly parallels that of today. girls were almost never given in marriage under eighteen, and more often not until they had passed their twentieth or twenty-first birthday. men were usually somewhat older. the average held true for the colonies as a whole; certain classes, ministers’ children, for instance, or those whose education was longer pursued, sometimes were well along in their twenties before they assumed the responsibilities of matrimony. some had concluded that puritan sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 165 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter families were not very large, and it was true that no very great number reached maturity. the marriage ceremony was simple and regarded as a civil, not a religious-rite; banns or weddings announcement were published and after a brief but appropriate interval the intending couple appeared before the magistrate. definitely, hawthorne (1987, pp. 389-393) pointed out that elopements were uncommon, and divorces were less so among puritans. people who raised large families did not have time to humor their expectation; besides, a man was the master and a woman would be his helpmate; death so often separated partners that, in this particular case, men and women often married twice, thrice, and sometimes even oftener. the choice of mate was by no means exclusively as a parental matter, besides they found excuse as well for private merrymaking in baptisms, weddings, funerals, barns-raisings, corn-husking, quilting-parties, church-raisings, houseraisings, ship launchings, and, in truth, ministers’ ordinations as well. methodology a. type of research this research was intended to be a historical research upon arthur dimmesdale’s and hester prynne’s life as part of a puritan society dwelling in massachusetts bay colony. according to anderson and arsenault (1998, p. 101), this research might be defined as a past-oriented research which seeks to illuminate a question of current interest by an intensive study of material that already exists. it used the systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain, and thereby understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past (fraenkel and wallen, 2009, p. 534) and its alignment had been defined as well as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events (borg; 1963; cohen, manion, and marrison, 2007, p. 191). this research agenda had attempted to discover primary and secondary data and to describe what happened through the existing data sources provided (anderson and arsenault, 1998, p. 101). b. data collection and analysis according to hockett (1955; cohen, manion, and marrison, 2007, p. 193) historical research must deal with the data that already existed. this data collection relied on primary data source and ensured that sufficient sources were in order to address the problem. the primary source, reviewed as bibliography on the scarlet letter were examined merely to see what 166 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 159-175 general descriptive information existed about the people, places or events being researched. meanwhile, the secondary data source were books, theses, articles, and encyclopaedia as the research’s relevant sources (anderson and arsenault, 1998, p. 104). data analysis were done by focusing on the stories by means of a narrative analysis approach. herein, this analysis attempted to identify the content, structure, and form of life stories based on the available data from the scarlet letter novel, as an exploration of the meaning of life events within a broader sociocultural context (ary, jacobs, and sorensen, 2010, p. 466). results a. arthur dimmesdale’s background profession these documentary-based results had mainly confirmed with the great work of hawthorne’s the scarlet letter which referred to his undoubtedly prompted critical satire in the rigors of puritanism. as revealed in the novel, arthur dimmesdale who was the puritan minister has committed adultery with hester prynne, a wife of roger chillingworth. arthur was a consciencestricken-minister when the tension was tightly drawn between the puritan respect for law and conscience and the romantic insistence upon the supremacy of the private impulse. hawthorne also determined that arthur was the protagonist and the resolution of the tension which was brought about by the confession of guilt before his assembled parishioners. the sense of arthur’s protagonist character shown in the scarlet letter was his long physical and mental pain or conflict within himself to surrender his own will to the divide will. arthur’s actions were consistent with the puritan society’s moral standard which should be strictly obeyed by all society members in order to create and maintain a harmony life-stability. in the case of reverend arthur, it was shown that he was obviously feeling a consciencestricken for doing wrong due to his capacity as a human being and a puritan minister. he also heartily realized for his whole life a deep sorrow for which have haunted him for years. in his illness with no clear symptom, arthur attempted to reveal his sinfulness by standing on the scaffold and regretting to god, whenever no one could see him. as described by hawthorne (1959, p. 167) in the useless show of his expiation, arthur was seen with a great horror of mind, since the universe gazed at his scarlet token of his naked breast, whilst shrieking aloud with an outcry that turned pealing through the night, in which he also had made a plaything of the sound and was disseminating it to and fro. arthur finally exclaimed, “it is done! by covering sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 167 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter his face with his hands. the whole town will awake, and hurry forth, and find me here!” (hawthorne, 1959, p. 223). in the case of arthur dimmesdale, hawthorne provided clues throughout the whole contents of the scarlet letter before revealing explicitly at the conclusion that the scholarly young reverend arthur was the biological father of pearl, hester’s daughter. even some puritan community still could not believe that their beloved and esteemed minister was guilty of doing committed adultery after this revelation. in every part of his sermon, arthur repeatedly emphasized his sinfulness and unworthiness during the spam of his religion services to the puritan community. nevertheless, in his real life, arthur remained to put his unlawful relationship with hester aside from the public concern. it meant that arthur never openly took responsibility for the illicit affair with hester and never admitted pearl as his biological daughter. he had hidden from his adultery sin behind a rhetorical dogma of intrinsic sinfulness that the puritans believed to all mankind. so far, arthur’s hypocrisy flew to the very deepest heart of the inner tension within the puritan theocracy between beliefs in original sin that it has impacted on the individual’s faults and sins, which could only be saved by god’s grace. another point of view, could be focused on the condition of the illness that arthur had suffered from, to which he eventually tried to tell the truth to what he had done with hester within seven years ago. only by the public acknowledgment and confession, arthur could find the peace that his silence denied the truth, and it was not until the end that he declared the truth in the same market place where hester’s punishment began. however, he had such a possibility to declare it in front of public. arthur’s confession began with a deep sorrow when he thoroughly thought that the silence over years would not solve his problem and the committed adultery was considered as a serious guilt. here was the testimony of him directly cited from hawthorne (1959, p. 103): people of new england !” cried he, with a voice that rose over them, high, solemn, and majestic, yet had always a tremor through it, and sometimes a shriek, struggling up out of a fathomless depth of remorse and woe, “ye, that have loved me ! that have deemed me holy ! behold me here, the one sinner of the world! at last! at last! i stand upon the spot where, seven years since, i should have stood, here, with this woman, whose arm, ore than the little strength wherewith i have crept hitherward, sustains me, at this dread full moment from groveling down upon my face ! lo, the scarlet letter which hester wears! ye 168 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 159-175 have all shuddered at it! wherever her walk hath been, wherever, so miserably burdened, she may have hoped to find repose, it hath cast a lurid gleam of awe and horrible repugnance roundabout her. but there stood one in the midst of you, at whose brand of sin and infamy ye have not shuddered! on the other hand, arthur’s confession might be beneath us to offer another perspective upon hester’ position, in which within seven years he brought about her life into public mockery in the puritan society. however, as known from the above testimony, there was a personal interest involved between arthur and hester. in one case, they had broken the law of god and the man–made law was the result of their committed adultery, whilst in another side, arthur depended upon the fact that hester was not guilty. he claimed to the people of new england in massachusetts that hester did not deserved to be shuddered and blamed, which was why she wore the scarlet letter of “a” alphabet on her breast as her immortal stigma. b. hester prynne’s background profession the scarlet letter depicted a clue about the stigma that was a brand, a punishment, an ugly thing that had been attached to the dress of the malefactors of hester prynne. wherewith the stigma on hester, as part of the puritan society, she was forced to take all risks on her activities during the rest of her life, such as being ignored by others and having her individual and social access in the public affairs limited, as this was the consequence of breaking god’s rules and since there was no precise decision from the city’s authority when she should put her letter “a” off from her dress as well. hester was described as a tall young woman with a perfect elegant figure, when seen on a general measurement. she had dark and abundant hair, so glossy that it threw off the sunshine with a gleam, and a face which, besides being beautiful from regularity of feature and richness of complexion, had the impressiveness belonging to a marked brow and deep black eyes. she was lady-like, too, after the manner of the feminine gentility of those days, characterized by a certain state and dignity. hester was also foretold as a self supporting woman, of which she had the feeling of self-confidence without any dependence on the other people, although people of puritan in massachusetts walked away from her and nobody helped her when she needed it. fortunately, she was given the gift to overcome the kind of problems she was faced with. on this perspective, most people of new england in massachusetts had badly claimed hester as a fallen woman, that hester was regarded as a being not deserved to live sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 169 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter amongst the people. the talk of hester as the fallen woman had spread over the public area like on the market place, as cited by hawthorne (1959, p. 7981): … this woman has brought shame upon us all, and ought to die. is there not law for it? truly there is, both in the scripture and the statute-book. then let the magistrates, who have made it of no effect, thank themselves if their win wives and daughters go astray! but out of this stigmatization as a fallen woman, her ability to be autonomous was greatly supported with perseverance, hard work, and initiative. these could be reflected from a piece of the story in the scarlet letter (hawthorne, 1959, p. 122) which stated: lonely as was hester’s situation, and without a friend on earth who dared to show himself, she, however, incurred no risk of want. she possessed an art that sufficed, even in a land that afforded comparatively little scope for its exercise, to supply feed for her thriving infant and herself. it was the art-then, as now, almost the only one within a moment’s grasp-of needle-work. she bore on her breast, in the curiously embroidered letter, a specimen of her delicate and imaginative skill, of which the dames of a court might gladly have availed themselves, to add the richer and more spiritual adornment of human ingenuity to their fabrics of silk and gold. but as the consequence of having committed adultery with arthur, the law of the puritan society remained to furnish her a sentence. the sentence which she should receive as her guilt was that she should stand up for a certain time every time on the platform of the pillory, situated in the entrance way of the market place for three hours. as not infrequently in other cases, her sentence of standing at a certain time upon the plat from seem to not scare her as she continued to show her perseverance by trying to be gentle and held her head high. unfortunately, she did not find any peacefulness in doing so. her unhappy culprit sustained herself as best a woman might, under the heavy heaviness of many unrelenting eyes, all fastened upon her, to focus upon her bosom of which the letter “a” was written. hester had stood up alone in the puritan world, without any dependence on society, and only with her little pearl to be loved, guided, and 170 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 159-175 protected; nobody helped her in the hope of retrieving her better position. hester imbibed this spirit, as she assumed a freedom of speculation that would have been held to be a deadlier crime than that was stigmatized by the scarlet letter (hawthorne, 1987, p. 182). from the main story of hester prynne that had been exposed above, hawthorne (1959, pp. 211-213) expected to maintain his readers with hester’s condition through the dialogue revelation between both of them as follows: o arthur, cried she, forgive me! in all things else, i have striven to be true! truth was the one virtue which i might have held fast, and did hold fast through all extremity; save when thy good, _thy life, _thy fame, _were put in question! then i consented to a deception. but a lie is never good, even though death threaten on the other side! dost thou not see what i would say? that old man! _the physician! _he whom they call roger chillingworth! _he was my husband! (p. 211) i might have known it murmured he. i did know it! was not the secret told me in the natural recoil of my heart, at first sight of him, and as often as i have seen him since? why did i not understand? o hester prynne, thou little knowest all the horror of this thing! and the same! _the indelicacy! _the horrible ugliness of this exposure of a sick and guilty heart to the very eye that would gloat over it! woman, woman, thou art accountable for this! i cannot forgive thee! (p. 212) thou shalt forgive me! cried hester, flinging herself on the fallen leaves beside him. let god punish! thou shalt forgive! (ibid) wilt thou yet forgive me? she repeated, over and over again. wilt thou not frown? wilt thou forgive? (p. 213) i do forgive you, hester, replied the minister, at length, with a deep utterance out of an abyss of sadness, but no anger. i freely forgive you now. may god forgive us both! we are not, hester, the worst sinners in the world. there is one worse than even the polluted priest! (ibid) what would be the ultimate concern relating to this dialogue was about hester confession, too. it was truly undeniable that, in fact, arthur might have ignored hester’ marital status or at the first time, he did not have sufficient experience before meeting and falling in love with hester. this sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 171 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter unpredictable condition should have made arthur know and realize about it, since he was one of the young brilliant scholars and great clergymen of the time. yet, on the other hand, hester did not tell the truth to arthur about her marital status. herein, the moral values of being honest and loyal to obey have revealed for both arthur and hester that they failed to honor the puritan tradition and show their dignity in the law of god. in reflecting to arthur’s background profession as the puritan reverend, he should have no continued the forbidden relationship (e.g.: illicit love) in order that he would not have committed adultery with hester, who was the wife of roger chillingworth. when realizing about hester’ status, hester should have been also strict in her self-control and should have maintained honor when deciding with whom she should have personal relationship, particularly in the name of love. referring to the dialogue above, hester began to regret with her deep sorrow to arthur due to her absence not to tell the truth and really felt sorry about arthur’s physical condition implicitly. she attempted over and over again in gaining forgiveness from arthur as she thought she had put him into deep liability and broken his life and career in terms of another individual and professional point of view. at the end of their dialogue, as a human being, it was noted that arthur finally conveyed his forgiveness to hester, but arthur also realized and expected that god would merely forgive their sinfulness. unfortunately, nothing can amend about hester’s condition, which had broken her own lovely life and brought along with it its obligations for a whole seven years of outlaw and facing public embarrassment or ignominy. one clear thing her, was that hester did not keep her loyalty as a wife of roger chillingworth. this condition was an important notice for everyone, particularly for women who should deeply realize about disdainful relationships with other men. moreover, as depicted in her life’s journey, hester had secretly kept silent for the illicit love affairs she had with arthur, by covering it up from everybody who was willing to know, that he was the father of pearl. however, when she was sentenced on the platform, she was no longer reluctant to keep it secretly from the public domain in the chapter of “another view of hester,” hester was exposed with the effects of her seven long years of discrimination on her life experience. implicitly hester seemed to have accepted her punishment dutifully and with humility. she remained nearly invisible within the community, never figuring out from drawing attention to her and devoting herself to the care of the sick and poor people who were living in the puritan circumstance. she 172 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 159-175 appeared to have heartily accepted and regretted with such grace, about how most people in the community have changed their view of her. hester was no longer seemingly holding the epitome of sinfulness and erotic transgression, but she was rather a humble servant of the community. the puritan society was no longer interpreting the letter “a” written on her breast as the consensus meaning of “adultery”, but they certainly put a meaning as the symbol of being “able”. the other view of hester in which she had decided to return back to massachusetts was considered inspirational as it showed her ability of being responsibility as the single parent for pearl thereby she had the freedom to live wherever she chose to go. the reasoning for this was firstly related to the moral and political motives of her return. hester returned back to massachusetts to devote herself to the people who disposed her circumstances. she decided to provide her services as a part of her moral obligation and duty as a human being by helping her community with a sheltered housing, comfort, and counsel for those who had suffered under the puritan community’s unpleasant moral strictures, particularly its strictures on the erotic affairs about her belief that the relation between men and women would ultimately move toward a greater degree of complementarily and equality between the sexes. second was about hester’s understanding on her penitence that was unfinished. the puritan community was no longer imposed of this penitence, thus she chose it for herself. her decision suggested that her selfunderstanding was deeply connected with the people. hester’s spiritedness and independence of mind, which contributed to her erotic rebellion, were displaced, and in many respects irrelevant, away from this specific moral community of faith, till she grew older and seemed less ambitious about radical reforms of the puritan community. therefore, hester’s return to massachusetts was viewed as the signals her recognition of the deep interdependence between her self-understanding and the puritan community. third, she still kept her romantic moments with arthur as it was on her sense of penitence. this interpretation emphasized that she wanted to return and be closely united with arthur, even though he had passed away. when hester died, she was buried near his grave, which strongly indicated of the loyal love she still had for him. in one condition this interpretation could show that hester’s motive in returning back to massachusetts was also to find the communion with her lover-in-death, arthur, since in her real life she could not be engaged with him normally. sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 173 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter conclusion from the data analysis and discussion revealed, there would be three points available to emphasize for the conclusion. first, arthur’s behaviour as an individual and reverend was consistent with the ideology of puritan theocracy. the premise that human beings were born with original sin conflicts with the pursuit of moral perfection in this life, would be creating the tension. his struggle was afflicted with all the weaknesses of an ordinary mortal, who attempted the impossible task of living up to his community’s extreme moral demands of broking it with a seven-years immoral action. second, this conclusion also told us about hester’s character that highlighted a much more unsettling aspect of theocracy. unlike arthur’s personal position faced to the norms of his community, hester’s understanding of herself on the puritan theocracy was not dogmatic by her faith as revealed in christian religion through hester’s inability as a woman to hide her maternity forces to engage the conflict between moral perfectionism and individual fallibility in the public domain. however, by facing this reality, hester regarded a far greater independence of mind and moral autonomy than arthur. in spite of her independence, she had finally chosen to return back to her cottage in massachusetts and served her criticism of living around with the puritan community of their faith and moral duty seriousness, even though at the end of her life she was shown to not being able to hide her passion of uniting with arthur near his tombstone last but not least, this novel has educated readers about the motives that might be more clearly understood within the constraints of a morally rigorous community. the puritan theocracy considered seriously as an object of reflection and inquiry in the human life is required a serious subject matter to ponder on, in spite of its manifest shortcomings, that was worthy of inquiry as it influenced a dogmatic belief as well. to conclude, therefore, the moral values found in the scarlet letter would have accounted the deep relation and struggling-like dogmatic belief in puritanism, as contrasted with the man-made law and the law of god where a community existed in the past and present. references anderson, g. & arsenault, n. 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(2004). making nature sacred: literature, religion, and environment in america from the puritans to the present. new york: oxford university press, inc. hawthorne, n. (1987). the scarlet letter and selected tales. new york: the ohio state university press. sumekto, r.d., moral values of massachusetts society in the puritan 175 era: a study on nathaniel hawthorne’s the scarlet letter hawthorne, n. (1959). the scarlet letter. boston: the new american library, inc. hockett, h. c. (1955). the critical method in historical research and writing. london: macmillan. lemay, j. a. l. (1988). an early american reader. manila: united states information agency. miller, p. & johnson, h. t. (1963). the puritans (ed). vol. i & ii. new york: harper & row publishers. porterfield, a. (1992). female piety in puritan new england: the emergence of religious humanism. new york: oxford university press. rubin, d. l, jr. (1979). the american south: portrait of a culture. washington, dc: voice of america forum series. winthrop, j. (1630). a model of christian charity. in a. heimart & a. delbanco, the puritans in america: a narrative anthology. (pp.82-92). new york: evergreen review, inc. zafirovski, m. (2007). the protestant ethic and the spirit of authoritarianism: puritanism, democracy, and society. new york: springer science business media, llc. book review: obslervling racism '1i'hrough widteness and its entitllements wbite privilege: essential readings on the other side of racism '},dedition paula s. rothenberg new york: worth publishers 200s 160pp. esbn-i0:0716787334 lsbn-13:9780716787334 reviewed by pratiwi widiartati if only prejudices, stereotypes, and discrimination were totally diminished from this world, needless to say that peace is something that we 1 pratiwi wini artati, is is <beeteewee@yahoo.com> a full t:ime government officer in instructional technology at ict center for education ministry of national education jakarta. she graduated from the faculty of letters soegijapranata catholic university in 2004. she is now cmrently pursuing her master's degree in instructional technology at ohio university-usa. p. w. artgti, a book.review: observing racism through whiteness 183 could always breathe in and out easily, effortlessly. if only everyone did not focus on differences, everybody would have always lived in harmony for such a long time ago and in the future to come. putting aside all differences and paying more attention the commonality and similarity that tightens the values of humanity is what we need. we often hear and imagine this will come true. yet, the world is filled with discrimination in almost every aspect inhuman life. one can be discriminated because of having different religion, sexual orientation, race, ideology, physical ability, and so forth. as to digging deeper in addressing this issue, this book by paula rothenberg is an inspiring formula from key essays and articles as a medium of selfretlection to study whiteness and white privilege as a courageous attempt to combat racism in personal and institutional level. challenging white privilege means to revisit and rediscover the discomfort zone. this is never been so easy since nobody wants to be called as being racist. however, many times, what comes through speech and action is not always the same in which it sometimes creates dilemmatic experience in responding to discrimination practices as what is stated in the book: it is problematic because it categorizes and classifies, serves to no positive purposes and mostly used negatively. even though the law protects the people and we are to be treated equally, it is the people's minds that won't change and what is causing this problem to still go on" (rothenberg 2005: 1). the gist of the book is to make the issue of whiteness and white privilege to be visible a medium of shared learning experiences which addresses multidimensional issue that consists of multiple layers and shapes. this is the area where experiences, perspectives, prejudices, stereotypes, and discrimination are taken into an account as a means to have a more understanding towards the other side of racism not from the viewpoint of people of color but from the way white people perceive their own whiteness and white privilege. furthermore, this book offers more insights about what's hidden along the way racism has been experienced, implemented, and perceived. it has become more interesting because this book reveals "the curtain" to see what has been invisible in discrimination practices to some extent. in order to be able to see the invisible, there's a need 188 celt, volume 8, number 2, december 2008: 182-188 whiteness: thepowerofresistance in continuation with chapter one, two, and three, chapter four has a function as challenging the willingness to see white privilege and how the willingness takes place as an attempt to ''break the silence" in the societal level. as it is hard to change what has been solidified for such a long term in the society, the changes begins from oneselfin the personal level in terms of choices in how implementing white privilege for better implication. to put it in another way, paul kivel places this chapter as the turning point of how white privilege can be used as allies as opposed to enemies, to people of color in the struggle to end the racism by what beverly tatum describes as "breaking the silence"with the paralysis offearengaging more in dialogue about racial issues. in the same way, joe feagin and hernan vera encompasses on how to confront one's own racism by taking anti racist actions. as climax, the eight questions in the last page of chapter four address perfectly about the power of resistance in white privilege as it continues to be prevalent in the future. references: adams, maurimme, et at. readings for diversity and social justice. new york: routledge,2ooo. rothenberg, paula s. white privilege: essential readings on the other side of racism. new york: worth publishers, 200s. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . a systematic literature review on the impact of efl classroom-based language assessment 1ima fitriyah and 2utami widiati 1iain kediri, kediri, east java, indonesia 2english language education, faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, malang, indonesia email: 1imafitria@iainkediri.ac.id, 2utami.widiati.fs@um.ac.id received: 22-01-2021 accepted: 22-06-2021 published: 29-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a systematic literature review on the impact of efl classroom based language assessment 1ima fitriyah and 2utami widiati 1imafitria@iainkediri.ac.id, 2utami.widiati.fs@um.ac.id 1iain kediri, kediri, east java, indonesia 2english language education, faculty of letters, universitas negeri malang, malang, indonesia abstract: the trend in investigating how teachers apply assessment in efl classroom has been at the momentum. using systematic literature review and prisma protocol, as many as 44 research articles during this past ten years were found. their findings are beneficial for efl learning. research investigating students' perceptions of classroom-based language assessment (cbla) shows that students tend to have positive perceptions of cbla. on another topic, students' motivation to implement cbla depends on how the test itself is carried out. few studies states that cbla contributes greatly to students’ achievement, what is there is that they learn a lot from cbla, and they sufficiently understand cbla's function for learning. from the efl teachers’ perspective, assessment literacy is crucial for them because at least 75% of research is found to focus on the application of assessment literacy, and the practice of assessment is one-way and balanced. this article discusses on how researchers have been using cbla benefited for efl teaching and learning. key words: literature review, classroom-based language assessment, assessment for learning abstrak: tren penelitian yang berfokus pada bagaimana guru menerapkan penilaian bahasa inggris di kelas semakin tinggi. ditemukan sebanyak 44 artikel penelitian selama sepuluh tahun terakhir. temuan-temuan ini tentu bermanfaat untuk peningkatan pembelajaran bahasa inggris. penelitian yang menyelidiki persepsi siswa tentang fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 75 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj penilaian bahasa berbasis kelas (cbla) menunjukkan bahwa siswa cenderung memiliki persepsi positif tentang cbla. pada topik lain disebutkan bahwa motivasi siswa dalam melaksanakan cbla sangat bergantung pada cara pelaksanaan ujian itu sendiri. beberapa penelitian menyatakan bahwa cbla memberikan kontribusi yang besar terhadap prestasi siswa, mereka banyak belajar dari cbla, dan mereka cukup memahami fungsi cbla untuk pembelajaran. dari sisi guru bahasa inggris di perguruan tinggi, literasi penilaian sangat penting untuk dimiliki oleh guru. setidaknya 75% penelitian berfokus pada penerapan literasi penilaian, dan praktik penilaian bersifat satu arah dan seimbang. ringkasnya, artikel ini mendiskusikan bagaimana penelitian-penelitian tersebut menggunakan cbla untuk kepentingan pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa inggris. kata kunci: tinjauan pustaka, penilaian bahasa berbasis kelas, penilaian untuk pembelajaran introduction classroom-based assessment has played a critical role in the pedagogical practices and learning processes of both esl and efl educators and learners. when evaluating classroom-based assessment, the link between teaching, learning, and the actual assessment is critical. teachers aim to collect data that could guide their decision-making in order to integrate a variety of assessment methods at crucial points during the class (perrone & college, 2011). as assessment methods play a critical role in how language points are understood by students and their own competencies are strengthened, these aspects of the classroom have been referred to as testable moments. in short, the discussion on the effect of language assessments and test have long been of wide interest in general education due to its causal relationship with teaching and learning. this relationship is clearly seen in the term of washback. washback relates to the impact of the assessments on instruction in terms of how learners train for the exam in a large-scale evaluation. the information that "washes back" to students in the form of helpful diagnoses of strengths and deficiencies is another form of washback that happens mostly in classroom evaluation. according to brown (2004), washback also includes the effect of an assessment on teaching and preparing prior to the evaluation itself, that is, on evaluation readiness (p.29). washback can also have beneficial and detrimental effects (ali & hamid, 2020). positive washback refers to test outcomes expected. for example, an exam may help students to learn more or 76 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj may promote a link between expectations and teaching. negative washback refers to the unintended, negative consequences of an examination. for instance, at the detriment of other tasks, teaching can rely too heavily on test preparation. thus, teachers should minimize the existence of negative washback in order to gain more positive one. educational preparation that connects teaching and research is one way to guarantee meaningful washback. teachers will more effectively match testing with curriculum by choosing a measure that represents the instructional and program objectives. however, empirical evidence of the phenomenon only began to flourish in language education in the 1990s , especially after alderson & wall (1993) posed their famous question in their article’s title, "does washback exist?". since then, a large number of studies in language education have been done to seek empirical proof for the common assumption that assessments have influence on teaching and learning. this phenomenon is acknowledged by many studies on it recently; i.e., cheng (2005); wall (2000); lam (2016); perrone & college (2011); stoynoff (2012). moreover, the literatures has also focused on the impact of assessment on teaching and learning, such as barnes (2017); furaidah, ali & utami (2015); galikyan et al. (2019); johnson & shaw (2019); mckinley & thompson (2018); xu & liu (2018). on the other side, language assessment has also gained popularity in online education as a result of the advancement of increasingly complex learning technology. further, since the assessment should be conducted online, the effect of cbla in online learning is also a significant study topic (ali, 2015; abbad et al., 2009; cai, 2012; daniels et al., 2019; doculan, 2016; wagner, 2020; wihastyanang, 2018; mohamadi, 2018). and thus, the effect may occur differently between online tests and non-online assessment. regardless of the context on how language assessment is carried out, the objective of the assessment can be identified on several criteria known as an assessment for learning (afl), assessment of learning (aol), and assessment as learning (aal) (gan et al., 2017; lam, 2016; lee, 2007). studies confirm that a good assessment makes both students and teachers better even though many believe that tests are carried out to see student learning outcomes (aol). therefore, it is interesting when research on the effects of language assessment can be narrowed down to look at how the impact of the evaluation is on improving the quality of teaching and learning (ridhwan, 2017). afl in formative assessments, distinguished from summative assessment (aol) (hill & mcnamara, 2011; ridhwan, 2017). learning is an aim fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 77 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj throughout the afl, and assessment is the means of completing the objective (lee, 2007). teachers need to combine instruction, studying, and assessment in carrying out afl rather than abiding on how to measure the success of students themselves. the introduction of afl continues with an appreciation of the relationship between teaching and learning, and how assessments can be utilized to advise teaching and learning. as a result, scholars are now paying specific attention to effective teaching and learning preparation, afl as fundamental to classroom experience, and what students do after the assessment (lee, 2007; liu & xu, 2017). relatedly, some systematic literature reviews have been conducted in the area of language assessment, washback and afl. this study would fill up what cheng's et al., (2015) suggestion. cheng et al. (2015) analyzed the literatures on washback effect of high-stake interest tests during 1993 to 2013, for future research, the synthesis of this analysis of empirical washback studies offers the following guidelines: (1) stakeholder inclusion, (2) interplay mechanism, and (3) perspectives from relevant fields and hypotheses. nimehchisalem & bhatti, (2019) constructed literature review on empirical studies in the teachers’ assessment literacy. a distinct review somehow combines the importance of technology and assessment in the past 20 years (chapelle & voss, 2016), and a systematic review on the method for evaluating rating quality in language assessment (wind & peterson, 2018). schildkamp et al., (2020) reviewed 54 studies on classroom formative assessment. the results show that (1) knowledge and skills (2), psychological factors and (3) social factors influence the use of formative assessment. in addition to above mentioned studies, ha (2019) examined the effect of assessment on students' motivation, behavior, and accomplishment in the classroom using a variety of research methodologies; including surveys, interviews, case studies, and experiments from various journals. the review demonstrates that the number of studies is still limited, and the findings are still inconclusive. in contrast, where cheng (2015) took only the articles from highly reputable journal, ha (2019) included articles from many sources, and it was not mentioned clearly the number of the articles being reviewed. the systematic literature review on language assessment effect in language test proven the importance of the field in language assessment especially in the classroom learning process. as impact of classroom-based language assessment (cbla) is context-dependent, ha (2019) suggested future study should be undertaken in distinct contexts in order to completely understand how assessment operates and produces beneficial effects on 78 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj learning and teaching (afl). thus, reviewing the impact of cbla and looking at how it contributes to the way teaching conducted and how students learn would fill this demand. in addition, cheng et al. (2015) and ha (2019) contended that findings on the implications and effect of classroom-based teacher-led formative tests are only beginning to appear. based on the previous study, implication that existing assessment and review methods are largely large-scale and high-stakes in nature. thus, future studies are proposed to continue to use testing to drive curriculum, and can thoroughly understand how language assessment works and produces beneficial results on learning. while the impact of classroom assessment on student performance has been recognized (perrone & college, 2011; stoynoff, 2012; wach, 2012), few comprehensive literature review studies have specifically explored how classroom evaluations could be used to support the students’ learning attitude, comprehension of language points, and teaching practice. addressing this obvious constraint, the present study investigated the effect of a classroom assessment on students and teachers. this systematic review would give attention to the results of empirical studies in investigating the effect of cbla as the continuation of the previous review; on student learning attitude and motivation, teachers’ assessment practice in higher education context. finally, it focuses whether most of cbla considers both afl and aol. cbla is chosen in this review because it is the most used term in the context of language assessment. systematic review framework and methodology this study is largely focused on an analysis of cbla in the past ten years; start from 2011 to 2020. the review issue is formulated by referring to prisma framework to formulate eligibility criteria in systematic reviews model. considering the model, the formulated systematic analysis question is posed here: "how are the current language assessment practices in terms of cbla impact on efl teaching and learning in higher education?". the elements of the query were generated into key literature search terms and the appropriate inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of articles. therefore, the trends and patterns of research studies on cbla in efl higher education can be taken from the findings of this analysis in order to respond to the inquiry. fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 79 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a. procedures the purpose of this review was to determine the existing approaches of language assessment in terms of the effect of cbla on efl higher education teaching and learning. the research used the methods described by petticrew and roberts to carry out systematic social science literature reviews (2006). following the formulation of our study questionnaire, the writers defined the key phrases, selected literature sources, and started looking for publications. first, the writer proposed inclusion requirements that formed the basis for the selection of pertinent publications. in order to compare the same information units from each chosen publication, a meticulously constructed data extraction form was used to scan through all of the accessible sources. finally, to meet the study's requirements, the findings from publications that had been assessed to be of reasonable quality were combined. b. databases and search terms five databases, namely from the education resources information centre [eric], web of science, scopus, psychinfo and picarta used the same search words. initial search words included 'efl assessment' and 'language classroom assessment impact/effect' as found in a thesaurus and/or terminology used in other similar publications, 'assessment for learning' and identical terms. the search string was added to the term 'higher education' and formative assessment to narrow down the findings of cbla-related publications. the word "classroom" and related words were added to the search string to limit the search. all the retrieved articles were exported to excel, where the inclusion criteria were used to make a systematic selection. c. inclusion criteria and data extraction the writers formulated the following inclusion criteria to arrive at a valid set of publications: 1) the articles were published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, and it did not include books, book chapters, papers, and conference proceedings, as the consistency of these publications is more difficult to determine. 2) the studies published on the findings of the research, not include theoretical articles. 3) the study was carried out in higher education. 4) in classroom practice, the research explored impact of assessment on learners and teachers. 5 the research centered (at least partly) on the effect of assessment to teachers and learners. petticrew & roberts's (2006) data extraction form has been tested and altered several times to guarantee the accuracy and usefulness of data 80 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj extraction. the following parts were included in the final data extraction form: a) information on the authors, such as their names and countries of origin; b) research questions and methods; c) sample size; such as number of schools, instructors and students; d) cbla approaches, such as specifications aol, asl, and/or afl; and e) results, such as evidence of the teacher's role. d. search and selection result the investigation is limited to search the research in the past ten years (2011-2020). this period is chosen to see how the studies' concern on cbla is still getting much respect. the growing interest in the effect of assessment research on applied linguistics and, in particular, on language testing has been fueled this time around. however, various terminologies on cbla were included for the purpose of searching relevant articles in the online databases before further eliminating articles that do not fit the specified criteria. two types of results of cbla studies are discovered according to their publication formats: research paper (including journal articles, book chapters, and research monographs) and review papers on this topic. however, for research, the writer only reviewed all scholarly journals and databases. studies started looking in two famous journals: language testing and language assessment quarterly. these journals were picked because they focus exclusively on high-quality research in the field of language assessment. it was then extended into applied linguistics and language learning papers in order to localize the research. the extended quest included journals including tesol quarterly, applied linguistics, and system. in addition, google scholar was also the used search engine to find relevant articles followed by specifying the articles from highly reputable journals, i.e., language assessment quarterly journal, modern language journal etc. initially, searching for articles from web of science, language assessment quarterly journal was chosen. using the keywords classroom-based english language assessment and without limiting the study's year, 416 articles were found in the journal. from those articles, the writer only got two articles that mainly discussed cbla. furthermore, the google scholar search engine was used to obtain more comprehensive sources and avoid missing the relevant articles from another high reputable journal. typing "classroom-based language assessment in efl higher education," 16.900 articles were found. accordingly, returning to use time limitation from 2011 to 2020 and additional keywords assessment for learning and learning assessment, the writer, found 276 articles. 161 findings were defined on the basis of data extraction, then this number was narrowed down by identifying fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 81 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the most important papers applicable to the study issue that were available in full text, screened for validity using the inclusion criterion. 117 articles were either considered to be of poor quality or lacked too much knowledge from the portion of the system to determine the study's quality. such journals have been omitted from the selection. after making the limitation only reports, not books, from the trusted journal and relevant to the scope, the writer took the remaining 44 articles focusing on cbla in efl higher education in this review. based on a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the literature on classroom-based language assessment, the proposed framework has been established. the writers studied classroom language assessment practices in efl contexts published in peer-reviewed journal publications and examined them thematically in order to situate the process in the efl setting (garner & ragland, 2015; guest et al., 2012). qualitative meta-analysis was subsequently extended (schreiber et al., 1997; timulak, 2009) in our effort to add to practice analysis to the current awareness and ideas of cbla. findings and discussion on the basis of the thematic study and meta-analysis of english language assessment practices in higher education settings in the efl classroom (cbla), three themes were found. it was also observed that not all research used a clear context which, in some cases, interchangeably induced the use of the term language evaluation effect with other words such as washback. the discussion on the impact of cbla on the learners and teachers includes three categories, first, how students’ perception on the cbla. second, the students’ motivation in so called cbla offline or online and their language achievement. and the third, teachers’ assessment literacy and practice. all of the categories are closely related to the term assessment for learning (afl) and assessment as learning (aal). a. cbla and students’ perception learners are potentially the most impacted by the assessment of all stakeholders. the effect on learners, though, is most likely influenced by the effects of the test, creators of textbooks, and classrooms. the test takers would be affected by planning for and taking the test, as well as the subsequent effects. it may be contrary to the result of experiments and test improvements. an example of an analysis conducted by gan et al. (2017) found that 82 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interactive-informal performance assessment and student self-assessment were the strongest predictors of the intrinsic motivation and optimistic attitudes of learners towards the efl course. although language learners may be the stakeholders most impacted by the language assessment, studies have concentrated more on researching the experiences and behaviors of learners, with a few observational studies detailing the viewpoint of learners’ behavior correlated with preand post-test effect. results are contradictory about the impact of exam planning on student test scores. by inspiration, interpretation and comprehension of the test, and previous interactions, the impact on learners tend to be mediated more internally. regarding this thesis, four articles were to be reviewed to know how students’ perception on cbla. however, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature. basically, students have positive perceptions on the existence of cbla and how it effects on their learning. these studies ascertain how learners can be open toward the presence of cbla (agcam & babanoglu, 2016; galikyan et al., 2019; wallace, 2018; suryoputro & akip, 2016). the importance of selfand peer assessment (matsuno, 2017), the role of diagnostic (alderson et al., 2014) or dynamic (e.g., poehner, 2014) evaluation in facilitating teaching and learning, and technology role in learning and evaluation have been explored in studies focusing more on learners (mohamadi, 2018; spivey & mcmillan, 2014). finally, using evidence from two foreign language classes, hill (2017) proposed a technique of cbla process study that addressed issues linked to instructors, such as what teachers do, what teachers aspire for, and what principles or standards they employ. interestingly, teachers looked at how students view language acquisition and evaluation from their perspective. an interesting comment in agcam & babanoglu (2016) was an example how afl works; "if our growth was not evaluated, i would simply not try to learn english or study it outside the classroom” (p.73). the study discovered that learners believe testing and assessment are appropriate for language instruction and place a premium on listening and speaking over other language skills, indicating that they intend to use the language primarily to communicate with those with whom they do not share a mother tongue. additionally, this study recommended that efl educators expand the variety of question forms that are likely to develop students' cognitive abilities and make learning more meaningful and enduring. suryoputro & akip (2016) indicate, not differently from agcam & babanoglu (2016), that efl learners viewed portfolio evaluation as a 'novel' approach for evaluating their reading fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 83 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and a helpful learning tool; thus, they used portfolio evaluation for potential guidance for teaching and learning. moreover, wallace (2018) examines students’ perceptions on the fairness and justice in l2 classroom assessment. the findings provide useful insight into how learners may have viewed the fairness of their classroom test. an assessment is deemed fair from the classroom justice literature if learners interpret 1) the methods used in the test to be equitable for all test takers, 2) the score to equally reflect the success of the learners, 3) the contact with the language teacher to be polite, and 4) the test and score details to be timely. the findings suggest that during a single test administration, language learners in this sample thought that they were treated equally by their language teacher. the fairest element of the aspects of classroom justice that the students focused on was the way their respective teachers dealt with them during their test administration (interactional fairness). in this case, this could be a welcome outcome for language instructors, since expectations of unequal or unfair treatment of students by teachers in other cases have been correlated with perceptions of the instructor's lower reputation. for instance, chory (2007) revealed how students felt they were handled poorly by their teacher, they viewed him as being of low integrity, character, and empathy. the author indicated that it is important to handle learners in a polite and reasonable manner to prevent the risk of certain derogatory views of the teacher and, by implication, the instructional program. classroom teachers themselves, who have established faith and consideration during the learning process (including evaluation) as a significant criterion for fair classroom assessment, further support this advice (tierney, 2014). finally, the review on this theme has revealed that learners is the best resource to evaluate how teachers provide appropriate cbla for their learning experience. b. cbla, students’ learning motivation and achievement 17 articles found discussing how cbla give impact on students’ motivation and students achievements. aspects of the classroom assessment environment are closely correlated with the motivation and accomplishment of student learning (brookhart, 1997). teachers who make evaluation decisions, including styles or formats of evaluation, determining evaluation purposes, assigning evaluation assignments, assessing success and giving input, and measuring student learning results, largely build the classroom evaluation environment (hao & johnson, 2013). brookhart (1997) suggested that classroom assessments should motivate students to learn more, work harder, 84 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and have a greater sense of self-efficacy. they should also boost students' involvement by lowering anxiety. this implies that students' conceptions of the function of evaluation, their abilities to conduct it, and the motives for performing it may vary. as a result, classroom assessment is regarded to form the foundation for students' expectations of what is important to learn and how learning efforts should be directed (liu & xu, 2017). the brookhart paradigm has gained support from a variety of scientific studies. research findings of cbla effects on students’ motivation are mixed. some studies show positive effects of language tests on motivation on most students (gan et al., 2017, 2019; khalil, 2016; moser, 2017). the first study conducted by gan et al. (2019) found that, while teacher-controlled performance-oriented assessment was the most frequently used type of assessment in the efl classroom, interactive-informal teacher-student evaluation and student self-assessment were the best predictors of students' intrinsic motivation and optimistic attitudes toward the efl course. as a result, not all methods of classroom assessment were equally compelling. pan & newfields (2012) discovered that tests had a negligible effect on students' motivation. however, his research demonstrated that motivation was not examined in terms of degree but rather the type, or more precisely, motives for learning english. a theory notes that practices of language classroom assessment are closely related to the learning motivation of students, and various practices of classroom assessment forecast the learning motivation to a different degree. furthermore, cbla brings positive impact on students achievement in some skills, such as english language learners’ oral performance (kermad & kang, 2019, muñoz & álvarez, 2010). cbla impact on students' writing ability in portfolio-based classroom (lam, 2016; lee et al., 2019; lee & coniam, 2013). and, how cbla influences students’ second language acquisition (perrone, 2011). lee et al. (2019) used data obtained from interviews with two involved teachers and six chosen students, as well as classroom observations. the results indicate that the very first effort by the teachers to bring assessment for learning (afl) into effect gained advantages for themselves and the students. interestingly, perrone (2011) found that the position of the assessment of the classroom had a distinct effect on how the two students viewed the new learning level, affecting the consistency and speed at which the new form of target language was processed. the study findings found that there were distinct differences in student learning at the level of the learners. in addition, perrone (2011) asserted that, however, few fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 85 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj longitudinal studies have investigated the influence of a role of classroom assessment on the language acquisition of individual efl learners. the ongoing investigation leads to the field's understanding of how these various tests can be applied in different ways by examining this interaction in order to support particular language learners on their pathways to second language acquisition. as has been mentioned earlier, the format of test influences how students prepare facing the test (winke & lim, 2017). the way tests are conducted also brings impact on the students learning (benettayeb-ouahiani, 2016; han & finkelstein, 2013; spivey & mcmillan, 2014). spivey & mcmillan (2014) stated that online examination can offer some benefits that traditional paper-and-pencil research does not provide. to begin, online assessment enables the test to be completed during flexible training periods. second, online software may be programmed to randomly sequence questions and gather replies to multiple-choice and matching questions. thirdly, it delivers a range of feedback, including a test score, a test score with right answers, and a test score with comprehensive solutions. additionally, where direction is provided, instructors have authority (e.g. immediately, set to a particular date and time after all questions are completed). fifth, preferred online review platforms may be established to offer recommendations as to where the text might assist in answering a question. spivey & mcmillan (2014) also argued that the assessment protocol affected neither test efforts nor course results. the writers, however, considered a clear positive association between the students’ efforts and their course results. in the same way, a research by mohamadi (2018) suggests that an important way to make learning successful is to use stimulating technologies and methods together with suitable appraisal strategies. accordingly, assessments can have a beneficial or negative impact (xu & liu, 2018). when a test is well-designed and accurately assesses what should be examined, a beneficial outcome occurs. meanwhile, ali & hamid (2020); kirkpatrick & gyem (2012) have explored the detrimental effect of efl assessment. negative effects arise for various reasons, including the fact that language teaching is influenced not only by assessment elements but also by a complex of social psychological, political, economic, and data-driven accountability aspects that are incorporated in testing and teaching (ali & hamid, 2020; furaidah et al., 2015). these effects may occur regardless the kind of testing used (e.g., paper-based to online testing settings) (cox et al., 2018). (cox et al., 2018). additionally, comparative assessments of online formative and summative assessment deal with test behavior issues such as test 86 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj confidence, anxiety level, (cassady & gridley, 2005), and students’ participation (han & finkelstein, 2013). the findings imply that efl teachers should be cognizant of the efficacy of appropriate assessment procedures that lead to the finest potential student motivation and learning outcomes. this enables teachers to concentrate on the ideal classroom assessment approaches that enhance students' active involvement, autonomy, and accountability for their learning. teachers should be encouraged to utilize assessment not only as a measure for determining student performance at the completion of a unit, but also as a tool for stimulating students' motivation to learn by immersing them in learning dialogues with one another and with their teachers. additionally, this analysis demonstrates that efl teachers should be better informed about the value of self-evaluation, interactive-informal evaluation, suitable assessment techniques, and in-class diagnostic evaluation in order to assist students in developing self-regulation. c. cbla and efl teachers the review of cbla and efl teachers’ assessment practice leads to three distinction themes; first the teachers’ perception and conception of cbla, second is teachers’ assessment literacy, and the third is the teachers’ cbla practice. 1. teachers’ perception and conception of cbla a large body of literature around efl and l2 teachers’ cognitions and experiences with classroom-based assessment has been gradually building up. it is a requirement for understanding teachers’ perceptions and the (in)effectiveness of cbla in efl classrooms. the teacher framework of classroom assessment is used as an umbrella word to refer to an organized value structure that accepts everything a teacher feels about the meaning and intent of evaluation, including values, ideas, attitudes and preferences (thompson, 1992 in liu & xu, 2017). research investigating the teachers’ perception on cbla could be found having similar result (chen et al., 2013; gan et al., 2017; nasr et al., 2018; oz & atay, 2017). the assessment conceptions and perceptions of teachers are increasingly shaped by their previous experiences of both being evaluated as learners and implementing assessment as teachers. three messages are used in our explanations of the creation and role of conceptions. first, assessment principles for teachers tend to be outside of assessment preparation. there fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 87 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj were no statistically meaningful variations between teachers with varying degrees of assessment preparation experience in the mean scores of teachers’ evaluation. second,' observational apprenticeship' established in teachers' own schooling experiences would have a major effect on their attitudes towards assessment. third, teacher assessment perceptions appear to be an inextricable aspect of teacher teaching and learning conceptions, both of which are influenced by one's epistemological values and views of learning (brown, 2004). conducting a qualitative study, nasr et al. (2018) disclosed that the majority of efl teachers considered the use of evaluation as helpful and effective. however, in classroom studies, minor differences were noticed in terms of tracking procedures for assessment. in comparison, the perceived supervision and perceived scaffolding of appraisal for instructional activities by efl teachers was not substantially different in terms of their years of teaching experience, academic degree, and teaching ability levels. nasr's analysis is in line with oz & atay (2017), which also revealed that there is not much correlation between the interpretation of knowledge and assessment. such studies offer insights into the promotion of assessment for learning (afl) culture among efl teachers. it also has major consequences for teacher educators and scholars to investigate innovative methods of incorporating teaching appraisal into teaching as a method of maximizing student performance. their assessment conceptions, however, need to be considered "as an indispensable starting point for any further professional development on the subject" (remesal, 2011), p. 474). gan et al. (2017) point to the value of successful professional growth that is important to the acquisition of the opportunity to give positive guidance and encourage the students’ active participation in learning and assessment. 2. teachers’ assessment literacy as the assessment process is embedded in classroom experience, questions and other educational practices, teachers, on the one hand, need to facilitate and foster productive classroom interactions and, on the other hand, establish assessment-embedded classroom activities and assignments. teachers need to ensure that these practices are accurate in order to use evidence generated by such a framework for their own understanding of student learning and decision-making. relatedly, 19 articles were found to have discussed the teachers’ assessment literacy (tal), teachers’ perception toward cbla and teachers’ practice in cbla. tal deals with how efl teachers’ knowledge on the assessment. language teacher assessment literacy discussion 88 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj has continued to concentrate on the more planned and formal forms of assessment (elshawa et al., 2017; levi & inbar-lourie, 2020; ölmezer-öztürk, 2018; thirakunkovit, 2019; zulaiha et al., 2020). concomitantly, cbla is inseparable from teachers’ assessment literacy. if the teachers do not have enough knowledge to carry out a proper assessment, it may give a bad impact on student outcomes. it could be that students' abilities are measured in inappropriate ways. the importance of efl teachers’ assessment literacy has been studied by some scholars, starting from giraldo (2018); hill (2017); levi & inbar-lourie (2020); nimehchisalem & bhatti (2019); oz & atay (2017); tavassoli & farhady (2018); thirakunkovit (2019); and zulaiha et al. (2020). these studies focused on how teachers combine assessment knowledge and teachers’ assessment practice. efl teachers have tried to properly apply classroom-based language assessment principles. hill (2017) for instance, revealed that teachers tend not to fulfil the cbla principles due to time constraints and the large number of burdens in the syllabus that must be fulfilled in one period. nimehchisalem & bhatti (2019) added that teachers try their best to apply their knowledge, but there are reasons for it to be done imperfectly. furthermore, oz & atay (2017) divulged that, while most teachers are familiar with simple classroom assessment, there is a disparity between performance comprehension and contemplation in the classroom when it comes to classroom experience. these findings offer a need of teachers’ language assessment professional development to support their assessment practice. research problems often raised is whether teachers differentiate their assessment between assessment for learning (afl) and assessment as learning (aal) from the assessment of learning aol. referring to various survey results, and the results are relieving, it turns out that efl teachers consciously emphasize the occurrence of afl rather than the aol. this is proven by chen (2020) when he conducted the contrastive analysis between the use of afl and aol. using different research method, ashraf & zolfaghari (2018) revealed that teachers’ reflection on their assessment practice was based on their assessment literacy. liu & xu’s (2017) thesis is the first to analyze the standard of assessment courses among the small number of review studies (ha, 2019; chen 2013). they measure different course characteristic variables (e.g., instructors, content, and students). it is found that while the language evaluation courses sufficiently addressed important elements of language testing philosophy and application, instructional and psychological fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 89 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj measurement and pupil classroom practice paid far less attention to them. while this research somehow ensured the consistency of language assessment courses from the viewpoint of educators, it is not yet understood if language teachers are adequately literate in assessment to cope with problems emerging from the experience of classroom evaluation. despite these major contributions, more methodological research are desperately required to explore the aspects of teachers’ assessment literacy, including the seven competency criteria prescribed by the criteria for teacher competence in student educational achievement (hereinafter the standards) (aft, ncme, & nea, 1990 in liu & xu, 2017) they are: 1). in choosing assessment approaches suitable for educational decisions, teachers should be qualified. 2). in designing assessment approaches useful for educational decisions, teachers should be qualified. 3). teachers should be experienced in conducting, scoring, and interpreting the effects of both externally produced and appraisal processes produced by teachers. 4). when making decisions about specific students, preparing instruction, designing curriculum, and school development, teachers should be trained using test outcomes. 5). in designing valid grading processes, teachers should be qualified. 6). in transmitting test outcomes, parents, other lay audiences, and other educators, teachers should be professional. 7). teachers should be able to recognize unethical, immoral, and improper methods of assessment and the use of information from assessment. 3. teachers’ cbla practice the authors established in this review that teachers are aware of what constitutes excellent assessment, that they have their own assessment criteria, and that they understand how to implement them. clearly, they are not passive recipients but but active practitioners (gonen & akbarov, 2015). related to cbla practice, a large body of empirical studies have been conducted (barnes, 2017; benettayeb-ouahiani, 2016; chen et al., 2013; chong, 2018; dann, 2014; fives & barnes, 2020; gonen & akbarov, 2015; noori et al., 2017; wach, 2012; l. wang, 2020; x. wang, 2017). as arg 90 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (assessment reform group, 2002) mentioned 10 principles in assessment for learning, the study of gonen & akbarov (2015) do not confirm this application of the principles. the findings of the questionnaire revealed that the concepts were not applied perfectly. throughout the report, the teachers stated that due to the institution's central grading method, intensive syllabuses to be completed in a short period, and the educational experiences of students they took from the primary and secondary school education systems, they did not have a chance to bring their values into effect in some cases. moreover, zulaiha et al. (2020) demonstrated that teachers had good understanding of the concepts of assessment and adapted such knowledge to work in the classroom. however, the gap between the expertise of teachers and its application in classroom activities has been established, especially in the phases of implementation and monitoring. some issues impacted the teachers’ assessment practice including local or school policies, the utilization of non-achievement indicators (e.g., attendance and attitudes of students), and the role of parents in their children's education. in zulaiha et al.’s context, the results lead to a deeper understanding of the teachers’ assessment literacy as they make sense and communicate with assessment resources and related stakeholders. in addition, gan et al. (2017) indicated a strong positive association between the teachers’ afl experience and their propensity to follow an approach of achieving. results also showed that a surface approach to learning was negatively associated with afl experience, indicating that the more afl characteristics integrated into classroom teaching and assessment processes in high education setting, the less likely students are to follow a surface approach to learning. this research further offers proof of the possible variations related to different academic settings in the responses of students to afl. furthermore, turner & purpura (2015) have suggested a multidimensional approach to cbla, entitled learning-oriented assessment (loa), in which the goal is to consider the dynamics of how assessment (e.g., evaluations, findings, class interactions, naturalistic talking-interaction, peer reviews, self-assessment, initiatives, portfolios, performative assessments) can be interpreted. importantly, this approach considers that assessment is multifaceted in universities, containing not only several different aspects (e.g., context) that apply to the learning experience, but also many agents (e.g., students, teachers, peers, computers). in this respect, turner and purpura shift towards an approach that characterizes assessment, learning, and teaching, though separate, as fundamentally interconnected, without dichotomous fitriyah, i., & widiati, u., a systematic literature review on the impact of efl 91 classroom-based language assessment https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj representations of cbla as formative/summative or aol/afl. seven critical interconnecting dimensions of the cbla are described (purpura, 2016). this includes: the relational dimension (i.e., the social, cultural or intellectual context of learning), the dimension of elicitation (i.e., the process used to evoke performance), the dimension of ability, the dimension of cognition or understanding (i.e., the socio-cognitive features underlying success and learning), the dimension of intimacy (i.e., the personality and interpersonal arrangements involved). the writers concur with turner and purpura (2015) that a prerequisite for cbla and afl to be successfully implemented is the teachers’ assessment practice which relies on their assessment literacy. from these empirical studies on cbla and afl teacher practice, some inferences may be made. it is, first of all, dynamic and situated. thus, without a contextual interpretation of such practice, it is not easy to judge the consistency of the cbla practice of an instructor. second, even though the teachers already have sufficient knowledge of assessment, in practice, limitations are often found. and third, the teachers need to reflect on the assessments that have been carried out. awareness of reflection and developing the ability to conduct assessments are an obligation for teachers. based on this systematic review, researchers have conducted studies showing how the importance of cbla has a major influence on the assessment and learning process. in addition, the teacher's philosophical perceptions and concepts also play an important role in the formation of a prolific assessment process. in addition, research on cbla has also been shown to have a major impact on students' motivation to learn a language; cbla generally refers to afl rather than aol. in short, cbla generally, both from perspective and practice, has consequences for teachers to continue improving their assessment skills and literacy. this review is also a plea for a broader interpretation of cbla from a broader viewpoint. first, though cbla is a global movement and is invariably supported by many western countries, more empirical research and discussion are required for its viability in local cultural contexts (e.g., indonesia). second, considering the crucial role of teachers in cbla implementation, future studies need to create ties between the cbla practice and the teachers’ assessment literacy. third, taking into account the role of social environments in influencing cbla, it has been influenced by institutional laws, power ties between various players (e.g., managers, teachers, students, etc.), and school culture. studies 92 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 74 – 100 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj with an ethnographic attitude and listen to various voices would be more helpful to explore the essence of the issue. conclusion this study questions the application of cbla in higher educational settings on the basis of an overview of cbla studies in english language classrooms. it claims that when implementing and adapting cbla, the difficulty of the evaluation of contextual problems at the macro-, mesoand micro-levels needs to be taken into account. previous research shows that a common approach that encourages afl in universities is to design appraisal activities that contribute to high-quality learning and that students find meaningful because these tasks give them a feeling that they are learning something significant for their long-term personal growth. as evidenced by the literatures provided by scholars, it is found that students’ expectation and motivation in cbla, teachers’ perceptions and appraisal principles, teachers’ cbla experience, and teachers’ assessment literacy show that successful cbla implementation could be accomplished in their hearts and minds through teacher improvements to evaluation. in promoting the transition of teachers, support from policy makers, teachers, educators, and institutional administrators is equally important. some paths are therefore proposed for potential cbla studies. references abbad, m., morris, d., & nahlik, c. de. 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(2020). an investigation into efl teachers’ assessment literacy: indonesian teachers’ perceptions and classroom practice. european journal of contemporary education, 9(1), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2020.1.189 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia pre-service teachers’ perception and vision about tpack and its implementation arrizalu arsa ringotama english education department, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia email: arrizaluarsaringotama1@gmail.com received: 07-01-2020 accepted: 29-02-2020 published: 08-06-2020 pre-service teachers’ perception and vision about tpack and its implementation arrizalu arsa ringotama arrizaluarsaringotama1@gmail.com english education department, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia abstract: the need for educators to integrate the use of technology in the classroom is growing for the past few years. however, previous studies indicated that the use of information and communications technology (ict) is still at a low level of what the education program requires. furthermore, it seems that in the field of language education, there is limited research focusing on pre service teachers (pts). therefore, to address this gap, this paper aims at investigating how the pre service teacher's understanding of the tpack principle and how they will apply tpack in their classroom. this mix-method study is using tpack questionnaire and interview through a random sampling of 68 pre-service teachers of english education department of uns. furthermore, the results revealed that most of the participants understood the concept of tpack well, and they also had various ways to apply it in their classroom. it is expected that knowing pre service teachers' (pts) perceptions about tpack in teaching and learning process that can be beneficial for both english education department programs and pts, such as understanding the pts' teaching abilities, development of the use of technology in teaching by pre service teachers in order to improve teacher department programs itself to develop the teaching practice with the support of technology. in addition, this study has implications for experts interested in the development and assessment of pre service teachers' understanding of teaching with technology. key words: tpack, pre-service teachers, elt, technology in education abstrak: kebutuhan para pendidik untuk dapat mengintegrasikan penggunaan teknologi di kelas semakin berkembang selama beberapa tahun terakhir. namun, penelitian sebelumnya menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi (tik) masih pada tingkatan yang ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 143 and its implication rendah dari apa yang dibutuhkan oleh program pendidikan. lebih lanjut, tampaknya di dalam bidang pendidikan bahasa, ada penelitian terbatas yang berfokus pada guru pra-jabatan (pts). oleh karena itu, untuk mengatasi kesenjangan ini, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki bagaimana pemahaman guru tentang prinsip tpack dan bagaimana mereka akan menerapkan tpack di kelas mereka. metode penelitian campuran yang dipakai menggunakan kuesioner tpack dan wawancara melalui pengambilan sampel acak dari 68 guru dari, program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris uns. lebih lanjut, hasil penelitian mengungkapkan bahwa sebagian besar peserta memahami konsep tpack dengan baik, dan mereka juga memiliki berbagai cara untuk menerapkannya di kelas mereka. para calon guru diharapkan untuk mengetahui persepsi guru tentang tpack dalam proses belajar mengajar yang dapat bermanfaat baik bagi program program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris maupun pts, seperti memahami kemampuan mengajar pts, pengembangan penggunaan teknologi dalam pengajaran oleh guru dalam rangka meningkatkan program departemen asal guru itu sendiri untuk mengembangkan praktik pengajaran dengan dukungan teknologi. selain itu, penelitian ini memiliki implikasi bagi para ahli yang tertarik dalam pengembangan dan penilaian pemahaman guru pra-jabatan tentang pengajaran dengan teknologi. kata kunci: tpack, guru pra-jabatan, elt, teknologi dalam pendidikan introduction nowadays, the use of information and communication technology (ict) has been widely considered, as the media of teaching and learning process since the internet spread. today's pre-service teachers are regarded as the up-to-date learners because they use technology every day and make them the most capable users of the technology itself and ready to use the ict in their classroom. although many social media such as facebook, whatsapp messenger, youtube, schoology and many advanced technologies have become invisible from pre-service teachers' (pts) daily lives (szeto, cheng & hong, 2016), the use of ict in the classroom, however, is still on the low level of what educational program expects. professional teachers not only need to manage content and pedagogical knowledge like informed by shulman (1986, 1987) but also related technological expertise to achieve a broader collection of teaching plans for student's learning requirements in the teaching and learning process (ottenbreit-leftwich, glazewski, newby, & ertmer, 2010) is needed, too. 144 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 previous research conducted by szeto, et al. (2017) which aimed to examine pre-service teachers' integration of technology in teaching various subject domains shows that using technology in teaching and learning process seems to be very popular among multiple subject teachers. most pre-service teachers tended to use technology in teaching. the technique that is often used is media online sources such as e-books and other digital resources. students tend to love youtube as one of the technologies they use because they can open it at home later. similar studies conducted by turgut (2017) describes the condition of self-perceived tpack development of pts enrolled in four-year elt program through cross-sectional design revealed the fact that some participants reported that during their practicum and school visits, the practicum teachers are rarely using technology in their lessons and many of their teachers are lacking understanding about how to use technology in teaching. recently, nazari, nafissi, estaji, & marandi (2019) show that there are some differences in the understanding of technology between novice efl teachers and experienced efl teachers. qualified teachers have on the one hand, considerable knowledge of pk and pck on how to develop their pedagogical and content knowledge for their professional development. still, they lack technical expertise, that they need a professional development course tailored to their needs for technology integration. on the other hand, novice teachers are significantly having higher scores in terms of tk, tck, tpk, and tpack. all these three studies show that tpack is a crucial thing to develop. however, this kind of research, that reveals the understanding of tpack of the pre-service teachers is still practically rarely conducted in indonesia. empirically, most studies of tpack is only targeting the in-service teachers' knowledge of tpack. therefore, this study is purposed to reveal the tpack understanding of pre-service teachers and reveal the investigation of how they apply tpack on their classroom. the research data is taken by a survey organized by the researchers through collecting data from the sample group of representative participants in the population, which is followed by interviews with three randomly selected participants. generally, this study reveals that most of the participants understand well about the concept of tpack as well as the opportunities and its challenges of tpack application in the classroom. the theoretical and pedagogical use of this research will be discussed further. based on the purpose of the study, the following research questions are: ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 145 and its implication 1. what are pre service teacher’s perceptions about the concept of tpack? 2. how do pre service teachers implement tpack inside their classroom? literature review the advanced development of technology nowadays has brought the world to the better view to gain information and knowledge. this led to the development of the use of technology in the education ecosystem. shulman (1986) stated that pedagogical content knowledge concentrates on the development of the understanding of how students learn the specific subject matter. while mishra and koehler (2006) add the technology aspect in which shulman's idea of pedagogical content knowledge (pck), thus, mishra and koehler (2006) complete the gap of pck adding the technology and stated that technology and cannot be separated from pck. figure 1: pedagogical and content knowledge (shulman, 1986) 146 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 in 1986, shulman established a model (see figure 1) that suggests that effective educators combine content knowledge into their instruction through pedagogical expertise (tallvid, lundin, & lindström, 2012). shulman provides, the most useful ways to reflect such concepts, the strongest analogies, images, illustrations, descriptions and presentations, for the most frequently taught topics in his profession. simply said, the model is representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others as a structure for teaching awareness offered by teachers (shulman, 1986, p. 9). in 2006, mishra and koehler introduced the technical skill aspect and assumed that different types of instructor expertise could be retrieved from the integration of technology, pedagogy and content. these associated origins of knowledge are the understanding of pedagogical material (pck), knowledge of technical content (tck), pedagogical knowledge of technology (tpk), and knowledge of digital educational content (tpa), along with technological know-how (tk), pedagogical knowledge (pk), and material knowledge (ck) (koh, chai, & lee, 2015). such seven forms of knowledge underpin the tpack system. those as mentioned above are the seven tpack structures (mishra & koehler, 2006). the seven constructs of tpack (mishra & koehler, 2006) are as displayed in figure 2 consists of: 1. ck: knowledge of subject matter/content 2. pk: knowledge of instructional strategies and methods 3. tk: knowledge of using technology utensils 4. pck: knowledge of applying relevant instructional strategies and techniques to explain the content of the subject 5. tpk: knowledge of applying technology to engage instructional strategies 6. tck: knowledge of presenting subject content with technology. 7. tpack: knowledge of facilitating the learning of specific subject matter to students by relevant pedagogy and technology. there is still a lack of technological mastery to support the teaching and learning process. to fix the problem, mishra & koehler (2006) introduce the new section of pck with technological knowledge (tk). technological knowledge (tk), which is the basics of technology that can be used to assist learning (malik, rohendy, & widiaty, 2019). this statement in line with the ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 147 and its implication concept of mishra and koehler (2006) that is agreeing all three forms of proficiency (pck) that are required in teaching, but they emphasize the importance of increasing the technological resources. figure 2: the tpack framework (mishra & koehler, 2006) technological information is related to innovation and its use in learning (tallvid et al., 2012). the tpack system offers several resources for studying in the areas of teacher education, professional development for educators and the use of technology by teachers (koehler & mishra, 2009). tpack will develop student learning, inspire educators, families, and make schools more fascinating and useful for learners, providing equal 148 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 opportunities for each learner, and leading to professional improvement for teachers (malik, rohendy, & widiaty, 2019). some numbers of studies have been conducted to examine the creation of tpack by design approach. a survey organized by gill & dalgarno (2017) find out how six australian pre-service teachers' technological pedagogical and content skills (tpack) can be strengthened from a sequence of six semistructured discussions over a four-year teacher training course revealed that all participants had mastered their pedagogy of technology, but in each participant it is different. all participants had a full understanding of technology, and the experience of participants had the most significant impact on the development of tpack. however, in another study conducted by mahdum (2015) who concentrated on investigating tpack mastery of english teacher in pekanbaru, indonesia, showed that tpack understanding of english teachers in pekanbaru is in 'good' category. it mentions that they have been able to integrate ict, content and suitable technique in english language learning. besides that, a study was done by turgut (2017) which examines pre-service teachers' perceived development of tpack skills reveal that the self-report survey's quantitative data analysis showed that senior-level pts self-rated themselves have the highest tpack's subskills. while the qualitative data showed domains-like technology (tpk, tck, tk, and tpack) are considered to be the most advanced in senior grade students, that were led by sophomore year and junior level. in the result, there is no significant characteristic between seniors and sophomores (senior > sophomore > junior). for instance, research was done by nazari et al. (2019) which focused on investigating tpack perception between novice and experienced teachers for their professional development. the data of the study mostly showed a significant difference in their expected tpack between beginner and experienced iranian efl teacher. many studies have been done in the scope of tpack on the pre-service teacher. a survey conducted by nazari, et al., (2019) evaluating the novice and experienced efl teachers' tpack for their professional development resulting in a significant difference in their expected tpack between beginner and experienced iranian efl instructors. novice efl teachers are primarily more qualified in their knowledge of technology, knowledge of software information, knowledge of technology pedagogy and tpack, but less specialized in their knowledge of pedagogy and material. experienced efl educators, on the other hand, had a greater understanding of pedagogy and pedagogical substance and were less qualified in their technological ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 149 and its implication knowledge (tk) and different information bodies relative to novice efl teachers. the same study is conducted by fathi et al. (2019) who see from the perspective of efl students about their teachers' tpack stated that many efl students considered their efl teachers to be excellent in four components of tpack, which includes technological knowledge (tk), pedagogical knowledge (pk), content knowledge (ck) and pedagogical content knowledge (pck). still, teachers are perceived to be comparatively less qualified in the other components such as technological content knowledge (tck), technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk), and tpack. however, the lack of support from the school itself could choke teachers' tpack understanding as stated by hsu (2016) in his research about examining efl teachers' technological pedagogical content knowledge and the adoption of mobile-assisted language learning. furthermore, teachers' tpack should be supported by the availability of technology in the school. in investigating the teacher's perception of tpack, many researchers use various methods in their papers. a research conducted by szeto & cheng (2017) used multiple sources, including semi-structured interviews, observation in the classroom, and relevant resources such as the subject curriculum and different subject lesson plans. a previous study was also done by muoza et al., (2014) using tpack survey and performance assessment. on the other hand, gill & dalgarno (2017) conducted a qualitative research of tpack using a collective case study to gain insight into the design of tpack during teacher training. another study was done by nazari, et al., (2019) that used the tpack survey and follow-up interview to gain the data of their mixed-method study. in the same year, a research conducted by fathi & yousefifard (2019) used tpack scale questionnaire to assess the iranian efl student's perspectives on the tpack of their teachers. however, by considering the many previous studies where most of them used interview and tpack questionnaire to collect the data, this mixed-method research paper used interviews and questionnaires to collect the data from the participants. method a. participants and research setting this study is aimed to investigate the pre-service teachers' understanding of tpack and to examine how they apply tpack in their classroom. to 150 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 achieve this purpose, the form of tpack questionnaire was designed, and a survey of pre-service teacher's perception of tpack was conducted to collect the data. this mixed-methods research's data was collected from 68 pre-service teachers enrolled in the english education department of uns who are in the age range of 20-22 years old. b. instruments 1. tpack questionnaire tpack instruments measures seven factors. they were tk, ck, pk, pck, tck, tpk, and tpack. the tpack-efl survey included a total of 14 items: 2 tk items, 2 ck items, 2 pk items, 2 pack items, 2 tck items, 2 tpk items, and 2 tpack items. however, this study used the five-point scale. 2. interview the themes of the interview were on efl pre-service teachers' tpack understanding and how they implement tpack in their classroom. for the appropriate time to conduct face-to-face interviews, three supposed examples of each interviewee were handled for their ease. this took 15–20 minutes for each talk. with the permission of the participants, the interviewee's answers were recorded using the phone recorder to prevent data loss. findings and discussion a. pre-service teacher’s perception about the concept of tpack this study reveals the tpack understanding of pre-service teachers and investigates how they apply tpack in their classroom. data is taken by a survey organized by the researchers through collecting data from questionnaire to the population, followed by interviews with three randomly selected participants. however, from 68 participants, the inquiry is only filled by 21 participants with a 20-22 years old age range. 1. technological knowledge (tk) looking at chart 1, it is found that most of the participants think that there is a need to integrate technology in teaching and learning program. chart 1: ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 151 and its implication pre-service teachers’ perception about technological knowledge as many as 61.9% of participants agree that technology in educational purposes is essential, 33.3% of them strongly agrees, and only 4.8% participants are neutral about it. this data indicates that there is a need for technology to be implemented in the classroom, and no participants assumed that technology is not for the teaching and learning process. from another question in the questionnaire, 57.1% of participants are quite able to use the technological basic technological terms (e.g. operating system, wireless connection, virtual memory, etc.) appropriately. this implies that pre service teachers with experienced tpack experience have been effective in their pre-service teacher education program which in turn gives them the necessary skills and able to know how technology is applied in their practical training (öz, 2015). from the three participants i interviewed, mostly they said that there is a need to integrate technology during teaching and learning program because in this global era, the need of integrating technology is increasing continuously. 2. content knowledge (ck) chart 2 showed that most of the efl pre-service teachers are able to understand texts written in english. as many as 47.6% of them stated that they entirely comprehend about english text and 52.4% of the participants well-understood the text in english. based on the chart given, none of the participants are having difficulties in understanding text written in english. another question in the questionnaire stated that 47.6% of participants quite understand the speech of a native speaker. this leads us to the level of understanding english text of pre service teacher is quite good. 152 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 chart 2: pre-service teachers’ perception about content knowledge from the interviewee, most of them said they can understand the text in english well because they have a right level in english proficiency; including speaking skill, grammar proficiency, listening proficiency, reading ability, vocabulary proficiency, and pronunciation proficiency. 3. pedagogical knowledge (pk) in order to optimize the use of technology in teaching and learning process, there should be a well-designed learning experience for the students. however, chart 3 shows that most of the participants still on the average level of designing a learning experience that is appropriate with the level of students 66.7%. chart 3: pre-service teachers’ perception about pedagogical knowledge ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 153 and its implication there are 6 participants (28.6%) who assumed that they had developed a good learning experience and there is only 1 participant (4.8%) stated that the participant could able to create a well-designed learning experience. it can be said that all participants can develop a learning experience that is appropriate with the level of their students, even though most of the participants are in the average level of improving the learning experience. however, the way these strategies are implemented depends on such an influence (baran, et al., 2019). it requires a greater focus on the quality and variety of implementation approaches of teacher education programs (kay, 2006). when asked about what are their design of the learning experience that is appropriate for their students in internships application by the pre service teacher, having an ice-breaking game or putting humor in their classroom were two of the activities that could melt class atmosphere into an enjoyable one. 4. pedagogical and content knowledge (pck) from the data given above, the chart 4 showed the ability of preservice teacher evaluating their students' learning process. as many as 66.7% of participants stated that they could assess students' learning process, 28.6% of participants are assuming that they are quite able to assess students' learning process and 4.8% of participants believe they can evaluate students learning the process. this data shows that most of the pre-service teachers can assess students' learning process. chart 4: pre-service teachers’ perception about pedagogical and content knowledge there are many ways to assess students' learning processes. still, most of the participants stated that having a discussion after class with their students is 154 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 one of the best ways to conduct learning evaluation. teachers will maintain their personal and professional progress, track their academic growth, understand the needs of their students and evaluate their own decisions in this course (yalın uçar in ozdas, 2018). 5. technological and content knowledge (tck) as we can see from chart 5, the majority of participants is assuming that pre-service teachers can meet students' individual needs by using information technologies. as many as 47.6% of participants stated that they could use technologies to meet students' individual needs, 9.5% of the participants assumed that meeting students' individual needs is not a big problem, and 33.3% of the participants are neutral. however, there are 9.5% of participants that seemed they still have to improve their use of technologies to meet students' individual needs. most of the participants said that using audiovisual and slides media can provide a better understanding of the content to the students in order to meet students' individual needs by using information technologies. some participants said that for the quiz, they usually use schoology and kahoot as their media. chart 5: pre-service teachers’ perception about technological and content knowledge the result is in line with a study stated that throughout english education, ict devices are seen by their significant contribution throughout organizing the learning process in a way that calls for many sensory organs, helps students fulfil their individual needs, lists them, encourages recall, saves time and integrates abstract concepts. in this sense, they are regarded as the ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 155 and its implication main addition to teaching and learning environments (gunuç & babacan, 2019). 6. technological and pedagogical knowledge (tpk) according to the collected data, most of the pre-service teachers can design learning materials by using technology that supports students' language learning (71.4%), where 2 participants stated that it is not a big deal to develop learning materials by using technology (9.5%) and only 19% of the participants informs neutral. thus, it means that almost all of the participants can design learning material by using technology when they are in the internship program. from another question of the questionnaire, most of the participants (66,7%) stated that they could manage the learning environment while using technology in the classroom. chart 6: pre-service teachers’ perception about technological and pedagogical knowledge the result is in line with hiebert et al. in cavanagh (2019) who emphasized that it is vital for pre-service teachers to specify fundamental learning objectives when planning their courses, careful planning lays the foundations on which to construct all other skills. 7. technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (tpack) the data in chart 7 showed that 83.8% of pre-service teachers are quite well in using collaboration tools such as schoology, edmodo, kahoot and many other collaboration tools according to their objectives in teaching. 156 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 chart 7: pre-service teachers’ perception about technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge there are 9.5% of the participants who stated that they still need improvement to use these kinds of collaboration tools and there is only 4.8% (1 participant) that assumed that he uses the collaboration tools with no big deal. the result of this chart reveals that although most of the participants can use collaborative tools in their teaching, there is still a need for improvement for using these tools in classroom teaching. using technology in the classroom has many benefits. this statement is in line with a study that shows a higher exposure to authentic language, access to a broad range of information sources and language variations, opportunities for interaction and communication and a more intensive learner involvement are the main benefits of using technology for language learning (carrió pastor in carrió-pastora & hanna skorczynskab, 2014). b. the implementation of tpack of pre-service teacher inside their classroom to collect qualitative data, an interview of some random participants was conducted. first of all, participants were asked about what is the definition of tpack according to their understanding. interestingly, all of the participants stated different opinions, but tpack is still acceptable. ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 157 and its implication as far as i know, tpack is just like the concept of learning where teachers must master learning material and master how they teach the material for the students with the support of technology. (hakim, december 5, 2019, interview) in my point of view, tpack is a framework in education where it combines the aspect of technology, pedagogy, and the understanding of students about the materials. (arwanto, december 6, 2019, interview) tpack is integrating learning materials with the help of advanced technology. (wibawani, december 12, 2019, interview) from the three participants, we could see that there is a lack of understanding of the concept of tpack. tpack, as stated by mishra and koehler (2006), is a framework in designing new learning models with the evaluation of three main aspects, namely technology, pedagogy and content/material knowledge. the participants were also asked about their perception of the integration of technology in the classroom in this globalization era. most of the participants stated that there is a need to integrate technology in the school to support students' learning process. for example, aah noted that technology is essential in the learning process because of the globalization era. it's crucial because, in this globalization era, most of the segment of life is now integrated into the technology itself especially in education considering many platforms of education is now raising that could be implemented in the classroom. (hakim, december 5, 2019, interview) another participant, ha, has the same opinion about the integration of technology in students' learning. h said that technology is now improving widely, and there is a need to adapt to the era. i think it's important because technology nowadays is rapidly improved and it should be implemented in the classroom (arwanto, december 6, 2019, interview). however, daw, has a different view about using technology in the classroom. she stated that it is not a must for teachers to integrate technology 158 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 in the teaching and learning process because it is sometimes could decrease teachers' interaction with students. no, i think it does not always need to integrate technology in teaching because i prefer to have interaction with my students. the educational platform, such as schoology and kahoot! are not suitable in my class because they decrease the interaction with students. maybe, for some reason, it helps but only for innovate the teaching and learning process (wibawani, december 12, 2019, interview). based on their answers, most of the participants (75%) agreed on the importance of technology in learning. this finding is in line with a study undertaken by chuang et al. (2018) who showed that the students improved in their technological knowledge if their teachers are using technology in their learning process. however, based on one participant, the educational platform based on technology still have the possibility to decrease classroom interaction. the participants were also asked about how they meet students' individual needs using information technologies. aah stated that he used schoology for teaching process most of the students are often playing with their smartphones, so i got an idea to still allowing students to use their phone in class but in purpose to use it for learning using schoology. (hakim, december 5, 2019, interview) ha assumed that he could use whatsapp to collect their students' work, and when using technology, students could reduce the use of paper. one of the examples is when i ask them to make an article for each of the students, and i ask them to send the result in soft file to my email or my whatsapp. furthermore, they can reduce the use of paper and implementing recent technology in education (arwanto, december 6, 2019, interview). daw, however, has her own method in fulfilling students' individual needs. because she seldom used technology, she prefers to have interaction with the students. she assumed that technology is just a tool. ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 159 and its implication i have difficulty in monitoring students by using technology, so i tend to have direct interaction with my students. in my opinion, technology is just a media (wibawani, december 12, 2019, interview). according to the data of the interview, most of the participants (75%) use technology to support students' individual needs. on the other hand, daw assumed that she just needs an interactive classroom activity to fulfil students' individual needs. how they implement technology in their classroom was also asked in this interview session. it finds out that all participants have their way to apply technology in the educational section, especially in the school. ha stated that sometimes materials in the book are still less complete, to cope with the gap of the materials, he provides the materials from the internet, then he put it on the powerpoint slides. if there are materials that less complete in the students' book, later, i will add the materials that are still missing from the book and display it through my slides (arwanto, december 6, 2019, interview). in line with ha, aah answered that he usually used powerpoint and movies as his teaching media in the classroom. he also used schoology but only for slightly using such as giving a quiz to the students i usually use schoology, but only for giving the quiz, giving the material, or even collect students' assignments. and also, i use powerpoint in most of my teaching and learning process because, in my opinion, it helps the teacher to present the material. sometimes, i use movies for teaching (hakim, december 5, 2019, interview). however, daw views technology acts as media for teaching and not for a must in the teaching and learning process. technology acts as media for teaching because each students' needs are different. there are fast learners and slow learners, for the slow learner i prefer to use personal approach (wibawani, december 12, 2019, interview.) based on the participants' answers, technological platforms such as video or even schoology could be the media in implementing technology in the classroom because it gives a new atmosphere to the students. 160 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 i think that teaching without technology feels like something is missing in the teaching and learning process, and it makes the material that i give to them may not be as effective as i use technology. so, without technology, i think the teaching and learning process will be not effective (hakim, december 5, 2019, interview). in my observation, the teaching and learning program in the school i did internship was conducted with the old way, so it's just one-way communication, and the teacher only explain the material using the book for presenting the materials, and it makes students bored without any discussion for the whole lesson time. to cope with the problem, i ask the students to have a discussion with their peers based on the technology (slides or video) (arwanto, december 6, 2019, interview). however, technology still needs to be limited and even possible to teach english without technology to create an active classroom atmosphere as stated by daw with her comparison between indonesian and filipinos (philippines' people) in the classroom. i think that learning english is still possible even with no help of technology, not the same as engineering which needs technology in their learning. in the context of language, technology acts as ease in delivering materials, and it's not >50% of the other teaching design. based on my experience when i was in the philippines for my internship program, the students are lack of technology for education. on the other hand, the teachers in the philippines are more creative to make an interactive classroom. in indonesia, technology education is more advanced than the philippines, but the philippines' teachers are more creative in creating an interactive classroom (wibawani, december 12, 2019, interview). in one of the questions given, in order not to depend too much on technology, he limits the use of technology by 80%-20%. in most of the meeting, i use 80% of the meeting to do traditional face-to-face with my students and 20% of the meeting i use it for the virtual classroom because i must explain the materials, what should they do, and the instruction indirectly face-to-face with my ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 161 and its implication students. on the other hand, i use schoology for the test, and i have to accompany them to monitor their progress and minimize the act of cheating (hakim, december 5, 2019, interview). however, there are some obstacles stated by all of the participants in implementing technology in education. fortunately, in the school where i did my internship program, the school is allowing their students to bring their phone but only for teaching and learning purpose only. if the school is not allowing for students to bring their phones to school, i will use powerpoint slides, or movies (hakim, december 5, 2019, interview). when i give my students the freedom to use their phones in the classroom, they are often abusing the phone to open another application or use their phone, not for the learning process. fortunately, my internship school is allowing their students to bring their phone for learning as long as there is control from the teachers (arwanto, december 6, 2019, interview). in school, the biggest problem for technology is the internet. however, for the experience, i never use technology-based learning because the teacher should be the provider of the materials, not the students (wibawani, december 12, 2019, interview). according to all of the results of the interview, we could see how preservice teachers implement technology in the classroom and what was the obstacle to implementing technology in the classroom. findings revealed that all the participants implement technology in their ways. one person uses schoology and kahoot for the quiz, giving their students the materials, or even conducting a test. the other one uses whatsapp to collect students' work. technology is useful. however, daw stated that technology is not a must in the learning process because it can decrease classroom interaction. there is still lacks study which examines about the disadvantages of the use of technology in the classroom to support daw's argument, and it might be a gap that can be fulfilled by other researchers to complete technological difference in the school. 162 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 142 – 165 conclusion in this study, the data have shown the result of the case of pre-service english language teachers' (pts) perception about tpack and how they implement the concept of tpack in their classroom based on their experiences on their internship program. while early studies primarily focused on what in-service teachers have done, our study focused on the development of pts' 1) perception of tpack and 2) implementation of tpack in their internship program, which is still relatively still lack research done in this segment. while early research focuses on tpack implementation by inservice teachers, this study focuses on the belief and practice of tpack by preservice teachers. this topic is still relatively rare in the literature. thus, this study shed light on what might be the tension and approach these novices teachers used in their classroom. however, while they still found a way to implement technology in their teaching, a gap has risen during the findings, that is, technology could decrease classroom interaction and activeness. additionally, the results also showed how the pre service teachers' perceptions about the definition of tpack and found out the way they implemented technology in their internship program. this result suggests the need, not only to deepen the understanding of the concept of tpack but also the practice of pre service teachers' use of technology in the campus to make the pre service teachers master the integration of technology in their internship program. there is also a need to research the weakness of using technology in classroom teaching. due to various teaching situations and learners’ needs, a more detailed study of pt experiences and how their teaching practices and strategies are needed to be done. it will give us a better view of the kinds of challenges pre service teachers in their application of technology in the classroom and lecturers in charge can immediately develop. it is also essential to study in detail how curriculum redesign should be carried out at college and how at the end of the day colleges will educate students but also making courses much more interesting by using the latest technology. ringotama, a.a.,pre-service teacher’s perception and vision about tpack 163 and its implication references baran, e., canbazoglu, b. s., albayrak, a., & tondeur, j. 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(2017). tracing pre service english language teachers’ perceived tpack in sophomore, junior, and senior levels. cogent education, 4(1), 1368612. microsoft word 9832-6819-09ca-b598 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.2; december 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . the solution of group behavior as a model for improving human resources in the public sector romanda annas amrullah politeknik ilmu pelayaran semarang, indonesia email: romanda@pip-semarang.ac.id received: 02-06-2021 accepted: 12-12-2021 published: 30-12-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the solution of group behavior as a model for improving human resources in the public sector romanda annas amrullah romanda@pip-semarang.ac.id politeknik ilmu pelayaran semarang, indonesia abstract: public sector human resources, more widely known as civil servants (pns) are of particular concern to various ministries and the general public, due to their involvement in political activities, and despicable actions to radicalism activities, civil servants should be able to become role model for the community due to their status as state servants this is based on the rules that apply to the asn code of ethics. unfortunately, this is counterproductive to their function and role as public services. this research aims to find out what causes civil servants easily influenced by radical actions and provide solutions for how to prevent this. this research used descriptive qualitative methods to describe a social phenomenon happening right now. the results showed that the public sector resources involved in political activities committed despicable acts to be exposed to radicalism for providing wrong information as we already know that in 2019 there are at least five asn suspected of being exposed to radicalism. integrating the theory of selective exposure, the theory of identity, and social transmission. this research resulted in the concept of a novel model of isolation group behavior (private selective, internal radicalism prevention for states civil servants or asn with selective information). the application of isolation group behavior can improve human resources in the public sector so they become role models for public society. key words: public hr, radicalism, selective personality, selective exposure abstrak: sumber daya manusia pada sekor public, atau yang lebih dikenal sebagai pns, menjadi perhatian khusus berbagai kementerian dan masyarakat umum kerena keterlibatan mereka dalam kegiatan 248 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 247–259 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj politik, tindakan tercela hingga kegiatan radikalisme. pns harus bisa menjadi panutan bagi masyarakat karena statusnya sebagai abdi negara. sayangnya, hal ini justru kontraproduktif dengan fungsi dan perannya sebagai pelayan masyarakat. penelitian ini bertujuan mencari penyebab apa yang membuat pns mudah terpengaruh tindakan radikalisme dan menberikan solusi bagaimana mencegah hal tersebut terjadi. penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif descriptive dengan mencoba mendeskripsikan fenomena social yang terjadi saat ini. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sumbeer daya manusia pada sector public yang terlibat dalam kegiatan politik melakukan kegiatan tercela hingga terekspos radikallisme karena memberikan informasi yang salah, mengintegrasikan teori pemaparan selektif, teori identitas, dan transmisi sosial. penelitian ini menghasilkan konsep model baru isolation group behaviour (private selective, internal radicalism prevention for states civil apparatus atau asn with selective information). penerapan perilaku isolation group mampu memperbaiki sumber daya manusia di sector publik sehingga dapat menjadi panutan bagi masyarakat. kata kunci: public hr, memahami radikalime, kepribadian selektif, eksposur selektif introduction accessing all information freely in the 4.0 industrial era becomes the reason to strengthen the democratic country. people can access information from various sources. however, it has a negative impact on human resources in the sector. the sources of information easily obtained from electronic media is borderless in terms of content, quality, and correctness. furthermore, the dissemination of economic, political, social, cultural, ideological information or even radicalism is all easily distributed and obtained from social media. human resources in the sector as a part of civilization that creates and use the information, are inseparable from the negative impact of accessing information. there are at least five asn suspected of being exposed to radicalism, they are wiqoyah, eka puput warsa, suteki, bumn employees in riau with the initial d, and triyono utomo abdul bakti (makkl, 2019). those five people spread radical content through radical ideology in front of society the gave information about radical beliefs through social media. the efforts to suppress the spread of radicalism through electronic media have been undertaken, and as many as 3,195 contents of radicalism have been blocked by the ministry of communication and information technology (kominfo, 2019) since may 21 st . however, the spread of radicalism content amrullah, r.a. the solution of group behavior as a model for improving 249 human resources in the public sector https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj does not necessarily disappear, as evidenced by the presence of asn who are faced with resistance, both through ideology and discourse fostering through social media (jatengprov, (n.d) ). human resources in the public sector are prone to radicalism because they obtain and seek access to wrong information. incorrect selective exposure will cause problems in interpreting. valkenburg, peter, & walther (2016) explained that selective exposure is the tendency of people to expose themselves to mass communication according to their opinions and interests. azadeh and ghasemi (2016) suggested that selective exposure is the behavior of seeking behavior so they will open themselves only to ideas they think are suitable. if partisan's selective exposure is widespread, the public can develop a more polarized and extreme attitude toward their political leanings (rodriguez et al. 2017) so it can hamper the government officials in making policies that are responsive to public needs (mcdaid, sassi, & merkur 2015). if negative selective exposure then followed by many people in the public sector, it will create partisans within state institutions. the partisan working model is to form groups (in-groups) both in real groups and on social media such as whatsapp and facebook. the formation of groups is an initial means to spread selective exposure to people with the same perspective on information. group is also the formation of behavior in terms of opinion overriding, opinion formation to realize the actions of those opinions. social transmission is a specific unconscious process in which information or beliefs are spread across social groups, taking the form of mass transmission which also said that some people with the same belief will create a group and it will be spreading fast (duboscq, et. al, 2016). as applied to the phenomenon of social transmission, the memetic position showed that humans have a biological tendency to engage in social learning (imitating others’ behavior) and thus providing a mechanism for passing on information through social groups. in mimetical conditions, group members will quickly and easily disseminate and develop the understanding of radicalism that has come along to the group. this is because the basic nature of humans is easy to imitate the behavior or habits of other humans around them. the principle of social transmission stated that the spread of ideas, beliefs, or behavior among members of a particular social group is conducted through the efforts of a small number of group members who function in three important roles. there are terms for roles that someone can have in delivering ideas and thoughts such as those who give messages (mavens), those who spread the message (liaison), and those who persuade others to act on 250 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 247–259 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the message (salesman) (le bon, 2016). individuals in these three roles facilitate the successful and rapid dissemination of information and by extension, knowledge across social networks. the spread of the understanding of radicalism occurs within a group with different roles from each member as previously explained, then after the understanding of radicalism is occurring within the group, it will quickly spread out through existing society. prevention of the spread of radicalism to human resources in the public sector needs to be done immediately so as not to make it difficult for the government to run its program where the government will prevent the inhibition of our country’s development caused by the spread of radical understanding. therefore, there is a need for professional guidance at the government level, where the goal is the formation of professional, responsible, simple, ethical, efficient, and effective attitudes of civil servants in carrying out their duties and being able to meet public demand for better service quality (supit, et.al, 2019). this is why the concept of the personal selective model (prevention of internal radicalism as with selective information), needs to be applied to isolate, prevent and suppress the behavior of radicalism by utilizing information on developing human resources in the public sector. therefore with professionality and discipline for asn, it will overcome and prevent the spread of radical understanding. literature review selective exposure is the tendency of people to expose themselves to mass communication according to their opinions and interests and to avoid unsympathetic material (valkenburg, et. al, 2016). this opinion is corroborated by luttig (2016), who stated that people are not rigid in their information-seeking behavior so they will open themselves only to ideas they think are suitable. in some cases, individuals tend to choose the information that supports their beliefs (taber, cann & kucsova 2009). in contrast, jonas, et. al (2001) argued that when searching for new information, people are often biased in supporting the beliefs, expectations, or conclusions desired previously. the implications of selective exposure will lead to partisan groups. if partisan selective exposure is widespread, the public can develop a more polarized and extreme attitude toward radicalism tendencies (dunn, et. al, 2019). therefore, it can hamper government officials from making policies that are responsive to public needs. one possibility that a person may be affected by selective exposure is that the personally relevant belief, the beliefs amrullah, r.a. the solution of group behavior as a model for improving 251 human resources in the public sector https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj related to one’s interests and self-identity are more likely to influence exposure decisions (feldman, et. al, 2013; stroud, 2008). social identity theory is a person's knowledge suggesting that they belong to a category or social group (hogg, et. al, 2004). a social group is a group of individuals who have the same social identity or the same social category. through the social comparison process, people who are similar to themselves are categorized and labeled in groups, whereas people who are different from themselves are categorized as outgroups. specifically, a person's self-esteem is increased by evaluating in-group and out-groups on the dimensions that make in-groups valued positively and out-groups valued negatively. the interaction will occur when a person involves themselves which are in a group, that kind of interaction will cause social influence that will increase the value of the group. peters, pressey, and johnston (2017) argued that social influence depends on the number of people associated with the actor and is influenced by adopting an attitude or behavior before. in other words, people have a threshold level of contact with other people before they will adopt certain attitudes or behaviors (liu, et. al, 2017). someone's behavior in-group will be exposed by dominating a person, someone who is structurally equal has a similar attitude regarding views, and ideology, and someone who regularly communicates with one another shares the same interpretation (jaques, islar & lord 2019). this condition is called social transmission in several studies. social transmission theory is examining how exposure to contacts and interactions can cause social influence, imitation and mimetic behavior, and similarity in position and role in network structure. transmission theory tends to explain how the network is a channel for transmitting attitudes and behavior (monge and contractor, 2003). specifically, transmission through cohesion and structural equivalence are two key mechanisms investigated in theoretical studies of transmission. so? what is it you want to argue about in your research? please state your intention, so we can refer back to your information that there have been some partisans in indonesia that have spread radical content on social media. method this research used a qualitative method with grounded theory as the design of the study. grounded theory is described as a method where the 252 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 247–259 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj theory will be developed by collected data. data collection techniques are taken from international journals and reputable international journals such as scopus and web of science. to ensure that the journal is valid, before being translated into indonesian, the journal sources and publishers are verified in beall’s list. in open access journals, there are 44 journal publishers from several countries, journals q 1 to q 4. journals on the web of science have 28 publishers from various countries during the same period. the journal limit used is a maximum of the last five years. after obtaining related journals to the topic under study, the journals were translated into indonesian to make it easier for researchers to understand and compare one journal with another. thank you for informing readers that you have been reading some journal manuscripts, but how did you use them? what was the theory that you use to analyze your data? what is your primary data? when and where did you take your primary data? please show readers the steps of your data analysis. results and discussion the research resulted in the concept of the private selective model (prevention of internal asn radicalism with selective information exposure), which is the behavior of the person who becomes a member of the public sector human resource group to prevent internal radicalism. information accessed selectively can isolate information that leads to radicalism and violence to prevent radical thoughts and actions. the concept model is the result of the integration of three theories, selective exposure theory, social identity theory, and social transmission theory as will be explained in the following paragraphs. the dimensions used in this study are isolation, interaction, behavior, clarity of information, and familiarity because by using these theories, we can understand that if an understanding of radicalism has entered the elements of the group, especially through members who are considered charismatic members, the understanding will quickly spread through the interaction of group members and quickly spread to a wider scope. selective exposure is the selection of information by individual beliefs (stroud 2008). sources of information that are easy to find, well-known, and play an active role in developing the comprehension of radicalism among the general public, including state civil servants. if selective exposure is widespread, people could develop polarized or extreme behavior toward the tendencies they want and believe (sunstein 1995; levendusky 2013; prayitno, amrullah, r.a. the solution of group behavior as a model for improving 253 human resources in the public sector https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sutrisno 2019). the concept of selective exposure happened because the information is continuously shared without any differences of opinion from experts, but the truth still needs to be examined further. as a result, this information has an impact on people in dissatisfied response to one particular group and government. this dissatisfaction triggers to determine how they think and act in an e continuously without any opposition from experts, but the level of truth still needs to be studied further. as a result, this information has an impact on dissatisfied responses to one particular group or government. this dissatisfaction triggers to determine how to think or act radically and acting radically is the result of illogical thinking. the evidence shows that high dissatisfaction has occurred in five asns suspected of being affected by radicalism, namely on behalf of wiqoyah, eka puput warsa, suteki, a bumn employee in riau with the initials d, and finally triyono utomo abdul bakti (makkl, 2019). research conducted by abbas et al (2021) showed that rapture behavior is the result of high dissatisfaction with a certain group, different views, different beliefs, and policies that are different from their beliefs. please continue with your explanation of how this rapture behavior related to the radicalism done by the partisans mentioned. social identity is the knowledge of someone who belongs to a social category or group (hogg et al. 2004). social identity in society and the work environment will form self-categorization and sharply compare the social between one group and another by bringing up differences between the group. these differences are always raised openly in society in general and on social media, with different views on religion, belief, culture, and nationality. selfcategorization can be evaluative, that is, thinking logically about the differences between each individual who has different views academically and is generally accepted and objective (hogg et al. 2004). dirth and branscombe (2018) clarified the social category in which individuals place themselves as part of a structured society and only exist about other contrasting categories such as good and bad; each more or less has strength, prestige, status, and psychological self-categorization which are related to different views due to the same interest in beliefs, culture and the same fate. meanwhile, social comparison places more emphasis on sharp physical, materialistic differences regarding the advantages possessed by a group regardless of the disadvantages it has. social comparison forms two sharp camps such as in-group and outgroup, each of which does not want to budge. starting from the small things the state civil servants communicate while working in their respective offices. different views in responding to a problem that occurs in various problems such as religion, knowledge, and government policies are used as benchmarks 254 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 247–259 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as decision-makers whether the communicator is in a position as a group or not. please continue how you have used psychological self-categorization and social comparison to analyze what your partisans have done. please develop your discussions more on the sociological factors that indonesians have to connect to your argument about the radical behavior of some partisans. social transmission theory is a theory examining how exposure to contact can lead to social influence (social information processing), imitation and mimetic behavior (social learning theory and institutional theory), and equality in position and role in network structure (katz et al. 2004). transmission can occur through cohesion (i.e. direct contact with other people in the network) and by structural equality (where the influence is related to the structural pattern of relationships in the network) are two key mechanisms examined in theoretical studies of transmission. katz, et. al. (2004) and wang and chu (2017) stated that there are two areas of transmission theory that can be used to help explain network learning, behavior and attitudes through transmission, and transmission mechanism barriers. theory and attitude transmission, have been used to explain actor behavior, including absenteeism, job search, and voluntary turnover where similarity in attitudes is achieved through friendship, interaction and ambiguity. actors can also be isolated from "message infection" through network isolation by isolating actors from highly contagious parts of the network that cause strong message content barriers. how was it for your partisans? has there been anyone that investigated them as actors that are highly contagious? what data do you have to prove their actions? please show readers your research data. thus, to avoid sharp differences in the views of people’s beliefs, culture, and customs of society, especially civil servants, it is advisable to form separate groups, so that there is no misinformation, taking information only based on their own beliefs without first ascertaining where the information comes from so the novelty of the research appears is personally selective. selective personality is an integration of transmission theory, social identity theory, and the theory of the concept of selective exposure to ward off negative behavior arising from the influence of individuals who deviate from the culture, habits, and rules agreed upon by the group. exposed individuals can be prevented by other members from infecting other members in one group so that the superior and good social identity of the group is maintained. selective personality is the attitude of individuals and groups to avoid radical understandings that occur in society, especially state civil servants as state servants for reference in attitude. if there has been a radical understanding, amrullah, r.a. the solution of group behavior as a model for improving 255 human resources in the public sector https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj selective personnel can isolate the group to explain correct views and actions. how was it in the case of your partisans? how has selective personality analysis helped in exposing the radical individuals that became your data? isolation of group behavior can be done if group members act as givers of correct information, someone who can explain scientifically about information (experts), does not impose information (awareness), there are charismatic members and there are clear rules to become members of the group. isolation of group behavior is not a form of isolating group members who have different views on a problem but is a form of providing a correct understanding of the culture, habits, and rules that apply both as group members and as good citizens. who are the people that have the authority to isolate group behavior? who is within this group? can you clarify? from a comprehensive explanation, the integration of the selective personal formation of the three theories of selective exposure, the theory of identity, and social transmission can be illustrated in figure 4.1. figure 4.1. integration of selective personal formers conclusion the more freedom of information that develops in the community of true and false information received by individuals cannot be accounted for, however, prevention and prohibition of the community from seeking, 256 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 247–259 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj receiving, and disseminating information cannot be done by the government, because the ite law has been imposed by the government but the expected results are still far from expectations. one that can be applied to reduce misinformation is by isolating group behavior. isolation of group behavior is effective to apply because to become a group member (in-group) is personal awareness, information, news, and an event received by members is selectively filtered because it adapts to the culture, habits, and rules agreed upon beforehand so that if there is a member those who are exposed to radical understandings will soon be handled by other members who remind each other, especially by members who are considered experts and also the influence of members who are considered charismatic. please relate this conclusion to your data. the limitation of group behavior is the absence of punishment and reward rules because it is a social group and at any time members may remain or leave as members if they do not agree with the rules. in the absence of definite rules regarding punishment for members who can't accept the decision that is made up by the majority of group members, then the punishment is to be expelled from the group. the leader or people who have important roles in the group will decide the punishment for those who can't accept the decision or regulation before. the explanations and suggestions by someone considered an expert, sometimes are late so that members who have been exposed cannot be saved, there is the ego of each member and there is a conflict of interest between members in the group. suggestions from members who are considered experts can't ensure that they will stop the spread of radicalism understanding that has developed in a group, especially if the suggestions are delivered after the radicalism has spread to all members of the group. this was not discussed in the previous section because the previous section discussed how the development of radicalism understanding. further research needs to be proven whether someone who is considered an expert in the group has a significant influence, the extent of member selective exposure if each member does not carry out its function, the extent of the commitment of members in the group in raising exposed members and empirically substantiating the dimensions of isolation of group behavior. this research is to prove how big the role of members who are considered experts in a group is to influence the way of thinking of all group members. besides, the discussion about the entering process and the development of radicalism that has been discussed previously is also very important. amrullah, r.a. the solution of group behavior as a model for improving 257 human resources in the public sector https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references abbas, j., aman, j., nurunnabi, m., & bano, s. 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(2017). networked publics and the organizing of collective action on twitter: examining the #freebassel campaign. convergence, 25(3), 116. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . the integration of technical vocational education and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development 1yeni nuraeni and 2 henigusnia 1,2puslitbang kementerian ketenagakerjaan (the ministry of manpower), jl. jendral gatot subroto kav.51, jakarta, indonesia email: 1yeninur@hotmail.com; 2henigusnia@gmail.com received: 27-04-2021 accepted: 10-06-2021 published: 30-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the integration of technical vocational education and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development 1yeni nuraeni and 2 henigusnia 1yeninur@hotmail.com; 2henigusnia@gmail.com 1,2puslitbang kementerian ketenagakerjaan (the ministry of manpower), jl. jendral gatot subroto kav.51, jakarta, indonesia abstract: the high unemployment of vocational graduates in indonesia shows that vocational system needs an improvement so it can produce competent workers and reduce the number of unemployed. this study aims to evaluate and analyze the technical vocational education and training (tvet) system in indonesia which has not been integrated causing graduates find it difficult to get a job or develop a business. the approach used in this study is qualitative. the data collection conducted through in-depth interviews with key informants. the results of the study indicate that the tvet in indonesia still involves various government and private institutions and does not yet have a good coordination mechanism and integrated programs. the improvement of the tvet system by developing an integration model involving government and the private institutions to develop the three main pillars, they are competency standards, competency-based training programs and competency certifications. key words: tvet, competency based-training, employment opportunities abstrak: tingginya tingkat pengagguraan lulusan smk di indonesia menunjukkan bahwa sistem kejuruan memerlukan perbaikan agar mampu menghasilkan tenaga kerja yang memiliki kompetensi dan mengurangi angka pengangguran. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi dan menganalisa sistem technical education and training (tvet) di indonesia yang belum terintegrasi sehingga 154 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj menyebabkan para lulusan smk sulit untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan atau mengembangkan bisnis. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kualitatif. pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan menggunakan wawancara mendalam dengan beberapa narasumber. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa tvet di indonesia masih melibatkan beberapa instansi negeri dan swasta, serta belum memiliki koordinasi yang baik dan program yang terintegrasi. perbaikan sistem tvet dengan mengembangkan model integrasi yang melibatkan instansi negeri dan beberapa instansi swasta untuk mengembangkan tiga pilar utama, yaitu standar kompetensi, program pelatihan berbasis kompetensi, dan sertifikasi kompetensi. kata kunci: pronominal, ngana, bahasa melayu manado. kata kunci: tvet, pelatihan berbasis kompetensi, kesempatan kerja introduction tvet is expected to always be symbiotic in harmony with the needs of the world of work. in fact, it does not always match the expectation because both have dynamics of importance which are not always same. they also have systems which are not always compatible each other, besides, they have culture which is not easily integrated (slamet, 2013). therefore, formulating the objectives of tvet and choosing appropriate efforts to achieve them in line with the needs of the workforce, become dynamic work for policy makers and implementers. the challenges of working in the future are increasingly heavy and complex. the availability of jobs in accordance with competence and education level is in line with the opening of the free market. thus, it becomes a necessity to improve quality in order to compete in the international and domestic markets (ministry of manpower and transmigration regulation no. 12/2012). changing the need for xxi century skills that emphasize higher order thinking (high order thinking skills) will be a challenge for tvet in developing technical, vocational and technical learning concepts, policies and strategies (putu, 2017). auditors’ ability to cope with different environments and make quality judgments is dependent on their own efforts to improve performance and influenced by certain motivational factors (bonner, 1994). two dimensions of motivational factors are internal and external motivation. internal motivation shaped from nuraeni, y. & henigusia. the integration of technical vocational education 155 and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj individual within, while external motivation imposed by external parties or situations. the tvet program must be developed according to the demands of the job market and industry needs. thus, the industry will benefit directly when using competent workers from the tvet program. if graduates have high quality, the industry will get immediate benefits, because at the beginning of recruitment, the industry does not need to pay more to provide industrial training. therefore, it is appropriate if the industry has the responsibility to care, pay attention and take responsibility together with vocational training institutions (windarto & sukiyo, 2014). a tvet institution must have a strategy to improve quality in order to achieve the desired goals. in determining the right strategy, the role of education and training institution stakeholders cannot be separated from the implementation of education and appropriate training, stakeholders are not only as input, but also play a role in the process. in connection with the right strategy and the condition of stakeholders, it is necessary to create a mutualistic symbiotic relationship which is carried out by both in achieving and realizing common goals. the purpose of a collaboration is to achieve better results by mutual benefit between the parties that work together. therefore, through cooperation can provide benefits to the parties that work together can even provide benefits for other parties outside of the parties that work together, so there is no party which is being disadvantaged (sulistiyani, 2004). the form of the relationship is in the form of cooperation or partnership. in fact, minister of national education regulation no. 19 of 2007, concerning education management standards states that each school collaborates with other relevant institutions, relating to the input, process, output, and utilization of graduates (meyana, ulfatin, & sultoni, 2017). three countries have implemented training programs which are integrated with industry. first, australia has implemented vocational education training reforms in the last decade (tessaring & wannan, 2004). second, best practices can be found in the dual vocational education training system in austria, which has many good features, with a structured apprenticeship program that integrates learning in schools and training in the workplace (hoeckel, 2010). third, the dual system in germany has made the country have a competitive advantage by successfully reducing the unemployment rate, so that in germany there are no residents over 25 years who are unemployed for more than 3 months (hippach-schneider, krause, & woll, 2007). 156 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the success of tvet can be measured by the absorption rate of graduates in the job market. if graduates have the ability according to the required job market, it can be said that the learning process of vocational institutions has students who are ready to get into the job market. to achieve this, vocational training providers must always improve the quality of learning in accordance with labor market demand (sukardi, 2012). seeing the development of workforce needs which is predicted to change in the era of the digital economy, it is necessary to examine the condition of tvet in indonesia whether it has been able to create graduates who are ready to get into business world and the world of work (dudi) or not. can government policies in the field of vocational education accommodate the changing needs of workers in the industrial revolution 4.0 era? this study aims to look at the condition of tvet in indonesia and the revitalization that must be done to meet the needs of dudi. literature review investment in human resource development is an expenditure aimed to increase human production capacity by improving work education and training (rumawas, 2018). based on law no. 20 of 2003, the national education system in indonesia can be categorized into 3 types, (1) formal education, is a structured and tiered education pathway, (2) non-formal education, is an education pathway outside of formal education that can also be carried out in a structured and tiered manner, (3) informal education, is a family and environmental education pathway (dewi, 2016). based on law no. 20 of 2003 article 26 paragraph (4) and government regulation no. 17 of 2010 article 103 paragraph (1), course institutions and training institutions are classified in the category of non-formal education in indonesia. both non-formal education units are intended for people who need knowledge to develop their skills and attitudes, develop their profession, business or continue their education to the higher level and to improve vocational competence (lentera kecil, 2015). in indonesia, there are two types of course institutions and training institutions which are organized by private entities known as lkp (course and training institute) and lpk (employment training institutions). the two types of courses and training institutions are two different ministries. lkp is under the guidance of the ministry of nuraeni, y. & henigusia. the integration of technical vocational education 157 and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj education and culture, while the lpk is under the guidance of the ministry of manpower. the ministry of manpower's vision in fostering lpk is in order to make the training graduates ready to work after being trained by the lpk for a certain period of time, while the vision of the ministry of education and culture in fostering lkp is similar as the goal of state education which is to educate the nation through non-formal education (information center, 2014). in general, a private course and training institutions in indonesia has 2 operational licenses originating from two different ministries, so that the institution can be called lpk or lkp. the central government and regional governments have course institutions and training institutions called blk (job training centers). blk is under the guidance of the ministry of manpower. based on the vision of the two ministries, the ministry of manpower and the ministry of education and culture, lpk and lkp should have different and complementary objectives to create competent human resources to get into the workforce and the business world. for example, courses and training institutions in the field of vocational sewing, lkp aimed to produce graduates who have the skills to be able to create a picture of fashion patterns using hand movements so as to produce neck circumference shells, arm circumference shells and other pattern parts, skills training is to train one's physical movements (lpk intan, 2015). the question is whether lkp graduates who have acquired fashion sewing skills are ready to get into the workforce and the business world? when someone enters the business world and the industrial world (dudi) the most important factor is work productivity and work effectiveness. dudi is dynamic in the use of equipment and technology in accordance with its era. someone is ready to work and open a business, if they can operate work tools and having basic skills in the vocational field of their interest. the function of lpk is to be able to create graduates who not only have skills, but also capable to operate work equipment in accordance with the demands of the work or business world. the aim of lpk and blk is not only to have skill, but also to train participants to be ready for work and business. with sophisticated equipment, someone who has no basic embroidery skills but they master the operation of wilcom software with the help of digital embroidery machines, will be able to produce embroidery more quickly and more neatly (lpk intan, 2015). in the digital age, the distance between 158 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj skills training and the world of work will be increasingly distant, especially for occupations experiencing changes in the use of work equipment from analog systems to digital systems (lpk intan, 2015). based on the objectives of the course and training institutions mentioned above, ideally lkp functions to provide basic skills to course or training participants in certain vocational fields. after graduating and obtaining a competency test certification, in accordance with the objectives of lkp, graduates are not prepared to be able to directly get into the workforce and business world. lkp graduates still need to be equipped with knowledge and skills in the use of equipment according to the demands of the times and additional competence in accordance with the demands of dudi (the business world and the industrial world) at that time. the function of lpk and blk is to provide competencies which are adjusted to the development and demands of dudi. within the formal education category, there are types of education related to preparing graduates to get into the workforce. based on the level, education included in this type are; (1) vocational education, is a level of secondary education to prepare students to work in certain fields, this level in indonesia is known as vocational high school (smk), (2) vocational education, is education which aims to prepare students to have jobs with certain applied expertise is maximally equivalent to a bachelor's program, this type of education in indonesia is known as d1, d2, d3 and d4 polytechnic levels, (3) professional education, an education that aims to prepare students to have jobs with special skills requirements, constituting higher education after the undergraduate education program, graduates will get a professional degree, the three types of educational format the same goal is to prepare students to work in certain fields (kokom, 2018). method this research used qualitative method. primary data comes from observations and conducts group discussion forums with key informants. secondary data obtained from data and documents related to research. this research is focused on analysis of the current condition of tvet in indonesia as well as opportunities and challenges going forward to conduct revitalization in the context of welcoming the industrial era 4.0 and the digital economy. nuraeni, y. & henigusia. the integration of technical vocational education 159 and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results and discussion a. technical and vocational education and training (tvet) conditions in indonesia how is the practice of implementing courses and training in indonesia? the dualism of lkp and lpk / blk which are categorized as non-formal education institutions still cause many problems. this is due to the lack of clarity between what competencies must be achieved by lkp and lpk / blk graduates, and integration in the implementation of courses and training. in general, private courses and training institute functions as both lkp and lpk. these institutions have 2 operational licenses originating from 2 different ministries. the aim of an institution is to have two operational licenses in general so that they can receive training programs and equipment from two ministries, the ministry of education and culture as the lkp supervisor and the ministry of manpower as the lpk/ blk supervisor. unfortunately, the program between the two ministries is not yet integrated and complementary. private courses and training institutes run training based on the programs demanded by each ministry. training participants for the two training programs (as lkp and lpk) are generally different so there is no complementary element. graduates of the two training programs are required to be distributed to dudi, whereas ideally lkp graduates are more focused on getting supplies in the form of basic skills and not prepared to be able to directly get into dudi. lpk/ blk graduates are expected to have been briefed to be ready to get into dudi. ideally, the basic skills training program is carried out by lkp and the work training program continued by the lpk/ blk. are the course and training institute able to set up their graduates to get into dudi? in 2018, it turned out that out of a total unemployment of 7 million people, including 1.18 million people said that they had received job training at blk (rahadian, 2019). the number of blk in inadequate conditions, starting from the condition of the building, facilities and infrastructure to the material being taught are not competitive, as many as 53.85% of blk in indonesia do not have equipment (eka, et. al, 2018). vocational high school (smk) aimed at preparing graduates who are ready to get into dudi. the question is, whether smk graduates really have the competence to get into dudi? vocational education is expected to be always symbiotic in harmony with the needs of the workforce, but in reality, 160 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this is not always the case. the results of interviews with smk graduates, it turns out that many of them feel that they have not had enough skills to get into dudi, so in order to improve their competence, they must attend courses and training at lkp, lpk and blk. open unemployment rate (tpt) data shows that smks have the highest value compared to other formal education as shown in figure 1 tpt is an indicator that shows the level of labor supply that is not absorbed by the market. figure 1: open unemployment rate according to the highest education level completed (%) source: (andreas, 2018) vocational education can move the labor market and contribute to a country's economic strength. therefore, smks must be able to contribute to the nation's competitiveness. to improve the quality of smk so graduates can meet the needs of dudi, presidential instruction no.9 of 2016 has been issued on smk revitalization. to follow up on inpers 9, the minister of education and culture explicitly instructed to perfect and harmonize the smk curriculum in accordance with the competency needs of graduate users (link and match). "link" and "match" indicate that graduates have insight or competitive attitude, such as work ethics, achievement motivation, mastery, competitiveness, understanding the meaning of money (money beliefs), and saving attitudes (attitudes to saving). "link" and "match" require a change in the mindset of all education implementers both educational institutions and teaching staff must be pro-active in developing "links" and "matches" with the world of work (hadam, rahayu, & ariyadi, 2017). in presidential instruction no.9 of 2016, the directorate of vocational development has established five nuraeni, y. & henigusia. the integration of technical vocational education 161 and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj revitalization areas consisting of curriculum, teachers and education personnel, collaboration with the business or industry world, certification and accreditation, as well as sarpras and institutions. each of five revitalization areas needs to be implemented with concrete steps for the realization of superior human resources in each field. the actual manifestation of smk revitalization steps can be explained as shown in figure 2. figure 2: manifestation of smk revitalization source: (hartriani, 2017) likewise polytechnic graduates, there are still many polytechnic educational institutions which have not adjusted their equipment and curriculum according to dudi needs, so that when they graduate, they still have to improve their competency through training in industry. judging from the quantity of total state universities in indonesia, the most polytechnic is 99, with a proportion of 26.61%, while the total private universities are 144 polytechnics with a proportion of 3.64%. vocational higher education has not yet shown a significant contribution in overcoming unemployment. the unemployment rate at the tertiary level from 2017 to 2019 turned out to still show an increase as shown in the figure 3. one of the factors that caused the high unemployment rate at the tertiary level including polytechnic is that the skills of the graduates are 162 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj not in accordance with the needs dudi. the polytechnic program faces several challenges, including polytechnic accreditation which is still below the standard where 59 % of polytechnic study programs are still accredited under b and the polytechnic curriculum is not yet flexible in accordance with industry development and the lack of industry lecturers for polytechnic education (eka et al., 2018). to improve the quality of polytechnics in indonesia, there are several things which become the focus, firstly polytechnics must have teaching lecturers from industry, polytechnic programs must implement teaching factories, and need broader development of vocational programs at the master and doctoral level (national leadership council indonesian employers association, 2018). figure 3: composition of public and private universities in indonesia and unemployment rate based on education level source: (pusparisa, 2019; iptek & dikti institution, 2016) b. tvet integration model in indonesia tvet learning xxi century requires the increased impact rather than just output. an important impact of tvet learning is the formation of one's professional identity or expertise. the establishment of one's vocational or nuraeni, y. & henigusia. the integration of technical vocational education 163 and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj work capacity needed by the world of work and society is the goal of tvet. the tvet learning strategy is designed to increase the actual impact for students. tvet is a certified education in the world of work standard, being appreciated for its competence, developing its career and gaining prosperity. the integration model of the conception of vocational disciplines that prioritizes learning on the basis of the needs of the world of work and competency development. this model was developed in germany and several other countries such as croatia and china. tvet integration in each country is still different, for example in germany (the otto-von-guericke university magdeburg-germany) tvet is under the faculty of human sciences, while at uny is under the faculty of engineering. "even in other countries tvet is also included in the faculty of education", (prof. dr. frank bünning). figure 4: national vocational training system and competency based training in indonesia source: (ministry of manpower of republic of indonesia, 2019) the tvet integration model in indonesia refers to the tvet model in germany and australia. for the implementation of the tvet integration model, it must involve the stakeholders involved, ministry of manpower 164 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj which houses blk, ministry of education and culture which houses polytechnics, vocational schools, lpk / lkp, community academies and private-owned companies. the tvet system has three pillars, they are competency standards developed by business or industry, competency-based training programs developed by training institutions, and competency certification held by bnsp & lsp professional certification institutions (kompak.com, 2017). tvet integration model in indonesia can be seen in figure 4. in general, competence is the mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities which can be realized by cognitive behaviours, affective and psychomotor as well as possible (mcashan, 1981). competence is knowledge, abilities and expertise (skills) possessed by someone who directly influences their performance (yuniarsih & suwatno, 2009). life competencies or skills are expressed in skills, abilities, activities, actions, performance which can be measured (sukmadinata, 2012). student competencies can be increased through competency based training (blank, 1982; purnamawati, 2011). competency based training is a training approach in vocational schools which is not only oriented towards graduate outcomes, but also focuses on the training process itself. the training also refers to certain industry standards (guthrie, 2009). the industry standards form the basis of the program (curriculum), assessment and learning materials that are designed and developed. the cbt program focuses on what participants can do in the workplace as opposed to only having theoretical knowledge (amalia & suwatno, 2016). therefore, this training program guarantees students the knowledge, skills and attitudes or values to be successful in the work environment (anane, 2013). cbt in indonesia refers to the national competency standards as outlined in the skkni / kkni, international standards and company standards. the preparation of the competency standards must involve various stakeholders as shown in the figure 4 to be able to meet the needs of dudi in accordance with the changing times. c. triple skill ministry of manpower model in order to adjust the guidelines and the development of the business world and the world of work, the indonesian government prepared the triple skilling concept which includes skilling, upskilling, and reskilling for indonesian hr. skilling aims to encourage and facilitate the workforce to participate in improving their skills through vocational training programs at the vocational training center (blk). nuraeni, y. & henigusia. the integration of technical vocational education 165 and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 5: concept and model of triple skilling implementation source : (ministry of manpower of republic of indonesia, 2019) workers who experience the effects of job shifting will be facilitated with reskilling and upskilling programs so that they can improve their skills in accordance with the guidelines for the development of dudi, especially in the industrial revolution 4.0 era. the triple skilling program also aims to encourage the workforce into job creation that focuses on the ability to innovate and develop themselves to become entrepreneurs and socioentrepreneurs. to implement the triple skilling concept, various improvements need to be made including blk development through the concept of rebranding, reorientation and revitalization (3r), development of training participants, increasing the instructor's expertise and promoting apprenticeship programs in companies both abroad and domestically (petriella, 2019). the concept of triple skilling can be seen in the figure 5. 166 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. the concept of tvet revitalization in indonesia tvet revitalization becomes urgent being conducted in indonesia by looking at the facts of the problems that occur including: 1. every year, there are around 3.3 million students graduating from high school and vocational education school, while the capacity of tertiary institutions is only around 60-65%, so the rest of the graduates are forced to fight with graduates of the poltek and tertiary institutions to enter the job market. 2. the workforce profile has not experienced a significant change in the past 10 years. 3. the industrial revolution 4.0 narrows technical employment. for example, shoe factory operated 20.000 employees 5 years ago, now they only have 12.000 employees because some works can be done automatically. 4. the establishment of new polytechnics must be strived to improve the capacity as well as the quality of human resources. if it is not, then the demographic bonus they have will not be optimal in their contribution. 5. productive age population with low education and skills can be predicted low productivity. in addition, they mostly only work in lowincome sectors. revitalization of tvet aims to improve the quality and competitiveness of human resources, especially the creation of skilled workforce to meet industry needs and implement development. the main points of vocational education revitalization include alignment of curriculum according to the needs of the business or industry world (dudi), provision and training of teachers or instructors, certification and accreditation, improvement of facilities and infrastructure, link-and-match (partnership) with industry (for placement work). in the context of developing human resources through tvet revitalization efforts, the government of indonesia has prepared the 2017-2025 vocational education and training roadmap. in preparing the roadmap the first thing to consider is; the influencing environment, labor needs, and policies that must be carried out by ministries / agencies. in the effort to prepare the workforce for superior products which have high added value and global demand needs, the development of vocational nuraeni, y. & henigusia. the integration of technical vocational education 167 and training systems to expand employment opportunities and business development https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj education and training cooperation in indonesia can be focused on five sectors of the indonesian economic, agribusiness, tourism, digital economy, manufacturing, and healthcare. the focus of tvet revitalization is directed to encourage the fulfillment of workforce for government priority programs, such as infrastructure programs consisting of national strategic and national nonstrategic projects, equity programs, and regional development programs. in facing the development of automation trends, good human resource planning is needed, including for vocational education graduates as a basis for the development of smk, blk, and polytechnic. the development of vocational education itself must be based on the needs of the industry in the future which will certainly be influenced by the level of economic growth and also the different levels of automation in each industry. the concept of hr development through tvet revitalization can be seen in figure 6. figure 6: human resource development scenarios through tvet revitalization source: coordinating ministry for economic affairs 168 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 153 – 171 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conclusion revitalization of vocational education and training institutions must have a focus tailored to the needs of the workforce. for example, vocational high school (smk) to prepare workforce education level 2 operators of the indonesian national qualification framework (kkni). then, polytechnics focuses to prepare for higher level thinking education workforce and whitecollar jobs. and the vocational training center (blk) focuses to prepare workforce training for those who need short-term skills as well as upskilling and reskilling for those affected by automation and critical economic conditions. improvements to the fundamentals of vocational education and training can be done through improving educational institutions, raising competency standards, increasing the quality of apprenticeships, increasing facilities & infrastructure, increasing funding, and increasing coordination. references amalia, l., & suwatno, s. 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(may 4th, 2014). curriculum integration of vocational training and apprenticeship based training to fulfill competent workforce market. 3rd international conference on vocational education and training icvet, 207 – 215. yogyakarta: state university of yogyakarta. yuniarsih, t., & suwatno. (2009). manajemen sumber daya manusia untuk perusahaan dari teori ke praktik. jakarta: pt. raja grafindo persada. microsoft word 3977-91f2-6f43-9f30 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a piercean semiotics overview chusni hadiati english department, humanities faculty, jenderal soedirman university, purwokerto, indonesia email: chusni.hadiati@unsoed.ac.id received: 09-09-2020 accepted: 08-12-2020 published: 30-12-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a peircean semiotics overview chusni hadiati chusni.hadiati@unsoed.ac.id english department, humanities faculty, jenderal soedirman university, purwokerto, indonesia abstract: housing belongs to human basic need since to live properly they need a place to stay. housing names in indonesia employ not only bahasa indonesia but also foreign language because some foreign lexicons are used in indonesian housing names. semiotically, names are symbols that carry meaning in certain context. indonesian housing names are interesting language phenomena since they reveal the use of language as a social praxis. legally, the use of language in public space is governed by indonesian law no.24, year 2009 on flag, language, national symbols, and national anthem. in fact, indonesian housing names do not fully follow the law because foreign language lexicons are also used in indonesian housing names. this research employed 2000 indonesian housing names and collected during january 2017 until may 2017. data indicated that there were lexicons from three foreign languages, namely, english, spanish, and arabic. this research belongs to descriptive qualitative research. in-depth interview was also utilized to gain deeper information why developers use certain lexicons. developers believed that names are supposed to be beneficial and bring luck. using peircean semiotic, this qualitative research reveals that lexicons used in indonesian housing names are used to show place name (baturraden, citayam, batam, surabaya), settlement (cassa, village, residence, estate, city, garden, hill, valley, river, lake), greatness (grand, grande, great, royal, big), positivity (blossom, lucky, oase, firdaus, sakinah, paradise), preciousness (emerald, platinum, diamond, golden, stone), environmental awareness (green color), purity (white color, jasmine), warmth (red rose), and love (red color, orchid, lily, tulip). 320 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: lexicon, semiotics, signs, language policy, indonesian housing names abstrak: perumahan merupakan kebutuhan dasar manusia karena untuk dapat hidup layak, manusia memerlukan tempat tinggal. nama perumahan di indonesia tidak hanya menggunakan leksikon dalam bahasa indonesia karena beberapa leksikon bahasa asing juga digunakan. dalam kajian semiotika, nama merupakan simbol yang memiliki makna secara kontekstual. nama perumahan di indonesia merupakan fenomena kebahasaan yang menarik karena hal itu menunjukkan penggunaan bahasa dalam praktik sosial. secara hukum, penggunaan bahasa indonesia di area publik telah diatur dalam undang-undang no. 24 tahun 2009 yang mengatur mengenai bendera, bahasa, simbol nasional, dan lagu kebangsaan. faktanya, nama perumahan di indonesia tidak mengikuti aturan tersebut. penelitian ini menggunakan 2000 nama perumahan di indonesia yang dikumpulkan sejak januari 2017 hingga mei 2017. data menunjukkan bahwa terdapat leksikon dari tiga bahasa asing yang digunakan dalam nama perumahan yaitu dari bahasa inggris, spanyol, dan arab. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif kualitatif yang dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan wawancara ntuk memperoleh informasi mendalam yang mendorong pengembang menggunakan leksikon tertentu. pengembang pecaya bahwa nama memberikan keuntungan dan keberuntungan. dengan menggunakan semiotika peirce, penelitian kualitatif ini menemukan bahwa leksikon yang digunakan dalam nama perumahan di indonesia digunakan untuk menunjukkan nama tempat (baturraden, citayam, batam, surabaya), tempat tinggal (casa, village, residence, estate, city, garden, hill, valley, river, lake), keagungan (grand, grande, great, royal, big), positivity (blossom, lucky, oase, firdaus, sakinah, paradise), kepositifan (blossom, lucky, oase, firdaus, sakinah, paradise), keberhargaan (emerald, platinum, diamond, golden, stone), kepedulian lingkungan (green), kesucian (white color, jasmine), kehangatan (red rose), cinta (red color, orchid, lily, tulip) kata kunci: leksikon, semiotika, tanda, kebijakan bahasa, nama perumahan di indonesia introduction the need of housing keeps on increasing in the present day and developers see it as an opportunity to bring up their selling. as a consequence, they use many ways to attract buyers including the use of foreign lexicon for hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 321 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj housing names in indonesia. it is, unfortunately, not in line with indonesian’s law no. 24, year 2009 that governs the use of bahasa indonesia in public space. article 36 paragraph 3 of indonesia law no 24 years 2009 clearly states the following. bahasa indonesia wajib digunakan untuk nama bangunan atau gedung, jalan, apartemen atau permukiman, perkantoran, kompleks perdagangan, merek dagang, lembaga usaha, lembaga pendidikan, organisasi yang didirikan atau dimiliki oleh warga negara indonesia atau badan hukum indonesia. [bahasa indonesia must be used for names of constructions or buildings, roads, apartments or settlements, offices, trade complexes, trademarks, business institutions, educational institutions, organizations established or owned by indonesian citizens or indonesian legal entities] the above citation explicitly states that bahasa indonesia is obliged to be used in particular names such as construction, building, street, apartment or housing, office, trading complex, business institution, educational institution, any organizations built and owned by indonesian citizens and indonesian legal entity. developers that want to build housing need to get permission from the authority. in this case, they have to propose and fulfil some requirements from bpmpp. it is a government institution that handle that issue. bpmpp (badan penanaman modal dan pelayanan perizinan) or board of investment and licensing services as the government representative does not include the use of bahasa indonesia for housing names as the prerequisite for developers that want to get building permit or imb (izin mendirikan bangunan) for their housing. this condition shows that even local government bodies do not support the law. as a result, developers use foreign lexicon in the housing names such as residence, valley, paradise, golden, stone, diamond as they can be found in raffles residence baturraden, citayam grande valley, the paradise park residence yogyakarta, golden stone serpong, pink diamond surabaya, and orchid regency bogor. the use of foreign lexicon in indonesian housing names happens not because there are no equal indonesian words for those lexicons but because bahasa indonesia has provided lexicon only for pemukiman, lembah, surga, keemasan, batu, berlian for residence, valley, paradise, golden, stone, diamond but still developers use those foreign lexicons for the housing names. 322 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj housing names are interesting language phenomena as they can function as signs that carried certain meanings. those names are not accidentally used but they are carefully chosen by the developers for some specific considerations. linguistically, housing names are sign that can be interpreted in accordance with their environment. the world we live is a massive sign since it may be variously interpreted based on different contexts. signs can be broadly defined as anything which stands for something else. in social praxis, signs are represented into words, images, sound, gesture, color, shape, smell and many more. semiotics concerns how sign-system make meaning and how reality is represented (chandler, 2007, p.2). from this definition a sign may be interpreted differently based on the context in which the sign occurs. context covers the physical environment that includes co-text and context of situation. in brief co-text can be defined as a text that precedes or follows a text and context of situation is generally defined as the condition that surround a text, for example, the culture where a text is used or who speaks what to whom. it means that a sign can be seen as a text in which the meaning making process is influenced by the context of the sign. literature review a previous definition of semiotics is proposed by umberto eco. he said that semiotics involves the study not only of what we refer to as sign in everyday speech but of anything which stand for something else (eco, 1976, p.7). relating to chandler and eco’s concept on sign, a profound definition has been postulated by peirce. he defines a sign as follows: a sign [in the form of a representamen] is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity. it addresses somebody, or perhaps more developed sign. the sign which it creates i call the interpretant of the first sign. the sign stands for something, its object. it stands for that object, not in all respect, but in reference to a sort of idea, which i is sometimes called the ground of the representamen (peirce, 1931, p. 2228). in a simple way, a representamen is the sign vehicle; an interpretant is the sense made of the sign; and an object is something beyond the sign to which it refers (referent). from his statement, it is clear that sign for peirce is something that carry meaning to certain people. hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 323 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sign for peirce is different from ferdinand de saussure’s sign. saussure’ s work on sign are mostly signs in linguistic meanwhile peirce considers sign as global sign which means it can be found in anything not only a language. sign for saussure consisted of signifier and signified (1993) and sign for peirce contains icon, index and symbol (1931) sign is anything that can be seen, heard, touch, taste even smell. in general, peirce’s concept of sign can be applied to anything that stands for something else in certain context not only in a language but almost in all social phenomenon. a growling stomach and a massive production of saliva can be and indicator that a person is hungry. chandler (2007) clearly explains that peirce divides sign into three modes such as icon, index, and symbol (pp. 36-37). icon is a mode in which the signifier is perceived as resembling or imitating the signified (recognizably looking, sounding, feeling, tasting or smelling like it-being similar in possessing some of its qualities. symbol is a mode in which the signifier does not resemble the signified but which is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional-so that this relationship must be agreed upon and learned. index is a mode in which the signifier is not arbitrary but is directly connected in some way (physical or causally) to the signified (regardless of intention)-this link can be observed or inferred. peirce’s semiotic approach is chosen due to the fact that his model is considered as a triadic compared to saussure’s dyadic model. in saussure’s concept, signified is not considered as an external referent but it is an abstract mental representation. on the other hand, peirce’s’ object is not referred into an abstract representation but it also gives space to materiality. in a simple way, chandler (2007) concludes that the peircean model explicitly allocates a place for materiality and for reality outside the sign system which saussure’s model did not directly feature (p. 33). based on this consideration, peircean model is applied in this research. the realization of language in our daily basis is a key marker of our social identity. language becomes the signs in our daily basis and the sign’s making meaning process is culturally bounded as it happens to the developers who chose certain codes in their housing names. they chose the lexicons with purpose and buyers buy the housing sometimes without considering the name of the housing. buyers perceive those lexicons as the realization of culture unconsciously. it is in line with hall (1973, p. 132) who explicitly stated as follows. 324 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj certain codes may… be so widely distributed in a specific language community or culture, and be learned at so early an age, that they appear no to be constructed-the effect of an articulation between sign and referent-but to be ‘naturally’ given. simple visual sign appears to have achieved a ‘near universality’ in the sense: though evidence remains that even apparently ‘natural’ visual codes are culture-specific. however, this does not mean that no codes have intervened; rather, that the codes have been profoundly naturalized. in hall’s perspectives of sign and referent, it is not naturally given or that sign has gained a near universality although in fact culture takes part in constructing meaning. a sign cannot be purely universal and so do lexicons as the realization of sign in human daily conversation. lexicons are chosen for certain reason in certain culture and context. developers chose the lexicons in the hope that those lexicons will bring luck to their property business. thus they carefully chose the lexicons for their housing names without considering the indonesia law no. 24, year 2009 that governs the use of bahasa indonesia in public space. name as a realization of word is also a sign and it can be used as a medium to represent a hidden reality. many researches have been conducted on names (leino, 2006; smith, 2006; starks & taylor-leech, 2011). name as the object of semiotics research has been also investigated by filani & melefe (2014) and sanz-marcos (2018). filani &melefe investigated name as a tool for constructing identity and sanz-marcos investigated the importance of signs and symbols relating to brand management. however, none of them discusses housing names by using foreign language lexicons. thus, this article tries to reveal the meaning of foreign lexicon used in indonesia housing-names by utilizing peirce’s semiotic approach. as peirce seized signs into three different modes; icon, index, and symbol; this article attempts to reveal the meaning of foreign lexicons in housing-names in indonesia by considering those three aspects. method the research of the use of foreign language lexicons in indonesian housing names is qualitative research since it tries to analyze language use as social praxis and present the result in words instead of number (silverman, 1993). in addition, this research qualitatively elaborates the meaning of certain lexicons in indonesian housing names. the data of this research is housing names in indonesia which contained foreign lexicon. there are 2000 hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 325 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj housing names in indonesia contained foreign lexicons collected during research period january-may2017. those lexicons include english, javanese, spanish, sanskrit, and arabic. english lexicon used in housing names is residence as it can be seen in raffles residence baturraden. javanese lexicon found in indonesian housing names is griya as it is found in griya satria purwokerto. spanish lexicon casa is indicated in casa royal residence and sanskrit lavali is found in grand lavali karangwangkal. the last is the arabic word sakinah which is found in perumahan sakinah bekasi. i obtained the data by visiting the developers and sending emails to them asking the brochures that contains the housing names. some emails were answered by providing the brochures and some were not. besides i also elicited the information why developers use certain lexicon. the 2000 housing-names data were then classified into icon, index, and symbol and they underwent peirce’s semiosis process. a lexicon/ representamen that has a direct similarity with its object is classified as an icon, a representamen which is directly connected in some ways is considered as an index and a representamen that is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional is classified as a symbol. the classification is conducted by utilizing qualitative approach by considering the context in which those lexicons are used. context can be broadly defined as the situation that accompanies the data. results and discussion based on data that consist of 2000 housing names in indonesia, i conclude that there are nine groups of lexicons, which are commonly used in indonesian housing-names. those lexicons are lexicons relate to place name, greatness, settlement, positivity, preciousness, environmental awareness, purity, warmth, and love. based on peircean semiotics, lexicons related to place names and greatness are classified into icon; lexicons related to settlement are categorized into index and lexicons related to positivity, preciousness, environmental issue, purity, warmth and love belong to symbols. the following part explains those lexicons in detailed. a. lexicons related to place-name place-names are usually found in indonesian housing names as it can be seen in sapphire village baturraden, citayam grande valley, green lake city surabaya, and lucky hill residence batam. baturraden, citayam, surabaya, 326 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and batam are examples of place names in indonesia. those place names indicate the location of the housing. in semiotics point of view those place names act as icon since it is perceived as resembling or imitating the signified (recognizably looking, sounding, feeling, tasting, or smelling like it) being similar in possessing of its qualities (chandler, 2009, pp.36-37). iconic interpretation is a basic recognition of sameness to think of something as a result of seeing likeness (smith, 2006). in a simple way, it can be said that the lexicon showing a place-name is the resemblance of the place itself. it can be clearly seen that a place name (baturraden) which occurred in sapphire village baturraden is used to show the place-name or the city where the housing is. in fact, baturraden is a place name in central java and it is a resemblance of a place in central java that has latitude of 7°18'0"s and a longitude of 109°13'0"e or -7.3 and 109.216667 respectively. having possessed the exact latitude and longitude to a certain place (entity) with a certain name, baturraden acts as an icon of that place correspondingly. thus, it indicates that the element of place-name in housing names in indonesia functions as an icon since it shows the location of the housing itself. in consequence, sapphire village baturraden is found in baturraden and green lake city surabaya is located in surabaya similarly.it is line with cobley (2001) who says that iconic similarity is a special kind of similarity (p. 204); it is an abstraction on the basis of a convention, for it privileges given traits of similarity and not others. peirce further explains that an icon is a sign which renders it significant, even though its object had no existence. this leads to the idea that place name in indonesian housing names acts as an icon. in accordance with indonesian-housing names, i do not find any of housing-name using certain place-names which is not situated in the mentioned place-names, for instance, i do not find pink diamond surabaya housing-names in purwokerto instead i find it in surabaya because surabaya function as an icon, the resemblance of lexicon surabaya with the city of surabaya. in different contexts, a place name may function as something else. a food stall’s name ‘mie ayam jakarta’ (jakarta chicken noodle) can be found in banyumas, a district in central java. the word ‘jakarta’ in ‘mie ayam jakarta’ does not function as an icon since it does not refer to a place (entity) with particular latitude or longitude. it tends that the word ‘jakarta’ in mie ayam jakarta serves as index which means it relates something to jakarta. it may index the taste of the food, the style of the food, or the owner of the food hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 327 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj stall, etc. a profound analysis is needed to get deeper insight on this phenomenon. based on the analysis above, it can be explicitly stated that icon in housing names is identified to show the place-name as it shows the resemblance of that lexicon with its referent in the real world. developer use place-names to help their potential buyer remember the location of their housing. by stating sapphire village baturraden, developers also help their potential buyer to recognize the location of the housing that it is in baturraden, a sub district of banyumas regency. b. lexicons related greatness similar to lexicons related place name, lexicons related greatness are also classified as icon since those lexicons show the greatness of the housing. lexicons-related greatness in housing names are grand, grande, great, royal, and big as they can be found in grand satria hill, grand safira city arcawinangun, citayam grande valley, great sriwijaya residence jakabaring, casa royal residence, and big garden residence kebon besar tangerang. grande, great, royal, and big are english word and grande is spanish. the lexical meaning of grand is magnificent and imposing and it is similar to grande in spanish that also means big. in addition, great is defined as ‘of an extent, amount, or intensity considerably above average or important or most important. the word royal also has similar nuance as the other lexicond-related greatness; it is considered as of a quality or size suitable for a king or queen. last but not least is the word big that is described as of considerable size, power, or extent or large than others of the same kind. the underlying concept inferred from the lexicons grande, great, royal, and big is something great, thus, those lexicons can be used to show greatness. from those definitions of lexicons-related greatness, it can be summarised that those lexicons reflect the greatness of the housing offered by the developers. the developer of grand safira city arcawinangun, for example, provides big-size housing and they never build small-size housing. the lexicon related to greatness indicates the big house that developers want to sell as those lexicons have resemblance with big. thus, developers use those lexicons to attract potential buyers so that they want to buy the house due to the greatness and the bigger size of the product. c. lexicons related to settlement the word-related settlement used in indonesian housing names are casa, village, residence, estate, city, garden, hill, valley, river, and lake as they can be 328 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj seen in the following house names casa royal residence, sapphire village baturraden, green bangli residence, puri langen estate, grand safira city, neu garden regency, lucky hill residence, citayam grande valley, river view medan, and green lake city surabaya. casa is taken from spanish meanwhile village, residence, estate, city, garden, hill, valley, river, and lake are english words. settlement in its board sense is a place where people establish community. those word-related settlements in housing names function as index since they indicate a place to resolve. an index, by contrast, is a sign that is clearly recognized as something different from that to which it refers. however, it is closely associated with the referent in time or space. casa is a spanish word that means house and village is defined as a group of houses situated in a rural area, larger than a hamlet, and smaller than a town, or a municipality with limited corporate powers. residence is explained as the official house of a government minister or other official figure. estate is a property consisting of a large house and extensive grounds. city is termed as a large town, in particular a town created a city by charter and typically containing a cathedral. garden is a piece of ground adjoining a house, used for growing flowers, fruits, or vegetables. a hill is a naturally raised area of land, not as high or craggy as a mountain. a valley is a low area between hills or mountains, typically with a river or stream flowing through it. river is a large natural flow of water travelling along a channel to the sea, a lake, or another river. lake is a large area of water surrounded by land. from these lexicons found in indonesian housing names, settlement is the core meaning because developers hope that the houses they offer become the settlement for their buyers even though a house can be an investment as well. cobley (2001) states that an index is a sign that signifies its object by a relation of contiguity, causality, or by some other physical connection (p.205). words can function, in part as indices quite often. names are words that may function primarily as indices insofar as they are used as simple labels with relatively little additional meaning (smith, 2006). word-related settlements, for instance, village, residence, regency, estate, casa, city, garden, valley, river, and lake are primarily used to label a place where people live. considering lexicons related to settlement, developers state that they choose certain lexicon for certain reason. for example, they choose village in their housing names because the housing location is near to village or they build the concept of village in the housing. usually when people live in housings, they tend to be selfish, when they come home from work, they will hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 329 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj spend the rest of the day in the house for resting. it is very different compare to the live in the village. people like to gather around when they finish their working day and they chat with their neighborhood. like in sapphire village baturraden, developers do not build fence for each house that enable people to communicate easily with their neighbor. by not building fence for each house, developer manage to create the atmosphere of village in their housing. d. lexicons related to positivity lexicons related to positivity in housing names are classified into symbols in peircean semiotics because their meaning are constructed based on society’s agreement. we know that paradise is a good place and it has positive nuance for people who belive in god. if they are atheist, for instance, they may not agree that paradise is a good place to live in. lexicons-related positivity in housing names found in data are blossom, lucky, oase, firdaus, paradise, and sakinah as they can be found in perumahan blossom depok, lucky hill residence batam, oase residence purwokerto, firdaus estate, the paradise park residence yogyakarta, and perumahan sakinah bekasi. the word firdaus and paradise mean both mean heaven in arabic and english. developers use this name to provoke their potential buyer to buy the house because they consider that the houses they offer, can be the paradise or heaven for their buyer. hopefully buyer will feel that their house is their paradise. the word sakinah comes from arabic that means peaceful and calm. developers use that lexicon in their housing names to attract potential buyers to buy the house. when they buy the house, they will live peacefully and calmly. blossom means a mass of flowers on a tree or bush or the state or period of flowering. lucky means having or bringing or resulting from good luck. oase comes from arabic word and in english it becomes oasis. it is a fertile spot in a desert where the water table rises to ground level. developers state clearly that those lexicons bring positive energy to the surroundings and they hope these positive energies can be transformed into a good living condition in the housing. lexically, the word ‘paradise’ means idyllic place or state and it has positive meaning compare to hell. the symbolic meaning of paradise is very contextually bounded to those who believe in god. for atheists this symbolic meaning may not exist. peirce in chandler (2007) furthers explain that a sign [in in the form of representamen] is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity (p. 29). thu,s the lexicons related to positivity are considered as a symbol since it is very contextually bounded. 330 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj e. lexicons related to preciousness data shows the existence of lexicon related preciousness in indonesian housing names. using piercean semiotics, those lexicons belong to symbols because it takes more than a resemblance or relationship between lexicons and its meaning. the lexicons related preciousness in housing names are emerald, platinum, diamond, golden, and stone as they can be found in emerald garden regency cepu, grand platinum residence purwokerto, perumahan pink diamond surabaya, golden park serpong, and perumahan brown stone cilegon. preciousness is symbolized by using precious stone name. indonesian housing names use emerald, platinum, diamond, golden, and stone. the use of emerald in indonesia housing name can be found in emerald garden regency cepu. emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl colored green by traced amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. the beauty symbolizes different things in different culture. green as the color of emerald is the most shooting color on the color wheel and it symbolizes growth, peace, balance, healing, and fertility. eternity is also reflected by the emerald since green color relentlessly renews itself in nature through generation in various cultures. to hindu culture, emerald signifies a more mature love while in christian belief it is the symbol of hope and faith. some islamic followers engrave verse from the koran on emerald and use it as their amulet. ancient egyptians use emerald to signify rebirth and fertility. nero in ancient rome used to watch gladiator through emerald due to its calming green color to reduce brutality. emerald is supposed to bring good luck and it is usually worn on thursdays. the elicitation with the developers reveals that lexicon related preciousness were chosen because they hope their housing will be considered as a precious thing for their buyer. a house is a place where all family member stays together and share their time and story of their daily routines. it is not only the physical house that matter and precious but also the soul and memory that live in their house. based on this consideration, developers use lexicons related preciousness in their housing names. f. lexicon related to environmental awareness environmental awareness is other issue used by developers in their housing names. day by day people show good awareness to the environmental though there are still other who act indifferently. lexicons relate to hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 331 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj environmental awareness in indonesian housing names are represented by using color lexicon that is green. color is classified as symbol by peircean semiotics. relate to environmental awareness, developers use ‘green’ as it can be found in ‘green andara residence jakarta selatan’, ‘green garden residence jakarta barat’, and ‘green lake city’. green is used in house naming because it signifies something. for most people, color is purely considered as cosmetic devices, in fact, it is a nature’s powerful signaling system. whenever people see a thing, what comes into their minds is color. color is a sign that carry message; as we know that sign is anything that stands for something else (chandler, 2007, p. 2). green is balance. green strikes the eye in such a way as to require no adjustment whatever and is, therefore, restful. being in the middle of the spectrum, green is the color of balance a more important concept than many people realize. this color has positive and negative effect. (tavaragi & sushma, 2016). the positive effects of green are harmony, balance, refreshment, universal love, rest, restoration, reassurance, environmental awareness, equilibrium peace. the negative effects are boredom, stagnation, blandness, and enervation. in creating housing names, developers consider the positive effect of color to attract their buyers. based on the information from the developers, they choose green color in their housing names, in the hope that their housing will give harmony, balance, refreshment, universal love, restoration, reassurance, environmental awareness, equilibrium, and peace to their buyer and most of all, developers wish that people who buys their house will get more environmental awareness. g. lexicons related to purity purity is a condition where everything is clean and color as well as flower are used as symbols to show purity. relate to housing names, purity is reflected in white color and jasmine. lexicon ‘white’ can be seen in ‘perumahan white house garden medan’ and white house ring road medan’ are instances of indonesian housing names which use color white. white is associated with purity, cleanliness, and the safety of bright light. it is also used to project the absence of color, or neutrality. in some eastern part of the world, white is associated with mourning. white is also associated with creativity. it is a compression of all the colors in the color spectrum and white is a total reflection. it reflects the full spectrum into our eyes. white is purity, uncompromising; it is clean, hygienic, and sterile. the concept of sterility can also be negative. visually, white gives a heightened perception of space. the negative effect of white on warm color is to make them look and feel garish. 332 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the positive effects of white are hygiene, sterility, clarity, purity, clearness, simplicity, sophistication, efficiency. in addition to white color, jasmine is also used to express purity as it can be found in jasmine residence jakabaring and perumahan jasmine fajar sumedan ’are the examples indonesian housing names that use jasmine. jasmine is the national flower in pakistan. in various contexts, jasmine has various functions. in philippines, jasmine is used in religious ceremonies while in indonesia, jasmine and red rose are used in wedding day. in thailand, jasmine symbolizes mother and portrays love and respect while in the united stated, jasmine is used to signify beauty, love, and romance. jasmine is associated with love, beauty, sensuality, appreciation, good luck, and purity. developers highlighted that the lexicon white and jasmine in their housing names are meant to show purity. h. lexicons related to warmth warmth is a condition or quality of being warm. lexicons related to warmth are classified as symbol since the meaning of these lexicons must be interpreted contextually not merely depend on resemblance or causal relation. similarly, to lexicons related to purity, lexicon related to warmth are also realized into color and flower in indonesian housing names. a warm house will give convenient atmosphere to the whole family. developers seized that chance by using color and flower to show warmth. red color as well as red roses are identified as symbols of warmth. relate to housing names, lexicon red can be traced from red tulip madiun’, red palm residence’ and ‘red sapphire residence’. these are the examples of indonesian housing names. the color red is used in those three names. red is the color of energy and it is associated with movement and excitement. people surrounded by red find their heart beating a little faster and often report feeling a bit out of breath red is a symbol of life as well. red is physical; red is strong and very basic. pure red is the simplest color, with no subtlety. it is stimulating and lively, very friendly. at the same time, it can be perceived as demanding and aggressive. the positive effects of red are physical courage, strength, warmth, energy, basic survival, fight or flight, stimulation, masculinity, and excitement. in addition of those positive energy carried by red color, developer expect that the house will give warmth to its buyer. red rose is also considered as a symbol of warmth. lexicon rose can be found in indonesia housing names such as perumahan rose garden and hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 333 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj perumahan rosewood cileungsi. rose is a signified that stands for something else. rose signifies several meanings depending on the color. in a brief, red rose indicated an unmistakable expression of love. it conveys deep emotionbe it love, longing or desire. red rose can also be used to convey respect, admiration or devotion and warmth. by ruminating red, developers believe that the positive effect carried by this color will influence the buyer as well as the dwellers. i. lexicons related to love indonesian housing names also reflect the concept of love as it is symbolized by pink color and orchid, lily and tulip. those lexicons of color and flower are considered as symbol based on peircean semiotics. lexicon pink can be found in pink diamond surabaya. being a tint of red, pink also affects people physically, but it soothes, rather than stimulates. psychologically, pink is a powerful color. it represents feminine principle, and survival of the species; it is nurturing and physically soothing. it is known that too much pink is physically draining and can be somewhat emasculating. the positive effects of pink are physical tranquility, nurture, warmth, femininity, love, sexuality, survival of the species. despite the many positive effect of pink color, developers stress that pink symbolizes love and they hope the house will be full of love. relate to flower, love is symbolized by orchid, lily and tulip. lexicon orchid can be discovered in ‘orchid regency bogor’ and ‘the orchid green park depok’. orchid in different culture has different functions. in ancient greek, orchids were a symbol of virility; the aztec uses it to create a tasty elixir. nowadays, orchid has some meaning as love, beauty, fertility, refinement, thoughtfulness, and charm. lily is also used to show love as it can be found in lilly spring garden’ and lilly cluster pekanbaru’ are instances of indonesia housing name using the word lily. unlike most other flowers, the perennial lily never truly goes dormant. the strength and beauty of this international flower has cemented its place in the cultures of the world. with such an elegant look, it’s no wonder the flower means love, royalty, and rebirth. in addition to orchid and lily, tulip is also used to show love. tulip can be caught in tulip sentul city’ and ‘cluster tulip kemayoran’. tulip carries the meaning of charity and supporting the less fortunate; abundance, prosperity, and indulgence, undying passionate love, whether the passion is spurned or returned; perfect, enduring love between partners or family 334 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 319 – 336 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj members. developers emphasized that love is the feeling that is shown by those three flowers. developers believe that house must be a place where love is, it is not only love between husband and wife but also parents and children, family and pets, family and environment. considering the importance of love in people’s life, developers highlight the love issue in their housing names. conclusion name is a language phenomenon that is worth investigating semiotically since it acts as a symbol that need a complex element to extract its meaning. people use names in all aspect of their lives include housing. interestingly, despite the indonesia law no. 24, year 2009 that governs the use of bahasa indonesia in public space, housing names in indonesia still employ several foreign language lexicons. this research reveals that foreign language lexicons in indonesian housing names are realized into lexicons related to place-name, greatness, settlement, positivity, preciousness, environmental issue, purity, warmth, and love. lexicons related to place-name and greatness are considered as icon based on peircean triadic semiotic, lexicons related to settlement are grouped into index since they index a relationship between the lexicon and their meanings. lexicons related to positivity, preciousness, environmental issue, purity, warmth, and love belonged to symbol since their meaning do not merely depend on the resemblance and indexical of the symbols. the analysis shows that a place name function to show the location where the housing is. lexicons related to place name are used to indicate the real place. in addition, it is used as an icon. in different context, a place name is not used to show the place where the object is, such as in the case of mie ayam banyuma’ but the location is in jakarta. in fact, it is used as an index, showing a certain relation between the sign and the referent. a deeper analysis can be conducted to get a fuller insight of this phenomenon. based on the analysis, it can be seen that housing names represent various meaning depend on the context. developers carefully pick those names due to some consideration. semiotic analysis can reveal the meaning of those housing names. this work can be practically used by other party that want to create a name for their business. in addition, the finding can also contribute to the law enforcement in indonesia context. the government, in this case is represented by board of investment and licensing services or bpmpp (badan penanaman modal dan pelayanan perizinan) can add hadiati, c., foreign language lexicons used in indonesian housing names: a 335 peircean semiotics overview https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj requirement for developers who want to build housing in certain their area. developers are forced to use bahasa indonesia for their housing names because bahasa indonesia is a prerequisite in public space including in housing names. in case developers resist to use bahasa indonesia in their housing names, bpmpp can hold the license. references antoro, b., & muldian, w. (2015). buku saku gerakan literasi sekolah ditjen dikdasmen kemendikbud [pocket book for the school literacy movement directorate general of primary and secondary education ministry of education and culture]. bienacki, p., & waldorf, d. (2010). snowball sampling. sociological methods and research, 10(2), 141-163. clinkenbeard, p. r. (2012). motivation and gifted students: implications of theory and research. psychology in the schools, vol. 49(7), 622-630. doi: 10.1002/pits.21628 egan, d. (writer), & alexander, j. (director). (2018). failure to communicate [televison series episode]. in d. shore (executive producer), house. new york, ny: fox broadcasting. eresha, g., haring, m., endrass, b., andr, e., & obaid, m. (2013). investigating the influence of culture on proxemic behaviors for humanoid robots. proceedings of the 22nd ieee international symposium on robot and human interactive communication, august 26-29, pp. 430-443, gyeongju, korea. flaws, b. (trans.) 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(2017, december 19). shrink rap radio [audio podcast]/ retrieved from http://www.shrinkrapradio.com a journal of culture, english language teaching, & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia i am malala: a woman’s struggle for her rights in education 1putri pramesti and 2maria johana ari widayanti 12english literature, english department, semarang state university, indonesia email: 1putripamesti862@gmail.com; 2widabranta.74@gmail.com received: 30-06-2019 accepted: 05-07-2019 published: 31-07-2019 mailto:putripamesti862@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj i am malala: a woman’s struggle for her rights in education 1putri pramesti and 2maria johana ari widayanti 1putripamesti862@gmail.com, 2widabranta.74@gmail.com 1english literature, english department, semarang state university, indonesia 2english literature, english department, semarang state university, indonesia abstract: the right to experience an education is a basic right for everyone to have. men and women should have the same opportunities to get a proper education. however, some society seem to differentiate the opportunity for men and women’s education. one of the society that differentiates this is pakistan. the novel, i am malala novel, which is written by malala yousafzai is one of those that deals with the inequality of women in education. this article discussed about a research that used qualitative method to describe about woman’s rights in education by using liberal feminism. the result of the novel’s analysis showed the struggle of the main character, malala, who received a number of wrong perceptions from her society, family and tradition about the position of women. the wrong perceptions became the reason why she suffered from the inequality of education between man and woman. key words: woman struggle, education, liberal feminism abstrak: hak untuk merasakan pendidikan adalah hal dasar yang harus dimiliki oleh semua orang. laki-laki dan perempuan harus mempunyai kesempatan yang sama untuk mendapatkan pendidikan yang layak. tetapi, beberapa masyarakat terkesan membedakan kesempatan memperoleh pendidikan bagi laki-laki dan perempuan. salah satu masyarakat yang membeda-bedakan adalah pakistan. novel i am malala, yang ditulis oleh malala yousafzai adalah salah satu novel yang berhubungan dengan ketidaksetaraan pendidikan bagi perempuan. jurnal ini mendiskusikan tentang penelitian yang 190 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 189 – 201 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk mendeskripsikan tentang hak perempuan dalam pendidikan dengan menggunakan feminisme liberal. hasil dari analisis novel menunjukkan perjuangan dari tokoh utama, malala, yang menerima banyak persepsi yang salah dari masyarakat, keluarga dan tradisi tentang posisinya sebagai perempuan. pandangan yang salah menjadi alasan mengapa ia mengalami ketidaksetaraan pendidikan antara laki-laki dan perempuan kata kunci: perjuangan wanita, pendidikan, feminisme liberal introduction every human being has rights that cling since they were born. the concept of human right is that every single human being is entitled to enjoy his or her human rights without distinction as to race, color, sex, language, religion, political or any other opinion based on national or social origin, property, birth or status. according to osler and starkey (1996), human rights are overused so that laws about human rights arise. the council of europe states that there are recommendations that encourages teaching and learning about human rights in school. the definition of human rights includes some aspects, such as the right to get an education. not only men, but women also have the rights to receive free education. subrahmanian (2005) states that rights within education refer to the right of men and women to non-discrimination in education opportunities. every human being is equally entitled to their human rights without discrimination. thus, education should be for everyone, whether man or woman. the discrimination between men and women sometimes comes from an ideological social characteristic. one’s sex, male or female, is determined at birth. one’s gender, however, is a social construct, being created by cultural ideas and norms. consciously or unconsciously conformity of cultural ideas is established for them by society. the conformity is the images of men who are aggressive, self-assertive, and domineering; whereas women are passive, meek and humble, thus in society, men are defined as more dominant than women. it also happened in education. this is why society believes that education for women is unnecessary because in the end, a woman’s role is just to become a housewife. pramesti, p. & widayanti, m.j.a. i am malala: a woman’s for her rights 191 in education https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj according to (2007) education for women should not make them have the same intelligence as men because people believe that education for women is necessary only to make women become more effective wives for their future husbands and more effective mothers and teachers for their future children. unfortunately, this cannot happen unless women also have the same opportunities for education. education is the first step toward empowering youth. society must allow women to show their opportunity in the spotlight. women have the same rights as men to develop their ability and to employ them freely. women also struggle to fight for their rights in education, especially in a patriarchy culture. it is an undeniable reality that the domination of patriarchy culture in women’s life such as getting educated is really obvious when perceiving women as biologically and socially inferior that they become subordinate to men. rosemarie tong (1989) states that patriarchal society uses certain facts about male and female, i.e. in their chromosomes, anatomy, and hormones, as the basis for constructing a set of masculine and feminine gender identities and behaviors that serve the empowered men and disempowered women. women in a patriarchal society are being labelled as inferior and always under men’s shadow. in education, women also should not get an education because the role of women in a patriarchal society is biologically as mothers of their children, and socially as housewives and those that take care of houses. the novel i am malala described a girl named malala who struggled to get her rights in education in taliban society. the patriarchal culture in pakistan was the obstacle for malala to reach her dream to fight for education for all women in pakistan. this becomes the reason why the researchers will analyze i am malala by relating to the protagonist with the issue of a woman’s struggle for her rights in education. literature review a. novel according to sumardjo (1998, p. 29) a novel is a fictitious prose narrative of book length portraying characters and actions that is credibly representing a real life in continuous plot. a novel is a story with the prose 192 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 189 – 201 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj form in long shape because the story includes the elements of a complex plot, that has many characters and various settings. the division of the elements for a novel is the intrinsic and extrinsic elements. b. intrinsic elements intrinsic elements are the elements that become the foundation of a literary work. intrinsic elements play the role as the builder of the story. there are three intrinsic elements used in this article. first is character and characterization, second is plot and the last is setting. according to nurgiyantoro (2010), the main character of a literary work has a round characterization that experience development. unlike flat characters, who stay undeveloped, the main character is described fully and experiences a climax and resolution towards the end of the novel. the plot is the story line that contains the sequence of events that connects one event to another. in addition to having a climax and resolution, a complete plot of a novel would have an exposition, conflict, and an end. the setting of the novel is the place, and time. in the story, i am malala, the story is set in pakistan. c. extrinsic elements extrinsic elements are the elements that are beyond the work of the novel as a work of art. in this article the extrinsic element looks ino the sociological perspective, which includes the discussion of the patriarchal society. the patriarchal society in this case is about the male-dominated society found in pakistan. the gender perspective of the extrinsic elements also play an significant contribution in the discussion of the main character of the novel malala. d. women’s rights in education kate gordon said that woman’s education, like a man’s education, should fit her to make a free and intelligent choice of a life occupation. studies on women’s education have emphasized the demand for equitable education and have drawn attention to increasing access for women (david, 1990). a woman’s education should place within her reach the possibility of economic independence; that is to say, the possibility of competing with men. however unfortunately, sometimes women’s education is considered unimportant. the images of women who are passive, weak and powerless pramesti, p. & widayanti, m.j.a. i am malala: a woman’s for her rights 193 in education https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj make people think that women did not need a higher education. women should be at home cooking or housekeeping. e. women’s struggle in education at the beginning of the 20th century, an inequality exists between men and women. in society, the gender inequality has caused various problems. some gender issues are related with gender relation, gender roles, and also gender unfairness experienced by women and men (fakih, 2006, pp.8-19). women have been, and continue to be, at the forefront of struggles worldwide to challenge inequality and discrimination in education. many believe that education was necessary to make women more effective wives, mothers, and teachers but clergymen claimed that women’s colleges posed a threat to the family by tempting women away from their natural and proper role. men and women should have the same opportunities to have a good education. education is the first step toward empowering youth; it is not the only sector that needs reformation to adequately provide a supportive environment for girls and women. men have been trained to have good future, by acquiring well-paid occupation. that is why, good education system is being prepared for men. meanwhile, women’s future seems not to be as important as it is for men. women’s future is set to only be a good wife, who is good in cooking, taking care of children and home. women have, thus, been treated as subordinates of men’s shadow. because of this gender inequality, feminism movement arise. f. liberal feminism liberal feminists wish to free women from oppressive gender roles because it is from those roles that there have been excuses or justifications for giving women a lesser place, or no place at all, in the academy, the forum, and the marketplace. tong is of the opinion that: it is sometimes argued that men, no less than women, are also the victims of de facto gender discrimination—that even if the law has always been kind to men, other vehicles of social control have not. thus, men’s liberation activists complain about parents who never hire male babysitters and about nursery schools that prefer to fill their staff positions with women. although liberal feminists sympathize with men who find it difficult to pursue child-centered careers because of de facto 194 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 189 – 201 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj gender discrimination, they still think the kind of de-facto gender discrimination men experience is not nearly as systematic as the kind that women experience. society remains structured in ways that favor men and disfavor women in the competitive race for power, prestige, and money. (2010, p. 34) liberal feminism originates from the liberal political theory which focuses on equality. liberal feminism argues that women should have similar rights as men and the same educational and work opportunities. in more detail, jaggar explains: liberal feminism is grounded squarely on an acceptance of this traditional view. it is presupposed by the feminists’ argument that an individual’s sex is irrelevant to her rights and by the feminists concern to prove that women are capable of full rationality. so far, then, the liberal feminist position seems to be that male and female natures are identical; or, to put it more accurately that there is no such thing as male and female nature, there is only human nature and that has no sex. (1983, p.37) the quotation above stated that honestly there is no male and female nature. there is just human nature that shows that there should be no differences between men liberal feminism originates from the liberal political theory and thus focuses on equality. liberal feminism argues that women should have similar rights as men and the same educational and work opportunities. methodology this research is a qualitative research since it explained about woman’s rights in education. creswell (2009 p 201) stated that qualitative research method is the research that takes place in the natural setting, relies on the researcher as the instrument for data collection. the analysis was conducted by reading the novel, identifying, inventorying, selecting, and reporting the data of women’s rights in education using liberal feminism. after the data were collected, the researcher did some steps in analyzing the data viewed from liberal feminism analysis approach. they include the researcher’s explanation about the struggle of woman for her rights in education, which is depicted by seeing how women is treated unequal from the men based society’s beliefs and pramesti, p. & widayanti, m.j.a. i am malala: a woman’s for her rights 195 in education https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj family tradition. a scholar believes that women should not have the same education level with men because society believe if women have a good education they will forget about their natural and proper role. discussion i am malala is a novel written by malala yousafzai and christina lamb. it was published in 2013. there was a character in the novel, named malala yousafzai who bravely fights for her rights to get an education. there were many obstacles that malala had. the novel depicted the inequality between men and women in many aspects. the factors that made the inequality between men and women are various. the factors can be from society, family, tradition etc. the main character of this novel, malala, tried to fight against all the factors that make the inequality between men and women happen. she is a brave girl that is not n scared with the taliban that takes all the authority in her homeland, mingora. she was doing everything to get her and other girls rights, especially in getting the rights for a proper education. in the novel, women’s future is considered as not important. yousafsai wrote, “there seemed no point in going to school just to end up cooking, cleaning and bringing up children” (2013, p. 38). women’s future in other words is only prepared to becoming a good wife, who is good at cooking, taking care of the children and home. women in this case, are treated as subordinate and be under men’s shadows. a. malala yousafzai as a pakistani woman the main character of this novel is malala, tried to fight against all the factors that make the inequality between men and women happened. she was a brave girl who is not even scared of the taliban, in which they took all the authority in her homeland, mingora. she is a girl from pakistan. according to the novel, pakistan has a history of military coups. a general called zia ul-haq seized power. the situation under zia’s regime made women in pakistan restricted. there were a lot of policies and laws that make women not feel free. under zia’s regime, life for women in pakistan became much more restricted. jinnah said, “no struggle can ever succeed without women participating side by side with men. … but 196 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 189 – 201 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj general zia brought in laws which reduced a woman’s evidence in court to count for only half that of a man’s. soon our prisons were full of cases like that of a thirteen-years-old girl who was raped and became pregnant and was then sent to prison for adultery because she couldn’t produce four male witnesses to prove it was a crime. (yousafzai, 2013, p.29-30) the situation under zia’s regime made women in pakistan felt restricted. there were a lot of policies and laws that made women feel not free. one of the reasons why malala should fight to get woman rights was the situation in that time that was really bad. women were totally being discriminated in every single aspect. not only in education, but women’s role in society was also being reduced. women’s voices were not being heard. of they were defined as a second sex. in the novel, we can find the power from one of the politicians in pakistan, i.e. sufi muhammad, who is founder of tehrik-e-nifaz-e-shariat-emuhammad (tnsm). was one of the politicians in pakistan, who favored with general zia ul-haq’s regulations about women in education. he claimed that there should be no education for girls at all. he said that islam does not allow girls to go to school. islam taught that girls who would stop going to school will be congratulated because islam women should only be housewives who takes care of children at home. if women still continue to going to school, then they would be referred to animals because they get to be called on as buffaloes or goats. one day sufi mohammad proclaimed from jail that there should be no education for women even at girls’ madrasas. ‘if someone can show any example in history where islam allows a female madrasa, they can come and piss on my beard,’ he said. then the radio mullah turned his attention to schools. he began speaking against school administrators and congratulating girls by name who left school. ‘miss so-and-so has stopped going to school and will go to heaven,’ he’d say, or, ‘miss x of y village has stopped education at class 5. i congratulate her.’ girls like me who still went to school he called buffaloes and sheep. (yousafzai, 2013, p. 109) muhammad said that islam did not allow girls to go to school. they warned girls to give up going to school, and have even mentioned how they would congratulate girls who stop going to school, by broadcasting it in the radio. pramesti, p. & widayanti, m.j.a. i am malala: a woman’s for her rights 197 in education https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. pakistan’s social setting inequality between men and women could actually come from anywhere. one of the examples was from society. in malala’s case, the social setting of pakistan has become one of the most important factor that influenced her struggles. jaggar (1983, p. 128) exclaims that a woman could not be separated from the society, in which she is embodied, because she will reflect what society has been idealizing about women’s place in society. in the novel, yousafzai informs: as in most families, the girls stayed at home while the boys went to school. “they were just waiting to be married,” says my father. school wasn’t the only thing my aunts missed out on. in the morning when my father was given cream or milk, his sisters were given tea with no milk. if there were eggs, they would only be for the boys. when a chicken was slaughtered for dinner, the girls would get the wings and the neck while the luscious breast meat was enjoyed by my father, his brother and my grandfather. “from early on i could feel i was different from my sisters.” (yousafzai, 2013, p.27-28) having men receive the best kind of food, like described above, entails that in pakistan, only the men should have the health and nutrients for being intelligent beings at school. drinking milk rather than tea would give men the energy and nutrients they need to think cleverly at school. in contrast, women drinking tea would help them survive by not being dehydrated, however, the kinds of vitamins and minerals they would get is much less than the men. with the consumption of only tea, women are prone to be less intelligent when it comes to doing school work. this is similar with the case of giving breast chicken meat to the mean and the bony wings of the chicken for the women. the different treatment from society toward men and women was really undeniable in pakistan. all of the best things seem to be created only for the men. it was like women were created to not need good things. this effects the educational field as well, where men and women are being treated differently. men were allowed to go to school, and women were not because staying at home was their place in society. pakistani men believed that there seemed no point for women to go to school because most women should just end up cooking, cleaning and taking care of the children at home. 198 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 189 – 201 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the obstacle to getting proper education not only came from society. in pakistan, the obstacle can also come from the family and tradition. in the novel i am malala, different treatments between men and women have been experience ever since they people were babies. in our tradition on the seventh day of a child’s life we have a celebration called woma (which means “seventh”) for the family, friends and neighbors to come and admire the newborn. my parents had not held one for me because they could not afford the goat and rice needed to feed the guests, and my grandfather would not help them out because i was not a boy. (yousafzai, 2013 p.55) the tradition of the family in not making a feast for malala, who is the main character of the novel, showed that women are second class to men. being labeled as the second class, women is clearly shown to be unequal to men. those who has the opportunity to speak up are only the men. in the novel, yousafzai exclaimed that, “in our culture, speeches are usually written by our fathers, uncles or teachers” (2013 p.73). the fact that women should not speak up as they are inferior and being treat as weak, unimportant and fragile made malala struggle to try and change the condition. knowing that school was not for women, malala protested by trying to change women in her area to agree to having a good education as men would have. in the novel, malala expressed her wish about women as follows: peace in every home, every street, every village, every country— this is my dream. education for every boy and every girl in the world. to sit down on a chair and read my books with all my friends at school is my right. to see each and every human being with a smile of happiness is my wish. (yousafzai, 2013 p.293) c. malala as a woman character in the beginning of the novel, readers are given the information that malala was a student at a girl’s school. malala said: ‘they cannot stop me. i will get my education if it is at home, school or somewhere else. this is our request to the worldto save our schools, save our pakistan, save our swat.” (yousafzai, 2013 p.149) pramesti, p. & widayanti, m.j.a. i am malala: a woman’s for her rights 199 in education https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj she was doing everything to get her and other girls’ rights, especially in education. after the taliban began attacking girls' schools in swat, malala gave a speech in peshawar, pakistan, in september 2008. the title of her talk was, "how dare the taliban take away my basic right to education?” in early 2009, in reality, yousafzai began blogging for the bbc about living under the taliban's threats to deny her an education. in order to hide her identity, she used the name gul makai. however, she was revealed to be the bbc blogger in december of that year. with a growing public platform, yousafzai continued to speak out about her right, and the right of all women, to an education. she believes that men and women should have the same education. her activism resulted in a nomination for the international children's peace prize in 2011. that same year, she was awarded pakistan's national youth peace prize. when she was 14, malala and her family learned that the taliban had issued a death threat against her. on october 9, 2012, on her way home from school, a man boarded the bus malala was riding in and demanded to know which girl was malala. when her friends looked toward malala, her location was given away. the gunman fired at her, hitting malala in the left side of her head. the bullet then traveled down her neck, and two other girls were also injured in the attack. the shooting left malala in a critical condition, so she was flown to a military hospital in peshawar. a portion of her skull was removed to treat her swelling brain. to receive further care, she was transferred to birmingham, england. once she was in the united kingdom, yousafzai was taken out of a medically induced coma. malala is a girl who survived and continued to live in swat valley, pakistan. she has dark brown eyes and dark brown hair. she often wears a colorful veil over her head because of her religion. it is a tradition in pakistan for “women in the village hid their faces whenever they left their purdah quarters and could not meet or speak to men who were not their close relatives” (yousafzai, 2013 p.63). yet, for malala, her veil is not just showing what religion she has, but it is proof that she was a survivor for her rights in education. after being shot by the taliban man, she could not smile on the left side of her face, due to the bullet shot she had on the left side of her skull. 200 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 189 – 201 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conclusion the novel, i am malala, tells about a young pakistani girl who fought for her rights in education. the reason for her fight was due to the pakistan society’s belief that women do not need the equal opportunity for education. as members of a moslem society, women have been taught to only become housewives who should not show herself in front of others because the place for women is only in the kitchen and become mothers for their children. the condition of making women as second class has even influenced the different kinds of drink and food that women and men can consume. from the novel, it was basically learned that men can enjoy the best of things, in order to keep women unintelligent and uneducated. although malala was still a young girl, she managed to show some of her protests before she was finally shot by the taliban man. references azhari, y.r. (2017). the representation of child worldview in emma donoghue's room. research paper. english department pasundan university. behuria, a.k. (2007). fighting the taliban: pakistan at war with itself. australian journal of international affairs, 61(4), 529-543, doi: 10.1080/10357710701684963. creswell, j.w. (2009) research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. newbury park: sage publications. fakih, m. (2016). analisis gender & transformasi sosial. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. handayani l. (2017). an analysis of intrinsic elements of efendi’s refrain. research paper. english department pasundan university. nurgiyantoro, b. (2010). teori pengkajian fiksi. yogyakarta: gajah mada university press. osler, a. & starkey, h. (1996). teacher education and human rights. london: david fulton. reskiawan, s. (2017). the conflict of the characters in dickens a christmas carol. thesis. english department hasanuddin university. pramesti, p. & widayanti, m.j.a. i am malala: a woman’s for her rights 201 in education https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj subrahmanian, r. (january 01, 2005). gender equality in education: definitions and measurements. international journal of educational development, 25(4), 395-407. tong, r. (2009). feminist thought; a more comprehensive introduction 3rd edition. colorado: westview press. yousafzai, m. (2013). i am malala: the schoolgirl who stood up to the taliban. london, uk: orion publishing group. wida cover ojs pdf.pdf (p.1) 2172 file pdf.pdf (p.2-14) 5 synthezising ideology: representation of african-americans’ identity in the 1960s ida rochani adi idaadi@ugm.ac.id american studies graduate program, gadjah mada university, yogyakarta abstract: identity is shaped through values and values are maintained through ideology. ideology is therefore important for every nation in making its vision into realization. the research is intended to find out (1) the values that africanamerican would like to fight for, through which they try to create their own identity, (2) how african-americans, as minority, tried to build their identity in 1960s, and (3) the common ground of the effort in sustaining their ideology in that they can build their identity. this is a qualitative and interdisciplinary research in the constructivist paradigm in which qualitative method is used in gathering the data and descriptive qualitative is used in analyzing the data. this research reveals that the ways in establishing the african american identities are through sports, social practices and music. in relation to the notion of ideology, the spreading and strengthening of african-american ideology, both cultural and psudo ideology, are done through humanitarian actions to fight the discrimination they endure. this research determines that the synthesis in creating identity among the whites is through individual freedom and responsibility in which freedom is the common ground of human existence marking the primary force of the existence of identity. key words: identity, ideology, african-americans, values, abstrak: identitas dibentuk melalui berbagai nilai dan nilai tersebut dipertahankan melalui ideology. dengan demikian ideology menjadi penting bagi setiap bangsa untuk mewujudkan visi mereka. penelitian ini ditujukan untuk mengetahui (1) nilai-nilai yang diperjuangkan oleh african-american dalam membangun identitas mereka, (2 bagaimana african-americans, sebagai kaum minoritas, 216 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 membangun ideology pada tahun 1960an, dan (3) kesamaan pandanga nmereka dalam mempertahankan ideology sehingga identitas dibangun sesuai dengan apa yang mereka inginkan. penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif dengan pendekatan interdisipliner dalam paradiggma konstruktivis. penelitian ini menemukan bahwa cara untuk membentuk identitas african american dilakukan melalui olah raga, praktik social dan music. dalam kaitannya dengan ideology, penyebaran dan penguatan ideology african-american dilakukan melalui aksi humanitarian untuk melawan diskriminasi yang mereka alami yang mencerminkan adanya ideology riil dan melalui pseudo ideology melalui penggambaran dan prestasi mereka dalam televisi. penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa sintesa dari pembentukan identitas di antara kaum kulit putih dilakukan melalui kebebasan individu dan tanggungj awab di mana kebebasan merupakan landasan umum dari keberadaan manusia. hal ini menjadi dorongan utama dalam pembentukan identitas. kata kunci: identitas, ideology, african-american, nilai introduction man’s creations cannot be separated from the values of the society no matter how modern the society is because values are subjective. it is the values that create the identity of the society and the identity creates the culture of the society. values as the rule governing how people think, feel, and behave also experience changes. they also experience global interrelation and integration. in american context, values are believed as having capability in creating the greatness of the united states of america, for example, freedom, individualism, pragmatism, progress, multiculturalism, and mobility which appear in various readings of american literature. however, among the development and progress that american people face, american history records that american people experienced drastic changes in 1960s. the years of 1960s is seen as a peak point of a change from the life with old values to the beginning of modern life as what we can see today. values preserved by the ideology is seen no longer compatible with reality. various social movements appeared as a reaction to the chaos of the that era. people felt that there were many things which were not in adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 217 ideology in the 1960s accordance with what is stated in the bill of rights. the most noticeable happening is, for example, discrimination toward african-american. the phase of african-americans’ protests on civil rights rose sharply as a result of several happenings. martin luther king, jr., the influential civil rights leader, for example, led a boycott that ended segregated busing in montgomery, alabama. sit-ins and other protests spread across the south in early 1960. it is recorded that in more than 65 cities in 12 states about 50,000 young people joined the protests that year. protests from african american movements in fighting discrimination appeared in great number. the questions raised then: what ideology they were fighting for? or in other words, what ideology do they reject? and how do they build themselves in buiding their power through which they structure their identiy? these are important to be answered in this research. identity is shaped through values and values are maintained through ideology. ideology is therefore important for every community in making its vision into realization. starting with the question of what kind of identity african-american have and what kind of values they hold in their ideology that makes them to have such identity, the research is intended to find out (1)t values that african-american would like to fight for, through which they try to create their own identity, (2) how african-americans, as minority, tried to build their identity in the 1960s, and (3) the common ground of their efforts in sustaining ideology so that their identity is build in accordance with what they want. watts states, “community spoke to membership and identity in which interests, property and shared meanings were at issues” (2006, p. 43). this means that the identity of the african-americans lies on the acceptance of the working identity of the community. according to rose, “a community is not necessarily geograhic space, but it is a moral field binding persons into durable relations. it is a space of emotional relationships through which individual identities are constructed through bonds to micro-cultures of values and meanings” (1999, as cited in watts, 2006, p. 43). identity, therefore, relates to “cultural descriptions of persons with which we emotionally identify and which concern sameness and difference, the personal and the social” (barker, 2004, p. 96). from those concepts of community and identity, it can be said that the ideology and values of african-americans in the 1960s can be seen from cultural practice and how they are able to spread and maintain their ideology. this becomes their identity. identity is therefore a “production, which is never complete, always 218 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 in process, and always constituted within, not outside, representation” (hall, 1990, p. 222). bourdieu (2000) in his theory of cultural practice in the form of habitus states that, “the importance of negotiation of capitals, which are economic, social, and symbolic in forming cultural practice” (p. 46). this means bourdieu emphasizes the struggle of power in the society to gain their capital and to strengthen their dominance in the society. every agent negotiates their capitals to establish power in the creation of meaning in a certain field. in the case of african-americans, the dominant society in 1960s is the government. it tries to suppress the emergence of sub cultural movements which against their values by various kinds of ways which include violence at times. on the other hand, the minorities, africanamericans, try to gain more capitals of their own to sustain their position in the society and ‘legitimize’ their standing during the chaos of the 1960s. methodology this is a qualitative and interdisciplinary research in the constructivist paradigm in which qualitative method is used in gathering the data. this method suggests that it is the researcher who interprets data. the interpretation, therefore, depends on the researcher who can interpret it subjectively. creswell (2003) has pointed out, “qualitative research is a form of interpretive inquiry in which researchers make an interpretation of what they see, hear, and understand” (p. 212). there are three parts of research process. first, organizing proposal design which includes formulating theme, theories used, method used in the research as well as research location in accordance with already decided indicators. the second steps is accumulating data, processing data, and analysing data. data are accumulated from phenomena in the us, specially on african-american movements in the 1960s. after the data were collected in the database, the analysis begins. in analyzing the data, the researcher employs descriptive qualitative approach. descriptive qualitative approach is mainly employed to describe the data in words or in making interpretation on the findings. in analyzing data, theory of representation is used in making a justification. theory of representation basically shows that the production of the meaning of the concept in our minds is through language. in part, we adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 219 ideology in the 1960s give things meaning by how we represent them – the world we use about them, the stories we tell about them, the image about them, the image of them whe we produce, the emotions we associate with them, the way we classify and conceptualize them, and the values we place about them (hall, 1997, p. 15). in analyzing the data this research makes use of the construction of all forms of media in the system of representation: the system by which all sorts of object, people, and events correlated with a set of concepts or mental representation and signs enabling people to translate thoughts or concept into words, sounds or image (hall, 1997, pp. 17 18). specifically, in spite of three different approaches of representation, proposed by hall, the analysis is based only on the reflective approach that meaning is thought to lie in the object, person, idea or event in the real world, and the language function like a mirror or reflect the true meaning as it already exists in the world (hall, 1997, p. 24). results dealing with african-americans’ identity, one cannot be put far away from what social group they belong to. like native-americans, asian americans, and hispanic-americans, african-americans can be regarded as minority group. the difference on the term of minority in europe and america are described in several ways. lois wirth proposes the ideal types of minority groups in accordance with their purposes. they are pluralistic, assimilationist, sectionist, and militant. they are implied in european minority groups. in the united states, the minority group is defined firstly by migration characteristics. secondly, it is categorized in accordance with the development of south states because of plantations and slavery. therefore, american minority is classified because of its historical background and geographical condition (barron, 1967, pp. 6 10). furthermore, schermerhorn (1967) has shown that american minority can be seen through the dominant group in the country, i.e. wasp (white anglo saxon puritan). based on the categories of race and ethnicities, he states, first of all, they [the wasp] categorize them [minorities] as either colored or non-colored as compared with their own white status… a second category employed popularly to distinguish the ins from the outs is that of foreigner… religious label are also used to differentiate the dominant group from others… 220 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 [and] non–caucasian immigrants, for example the mexicans, that based on the color distinctions a stranger to america might hypothesize that when color discriminations is added to that against foreigners, colored aliens might be subject to the most severe power pressures of all. (schermerhom, 1967, pp. 11 13) african-americans can therefore be categorized as minority as meyers (1984) stated, “[minority group] was used to identify a cohesive social group within a larger social group cohabited a nation state but that differed from that larger group” (p. 2). the results of the research on how african americans as the minority group negotiates their identity are discussed in the following. a. conflict and negotiation of african-american identity in order to see the identity of african-american individuals in the 1960s, which are regarded as minorities, the investigation of this research is based on social practices, education, media, sport and state rituals. as the theory of representation suggests, the identity can be seen not only in the existing social practices of african-americans but also in media, sport, and education. for the purpose of analysis, eight leading individuals, who became popular in the 1960s, are used to build the argument. the primary noticeable identity of african-americans is in sport and music. in sport, the us of the 1960s has, for example. jim brown. jim brown was a football player playing for cleveland browns from 1957—1965. he was awarded a rookie of the year and two-time mvp (most valuable player) and led the browns to the nfl (national football league) championship in 1964. in the music industry, african-americans have ray charles, who had already mixed gospel and blues into an original, energetic heart-stirring sound for atlantic records. sam cooke, the most successful artists of the early 60s; aretha franklin, who is regarded as the queen of soul and the most influential singer of all; marvin gaye, a motown greatest singer; jimi hendrix, a guitar player who was the one of rock superstars and still regarded as rock’s master genius; and wilson picket, otis redding, a singer, who gained international reputation, and the supreme, the most commercially successful girl group. the above reputations of african-americans in the 1960s are actually very little when compared with what the “white” had accomplished. they are still categorized as minority in number. however, parillo (1985) states that, “the term minority can refer to millions of persons, a size larger than a adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 221 ideology in the 1960s secondary group” (p. 16). the question is, then, can african-americans make themselves belong to the majority? such question is based on the assumption that when in the process of negotiation, they can gain power over the majority; they then meet the criteria of the majority. african americans, however, negotiate their identity only through music, especially through blues, jazz, rap and hip-hop, and sports, especially in basket ball game. they cannot, thus, be in the majority group. therefore, this research on identity of african-americans starts with the idea that the identity of african-americans is that of the minority. taking the notion that, “the emerging identities of new social groups and subjectivities as being confronted by a dominant culture whose discourses and language do not allow them to articulate fully their experience” (rutherford, 1990, p. 22) brings about the idea that american culture in music and sport endorse african-americans to build their identity. barker (2004) states that identity is, a cultural construction because the discursive resources that form the material for identity formation are cultural in character. in particular, we are constituted as individuals in a social process that is commonly understood as acculturation without which we would not be persons. indeed, the very notion of what it is to be a person is a cultural question. (p. 93) such notion, actually demonstrate the power of the majority, the “white”. in reality, however, african-americans are still classified as minority. for example, we can see in the following quotation: the various forms of black music—from gospel and the blues to jazz, soul, and, more recently, hip-hop—have helped define the culture over time black music, in the forms of blues and rhythm and blues, was the original source for what would eventually become “rock ’n’ roll,” a popular but derivative genre of music that went on to reach mainstream mass appeal—often at the expense of its black roots. (gilroy, 1997, p. 103). the image, or specifically the stereotype, of african-americans, is only for sports and music. sport connotes physical activity. it can be argued therefore, the stereotype that african-americans rely on their physical activities, which also connotes activities that do not need brain, going continues. fighting the stereotype for building identity becomes important within other activities because mainstream society has long used sport and 222 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 music to offer unattractive images of african-americans, images that would validate the poor treatment of blacks within american society. this confirms the idea that the locus of african-americans as minority and majority cannot be interchangeable. the majority shapes their identity although african-americans possess resources to gain and to maintain their authority in music and sport. even though barron (1967) states that the “majority group that does not have enough resources that can maintain their power can be moved to be minority group, the whites cannot be the one” (p. 4). barron (1967), further, states, a “minority is those who subordinated in these intergroup relations are typically referred as minorities, whereas their superordinate in status are called both majority and dominant groups” (p. 3). in the case of african-americans in music as discussed above, they cannot move its status as becoming the majority. african-americans are still marginalized people as confirmed in the following statement, “the minority is a subgroup within a larger society and that its members are subject to disabilities in the form of prejudices, discrimination, segregation, or persecution at the hands of another kind of subgroup, usually called a majority” (marmaryan, 2010). the position of african-americans, in spite their accomplishment in music, imply the role of marginalized people in the already established dominant group. pollard and o’harre (1999) reported that, “african-americans, native americans, hispanics, and asians all have experienced institutionalized or statesanctioned discrimination as well as social prejudice and oppression” (p. 5). the whites still enjoy their privileges while african-americans were still treated as peoples set apart or, in gleason’s term, “look upon themselves in that same light, and consequently develop attitudes and behavioral forms that exaggerate their distinctiveness and isolation” (gleason, 1991, p. 398). other than sport and music, education can also be regarded as tools in the negotiation of identity. the research draws this conclusion from the examination of through the most leading figures of malcolm x and martin luther king jr. malcolm x was african-american moslem nationalist and a founder of the organization of afro-american unity and martin luther king jr. was a leader of activists from the southern christian leadership conference (sclc) and its student wing, the student non-violent coordinating committee (sncc). martin luther king, jr. is the only one american born in the 20 th century who has been honored with his own national holiday today. he was adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 223 ideology in the 1960s a baptist church in montgomery, alabama at the time america’s most racially intolerant state. at the summer 1963 at a rally in washington d.c. in front of 200.000 people he deliver his speech “i have a dream” that becomes a touchstone of american history, as important in the 20 th century as lincoln’s gettysburg address in 19 th century. time awarded him as the person of the year in the end of 1963. he was the youngest-ever recipient of the nobel peace prize in 1974. the issues he targeted are labor equality, voting rights, the end of jim crow law. these were formalized with the civil rights act of 1964 and the voting rights act of 1965. he was killed in and followed by a national day of mourning. until today he is celebrated as a hero who, had fought a war, like gandhi, with nonviolence (strodder, 2007, pp. 172 174) these two leading figures malcolm x and dr. martin luther king jr. represent the educated people. interestingly enough, there is photograph of malcolm x posing by holding the holy quran. this seems to symbolize the educated people. in other words, it can be said that education or well learned individual has the power over the people. this is also the case with other american spokesperson along american history. those two figures are religious leaders. by this title, they can be the representation of the leaders. the binary oppositions can be seen in the following: majority : minority superior : inferior educated : uneducated leader : follower knowledgeable : ignorant conversant : unfamiliar therefore, it can be concluded that education seems to be tools in creating the image of power and strength in negotiation of identity. however, when analyzed through bourdieu’s perspective the habitus plays an important role in determining the individual’s success in achieving their dream, the identity of african-americans analyzed from their attitudes, beliefs, and experiences is shaped through their habitus of the white’s authority. the african-americans inhabits a social world related with aspiration and connected with effort and reward frame of the whites. for the purpose of this study and in order to complete the analysis, a life narrative of african-americans entitled ain’t no making it is the best illustration of the 224 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 notion of education as mechanism of power in the negotiation of africanamericans in the 1960s. the story is about two gangs in house project. one of the gang is called the brothers whose members are african-americans and the other is called the hallway hangers with the whites as the members. this narrative tells about how these two gangs live after the period of civil rights movement in the 1960s. though these both gangs enjoy the success of the civil right movements and they share the same poverty and education because they go to the same schools but they have a different perception toward the condition. the white is still optimistic but the african-americans are pessimistic. the brothers once believe that having higher education will guarantee them to have better job and higher position, as mcleod (2009) stated, “they had been told over and over by their parents, teachers, and counselors to stay in school, that they needed a high school diploma to get a decent job” (p. 228). the brothers’ experience, however, tells differently. mcleod (2009) stated, craig [an african-american], too, has followed the prescription for occupational success by investing heavily in education. he attended a junior college after graduating from high school and then transferred to a large university. he struggled to pay his bills, and he struggled academically. … craig returned home saddled with over $10,000 in student loans and hoping to land an entry-level job in the business world. he was disappointed. unemployed for over a year, craig settled for a clerical job in a large store’s credit department where he works the phone trying to recover delinquent bills for an annual salary of $17,000. (p. 207) mike (the white), on the other hand, experiences differently. “the irony is that mike landed the job at the bank only after he and craig indulged in a little collective use of credentials. they doctored craig’s diploma to make it appear that mike had received his associate’s degree, a foray into white collar crime about which mike makes no apologies.” (mcleod, 2009, p. 208). although the book was written many years after 1960s, how the book illustrates the discrimination toward africanamericans, confirms the idea that the ruling power in building their identity is still the white. the norm the african-americans hold is the norm of the majority. adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 225 ideology in the 1960s the other sign that shows the disposition toward education in negotiating identity is the sit-ins technique practiced by africanamericans in 1960s. the technique in showing protest in demanding rights, which was later adopted by student movements in several universities, like free speech movement (fsm), can be also considered as representing an educated way of making protest. it was initiated by martin luther king jr. in montgomery, alabama and ms rosa parks’ action in riding bus (newfield, 1966). this is also seen from the famous incident in greensboro, north carolina. on february 1 st , 1960, four african-american students of greensboro launched sit-in protest in a white lunch counter in woolworth to demand a lunch serving. as a result, they got the south police’s arrest. later on, the news was spread heavily throughout the south, and nationwide (freeman, 2004). the power of sit-in technique was so strong that influenced students’ movement. in september and october 1964, for example, the berkeley students launched the sit-in to protest, “the rules prohibiting the holding of meetings on campus, soliciting funds, making speeches, distributing leaflets or setting up tables with political material, the students created a united front of all political organizations, and demanded free speech” (teoderri, 1969, p. 26). “a first picket line attracted 200 demonstrators—out of a total student enrolment of 27,500 at that time.” (horn, 2007, p. 62). this new technique of sit-in is confirmed by the report of the president’s commission on campus unrest (1970), the activists introduced into campus protest new tactics that disrupted the university and denied others their fundamental civil liberties. these tactics included blocking of university officials carrying out their duties, harassing of university officials, and sit-ins in university buildings. the origin of these tactics, which had not been used by radical groups on campus before, was the civil rights movement, in which several fsm leaders had taken part. (pp. 25 26) the matriarch image of african-american women emerging most prominently during the height of the u.s. civil rights movement can be also used as analogy of this argument. the african-american matriarch was of particular concern to the u.s. government as they have double problems, being a woman and an african-american who has lack of education. they are regarded as the picture of the problems of african226 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 american family among other things such as poverty, crime, juvenile delinquency, lack of education, and so on. many argue that this was the weakness in the structure of the black family. in order to gain power in negotiating their identity, therefore, they should be educated and knowledgeable. b. mapping the ideology the advanced industrial growth in 1960s that resulted in mass production creating mass consumption has dramatically transformed the american society into the post–industrial age. advertisements marking the development of mass production and consumption were so strongly developed that these years became popularly called as advertisement era. the drive of consumerism created concerns among social movements, believing that the impact of consumerism could erase traditional values and cultures, as goose (2005) stated, “from the 1950s through the 1970s, a series of social movements surged across america, radically changing the relationship between white people and people of color, how the u.s. government conducts foreign policy, and the popular consensus regarding gender and sexuality” (p. 2). other mostly noted social movements were conducted by the youth, the new left and the hippies. the 1960s became a starting point of the advent of the new left. the leading phenomenon of the new left in america was the emergence of the free speech movement (fsm) in university of california at berkeley and the students for a democratic society (sds) in university of michigan (newfield, 1966, p. 16). these movements were out with their opposition toward social practices, especially by the government, which they viewed as moving away from the essence of declaration of independence of 1776 that promote the basic human right and individual freedom. it can be seen by their protest toward nixon, representing the old era, “the old era is ending. the old ways will not do.” (anderson, 2012, p. 21). the old era represented by the fifties was no longer accommodated. it was also the issue used by kennedy, who were regarded as representing the new era. this is seen by his speech in his inaugural address by stating, “we observe today not a victory of party but a celebration of freedom, symbolizing an end as well as a beginning, signifying renewal as well as change” (quinn & dolan, 1968, p. 59). adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 227 ideology in the 1960s other social reality that can be said as initiating social unrest is poverty. in the early 1960s, there were a big number of american scholars criticizing the disparity of wealth distribution despite its growing mass production and consumption. for example, michael harrington’s the other america made comments on poverty by stating, 40 to 50 million americans lived in poverty, often in isolated rural areas or urban slums “invisible” to the middle class…technological improvements like the mechanization of agriculture and the automation of industry, which produced a higher standard of living overall, eliminated the jobs of farm laborers and unskilled workers, locking them in poverty. (foner, 2011, p. 1049) the wide gap of income and wealth suffered by american minority, specifically african-americans also resulted in the students’ movement, like the new left movements whose mission was to make social transformation (teoderri, 1969). this can be seen, for example, from sds’s opening statement, which was famously called port huron statement, “we are people of this generation, bred in at least modest comfort, housed now in universities, looking uncomfortably to the world we inherit” (goose, 2005, p. 69). the statement shows that economic growth does not guarantee contentment. the equality of enjoying economic opportunity should be provided. it is a common sense that the emergence of socialist thought appeared through the new left movement. goose (2005) affirmed, “this was a new politics, somewhere between liberalism and radicalism, nonmarxist but open to socialist analysis, and focused on a total democratization of society—the economy, schools, and governmental institutions” (p. 69). as theory of representation suggests, the existence of “the other” is important in the process of analysis. this is also what is conducted in this research. when concerning american social unrest and social movement, indonesian experience can also be taken into account for the signification. one noted issue of indonesian social movement in the 1960s was the phenomena of president sukarno’s nasakom, which was declared during the cold war. the battle of ideology of capitalism, america, and communism, soviet union, also influenced indonesian politics. at this time, president soekarno established and combined several values of communism and indonesian to form a ‘political’ course of indonesia by implement the ideology nasakom as wood (2005) argued, 228 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 from early in his career he had been sympathetic towards a marxist interpretation of indonesian history… to create a just, egalitarian society. in addition to marxism, he also saw both religion and indonesian nationalism as essential for the nation’s full development. in the 1920’s he had argued that these three streams of thought were not incompatible; later he developed the concept of nasakom [nationalism, religion, communism] as the basis of a unified indonesian political identity. (p. 89) out of people’s apprehension toward the growing influence of communism into indonesian politics, coup de etatof the september 30 th 1965, and the increasing rate of poverty, indonesian students, later called batch of 1960s, threw protest with the support of indonesian armed force (abri) to overthrow president soekarno. this led to the falling of president sukarno’s presidency and the emergence of new order of president suharto replacing old order. under the new order administration student movement of 1960s, they hunted down several members of indonesian communist party (pki), either in campus and society. frederick and worden (2011) argued, “on the surface, and particularly through a cold war lens, the new order appeared to be the antithesis of the old order: anticommunist as opposed to communist-leaning, pro-western as opposed to anti-western, pro-capitalist rather than anti-capitalist, and so on” (p. 72). the issue of capitalist and socialist ideologies in indonesia, which can be said as driven by economic problems, appeared again in the 1970s. students also were the agents voicing the social change. the indonesian student movements of 1970 fought “establishment”, foreign investment that was mainly from japan, and unequal distribution of economic development. this research, however, is not intended to go to a deeper analysis of both the student movements and capitalist and socialist ideologies. it rather sees the general pattern of the movements and the african-american movements in the 1960s. from the above indonesian phenomena, it can be inferred that it is universal that inequality and discrimination always results in social unrest. in addition, people intend to make equilibrium between the two extreme polars, capitalist and socialist ideologies. in the 1960s, television played a vital role in broadcasting the pivotal moments of the civil rights movement. these years represented a new moment in terms of television history and public activism. although public interest had always been a consideration—the basis on which all stations were licensed—it was only in the 1960s that the notion of public interest adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 229 ideology in the 1960s extended to the concept of legal “standing”. “in the 1960s, television played a vital role in broadcasting the pivotal moments of the civil rights movement, and the 1970s inaugurated a fertile period for black representation on television. since that time, some might say that little has changed in these representations, even though the landscape of television has broadened substantially since then” (bodroghkozy, 2008, p. 339). television culture, particularly sports television media, has thus been central to the process of building the identity of african-american, not only in focusing news on african-americans but also in using ideologies as explanations for why certain happening occurred. the criminalization of young generation of african-americans has surrounded the people imagination. the negro revolution of the 1960s could not have occurred without the television coverage that brought it to almost every home in the land. ”this observation from a producer of cbs news in 1965 might suggest that american television was awash with images of african-americans during the civil rights era. and it was-but it also was not. television during this period adopted a strangely schizophrenic attitude to africanamericans: their plight and struggles received voluminous attention in news, documentary, and special reports. in primetime entertainment programming, however, american audiences saw a mostly whitewashed world, with the dramas and sitcoms of the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s rarely featuring non white characters. what role did network television play during the tumultuous and profoundly transformational years of the civil rights revolution in american race relations?. (bodroghkozy, 2008, p. 144) the revolutionary time of 1960s is widespread among the society and it resulted in gaining power over the population in creating the image of discrimination and it is thus voicing the african-american ideology. the assassinations of malcolm x and martin luther king jr., and the urban uprisings of the late 1960s, for example, became public concerns. this means television brought about larger social tensions. in researching the power of ideology penetrates in many different culture, pierre bourdieu’s theory on the practice of social habitus can answer this phenomena. his theory basically stresses on human capability in 230 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 negotiating their capita. further, this theory proposes the idea on human ability in negotiating their capita as the face social issues. in social scope, an individual or group can interact and negotiate. by this process, either individual or group, consciously or unconsciously, compete each other in gaining social power (bennett & et al, 2009, pp. 22 26). the consistent appeal provided by television resulted in the pervasive information of african-american values. through bourdieu’s point of view stating, “being the product of the conditionings associated with a particular class of conditions of existence, … taste is the basis of all that one has – people and things – and all that one is for others, whereby one classifies oneself and is classified by others” (bourdieu, 1984, p. 56), television became a legacy formulating african-american identity. building identity through preserving ideology is actually what is seen in the movements. the ideology, however, is also preserved through the media. the african-american movement cannot be successful in the absence of mass media, television. the role of mass media in broadcasting and portraying the movement, especially minority group of african – american, is highly significant. through publication in magazines, newspapers, and television, the african–american’s self–identification has emerged intensively nationwide. airing and publishing the african–american movement in fighting for human and equal rights in many aspects of life through television can be said as imposing “false consciousness”. this is like a snowball meaning that whenever publication of african–americans can create profit to television, the television stations intend to increase the publication. the increasing publication brings effects in the preservation of african-american ideology through which african-americans’ value is well maintained. in other words, it can be said that the ideology of african-americans can be the dominating ideas when the african-american can possess the modes of production of the media. the role of mass media is a tool to answer the effectiveness of the movements in formatting african–american’s identity. conclusion this research reveals that there are three ways in establishing the african-american identities. they are through sports, music, and social practices. the identification of african-americans in the field of sports are adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 231 ideology in the 1960s apparent both in real life and in popular products such as movies. despite its stereotyping nature, african-americans identification as sportsmen manage to place them in a special place in american social life. this also means strengthening their identification in giving positive image to the african-americans to oppose the stereotype given to them. the second way of establishing the african-american identity is done through the notion of social practices which also includes education. education becomes one of the tools in creating the image of power and strength in negotiating their identity to counter the image of uneducated and juvenile image of african-americans. the third way of establishing as well as strengthening the africanamerican identity is done through music. music has been embedded in african-american cultural practices since their first coming to america. the elevation of african-american image in the united states becomes apparent with the rising popularity of black music such as jazz, blues, swing, r&b and others. represented by the famous ray charles, sam cooke and aretha franklin, african-americans manage to set their place highly in the area of music even until nowadays. in this way, in a sense, the strong position of the african-americans also putting them in the position of the majority to combat the negative image of uncultured african-americans. in relation to the notion of ideology, the spreading and strengthening of african-american ideology are done through two ways. they are from humanitarian actions to combat the discrimination they endure which represent the real ideology and pseudo ideology trough their portrayals and achievement in the television. the humanitarian actions are enacted through the various kinds of movements which includes the famous civil rights movement, naacp (the national council of negro women), bus boycott, various sit-ins and marches in the 1960s. those movements are done in peaceful way instead of using violence anarchicism which has similar pattern with the new left movement. by those movements, the awareness of their disposition of being discriminated becomes stronger with the recognition of the mass both in the white community and the black community themselves. it also spreads the freedom ideology of the africanamericans in a sense. ideology of the african-american minority also spreads trough the pseudo-ideology by the means of television. the recognition of africanamericans in television industry both professionally and story wise in their 232 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 215 -235 portrayal also strengthen the disposition and thus the ideology of africanamericans among the whites as well. by this, this research determines that the synthesis in creating identity among the whites is through individual freedom and responsibility in which freedom is the common ground of human existence marking the primary force of the existence of identity. the african-americans voiced their ideology of freedom not through anarchism but through non-anarchical action. the justification over this idea is that the african-american has responsibility to be the united states citizens. the responsibility is shown in the ways of conducting movements in peace since doing it in violence will not bring them anywhere close to spreading their disposition of being discriminated. there is nothing to gain through the use of violence and it is proven that by this, their ideology and identities can be spread positively. it also needs to be noted that the state of being the minority puts them in the position in which they have no hands in changing the majority’s policy regarding their discrimination. as the minority, they cannot change anything. in other words, it can be said that the responsibility is coming out of their awareness of being minority. in conclusion, the minority, through the mechanism of identity, ideology, hegemony and habitus, cannot move from their disposition as the minority. the identification which are represented through their achievement in sports, social practices and music are related with their ideology of freedom as the best way to fight against the hegemony of the majority through their discriminations and their habitus which includes the notion of education and the recognition of their disposition as the minority. in this way, their state of being the minority and identification as one are represented in their inability to change the status quo and are manifested in their responsibility as the citizen of the united states by keeping the peace through peaceful actions i.e. marches and sit-ins, achievements and television to voice their ideals. references anderson, t. h. 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(1969). the new left: a documentary history. bobbs-merrill company. adi, i.r., synthesizing identity: representation of african-americans’ 235 ideology in the 1960s watts, m. (2006). culture, development, and global neo-liberalism. in s. a. radcliffe (ed.), culture and development in a globalizing world: geographies, actors, and paradigms. new york: routledge, 30 57. wood, m. (2005). official history in modern indonesia: new order perceptions and counterviews. leiden, the netherlands: koninklijke brill nv. guide for contributors a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 learners' language challenges in writing english barli bram ....................................................................................................... 1 autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. ............................................................................................ 16 scrooge's character development in charles dickens' a christmas carol theresia erwindriani .................................................................................... 28 teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono ....................................................................................... 45 “america, you know what i'm talkin' about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson ............................................................................................... 60 a love for indonesia: the youth's effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism shierly june and ekawati marhaenny dukut ................................................. 72 a book review: discourse analysis antonius suratno ........................................................................................... 88 celt, vol.12, no.1, pp. 1-100, semarang, juli 2012 (index) autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. 1 abstract: recent researches on cognitive methods show that institutionalized language learning is a constant source of stress, and a psychological obstacle leading to discomfort and insecurity. in the elle (electronic language learning environment) of the current times cybernautical approach opens attractive horizons by relaxing and empowering the learner, through its emphasis on communication, and by increasing interaction between the learner and the ‘teacherfacilitator.’ this paper shows how the cybernautical approach fosters l2 acquisition by valorizing ‘meaning’ and ‘content’ over ‘form’ and ‘competence in grammatical structures.’ the attempt in the paper is to analyze the essential ingredients of the cybernautical approach and explore the practical content of the method in the context of the sultanate of oman. the focus of the presentation is on the (re)defining of the learning space—the classroom— which has today become a major constraint owing to its spatial (fixed location) and temporal (fixed class timetable) inflexibility. 1 dr jacob george c. < jacobgeorgec@ gmail.com > +917736293862 is an associate professor, at the department of english, union christian college, alwaye-683102, kerala, india. j. george, autonomous learning in elle 17 key words: cybernautical approach, elle (electronic language learning environment, constructivist theory, behaviorism introduction the history of language teaching is probably coterminous with the history of education. through the centuries scholars have been engaged by the problem of effective language teaching. there are and have been many books, many methods, and many ideas about solving the problem. a wide variety of goals has been set, and a wide variety of rationales for foreign-language study have been offered: to become able to think more logically, to understand one's native language better, to become acquainted with the great literature of other cultures, to have access to the scientific literature of foreign co-workers, and to be able to communicate with others in their language. today we talk of that last rationale as the basic one, because ultimately it subsumes the others. once acquisition of the communicative skills is considered as the final, the eventual target, the end of the language-learning process, we tend to consider it the criterion by which success in language learning is judged. we believe that it is the very skeleton, musculature, and life blood of language. just as one cannot build a machine intended to do a complex task without incorporating into it step by step the capability of accomplishing that task, we believe that language can never become a tool for communication unless communication is the content, the emphasis, and the day-to-day routine of class work. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 16-28 18 cybernautical approach in comparison with other approaches with the advent of the cybernautical approach, a fundamental shift is changing our way of conceiving teaching and learning. contrary to the rigid and prescribed practices normally associated with teaching methods ranging from the traditional (grammartranslation, audio-lingual), the modern (communicative), to the non-conventional (suggestopedia, community language learning), the cybernautical approach stands out by virtue of its greater flexibility and adaptability. in the elle (electronic language learning environment) of the current times, cybernautical approach opens attractive horizons by relaxing and empowering the learner, through its emphasis on communication, and by increasing interaction between the learner and the „teacherfacilitator.‟ compared to the earlier teaching approaches, the cybernautical approach accommodates a paradoxical amalgam of interactivity and autonomous learning. it presents the challenge of a comprehensive, well-thought-out and concerted application of the new modes of solitary discovery—the cybernaut is first of all an explorer—and co-operative interaction. by redefining the very nature of the three poles of the learning situation—the teacher, the learner and knowledge (in the present case, the mastery of a language)—this approach fundamentally changes our way of conceiving teaching and learning. interestingly, recent researches on cognitive methods show that institutionalized language learning is a constant source of stress, and a psychological obstacle leading to discomfort and insecurity. as bogaards points out in aptitude, „to be deprived, be it temporarily, of one‟s linguistic powers is for most learners inhibiting.‟ we know however that the lesser the focus on the object of study (language), the greater the ease felt by the learner and the larger the reduction of affective filtering. this is why all j. george, autonomous learning in elle 19 the so-called non-conventional methods use an aid, with the aim of distracting attention from the process of learning: music (suggestopedia), props (total physical response), tape-recorder (community language learning), or even coloured sticks or cuisiniere rods (silent way). the cybernautical approach, besides offering an entertaining tool, equips the communicating learner with just such a „defensive screen‟ behind which it is not necessary to react instantaneously. how does cybernautical approach work? if one accepts the distinction between language learning and language acquisition, the cybernautical approach fosters acquisition. according to krashen, learning is a conscious process which concentrates on form and the knowledge of grammatical structures, whereas acquisition is unconscious and focuses on meaning. for krashen, a knowledge of language rules does not mean that the learner is able to use the language naturally. acquisition, because it concentrates on meaning, leads the learner to acquire unconsciously, the forms of the language. like the communicative approach and the non-conventional methods in which content is more important than form, the cybernautical approach puts communication first. once the technology has been put in the background, few obstacles would appear to impede communication between learners or between learner and teacherguide/„teacher-facilitator.‟ if we accept the fact that the learner is an active individual who participates willingly in the learning process, it is obviously necessary to create favorable conditions for the individual appropriation of this learning. the teacher's role in the presenting of learning material is thus paramount. since the cybernautical approach forgoes a 'fixed' manual, the teacher has continually to celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 16-28 20 enrich the course site/cyberspace with a variety of documents and at the same time monitor the pedagogical value of the links/materials supplied. the learner consults the various sites at will and may choose to go further in a personal quest of discovery: learning is no longer linear, since the learner can select which path to follow. in the cybernautical approach, the function of electronic mail and the bulletin board is to allow learners to express their fears and to catch the 'ear' of their peers and their teacher, thus producing an 'echo effect'. the teacher is thus aware both of the learners' language and of their feelings, can take their reactions into consideration and not hesitate to ask for their comments after each activity. in this way teaching ceases to be centred on the teacher and focuses on the learner, which has the effect of encouraging individual development. a glance at various related theories whereas recent theoretical thinking appears to be reassessing the recourse to the behaviourist method (use of rote learning or drills) that the communicative approach seems to have banished, neuro-scientific research suggests that the two hemispheres of the brain are not mutually exclusive as both are engaged in language learning. left-hemisphere activities (drills, for example) are as important as those engaging the right hemisphere (experiential activities). back in 1968, rivers came to the conclusion that second-language learning took place in two stages: in the first stage through a behaviourist-type process, and subsequently in a much more conscious manner, reflective, and thus cognitive. the marriage of the experiential and the cognitive, or the „intersection of the interactive and the reflective,‟ is the forte of electronic communication, after a long separation of the two in j. george, autonomous learning in elle 21 education. 'we should note that computer-assisted communication offers an ideal environment for learning language through use, that is to say through the experience of using language and reflecting on this use.‟ this intersection takes place not in solitude but in the context of 'social' interaction characteristic of the 'interconnectivity'. in piaget's constructivist theory knowledge is built through the social relationship of the individual and the environment. rather than reacting to the environment, as behaviourism asserts, the individual acts in relation to it. in the behaviourist approach, the individual passively learns by repetition, by imitating a model, whereas in the cognitive approach the individual already bears the germs of knowledge, which grow through a process of maturation. group work, collaboration, enquiry, role-playing and simulation all help develop the individual's cognitive structures. in theory, the new communication technologies are following the cognitive path. de kerckhove talks of 'the migration of psychological processes such as memory and intelligence from the inside of individual minds to the outside world of connectedknowledge media'. this interaction between the internal and external shows that the new educational technologies can serve, at least in part, the procedure advocated by piaget. contribution of cybernautical approach traditionally the three poles of the learning situation privileged the position of the teacher, owing to the latter being rooted in an institutionalized context for which, and in whose name, he/she taught. the link forged over the centuries between the lecturer and the classroom or lecture hall constitutes a tenacious paradigm. the cybernautical approach revises and modifies this paradigm and offers: celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 16-28 22 1. the immediacy of access to resources 2. a meaningful context. 3. experiential learning. 4. learner initiatives. 5. communication and interaction between participants. 6. the overall involvement and presence, physical or virtual, of the teacher/adviser. the cybernautical approach can be best illustrated by using a triangular model which places the teaching/learning process 'p' in a circular space 's' which encompasses and determines it (fig. 1). the relation between the functions situated at the three 'poles', or figure 1 vertices, of the triangle offers an effective tool for formulating the cybernautical approach. j. george, autonomous learning in elle 23 the progressive occupation of the traditional teaching/learning space, i.e., the transformation of the classroom into a cyberspace, involves fundamental changes to the nature of the subject, the object and the agent who effects or fosters the interplay of the other two. in the traditional class, the agent, invested with the authority of the institutional place of learning, used this status to define the nature of the object (for example, the type of english to be taught) and to determine the activities of the subject (the learner). when the learning space—the classroom, which has today become a major constraint owing to its spatial (fixed location) and temporal (fixed class timetable) inflexibility— is transformed into a virtual space, part of the agent's power is transferred to the more mobile subject, who assumes it in order to redefine the nature of the pursued object. the language being studied takes on a wider number of facets (regional, sociological and professional variants, non-standard registers); the students— whose life is divided, with increasing difficulty, between study and paid work—demand a greater flexibility in the conditions of their learning activities; the agent's former dominant and exclusive role becomes shared with electronic tools, which tend to take it over entirely; the 'agent' henceforth includes multimedia technology. the teacher, who shares the function of agent with a technology capable of taking over some of its aspects, must put into place the different forms of cohabitation. besides the pedagogical requirements of a general nature, the teacher adopting the cybernautical-approach is invested with new functions and has therefore constantly to master new skills; these new functions include: 1. the planning of teaching that combines the virtual and the real 2. the mediation of interpersonal relations between learners celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 16-28 24 3. the management of the class website and of electronic communications 4. the finding, and pedagogical evaluation, of net/interactive resources the learner develops personal learning strategies (self-direction) and plays a very active role in the course-learning program. the order of syllabus items and the time given to each is flexible. e l l e communication is, without doubt, the principal objective of elle. however, autonomy, independent learning and social interaction are involved just as much. excluding oral expression, which is still in the embryonic stage of development in this new context, none of the other three skills (aural comprehension, reading and writing) has the upper hand. vocabulary acquisition, for long neglected (tréville & duquette, 1996), is well served by the potential of the new technologies (elkabas & wooldridge, 1996; wooldridge, 1991). whereas the traditional manual, whatever its methodology, presents a static, fragmented image of the language, the elle manual is an open book offering multiple linguistic varieties (commercial, literary, political, scientific, etc.) and local colours (african, european, canadian, etc.). in the future the main task of the teacher will not be to write a language manual but rather an instruction manual, a sort of pedagogical guide to networked cybernautical resources. the teaching/learning space of language acquisition is, to varying degrees, more or less artificial or more or less natural. the greater the extent to which language practice takes place in the classroom, the more artificial it is; the more it happens in a space shared with other activities, the more natural it is. a learning space j. george, autonomous learning in elle 25 shared with the purchase of a train ticket is an example of what we call a natural space; it is also the case with the internet which is used as a learning space as well as a place to buy a plane ticket. the traditional learning space is the classroom, which exists in a fixed location at a fixed time. besides its artificiality, the classroom is a source of stress (except for extroverts) because of this spatial and temporal rigidity. the cybernautical approach offers, even demands, a redefinition of the learning space, which becomes variable in terms of place, time and content. the place includes the multimedia laboratory, the home, the cybercafé, the computerized classroom and the traditional classroom, which can be replaced by any other meeting place. the time is in large part what is available to the learner, who learns when it is preferable or possible to do so. meetings (between learners, or between learner and teacher) take place either without spatial or temporal constraint (e-mail) or at an agreed location and time (the classroom, for example). the content of the space consists of the participants in a given activity (see the triangle): for example, the learner alone (internet, e-mail), several learners together (free-access multimedia laboratory), or several learners with the teacher (classroom or directed laboratory). through the impetus given by the information revolution, a widening in the scope of language skills offered to the learner is taking place. to the four traditional skills (oral, listening, reading and writing) is now added the mastery of the teaching/learning space itself. a person who does not adapt to the life of a foreign country has difficulty in assimilating its language. a person who masters the classroom is what is called a 'good student'; the good student is the one who plays the education system's game. the cybernautical approach offers a wider variety of persons, 'conformists' and 'non-conformists', learning spaces which encourage them and motivate them to be 'good learners': the celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 16-28 26 classroom for the 'good students' and the extroverts, the multimedia laboratory with its exercises for the shy and the methodical, the internet for the explorers and the adaptable. as to classical language skills, we can note that reading, listening and oral expression are all by nature 'direct' modes of linguistic activity (subject-object), whereas writing is always mediated by rules. writing (in all circumstances, at all ages) is an activity in which one is conscious of the medium: 'how does one say...?', 'how do you spell...?', 'is there agreement of the past participle?', 'indicative or subjunctive?' (subject-rules-object). the new educational technologies are able to answer the needs of reading and listening; oral expression can never be satisfactory in a pedagogical environment, unless one is content with simulations (always a pale reflection of the natural oral situation) or one is a child, for whom everything is real—the physical environment, dreams, myths, games. the cybernautical approach may be criticized for an imbalance in the treatment of the four language skills: it is obvious that oral expression is the least developed of all. this in itself justifies, at least for the present, the contact between teacher and learners in a physical setting. the sending of an electronic oral message is possible, or immediate 'discussion' over the internet is possible, constraints of net-speed and related technical problems sometimes can make it impractical. it is also true that learners are not all capable of managing their learning through the medium of a machine or of being autonomous. ideally, it would be desirable to set up a class where all learners have the same learning profile. more than just another new teaching/learning method among so many others, elle offers cybernauts an access to the world of language and culture that a classroom study centred on the teacher j. george, autonomous learning in elle 27 is incapable of providing. characterized by a learning experience freed from the artificial stresses of the classroom, enjoying the twin advantages of immediate and reflective communication, determined more generally by the learner's needs, and creating a symbiosis of the authentic document and the teacher-guide, elle opens up new paths to the acquisition of knowledge. the change to the epistemological paradigm that it reflects sits ill, however, with the inflexibility of the study programmes of many institutions, which continue to separate the computer from the teacher (classroom hours vs. laboratory hours). it is strongly suggested that the configuration of the three poles of the teaching/learning process ('p') changes when the space ('s') that encompasses it is transformed. conclusion one of the most important contributions of the cybernautical approach is that it answers the linguistic needs of different types of learners: the visual and the verbal, the active and the reflective, the extrovert and the introvert. with the cybernautical approach, learners are engaged in significant language activities as well as developing their ability to 'learn to learn'. the communicative approach has made the authentic document its main platform; there are no documents more authentic than some of those found on the internet: newspapers, advertisements, historical documents, tourist and gastronomical sites, etc. the immediacy of access to these documents makes this technological capacity all the more attractive. the teacher is present in all learning spaces: guide to the use of the internet, creator of laboratory exercises, arbiter of language usage, moderator of discussions on content, adviser on questions asked by e-mail, manager of the different spaces. in the celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 16-28 28 cybernautical approach, the teacher's principal role is to accompany the learner, whether 'live' or at a temporal and spatial distance. to accompany is to exercise a noble profession. all learning is a journey of initiation; if it is the master who teaches the tradition, it is the guide who accompanies the novice on his or her journey of appropriation of knowledge. references bogaards, p. aptitude paris: editions didier, 1991. de kerckhove, d. connected intelligence: the arrival of the web society. toronto: somerville house publishing, 1997 krashen, s. principles and practice in second language acquisition. new york: pergamon press, 1982. rivers, w.m. teaching foreign language skills. chicago: u of chicago p, 1968. vandergrift, l. “orchestrating strategy use: towards a model of the skilled l2 listener.” language learning 58. 2003: 60-74. index of subjects celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 acquisition, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28 african american, 62, 69, 70 african american culture, 69 american television, 6163, 66 anti-christmas character, 37 approach, 1822, 2428 articles, 1, 2, 7 autonomous learning, 19 behaviourist method, 20 bernie, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 beulah, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 black sitcoms, 62, 68, 70 black, 61-69 charity, 30, 31, 43-46 classroom, 16, 22-23, 25-28 cognitive approach, 21 cohabitation, 24 comma splice, 11-12 communication, 16, 18, 20-22, 28 communicative approach, 19, 21, 28 computer-assisted communication, 21 corruption, 79 cuisiniere rods, 19 cybernautical approach, 16-20, 22-23, 26-29 cyberspace, 20, 23 dickens, 29, 30-32, 35-46 diction, 1, 10 diversity, 67, 73-79, 89 drama, 46-57, 59-60 elle, 16-18, 25, 27 english education programme, 2, 5, 6, 12 english extension course, 2, 5 6 english novelist, 30 episodic drama, 53 ethnicities, 74, 76 finite verbs, 1, 7-8, 15 foreign language, 47 fox network, 67 game, 49, 53, 55-57 grammar-oriented writing, 14 indonesia, 73-77, 79, 81-84, 8788 injustice, 79, 82 language-learning process, 17 learning, 1628 linguistic, 1, 2, 6 misanthropy, 29, 36, 38, 45 multicultural, 73, 74, 88 multiculturalism, 73-77, 79, 81, 82-85, 87-88 multiculturalist discourse, 67 multilingualism, 7 multimedia technology, 24 neuro-scientific research, 21 non-conventional methods, 19 number-noun concord, 8 oracy processes, 46-47, 59 paragraph writing, 1, 3 pluralism, 76, 79, 84, 89 punctuation, 3, 9, 12 reformation era, 79 scrooge, 29, 31-45 second-language learning, 21 segregationism, 61-62 student’s literacy, 47 subject-finite verb concord, 8 systemic functional linguistics approach, 90 television, 61-62, 64, 66, 68-69 tenses, 9 unity in diversity, 78 victorian age, 30 youth, 72, 73, 76-79 index of authors celt, volume 11, number 1, year 2011 adhyanggono, g.m, 46 bram, barli, 1 erwindriani, t., 29 george c., j. 16 june, s. and ekawati m.d., 73 nelson, a., 61 suratno, a. ,89 index of articles celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 adhyanggono, g.m. teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 4660. bram, barli. learners’ language challenges in writing english. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 1-15. erwindriani, theresia. scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 29-45. george c., jacob. autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 16-28. june, shierly and ekawati marhaenny dukut. a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 73-88. nelson, angela. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 61-72. suratno, antonius. a book review: discourse analysis. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 89-93. celt volume 11, number 2, year 2011 thank the following people for their outstanding work as reviewers: a. effendi kadarisman (universitas negeri malang, indonesia) c. soebakdi soemanto (universitas gadjah mada, indonesia) fr. borgias alip (universitas sanata dharma, indonesia) helena agustien (universitas negeri semarang, indonesia) subur wardoyo (ikip pgri semarang, indonesia) 2 jacob george_2012_12_1(16-28) 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 89-93 anton microsoft word 9949-d2dd-5257-c1d6 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia using social media for english language learning by efl university students: a mixed -methods study tubagus zam zam al arif, urip sulistiyo, and reli handayani english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, university of jambi, indonesia email: zamzam@unja.ac.id; urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id; reli_handayani@unja.ac.id received: 09-10-2019 accepted: 22-12-2020 published: 30-12-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj using social media for english language learning by efl university students: a mixed-methods study 1 tubagus zam zam al arif, 2 urip sulistiyo, and 3 reli handayani 1 zamzam@unja.ac.id, 2 urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id, 3 reli_handayani@unja.ac.id 123 english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas jambi, indonesia abstract: the purpose of this study is to investigate the usage of social media for english language learning by students at a state university in jambi, indonesia. a mixed-method approach was applied in this study. to collect data for this study, a survey and a semi-structured interview were used. the questionnaire was completed by 137 students, and 10 were interviewed randomly from those who completed the questionnaire. the quantitative data from the questionnaire were analyzed using basic statistical analysis, while the data from the interviews were analyzed using phenomenological case analysis combined with coding thematically. this study investigates students’ perceptions towards the use of six popular social media (facebook, whatsapp, snapchat, instagram, telegram, and twitter) in learning english as a foreign language. the results of this study revealed that students utilize a variety of social media platforms, particularly instagram and facebook. they showed positive attitudes towards the use of social media for learning english. the students perceived that social media plays an important role to improve their english language skills. in addition, the social media which are mostly used for learning english by efl university students is instagram, and they use the social media for learning english as additional (optional) language learning tools in their spare time. key words: efl university students, english language learning, mixed-method, social media 338 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 337 – 349 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui penggunaan media sosial untuk pembelajaran bahasa inggris oleh mahasiswa di sebuah universitas negeri di jambi, indonesia. pendekatan mix-method digunakan dalam penelitian ini. untuk mengumpulkan data untuk penelitian ini, survei dan wawancara semi-terstruktur digunakan. kuesioner diisi oleh 137 siswa, dan 10 diwawancarai secara acak dari mereka yang menyelesaikan kuesioner. data kuantitatif dari kuesioner dianalisis menggunakan analisis statistik dasar, sedangkan data hasil wawancara dianalisis menggunakan analisis kasus fenomenologis yang dipadukan dengan pengkodean secara tematis. penelitian ini menyelidiki persepsi siswa terhadap penggunaan enam media sosial populer (facebook, whatsapp, snapchat, instagram, telegram dan twitter) dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing. hasil penelitian ini mengungkapkan bahwa siswa memanfaatkan berbagai platform media sosial, khususnya instagram dan facebook. mereka menunjukkan sikap positif terhadap penggunaan media sosial untuk belajar bahasa inggris. para siswa merasa bahwa media sosial memainkan peran penting untuk meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa inggris mereka. selain itu, media sosial yang paling banyak digunakan untuk pembelajaran bahasa inggris oleh mahasiswa efl adalah instagram, dan mereka menggunakan media sosial sebagai alat pembelajaran bahasa tambahan (pilihan) di waktu luang. kata kunci: mahasiswa bahasa inggris, pembelajaran bahasa inggris, mixed method, media sosial introduction technological advancements have had a significant influence on the field of education, particularly in the field of english as a foreign language. the pedagogical use of technology has the potential to assist students in improving their language skills (khaloufi & laabidi, 2017; lai et al., 2016). in addition, information and communication technology (ict) utilization may empower and motivate learners in english language learning. the ict use can provide some opportunities for collaboration and interaction in the english language learning process, and also the learning needs to be a scaffold for learners to benefit from such opportunities (murray, 2005; zhang & pérez-paredes, 2019). over the last decade, ict has become increasingly widely employed in language learning and teaching. ict refers to computer-based technologies and internet-based technologies which are used for creating, storing, displaying, and sharing information. ict provides a al arif, t.z.z., sulistiyo, u. & handayani, r., using social media for english 339 language learning by efl university students: a mixed-methods study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj context for human-human and human-machine communication, and it provides a context for information production, display, delivery, and sharing. in the context of efl, ict can provide english language learners with opportunities for interaction with native speakers through ict tools such as e-mail, social media like facebook (annamalai, 2017), instagram, and video-based communication like skype. one form of ict in social media is one of the results of advanced technology (liu, 2010). social media is also a set of tools that allow people to establish and engage in a relationship. social media is one of the technologies that is mostly used by people around the world, starting from young learners to old people. in addition, the students are also users of social media who use it in various situations. many kinds of social media appear in the last decade, for example, facebook, twitter, instagram, youtube, etc. (monica, & anamaria, 2014). these types of social media are often utilized by people, particularly college students, because it is an enjoyable activity for them. as stated by chou (2014), social media has some characteristics such as interactivity, platform quality, knowledge sharing mechanism. as a result, students may accomplish a great deal via social media. for example, they can communicate with others all over the world. on social media sites such as instagram, university students may also access images or videos about the world's situation from different countries. students can get more up-to-date information about what is going on in their surroundings through social media. in addition, students can learn english through social media. in this study, we focused on describing how efl university students utilize social media for learning english. consequently, this study was intended to investigate the use of social media in english language learning by the students of a state university in jambi, indonesia. this study investigated the pedagogical use of six common social media applications (facebook, whatsapp, snapchat, instagram, telegram, and twitter) in an efl learning context. the ultimate goal of this research is to inform efl teachers who are contemplating the adoption of social media for extending classroom practice. literature review a. social media social media is a tool of information and communication technology used by people to communicate online. social media is also one famous 340 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 337 – 349 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj platform used by people of every age and level. social media is a thing as a result of advanced technology nowadays (monica & anamaria, 2014). according to (kaplan & haenlein, 2010), social media is a group of internet applications that allows the creation of various content in the world. there are many kinds of social media such as facebook, twitter, instagram, whatsapp, etc. these kinds of social media are easy to be signed up for free. it is also one of the reasons why most people use these social media. people all over the world utilize social media for a variety of reasons. for most people, social media may be used to assist people to communicate with one another even if they are in various locations such as a different city, province, or nation. people may also interact and maintain relationships through social media; they can stay up to date on what is going on in society even if they are not physically present. it may also let individuals contribute a lot of information about news or information from all over the world. furthermore, social media may aid to reconnect people and identify those who haven't seen one other in years. the most essential aspect of social media is that practically all of it is provided in an international language such as english. then, because people of all ages, particularly students, are highly interested in utilizing social media in every situation, students may acquire a language such as english through social media. this is what makes social media more enjoyable than traditional forms of media such as books. they do not yet communicate in a second language. however, not all language learners especially english learners begin as silent learners. some learners become speedy speaking learners. even though, this learner is still like imitating another or native speaker. then, for the second stage, in the early acquisition, the students can speak or produce short words perhaps like one or two words. in these stages, the learner might have some mistakes in using the words or the phrases. this learner is more active than the previous stage who mostly just keeps silent and listens to people talking using the foreign language. on social media, students can learn english through various information in form of text and/or videos like short text, news, educational video, etc. although the content is in english, the students will find it more interesting and enjoyable to utilize than learning from a book in the classroom or the lecturers' presentations or explanations written on the whiteboard. furthermore, utilizing social media to learn english is quite beneficial. it can assist students in developing their reading, listening, speaking, and writing abilities. al arif, t.z.z., sulistiyo, u. & handayani, r., using social media for english 341 language learning by efl university students: a mixed-methods study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. social media in english language learning there are several social media platforms, such as facebook, twitter, instagram, and telegram. almost all social media platforms provide the same purpose for individuals or students who utilize them. however, social media is beneficial to students, particularly for english language learning. facebook is a popular social networking platform used by many people of all ages. children, teenagers, adolescents, adults, even old people used facebook to interact with each other. people on facebook may express themselves in the form of status updates at their profile home, which all of their friends in that account can view and comment on. in every situation, numerous individuals write the status in english. twitter is another famous social media used by people of every age. it is also a social networking and micro-blogging service that was created by jack dorsey, evan williams, biz stone, and noah glass in 2006 (monica & anamaria, 2014). similar to facebook, twitter focuses on distinctive words and statements. furthermore, we may add and view comments from individuals all over the world who speak english. that is why twitter makes it easy for people or students to learn english. instagram is another popular social media platform that many people use nowadays, particularly young learners, and it was launched in 2010. (al-ali, 2010). users of this social networking platform may share photographs and videos. students may also browse images of everyone and everything in the world from every country on this social networking platform. there are also descriptions for the photographs created by the account's users who post pictures that explains the image or just communicating ideas. furthermore, there are also captions in english, which makes the reader or students who see the caption and picture more interested than text in a book or handout during the learning process. although instagram has a limited function by only providing pictures and videos, it can still help with language learning. since instagram offers visual elements that can help the learners, it helps the students to connect to the community of learners in communicating and socializing with each other. salomon (2013) discussed that instagram can reach young learners better and can become a library for some students. c. previous research some previous research has been conducted worldwide with regards to forms of social media for learning. for instance, a research that was done by 342 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 337 – 349 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj monica & anamaria (2014) entitled: the impact of social media on vocabulary learning case studyfacebook. this research aims at investigating the impact of computer and social media in improving students’ knowledge of the english language namely vocabulary acquisition (focused on facebook) with intermediate and upper-intermediate first and second-year elt students in economics at the faculty of economic sciences, university of oradea. the study was conducted with 127 students of the faculty of economic sciences, university of oradea, who were first and second-year students from the specializations of international business, management, marketing, finances; and were studying in the academic year of 2013-2014. the development in each group was measured and it demonstrated that a more significant improvement in vocabulary knowledge of the group were exposed to the facebook group. the results of the study did not support the assumption that the experimental group would outperform the control group, as the differences between the two groups were not that significant. however, there was an improvement in both of the groups from pre-test to post-test scores. next, research by kaplan & haenlein (2010) entitled: users of the world, unite! the challenges and opportunities of social media informed that the concept of social media is the agenda for many business executives today to use, for example, wikipedia, youtube, facebook, second life, and twitter. this research also provides some clarification which begins by describing the concept of social media and discusses how it differs from related concepts such as web 2.0 and user-generated content. meanwhile, balbay & kilis (2017) conducted a study entitled: students' perceptions of the use of a youtube channel specifically designed for an academic speaking skills course. the study was conducted involving 70 students taking the compulsory academic speaking skills course offered to students from varying disciplines in middle east technical university. students were asked to fill out a google sheets survey at the end of the course on their perceptions of the benefits and drawbacks of the aforementioned youtube channel. the data was analyzed based on both descriptive statistics and deductive content analysis. the results indicated that the majority of the students benefited from using a large variety of videos on the playlists of this specifically-designed supplementary material youtube channel. the findings can contribute to further guiding university language instructors by suggesting the abundance of alternative ways to benefit from youtube and similar online video source platforms. al arif, t.z.z., sulistiyo, u. & handayani, r., using social media for english 343 language learning by efl university students: a mixed-methods study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there are similarities and differences between this study and the previous study. the similarity comes from the same topic that both discuss using social media in english language learning. whereas, the difference comes from the limitation of the research design, the participants, the number of participants, and the site of the research. method for this study, a mixed-methods approach of qualitative and quantitative were applied to develop detailed and deep analysis on the use of social media in english language learning by the students of a state university in jambi, indonesia. the researcher used purposive sampling to find the participants. as many as 137 respondents of the english study program at jambi university in academic year 2019-2020 were involved in this study to answer the questionnaire. for the qualitative data, the researcher has chosen 10 participants (5 male and 5 female students), who have answered the questionnaire. for sampling, the concept of purposeful sampling is used in a qualitative study. it means that the inquirers select participants because their participants can purposefully inform an understanding of the research issues (creswell, 2014). the data of this study were collected from questionnaires and semi-structured interviews; a total of 137 respondents who were previously and officially invited by the researcher completed the questionnaire voluntarily. for the interview session, there were some questions in this part which includes 5 questions about the kind of social media used in learning english and 6 questions regarding the use of social media in learning english. the questions were asked to each participant in around 20 to 30 minutes. in the process of getting data through the interview, the researcher recorded all the conversations during the interview session. the interview protocol was designed to follow up on the questionnaire which explored respondents’ use of social media in greater depth. the data from the questionnaire were analyzed using basic statistical analysis. the data from the interview were analyzed using phenomenological case analysis combined with coding thematically. 344 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 337 – 349 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results a. quantitative result to address the first research question, what types of social media are most commonly utilized by students to learn english?, the data was gathered through a survey conducted by the researcher. according to the results of a survey data analysis, instagram is one of the social media platforms that students utilize the most when studying english. (facebook, whatsapp, snapchat, instagram, telegram, and twitter) table 1: students' preference for types of social media in learning english kinds of social media frequency percentage facebook 116 84.6% whatsapp 104 75.9% snapchat 35 47.9% instagram 130 94.8% telegram 61 44.5% twitter 81 59.1% table 1 depicts the frequency with which social media is used for english language learning. the majority of respondents (94.8 percent) stated that they use instagram for english language learning. following that, 84.6 percent of respondents said they use facebook to learn english, and 75.9 percent said they use whatsapp to learn english. 59.1 percent of those polled said they utilized twitter to learn english. on the other hand, just a small percentage of respondents utilize snapchat and telegram in learning english (47.9 percent and 44.5 percent respectively). there is an interesting phenomenon about social media use among instagram, whatsapp, and facebook for english language learning purposes. the majority of the students tend to use instagram than facebook and whatsapp. some students use telegram and snapchat for english language learning purposes. b. qualitative results the oral interviews (n=10) were designed to examine students’ use and perceived advantages and disadvantages of social media-based english al arif, t.z.z., sulistiyo, u. & handayani, r., using social media for english 345 language learning by efl university students: a mixed-methods study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj learning. the focus here will be on the themes that persisted during the interview, or that exposed different aspects of learners’ perceptions. analysis of the interviews revealed that participants prefer to use social media as additional (optional) language learning tools, which they can access anytime and anywhere to complement their classroom learning. i usually use social media on my own in my spare time, for indirect learning, but not for formal classroom learning (st_3). i love the idea of learning english through social media likes instagram or facebook and i am even excited for it… (st_5) the participants expressed that they always make a discussion and communication in the english language learning by using social media. the analysis found that all participants often discuss and communicate with each other in english. i like to communicate with my friends and sometimes discuss homework through instagram (st_2) we always discuss with our friends about english learning, assignment or task by using social media (st_7) using social media for learning english can improve students’ motivation. as some participants mentioned self-directed learning and interest in english language learning using social media. as some students expressed; with social media, we can share our experience, knowledge, even task and we can learn or practice by ourselves. (st_2) i enjoy learning english through social media, i can join the discussion forum, so i can ask questions that i don’t know the answer (st_3) using social media can improve english language skills. this was learnt from students’ learning via various sort of media social tools such as facebook, instagram, and twitter. these tools provided some benefits to help the students develop their english skills. social media, i use it every day. i can practice, reading, speaking, and listening to the english language easily. (st_1) 346 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 337 – 349 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj with social media, i can learn vocabulary, there are many new vocabularies in social media (st_5) the last aspect was effectiveness. this was defined from students’ learning via various sort of social media sites such as facebook, instagram, whatsapp, and twitter. these tools provided some benefits to help the students understand english learning materials easily, and make english language learning more effective. for instance, two students mentioned: with social media, i can learn english effectively. i can learn more about daily expressions through social media (st_6) i think that social media helps me to learn english more effective. because social media provide some opportunities for us to explore english easily (st_9) although participants were aware of the limitations of social media, including lack of privacy and a potential invasion of their social space, they perceived that the pedagogical use of social media positively in many aspects such as; can be accessed anytime and anywhere, to discuss homework, to communicate to each other, motivation, and effectiveness. discussions the purpose of this study was to investigate students' preferences for different forms of social media as well as their opinions of the benefits of utilizing social media for english language learning. this study employed two instruments (questionnaire and semi-structured interview) of data collection about the use of social media in learning english as a foreign language. the result of the questionnaire showed that the majority of the students used instagram for english language learning purposes. and the minority of the students use telegram for learning english. then, as found in the result of the interview session, it indicated that there were 5 themes. first, social media was an additional (optional) language learning tools in learning english. second, social media provided discussion and communication activities in learning english. third, social media could improve students’ motivation in english language learning. the next was how social media help in improving english language skills. the last was how effective was the use of social media in learning english. al arif, t.z.z., sulistiyo, u. & handayani, r., using social media for english 347 language learning by efl university students: a mixed-methods study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this finding was in agreement with the previous study by monica & anamaria (2014), where social media was also one famous thing that was used by people of every age and level. there were six kinds of social media discussed in this study: instagram, facebook, twitter, whatsapp, snapchat, and telegram. however, the result of the questionnaire showed that the participants of this study mostly used instagram for learning english. then, the minority of the students used snapchat and telegram to help them in english language learning. this current study indicated that the majority of respondents utilized instagram to learn english. which is in line with another research (al-ali, 2010). al-ali (2010) highlighted that instagram is one of the widely-used social media that many people use nowadays, especially for young learners. he also stated that instagram is a social networking platform that contains photographs and videos. this might be one of the reasons why so many people are interested in using instagram for english language learning. the use of social media provides some opportunities for the students to practice their english skills. social media was very beneficial for students in improving their ability of critical thinking. the majority of participants stated that the use of social media enabled them to practice english skills because they can make discussion and communication both oral and written the english language. after that, the use of social media also can be seen in any kind of activities in the class, since it is known that learning using social media can improve the knowledge of the students’ especially in learning english (balbay & kilis, 2017). the activity that the participants can use social media in learning english is a discussion group. in addition, as found in this study that social media can help the students in learning english for communication, discussion, interaction, and doing or submitting the assignment (habibi et al., 2018). conclusion the use of social media in language learning is the latest method, which comprises the usage of applications to promote efl learning. as efl university students were required to enhance their english language skills, they tend to use social media in improving their language skills. this study focused on students’ perspectives, particularly on social media utilization among efl university students. therefore, indonesian policymakers, 348 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 337 – 349 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj curriculum designers, and educators must take into account students’ perceptions when applying changes to teaching techniques and methods. it is clear that educators play an important role in effectively applying social media in english classroom practice, and, for this reason, it is essential to consider their views on it. university students in indonesia have positive attitudes toward social media use in english language learning. based on the study's findings and discussion, it can be concluded that students tend to use social media including instagram, whatsapp, and facebook for english language learning. instagram is the most popular social media platform used by students in learning english. they use social media for learning english in their spare time at home, or when the lecturer lets them use it in the class, especially for group discussion. the various content material from social media helps students enhance their language skills, and thus motivates students to learn english through social media. furthermore, positive attitudes about social media usage should be explored to increase the quality of students' english learning. in the context of efl university students, the integration of social media must be counted to improve the students' language abilities through the usage of appropriate types of social media in english language learning and teaching. references al-ali, s. (2010). embracing the selfie craze: exploring the possible use of instagram as a language learning tool. issues and trends in educational technology, 2(2), 34–53. annamalai, n. (2017). exploring students use of facebook in formal learning contexts. indonesian journal of efl and linguistics, 2(2), 91–106. balbay, s., & kilis, s. (2017). students’ perceptions of the use of a youtube channel specifically designed for an academic speaking skills course. eurasian journal of applied linguistics, 3(2), 235–251. chou, c. m. (2014). social media characteristics, customer relationship, and brand equity. the journal of applied business and economics, 16(1), 128–145. al arif, t.z.z., sulistiyo, u. & handayani, r., using social media for english 349 language learning by efl university students: a mixed-methods study https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). sage publications, inc. habibi, a., mukminin, a., riyanto, y., prasojo, l. d., sulistiyo, u., sofwan, m., & saudagar, f. (2018). building an online community: student teachers’ perceptions on the advantages of using social networking services in a teacher education program. turkish online journal of distance education, 19(1), 46–61. kaplan, a. m., & haenlein, m. (2010). users of the world, unite! the challenges and opportunities of social media. business horizons, 53(1), 59–68. khaloufi, a., & laabidi, h. (2017). an examination of the impact of computer skills on the effective use of ict in the classroom. indonesian journal of efl and linguistics, 2(1), 53–69. lai, c., yeung, y., & hu, j. (2016). university student and teacher perceptions of teacher roles in promoting autonomous language learning with technology outside the classroom. computer assisted language learning, 29(4), 703–723. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2015.1016441 liu, y. (2010). social media tools as a learning resource. journal of educational technology development and exchange (jetde), 3(1), 8–22. monica, & anamaria, p. (2014). the impact of social media on vocabulary learning case study-facebook. annals of the university of oradea, economic science series, 23(2). murray, d. e. (2005). technologies for second language literacy. annual review of applied linguistics, 25(1), 188–201. salomon, d. (2013). moving on from facebook using instagram to connect with undergraduates and engage in teaching and learning. college & research libraries news, 74(8), 408–412. zhang, d., & pérez-paredes, p. (2019). chinese postgraduate efl learners’ self-directed use of mobile english learning resources. computer assisted language learning, 0(0), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1662455 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia identifying cultural values of the narrative texts in an english textbook for tenth grade of senior high school 1urip sulistiyo, 2kaspul anwar, 3gemila lestari, 4desi afriani, 5widya kartika, and 6retno wulan 1,3,4,5,6english education department, universitas jambi, indonesia 2stai ahsanta jambi, stai ahsanta jambi, center for scientific publication, universitas jambi, indonesia email: 1urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id; 2kaspulanwar.as@gmail.com; gemilalestari96@gmail.com; 4dafriani@yahoo.com; 5hayyanmikhail@gmail.com; 6renowulan268@gmail.com received: 28-12-2019 accepted: 02-01-2020 published: 04-06-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj identifying cultural values of the narrative texts in an english textbook for tenth grade of senior high school 1urip sulistiyo, 2kaspul anwar, 3gemila lestari, 4desi afriani, 5widya kartika, and 6retno wulan 1urip.sulistiyo@unja.ac.id; 2kaspulanwar.as@gmail.com; 3gemilalestari96@gmail.com; 4dafriani@yahoo.com; 5hayyanmikhail@gmail.com; 6renowulan268@gmail.com 1,3,4,5,6english education department, universitas jambi, indonesia 2stai ahsanta jambi, stai ahsanta jambi, center for scientific publication, universitas jambi, indonesia abstract: many english teachers assumed that culture cannot be separated from english learning. this paper aimed to investigate the cultural values of the narrative texts in the english textbook for grade tenth of senior high school. the data of the research were collected from the narrative reading passage in an english textbook for senior high school entitled “bahasa inggris”, english textbook curriculum 2013 (henceforth, k13) published by the ministry of education of republic of indonesia. to reveal what culture values represented in the narrative reading passage in the textbook, the cultural values were categorized into several source cultures such as the visual representation of the cultures, and the objectives of the lesson related to cultural values in narrative texts. moreover, the findings of this research discovered that there were three cultural values identified in the narrative reading passages in the textbook such as respect for the right indigenous people, finding peace and nature and with all forms of life, and appreciation of cultural products. key words: cultural values, english textbook, efl, narrative text, qualitative 60 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 59 – 72 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: banyak guru bahasa inggris berasumsi bahwa budaya tidak dapat dipisahkan dari pembelajaran bahasa inggris. artikel ini bertujuan untuk menyelidiki nilai-nilai budaya dari teks naratif dalam buku bacaam bahasa inggris untuk kelas sepuluh sekolah menengah atas. data penelitian dikumpulkan dari teks naratif dalam buku bacaan bahasa inggris untuk sekolah menengah atas yang berjudul "bahasa inggris", buku bacaan bahasa inggris kurikulum 2013 (k13) yang diterbitkan oleh kementerian pendidikan republik indonesia. untuk mengungkapkan nilai-nilai budaya yang presentasikan dalam teks naratif dalam buku bacaan tersebut, nilai-nilai budaya dikategorikan ke dalam beberapa bagian, seperti representasi visual dari budaya, dan tujuan pelajaran terkait dengan nilai-nilai budaya dalam teks naratif. lebih lanjut, temuan penelitian ini menemukan bahwa ada tiga nilai budaya yang teridentifikasi pada teks naratif dalam buku bacaan itu, seperti penghormatan terhadap budaya masyarakat lokal, bersahabat dengan alam dalam berbagai kegiatan kehidupan seharihari, dan penghargaan terhadap produk-produk budaya. kata kunci: nilai-nilai budaya, buku bacaan bahasa inggris, efl, teks naratif, kualitatif introduction generally, learning english refers to the ability of both written and spoken communication using english well. it implies that the english classroom does not only enable students to convey their message but also to comprehend the meaning beyond its context. hence, the information should not only cover the language features but also its context, also known as the culture within. according to lestari (2010), cultural contexts in language learning are very important to stimulate cultural understanding enabling them to have intercultural communication. therefore, an english classroom ought to integrate the language course to cultural learning. in line with the statement above, the purpose of indonesian national education is to perform a classroom-based on national cultural values and ideologies while integrating them into all subjects including english as the international subject (kim & paek, 2015). the integration could be conducted by learning materials in the classroom such as textbooks. considering that the textbook plays an important role in the sulistiyo, u., anwar, k., putri, d. h., suskandani, n., arini, a. p. & 61 wulan, r., infusing cultural values in an english textbook https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj english classroom, the contents ought to be taken into consideration as well. according to fernandez (2011), the process of selecting the textbooks in indonesian education varies including the financial factors and visual appearance of textbooks. on the other hand, the tendency of textbooks chosen is often inappropriate in terms of its cultural contents. sometimes, the government gives unreliable english textbooks and they are not appropriate to indonesian students’ needs in learning english (setyono & widodo, 2019). moreover, english is the medium to communicate in international and intercultural contexts requiring people in particular, the students to use it in their real circumstances or environment (kim & paek, 2015). in addition, the indonesian teachers closely relied on their textbook to derive the teaching and learning processes in the classroom, not limited to the english learning. they value the textbook as an instrument playing an important role in language teaching and learning. thus, most of the indonesian teachers put the textbooks as the core materials of language teaching. since a couple of years ago, the indonesian ministry of education had proposed that the aim of english education should be revised not only to assist the learners to speak like native speakers of english but to be able to understand the intercultural of the speakers. to reach this objective, the current curriculum has taken such contents into account that it includes the multicultural aspects as well as the local or indonesian culture (setyono & widodo, 2019). in this case, the sets of cultural values described in indonesian english textbooks have brought the hidden curriculum to the classroom. the curriculum might influence learners’ perceptions of the cultural values and elements delivered for their participation in the classroom (kim & paek, 2015). even though the representation of cultural values and contents has serious impacts on learners’ point of views towards the cultural information regarding how they value the culture and its other element, few researchers have discussed the issues, especially in the indonesian context. therefore, this study will critically analyze the cultural values in each narrative text presented in an english textbook of the tenth grade of senior high school. 62 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 59 – 72 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review a. narrative text definition narrative text aims at telling the stories to the readers. it consists of the characters, setting, plot, conflict, and resolution as the ending of the story. “narrative fiction is organized around issues such as events, time, focalization, characterization, narration, the text, and its reading rather than individual theorists or approaches” (kenan, 2003, p.1). in addition, such text identically contains moral values as implied meaning and lessons learned at the end of the story. each character usually plays an important side leading to the whole story and its conflict in particular that every reader can engage in the sequence of each part of the story. based on toolan, (2012) a narrative is a perceived sequence of non-randomly connected events, typically involving, as the experiencing agonist, humans or quasi-humans, or other sentient beings, from whose experience we humans can ‘learn’. from this definition we can see that: (1) it can be more than one foregrounded individual as experiencers, and (2) from the idea we can take ‘learning’ from narratives. moreover, phillips (2017) stated that there are three characteristics features of narrative text. first, it consists of the characters, setting, plot, and conflict of the story. second, it emphasizes to the plot of the event. third, it is not only occurring in fiction (short story, romantic story, and novel) but also occurring in non-fiction such as history, newspaper, and true story. besides, he also argued that there are two types of narrative text. first, the sequence of time also known as the chronology of the story indicated by “long time ago”, “tomorrow”, “yesterday”, “at 09:00 pm”, “later”, and so on. second, is the sequence of the event which emphasizes the plot of the story. according to linda & wignell (1994), there are three characteristics of narrative text consisting of social function, generic structure, and significant lexicon-grammatical features. the social function is dealing with an actual or demonstrating an experience in different ways, narratives text deal with the problematic event which leads to a turning point of some kind which in turn finds out the resolution. besides, there are several components in the generic structure of a narrative text, such as orientation, evaluation, complication, resolution, and reorientation. meanwhile, the significant lexicon-grammatical features focus on a specific sulistiyo, u., anwar, k., putri, d. h., suskandani, n., arini, a. p. & 63 wulan, r., infusing cultural values in an english textbook https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj point and usually individualized participant. additionally, the features are the use of material processes like (and in this text, behavioral and verbal process) and use of relational process as well as the mental process in the story. finally, the temporal conjunction, temporal circumstances, and past tense to describe the story are all the components of generic structures of the narrative text. based on some theories above, some narrative texts in the english textbook for senior high school are very acceptable because they all aim to entertain the readers through the story. hence, the learning process will be effective if learners feel happy during the learning process. thus, the objective of the study related to the syllabus will be achieved if the teaching and learning process becomes an effective activity in the classroom. b. cultural values in narrative reading text commonly, culture refers to the beliefs, customs, and everyday life of a particular ethnic, regional, or national group. it might also be used in speaking of a group that is not racially or ethnically based. sometimes these labels can cause more harm than good when they are used to separate people into artificial categories. cultural values may create a challenge in interpreting texts, especially when the author and readers are from two different cultures. an example of clashing cultural values that one might encounter while reading literature is connected to the value of the words themselves. tang (2006) asserts that americans place great value on words as conveyers of fact while the chinese put more emphasis on action. chinese see the truth in the action, not necessarily the words. thus, it is not enough to know the glosses for various words or even appropriate and inappropriate behaviors only; to understand the deep meaning of culture, intercultural readers must seek out a solid understanding of the cultural implications of those behaviors. c. integrating local culture in english language teaching as barfield and uzarski (2009) claimed that “integrating local indigenous culture into english language learning not only educates learners about indigenous people in their own countries and throughout 64 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 59 – 72 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the world; it also makes learning english more relevant for indigenous students in those classrooms” (barfield & uzarski, 2009). the behavior or someone's speech can be interpreted differently by listeners or interlocutors who come from different cultural backgrounds. another reason why cultural knowledge is necessary taught in language classes is the fact that culture is one element that is very exciting in language. the teacher should also introduce the language culture they teach (dobson as cited in lies and lestari (2010). thus, students will be motivated to learn because they do not only learn about language but also how it is used in real communication. based on the previous explanation, the researchers summarized that local culture is a culture that belongs to a region that describes the social conditions in the region. the integration of local culture into learning is very important as an effort to cultivate the values contained in local culture and at the same time to minimize the negative influence of external culture, especially the western culture brought by globalization. incorporating the elements of culture in language learning, especially learning english or other languages, has teachers invite the students to respect the culture of either their local or other nations. d. the use of textbook in the english language english textbooks are important as one of the aspects supporting the success of the learning process. this is in line with what was conveyed by the regulation of the minister of national education, no. 11 the year 2005 that lesson textbooks must be used by teachers and students as a reference in the learning process while the textbooks ought to comply with the national objective (faris, 2014). additionally, the regulation of minister of national education, no. 2 the year 2008 emphasized that textbooks for elementary, secondary and tertiary education, referred to as textbooks, are mandatory reference books to be used in primary, secondary and tertiary education units that contain material to increase devotion, faith, truthfulness, and personality, mastery of science and technology, increased sensitivity and aesthetic abilities, improvement of kinaesthetic and health abilities compiled based on national education standards. textbooks are a key component in most language programs. they serve as the basis for much of the language input and practice in the sulistiyo, u., anwar, k., putri, d. h., suskandani, n., arini, a. p. & 65 wulan, r., infusing cultural values in an english textbook https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj classroom. they may provide the basis for the content of the lessons, the balance of skills taught, and the kinds of language practice the students take part in. in other situations, the textbook may serve primarily to supplement the teacher’s instruction. rahmawati (2015) suggested that both teachers and school officers (librarians) should collaborate to develop an optimum quality of the textbook that students could access even in the libraries. meanwhile, in terms of the learners, the textbook may provide the major source of contact they have with the language apart from an input provided by the teacher. in the case of inexperienced teachers, textbooks may also serve as a form of teacher training – they provide ideas on how to plan and teach lessons as well as formats that teachers can use. much of the language teaching that occurs throughout the world today could not take place without the extensive use of commercial textbooks. hence, teachers’ professional knowledge should have been integrated into an understanding of how to implement and synchronize the textbooks into the classroom teaching (ranjan, 2018). based on the explanation above, the researchers summarized that textbooks are books used in teaching and learning activities and arranged following the needs of students to achieve learning goals. writing textbooks must refer to the curriculum and must be reflected in the existence of materials with different levels of depth and breadth between classes. the textbooks are published and disseminated to schools that are prepared by experts in their fields to support teaching programs outlined by the government which is appropriate and easily understood by the users in schools so that it supports a teaching program. on the other hand, tüm & uguz (2014) stated that the impact of the culture on language teaching, learning, and performing was far more than just foods, fairs, folklores, and statistic facts. further, it needed to link with both inter and intra-cultures not only to stand as the background but also connected to interpersonal understanding. some cultural inputs should be included on cultural teaching in language teaching such as; social identity and group (social class, regional identity, and ethnic minorities), social interaction (differing level of formality as outsider and insider), belief and behavior ( moral, religious beliefs, and daily routines), socialization and the life cycle (families, schools, and rites of passage), national history (historical and contemporary events), stereotypes and national identity (what is “typical” symbol of national stereotypes). 66 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 59 – 72 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method this study aimed to find out the cultural values of the narrative reading texts in an english textbook for the tenth grade of senior high school students. creswell (2012) stated that “qualitative research is a suitable design to address the research problems which we do not know the variables and need to investigate” (creswell, 2012). based on the problems and objectives of this research, the researchers used a descriptive qualitative approach to gain the data as it is a basic approach used in qualitative research design (taurus, hamizi & munjiatun, 2015). the researchers used this method to describe and analyse cultural values of narrative texts in english textbook for tenth grade students of senior high school level. to gain rich data and information, the researchers relied on the literature technique. firstly, the researchers collected the english textbook for grade tenth of senior high school that relevant to the research problems and selected the potential reading passage, particularly the narrative text which contains cultural values. moreover, the researchers conducted the data collection through five stages comprising of reading all the contents of the textbook that relevant to the problem of the research investigating, identifying the contents of the textbook, classifying the data appropriate with the purpose of the research, analyzing each narrative story provided in the textbook, and summarizing the research findings based on the data analysis. analysis and discussion in this section, the researchers focused on cultural values represented in the narrative texts in an english textbook for grade tenth of senior high school and in what ways the english textbook provides efl learners with opportunities to increase their understanding of intercultural knowledge and awareness. the author of the selected efl textbook presented the cultural values through sets of visual representations. visually, folklore stories, pictures, photographs, and visual artifacts portrayed the cultural values that both teachers and students need to sulistiyo, u., anwar, k., putri, d. h., suskandani, n., arini, a. p. & 67 wulan, r., infusing cultural values in an english textbook https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj realize, but these often go unnoticed. uncovering these values in a textbook was intended to build and enhance both teachers' and students’ awareness of the cultural values represented in the textbook. table 1: the representation of cultural values in the textbook, bahasa inggris for senior high school grade x. unit theme sample visual artefact description location/ page cultural values ch.12 issumboshi a japanese old men character wears a traditional cloth with a traditional hat and has white hair. p.157 respect for diversity of ethnic groups ch.12 issumboshi a japanese cartoon character wears a traditional cloth with long black hair. p.158 respect for diversity of ethnic groups ch.13 malin kundang some minangnese people, wear traditional clothes from padang, indonesia p.170 respect for diversity of ethnic groups 68 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 59 – 72 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ch.13 malin kundang a stone of malin kundang, a boy from padang, indonesia p.170 respect for diversity of ethnic groups a. visual representation of cultural values of the narrative texts the selected textbook represented visual representations of cultural values as listed in table 1. visual artifacts 1 (p.157), 2 (p.158), 3 (p.170), 4 (p.10) were textbook characters portraying female and male folklore characters with different physical characteristics (appearances). picture 1 is an old male character wearing a kimono traditional clot from japan. he has a white shot hair wearing a traditional hat. he has white skin and slanting eyes. picture 2 is a young female cartoon character. she has black long hair and white skin. she wears kimono and plays a traditional character doll from japan. in this chapter, the author referred to a female character of japanese folklore dressing up using kimono (traditional japanese cloth) and with brighter skin. in addition, the book writer attempted to tell the different characters between japanese old women and young ones. the next analysis focused on pictures from chapter 13. the first picture on page 170 was depicting characters from padang, indonesia. there were three characters in which two of them were females and one was male. the man is malin kundang; he wears traditional malay cloth from padang so does the female figures. the male character has a moustache, a tall body, and short black hair. besides, he has white skin. further, the two females have white skin, one of the women is young but another is old. the second picture on page 170 was the picture of malin kundang’s stone. this stone has magic for many people who live around. the color of the stone is dark grey with the flat on position. this picture has a deep history between a mother and her son. sulistiyo, u., anwar, k., putri, d. h., suskandani, n., arini, a. p. & 69 wulan, r., infusing cultural values in an english textbook https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to sum up, the characters in the textbook represented sociocultural phenomena associated with indonesians’ lives. japanese characters and indonesian characters on the pictures represented attributes of particular ethnic groups, as well as diverse attributes of female traditional characters, were recreated from the sociocultural heterogeneity life of indonesian society (ideology) transformed by the elt authors in the textbook. hence, the discourse of female characters in the textbook encouraged textbook readers and users and senior high school students to understand and appreciate the cultural diversity and accepting racial tolerance. this is a crucial vision that gives a strong foundation for the existence of indonesia as a multi-ethnic with various histories and cultural backgrounds. b. the objective of the lesson related to cultural values of the narrative texts “issumboshi” is one folklore from japan. the story was presented in chapter 12 and aimed at an ability to distinguish the social functions, the structure of the text, linguistic elements of narrative text by giving and asking information related to the folklore in using the context. social function in folklore “issumboshi” is to entertain the readers, to teach or inform the readers, to embody the writer’s reflections on the experience, and to nourish and extend the reader’s imagination. in this chapter, the author described the moral values of folklores “issumboshi” and “malin kundang”. two moral values are articulated from issumboshi; a). it encouraged readers to be confident; b). issumboshi could protect the princess although she has a tiny body. meanwhile, the maling kundang story has moral values consisting of; a). love and honor towards elderlies; (b) respect the parents. english for secondary level especially for senior high school cannot be separated from the compulsory topic such as narrative text. in this lesson, students are usually required to be able to tell a story whether it is fairy tales either in spoken or written form. although "storytelling" is one of the components of spoken english, narrative text is more dominant taught in the form of writing emphasizing understanding the generic structure of a story, analyze the character, background, and the storyline narrative. 70 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 59 – 72 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the researchers valued the textbook positively especially the presentation of two narrative stories from japan and indonesia. those are two kinds of folklores with two different cultural backgrounds and values. thus, it could develop students’ knowledge about another culture through learning narrative stories. however, issumboshi, a japanese old men character wore a traditional cloth with traditional hats and white hair while malin kundang showed minangnese people wearing traditional clothes from padang (west sumatra) indonesia. this is the main difference between the two stories in terms of clothes. on the other hand, the researchers found not only the differences between both of the stories but also the similarities that everyone from small villages who has unlucky life will go to uptown for getting a better life. both of the main characters (issumboshi & malin kundang) went to uptown to make their life better than before. conclusion the present study examined the cultural values of narrative texts in the english textbook for tenth-grade students of senior high school and how those values might contribute to senior high school students related to cultural awareness. the findings revealed that at least three cultural values could be identified. for instance, respect for the right indigenous people, finding peace and nature and with all forms of life, and appreciation of cultural products. although there are some other more cultural and multicultural topics in the english textbook for students grade tenth, but the researcher only investigated the cultural values in the narrative texts such as cultural materials and values from certain history and folklores from certain parts of the world. in line with the globalization of english language teaching and learning, there has been a paradigm in how cultural values are taught in esl/efl (english as a second language/ english as a foreign language) contexts. the paradigm considers the enclosure of local english culture varieties and multicultural aspects as supporting the intercultural communicative competence. the present study displays how cultural values are described in the english textbook published by the government of indonesia where english is positioned as a foreign language. the sulistiyo, u., anwar, k., putri, d. h., suskandani, n., arini, a. p. & 71 wulan, r., infusing cultural values in an english textbook https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj textbook represented a multicultural ideology by appreciating and respecting various cultures and traditions of different ethnic groups around the world. the english teachers should consider the textbook as an essential part of teaching practices since the language itself and the cultures cannot be separated in multicultural classroom contexts. in line with this issue, the english teachers need to have an active role in selecting the appropriate textbook and the textbook contents as the representation of cultural materials by giving corrective feedback to the textbook authors. finally, as the textbook shows and promotes cultural contents, moral and religious values while the instructional encourages tasks/activities in elt classrooms, the textbook needs to be more closely examined in future research. references barfield, s. c., & uzarski, j. (2009). integrating indigenous cultures into english language teaching. in english teaching forum (vol. 47, pp. 2– 9). creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. faris i. n. (2014). cultural content analysis of an english textbook for senior high school grade three in cianjur, west java. journal of english and education, 2(2), 14–25. fernandez, d. (2011). survei penggunaan buku teks dari penerit swasta nonbse. niversitas muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka. kenan r. s. (2003). narrative fiction. taylor & francis e-library. kim, s.-y., & paek, j. (2015). an analysis of culture-related content in english textbooks. linguistic research, 32(special edition), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.17250/khisli.32..201507.005 72 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 59 – 72 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lestari, l. a. (2010). teaching english culture along with the language. universitas negeri surabaya. linda g. & wignell p. m. (1994). making sense of functional grammar an introductory workbook. sydney: antipodean educational enterprises. phillips, c. (2017). characteristic of narrative text. rahmawati g. (2015). textbooks as learning resources of students at the school library at three senior high schools, 5(1). ranjan r. (2018). role of textbooks in language teaching and learning. in retrieved may 7, 2019, from role of textbook in language teaching and learning. retrieved from https://www.rajeevelt.com/role-of-textbooklanguage-teaching-learning-educationist/rajeev-ranjam setyono, b., & widodo, h. p. (2019). the representation of multicultural values in the indonesian ministry of education and culture-endorsed efl textbook: a critical discourse analysis. intercultural education, 1– 15. tang, y. (2006). beyond behavior: goals of cultural learning in the second language classroom. the modern language journal, 90(1), 86–99. taurus y. hamizi & munjiatun. (2015). analisis nilai budaya dalam kumpulan cerita rakyat dari bintan karya b.m syamsudsin sesuai karakter anak sekolah dasar. riau: universitas riau. toolan, m. (2012). narrative: a critical linguistic introduction. taylor & francis. tüm, g., & uguz, s. (2014). an investigation on the cultural elements in a turkish textbook for foreigners. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 158, 356–363. microsoft word ef61-e6b7-857e-d0eb a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . efl learner’s literary competence mapping through readerresponse writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme 1suprayogi, 2samanik, 3elza aqilla novanti, and 4yoana ardesis 1234english literature study program, faculty of arts and education, universitas teknokrat indonesia, bandarlampung, indonesia email:1suprayogi@teknokrat.ac.id, 2samanik@teknokrat.ac.id, 3elzaaqillaedu@gmail.com, 4yoanardesis@gmail.com, received: 19-10-2020 accepted: 08-06-2021 published: 16-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj efl learner’s literary competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme 1suprayogi, 2samanik, 3elza aqilla novanti, and 4yoana ardesis 1suprayogi@teknokrat.ac.id, 2samanik@teknokrat.ac.id, 3elzaaqillaedu@gmail.com, 4yoanardesis@gmail.com, 1234english literature study program, faculty of arts and education, universitas teknokrat indonesia, bandarlampung, indonesia abstract: in literary education, literary competence lies in important position as it reflects students’ critical thinking ability to understand text as a whole and connect it to both their experience and social phenomenon. recently, the research on literary competence focuses on the implementation of reader-response writing; however, it rarely highlights the importance of literary competence mapping through the quantification of the responses. this research aims at revealing the implementation of students’ literary competence mapping by using reader-response writing and the council for the curriculum examinations and assessment (ccea) general certificate of secondary education (gcse) mark scheme for literature subject for the assessment. seven reader response strategies by beach and marshal (1991) were used as the framework. selecting 21 students of english literature in prose analysis class as the research object, this research employed qualitative descriptive method. the result shows, in completing seven reader responses, students provide various answers reflecting their ability to get into the stories. the students mostly find it difficult to describe setting of place and time and their influence to the plot of the story. in assessment process, several adjustments on distributing points of ccea gcse mark scheme for literature subject. mark scheme in each strategy have been made. almost half of the students are in the band 4 and band 5 meanwhile the rest of them are in band 2 and band 3. this 22 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj research concludes that reader-response writing and ccea gcse mark scheme can be alternative to map the students’ literary competence. the research further suggest that the students should be exposed more on the analysis of setting and on the argumentation building on how they should provide sufficient reason and textual evidence. in addition, the lecturer should also emphasize the expected competence level the english literature students should acquire. key words: ccea gsce mark scheme, literary competence mapping, literature teaching, reader-response writing abstrak: dalam pendidikan sastra, kompetensi sastra berada pada posisi penting karena mencerminkan kemampuan berpikir kritis siswa untuk memahami teks secara utuh dan menghubungkannya dengan pengalaman dan fenomena di masyarakat. penelitian tentang kompetensi sastra saat ini difokuskan pada penerapan tulisan respon pembaca, namun jarang menyoroti pentingnya pemetaan kompetensi sastra melalui penilaian kuantitatif pada setiap responnya. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan implementasi pemetaan kompetensi sastra siswa dengan menggunakan tulisan respon pembaca dan skema penilaian dari the council for the curriculum examinations and assessment (ccea) general certificate of secondary education (gcse) bidang. tujuh reader-response strategies milik beach dan marshal (1991) digunakan untuk sebagai kerangka penelitian. dengan memilih 21 mahasiswa sastra inggris kelas analisis prosa sebagai objek penelitian, penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dalam menyelesaikan tujuh respon pembaca, siswa memberikan jawaban yang bervariasi yang mencerminkan kemampuan mereka dalam mendalami cerita. mahasiswa kebanyakan kesulitan untuk mendeskripsikan latar tempat dan waktu serta pengaruh mereka terhadap alur cerita. dalam proses penilaian telah dilakukan beberapa penyesuaian pada pembagian skor pada skema penilaian ccea gcse di setiap strategi respon pembaca. hampir separuh siswa berada di band 4 dan band 5 sedangkan sisanya di band 2 dan band 3. hasil penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa reader-response writing dan ccea gcse mark scheme dapat menjadi alternatif untuk memetakan kompetensi sastra siswa. penelitian lebih lanjut menyarankan bahwa siswa harus diekspos lebih banyak tentang analisis pengaturan dan pada bangunan argumentasi tentang bagaimana mereka harus memberikan alasan yang cukup dan bukti tekstual. selain itu, dosen juga harus menekankan pada tingkat kompetensi yang diharapkan mahasiswa sastra inggris. suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 23 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kata kunci: skema penilaian ccea gcse, pemetaan kompetensi sastra, pengajaran sastra, strategi respon pembaca introduction story exists along with the experience and civilization of humans. it can be an event that is really happening or merely a fiction (denning, 2020). furthermore, it contains life experience storage, the capture of historic moments and depiction of diverse views of issue. mladkova, (2013) also believes that story can create certain identity and change social practices. containing many aspects of reflections, therefore, a story has a power to influence its readers' thoughts. boong (2012) stated that readers have experience-taking on feeling the emotions and thoughts as similar as them. this is how reading stories serves as entertaining purposes. in the classroom setting, the story serves more than entertaining purposes. it educates the students to have expected characters, and narrates the milestone moments how certain concepts are established and invented. as gomez-rodriguez (2018) stated that stories as literary works are seen as an authentic language in use that allows learners to understand diverse cultural beliefs, values, lifestyles, and ideologies as well as to promote intercultural awareness and social and affective skills. therefore, story serves affective function. story also serves language learning function because through story reading in english, students can acquire language (prahaladaiah, 2018) and further becomes additional language input source besides classroom language students can have (afifudin, 2019). this process of knowledge acquisition should not only from the teacher or lecturer, but also from the discovery from the students themselves (samanik, 2018). knowing that english is the important commodity of the students for the future (suprayogi & pranoto, 2019), story reading is widely used in english classroom. further, comprehending the story in classroom setting could also sharpen the students’ critical thinking through the exploration (norris and phillips, 1987, in aloqaili, 2012) which means the readers try to connect and relate ideas one another in the story reflected in personal experiences and the world they perceive. especially within four language skill learning, critical thinking becomes crucial when the students have circulation of power over themselves, the text and beyond the text (afifudin, 2016). critical thinking, especially for students in english literature major, is plotted in a crucial position. these students in their graduate profile and learning outcome of their 24 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj curriculum are expected to be able to explain, interpret as well as to connect some phenomena in the story to the current situation in the form of literary analysis as the foundation to compose other literary appreciation works. to conclude, critical thinking is a must skill that literature students should possess as the foundation of establishing literary competence. literary competence itself is defined as the ability to respond literary works to account for that response (prahaladaiah, 2018). it is also the ability to relate the literary works to personal experience as well as social, culture and history (spiro, 1991). for english literature students, literary competence is believed to be outcome-based that students should be able to see literary works from the basic to complex cognitive stages, starting from the literary analysis, literary critics, literary performance to literary production. then, the literary competence of the students should be described and are able to be measured qualitatively and quantitatively so that in the end of their study, they have the comprehensive description of their literary competence profile. therefore, mapping the literary competence is crucial. in pedagogical practices, literary competence in the basic level is believed to be able to observe through how students respond to a literary text. it is rooted from reader-response theory (rrt) emerged in the past believing that in responding literary text, reader should go beyond the text itself where personal experience and schemata of social world are taken into account. rrt in relation to literary competence assessment and mapping, however, have not received much attention especially for tertiary education students taking literature. whereas, this assessment and mapping is paramount to ensure students to have high order thinking skills and the highest level of literary competence itself. to initiate this assessment method, this study attempts to reveal the implementation of mapping of the students’ literary competence level through reader-response strategies by beach & marshall (1991) and the council for the curriculum examinations and assessment (ccea) general certificate of secondary education (gcse) mark scheme for literature subject (ccea, 2017). literature review a. reader-response writing and its pedagogical practices louise rosenblatt is the figure proposing reader-response theory (rrt). rosenblatt (1982) argues that reading is a transactional process involving text suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 25 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and reader in a specific circumstance. rrt believes that readers think that they are a part of the story thus they have their own interpretation in reading one literary work. then, it shows that literary work will be meaningless without the existence of the reader. bressler (1999) further noted that textual analysis or criticism towards literary work is derived from the formula of “the reader + the texts = meaning”. reader response theory (rrt) appears in the response to new criticism. rrt rejects new criticism which states that meaning is only derived by the text itself, and can only be found through comprehensive analytical skills (mart, 2019). in other words, reality and personal life of the reader play significant role in meaning-making process. then, the reader is the central agent that determine the direction and the depth of interpretation will be. therefore, the existence of the reader is equally important to the text and the text’s author. for those, meaning of the text is subjective and varied from one reader to another. then, in literary classroom context, the parameter of assessment is not always on how close is the meaning interpreted by the teacher or the text itself, for example, but by how far students can relate the text to their world then put it verbally. in language classroom, the significance of response-based literature instruction according to iskhak (2015) deals with enjoyment, freedom, engagement, and language growth. it can be concluded that rrt should make student stay joyful in reading, give them freedom to find the literary text meaning, and make them acquire new vocabulary through reading. that is how researches on rrt in efl context in indonesia have been widely conducted recently in which rrt is seen as the method in teaching. inand and boldan (2018) applied rrt for english language teaching (elt) preservice teachers. ningrum (2018) used rrt to teach reading narrative text for senior high school students meanwhile iskhak (2015) used rrt for enhancing students’ affective and linguistic growth. this research strengthens the cultivation of rrt use in both language and literature. b. literary competence competence is considered as someone's ability to perform certain tasks which can meet the desired outcome. however, this covers not only skill as brownie, thomas, & bahnisch (2011) explain that competence shows the ability of someone dealing with knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities toward something that the assessment criterion will be different depending on expected outcomes of the certain field. therefore, in this context, literary 26 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj competence is defined as the knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities of students toward literary text. throughout the history, the term literary competence has been broadly defined in many perspectives. spiro (1991) defines literary competence as the ability to response literature through analysis, appreciation, enjoyment, as well as the ability to connect literary text to personal experience and wider sociocultural context. in other words, literary competence has several stages and directions in it. further, according to culler (2000) literary competence is the implicit knowledge that readers and writers bring to their encounters with texts. this implicit knowledge in this context is seen as the intersection between what the writer is intended to convey to what the reader can interpret. thus, žbogar (2015) has seen literary competence as cognitive activity as well as interpretation activity of readers. beach & marshall (1991) has arranged seven strategies to assess readers’ literary competence namely describing, engaging, explaining, conceiving, connecting, interpreting, judging. describing means giving the details or description toward information related to the intrinsic element in literature which are the character (major and minor character), characterization (including the consideration of physical and psychological), setting (place and time) and style. engaging strategy deals with how the readers try to use their feelings in reading literary works. then the readers will be drowned through the text, imagining what will happen and feel what the characters’ feelings toward the story. they comprehend the story by entering the story and think that they are part of the story, as the character inside of the story. there are three aspects that will be the discussion in this research, feeling, imagination and thought. in the point of conceiving, the reader will deal with the reasons why the story comes up and develops in certain directions in certain settings and characterization. also, they believe that conceiving is aimed to understand the characters, background of the story, and the language used in a story. in this activity, the readers understand about the characters by applying their knowledge of social behavior in society and cultural backgrounds. in explaining, the reader will interpret the characters based on why the characters do something. explaining consists of two points. those are the character’s action and agreement. characterization will influence all the action along the narrative plot. if the characterization is cheerful, the action of the suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 27 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj characters will be cheerful along the story, and vice versa. in other points, agreement means the opinion that readers think about the character’s action. the readers will be asked if they agree or disagree toward the character’s action with the reason why they choose the answer. connecting strategy is how readers try to connect their own experience with the experience of the characters inside of literary work. in addition, sometimes they try to connect one story to another story similar to what they read. there are six points dealing with connecting: experience, other story, film, social life, culture, and religion. the readers will be asked to connect the story with those six points. interpreting deals with how the readers will use the reaction, concept and connection that was created to articulate the main idea. the activity of interpreting involves the determination of symbolic meaning, themes or specific events from the literary work. in interpreting, what is being discussed is what the text is revealed. interpretation using the generalization or the statements that being made is not the statement from the text, but it’s merely the implicit meaning. recognizing the main idea is the most important point to good comprehension. in judging strategy, the readers make an interpretation toward the literary work. they can use their opinion to analyze the literary text, the author or the plot of the story. thus, judging is the essence of how a reader interprets the text by using their own expectations. the readers make a judgment by using their own expectation about the short story. the story line, the author and the moral values are the points the reader will judge. the points that will become the main point of judging are storyline or plot and moral value. c. literary competence assessment of many literary competence assessments that has already been well established is the assessment from the council for the curriculum examinations and assessment (ccea). it is a non-departmental public body (ndpb) funded by and responsible to the department of education (de) of united kingdom focusing on curriculum, examinations and assessment (ccea, 2017). one of ccea works is providing assessment of various subjects, one of them is english literature, named general certificate of secondary education (gcse). this assessment is taken by 16-yearold native english students. indonesia have not got such assessment for literature students yet. 28 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj for ccea gcse english literature, the focus aims are to shape readers to be critical and analytical by explaining the intrinsic and extrinsic element of literary works, and connect them to sociocultural and historical account (ccea, 2017). it also encourages students to be imaginative as well as to love literary works. ccea gcse english literature focuses on three units that are the study of prose, the study of drama and poetry, the study of shakespeare. each unit has assessment objective (ao). in this research, the study of prose becomes the focus. there are two assessment objectives provided namely assessment objective 1 and assessment objective 2. assessment objective 1 is to respond to texts critically and imaginatively; select and evaluate relevant textual detail to illustrate and support interpretations meanwhile assessment objective 2 is to explore how language, structure and form contribute to writers’ presentation of ideas, themes and settings. assessment objective 1 is chosen as this research still focuses on the fundamental assessment of the competence. the aim of this scheme is helping the writer to provide the closest guesses toward each answer of the reader, because it is stated that there is no correct answer in reader-response writing. it is because this research used the reader response-theory which believes that the readers produce their own meaning during the reading process. method a. type of research this research employs descriptive qualitative method. qualitative method focuses on multi perspectives of analysis as well as concerns on inductive and deductive processes (creswell, 2014). the results of the analysis in this method are in form of words (kuswoyo & susardi, 2018) this type of research is selected because this research aims to see the variation of response as well as the scale of literary competence per students so that uniqueness of data can be observed. b. research subjects the subject of this research is 21 students of english literature study program of universitas teknokrat indonesia. these students are 4th semester students taking the prose extrinsic element course in the academic year of suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 29 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2019/2020. the prose analysis course is weighed 2 credit semesters and is aimed at developing critical thinking skills through prose analysis projects. the students were selected randomly by not considering their age and gender. these students have already passed the course of introduction to literary study as well as introduction to prose. c. research instrument the instrument used in this research is exam test of reader-response writing on one of the stories from anthology of short stories from asian writers third edition. the anthology is chosen for some reasons. first of all, the stories are written by some notable asian writers. hapsari (2011) stated that literary text in english class should consider the author of inner and outer circle as english is considered as international language, thus exposure of english text produced by outer circle region is also important. second of all, the short stories describe asian cultural, social, and religion contexts, which are considered close to students’ life. in addition, the story is a short story; therefore, it contains less complexity, less time consuming and less in number of pages which will be easier for the reader in reading it. another instrument used in this research is the assessment rubric of ccea gcse english literature mark scheme. this scheme is used by the lecturer to reveal and map readers’ literary competence by looking at their responses. in this scheme, the quality of the readers written communication are set out into five broad criteria within the scheme; band 5 (excellent), band 4 (good), band 3 (competent), band 2 (emerging), band 1 (very little), and band 0 (none). d. research procedure the data in this research is taken from students’ assignments in the prose analysis course. at first, the researchers formulate questions derived from seven reader-response strategies, then adjust it to the ccea gcse english literature mark scheme. then, the researcher asks the course lecturer to instruct the students doing reader-response writing task. the lecturer of prose analysis course gives the assignment instructions, that is to analyze a story from anthology of asian writer using seven strategies of reader-response. the lecture asks the students to read the short story in the class for 30 minutes. the students are instructed to write their responses at home and submit the assignment after three days through lecturer’s online learning platform. the assignment of each student is labelled by the code “reader 1, 30 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj “reader 2”, until “reader 21”. the answers from the students are grouped based on the strategies to make the data are easier to compare. in the last step, the students’ literary competence is mapped and justified. results and discussions a. reader-response strategy adaptation to ccea gcse english literature ccea gcse english literature mark scheme is used to map the students’ literary competences whether they are in band 0, band 1 (very little), band 2 (emerging), band 3 (competent), band 4 (good), or band 5 (excellent). the maximum score for this rubric is 40. the mark scheme is then adapted to seven reader response strategies from beach and marshal (1991) by distributing 40 points to 7 categories reflecting the seven strategies. thus, each strategy has maximum score 4.71. in each strategy, there are two questions formulated by the researcher referring to the assessment objective 1. table 1: questions for reader-response writing strategy questions describing describe the direct and indirect presentation with the supporting details. describe characters’ characterization in the story. describing describe the setting of place and explain its influence to plot. describe the setting of time and explain its influence to plot engaging what was felt by characters? elaborate it. what was thought by characters? elaborate it. explaining state your agreement or disagreement to character’s actions. explain the reason of agreement or disagreement to character’s action interpreting what is the main idea of the story? elaborate the reason why choosing the main idea by providing supporting details. connecting connect this story to self or others experience. give the reason and explanation toward the experience you connect. judging give a judgment toward the moral values of the story. elaborate the reason of choosing moral value with the supporting details from story suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 31 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj each question weighs 2,85 for the comprehensive answer. there are two other marks, 1,42 for incomplete or not comprehensive answer and 0 for no answer or unrelated answer, so a reader may get 0/ 1.42/ 2.85 depending on the quality of their answer. teacher mark this based on how students develop their answer in the assignment. after the responses of each student are marked, the total points are calculated, then the total points reflect in which band a student is in. table 2: ccea gcse english literature mark scheme assessment objective band 0 band 1 band 2 band 3 band 4 band 5 mark 0 very little (1–10) emerging (11–18) competent (19–26) good (27–34) excellent (35–40) ao1 argument response not worthy of credit some writing about text and task attempt to focus on question begin to focus on question some focus on questi on sustained focus on question persuasive, coherent answer to question set. simple, straightfor ward, or limited response. begin to develop a response fairly devel oped respo nse reasoned response evaluative response assertion, basic conclusion, narrative or description some argument developed argument sustained argument very basic level of accuracy in written expression and coherence of response. form mostly appropriate . fairly sound level of accuracy in written expression and coherence of response. form mostly appropriate competent level of accuracy in written expression and coherence of response. form mostly appropriate an appropriat e form of response which is clearly constructe d and accurately expressed an appropriat e form of response which is clearly constructe d and expressed with fluency and precision because the research object is english literature students in bachelor degree, the band should be either 4 (good) or 5 (excellent). it is due to their graduate 32 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj profile that require them to do comprehensive analysis on the literary works supported by the detail information/textual evidence as well as the reasoning behind the selection of idea. b. students’ performance in reader-response writing the implementation of students’ literary competence mapping begins with observing students’ response to new asian writing’s 3rd anthology of stories published in 2013. it is based on seven strategies from beach and marshal (1991) namely describing strategies, engaging strategies, explaining strategies, interpreting strategies, connecting strategies, and judging strategies. the range of responses are varied in each strategy. in the description stage, students were asked to describe the characterization and setting of the short story by addressing two questions. the first is “describe the direct and indirect presentation of the story with the supporting details” and the second is “describe characters’ characterization in the story”. there were sixteen students whose answers fulfilled the first and second questions by giving the detail information about the character and characterization and attached with the supporting detail of the story. two students who partially fulfilled the first and second questions by only mentioning the character without explaining the characterization, and three students didn’t give any answer. in describing the setting, most of the readers were not able to answer question number two about the setting of time or place and its influence on the plot. the first question is “describe the setting of place and its influence to the plot” there were seven readers who only stated setting of place with no elaboration of its influence in the plot, and no students who can completely explain the influence. the rest of the students cannot identify the setting of the place. in terms of the second question, which is “describe the setting of time and its influence to the plot” only one student able to fulfill and it is partially fulfill the answer of the question, meanwhile the rest of them cannot identify the setting of time. in engaging strategies, most of the readers were able to answer of “engage about what was felt by characters with the reason”. thirteen students are able to provide comprehensive answer, two students were only able to answer partially; however, three students cannot find any response toward this question. in “engage about what was thought by characters with the reason “question, thirteen students answer question completely fully as seen from their reader suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 33 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj responses meanwhile two students can only meet it partially and six students cannot provide any answer. in explaining strategies, two questions were set, namely “address agreement or disagreement to characters’ actions “and “explain reason of agreement/disagreement to character action”. all students fulfill these two questions but with different qualities. seventeen students are able to explain their agreement or disagreement and the reason behind the agreement and disagreement completely meanwhile two of them answer in brief without supporting details. for example, they stated to agree with the characters’ action but they do not state the reason or supporting detail to support their opinion in choosing agreement. in the interpreting strategies, all the readers are able to address two questions. the first is “identify the statement of the main idea” and the second is “elaborate the reason why choosing the main idea (supporting details)”. for the first and second questions, all students are able to fulfill them with 14 students partially fulfill and 7 students completely fulfill. mostly, those who were not able to answer the question because they only state about the plot without any supporting detail from the story or connected with their personal judgement toward the story. those who comprehensively answer stated the main idea and give the supporting detail to support their main idea. in connecting strategies, readers are required to address the question or “connect self or others experience” and “explain the reason toward the experience”. all students could answer these two questions. there are 16 who gave the best explanation for the question. those readers answered the question correctly because they could make connection between their own experiences with the characters’ experience, although some of the readers have the different experiences one and another. three of them showed their comprehension toward connecting question by giving the explanation of other people's experience with the character’ s experience. in the judging strategies, the questions should be addressed are “give a judgment of moral values” and “elaborate the reason of choosing moral value with the supporting details from story”. most of the readers were able to find moral value to be learned from the short story. there were 11 readers who were able to mention the moral value which is attached by the supporting detail such as quotation about why moral value was chosen. furthermore, there are eight readers who are describing the moral value without giving any supporting detail that should be attached by the readers. the rest of the readers, were not able to answer the question because they only tell about the part of the story not stating the moral value. it can be summarized that mostly the readers were able to 34 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj answer the last question by judging the moral value and attached with the supporting detail of the story. c. level of students’ literary competence based on ccea gcse mark scheme the reflection of students’ literary competence is taken from the total score student gained in reader-response writing assignment. the following table shows individual score of from reader 1 until reader 21 and student’s each band. table 3: students’ literary competence result r mark competence mark 0 very little emerging competent good excellent (0) (1-10) (11-18) (19-26) (27-34) (35-40) 1 22.8 √ 2 28.5 √ 3 34.2 √ 4 35.6 √ 5 24.2 √ 6 29.9 √ 7 18.5 √ 8 34.2 √ 9 28.5 √ 10 15.6 √ 11 27 √ 12 31.3 √ 13 31.3 √ 14 31.3 √ 15 25.6 √ 16 24.2 √ 17 25.6 √ 18 27 √ 19 22.8 √ 20 19.9 √ 21 25.6 √ total 0 0 2 9 9 1 suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 35 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the table shows that there are no students in band 0 and band 1, 2 students are in band 2, 9 students in band 3, 9 students in band 4 and 1 student in band 5. from the result, it is inferred that only 10 out of 21 students passed the minimum required band. this band clearly reflects the students’ current competence in literature especially in understanding prose. based on the analysis of the answer sheet, students find the difficulty in answering the describing strategies and also facing difficulty to express the idea due to linguistics competence as efl learners. in term of content, most of the students were able to explain the setting but were not able to explain the influence of setting time and place of the story toward the plot. in other strategies, students are mostly able to answer the question; however, the quality of reasoning still needs improvement. the exposure of reasoning should always be trained in the class because through reasoning, the readers will develop their capacity to judge and conclude literary works (gómez-rodríguez, 2018). in this context, the students’ score is mostly 1.42 out of 2.85 because the students still lack in explaining why they select certain main idea and why they select moral values in the story as well as the textual evidence. this result further can be used for lecturer to improve teaching processes addressing students’ weaknesses in the strategies by providing more critical thinking practices in literary classroom as well as moral value and theme justification practices. the success of creating students to be literary competent is highly influenced by their linguistic competence. some of the students as efl learners in this research were facing difficulty to arrange the responses in well-structured sentence. comprehension of grammar and vocabulary hinder the student in expressing their ideas. inan & boldan (2018) stated that the readers should have the necessary competence in terms of linguistic and experiential background. in the same vein, hapsari (2011) also agrees that combination of linguistic, socio-cultural historical and semiotic awareness is important key in reader response. therefore, exposure on reading symbol or semiotics should also be highlighted in literary classroom. the level of students’ literary competence can be further mapped for another unit. in ccea gcse, the other units are drama and shakespeare, meanwhile poetry is not included. therefore, it can also be included as one of important literary competences that needs to be mapped. in the following implementation, the literary competence can be formulated into competency-based test that are required for the students before they graduate 36 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from their major. therefore, in the end, they have authorized certificate describing the level of english literary competences. conclusion ccea gcse mark scheme for english literature for prose along with beach and marshal’s reader response writing can be used as an alternative for mapping students’ literary competition for tertiary education students taking english literature major. through adaptation of scoring and assessment criteria, the assessment model is able to map in which band each student’s competence is in. through this mapping, students are then can be directed for further treatment, especially those who cannot achieved minimum band. the literary competence mapping in this research has been conducted limitedly for the prose unit and for assessment objective 1 (ao1). further researches might highlight the implementation in poetry, and drama as they are the core of literary works learned in english literature study program. assessment objective 2 (ao2) for the prose and other literary works might also become research direction. acknowledgement this research is fully funded by universitas teknokrat indonesia through internal research grant 2020/2021. references afifudin, m. (2016). engaging literary competence through critical literacy in an efl setting. ninth international conference on applied linguistics (conaplin 9) pp. 131-134. atlantis press. doi:https://doi.org/10.2991/conaplin-16.2017.28 aloqaili, a. s. (2012). the relationship between reading comprehension and critical thinking: a theoretical study. journal of king saud univesity languages and translation, 24, 35-42. beach, r., & marshall, j. (1991). teaching literature in the secondary school. san diego: hjb. suprayogi, samanik, vovanti, e.a., & ardeis, y., efl learner’s literary 37 competence mapping through reader-response writing assessed using ccea gcse mark scheme https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj boong, j. (2012). study: fictional characters will influence . ohio: ohio state university. bressler, c. (1999). literary criticism: an introduction to theory and practice, second edition. pittsburgh: prentice-hall inc. brownie, j., thomas, m., & bahnisch, m. (2011). exploring the literature: competency-based education and training & competency-based career frameworks. quensland: university of quensland. ccea. (2017). general certificate of secondary education english literature unit 1: the study of prose. retrieved from gcse english literature: https://ccea.org.uk/key-stage-4/gcse/subjects/gcse-english-literature-201 7/past-papers-mark-schemes creswell, j. (2014). research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. california: sage publications. culler, j. (2000). literary theory: a very short introduction. oxford: oxford university press. denning, d. s. (2020). what is story? what is narrative meaning? retrieved from http:// www.stevedenning.com/business-narrative/definitions-of-story-and-narr ative.aspx. gomez-rodriguez. (2018). english learners’ literary competence development through critical thinking tasks in a colombian efl classroom. international journal of applied linguistics & english literature, 7(7), 3-13. hapsari, a. (2011). literary competence for the teaching of literature in second language educational context. journal of english and education, 5(10), 29-36. doi:10.20885/jee.vol5.iss1.art2 inand, d., & boldan, m. (2018). implementation of reader-response theory in teaching short story. . the literary trek, 4(2), 63-76. iskhak, i. (2015). the application of reader-response theory in enhancing student teachers’ affective and linguistic growth: a classroom action research in efl teacher education in indonesia. the english teacher, 44(2), 43-55. 38 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 21 – 38 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kuswoyo, h., & susardi, s. (2018). thematic progression in efl students’ academic writings: a systemic functional grammar study. teknosastik, 14(2), 39. doi:https://doi.org/10.33365/ts.v14i2.60 mart, c. t. (2019). reader-response theory and literature discussions: a springboard for exploring literary. the new educational review, 78-87. doi:10.15804/tner.2019.56.2.06 mladkova, l. (2013). leadership and storytelling. the 2nd international conference on leadership, technology, and innovation management (pp. 83-90). prague: elsevier. ningrum, c. h. (2018). the use of reader-response theory to teach reading narrrative text for tenth graders of senior high school. retain, 6(1), 95-103. prahaladaiah, d. (2018). a study on developing reading, literary competence and the communicative approach. (quest journals) journal of research in humanities and social science , 6(2), 08-10. rosenblatt, l. (1982). the literary transaction: evocation and response. theory into practice (vol. 24). doi:10.1080/00405848209543018 samanik, s. (2018). teaching english using poetry: an alternative to implement contextual teaching and learning. journal of elt research, 3(1), 21-28. spiro, j. (1991). assessing literature: four papers. in b. c, assessment in literature teaching (pp. 16-83). basingstoke: mcmillan publisher. suprayogi, s., & pranoto, b. e. (2019). students’ perspectives toward news voiceover activity in pronunciation class. twelfth conference of applied linguistics 2019 (pp. 203-206). atlantis press. žbogar, a. (2015). reading ability and literary competence in language arts classes in slovenia. croatian journal of education, 17(4), 1219-1247. doi:https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v17i4.1271 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia david harnish music department, college of arts and sciences, university of san diego, san diego, usa email: dharnish@sandiego.edu received: 08-05-2019 accepted: 14-06-2019 published: 31-07-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia david harnish dharnish@sandiego.edu music department, college of arts and sciences, university of san diego, san diego, usa abstract: this article discusses the challenges of teaching and sustaining music and other performing arts on the island of lombok in indonesia. it follows my field research trajectory on the island over a period of 34 years and analyzes the efforts of government interventions, non-government actors, and teachers and educational institutions in the transmission and sustainability of the arts. interpretations indicate that a combination of globalization, urbanization, social media, everyday mediatization, and islamization over recent decades negatively impacted traditional musics in specific ways, by problematizing sustainability. however, several agents– individuals inside and outside the government who understood the situation and had the foresight to take appropriate action– developed programs and organizations to maintain or aestheticize the performing arts, sustain musician livelihoods, and engage a new generation of male youth in music and dance. these efforts, supplemented by the formation of groups of leaders dedicated to the study of early culture on lombok and fresh initiatives in music education, have ushered in new opportunities and visibility for traditional music and performing arts and performing artists. key words: music education, music sustainability, adat, gendang beleq, wayang kulit sasak abstrak: artikel ini membahas tentang tantangan dari pengajaran dan keberlanjutan dari seni musik dan seni pertunjukan yang terdapat di pulau lombok, indonesia. hal ini selaras dengan penelitian lapangan yang telah saya geluti selama 34 tahun yang menganalisis tentang usaha-usaha intervensi dari 2 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pemerintah, aktor non-pemerintah, dan guru serta institusi pendidikan dalam mentransmisi dan meneruskan keberadaan seni pertunjukan. interpretasi-interpretasi yang menunjukkan adanya perpaduan dari globalisasi, urbanisasi, media sosial, meditasi sehari-hari, dan islamisasi selama beberapa dasawarsa terakhir telah berdampak pada beberapa macam musik tradisi di lombok dengan berbagai cara yang menghambat keberlanjutannya. namun, sejumlah agen, yaitu para individu yang berada di dalam atau di luar pemerintah yang memahami situasi yang ada dan mempunyai visi untuk mengambil langkah-langkah yang tepat– telah mengembangkan program-program dan organisasi-organisasi untuk mempertahankan atau mengestetikakan seni-seni pertunjukan, mempertahankan keberlangsungan hidup para musisi, dan melibatkan diri dalam sebuah generasi baru yang terdiri dari kaum pria muda yang menyenangi musik dan tari. usaha-usaha itu, yang didukung oleh adanya pembentukan kelompok-kelompok pemimpin yang berdedikasi pada studi budaya lombok di masa awal dan pada inisisasi pendidikan musik, telah membuka kesempatan-kesempatan baru untuk menampakkan musik tradisional, seni pertunjukan, dan seniman seniwati. kata kunci: edukasi musik, keberlanjutan musik, adat, gendang beleq, wayang kulit sasak introduction as a society urbanizes and modernizes, the traditional musics from rural districts and pre-modern eras begin to wane in approval as younger generations turn toward globalized and national popular musics, styles hybridizing local with national or global, or other contemporary musics. this trend has been global but has particularly impacted developing countries that were newly independent after world war ii and struggling to decolonize and modernize. as people transition to city life, earlier musics frequently no longer fit their lifestyle and experience. the island of lombok (province of nusa tenggara barat) has experienced these changes. traditional arts – which originally served public rituals and life-cycle rites (births, puberty, weddings, funerary) and to enculturate and educate communities on their histories and values – became considered kampungan (backward, “of the village”) in the transition to city harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 3 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dwelling, modern education, nationalization, globalization, and mediatization. in response, national and provincial government offices developed arts intervention strategies to identify those performing arts that tonjol (stuck out) and could be cultivated and sustained for local and state purposes and identity construction. other efforts were centered in schools and curricular and extra-curricular programs were established for students to learn about their own musics and try their hands at playing and singing. officials and educators were concerned that if steps were not taken to maintain traditional performing arts, citizens could begin to emulate western values and lose their indonesian and lombok identities. i began researching on lombok in 1983. at that time, sasak (the indigenous and vast majority population) were beginning to move into more urban areas, particularly in the capital city, mataram, where lombok was still in its earlier stages of modernization and was in transition. politically, it was in the new order period where students learned about pancasila, acquired skills in the indonesian language, and had some limited exposure to the arts. in the era, many kinds of traditional musics, had already lost relevance and were even sometimes banned by charismatic religious leaders, such as tuan guru, because most of those kinds of musics developed during a pre-islamic era or an early islamic era and were considered no longer acceptable for muslim consumption. several tuan guru leaders, stated that the traditional arts in lombok were a distraction from islam. this positioning by tuan guru problematized music educators, programs, and the overall sustainability of traditional performing arts. over the years of research on lombok, i noticed some arts declining and even disappearing, because of this, i frequently published on the changes of the music culture. in the field of ethnomusicology, the notion of the sustainability of music and musician’s livelihoods arose earlier in this century, was championed by such western scholars as titon, j. t. (2009), schippers, h. (2015), schippers, h. & grant, c. (2016), and grant, c. (2014, 2017). these scholars suggested that ethnomusicologists conducting fieldwork should consider music culture as a crucial part of the ecology of a people and address how local educators, leaders, and artists can safeguard intangible cultural heritage and arts sustainability. as a society modernizes and contemporary music is given media platforms; transmission systems, commercial visibility, and patrons, the ecology for traditional kinds of musics cannot be maintained. i then met some local leaders on lombok – in government, outside of government, and 4 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in education – who indeed were attempting to sustain the performing arts, and focused on these topics in several field projects. this article encapsulates my field research over decades and discusses how many elements – music, musicians, arts institutions, government offices and personnel, schools and teachers, and religious officials – factor into the shaping of education and sustainability for the traditional performing arts. the contributions of many agents, individuals with influence and foresight who made decisions to promote the arts, and their agendas are also identified in this article. methodology the majority of data in this article derive from ethnographies conducted on lombok for an on-and-off of over 34 years. as a foreigner conducting research in indonesia, i was required to gain approval from various national and provincial government offices. on lombok, i was requested to report to the arts section of the department of education and culture (departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan). the director and staff were very pleased that i chose to research music culture on lombok because most foreigners only went to bali or java, so they helped guide some of my projects and allowed me to participate in some of theirs. the director during my early fieldwork, haja sri yaniningsih, and a staff member, endah setyorini, became sponsors to some of my later fieldwork. i have visited lombok for field research for 16 times. some of my projects were many months long; others were weeks long. the most recent fieldwork was for two-months in 2017. my first project was to research balinese’ kinds of musics on lombok and to compare them with musics on bali and sasak musics. the working theory was that the long cultural interactions between balinese and sasak on the island resulted in some shared practices, while local balinese also retained practices from their original areas in bali, which had somewhat changed over centuries. i concentrated for years on the musics and culture at the temple festival at the lingsar temple in west lombok, an annual nexus point for balinese and sasak. i began researching on sasak musics particularly in 1985 and have focused on traditional musics, music and religion/islam, contextualization, festivalization, pedagogy, culture theory (especially gender and social class), harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 5 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dance ethnology, and folk and popular musics. projects on music education and sustainability were initiated or continued in the 1980s and in 2008, 2009, 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2017. fieldwork always entailed numerous interviews with government and cultural leaders, musicians, composers, and teachers. the method of participant-observation was utilized particularly in the early years of my work on lombok. interpretations were always necessary to analyze changes and categories for music behaviors, and i had many opportunities for feedback interviews with individuals over the years. later theories sought to sound out the voices of local musicians and artists on lombok: to report their interpretations and biases of music styles, practices, and changes. now that so many years have passed, i can compare periods to see how cultural, musical, religious, and political changes have impacted musics on lombok, and can also identify those individuals, those agents, who helped shape artistic directions. lombok is a complex island with rich and diverse histories. it has influences from java, bali, sulawesi, the malay world, and the arab world that informed notions of culture, community, artistic and religious practices, aesthetics, interreligious relationships, and much more. during interviews it was clear that these histories are sometimes very current in everyday imaginations, and they set the scene for my years on lombok and for the localized ideas of music education and sustainability. cultural history to understand how educational and cultural institutions formed, it is necessary to look at histories. peoples started settling the coasts of lombok thousands of years ago and eventually made their way inland. one sasak historian, lalu wacana (1978), found data suggesting that javanese nobles were sent to establish courts on lombok as early as the 7th century. if correct, the court religion could have been a hindu-buddhist mix while villages maintained previous complexes of beliefs. over the next 700 years, the pattern of javanese nobles establishing a small court and placing a sibling on the thrown continued. a lontar (palm-leaf) manuscript from the 14th century, nagarakertagama, places the island as a vassal state of the javanese majapahit empire, absorbing the most potent local court, selaparang, into a hindubuddhist ruling house around 1357. selaparang declined during the late 15th 6 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj century and other courts, such as penjanggik, which rose to try and dominate it. the lontar of babad lombok explains that one of the legendary wali sanga evangelists, sunan praben (or sunan giri; sometimes locally called pangeran sangupati), was sent by his father, the susuhunan ratu of giri (east java) to convert the populations and propagate islam. sunan praben arrives in the northern lombok village of bayan in the 16th century around 1545. these teachings were based in javanese sufism, which were then strongly localized into local beliefs and customs (adat). later in the century, makassar in southern sulawesi became a dominant and islamic trading power, took over the neighboring island of sumbawa, and made incursions into east lombok. soon, courts like selaparang and penjanggik were transformed into muslim ruling houses following normative islam, rather than hindu-buddhism or sufism. these two types of teachings – the adatcentered islam of bayan in north lombok and the normative practice of courts and communities in east lombok – led to the recognition of two different groups of muslims: wetu telu (three times or stages, referring to ritual complexes of “three”) and waktu lima (five times, referring to both the pillars of islam and the prayers each day) (see budiwanti, 2014). balinese, primarily from east bali, began entering west lombok in the 14th century but most eventually lost their identity and became sasak. others came in the 16th century and maintained their identity as balinese. the successful battles in 1645 between the balinese gelgel kingdom and makassarese provided the balinese some short-lived control over trade. however, gelgel fell toward the end of century, which resulted in the rise of klungkung and other contesting kingdoms, including karangasem in east bali. by the late 17th century, a balinese ruling house from karangasem took control of west lombok and a balinese noble in west lombok controlled the entire island around 1740. different balinese palaces on lombok then dominated lombok until 1894, when the dutch, invited by sasak nobles and always wanting to control trade, defeated the balinese in a series of battles and colonized lombok. this long occupation of lombok by hindu balinese over muslim sasak remains a sensitive and tense issue. the japanese expunged the dutch in 1942, departed in 1945, and indonesian leaders declared independence that year, wasrealized a few years later. lombok was at first grouped politically with bali in the 1950s, then was joined with the islamic sumbawa to form ntb (nusa tenggara barat) in 1958. by 1960, there may have been nearly equal numbers of wetu telu and harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 7 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj waktu lima. but, after the mass anti-communist killings of 1965-66 throughout the country, the official numbers of wetu telu dramatically dropped. wetu telu were not communists but, as agriculturalists who were losing farmlands, favored land reform and thus were targeted by local vigilante groups. thousands of wetu telu (and chinese) on lombok were killed because their beliefs were “unacceptable” (muller, 1991, p. 54). shortly later, many wetu telu declared themselves “muslim” and followed tuan guru to protect themselves and their families. over decades, their numbers have continued to fall. ntb was administered by governors from java until 1998. there have since only been governors from the province, including three sasak men. islam was the rallying point against the hindu balinese and the christian dutch, and the religion is a cornerstone of sasak identity. lombok has been progressively islamized since the 19th century. the original tuan guru figures are thought to have accompanied the original javanese missions in the 16th century, and then remained to continuously teach. the most important religious figure in lombok’s history was tuan guru haji muhammad zainuddin abdul majid (1906-97), who rose to the status of a national hero for the province in 2017. this tuan guru founded the first modern reformist organization on lombok, nahdhutul watan (nw), in 1936. he studied in mecca for twelve years, took a government position in the 1950s and led the charge of other tuan guru into the provincial and local governments and into education (see harnish, 2011), and established many pondok pesantren to systematize teachings (which included music) and mosques.1 tuan guru and hajjis control the majority of government posts. reformist islam has, thus, become the center of authority on lombok in the 21st century. several tuan guru began prohibiting traditional performing arts a century ago as a way to decrease villagers’ access to sounds and narratives that connect them to ancestors and the landscape; with the intent to sever webs of adat beliefs. some banned bronze gamelan due to the traditional value placed the sound of struck bronze (harnish, 2016a). in response, musicians created new ensembles, based on traditional structures but featuring instruments made of goatskin (e.g., rebana drums) or iron. prohibitions of traditional arts increased from around 1968-1990. during those years, it became difficult for 1 nahdlatul ulama (nu) and other organizations established followers and institutions a few decades later. nu has been increasing membership and now perhaps equals the numbers of nw members. 8 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj shadow play puppeteers (dalang) and theatre troupes to get permits to perform in public. other traditional kinds of musics that accompanied such life-cycle events as circumcisions and weddings were curtailed as the provincial government required that families follow the proper islamic procedures as enforced by the government office of religion (kantor agama). though prohibitions against many arts were lifted around 1990, one 21st-century governor, tuan guru haji bajang m. zainul majdi, who served for over 10 years (2008-2018), sought to have music directly related to islam (musik islam, consisting of such forms as sholowat, qasidah, burdah, and hadra) to replace traditional sasak music and represent lombok at all state events. he was a leader of nw and his grandfather was tuan guru haji muhammad zainuddin abdul majid, the organization’s founder. tuan guru bajang (as he is called) united the top authority of governance and religion into one person and he wielded great influence over government offices. his successor as governor, zulkieflimansyah, appears to be more progressive, though it is too early to know his policies toward the arts. although there were challenges over the decades – particularly from globalization, urbanization, mediatization, and islamization – there were always advocates for the traditional arts. many educators and officials at the arts section of the ministry of education and culture (pendidikan dan kebudayaan) and at the cultural center (taman budaya) in the 1980s and 1990s initiated projects. in the 21st century, more educators and officials from various government offices developed programs. community leaders established organizations to support the arts, and musicians founded sanggar (troupes that sometimes offer instruction) whenever they could to stage performing arts. a great many people have been concerned that if sasak arts are not sustained, that youth will be lured by western values. amore recent concern was the arabization (arabisasi) of the arts with the result of creating muslims without any cultural roots. the section below discusses the interventions by the government to both sustain and to modernize the traditional performing arts. results and discussions a. government interventions the first two indonesian governments – under president sukarno (1945-1967) and president suharto (1967-1998) – viewed traditional harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 9 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj performing arts as the cultural capital for the new nation. president sukarno’s government sought an arts policy to bring these forms to the fore to modernize them and use them for political gain. the suharto administration went much further and developed true arts intervention policies by 1970. the federal government requested provincial governments to “dig up” (menggali) and develop (mengembang) music and dance “to meet perceived national (read: javanese) standards” (harnish, 2007, p. 61). since there were tensions on lombok between tuan guru and the local government on the role of performing arts, the initial projects were simply to take inventories of arts on the island throughout most of the 1970s. haja sri yaningsih (bu sri), an educated javanese woman, who married to an elite sasak, became director of the arts section (bidang kesenian) of the ministry of education and culture from 1983-95, which was a period of unparalleled arts intervention. she was a strong advocate of the national arts policy (pembinaan kesenian) and demanded competent work from her highly qualified staff. one of her first steps was establishing competitions and festivals to bring together active troupes in music and dance and providing grants for new instruments and dance costumes and training with government specialists. bu sri and her staff created a pusat latihan kesenian (plk: center for arts rehearsal) in the provincial capital of mataram, an organization that had been operating successfully outside of ntb that could be utilized to develop and teach the performing arts. teachers, composers, and choreographers were engaged to establish troupes at plk.in the 1990s all districts of lombok and several districts in sumbawa had centers as well, which worked cooperatively with the center in mataram, has actively performed throughout the province, and performed for tourists at hotels and other venues as needed. the arts section convinced the ministry of education to require an arts requirement for middleand high-school students in mataram. to advance to the next grade, students had to pass a test in a performing art, and plk members administered these tests (harnish, 2016b). this project was one effort that combined the forces of the arts section and principals and teachers in the capital to provide meaningful arts education to students in the city. when they first began searching for performance forms, bu sri and her staff looked for the oldest and most traditional rural arts but discovered that some of these, such as the folk theatre amaq abir, had limited aesthetic appeal and could not be developed for a broader public. so, they looked for performing arts that stuck out and represented apexes of local culture. they 10 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj identified three primary forms for further development: gendang beleq (lit. big drum, an ensemble featuring gong chimes, cymbals, gongs, bamboo flute, and large drums), the song-dance form rudat, and the social dance, gandrung. the office also conducted projects on wayang kulit sasak (the sasak version of the shadow play) and such forms as the dynamic tandang mendet dance of the traditional mountainous village, sembalun bumbung. out of all of these efforts, gendang beleq became the most successful project by far. however, there were complications on the road to cultivate this ensemble as the performative icon of lombok. gendang beleq, sometimes known by district names, was a wetu telu ensemble used in traditional contexts, such as harvest and planting rituals, big feasts, teeth-filings (now obsolete), circumcisions, and weddings. the music performance also includes dance among the musicians. in the older forms of gendang beleq, the dance is more restrained and the major dance roles are given to the large (beleq) drummers and the oncer (small gong) player. in the newer forms cultivated by the arts section and culture center, the dance is far more dynamic, the ensemble far larger, and the music faster and more complicated (see harnish, 2016a). because it is a bronze ensemble with performance contexts in adat events, gendang beleq was a form disallowed by tuan guru in many areas of lombok but was still maintained in some traditional villages by the mid1980s. at the time, the cultural center had identified 12 active or semiactive ensembles on the island. in 1983, i accompanied a team from the arts section to the village of rembitan in central lombok, where the gendang beleq club had agreed to participate in an arts section project. this rural 1983 version of the ensemble featured eight elder male musicians performing a static repertoire while wearing mismatching shirts and dodot (a type of sarong), playing instruments a bit out of tune, and lightly dancing as they performed (harnish, 2007). in 2001, i accompanied another team to a hamlet outside of the district of narmada in west lombok; by that time, the culture center had counted over 500 ensembles on lombok. in this presentation, twenty-four male teens and young adults performed multisectional music compositions at various tempi and dynamic choreography on quality instruments. though i had heard gendang beleq ensembles many times over the years, i was curious how these drastic changes – many more instruments and musicians, more varied and dynamic music and dancing, older and then younger musicians, and numbers of ensembles from 12 in harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 11 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1983 to 500 ensembles in 2001 (and 2017 estimates range up to 6,500 ensembles) on lombok – had come about. in the 1980s, bu sri and her staff identified gendang beleq as a peak of local culture and sought to develop the ensemble to a national standard to “educate and modernize sasak citizenry, to stand for lombok and sasak culture nationally and internationally, and to become an atraksi budaya (cultural attraction) for use in the tourist industry” (harnish, 2016a, p. 156). they took the ensemble out of context, secularized it to please religious officials, and engaged plk members to craft new choreography and music elements to make performances as spectacular as possible. gendang beleq highlighted the list of performance forms modified to create a national “aesthetic of respectability” (yampolsky, 1995, p. 712). festivals were arranged to showcase the new style, grant monies were available to acquire new and more instruments for clubs to use, young men were targeted as musicians, and specialists rehearsed clubs over months before performances. the ensemble had thus transitioned from ritual to stage, and noted tuan gurusupported these efforts to galvanize youth in a disciplined and crafted cultural display. some, however, had dropped prohibitions against bronze instruments and traditional arts as long as they were secularized and performed outside of ritual contexts. “membership in a gendang beleq club was to maintain modern sasak values and nurture better indonesian and sasak citizenship among young men” (harnish, 2016a, p. 156-57). performances were staged and aestheticized spectacles that presented ahistorical sasak culture in a dynamic and modernized light. political and religious leaders supported and advocated for this new gendang beleq, though some older musicians relented the loss of khas sasak (original, authentically sasak) elements in the modernized style. while gendang beleq is by far the most successful of the arts section’s intervention projects, other forms such as rudat, wayang kulit sasak, and gandrung were sustained during bu sri’s tenure and beyond the fall of the new order in 1998. when provincial autonomy took hold in indonesia (1999, though not fully in effect in ntb until 2002), political officials downsized and reconfigured the arts section, and slashed education budgets for music and the arts in schools. by then, gendang beleq was still growing in popularity and was self-sustaining, though other forms began to decline. in the late 1980s and into the early 21st century, musicians had been engaged to teach curricular or extra-curricular courses in ensemble performance to 12 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students in urban and some rural schools. nearly all of these programs were eliminated by or before 2004. b. non-government actors and sustainability over the years, i was fortunate to meet a lot of non-government agents working in their own ways to sustain traditional music and performing arts. some developed their own organizations. one such agent was amaq rahil, a proud wetu telu of lenek village in east lombok, who created an arts institution and a self-sufficient ashram that also served as an orphanage and emphasized traditional arts of the area – wayang kulit sasak, pakon (a trance/healing dance), and kecimol asli (featuring the gambus lute) – and farming for all residents. he brought provincial recognition, national and international touring, and an enhanced profile to the area. after his death, the village sold many instruments and puppet collections, but over recent years his descendants are now working to revive the historically significant arts of lenek. a few other institutions and orphanages, led by a variety of cultural leaders, continue to work to preserve performing arts in their corners of lombok. many intellectuals and artists have felt that to sustain music and performing arts in any society, they have to be taught over a long period of time in schools. mochammad yamin and his organization, lembaga pendidikan seni nusantara (lpsn: institute for arts education of the indonesian archipelago), have been at the forefront of such efforts. a dancer in west java, endo suanda, founded the national lpsn in 2002. pak yamin worked with pak suanda to open a branch in lombok in 2005. the national office was awarded a ford foundation grant and the lombok office received resource assistance from 2005-2007. the institute in lombok invited over 100 teachers in lombok to come to mataram to train in the arts and learn how to produce such artefacts as masks (topeng) and lutes (gambus). the teachers were given materials (booklets and video-compact disks) for presenting local and national arts in classrooms and extra-curricular programs, and were awarded certificates upon completion of the training. since 2007, this training, which has now reached at least 250 teachers, has been provided for a nominal cost. while the numbers of participants have declined, the programs are continuing. pak yamin frequently goes out to villages to observe school programs, and sometimes he funds the programs himself (harnish, 2016b). he is a kind of folk hero to arts educators, who sometimes reach out to him to develop their own programs. harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 13 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj over the past few years, a number of hajjis and intellectuals have formed adat study groups to research early sasak islam and culture, particularly as these are embedded in some traditional performing arts and literature. haji lalu gus fathurrahman (called mamiq) was engaged in the arts as a painter and in deep studies of islam; i knew him when he served as director of the culture center. he spent 11 years going around lombok, living in traditional villages, and learning about local adat. he founded the adat study group, lembaga rowot nusantara lombok (institute of lombok’s archipelago star); they shorten the title to rowot rontal. mamiq copies and translates lontar and teaches old literature at the university of mataram; several other rowot rontal members also teach at the university. mamiq studied the traditional but almost forgotten sasak calendar called warige in older villages and encouraged their productions onto wood. rowot rontal now produces a paper warige calendar and makes thousands of these available to communities throughout lombok. warige calendars are similar to the balinese and javanese 210-day calendars, specifying a series of different weeks and indicating days for certain activities, for instance, holding life-cycle rites, visiting friends, and so forth. rowot rontal meets weekly for discussions on adat, traditional literature and on the characters, ethics and morals in the shadow play wayang kulit sasak, based on the menak cycle of tales featuring the uncle of prophet muhammad, amir hamza, who paves the way for islam. these characters are also affixed to the days of warige. in this way, rowot rontal promotes and advocates for wayang kulit sasak, traditional literature, and traditional sasak adat. mamiq also regularly visits the primary wetu telu center of bayan village where, due to his adat studies, he is a leader of ceremonies. ki ageng sadarudin is another agent in the study of adat and supporter and musician of traditional sasak arts. he founded an organization called lembaga pengemban budaya adat sasak (institute for caretaking sasak adat culture) and is principal at an elementary school in mataram, where arts education is readily available to students. ki sadarudin has studied to be a dalang of wayang kulit sasak. like mamiq, he is a noted and respected hajji and has studied traditional literature and is a proponent of the singing and translation of these texts in the music style called tembang sasak or pepaosan. he organizes weekly meetings for discussions and rehearsals and performances of wayang kulit sasak, and assists in organizing pepaosan and seminars on the jejawan script that is used on lontar for the menak cycle and other traditional literature. while i was in lombok in 2017, we attended a 14 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj wayang kulit sasak performance in central lombok by an old friend, dalang ki budiman, and a festival of pepaosan attended by hundreds of men (including many dalang but also hajjis and intellectuals) in full adat clothing. one other individual to mention in this new movement toward adat and traditional performing arts is haji lalu anggawa, the head of the pepadi wayang kulit organization on lombok. he also formed his own study group, lembaga konsultasi dan mediasi budaya adat sasak (sasak cultural adat consulting and mediation institute) and is an islamic authority with the power to issue fatwas if the behavior in wayang kulit is wrong. but, he is strongly against the arabization of sasak culture, which was spearheaded by religious leaders from the mid-20th century, and he stated directly that if a tuan guru declares traditional music forbidden, he is mistaken. haji lalu anggawa and other hajjis have dismantled the approach of developing islam without adat (agama menghilang adat, another initiative by tuan guru from the last century), and want modern islamic practice to be informed by the early history and performing arts of the religion on lombok. the new movement toward studying adat, spearheaded by hajjis and modernist muslims, surprised me, and only in 2017 was i able to meet and discuss agendas with these organizations and leaders. my publications earlier in the 21st century predicted the continual decline of traditional arts, and then suddenly some arts had renewed support outside of government interventions. this movement also reverses the trajectory of discrediting adat, an effort that engaged so many sasak leaders until several years ago. importantly, some traditional performing arts functioning within adat could suddenly be studied and celebrated. it must be added, however, that not all older arts fall into this category of support. several forms have indeed disappeared or are on the brink of doing so. in my opinion, those latter arts – mostly lesser-known ensemble traditions or rural theatre forms – were too kampungan (of the village, backward) or could not be reconciled into a conceived early islamized adat. these same forms also could not be modernized in government interventions and will likely disappear within a generation. the adat study groups hold that early sasak society was almost always islamic and they are fascinated with those practices of islam, which are no longer considered haram (forbidden) but rather point to early cultural identity, and many hajjis and intellectuals today are seeking a distinctive islamic identity – non-arabic and non-javanese – but particular to lombok and to the sasak. the literary forms loved by these communities, especially wayang kulit sasak and pepaosan, provide a rich lineage to this identity. harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 15 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. music education, teachers, and the ministry of education while agents like mochammad yamin worked outside the department of education to introduce performing arts into schools, many school teachers and sanggar leaders worked within education to offer curricular and/or extracurricular opportunities for academic and practical training in music and the arts. some of the musicians and dancers have been seniman alam, (natural masters) without formal training in teaching the arts. in 1983, some of the aged arts masters were still not fully literate, but they were exceptional teachers. styles like gendang beleq, gamelan rebana (ensemble of rebana drums), rudat, and others were available for study and some students went on to work with plk (disbanded in the 21st century) or within the government in education or arts positions. today, some masters and other artists are going through certificate programs offered through the ministry of education. as artists, particularly those removed from farming, these compensated teaching positions at schools have been essential for both the professionalism and livelihoods of active musicians. interestingly, some local balinese musicians well-versed in sasak performing arts have also filled these positions. a majority of schools have acquired or been gifted gendang beleq, though some have gamelan rebana or other ensembles, or more than one ensemble for student participation. one of the staff members of bu sri’s 1980s arts section and also a former teacher at plk, abdul hamid was one of the leading sasak dancers, teachers, and choreographers on lombok. he retired from all offices in 2006 but still performs occasionally and joined faculty at some schools to teach dance. i met him at a middle school in mataram in 2017 to interview him and watch him teach a class on rudat, the music theatre form based originally on and both turkish and malay forms and colonial-period stamboel theatre in java. the theatre form is often reduced to a song and dance of arab soldiers often singing songs of victory and love in the malay language. pak hamid was uniquely teaching girls this dance of arab, male soldiers; in fact, he had been teaching girls for years and several of his female dance troupes had won provincial and national awards. such training for girls was unthinkable in 1983, the first year, in which i met pak hamid. while gender equity or at least equal access to arts for girls has been a government and education goal, on lombok these efforts for females were restricted mainly to vocals or dance and to forms choreographed for women or girls. however, in recent years the marawis ensemble, taught at some public and in many religious schools, has been open to male and female 16 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj participation, though all-male or all-female groups, rather than mixed groups, tend to form. marawis, a vocal and percussion ensemble with yemeni and betawi roots often consisting of three types of drums and devotional songs (and sometimes popular songs) in arabic, has existed on lombok for many decades but grew in popularity as international muslim weddings and honeymoons held in lombok needed performance. suddenly, more and more sasak became interested in the ensemble and soon both public schools and pesantren featured it in educational settings. the ensemble features choreographed movements by the musicians and has become an important medium in this century, performed on religious holidays, at state holidays and events and in processions. thus, some girls are learning musical instruments in addition to dance and vocals, and other barriers are slowly eroding. over the past five years or so, a movement linking civil and education leaders arose to advocate for increased arts education in schools. several offices – education, arts section, lpsn and taman budaya (culture center) – launched the “80 artists in 80 schools” (delapan puluh seniman dalam delapan puluh sekolah) project in 2017. as the title suggests, 80 artists visited 80 schools and worked with thousands of elementary through high school students. in 2018, the program expanded and added more artists, more schools, and more students. of course, gendang beleq has been the main form taught in this program, but less-thriving styles like gambus lute playing, cilokaq folk ensembles, gula gending tin drum musics, and zikrzamman islamic dances were also included in the program. lalu surya was the head of the revised arts section within the ministry of education and culture in 2017. he mentioned that the current mission of the arts section is to facilitate this program across lombok and work with taman budaya to identify appropriate teachers. like many other officials, he believes that maintaining the arts is essential to instill and sustain cultural identity, therefore, suggesting that the arts are the main vehicle to cultural identity. conclusion traditional music and performing arts were somewhat endangered into the 1980s on lombok. prohibitions were in place for many forms, based on both instrument material (bronze) and the ritual, pre-islamic reform contexts harnish, d. music education and sustainability in lombok, indonesia 17 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of traditional arts. in 1983, there were no professional musicians (only one professional dalang), no codified method of transmission, no codified music theories, no music education system in place, and very few settings for these arts, except for the few remaining wetu telu villages. lombok was slowly modernizing and urbanizing but most traditional arts had little relevance for the majority of citizens. the situation began to change with the appointment of bu sri as head of the arts section of the ministry of education in 1983. as festivals and programs were launched, plk was organized, composers and choreographers were involved, and a number of students became proficient at the modernized and aestheticized styles of such arts as gendang beleq. some of these teachers and students began approaching schools to teach in-school or extra-curricular ensembles as lombok, particularly in the urbanizing areas, had gradually opened up. when traditional arts were secularized and removed from traditional contexts, many tuan guru dropped their prohibitions and some actively encouraged the participation of male youth to develop sasak and national citizenry and curtail western ideas from influencing younger generations. some officials and elder musicians relented the loss of khas sasak in the modernized forms, but those forms have helped bring visibility and identity to lombok in an unprecedented way. as the situation in music education suddenly deteriorated in the early part of this century, agents like mochammad yamin understood the situation and worked with educational institutes to develop teacher training programs and provide materials for instruction all over the island. over recent years, more officials and educators successfully lobbied government offices to fund such dynamic ongoing programs as 80 teachers in 80 schools. currently, music education is geared toward sustaining music on lombok into the next generation and perhaps beyond. in the meantime, adat study groups among religious leaders and intellectuals have worked to sustain or revive such literary-related forms as wayang kulit sasak and pepaosan and some organizations, for instance the one headed by ki sadarudin, actively organizes festivals on these forms. overall, though some forms remain endangered, the traditional performing arts on lombok are in a healthier condition than i have ever seen. many individuals – government officials, non-government actors, and music educators – have 18 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 1 – 19 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj spearheaded projects and training to help sustain these arts throughout most of the rest of this century. acknowledgement parts of this paper have been presented at the 10th indonesian festival of the arts, held in surabaya in 2018; at the international council for traditional music study group on the performing arts of southeast asia conference at kota kinabalu in 2018; and at the national society for ethnomusicology conference in albuquerque, new mexico (us), also in 2018. i also thank all of the individuals cited in this paper. references budiwanti, e. 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(1995). forces for change in the regional performing arts of indonesia. bijdragen, tot de taal-, landeen volkenkunde 154(4), 700-725. lonely lennie in john steinbeck's of mice and men1 elfath akdawidjaja1, angelika riyandari and rm sri suryaningsih3 abstract: loneliness is an emotional state when an individual finds himiherselfs lack of qualitative interaction with other people. it does not only occur by the absence of other people around. but it also occurs with the presence of the others. the case study of lennie small provides a descriptive illustration of loneliness as the discussion reveals that lennie suffers from psychological and cognitive loneliness. thefeeling of loneliness itse/fis caused by being unable to fit in and being abused and rejected by others. the study also reveals how lennie auempts to cope with loneliness through the desire for someone and by crying. key words: loneliness. psychological. cognitive. cope. introduction any individual may have experienced loneliness. it is a feeling that deals with the relation to other people. when a person feels a lack of contact with other people, loneliness occurs. it is very common in human life because human being is a social creature. this article is a development of the undergraduate thesis defended at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang in july 2008. elfath akdiwidjaya., s.s. <elfath_3434@yahoo.com> is an alumnae of the faculty of letters. soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. angelika riyandari, s.s, m.a. <goen2ike@yahoo.com> and dra. rosa maria sri suryaningsih, m.a. <rmsrisuryaningsihyahoo.com> are lecturers ofthe faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 84 celt, volume 8, number i, july 2008: 77 • 84 the study also reveals that there are two causes that make lennie suffer from loneliness. the first cause is being unable to fif in because lennie fails to meet the demands of the society considering intellectuality. the second cause is being abused and rejected by others because lennie's intellectual defect always gets him in troubles. the discussion has another finding, i.e. lennie has two attempts in coping with loneliness. the first attempt is the desire for someone, considering the fact that nobody else understands lennie and takes care of him, except his late aunt clara and his only friend george. bmliography "causes of loneliness". in http://www.webofloneliness.comlcauses_of_ loneli ness.hbn., retrieved on 5 april 2007 . "coping with loneliness". in http://www.webofloneliness.comlcoping.htm .• retrieved on 5 april 2007 . corsini, raymond j. (ed.). encyclopedia of psychology. red., volume i. new york: john wiley and sons, inc., 1994. "loneliness". in http://en.wikipedia.orglwikilloneliness,retrievedon 5 april 2007. rook, k.s. "research on social support, loneliness and social isolation: towards an integration". in review o/personality and social psychology no.5, new york: macmillan general reference, 1984. sean. "loneliness". in http://www.webofloneliness.com. retrieved on 5 april 2007. . steinbeck, john. of mice and men. new york: bantam books, inc., 1972. logo: an expose of macho characters in louis l' amour's western novels; brionne, the californios, and hondol m. syafri badaruddin1 absl1'act: three novels entitled brionne, the califomios, and hondo written by louis l 'amour reveal the hard life in the westemfrontier of america which was still wilderness. l 'amour shows the macho characteristics and attitudes through his macho characters. they apply the macho characteristics such as strength, bravery, virility, and manliness but remaining sensitivity. they also possess macho altitudes such as protective, honest, intelligent, with an aesthetic personality. key words: macho, strength, bravery, virility, manliness, protective lntroduction a. backgroudd historically, machismo in america emerged whed migrants came to america in the seventeenth century. captain john smith and his ship named 'mayflower' sailed for virginia with one hundred and forty people aboard. it took four months sailing and thirty-nine people had died on the voyage. it seemed among those who survived were john smith, thomas morton, william bradford, john winthrop, roger william. they became macho leaders and colorful figures of the colonial period. they were not only good sailor but they were also brave and strong. i this article is a part of the thesis the writer wrote for his master's degree in american studies. 1 drs. m. syafri badaruddin, m.rum. <esfribad@yahoo.co.id> is a full-time lecturer of the faculty of letters, hasanuddin university, makasar. 124 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 123 '136 the characteristics of the immigrants were strong spirit to motivate· and drive them to venture the new land. the hostile atlantic waves had caused death to many of them on their exodus. indians were also hostile at that period. that was why the only way for them was just to cooperate with the indians who at any time could attack them with their poisonous arrows. john smith of virginia considered the indians barbarous and savage, and' he regarded the indians as unregenerate, crafty, covetous, and malicious (hide 1984:31). during the eighteenth century some new people had moved to the west these men were very brave, strong, and hardworking. tmdal (1989:41) said that 'most of these settlers who came to america were young males. they were under twenty-five years old'. these young males were tested on their personalities both their physical and non-physical strength. those who were able to survive these requirements would become the winners as true macho males. roberstone (1990:115) stated that the adaptation of backwoodsmen, frontiersmen, or the pioneers to the life in the wilderness was an important part of the creation of the wilderness myth of the american character. related to those statements above, the writer of this study presents l'amour's three novels, brionne (1981), the californios (1982), and hondo (1976), as the objects to be discussed and analyzed. james brionne, sean mulkerin, and hondo lane, as three protagonists within these three western novels, personify the true meaning of 'macho'. they also have 'macho' characteristics such as strength, courage, virility and manliness but retaining sensitivity. these characteristics support the image of the 'macho' male. b. method of research this study is based on a library research conducted in different places. the primary data used in the analysis were taken from louis l' amour's three western novels: brionne, the californios, and hondo. the secondary data were collected fromjournals, articles, and historical documents such as letters, autobiographies, and notes. the research applies multidisciplinary approach which emphasizes the disciplines, such as literature, culture, history, psychology, and sociology. m.s. badaruddln, an expose of macho characters 125 analysis 'macho' is a word that is currently used in many countries in the world. the younger generation perceives this word to mean' looking like a tough man' , and believe that wearing jeans or 'looking like rambo' makes one 'macho'. this is not the true sense of the word of 'macho' but is in fact, posturing characteristics of a 'macho' image in sooiety. according to the random house diction8l}', 'niacho' is 'a mexican spanish adjective typifying male characteristics, as strong, brave, virile and manly but retaining sensitivity' (1986:858). these characteristics support the image of the 'macho' male. it can not be denied that the characteristics of macho exist in many western novels. cooper as the founder of western novel presented his heroes, natty bumppo, cbingachgook, and uncas are men of the wilderness (cawelti, 1978: 195). natty bumppo fights the indians in order to save the lives of the white american settlers. however cooper's hero natty bumppo does not always fight with the indians, in fact he makes friends with the indian chief chigachgook and uncas. by this friendship cooper tt:ies to bridge the wide misunderstanding that exists between the white and the indian. generally, a western hero is handsome, young, well-built, expert in handling a pistol or rifle. he is also described as intelligent, protector, skillful in riding a horse and is a good fighter. as a hero, he is willing to defend the oppressed and protect the weak against the antagonists. the theme the "strong" will survive and the ''weak'' will not, exists in many american western novels. murdering and taking revenge is not the belief of the novels heroes, those that are truly macho, but more attitudes of the weaker characters that only possess a sense of posturing macho. louis l' amour's novels are no exception; the heroes are strong in body and character and are survivors while the weak are not a. protagonists 81. t.rae,m~chismo james brionne is a hero, in the novel of the same name brionne which is described as a protagonist he is tough, tall and wide-shouldered. i:iis face is· weathered from years of serving as a major in general ulysses 126 celt, volume 6, number 2, d~ber 2006: 123 136 grants army, fighting the indians. there is something in his demeanor that makes his enemy think twice about attacking him. after the death of his wife, brionne decides to take his son mat into the wilderness of the 'west'to rebuild their lives. this shows strength, both interior and physical, to brionne's friends to his son. this indicates that brionne, as a male, perfonns the attitude that is expected of him. he chooses a path, whereby he will indoctrinate these macho attitudes to his son. his past experiences, gives brionne the ability to think quickly and makes good decisions. he detennines to build strength in his son, both physically and emotionally. brionne thinks it was the good way of teaching his son the macho image he has of himself. it is characteristic of the macho character that brionne teaches mat to protect people. the opportunity to teach mat this lesson was when they traveled on a train. when grass-fire threatens to engulf the train, brionne instructs mat to take care of the only female passenger miranda loften. 'it's grass fire, mat, his father said, 'you to take care of this lady. sbe doesn't know about such things and she may be frightened. but stay inside the car' (l' amour 1981 :24). in a macho manner brionne takes complete control of the situation, leading the other passengers in fighting the fire. in the sustained 'spirit' of machismo, brionne actually wanted miranda to take care of his son, but was unable to admit that truth to either his son, or miranda. brionne's energy and ability to the train and all the passengers are exhausted. not only a tough guy, brionne is also very adaptable and able to plan quickly, without consultation subjected only to his male pride. brionne shows his macho ability from the very beginning until the final chapter. in the novel entitled the caiifornios, a person that is the main character is sean mulkerin, who is the son of jaime and eileen mulkerin. sean was not only a sailor but also a reliable cowboy. in the true "macho" imagery of l' amour's heroes, sean. was strong in body, bold, and gallant. he was handsome; his face showed strength coupled with kindness. friends and enemies gave careful consideration before challenging sean, in any respect. once tomas alexan'der warned andreas machado of sean's strength and ability, he also advised· machado to be careful toward sean m.8. badaruddln, an expose of macho characters 127 mulkerin because he was severely strong and very vigorous in fighting. 'be careful senor. he is very strong and a good fighter. if i were you, i would shoot him from far off' (l' amour 1982:74). although a younger version of brionne, brionne and sean shared the same characteristics and personality traits sean too epitomizes the meaning of the term macho. he was a strong m~ and also reliable. he knew the ways of the mountain and the forests, he was confident in any given situation whether on land or sea. in his youth he was able to kill wild animals such as mountain lions. he could wade through dangerous waters, without hesitation, and faced every situation with courage and determination. sean's father, jaime mulkerin, was not only a sailor, but also had served in the army, and was reliable hunter, instilling the macho characteristics into sean, and then adequately training his son in the ways and meaning of true machismo. there is no reason to be worried about sean, since he can handle some troubles that might occur. sean had enough experience and his male pride would automatically response to it. besides that, he was strong, brave, and good in fighting. so it seemed to be all right for sean in the forest, because he could survive and fight against zeke wooston followers. wooston has a big body, tough and cruel. he has great power and has a lot of money that is why he is easy to hire bandits to kill anybody. the main character of the novel entitled hondo is a man called hondo lane. he is a half indian by breed, and lived with an apache indian tribe, for five years. he has a weathered and strong like facial appearance of an adventurer. there is no tenderness reflected in his face. he has only tenacity, strength, and virtues. he had indian background, and that is why hondo lane was able to feel and recognize dangerous situations quickly. hondo was not only tough, but also brave. he wandered alone through the indian areas that were known to be savage and wild from his experiences in living with the indians for five years, he learned how to hunt and tame: ~ld animals. hondo perfected these skills and became more adaptable than most men. hondo's characteristics .and personality were truly within the destination of macho. he is not only tough and brave but his also very strong. living with the indians he had learned how to use an axe. the indians wondered and were amaied at his ability. the way in which hondo 128 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 123 -136 swung his axe to split woods struclc people with amazement. the swing of hondo's axe was certain, and rhythmical. 'his iifst swing of the axe split the chunk he had chosen. methodically he went to work, and for a few minutes she stood watching him. there was a beautiful and easy rhythm in his movements. he handled his body as ifit were all one beautifully oiled and coordinated machine. nor was he awkward on his feet, as are so many riding men. he moved, she thought, like an indian' (l'amour 1976:18). like brionne who teaches his son to be a tough boy, hondo also teaches johnny angie's son, the way of the wilderness. he teaches him how to split wood with a clean cut. angie lived with her little son in the . middle of savage desert, and hondo saw johnny had no male and role model to follow, took it as his responsibility to teach and train johnny in the ways of a man. hondo is not only a good fist-fighter but he is also a gun fighter. he has a principle to be a good, either fist-fighter or gun fighter. he never applies tricky ways to fight against his enemy. once, he killed three men in a gun fight, since then he was famous as the killer from the brazos. b. antagonists posturing macho image unlike brionne, cotton allard as antagonist in brionne, seems the posturing characteristics of a macho in society. cotton allard is the male antagonist in the novel brionne. his physical appearance also epitomizes the macho characteristics and traits. he is young, strong, muscular, and tough, but cotton allard is the antithesis of , brio nne' in personality. cotton allard was not of good moral standing, poorly educated, expressing his maleness by means of fear. it was cotton allard who caused the death of brionne's wife, in an attempt to giv!ng revenge to brionne. cotton allard came to brionne's house to take revenge. unfortunately, he did not find brionne at home allard killed brionne's wife, taking what he could from the house, before setting it alight. cotton allard and his friends, sought revenge for any perceived wrong-doings, and acted in a manner that was more like a posturing o{themacho image, of brio nne. cotton allard knew brionne as a brave man. he also recognized that he did not possess brionne's courage and defeated his enemies. devoid of m.s. badaruddln, an expose of macho characters 129 principles, and perhaps even conscience brionne's things, he moved and left the place because he could not find brionne. cotton allard is not a man worthy of emulation. his misguided sense of male pride and masculine virility, make him uncharacteristically macho in personality. cotton allard was more 'savage' than the indians. he killed people without a second though~ caring less, if the victim was a man, woman, or child. he felt disappointed because the opportunity to kill brionne and mat had not presented itself. he vowed to kill mat, as mat had witnessed allard murder mat's mother. allard felt it necessary, for his own protection a cowardly decision to kill mat, even before he killed brionne. allard's only means of problem resolution lay at the end of a gun. 'cotton's killed twenty-five, thirty men i know of nine of them in face up gun battles-and he's killed four, five women, but none of them ever made him think twice. only that brionne woman (l' amour 1981 :56). brionne instilled fear into cotton allard, as someone is fearful, when someone recognizes traits in another that someone does not possess. brionne possessed all thatallard pretended to possess bravery, strength, male pride, and masculine virility. thus fearless only before those weaker than himself, cotton allard was fearful of brio nne and thought twice when the opportunity to kill brionne, arose. althoughallard looked dangerous, he recognized that the strengths and skills ofbrionne, paled in comparison. that is why allard still hesitated to attack brionne. both james brionne and cotton allard have the same physical appearance as macho characters, but they are of different moral standards and attitudes. in other words, james brionne keeps the true macho characteristics, but cotton allard is against them. zeke wooston had great power since he was a little boy. when he was grown up, he was respected by many people. that is why he is very proud of his power, even many people are afraid of him. as antagonist in the californios he did not have macho characteristics. he had just had posturing one, he was a kind of tricky person. wooston was not only a tricky person, a cruel man, a-srdu88ier, and a greedyniaii but also a man who could easily lose his temper. 130 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 123 -136 another bad traits of zeke wooston is even though he does not like machado one of his followers he needs machado's help very much to get the gold in the mountain; he"does not wantto be disputatious toward machado. wooston realized that he might not continue his journey to the mountain because he did not have enough followers. 'wooston was angry, but he had no wish to have trouble with machado, whom be might need very badly. but be did not wish to pursue a chase into this wild country with only his own group. tbere were too few of them' (l'amour 1982:110). =-j.ai'~ + "~~pus1'''~''' as a thinking of having macho qualities, wooston should have paid attention to other people whoever they are. yet in the story, it is told that wooston did not care about russel's condition. what he cared about was that he did not like if failures and mistakes happened as the result of that, he would not let russel live longer. however, for sean's friends, wooston was not more than a thief because russell also hunted for the gold. like wooston as antagonist in the cali/omios, silva is an antagonist in hondo. he was an apache man that was being frightened both friends and enemies. he had a tall and muscled body and he was also broad chested which reflected his strength and his tenacity. silva was not as tall as hondo lane but his body was strong and powerful. his environment and his way as indian apaches life is really reflected in his appearance. generally, the men of apache were not too tall but they were extremely strong and tough. they had also amazing courage, that was something that needed by a man to be considered as "macho". silva was brave and tough but he hated a small boy named johnny. at the time johnny pointed his gun at silva who was grasping his mother. unexpectedly, the gun exploded and hit silva's head. it was shocking to everybody including vittoro, an indian apache chief. vittoro made johnny his brother by blood so johnny would be under his protection. jobndy was called a small warrior of the moon dog lodge ofchiricahuaapache. this made silva h8te him more because johnny pointed his gun at him who was ~inghis.~other. " as antagonist, silva had a bad attitude to women. after the accident, silva came several times to angie's home and intimidated her. once, he said to angie. "may be 5001\ you be squaw"(l' amour, 1976:92). angie does not like indian particularly indian'apache. besides she loved hondo m.s. badanlddln. an expose of macho characters 131 lane. this contradicted to vittoro's speech that "an apache woman for an apache man a white woman for ii white man" (l' amour, 1976:77). silva acted without knowing by the indian chief, vittoro he went to angie's land to investigate what she was doing. he really wanted to rape angie while her husband went away. this attitude also contradicted to the characteristics of macho characters that should have protected woman from dangerous situations. watched by the chief of indian apache, vittoro and other indians, silva and hondo were fighting in the apache. if hondo is the winner, he will be free. he will die ifhe looses. this is the way of indian apache to decide who the macho one is. with his macho sensitivity, hondo felt the sharp point of the knife rip his shirt, then he stomped down hard with his booth on silva's bare foot and slashed with his knife's edge. silva twisted away but the knife left a red line that rapidly turned red with blood along his shoulders. 'hondo pressed forward against the haft, holding the knife in the wound to prevent its withdrawal. they went to the ground and hondo caught silva's hair and forced his head back, exposing the brown throat, then he put the edge of his knife against the throat of the indian and looked up at vittoro (l'amour 1976:113). for an indian apache, a man who won the fight, though he was enemy would be respected as a warrior. silva was defeated by hondo. the indians really kept their promise, so hondo was set free. silva left the place and planned to take revenge. this was not the concept of macho. unfortunately, taking revenge was not the belief of the truly macho character, but more of the attitudes of the weaker character who only possess a sense of posturing macho. hondo lane joined the military service. as a soldier, he had to come to an indian area, and the purpose to come this area was to evaluate white people who lived isolated from others in an area which was still uncivilized. luckily he knew a lot about the savage and wild indian areas. this indicated that hondo had macho characteristic, he carne to the dangerous areas because he had to rescue while people from the savage indians. at last silva led his people to fight against military. he met hondo in the battle who also led the military. this made him very happy because silva 132 celt, volwne 6, number 2, december 2006: 123 -136 got the chance to take revenge he really wanted to kill his big enemy hondo; silva had bad temper that made him weak in the battle; he could not control his emotion to defeat his big enemy. so unhickily for him, silva could not kill hondo; instead he was killed by hondo in the fight. c. skillful in using weapons historically, the fireanns came from europe. many people used the firearms to defend their homelands. some explorers and settlers used them to protect themselves from the wild animals and enemies. russel (1967 :232) stated that for over two hundred years the european powers were contending among themselves to control the new world, while also battling the indians who fought a losing fight against those who encroached on their lands. he also explained that the laws prohibiting of selling arms to the indians, the white man's desire for furs and the indian's for firearms resulted in a brisk trade. then, typical transaction between dutch settlers and their indian neighbors was to exchange twenty indian beaver pelts for one firearm. both pistol and rifle became the symbol of the macho character of the western cowboy in the past. the west part of america such as california, texas and other land areas were still wild and fierce. in the time where indians were still nomads, they fought against the white man entering their land. therefore the guns were needed to protect from the bandits or the indians. holding a gun, brionne stepped forward and bent his head down so that he could stay close to the ground. it seemed that brionne always considered his every single step. it was also because of brio nne's carefulness so that he could defeat his indian enemies one by one. his careful and quick movement enables him to easily observe his enemies and hear any sounds that were caused by the bandits or the indian enemies . . when cotton allard pointed his gun to brionne, brionne's reaction was sudden and quick because he,bas learned all of that when he was in st. cyr. his movement was just thee a dozen of guns that were ready to spew their bullets. james brionne threw' his gun forward so that it crashed the pistol that was in the hand of cotton allard. then, turning his body, brionne kicked the stomach of his other enemy until he was tossed aside to the m.9. blldluvddln, an expose of macho characters 133 comer of the room. that even was beyond tbe expectation of cotton and his friends. james brionne was able to face all of them that were also tough enemies. brionne found his son and miranda being captured by the allards. this kind of situation forced brionne to have a fight with cotton allard. the tricky cotton felt certain that he was able to defeat brionne. but brionne was also cunning so that he could not be cheated by cotton's sly trick. brionne was also cunning so that he could not be cheated by cotton's trick. brionne was very careful toward cotton's dirty trick. 'brionne's gun was in his hand, too, and he looked across the room ateotton. 'you are the gun fighter', he said'. holstered guns cotton suggested', grinning, but it was an evil grin'. 'he was superbly confidenl in this business of the fast draw, he had seen no one who could equal himself and he was sure this vjtginia soldier could not' (l' amour 1981: 145-146). cotton, being very confident toward his own ability, felt certain that he was able to defeat brionne. but, what actually happened then was beyond his expectation because he found himselffacing an enemy who turned to be considered much tougher than himself. that is why cotton moved as quickly as he could. finally, brionne stopped moving by giving cotton a straight shot between his eyes. cotton allard was dead instantaneously. after brionne shot directly between cotton's eyes, brionne had given proof that he was a very tough man because he himself was able to defeat cotton and release his son. in anotherl' amour's novel the caiijornios, sean mulkerin as the leading character was described as very skillful in using the gun. on riding a horse, sean is always ready to use his gun because his life at sea, mountain and dessert made him fully realize the danger which could happen to him at anytime. therefore wherever he went he was always carries his gun. he learned a lot from his experiences in his sea voyage,. herding the cattle in the mountain and in hunting. sean was very familiar with the west wild land in all situations. to protect himself from danger threat, sean had more than one gun. sean had a pistol bought in panama and a rifle handy in wherever he chooses to go to. 134 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 123 -136 he was not only skillful in using guns, but also skillful in modifying the guns and fixing them. sean was very careful in traveling such as when he went to the mountain to fmd the old man, a mysterious indian-man who knew .the place of the gold by using spiritual power. sean was always alert knowing that he was always followed by zeke wooston and his frien~s. besides that sean was very sensitive and skillful in avoiding danger. he moved so fast whenever hearing a suspicious sound. sean always loaded his gun to anticipate the existence of danger that might come at anytime especially when he seeks for gold in the mountain. 'sean took up his colt rifle and moved away from the fire, but after a few minutes he was back. 'seems quiet enough,' he said ... 'they sat together, talking very little, enjoying the night, the rest, and the fool as well as the smell of wood-smoke and coffee' (l' amour 1982: 1 07). even in a relaxing situation, sean was always alert to face all the possibility of the danger that could happen at anytime. his skill in using guns was beyond any doubt. when he came across with zeke wooston and andres machado and their men who followed him, they are all bandits. they wanted to kill sean. sean was fully self confident. in such a situation, he was quite sure to defeat his enemies. machado admitted sean's skill as a sharp shooter. because machado still remembered how fast sean shot velasco's chest and made him fall the ground. velasco was one of zeke wooston's men. in another ofl' amour's novel, hondo, as the leading character, hondo lane was described as very smart and skiilful in using guns too. he had lived with the indian apache for five years and was respected and feared by his enemies. his name is quite familiar to the cavalry who evacuated the population in the remote area where the indians live. hondo lane dared to travel alone crossing the area because he was very skillful in using h.is guns. on his adventures, hondo lane was usually accompanied by his dog, sam, to cross the land carrying a message from general crook. this message is related to the white people who lived in isolated place. although hondo often got troubles on his way he could save himself. he often fought against the indians who came across on his way. as a good shooter he could always escape from the indian's attack though he had to loose his horse in one m.s. badanuldln, an expose of macho characters 135 occasion. besides escaping from the indian attack. hondo killed the indians who attacked him. although hondo lane was a good shooter. he was very careful in doing something. before he left the place where the two indians were lying. hondo checked for sure that they had died. in that time. it was not familiar for a man to put a gun on the right waist. this means that hondo lane could use guns with both bands. only few could do the same thing and that is why he is considered skillful with guns. 'his boots were worn and scuffed. and there was a place on his left thigh where the jeans had been polished by the chafing of some object a place that might have been made by a holster. only this man wore his gun on his right side. had he. then. worn two guns? it was unlikely. not so many men did' (l' amour 1976:15). hondo was always with his gun even when he was sleeping. he believes that the attitude was necessary for a man living in a wild area such as where the indians lived. no wonder if hondo was always alert in order not to be shot first by his enemies. conclusion l' amour's macho characters such as: james brionne. sean mulkerin, and hondo lane consistently show great respect for the frontier environment and an ingrain desire to pursue what they believe to be right and just. they are prepared to stand and fight for their beliefs. regardless of the challenges they must sunnount. the three macho characters do not die in the course of their battles. but they are always prepared to die. bravely and honorably, for which they believe in. they also usually stand alone in facing their enemies prove that they are macho males. true machismo has been shown by brionne, sean mu1kerin. and hondo lane both physical and non-physical. unlike james brionne. sean mulkerin. and hondo as protagonists who have true machismo. however cotton allard. zeke wooston and silva do not have the moral standard and attitudes of true macho characteristics that mean they only have the posturing characteristic of machismo. 136 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 123 136 the concept to macho changes from era to era. ii1 addition to vamour's novels: brionne, the califomiost and hondo represent the nineteenth century. nowadays there is a modem macho which portrays his era. sylvester stallone is one example of modem macho with his movies such as rambo, rocky and clifthanger. he is a tough guy who protects the weak. thus machismo still exists in american society. bibliography cawelti. john g. adventure, mystery, and romance. chicago: university of chicago press, 1978. hine, robert v. the american west: interpretative history. boston: little brown and company, 1984. jones, daryl. the dime novels western. ohio: the popular press. bowling green state university, 1978. l' amour, louis. hondo. usa: bantam books inc., 1981. __ • brionne. usa: bantam books inc., 1982. __ . the cali/omios. usa: bantam books inc., 1976. michener, james a. this noble land: my v'lsion/or america. new york: random house inc., 1996. robertstone, o. james. american myth: american reality. new york: hill and wang, 1990. russel, carl p. firearms, traps, andtods o/the mountain man. new york: vmtage book, 1967. tindal, g. brown and david e. shi. america: a na"ative history. new york: w. w. norton & company, 1989. logo: microsoft word c061-6968-9c18-c4d3 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . alienation and hopes in indonesian migrant worker literature work 1muna yastuti madrah and 2destary praptawati 1department of islamic, history and culture, faculty of islamic studies, universitas islam sultan agung, semarang, indonesia 2english literature study program, faculty of language and communication science, universitas islam sultan agung, semarang, indonesia email: 1munamadrah@unissula.ac.id; 2destary@unissula.ac.id received: 19-10-2020 accepted: 08-06-2021 published: 16-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj alienation and hopes in indonesian migrant worker literature work 1 muna yastuti madrah and 2 destary praptawati 1 munamadrah@unissula.ac.id; 2 destary@unissula.ac.id 1 department of islamic, history and culture, faculty of islamic studies, universitas islam sultan agung, semarang, indonesia 2 english literature study program, faculty of language and communication science, universitas islam sultan agung, semarang, indonesia abstract: female indonesian migrant domestic workers (dmws) often get a negative predicate both in indonesia and in destination countries. for example, dmws in singapore are treated unequally by singaporean society, in indonesia, as well, their work is seen as a lowly job. they can be categorized as a marginal group. marginals are marginalized people whose rights are ruled out by people that have power. hence, they find it difficult to adapt to their environment and they are always suppressed. the circumstances lead to the feeling of alienation for dmws. the alienation they have experienced is often ignored as a reality of the life of migrant workers. this study takes the object of poetry by female indonesian dmws in singapore. it explores how marginalization and alienation are expressed in literary work by female domestic migrant workers. this study, also analyzes how the expression of literary work can be functioned as a medium to voice alienation and to overcome its problem. this research used textual analysis, including the application of semiotics and narratology to see the marginalization and alienation faced by the migrant workers which are represented through a literary work. as complementary data, virtual interviews with the author of poetry was conducted. key words: domestic migrant workers, poetry, alienation, literary works 40 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 39 – 52 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: pekerja migran perempuan indonesia yang bekerja pada sektor domestik masih sering mendapatkan predikat negatif baik di indonesia maupun pada masyarakat di negara tujuan. sebagai contoh pekerja migran di singapura tidak dianggap setara dengan masyarakat singapura, namun demikian juga pekerjaannya dianggap rendah oleh masyarakat indonesia. mereka dapat dikategorikan sebagai kelompok marginal. marginal adalah orang-orang yang dipinggirkan, yang mana hak-hak mereka dikesampingkan oleh para penguasa yang memiliki kekuasaan. pada keadaan yang demikian, mereka sulit untuk beradaptasi dengan lingkungannya, dan kondisi mereka yang selalu ditekan. hal tersebut seringkali memunculkan perasaan keterasingan bagi pekerja migran. keterasingan yang mereka alami selama ini dan sering diabaikan sebagai realitas kehidupan pekerja migran. dengan mengambil objek kajian puisi-puisi karya pekerja migran yang bekerja pada sektor domestik di singapore, studi ini akan mengekplorasi secara mendalam bagaimana marginalisasi dan alienasi diekspresikan dalam karya sastra oleh pekerja migran wanita. studi ini juga akan menganalisa bagaimana ekspresi melalui karya sastra dapat berfungsi sebagai media yang menyuarakan alienasi pekerja migran dan mengatasi problematika alienasi. penelitian ini menggunakan analisis tekstual, termasuk penerapan semiotika dan narratologi untuk mengetahui pengalaman apa yang disajikan oleh pekerja migran. sebagai data pelengkap, wawancara dengan dengan penulis dilakukan secara virtual. kata kunci: tenaga kerja wanita, alienasi, sastra, puisi, marjinalisasi introduction female indonesian domestic migrant workers, hereafter dmws, often receive negative predicates both in indonesia and in destination countries. for example, dmws in singapore are not considered equal to the singaporeans, however, their work is considered as low-skilled workers by the indonesian people (rahajeng et al., 2018). they can be categorized as marginal groups. the concept of marginality demands the integration of the concept of poverty with the concepts of social exclusion, geography, and ecology. difficulty in reaching people on the periphery of the system is explained by a range of madrah, y.m. & praptawati, d., alienation and hopes in indonesian migrant 41 worker literature work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj distances, that is, physical distance such as being in a remote or harsh environment, social distancing, being discriminated against, or having no rights or access, services, and opportunities (von braun & gatzwiler, 2014). this situation can create a feeling of alienation for migrant workers. the alienation or feeling of alienation they experience is often ignored as a reality of the migrant workers' life. the concept of alienation has been widely discussed by social theorists. marx analyzed it from the emergence of a capitalist society. marx saw the injustice that existed in the relationship between society and the capitalist economic system (in ritzer & goodman, 2004). according to marx, labor in a capitalist society is alienated from their productive activities. alienation occurs from the transformation of everything into commodities (alonso & meszaros, 1975). berger & luckman call it reification, which is when the institutional structure is assumed to have taken its own life independently of human intentions and needs, and society is perceived as something separate from its creation (in seidman, 2013). alienation occurs when social needs are not met and humans feel alienated from other humans. humans will increasingly find gaps between need and the capacity to meet those needs (storey, 2014). this gap is produced by the capitalist system which is increasingly fascinating the world. the capitalist system creates a gap between human needs and the capacity to meet those needs. dmws potentially experience multiple vulnerabilities, firstly because of the global capitalist system and, second because they are immediately uprooted from their cultural social roots. those are the causes of the strong feelings of alienation experienced by migrant workers. however, alienation is not a fixed condition. to get out of feeling alienated, humans also continue to carry out negotiation strategies, so that the conditions or levels of alienation experienced can be changed (storey, 2014). one example can be seen from the poem titled “the oppressed commoners” by ratinia fatmawati below: … the pitful little small-timers defending themselves shouting for justice pleading for rights as the oppressed commoners … although it has been widely discussed, there have not been many contributions in the field of literature. this article attempts to apply recent theoretical contributions to the literature coming from indonesian female migrant workers to gain a better understanding of how alienation manifests in 42 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 39 – 52 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literary works. the marginalization of female migrant workers cannot always be expressed and voiced because of their alienated situation. this article will analyze how a group of indonesian female migrant workers in singapore is trying to voice their alienation as well as their hopes through literary works. their works are in english and published in an anthology of literary works by indonesian female migrant workers in singapore with the title “familiar stranger: anthology of poems and short stories by indonesian migrant workers”. it was published by the directorate of research and community engagement, the university of indonesia in collaboration with a singapore non-profit organization voice of singapore invisible hands. this study seeks to see how cultural strategies are carried out by migrant workers to create spaces of expression. the creation of space through cultural strategies cannot be separated in the study of the sociology of everyday life (lefebvre, 1947, 1961, 1981; in storey, 2014). in sociology, day-to-day studies have been underdeveloped, even though they are very strategic as a research approach, especially on marginalized groups such as migrant workers. the creation of spaces for the expression of literary works in the context of cultural strategies is used as a strategy of resistance and negotiation by this group of indonesian migrant workers to overcome alienation and initiate social ties with fellow indonesians and residents. through a sociological analysis of the literary works of dmws, we will explore how marginalization and alienation occur among dmws in singapore. besides, we will try to see how the expression of literary works can function as a medium to voice alienation. dmws' work shows there are cultural gaps that can be used as a strategy to voice and to express both positive and negative experiences when becoming dmws. literature review research on the relationship between migration and cultural capital in migrant workers was carried out by erel (2010), samaluk (2015), and nugroho (2018). erel researches the migration of cultural capital of migrant workers. erel argues that the migration process produces a new way of producing and reproducing cultural capital, more than just a reflection of the power relations of both the country of origin and the destination country. migrants create a validation mechanism of their cultural capital, negotiating the ethnic majority, institutions, and networks (erel, 2010). erel uses the life story method to see how turkish migrants in england and germany create cultural capital outside madrah, y.m. & praptawati, d., alienation and hopes in indonesian migrant 43 worker literature work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of their cultural practices. the role of intra-ethnic power relations in creating distinction practices with residents, and how inter-ethnic relations reflect the way migrants create cultural capital. samaluk's research (2015) discussed the migration strategy and struggle of slovenian and polish workers to acquire and change capital in the process of transnational exchange upon their arrival in the uk. samaluk reveals the symbolic power of neo-colonial guiding the strategy, from those who wish to migrate to newcomers, to acquiring a nationally recognized form of cultural capital by taking advantage of job training in the west. this training is introduced by the services of intermediary agencies which they think are reliable. nugroho (2018) specifically looks at the indonesian migrant workers-student phenomenon in south korea, his ethnographic study explains how indonesian migrant worker-students negotiate their ambivalent identity as migrant workers and as students. regardless of their hard life working or studying and socially different societies, they have managed to show resilience to strive for a better future. nugroho stressed that the new rhythm of life for indonesian migrant workers and changing identities provides new opportunities and friction in their workplaces, especially where companies do not allow the workers to study even though they study not during their working hours. in the midst of this, they are also using the higher education they experienced at ut korea as a way to increase their social mobility and to conceptualize a hybrid migrant identity. nugroho's research underscores the diverse, complex, and even insecure identities that emerge in the process of crossing boundaries between workers and students. the experiences of these migrant workers contribute to the blurring of boundaries between knowledge mobility and labor migration in asia (nugroho, 2018b). meanwhile, shervington (2019) states that migration is a radical attempt to immerse oneself in other cultures. in such a position, feelings of alienation can dominate the existence of migrants, due to the displacement of their spatial and psychological references. shervington analyzes the idealized migrant figure in the new migrant subject with jaques lacan's “fantasy” approach. migrants create an unrealistic standard of success in an economic system where few can exceed their class category. as a result, the fantasy of the “ideal migrant” serves to hide another environment that is formed through the process of migration from one country to another. alternative idealization can be found in creating an environment in which migrants can talk openly about their struggles in a new home country and relate to isolation from one another, thereby encouraging a level of authentic solidarity. 44 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 39 – 52 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sun's research (2012) helped us find the relationship between literary works and the working class. sun researched the dagong community in china. a literature genre has emerged from this community. they documented the devastating effects of industrial machinery on the bodies and souls of rural migrant workers. sun examined the paradoxical process of class formation and class dissipation through debate and interpretation around worker’s poetry from cultural elite institutions and worker-poets themselves. sun focused on the class consciousness built by the dagong community. according to sun, the worker-poet is faced with two strange situations. first, being involved in the production or consumption of poetry usually requires good education and free time, this is in contrast to the fact that dagongs live in reality as rural migrant factory workers working 12 hours per day. besides that, the educational background of dagong is not higher education. the second is related to the labeling given by academics to dagong poetry. this ongoing debate includes the question of the proper labeling of poetry written by migrant workers, the definition of dagong poetry, the role and purpose of dagong poetry, the standards by which to judge the usefulness of the poetry, as well as the future direction of the dagong poetry. furthermore, these comments and debates come from both established cultural institutions academia, literary, and media associations and the working poets themselves. sun (2012) argues that comments and debates on migrant workers' literary work are class articulations and disarticulations, and those are pointing to the formation of working-class consciousness in contemporary china. she (2014) also researched migrant worker poetry by using textual analysis to find out what kind of experiences is presented by migrant worker poetry. she tries to see if the poetry of migrant workers is the voice of the lower class. she concludes that negative experiences mainly include narratives of misery, differences between urban and rural areas, as well as daily resistance as one of the most significant themes of migrant worker poetry, the expression of nostalgia changing from external to internal. the word group antonym represents the essence of the poem and the dialectical relationship between negative and positive experiences. the narratological analysis discusses that in facing the amalgamation of mainstream culture, how poets hesitate between being the other with consciousness and being the other without consciousness. research on migrant workers concerning capital accumulation and especially related to literary works have not revealed how dmws create spaces of expression that speak of their alienation and marginalization. so this research will complement the existing research related to dmws by providing new madrah, y.m. & praptawati, d., alienation and hopes in indonesian migrant 45 worker literature work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj perspectives in finding solutions to problems faced by indonesian migrant workers. method this study uses a qualitative research approach with descriptive analysis. qualitative research emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality, the relationship between the researcher and the research subject, and the situation under investigation (denzin & lincoln, 1994). this research tries to use textual analysis, including the application of semiotics and narratology (ermawan et al., 2019), to find out what experiences are presented by “migrant worker poetry”, and to discuss whether "migrant worker poetry" is the voice of the lower class itself or not. in other words, this study tries to see if the real lower class can be seen through this work. through symbolic coding and word frequency, it can be concluded that negative experiences mainly include narratives of misery, urban and rural areas differences, and daily resistance. results and discussions a. results literature is not only seen as a creative and imaginative work but also seen as educational entertainment. literature is rarely used specifically to understand people's life (salam, 2008). however, literary work is a reflection of the life of society in its era. despite the imaginative work of the author, literary works cannot be separated from the things that happen around the author (kartikasari et al., 2013). in the “familiar stranger: anthology of poems and short stories by indonesian migrant workers”, we will first look at how alienation is depicted in the works of migrant workers. one that will be raised in this article is eli nur fadilah's poem entitled the voices of these invisible hands. if i could speak i would say, i am tired of being used dishwashing detergent and bleaching 46 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 39 – 52 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj make me sick, sometimes bleed if i was not here, would they survive? i try my best all the time yet, i still get yelled at … so, i will keep going on working with stranger and hiding my anger they see me but they don’t recognize me i will one day they will understand the hands that organize their life i wish they could listen to the voice of these invisible hands the early stanza of eli's poem says: wish she could speak, showing that in real life, it is very difficult for these migrant workers to voice their opinions. all kinds of works and the various chemicals she used in household chores had made her tired and sick. also, other injuries from work cannot be counted. so, the poet thinks that if they (domestic workers) are not in the employer's house, will the employer be able to survive? however, their hard work does not get any appreciation from the employer. in another poem by windu madness (pen name) entitled “new in singapore”, it can be seen how dmws express themselves as newcomers who are very not familiar with singapore’s social background that is different from their origin. … everyone speaks english and singlish while i feel like an alien in the world of technology, i wonder why is that marlion peeing through his mouth everyone is walking so fast it is like half running … putranto (2011) describes alienation as a paradoxical experience of isolation, for example, the feeling of loneliness in crowds. the experience of alienation is experienced by dmws in singapore. working in the house (domestic realm) every day, but feeling isolated and alone. dmws uprooted from their madrah, y.m. & praptawati, d., alienation and hopes in indonesian migrant 47 worker literature work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj socio-cultural roots to enter this experience when they encounter the splendor of their employer's apartments with all modern equipment, but those types of equipment are new things for them. eli described it in a poem entitled fo4. in correspondence with eli, fo4 is the brand of a washing machine in her employer’s house. eli expresses her concern over not being able to repair a machine that may have broken, along with fear of her employer’s anger. the situation is very different from her original social background where almost all domestic work is done manually. … fo4 two and a half hours i spend trying hard to repair but end up getting tired and getting out for some fresh air fo4 i can’t continue working i can’t stop thinking what if my employer is angry? what will they do to me? i am starting to worry … in the context of modern life where the social background of the destination country of migrant workers is a developed industrialized country with high individuality, domestic labor is also part of the commodity-exploited capitalist system. the relationship between workers and employers is based on exploitation. alienation occurs when the relationship between work and human nature is distorted by the capitalist system (prayoga & handoyo, 2014). marx associated the process of alienation with the capitalist model of production in which man is separated from his product of creation. this is because humans in the capitalist system do not work based on their ideas but they work based on orders and wages given (modarres, 2005, ritzer, 2012). the work of dmws is based on the standard of domestic work given by the employer because they have paid. meanwhile, the social-cultural backgrounds of dmws are often neglected and they are considered as if they work like robots that do not need appreciation. the feeling of being alienated is also reflected in the words of dmws who feel that they have worked for strangers whom they see every day but they don't know. eli also describes the feeling of 48 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 39 – 52 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj being alienated from another work in the anthology with the title domestic workers are human too. ... i don’t need you to treat me like a twin please do not treat me like a servant i do have my rights, even though i make mistakes i know i get paid but don't harm me like i've done nothing … it describes the feeling of alienation of dmws even though they are paid for their work. in this context, the results of their work are in the form of order and cleanliness with standards that exceed the standards of society and culture from the origin country. in a capitalistic society, the concept of alienation is often regarded as taken for granted, as a result of the condition of a class. the feeling of being alienated and the way to overcome the alienation itself are very dynamic. humans use various strategies to survive, including by creating “space” (lefebvre, 1991 storey, 2014). dmws in singapore use a cultural strategy by writing it into literary works that can be enjoyed as well as a space to voice their feelings of alienation. the ability to present and be visible in social spaces will overcome the feelings of alienation experienced by these migrant workers. dmws tried to get rid of their feeling of alienation by engaging in various self-actualizing activities. in this case, we agreed with lefebvre. lefebvre emphasizes the need to criticize everyday concepts (elden, 2007, storey, 2014). it is not only trying to understand everyday space but also understanding the extent to which the transformation experienced by female indonesian domestic migrant workers, from alienated migrant workers to empowered workers. it is also to take advantage of the social space in singapore to fulfill the basic needs of a sense of belonging in the country where they make a living. dmws in this context stand as a minority, migrants who have different economic backgrounds from their employers. alienation occurs in binary oppositional relations which creates inequality in the majority-minority relationship. new norms will emerge from the dominating party who will be referred to by the dominated (putranto, 2011). according to young (2003), madrah, y.m. & praptawati, d., alienation and hopes in indonesian migrant 49 worker literature work https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj people who are under alienation come from minorities and become people who are never part of the norm, so they do not have the authority to speak. in this poem, it can be seen that dmws describe alienation through the description as follows. first is isolation as an atmosphere in which they are unable to voice their burdens, of course, the workload to the people in their scope of work. second, alienation is described through the means of work. the third is a feeling of alienation because they are workers who are paid by foreigners. however, feeling alienated does not mean eradicating their hopes and dreams. in their literature, apart from feeling alienated, they also construct expectations as a paradox of feelings of alienation. as in eli's poem “sky of hopes”, eli describes the future as the pulse of life. ... make their future your pulse and their life your nerve after all, that will create a rainbow in your eyes also, in the poetry verses by meikhan sri bandar entitled “my dream”. … i was still on the ground but i won't give up my dream is my spirit my spirit is my faith and my faith is my life dmws tried to build social space throughout their literary works. the social space referred to by lefebvre is a space that is produced in certain ways which becomes a means of thinking and acting (elden, 2007, hendra, 2018). space is always bound by history and time. lefebvre's concept of space includes the relationship between three aspects, namely, first, “practical space”, which is space that is produced daily. second, the representation of space, that is space in the cognitive sense, and third, "the space of representation” which is symbolization and idealization (hendra, 2018). those can be seen, for example, when dmws describe the apartment, kitchen, or singapore as a city, then dmws describe the space in the context of the practical space of everyday life. this practical space is presented in their 50 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 39 – 52 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj works. the practical space is, then conceptualized as discourse. space does not exist physically but it is the result of meaning or representation of space. the present space becomes a verbal system and becomes part of the dmws' awareness. the third aspect is representational space which, according to lefebvre, only produces symbolic things. this is what migrant workers in singapore do, even though they place them in the symbolic space of literary works, but they are quite effective in the space of representation of alienation as well as their hopes of them. conclusion dmws are alienated not because they work in factories that alienate themselves from the products they make. dmws experienced isolation as per marx's theory of alienation, where dmws were encouraged to work more efficiently by using a variety of sophisticated household equipment, which becomes an instrument for a higher level of service. alienation also appears in the context of the employer-worker relationship. the class structure that appears in every society allows people to alienate each other (modarres, 2005), where usually workers are alienated by those who exploit. however, dmws try to build a space to voice experiences of alienation as well as dreams and hopes in literary works. their work is a picture of struggle and productivity. it is the actual usage and experience of space. lefebvre argues that space is the main place and medium of struggle, and therefore an important political space (elden, 2007). this shows that actually society and every way of production produce its own space. acknowledgement thank you to unissula for the grant of this research, also thank you to the female migrant poet who is willing to be interviewed for this research. references alonso, j. j. c., & meszaros, i. 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(2008). pengajaran sastra dan politik kebudayaan. insania : jurnal pemikiran alternatif kependidikan, 13(3), 369–381. https://doi.org/10.24090/insania.v13i3.303 samaluk, b. (2015). migrant workers’ engagement with labor market intermediaries in europe: symbolic power guiding transnational exchange. work, employment & society, 30(3), 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017015594968 seidman, s. (2013). contested knowledge social theory today. wiley-blackwell. she, r.-t. (2014). invisible bottom: the underclass experiences in migrant workers poetry. jurnal of notong university, 04(social science edition). shervington, l. (2019). in pursuit of the "ideal migrant": the alienation of idealization in the migrant experience. 13th international conference on language, literature, culture, and education, 42–48. storey, j. (2014). from popular culture to everyday life. in from popular culture to everyday life. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203077023 sun, w. (2012). subalternity with chinese characteristics: rural migrants, cultural activism, and digital video filmmaking. javnost, 19(2), 83–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2012.11009086 von braun, j., & gatzwiler, f. w. (2014). marginality-an overview and implications for policy. in f. w. gatzweiler & h. baumüller (eds.), marginality: addressing the nexus of poverty, exclusion, and ecology (pp. 27–40). springer science + business media b.v. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7061-4_2 young, r. j. c. (2003). postcolonialism: a very short introduction. oup oxford. https://books.google.co.id/books?id=fw2wzntawryc microsoft word 9c36-4229-31a4-f069 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . public and private schools students' anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic 1mister gidion maru, 2larry gina angkouw, and 3elisabeth z. oroh 1,2,3english education department, faculty of language and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia email: 1mrgidionmaru@unima.ac.id, 2ginaangkouw06@gmail.com, 3elisabethoroh@unima.ac.id received: 19-05-2021 accepted: 25-06-2021 published: 30-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj public and private schools students' anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic 1 mister gidion maru, 2 larry gina angkouw, and 3 elisabeth z. oroh 1mrgidionmaru@unima.ac.id, 2ginaangkouw06@gmail.com, 3elisabethoroh@unima.ac.id 1,2,3english education department, faculty of language and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia abstract: the implementation of online learning in indonesian schools as the effect of the covid-19 pandemic raises a relatively new circumstance for students. this research paper reports public and private school students' anxiety in online english language classes. to attain the study objective, the researchers combine qualitative and quantitative methods. data were collected using questionnaires as the instrument in the quantitative process and interviews in the qualitative method. an 18-item questionnaire based on likert-scale and closed-ended questions was adapted from kaisar and chowdhury. one hundred and thirty-four students of the seven to nine graders of three public and three private junior high schools in bitung city were the participants in the study. after the survey, the researchers conducted an in-depth interview using a semistructured pattern. this study revealed that private junior high school students tend to be more anxious than public school students. the students in public schools are more familiar and ready to join online classes than those in private schools. however, both public and private school students do not think that the features of online teaching make them anxious. students feel dissatisfied and uneasy if the teachers lack creativity and innovation during the online language learning class. key words: online language learning, covid 19, anxiety, abstrak: penerapan pembelajaran online di sekolah-sekolah di indonesia sebagai dampak dari pandemi covid-19 menimbulkan 102 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj keadaan yang relatif baru bagi siswa. makalah penelitian ini melaporkan penyelidikan tentang kecemasan siswa sekolah negeri dan swasta di kelas bahasa inggris online. untuk mencapai tujuan penelitian, peneliti menggabungkan metode kualitatif dan kuantitatif. pengumpulan data menggunakan kuesioner sebagai instrumen dalam proses kuantitatif dan wawancara dalam metode kualitatif. kuesioner 18 item berdasarkan skala likert dan pertanyaan tertutup diadaptasi dari pertanyaan kaisar dan chowdhury. seratus tiga puluh empat siswa kelas tujuh sampai sembilan dari tiga sekolah menengah pertama negeri dan tiga sekolah menengah swasta di kota bitung menjadi peserta dalam penelitian ini. setelah survei, peneliti melakukan wawancara mendalam dengan menggunakan pola semi terstruktur. studi ini menemukan bahwa siswa sekolah menengah pertama swasta cenderung merasa lebih cemas daripada sekolah negeri. siswa di sekolah negeri lebih akrab dan siap mengikuti kelas online dibandingkan di sekolah swasta. namun, baik siswa sekolah negeri maupun swasta tidak menganggap fitur pengajaran online membuat mereka cemas. siswa merasa tidak puas dan gelisah jika guru kurang kreativitas dan inovasi selama kelas pembelajaran bahasa online. baik siswa sekolah negeri maupun swasta tidak berpikir bahwa fitur pengajaran online membuat mereka cemas. siswa merasa tidak puas dan gelisah jika guru kurang kreativitas dan inovasi selama kelas pembelajaran bahasa online. baik siswa sekolah negeri maupun swasta tidak berpikir bahwa fitur pengajaran online membuat mereka cemas. siswa merasa tidak puas dan gelisah jika guru kurang kreativitas dan inovasi selama kelas pembelajaran bahasa daring. kata kunci: pembelajaran bahasa daring, covid 19, kecemasan. introduction the covid-19 pandemic had first emerged in china, and it has affected the whole world (koçoğlu & tekdal, 2020; laongpol 2021). consequently, it has dramatically changed the paradigm of life and changed all aspects of society in the economic, societal, environmental, and educational arena (sá & serpa, 2020). moreover, the war against the virus narrative occupies the public discourse of the world (alyeksyeyeva, kaptiurova & orlova, 2021). from coexistence, now it must be changed and provide distance from one another, namely physical distancing. in addition, restrictions on activities outside the maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 103 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj home are conditions for preventing the spread of the coronavirus and reducing transmission (viner et al., 2020). each country has issued specific policies. for example, the indonesian government has firmly instructed society to work at home, worship at home, and study during the covid-19 pandemics. further, the covid-19 pandemic has unavoidably affected children's psychological health and produced negative impacts (lin, 2020). it implies that everyone, including children, must follow the government's policies. in indonesia, the new normal period encourages people to adjust with covid 19. technology plays a significant role in the new normal covid 19 (jordan, 2020). people start doing work, studying online and worshipping by following health protocols. it undeniably affects the education sector (erkan, 2019). in education, the new normal period is for teachers to carry out intensive learning even though it has to be conducted online. that requires the inclusion of technological appliances in most educational activities. it mediates the conduction of the learning practices. regarding english as foreign language learning (efl), the swift to online learning possibly poses particular difficulties for students. students may be anxious. besides, it is regarded as a new language, culture, a way of thinking and complex language (karabıyık & özkan, 2017), the abrupt recommendation for online teaching seems stressful. students do not get accustomed to it. students encounter tensions in their minds. within such circumstances, learning in the new normal era in bitung is conducted in two methods recommended by education and culture office bitung. the first method is an online class, commonly referred to as daring, and the second method is an offline class or luring. english is the subject that students at junior high school in bitung consider a difficult lesson. english was not taught in the elementary school following the implementation of curriculum 2013 for elementary school issued by the ministry of education and culture. the performance of online english learning results in a considerable effect on the learning process, which eventually will determine the development of students' abilities in learning english. al qahtani (2019) said that the role of online classes enhances excellent communication skills significantly. other researchers argue that online course encounters a "pain barrier" for the first user (olive & burn, 2010). the students who feel anxious when learning a language hope that online class will reduce their language anxiety. in this study, the researchers aim at figuring out the portrait of students' anxiety, particularly those of public and private schools. 104 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review a. online teaching in new normal era covid 19 every country in the world adapts to the new situation due to the outbreak of covid 19 (octaberlina & muslimin, 2020, abajo, 2020). people in indonesia have also adjusted their daily activities in a new situation known as the "new normal era in the covid 19". during this period, people can do activities such as work, worship, and study, of course by sticking to health protocols, wearing a mask, keeping your distance and washing hands regularly with soap and water, and covering your mouth and nose while sneezing and coughing (iasc, 2020). during this newly emerging situation, the education sector has dramatically depended on it to fulfill students' needs. every educational institution must employ online teaching to keep the social distancing. the educational institutions have shifted from face-to-face learning to online mode to ensure the teaching-learning and assessment process (zayapragassarazan, 2020). the online learning process happens even in distinctive places, locations, and times, including teachers and students. thus, its sudden implementation potentially emerges "technical and methodological problems of information sharing and management (shahzad, hussain, sadaf, sarwat, ghani, & saleem, 2020, p.3). the fundamental problem in online teaching is related to implementation techniques in providing material from the teacher, receiving material by students, the ongoing learning process, and supporting the availability of media and internet facilities. these factors define "the education environment, participants, and authenticity of communication" in the practice of the online learning (gadre, cudney, & corns, 2011, p.102). the ministry of education and culture has strongly recommended that teachers use technological media to support the implementation of learning. the teachers also direct applications that can be used that adapt to regional and school conditions. further, the teachers should seek the correct ways to be helpful and effective for teaching in the current context (liddicoat, murray, & mosavian, 2021). in seeking to redesign their practice, teachers identify ways of working that they believe will be useful or effective in their current context. consequently, schools turn to build websites and learning management systems for engaging teachers with student learning activities (crawley, 2012). many applications support learning, either free or not, which can be used as learning support tools. to handle and operate these applications well, the teachers and students need training and strengthening. kennan et al. (2018) argue that online learning can succeed regarding selfdetermination and measuring students' preferences for teaching behavior. due maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 105 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to the situation in the new normal of covid-19, students endeavor to afford the effective learning process in an online class. similarly, the teachers must prepare everything used for the learning process. it is essential to highlight the new normal approach so that decisionmakers and teachers can analyze opportunities and challenges that those teachers and students might face in the teaching and learning process in the post-covid-19 period (cahyadi, 2020). concerning this matter, hege (2011) elaborates the online theology classroom as the strategy for engaging a community of distance learners in a hybrid model of online education. the new normal period is when to take advantage of online classes as the best choice for safe learning coupled with technology that will significantly help create an atmosphere of creative and innovative pursuits. b. anxiety in language learning within language learning context, anxiety deals with "a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors. it is shown in the feeling of the stress of students when they newly encompass learning a foreign language. they grapple with acquisition, retention, production, nervousness, emotional reaction as well as the emotional reaction of the new language (gatcho & hajan, 2019). this implies that students may undergo anxious reactions to language learning, including an online class application. subsequently, the other researchers, karabıyık & özkan (2017), in their research about anxiety through a foreign language, have found that there was no significant effect for gender, age, and preparatory class. this study examines the levels of foreign language anxiety exhibited by turkish undergraduates and the influence of gender, age, and previous initial class experience on foreign language anxiety at ufuk university preparatory school, ankara. one hundred twenty-four preparatory school students have participated in the study. preparatory class experience and gender were found to have no significant effect on the foreign language anxiety levels of ufuk university preparatory school students. however, learning a foreign language usually makes students feel this anxiety because of social factors (asif, 2017). the social aspects are various. for instance, the usual pronouncing word in one community is different from other communities. moreover, the countries have diverse backgrounds. another anxiety-causing factor stems from the tradition of loving mother tongues. hence, it becomes a fundamental reason students feel confused and anxious in learning a foreign language. 106 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj anxiety associated with foreign language learning can be classified into three types (asif, 2017). the first is anxiety at three stages of language learning. these three stages are the input stage where students receive words or sentences admittedly anxiety; processing stage, where students save a lot of words or sentences that depend on how they memorize them; and the output stage, which occurs after the two steps are successful. the second is sociocultural factors and anxiety, which happens because of the social environment for foreign language acquisition, intercultural/interethnic communication apprehension (ica), and techniques to cope with language anxiety. the third is an overview of the background culture of the students the place they live, which constantly brings the significant impact to anxiety through a foreign language. another researcher, ramamorthy (2016), states that the development and standardization can serve as a scale to measure anxiety in teaching through teachers' technological gadgets. he examines the correlation between anxiety and the use of technology in education, and he found a significant relationship among urban, rural areas, masculine and feminine. huang and hwang (2013) found that technology in english learning has a positive influence since it reduces students' learning anxiety and stimulates them in the learning process. all above statements indicate mixed results on the assumption whether learning a foreign language through online teaching during the covid-19 pandemic can lead to students' anxiety or heal their anxiety. the researcher investigates the correlation between online language teaching and students' foreign language learning anxiety in junior high schools in bitung, north sulawesi. method this study uses a mixed method to collect data. the researcher combines qualitative and quantitative methods in collecting data and analyzing data. data are collected from questionnaires as the instrument in the quantitative process and interviews in the qualitative method. a questionnaire (table.1) was constructed based on 18 items adopted from kaisar and chowdhury' (2020). it was developed on the basis of five likertscale and closed-ended questions and had five options, namely strongly agree (sa), agree (a), neutral (n), disagree (d), and strongly disagree (sd). the questionnaire was created on google form and distributed to students via whatsapp. this study used simple random sampling to select the participants. maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 107 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the population was the students of grades 7, 8, and 9 from six junior high schools in bitung divided into three public and three private schools. the three public schools were smp n 1 bitung, smp n 2 bitung and smp n 12 bitung. three other private schools were smp katolik don bosco bitung, smp kristen start generation school and smp muhammadiah bitung. one hundred thirty-four students taken from these high schools had taken part and answered the questions given in the questionnaires. the survey was conducted from january 18, 2021, to february 18, 2021. after the survey, the researcher conducted an in-depth interview using a semi-structured interview method. the discussions took place for one week. the participants in the interview were twelve students from six schools consisting of three private schools and three private schools. in this interview stage, each school had two students as the representative. the researchers used the zoom application to communicate, and the interview was scheduled at the same hour. the interview was recorded and then summarized. the responses to the semistructured interviews were analyzed by creswell formula (2018). table 1: foreign language online teaching anxiety questionnaire adopted from kaisar and chowdhury' (2020) no statement sa a n da sda q.1 i have experience online classes. q.2 i have techno-phobia. q.3 i feel easy in a direct class/face to face teaching q.4 i feel easy to participate in language activities in front of teachers and classmates in indirect class. q.5 i feel easy to participate in the language activities in front of teachers and classmates in online teaching. q.6 i feel isolated during online class. q.7 i feel much involved during an online class. q.8 i feel uneasy thinking that the teacher or fellow students might see my home setting. q.9 i feel fear of being disconnected during online teaching. q.10 i feel anxious because the teacher does not see my non-verbal response and seriousness during the online class. q.11 i feel fear of being recorded for every activity during online teaching. 108 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj q.12 i feel safe during the online teaching since i do not have to give feedback standing before the whole level. q.13 since i do not have to expose my physical appearance in online teaching, i feel comfortable, anxiety-free, and relaxed here. q.14 long time use of technology during the online teaching makes me anxious about my physical and mental health. q.15 the direct presence of eye contact with the teachers makes me more nervous than in the online teaching environment. q.16 the online teaching setting makes me feel more suffocated than an actual classroom q.17 a direct classroom setting makes me feel more suffocated than a real classroom q.18 online teaching environment fits me more for the language class. the collected data of the questionnaire are processed by microsoft excel 2010. students' feeling through efl online class was described descriptively by the mean score range. the criteria are based on table 2: questionnaire score range taken from malizar & fan (2020) score range level 1.0 – 1.5 very low 1.6 – 2.0 low 2.1 – 2.5 moderately low 2.6 – 3.0 slightly below average 3.0 average 3.1 – 3.5 slightly above average 3.6 – 4.0 moderately high 4.1 – 4.5 high 4.6 – 5.0 very high this score feature will guide the classifications of the results. the number range from 1.0 to 5.0 are calculated and interpreted into the category from very low to very high. maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 109 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results and discussions a. the students' knowledge about online class table 3 shows that the students' experience is moderately low, with a mean score of 2.1. question no.2 indicates that students have techno-phobia because it has a higher score than question no.1, with a mean score of 3.51. the average of the two questions is a 2.81 mean score which can be interpreted as slightly below average. table3: the mean score on students' knowledge the results indicate that students have slightly good knowledge about online classes. however, students do not use the internet as a tool of learning. they prefer to read printed books or modules than to find the material using the internet. the students perceive reading books or modules is a much easier way to study. in addition, the students have techno-phobia, so using the online technology class often confuses them. the covid-19, nevertheless, has dramatically changed the students' habits in gaining knowledge. online learning is the only way to continue teaching-learning activities during the pandemic, and the students have no other choice but to join the class. therefore, they must join the class whether they are ready or not. regarding experience in an online class, eight students do not have experience in an online class, whereas four students have experience in an online course. from the interview, it can be summed up that those two students have techno-phobia while ten students admit that they do not have techno-phobia. following is the explanation from the participant: "i do not know how to use wa, google form, zoom because i do not have a cellular phone (hp). in this situation, i follow the online class using my parents' hp. and, of course, it is difficult for me to operate it. i always ask my parents to help me." (student 1 from a public school, google meet on january 2021). no statement mean interpretation 1 i have experienced online class 2.1 moderately low 2 i have techno-phobia 3.51 slightly above average average 2.81 slightly below average 110 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the statement above indicates that the student thinks that the contact with technology is confusing, complex, and uneasy because they do not have their gadget. the students only use technology when they must join the online classes; however, they still need help from others to use the gadget. as a result, the contribution in an online class through the learning process is low. a similar statement on lack of experience with technology in online courses is explained in the following information: "i use my hp (gadget) just for fun, for example, playing pubg, freefire, tiktok, facebook, like, but i never use it for studying. my school has an it (information and technology) room, but we do not use it. our learning processes are in the classroom. it uses books from the library." (student 3 public school, google meet on january 2021) the statement shows that students never feel the atmosphere of using technology in the teaching and learning process although they have facilities in the school. the student does not have enough knowledge of online classes. they use technology for having fun with pubg, freefire, tik tok, like, facebook, and keeping in touch with friends using facebook, instagram, and other social media. using technology for studying does not become their main priority. hence, the school has a vital role in engaging students in online classes. the school curriculum has established some criteria for students' achievement in the learning process, considering that students need to set their goals in the learning process. the statement below shows students' experience with technology in an online class. "i usually use technology in doing my favorites activities, such as playing tik tok, watching youtube, posting something on facebook or ig, and doing the assignment. during the covid-19 pandemic, the school conducts online classes. it is not a problem for me because my school always uses technology as a learning tool to support the teaching and learning process" (student 7 from private school, google meet, january 2021) the statement above indicates that the students think that the online class causes no problems, gives benefit, and is helpful for them. these students use technology as a part of their daily activities, including the learning process. it is also apparent that school has supported the use of technology by providing the facilities; consequently, the familiarity with the technology has brought the students new experiences in teaching and learning. with the school that maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 111 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj has provided the facilities, it would be much easier for the teachers and students to establish good interaction amidst the new normal era of covid-19. the following statement reveals that the students are familiar with technology, although the school occasionally uses technology as a media in the learning process. "my school sometimes used technology as a method in teaching and learning process before the outbreak of covid-19. however, the situation changes as covid19 strikes. now, my school conducts a teaching-learning process using online classes. i can adjust it quickly because it is difficult for me to use zoom." (student 9 from private school, google meet, january 2021) the participant statement implies that the school has been equipped with the technology as the learning facility to support the learning process. still, the teachers do not always use it when teaching. introducing technology as a learning media is essential for the students, so they do not find it challenging to join online classes. the statements presented above reveal the significant differences between public schools and those of private schools. as many as 4 students state that they have experience in online classes, 2 of the students are from public schools, and 2 of them are from private schools. in bitung, start generation school is the most expensive private school, and the students' parents must spend a lot of money on tuition to study in this school. as a prestigious school, the school has excellent supporting facilities for the teaching and learning process. start generation school, smp n 1 bitung is a public school having technology as the learning facility. in other words, both schools have the technology, although its use depends on the curriculum. in addition, the availability of supporting facilities also affects the continuity of the implementation of the teaching and learning process. b. the eligibility of online learning in efl class. table 3 shows the result of the data analysis. question no 3 explains that students feel easy in direct class is moderately low (m = 1.75). the mean score for this question is the lowest compared to other questions. the mean score for question number four, about students feeling easy to participate in the language activities in front of teachers and classmates in direct teaching, is moderately low (m = 2.1). this mean score is the second-lowest score. question number five students feel easier to participate in the language activities with teachers and peers in online teaching, and question number seven that 112 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students feel much involved during online class have a mean score of 2.95 (question 5) and 2,78 (question 7). the mean score for these two questions is interpreted as slightly below average. question no 18 on the online teaching environment fits me more for the language class has the highest mean score amounting to 3.47, which can be interpreted as slightly above average. table 4: the mean score of students' feelings in the teaching process no statement mean interpretation 3 i feel easy in a direct class/face to face teaching 1.75 moderately low 4 i feel easy to participate in the language activities in front of teachers and classmates in direct teaching 2.1 moderately low 5 i feel easy to participate in the language activities in front of teachers and classmates in online teaching 2.95 slightly below average 7 i feel much involved during online class 2.78 slightly below average 18 online teaching environment fits me more for the language class 2.47 slightly above average average 2.61 slightly above average table 4 indicates that the eligibility of online classes through foreign language learning is slightly below average. students feel easier in an online class than a direct class, but it does not mean that an online class is the best because the interpretation is below average. students choose online classes because the teachers give complicated instructions in the daily activity of direct teaching. a different method makes students confused to concentrate on their studies. online classes use one direction and simple instruction for studying. the contradictory evidence arises when students fit language classes through online teaching. generally, students feel online class is not adequate in the learning process. table 3 shows that the students have sufficient knowledge of technology. meanwhile, table 4 shows that students can use technology in front of the teacher and classmates in online teaching. they use technology more frequently in online education than in direct instruction. maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 113 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj during the interview, the researcher found out the underlying reason for online class eligibility through a foreign language. all students agree that a direct class is better for a foreign language lesson. they admitted that an immediate course is appropriate for learning a foreign language because it provides more eases. it can be seen in the following responses below: "i prefer direct class because it enables me to understand the material more easily because the teachers give more detailed explanations and it is easy for me to ask a question". (students 5 from public school, google meet, january 2021) the statement above indicates that student feels more comfortable studying in a direct class. the students can immerse themselves during the teaching and learning process. the student can explore the lesson and freely enrich their knowledge and skill. as a result, the direct class gives students a relaxing situation to study without burden. another similar idea is elaborated as follows: "for me. an online class is not better than a direct class. direct class is indeed difficult for me, but i can clearly understand the teacher's explanation. i cannot understand the language class in the online class, especially in english lessons. there are many missing words when a teacher explains something, so i have a wrong understanding. i don't know whether it happens because of a signal or network problem. the point is that online class is not appropriate for a language class." (student 4 from public school, google meet january 2021) students feel that it is difficult for them to understand the explanation clearly in an online class. during teaching and learning activities, the students have a problem in terms of the teacher's pronunciation. the wrong pronunciation because of missing words can cause a significant impact in language lessons. students will have wrong understanding, complicated material, and confusion. this statement presented below shows the different opinions: "my school uses the technology for the learning process, but the worst is that the teachers never teach me using google meet or zoom. they sent me a link to what app; then asked me to study and do the assignment. sometimes, they send me the link to youtube and let me understand by myself." (student 11 from private school, google meet, january 2021) 114 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the answer above indicates that the students deal with specific difficulties in learning in an online class. they do not interact with others in the online course, and they have to study the material by themselves. these students do not have face-to-face communication with teachers and other students, so they cannot directly ask the teachers. izadinia (2009), as cited in roohani & haghparast (2020), states that the teachers have to share knowledge, and students are just as listeners. another opinion is presented below: "it is easy to participate in an online class because i can cover my face with a picture every time; i am nervous when interacting with the teacher. that is the best thing in an online class. despite this whole thing, i choose a direct class for language learning." (student 8 from private school, google meet, january 2021). the statement implies that the student feels happy and comfortable in an online class because she can cover her face with a picture every time she feels nervous or afraid. it is possible because the teachers could not see students' gestures and mimic during the online class. the other student reveals that the internet network is poor, which then becomes another problem. besides, the students also find it challenging to join online classes due to one-way communication. for instance, the teacher explains the theory, assigns the students with specific tasks, and provides instruction on doing some exercises. the situation occurs because of time constraints, leading students not have good interaction with teachers and their classmates. c. the features of the foreign language anxiety the result of question no eight focuses that student feel uneasy thinking that the teacher or fellow students might see their home setting is moderately high (m= 3.63). it is the highest mean score in table 4. the interpretation for question number 2 (students have techno-phobia (m= 3.5)) is slightly above average, and it becomes the second higher score in table 4. question number 6 showed how students feel isolated during online class, shows slightly above-average interpretation (m=3.13). the mean score for question no 9, stating whether students fear being disconnected during online teaching, is low, and it is the lowest mean score in table 4. the interpretation for question number 10, students feel anxious thinking that the teacher does not see students' non-verbal response and seriousness during the online class, is slightly above average (m=2.38). meanwhile, question no 14, long time use of technology during online teaching maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 115 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj makes students anxious about my physical and mental health, has interpretation slightly below average (m=2.56). finally, the interpretation for the last question, number 16, which emphasizes the online teaching setting, makes me feel more suffocated than a real classroom is slightly below average (m=2.76). table 5: the feature of anxiety no statement mean interpretation 2 i have techno phobia 3.5 slightly above average 6 i feel isolated during online class 3.13 slightly above average 8 i feel uneasy thinking that teachers or fellow students might see my home setting 3.63 moderately high 9 i feel fear to be disconnected during online teaching 2.04 low 10 i feel anxious that teachers do not see my non-verbal response and seriousness during the online class 2.38 slightly below average 14 long time use of technology during the online teaching makes me anxious about my physical and mental health 2.56 slightly below average 16 the online teaching setting makes me more suffocated than real classroom 2.76 slightly below average average 2.85 slightly below average table 5 indicates that students feel anxiety in a foreign language. as presented in table 5, the students' feeling of no-confidence ranks as the highest position. they feel uncomfortable if the teachers and other students can see the condition of their houses. some students prefer to hide the real condition of their houses from the public. other students also admit that they worry if online class makes them isolated since they are unable to make direct interaction and intense communication with other students. the students' anxiety also stems from their fear of not seeing the students respond during an online class. it causes them to feel suffocated in online classes. however, 116 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students still enjoy online learning, although they have techno-phobia. table 5 clearly shows that the interpretation for the feature of online teaching is slightly below average. it means that the learning process happens during the online class, and the setting for an online course in the future must be designed to make students feel comfortable and free from anxiety. being verified in the interview session, nearly 12 students explained that online class does not result in foreign language anxiety. the first highest mean score reflects the answer below: "i am afraid and feel uncomfortable with the setting of my house. my teacher and my friends should not see the condition of my house. sometimes my house is so messy and dirty, so i worry if my teacher and my friends can see it." (students 2 public school google meet january 2021) it can be interpreted that she worries if everyone joining the online class can see the actual condition of the house. what makes the students less confident is that teachers and students know the actual color of the student while at home. further, it can decrease their motivation to join the learning process. for some students, this problem might not be considered a serious one; however, for some other students, it becomes such a big problem that eventually determines the success of the students in the online class. another interesting fact is that network problem does not worry the students nor trigger anxiety while joining the online course because the teacher has already comprehended this matter. the following response emphasizes the previous explanation: "when the internet connection is poor, i do not feel upset because my teacher has already known the situation of my house. he will send me the material to the what app. therefore, i should not worry about that." (student 6 from public school, google meet, january 2021) the teachers will not blame the students due to poor internet connection because they know their students' backgrounds precisely. in this situation, teachers must know everything related to their students since they have a big role in teaching and learning. the students sometimes feel isolated during the online class, preventing them from comprehending the material. the statement below further describes the situation: maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 117 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj "when the school begins to have online classes, i try to study by myself, resolve the problem, and finish the assignment by myself. i did everything by myself. i do not have time to make interactions with others. it makes me boring and feels isolated." (student 10 from private school, google meet, january 2021) students explain that their learning process consists of activities such as communicating with other students, giving questions to the teacher, and having group discussions. all these activities make them engrossed in such a situation. the lack of interaction with each other makes students feel isolated. the feeling of isolation leads to negative thinking in the teaching and learning process. in addition, students care for their physical and mental health, but this aspect does not burden them. it can be seen in the response below: "the duration of the online class does not make me worry about my psychical and mental health. every subject lasts for 25 minutes – 50 minutes per day. we have 4 subjects every day. if the lesson starts at 7 a.m, it will finish before 11 a.m. thus, i should not worry about that." (student 1 from public school, google meet, january 2021) students know that the duration of the online class does not cause the students to get exposed to the negative effect due to the radiation from a device used, such as a laptop, computer, and gadget. the school has issued the policy concerning the duration of the online classes in the new normal period of covid-19. the government has also supported the regulation. therefore, the students will not feel suffocated when they cannot attend the online class. some students explain that the teachers do not force students to regularly attend the online class during this pandemic. the students can skip the course due to urgent situations, such as sick or having to do something meaningful. the most crucial point that should be highlighted is that a healthy life is more important than joining the class to study. d. the feature of coping with anxiety table 6 represents the result of question no 12 'students feel safe during the online teaching since students do not have to give feedback standing before the whole level'. the mean score of this question can be interpreted as slightly above average (m=3.19). the interpretation of the mean score for question no 13, 'since students do not have to expose their physical appearance' is average (m=3.09). 118 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj it becomes the lowest mean score in table 5. question number 15, 'the direct presence of eye contact with the teachers makes students more nervous than online teaching' has a slightly above-average interpretation (m=3.33). the last question, number 17, 'a direct classroom setting makes students feel more suffocated than an online classroom,' shows a slightly above average (m=3.75). the mean score for this question is the highest among other questions. table 6: factor coping with anxiety the result indicates that the students feel safe during online classes because they do not provide any feedback. in other words, they feel comfortable during the online class. interestingly, the physical appearance in online teaching only has a mean score of 3.08, which can be interpreted as average. this result shows a contrasting feeling of the students concerning their appearance. not showing their physical appearance during the online class makes students relax, comfortable, and far from fear. however, they also think that not showing themselves during the class will affect the learning achievement, such as common understanding of the material, negative response from the teacher, and feeling isolated from other students. students perceive online classes are beneficial because they do not feel pressured and are not nervous when having eye contact with the teachers. all these benefits no statement mean interpretation 12 i feel safe during the online teaching since i do not have to give feedback standing before the whole level. 3.19 slightly above average 13 since i do not have to expose my physical appearance in online teaching, i feel comfortable, anxiety-free, and relaxed here. 3.08 average 15 the direct presence of eye contact with the teachers makes me more nervous than online teaching environment. 3.33 slightly above average 17 a direct classroom setting makes me feel more suffocated than online classroom. 3.75 slightly above average average 3.34 slightly above average maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 119 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj prevent them from feeling anxious. students choose an online class as the best method of learning process compared to a direct class. in the interview responses, it is found that the positive feeling from students is explained during the interview with the students about the online class. table 1 shows that students have enough knowledge, whereas table 6 shows that online class is perceived as a good learning process during the pandemic. this perception is explained in the following statement: "i feel afraid in direct class compared to in online class. when i study difficult subjects, such as mathematics, english, and science, i feel nervous. it increases if the teacher is a fierce one. whenever i hear the footsteps, my heart starts pounding, and i want to hide, so he cannot see me. i feel more suffocated when he asks me to give my opinion." (student 6 from public school, google meet, january 2021) the student explains that eye contact with the teacher in direct class has more impact than in an online course. eye contact might cause the students to feel nervous, strained, and stressed. if a teacher looks at one of the students, the teacher silently asks the student to give any response. the situation suffocates the students, and it worsens when the students are not able to answer the question, provide an opinion, provide the correct response, or adjust the learning setting. in regards to this matter, the online class gives students more space, as is explained in the statement presented below: "online class makes me relax, anxious free and not nervous. i am more comfortable joining the teaching and learning process because i sit, listen to the teacher, and respond when asked. furthermore, i am not afraid of making eye contact because the aura cannot be sensed." (student 10 from private school, google meet, january 2021) the statement indicates that the student does not worry about online classes. the teacher cannot focus just on one student. what teachers can see on the screen are small-sized students' images. it is impossible to make direct eye contact with each student in this situation. moreover, the quality of the internet connection also determines the clarity of the image. therefore, this situation is unconsciously beneficial for the students. 120 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discussion the online class has become an essential part of the covid 19 situation. the computer and the internet are choices to improve the efficiency of education (marcel, celestine, oyekezie & eze, 2020). most schools in bitung use online class as the appropriate medium for teaching and learning. data presented in table 2 and the interview result show that students in bitung have negative or inadequate knowledge of using technology in the learning process. they do not have technophobia, but the lack of knowledge and experience in online classes brings them in the wrong direction, albeit technology prepares students' needs in the learning process (vincentas & rytis, 2007; erkan, 2019). students can achieve a learning experience using technology such as smartphones, laptops, and tablet computers with network connectivity, which defines online learning (noor, isa & mazhar, 2020). unesco recommended that online class is the best way to continue learning in covid 19. however, the problem of junior high school students in bitung lies in the inappropriate use of digital technology and the internet. students use the internet to access social media such as facebook, instagram, tiktok, pubg, freefire. they rarely use online applications for studying. interestingly, they can operate the application for fun, but they cannot manage online class applications. sufficient knowledge has led students to join all learning processes through online teaching. the preparation of the students to attend online classes and direct classes is not easy. table 3 shows that it is much easier for students to participate in online courses than direct classes. the interview result strengthens this statement, and the mean score of 2.61 was interpreted as slightly below average. however, the online class does not ensure that the students feel comfortable joining it. sometimes, the learning process in the online class is conducted just to fulfil the regulation. noor, isa, and mazhar (2020) explain that online class has some problems such as limited technical knowledge and tutoring capabilities of the teacher, inadequate and weak infrastructure and online connectivity. the poor facilities make less student attendance, which influences student achievement (bosch, 2003 cited in abdulbasit & seyoum, 2021). the teacher has a significant role in the online class about students' problems. the teachers should produce the best sentences to interact with students because their language significantly affects the learning process (karimour,zoleikani,delavar 2020) and must find suitable strategies to overcome students' problems. of course, students must be motivated and eager to interact with a teacher (erkan, 2019). maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 121 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in addition, lack of preparation leads to students' confusion when attending online classes. table 4 shows that some features in online courses create language anxiety. it can be seen from the interview result and the mean score, which can be interpreted as slightly below average (m=2.85). anxiety is defined as "a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process" (gatcho & hajan, 2019). the students may feel isolated, uneasy, afraid, and anxious about physical and mental health; however, these feelings do not negatively affect the teaching and learning process because the emotions are still manageable and not frustrating. it confirms the proposition arguing that the second language has a negative impact of anxiety on language toward students and the process of learning (gkonou & miller, 2020). the teaching and learning process can run well if teachers provide appropriate strategies. as a result, language anxiety problems can be resolved. hence, as shown in table 6 and the interview result, the students of junior high school in bitung feel that the online class does not cause anxiety, although they lack knowledge and experience. moreover, this leads students to understand online courses with the right approach. teachers should not emphasize visuals, meaning that they do not force the students to be on camera or set such complicated learning rules to be free from anxiety, relaxed, and comfortable when attending the class. table 7: the comparison between public school and private school statements public school private school mean interpretation mean interpretation the students' knowledge about online class 2.82 slightly below average 2.78 slightly below average the eligibility of online classes through foreign language learning 2.60 slightly below average 2.17 moderately low the feature of online teaching that creates foreign language anxiety 2.85 slightly below average 2.87 slightly below average online teaching brings anxiety healing to students of junior high school in bitung 3.38 slightly above average 3.26 slightly above average 122 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the table indicates that the students of private schools (m=2.82) have lower knowledge of online classes than those of public schools (m=2.78) with a slightly below-average interpretation. this means that private schools tend to have negative eligibility in practice. it is worth noting that it happens even though private schools have better facilities than public schools. the eligibility of online classes through foreign language for students in public school (m=2.60) with an interpretation of slightly below average shows a higher mean score than that of the students in private school (m=2.17). this mean score is the lowest in table 6, which can be interpreted as moderately low. the result shows that better facilities do not guarantee that the learning process will go smoothly. the aspect of continuity with online teaching that creates foreign language anxiety shows that the private school (m=2.87) has a higher mean score than the public school (m=2.85). it implies that online learning does not contribute to students who bring foreign language anxiety. in other words, the online class does not create anxiety feeling to the students. the mean score in public school (m=3.38) is higher than that in private school (m=3.26), with a slightly above-average interpretation for both. the comparison between public and private schools implies that students in public schools understand how to join online classes than those in private schools. this fact denies the assumption that private school is better than public for all aspects. the quality of education depends on the great institution, the availability of resources (teacher), and the complete facilities (ali, ashraf, & yasmin, 2020). the student responses from the questionnaire and interview highlight that private school facilities, such as technology, do not guarantee the quality of the learning process. the quality of schools in bitung reflects the eligibility of online classes in foreign language learning. the mean score is negative since public school has the lowest mean score (m=2.17). the result points out that technology as one of the school facilities supports foreign language learning. the learning process must also be supported by highly skilled teachers and other required resources, which determine the teaching and learning process (ali, ashraf, & yasmin, 2020). in general, the features of online teaching do not create anxiety for students in both schools since public school and private school do not present a significant difference. nevertheless, it is also interesting to note that the mean score of private schools in this aspect is higher than that of public schools. it happens because private schools conduct more intense online classes. maru, m.g., angkouw, l.g., & oroh, e.l., public and private schools students' 123 anxiety in online english language class during the covid-19 pandemic https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the local government of bitung has issued the regulation that the duration of online courses during the covid-19 pandemic lasts for 25 minutes for every subject per day. public schools or government schools must obey the rules. however, private schools have their regulation. online classes in private schools last for 40 minutes for every subject per day. as a result, the students feel uncomfortable, uneasy, and unhappy. the private school has a lower mean score, meaning a negative tendency, than the public-school anxiety in efl classes. on the other hand, public schools show a higher mean score than private schools, indicating a positive propensity toward implementing online learning in english as a foreign language class. conclusion an online language learning class for the students of public and private junior high schools in bitung encourages students to adjust with the new learning practices in the era of the covid-19 pandemic. this study found that the students of junior high school in bitung feel that the online class does not significantly cause any anxiety, although they lack knowledge and experience. interestingly, this leads students to define their particular strategy to join the online courses with the right approach. in other words, despite the lack of knowledge and experience in online learning, students were not trapped in the anxiety toward it. the online class appears to be challenging for students and relatively anxiety-free, relaxed, and comfortable. this study also reveals that students in public schools are more familiar and ready to join online classes than those in private schools. that means that in terms of anxiety, students of private junior high schools tend to feel more anxious than those of public schools. fortunately, both public and private school students do not think that the features of online teaching constantly make them nervous. it is merely a matter of familiarity and willingness to take part actively. students feel dissatisfied and uneasy if the teachers do not have innovation. it prescribes that the role of teachers can be a factor in overcoming student anxiety in the implementation of online language learning. further, studies on schools, teachers, and students' strategies or approaches to cope with the stress in online learning during the pandemic constitute future challenges for educational researchers. 124 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 101 – 126 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; 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(2020). impact of virtual teaching on esl learners' attitude under covid 19 circumtances at post graduate level in pakistan . english language teaching , 13(9), 1-9. zayapragassarazan, z. (2020, april 20). strategies for online engagement of remote learners. retrieved from f1000research: https://f1000research.com/documents/9-273 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia direct and indirect compliment responses: a descriptive qualitative study among indonesians and americans wulansari master’s program of linguistics, faculty of humanities, airlangga university, surabaya, indonesia email: wuland.leo13@gmail.com received: 26-12-2019 accepted: 01-01-2020 published: 06-06-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj direct and indirect compliment responses: a descriptive qualitative study among indonesians and americans wulansari wuland.leo13@gmail.com master’s program of linguistics, faculty of humanities, airlangga university, surabaya, indonesia abstract: indonesians and americans have the strategies to respond the compliment which came from different culture. the aims of this research were addressing types of strategies and disclosing the direct and indirect response used by the indonesians and americans to respond the compliments. the research data consist of english and indonesian. the data was analyzed by using qualitative method. the discourse completion test (dct) questionnaire was used to know the differences between compliment response given to indonesians and americans. the result of the research showed that the (1) responded category of holmes (1986) classification of compliment responses strategies (crs) are using three strategies (accept, reject and evade) among indonesians and americans. indonesians tended to accept, reject and evade compliment by giving some reasons. while americans tended using three categories by saying, "thank you" due to express of openness and receiving appreciation from the interlocutor. (2) the existence of culture plays an important role in responding compliment towards indonesians and americans. the americans respond to compliments direct response and simple answers to compliments. meanwhile, indonesians prefer to respond compliment with indirect responses because they were leaning on the principle known as saving face politeness. key words: compliment responses, discourse completion test (dct), cultural differences abstrak: orang indonesia dan amerika memiliki strategi untuk merespons pujian yang berasal dari budaya yang berbeda. tujuan dari wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 97 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj penelitian ini adalah membahas jenis strategi dan mengungkapkan tanggapan langsung dan tidak langsung yang digunakan oleh orang indonesia dan amerika untuk menanggapi pujian. data penelitian terdiri dari bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia. data dianalisis dengan menggunakan metode kualitatif. proses kuesioner dct digunakan untuk mengetahui perbedaan antara respon pujian yang diberikan kepada orang indonesia dan orang amerika. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa (1) kategori holmes (1986) klasifikasi strategi merespons pujian (crs) menggunakan tiga strategi (menerima, menolak dan menghindari) antara orang indonesia dan amerika. orang indonesia cenderung menerima, menolak dan menghindari pujian dengan memberikan beberapa alasan. sementara orang amerika cenderung menggunakan tiga kategori dengan mengatakan, "terima kasih" karena menyatakan keterbukaan dan menerima penghargaan dari lawan bicaranya. (2) keberadaan budaya memainkan peran penting dalam menanggapi pujian terhadap orang indonesia dan amerika. orang amerika menanggapi pujian tanggapan langsung dan jawaban sederhana untuk pujian. sedangkan, orang indonesia lebih suka menanggapi pujian dengan tanggapan tidak langsung karena mereka bersandar pada prinsip yang dikenal sebagai menyelamatkan wajah kesopanan. kata kunci: tanggapan pujian, uji penyelesaian wacana (dct), perbedaan budaya introduction language is a tool of human interaction in everyday lives and cooperates with each other for communication. another point, language also is used for expressing their feeling to others (wierzbicka, 1996). understanding conversation is an oral interaction with face to face between two or more participants and more than just exchanging. language plays a vital role in determining of communication between people and others. on other hand, language has relation with culture because different culture will have different language of interaction. people in different cultures might misunderstand each other because they express differently and might misread what others have said (fujimura-wilson, 1991). communications occur within social contexts and are defined by societal forces, assessing the context in which responses occur is imperative to identifying the processes influencing communications. the use and understanding of language is usually studied by pragmatics. in addition pragmatics is also learned about human interaction 98 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (wierzbicka, 2003). learning pragmatics, the "rules of speaking" is essential to be successful operation in the language. on other hand, pragmatics can be seen as a systematic way of explaining how language is used in context. it also deals with particular utterances in particular situations, and is especially concerned with various ways in which many social contexts can influence how language is used (thomas, 1983). besides that, he also stated that context refers to the real situation, background or environment relevant to a particular event, personality, and creation. in addition, according to barkindo (2013) pragmatists has attributed great importance to the study of speech act behavior, such as apology, request, compliments, refusal, and complaint. the social situational factors occur due to the use of speech act, those are age, gender, education, social distance, social relationship, style, and ethnicity. herbert (1990) stated that the speech event of complimenting is discussed to be generally structured as approach in a way that someone compliments and people usually respond to what they said. complimenting is commonly applied in a way to make people feel good; meanwhile, in another culture of complimenting might connote the speaker’s willingness towards the addressee’s belonging, being reacted against via the recipient’s offering the object of compliment and possibly leading to embarrassment to a speaker from a different culture (allami & montazeri, 2012). different culture will produce different role. therefore, compliments and compliment responses have been expressed as highly formulaic speech act (wolfson & manes, 1980). according to (holmes, 1988) showed that a proper complimenting behavior can make people getting closer. the closer of relationship the more polite of response is given and the responses to the compliment vary due to the social and individual elements. it can be from different cultural customs, communicative topics, social power and gender etc. a compliment is defined as "a speech act which explicitly or implicitly attributes credit to somebody other than the speaker and usually the person addressed for some good; possession, characteristic and skill (holmes, 1988). the compliment event is an adjacency pair operation which it consists of two parts: the compliment and the compliment response (sacks & schegloff, 1973). in recent years, the phenomena of compliment responses with different cultural background have been investigated by many researchers both international and national. the factors affecting the compliment responses was investigated in the german, zulu, iran and arab (see golato,2002; annatius, 2005; razi, 2013; falasi, 2007). they conducted how compliment responses can be used in a variety of social situations which among others, includes: parties, evening receptions, graduation ceremonies, etc. wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 99 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj compliments responses can be used in appearance and many others. they used the concept of discourse completion task (dct) conducted in collecting the data. in addition, in the context of indonesian researcher, only one related study and method of the research was available. these studies were focused on compliment and compliment responses to classify the different culture among indonesian people (see refnaldi, 2009; rachman et al, 2018; maulida, 2019). nevertheless, despite present popularity and factors of those studies in complement response and good result of their research, a lack of knowledge and exploration on comparing culture between indonesian and other countries in which their studies were focused on indonesian culture. for this reason, the overarching goal of this study is to address this gap. this study aims to investigate the compliment response among indonesian and american. literature review a. speech act speech act theory shows a core role in the field of pragmatics (vaneva & ivanovska, 2018). speech acts are significant in the process of foreign language learning as foreign language learners should be able to know what language structures and vocabulary to use in a certain context. every culture has its own repertoire of characteristic speech acts and speech genres (wierzbicka, 2003). (searle, 1976) described that direct speech acts are showed as utterances in which the sentence meaning of the utterance is consistent with what the speaker intends to accomplish (speaker meaning). (austin, 1962) introduced the “doctrine of illocutionary forces” that focuses on the performative linguistic function in which speech is regarded as action. in addition, the utterance that speaker produces conveys three layers (locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts) of meaning interrelated to one another: the literal meaning of the utterance produced by the speaker, the speaker’s intention conveyed in the utterance, and the effect that the utterance has on the hearer. b. compliment response the result of study by pomerantz (1978) discussed that compliments are very common in daily life and usually intended to make others feel good. in every culture has different of giving compliments response. it can be agreement, disagreements, upgrades, downgrades and referent shifts. this 100 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj means that the important thing is they are explicit, and that they force the speaker to be explicit and to make clear analytical decisions. for example, a term such as 'upgrade' may seem intuitively intelligible, but it does not make it clear whether it is meant to apply only to a substitution of 'very good' for 'good', or whether it is also meant to stand for a substitution of 'very bad' for 'bad', or 'good' for 'not bad'. thus, holmes (1988) argues compliments show to be functionally complex speech acts such as solidarity signals, commenting on friendships and attenuating demands. he also claimed that claims that compliment responses seem to express from the hearer acknowledge the kindness or to offer the compliment. compliments are the type speech act and relate to politeness in which it can appear the good or bad response (lorenzo-dus, 2001). for instance the compliments can attend positive politeness by giving positive comments or can cause embarrassment to interlocutors, including a face-threatening act. (pomerantz, 1978) investigated compliment responses and stated that some conditions need to be achieved, which are agreement and acceptance. c. directness indirectness these terms are often used in linguistic description. direct relates with something to the point while indirect is used imperatives. for instance if someone says “close the door!” it means direct and says “could you close the door?” it is indirect (wierzbicka, 2003). (searle, 1976) showed that indirect speech acts, such a relation need not exist. it means that sentence meaning and speaker meaning may be different. for example, a speaker may utter the sentence “can you reach the book?” and the mean is not a question, but it is request to take the book. another example showed between american culture and israeli culture. according to (blum-kulka & olshtain, 1984) stated that the level of directness in israel society is high due to influence from hebrew, while in english using an interrogative-directive device. the combination of the imperative with some interrogative features in common english directives (wierzbicka, 2003). according to (wierzbicka, 2003) determine javanese society do not want others to know what they feel or to restrain not only the external expression of feelings, but also internal emotional experience. in addition, javanese people rarely use direct speech to express something, whether in the form of a request, disapproval, or a will. the javanese have the habit of speaking indirect, that is, people will not show their true feelings (rachman et al., 2018) wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 101 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. cross cultural studies the latest research of (wierzbicka, 2003) shows anyone who has lived in different countries where people speak in different ways, she states not only because they use different linguistic codes, involving different lexicons and different grammars, but also because their ways of using the codes are different. it can be seen, (kochman, 1981) has shown that in black american culture the norm of 'modesty' does not apply, and that self-praise is not viewed negatively at all. thus, (honna et al,. (1989) point out that 'praise of other' is seen as arrogant and presumptuous in japanese culture, where the speaker has or wants to express his praise for persons within his circle, he often begins with a phrase such as “i don't really mean to praise“ or “i know it is too presumptuous to praise”. it means that he is not really an arrogant person. then, all societies view of praise of self' negatively, and praise of other positively. the points to the conclusion that different culture in the study of language evaluate (1) in different societies and communities, people speak differently. (2) these differences in ways of speaking are profound and systematic. (3) these differences reflect different cultural values, or different hierarchies of values. (4) different ways of speaking, different communicative styles can be explained and made sense of, in terms of independently established different cultural values and cultural priorities (wierzbicka, 2003). looking at those reasons, this study comes to investigate the compliment response among indonesian and american. e. cultural differences among indonesian and american the differences in cultural backgrounds or cross culture background between indonesia and other countries make various people's language behavior. the latest research (rachman et al., 2018) evaluate that the expression of compliment for the society has important function due to create harmony in social relationships. compliment response of some people in certain cultures in indonesia or other countries have different role. hence, another study on the topic by (brown & levinson, 1988) assert that responding of compliments by saying “thank you” or approving the compliment can be considered arrogant while rejecting a compliment is a violation. in addition, according of this theory, compliment response of western culture, by accepting compliment someone has provided the means to accommodate the positive face of response. in other words, by accepting the compliment, it means that they respect and appreciate the compliment for agreeing that what they say of complimenting is true and good pray. the difference theory of language adopted by western and indonesian culture 102 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj raises the question which rejecting complaint for certain societies is an act of polite communication. however, in indonesia, certain circles have experienced a slight shift (rachman et al., 2018). they also found that in certain groups, namely a group of changes consisting of students and people who works in the entertainment industry tend to experience a shift. the groups of change that have been influenced by western cultures have begun to respond of compliment by receiving it like western societies. in this study, the concept of compliment response is, therefore, proposed. the different culture of compliment response is to understand every culture or not wrong to response the compliment. f. compliment response framework as has been highlighted by wierzbicka (2003), people talk and communicate with different styles. these differences reflect different cultural values. this culture becomes a part of communication behavior. after which this communication plays a role in determining, maintaining, developing or passing down culture. every culture has different value systems. therefore understanding how to communicate in a good way is very important. talking about how to communicate cannot be separated from the language, rules and norms. in addition, understanding intercultural communication will overcome cultural barriers to connect with others, so that we will be rewarded for human needs, aspirations and feelings. for example, when indonesians meet americans, because indonesians see american’s beauty, indonesians do some compliments, or they do the same compliments. what response should we give, and how should we respond of compliment. thus, understanding compliments and how to respond to compliments are needed in which they are not wrong in their attitude. based on the above theoretical framework, the research problems are formulated as follows: 1. what are the types of compliment response between indonesian and american? 2. what are the differences in compliment responses between indonesian and american people? wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 103 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method to collect the data, i used the qualitative data since i want to get a clear result on the subjects’ pragmatic competence. hence, the study employed the discourse completion tasks or discourse completion tests (dcts). according to refnaldi (2009) stated that although dct has a number of weaknesses, the use of this test provides several advantages. the use of dct has been able to express what the speaker thinks and what he will convey verbally in the context of the same situation. the use of dct is effective for the following purposes: obtaining large amounts of data quickly, making imitations of natural expressions in natural situations, gaining an understanding of possible cultural and psychological conditions influences expressions, and ensuring in general the various forms and variations of the compliment response. the data were analyzed using criteria raised by holmes (1988) classified compliment response strategies (crs) into three main acts: accept, reject, and evade; each strategy has some subdivided strategies, accept (appreciation token, comment acceptance, praise upgrade), reject (disagreeing utterances) and evade (return). the aims of this study are to investigate the differences among indonesian and america speakers using crs. a. type of research this research was conducted by using qualitative method because the problems related to humans are fundamentally dependent on observation. qualitative approach is an approach that is carried out in full to the subject of research where there is an event where the researcher becomes a key instrument in research, then the results of the approach are described in the form of words written empirical data that has been obtained and in this approach also emphasizes the meaning rather than generalization (muhammad, 2013) b. research subjects the research participants for this study are from indonesia and america. there were 20 participants; there are 10 participants of each country as subjects for the research. 104 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the reason for having those participants from indonesia and america was to determine the compliment response when they get praise. therefore, we can know the correct strategies that they used. c. research procedure the discourse completion test (dct) given in indonesian and in english. the instrument data was using google form in the form of questionnaire. this is necessary in order to get the data quickly and easily. in the dct there are some questions. the questions consist of name, email, country where they are from, and one main question “if someone says you are pretty or handsome. what do you usually respond?”. those questions exist in english and indonesian. they may answer in indonesian or english. then the researcher shared the link to social media (instagram, facebook, whatsapp) in which they are friend. on other hand, the researcher asked her friend to share the link in all of their social media and asked the participants to complete the questions. the researcher investigated the result whether direct or indirect compliment response giving among indonesian and america. results and discussions a. results the results of this study provide information of how indonesian and american response the compliment, according to holmes, 1988 taxonomy of cr strategies was used to make a contrastive analysis of crs among indonesia and american speakers. using these strategies, the data were easily classified. the comparison of compliment responses delivered among indonesian and american people for each category can be seen in the following table: table 1: the percentage of response strategies in compliments between indonesians and americans type of response crs indonesian american appreciation token 10% 60% wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 105 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj accept comment acceptance 20% praise upgrade 10% 10% total of accept 40% 70% reject disagreeing utterances 30% 20% evade return 30% 10% as shown in table 1, it showed the data about the number of compliment responses which was delivered by indonesian and american. concerning to the first research question, the result of this study presented that there were three types of responses and five response strategies investigated, the category of accept gets the highest percentage, those are 40% of indonesians compliment responses includes in the category of receiving the compliment accept, with details of 10% appreciation token with pride, 20% comment acceptance, and 10% received the compliment by praising people who gave it back or praise upgrade. the second, the reject category, there are 30% of disagreeing utterances. the last category, 30% of evade by return response, it means the compliment is delivered but avoids it given. while the results of the praise response given by americans, 70% of accept, the responses are received. despite having the highest percentage like indonesia, americans have almost twice the higher results, with details of 60% appreciation token by directly expressing "thank you", and 10% receiving by praising upgrade, while there is no result showing the category of giving comments or comment acceptance. the last category is rejecting that is 20% of disagreeing utterances and 10% of evade in which they give smile. table 2: the result of compliments response of indonesians types of response crs complement response accept appreciatio n token 1. “off course, yes i'm, because i am pretty, beautiful and absolutely gorgeous” comment acceptance 2. “i will say amen, alhamdulillah and thank you, i am amused because i feel not so beautiful and i say amen hopefully 106 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj allah granted that person's words, do not forget i say alhamdulillah as gratitude to allah and thank you”. 3. “mashallah, all were because of allah, the god who created us. i respond by thanking god, then thanking the praise giver. delivering that beauty is not limited in physical view, but also innerbeauty which is reflected in people's behavior and character”. praise upgrade 4. “thank you. you are a lot prettier “ reject disagreeing utterances 5. “ah no. you are more beautiful or handsome than me” 6. “ignore and don’t care about the compliment, because i feel not handsome” 7. “immediately refused the compliment, and said that she, the one who said, was more beautiful because basically i was not confident.” evade return 8. “really? say thank you. because they praise me” 9. “smile and say it back” 10. “usually i will shrug off the compliment, so that it gives the impression of being modest. then i added by praising him back.” based on the results of data analysis contained in table 2 above, it was found that the strategy used in the response was the indirect response, because indonesians were responded by giving reasons. furthermore, when viewed from the form of responses given, indonesians rarely respond to praise by simply saying thank you, but the word “thank you” will be followed by comments. the results of the token appreciation showed that the response to praise was expressed with confidence by receiving highly praise. comment acceptance starts with an expression of gratitude and was followed by comments that gave appreciation to those who praised it. praise update was wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 107 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj almost the same as comment acceptance but praise update gives praise back to the speaker. in the eastern culture, especially in indonesia had different way in responding the compliment. most of them responded the compliment with rejection or evade to give respectful or modesty responses and to minimize the praise which was given to them. rejection responses by indonesian didn’t mean that they disrespected the speaker or the one who gave compliment. it showed that indonesian had the own way to response the compliment and to honor the speaker. eastern culture prioritizes harmonious relations, shame, and self-image, for instance the javanese. according to rachman et al. (2018) discuss the javanese is a group who is well known for getting along well. so, javanese people rarely use direct speech to unite something, in the form of requests, responses compliment or disapproval. furthermore, when compared to indonesians with responses delivered by americans who were very significant difference in responding to praise (see table 3 below) table 3: the result of compliments response of american types of response crs complement response accept appreciation token 1. “i usually say "thank you" 2. “thank you” 3. “thank you” 4. “i say yes and thank you “ 5. “oh thanks, i showed” 6. “yeah thank you” comment acceptance praise upgrade 7. “thank you, you too” reject disagreeing utterances 8. “i brush it off” 9. “typically, i become embarrassed, then say thank you. i am generally uncomfortable with praise about my appearance”. evade return 10. “smile and say thank you” 108 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj based on the results of data analysis contained in table 3 above, it was found that the strategy used in the response was the direct response. it can be seen from the response; americans prefer to respond directly and without reason. they say directly with "thank you". american in responding the compliment they tended to response the compliment by simple response such as “thanks”, ”thank you” or “yes”. it could be seen in table 3 above. the influence of culture is significantly affected the response of the compliment which was delivered by two groups (american and indonesian). whether they used direct or indirect response depended their cultures background. in sum up, every country had unique strategies in responding the compliment. it depended on what the background culture they have. b. discussion 1. compliment response with accept receiving is welcoming, taking, justifying, and allowing. in the context of receiving a compliment response, it means that the compliment respondent approves the compliment given. receiving praise can be realized by three strategies, namely appreciation token, comment acceptance and praise upgrade. a. “off course, yes i'm, because i am pretty, beautiful and absolutely gorgeous” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as appreciation token; it can be seen from the words "off course", “pretty" and "gorgeous". thus, these words indicated that the respondent felt proud and appreciated the praise given. b. american’s response “i usually say "thank you" “thank you” “thank you” i say “yes” and “thank you” “oh thanks, i showed” “yeah “thank you” wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 109 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj these responses are categorized as appreciation token; it can be seen from those words. american people were more likely saying “thank you”. it means they appreciated someone who gives compliment. c. “i will say amen, alhamdulillah and thank you, i am amused because i feel not so beautiful and i say amen hopefully allah granted that person's words, do not forget i say alhamdulillah as gratitude to allah and thank you”. (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as comment acceptance; it can be seen from that response used many words of alhamdulillah and finally said “thank you”. she received the compliment by thanking to allah. d. “mashallah, all were because of allah, the god who created us. i respond by thanking god, then thanking the praise giver. delivering that beauty is not limited in physical view, but also inner-beauty which is reflected in people's behavior and character”. (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as comment acceptance; it can be seen by saying “thank you” and giving comment by thanking to allah. she realized that all were because of allah who has created us. e. “thank you. you are a lot prettier” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as praise upgrade; it can be seen from the words "you are a lot prettier". despite accepting the compliment, she praised it back to someone who gives the praise. f. “thank you, you too” (american’s response) this response is categorized as praise upgrade; it can be seen from the words "you too". despite accepting the compliment, she gave the compliment back to someone who gives the praise. 110 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. compliment response with reject the definition of refusing is an act of not accepting, not approving of opinions, and does not justify. while, rejecting praise means not accepting, not approving, and not justifying the praise given. rejecting the compliment can be illustrated by directly and indirectly. direct reject means not agreeing to the acceptable praise directly without explanation. indirect reject means rejection by giving explanation. a. “ah no. you are more beautiful or handsome than me” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as disagreeing utterance, because the compliment response is directly “no”. this type is included in indirect reject in which there was the rejecting explanation such as praising back. b. “ignore and don’t care about the compliment, because i feel not handsome” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as disagreeing utterance, because the compliment response ignored the compliment. this type is included in indirect reject in which there was the reason of rejecting explanation. c. “immediately refused the compliment, and said that she, the one who said, was more beautiful because basically i was not confident.” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as disagreeing utterance; it can be seen from the refusing compliment. the respondent did not feel confident. this type is included in indirect reject in which there was the reason of rejecting explanation. d. “i brush it off” (american’s response) this response is categorized as disagreeing utterance, because the compliment response declined the compliment. this type is included in direct reject directly in which there was no reason of rejecting explanation. this reason is to strengthen the rejection of the praise given by the friend. wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 111 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj e. “typically, i become embarrassed, then say thank you. i am generally uncomfortable with praise about my appearance” (american’s response) this response is categorized as disagreeing utterance, because the response ignored the compliment. this type is included in indirect reject in which there was the reason of rejecting explanation. 3. compliment response with evade evade category is to keep away from praise. this response gives clues such as smiles, shyness or doubt about the compliment. however, this response category still received the compliment. a. “really? say thank you. because they praise me” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as compliment return; it can be seen from the word “really”. thus, that word indicated that the respondent felt doubt and finally saying thank you. b. “smile and say it back” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as compliment return. the respondent gave smile which was interpreted as returning the compliment. this category is often used by indonesian people due to avoid arrogant. c. “usually i will shrug off the compliment, so that it gives the impression of being modest. then i added by praising him back.” (indonesian’s response) this response is categorized as compliment return: it can be seen from the word “shrug off”. thus, the word indicated that the respondent ignored the compliment and appreciated the praise given. d. “smile and say thank you” (american’s response) this response is categorized as compliment return. the respondent gave smile which was interpreted as returning 112 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 96 – 116 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the compliment. this category meant returning compliment by gesture and saying thank you. how can we know the differences between indonesian and american, it can be seen from the data above? the compliment responses were delivered between indonesian and american having significantly different style. every country has a certain way of responding compliment depending on its culture and customs. every society in speech is bound by social values and cultural values, including values when using language. culture is something that will affect the level of knowledge and information systems or support human thought. each country certainly has a different culture from each other. an example is the difference between eastern and western cultures. east and west are two different cultures. eastern culture is a culture that developed in asia, such as indonesia, while western culture is a culture that developed in the regions of europe and america such as the united states. this study also elicited that beliefs and feelings towards directness and indirectness among eastern and western country were factors that motivated from customs or culture. indonesian society is an eastern society which has different customs from western people. indonesian people are collective societies while western people are included in individualist groups (hofstede, 2010). collective society is concerned with harmonious relations, shame, and self-image while individualist societies are concerned with personal interests and self-actualization (hofstede, 2010). in other words, what they believe about different cultures affects the response of compliment to be given. this study obtains another focal finding on responding the compliment requires a strategy of the utterances which are issued do not threaten the 'face' of the speech partner. humans have two types of politeness faces, namely 'negative face' and 'positive face'. the desire of individuals not to be blocked by others is called 'negative face' while 'positive face' is the desire of every speaker to be accepted or liked by others. indonesian society in general tends rejecting compliment for showing politeness. the strategy which was often used was to reject or accept but was accompanied by follow-up comments such as explaining reasons, showing shame, and showing disbelief. this refusal, accompanied by continued comments, reduces the threat to the given of compliment. meanwhile, western society usually uses positive politeness when responding compliment by accepting the compliment. receiving compliments such as saying, "thank you" is an expression of openness and receiving appreciation from the interlocutor. doing rejection in western culture is considered to threaten the 'face' of the speech partner. it can be seen from the wulansari, direct and indirect compliment responses 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.vxxix; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results of the analysis in table 1 which shows that the response to accept americans had the highest percentage of indonesians. this finding is in consonance with previous empirical evidences showing the same result which denotes that different cultures will influence compliment response (see refnaldi, 2009, herbert, 1988). furthermore, based on the results of descriptive statistics, this study also found the right conditions in responding to different cultural responses. in the views of refnaldi (2009), rachman et al. (2018), the advantage of knowing these different cultures shows the right strategy in responding complement. they felt comfortable and excited about using language because of the diversity of languages in each culture. conclusion this study is to investigate the compliment response among indonesian and american. this study has revealed how the compliment response can be realized with several strategies. due to cultural aspects, there have been several differences in responding compliment performed by indonesian versus american people. first, the data of indonesian compliment response used accept categories. receiving compliments was accompanied by giving reasons, for instance expressing gratitude and giving praise back to interlocutors. in addition, they also used the direct and indirect rejection strategy. indirectly rejection was manifested by reason, feeling shy, humble and expressing insecurity. second, data of american showed that most of them worked with accept categories. receiving compliments by saying, "thank you" due to express of openness and receiving appreciation from the interlocutor. this study also elicits that the two groups had different preferences. compliment responses were expressed by indonesians who used various reasons; in this category they use indirect compliment responses. on other side, americans with direct verbal responses were categorized with direct compliment responses. the research is, therefore, significant because to know the responses that must be used appropriately according to cultural background. it actually should not use freely. references allami, h., & montazeri, m. 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(1980). the compliment as a social strategy. paper in linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1080/08351818009370503 165 deconstructing false identity: exploring gender discrimination and role-playing in the girl who touched the stars neeraj sankhyan and suman sigroha neerajsankhyan80@gmail.com; suman.sigroha@gmail.com school of humanities and social sciences, indian institute of technology, mandi (h.p), india abstract: mahesh dattani, is an avant-garde indian english dramatist known for his radical and unconventional dramatic themes. his plays are characterized by an extremely sensitive temperament that delves into the intricacies of the human nature and strives to expose the hypocrisy of the urban life and society. this paper discusses his play the girl who touched the stars as a quest for a lost identity. in doing so, the paper sheds light upon the underlying themes of gender discrimination, misogyny and role-playing that the playwright uses in this play to show how much these evils are rampant even amongst the educated classes of the society. specifically, the paper explores the ‘deconstruction’ of identity of the protagonist as employed by the playwright and examines the implications this technique has on the narrative of the play. the interconnection between the role-playing and the inherent theme of gender discrimination is also analyzed in order to see how these elements complement each other. also, the paper comments on the efficacy of radio drama as a medium for handling a sensitive theme like this. key words: quest for identity, gender discrimination, misogyny, identity crisis abstrak: mahesh dattani, adalah dramawan india inggris avantgarde yang dikenal dengan tema dramatis radikal dan non konvensionalnya. dramanya ditandai dengan temperamen yang sangat sensitif yang menggali seluk-beluk sifat manusia dalam usahanya untuk mengekspos kemunafikan kehidupan pada masyarakat terdidik di 166 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 165-177 perkotaan. makalah ini membahas dramanya the girl who touched the stars sebagai pencarian identitas yang hilang. makalah ini membuka pengertian terhadap tema yang mendasari diskriminasi gender, kebencian terhadap wanita dan role-playing yang dramawan gunakan untuk menunjukkan berapa banyak kejahatanyang merajalela di antara masyarakat kelas terdidik secara khusus, makalah ini mengeksplorasi 'dekonstruksi' identitas protagonis yang diciptakan oleh dramawan, selainmengkaji implikasi teknik yang dipakai pada narasi dramanya. interkoneksi antara peran para pemain dan tema yang membahas tentang diskriminasi gender juga dianalisis untuk melihat bagaimana unsur-unsur ini saling melengkapi. selain itu, makalah ini juga komentar tentang khasiat drama radio sebagai media untuk menangani tema sensitif seperti ini. kata kunci: pencarian identitas, diskriminasi gender, kebencian terhadap wanita, krisis identitas introduction the girl who touched the stars is a radio play inspired by the life of kalpana chawla, the first indian woman in outer space. radio drama, also called the audio drama, audio play, radio play or radio theatre is a form of theatre based entirely on acoustic performance and is played on radio or published on audio media. since this form of drama lacks visual elements, it has also been defined as a “theatre for the blind” (brandt, 2002, p. 630). george brandt (radio drama, 2002) writes about radio theatre as follows: but the listener’s ‘blindness’ is not just a handicap. it is often said that radio drama paradoxically gives us the best pictures. it appeals to the imagination, conjures up different images in each listener’s head and thus enjoys the advantages of multivalence and fluidity. it has the greatest freedom in the handling of time and space. a purely aural medium, it gives enormous value to the actor’s vocal expressiveness, which has to convey character, intention and feeling without any facial or gestural signals. radio drama is particularly well suited to rendering inner processes: it easily accommodates the monologue. (p. 631) unfortunately, kalpana could never make it back to earth as her space craft exploded on its way back. mahesh dattani, “described as one of india's best and most serious contemporary playwrights writing in english by sankhyan, n. & sigroha, s. deconstructing false identity: exploring gender 167 discrimination and role-playing in the girl who touched the stars alexander viets in the international herald tribune” (chakraborty, 2014, p. 17), has used this tragic incident to create a rather disturbing and unnerving play that primarily focuses on exposing the social evil of gender-discrimination, misogyny and female oppression. quoting bijay kumar das from form and meaning in mahesh dattani’s plays: mahesh dattani ... deals with the theme of social exclusion in his plays not on the basis of caste but gender. how gender relationship based on sexuality causes social exclusion becomes a prime concern for him in some of his plays. (das, 2008, p. 83) this paper attempts to discuss the play as a quest for lost identity for bhavna; a victim of gender discrimination and misogyny, who has to pay a heavy price for being born a girl by losing her very identity. the entire play revolves around an exploration of her lost identity, which continues to haunt bhavna even after she loses her life, and in the process, exposes the ugliness and diseased state of the patriarchal society. identity as such is a complicated term which has myriads of interpretations and implications. according to hogg and abrams, the term identity refers to the “people’s concepts of who they are, of what sort of people they are, and how they relate to others” (1988, p. 2) while jenkins defines identity as “… the ways in which individuals and collectivities are distinguished in their social relations with other individuals and collectivities” (1996, p. 4). according to another definition: identity is a socially and historically constructed concept... [comprising] of ideas, ideologies, and ways of seeing the world around us… [that are] learned and internalized ... over the course of our lives from family, peers, role models, organizations, government, etc… our gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation and class can… shape our life experience, how we’re treated, whom we meet and become friends with, what kind of education and jobs we get, where we live, what opportunities we’re afforded, and what kind of inequities we may face. ("social construction, ideology, and identity") dattani in this play takes up the issue of identity as a social construct in relation to gender/sexual orientation as he depicts its implications on the psychology of the protagonist bhavna and how she copes with the reality by assuming a different identity. dattani uses memory as a tool to transcend the boundaries of time and space in order to reveal many secrets of the past that play an instrumental role in solving the conundrum of her present life and bringing about the denouement. the play is a tribute to all such women who 168 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 165-177 are victims of gender discrimination and who in spite of realizing their potential in a misogynistic patriarchal world still fail to find acceptance, respect and love. dattani has introduced a twist in the tale thereby deconstructing the story to expose what might have lain hidden behind the façade of a seemingly successful story of realizing one’s dreams. in his apparent endeavour to deconstruct the story, he has creatively added a supernatural element in his play by making bhavna’s soul communicate with her childhood-self after she dies in the space explosion to create a dramatic conflict skilfully exposing the themes of gender discrimination, misogyny and identity crisis. the girl who touched the stars is an ample proof of dattani’s ingenuity and artistry in handling a sensitive theme and his choice of medium for presenting the same is impeccable. the aural medium seems apt for the play as dattani exploits it to the best to depict the psychological turmoil and tension of the protagonist as she transcends the boundaries of physical space and time. commenting on the efficacy of the aural medium that the radio drama uses, mcwhinnie (1959) says that the radio performance works on the mind in the same way as poetry does; it liberates and evokes. it does not act as stimulus to direct scenic representation; that would be narrow and fruitless. it makes possible a universe of shape, detail, emotion and idea, which is bound by no inhibiting limitations of space and capacity. equally interesting is the way in which dattani has handled the theme of gender trouble and identity crisis in the play. the oxford dictionary defines identity crisis as “a period of uncertainty and confusion in which a person’s sense of identity becomes insecure, typically due to a change in their expected aims or role in society” ("identity crisis"). further expounding the term, lerner and ashman state: an identity crisis may be elicited by the emotional upheaval provoked by ... strong societal and personal mandate for role adoption, if it occurs at a time in the person’s life when he or she cannot find a role that fits. to resolve this crisis and achieve a sense of identity ... [the person] must find an orientation to life that not only fulfils the changing biological and psychological attributes of the self but one that is also consistent with what society expects of a person. (2006, p. 42) this is exactly what the protagonist bhavna does in the play. in order to cope up with shattered identity, she assumes a new identity that of a boy in order to be accepted by her father. dattani uses a simple plot in a single act sankhyan, n. & sigroha, s. deconstructing false identity: exploring gender 169 discrimination and role-playing in the girl who touched the stars using a handful of characters that comprise of bhavna, her younger self, father, mother, two fellow astronauts, three journalists and a reporter. what starts as a voyage to mars for space exploration soon turns into a psycho-exploration into bhavna’s past life. as her space shuttle explodes moments after the take off, she finds herself transcending the boundaries of time and space as she confronts her childhood self and begins exploring her past life to find the cause for this voyage. somewhere in her mind, she is not sure if it was her own dream to travel in outer space or was it imposed upon her by someone else in her childhood. so in order to find out the truth about her dreams, she begins a voyage into her past life using her childhood self as a medium as she she is heard instructing her childhood self in these lines; “deeper into your thoughts. that is the only real space for us right now. so that is where i will have to look for answers” (dattani, 2010, p. 64). these deep burrowings into the layers of her memories and digging up the shards of her childhood life become for bhavna the space to explore the real source of her dreams. it is at this point that dattani skilfully brings in the patriarchal perspective into the plot. since the plot is based on the theme of gender bias, the father as the representative of patriarchy is introduced into the plot as the figure responsible for sowing seeds of dreams that bhavna grows up nurturing and dies realizing. according to dr. chittaranjan misra (2006, pp. 187-188): gender is a representation and dattani’s theatre is a representation of representation. gender is not a product of different properties of bodies but is a product of social behaviour and practices. the media, the schools, the families, the courts, literature and art – all construct the notion of gender and dattani seems to unearth the excesses and repressive forces behind such constructions. further quoting judith butler from her book titled gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity: gender is a complexity whose totality is permanently deferred, never fully what it is at any given juncture in time. an open coalition, then, will affirm identities that are alternately instituted and relinquished according to the purposes at hand; it will be an open assemblage that permits of multiple convergences and divergences without obedience to a normative telos of definitional closure. (butler, 1990, p. 22) 170 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 165-177 trying to vie for the love and acceptance only reserved for a male child has a devastating effect on bhavna’s psychology as she puts on an identity of the preferred male sex thus losing her own self in the process. this subsequently has a detrimental effect on her psychology and complicates her sense of identity as she grows up into an adult. commenting on the effect that identity formation has on an individual, erikson as cited in identity in adolescence: the balance between self and other by jane kroger says, “identity depends upon the past and determines the future: rooted in childhood, it serves as a base from which to meet later life tasks” (2004, p. 19). this constant striving to be the ‘gender’ that she is not splits her personality forcing her into an identity crisis wherein she is not even sure as to whose dream she is trying to realize; her own or that of her ‘wannabe' self. however, dattani’s real artistry lies in the subtle manner he weaves the tale to implicate bhavna’s father. he does not do so directly. perhaps that would have made the plot much too obvious and dull. so he creates a deliberate confusion about the father’s role which is only revealed towards the end of the play creating an interesting climax as exemplified in this conversation between bhavna and her younger self: young bhavna: are you suggesting that it is my father who wants me to go to the moon? bhavna: i don’t know young bhavna: i can tell you right away that’s not true. don’t you remember? or maybe i shouldn’t ask that question ever. father never wanted me to study further. he wanted me to marry his best friend’s son when i was twenty-two and live in bhuj for the rest of my life! how can you even think that this was his dream? do you see that image? you know it doesn’t lie. that’s me dreaming of touching the stars. (dattani, 2010, p. 65) bhavna seems confused about the whole affair. so she explores her memories further. slowly, she creeps into the mind of her childhood-self to get more insight into her past life. probably there is a missing link somewhere to be found. therefore, dattani intricately builds the conflict that is taking place purely on the level of thoughts transcending the boundaries of time and space at the same time. sankhyan, n. & sigroha, s. deconstructing false identity: exploring gender 171 discrimination and role-playing in the girl who touched the stars young bhavna: so if i think of my father, you feel we will get somewhere? bhavna: yes. somewhere. if we get a fix on space we will get a fix on time as well. we have spent enough time speculating whose time we are in. now we can spend some space on that question. whose space are we in? tell me the space, don’t tell me the time. tell me the space. tell me the space. tell me the space… (dattani, 2010, p. 65) the journey into the mind exploration continues and bit by bit, truth is revealed as bhavna through her childhood-self burrows deeper and deeper into the reality of her past. her father and mother keep appearing and reappearing sometimes simultaneously, other times taking turns. this kind of technique seems apt for a radio play wherein the audience only gets to hear the voices that are nothing more than the thoughts generating in the mind of the only character, who is actually dead. in addition to transcending time and space, dattani thus manages to blur the boundaries of reality and unreality as he effortlessly takes his audience across different dimensions of time and space constantly mixing the earthly with the spiritual realms thus lending a mystical element to the play. initially, bhavna, or her soul, supposes having a brother who was favoured over her by her father but soon realizes after probing into the mind of her childhood-self reflecting on a memory involving her father that that was not the case. yet she continues to feel unwanted and discarded, and this feeling of restlessness forces her to probe further. now it is the mother’s turn. her mother hums a lullaby meant for a little boy. this brings the play to one of the important episodes, the tree-climbing episode. bhavna grows up as a tomboy and enjoys adventurous and seemingly tough activities such as climbing trees. she does this to counter what she calls “ugliness”, probably of being a girl. climbing a tree makes her feel like a boy and gives her an escape from being the unwanted creature she is as a girl. young bhavna: that’s the day, all right. i had a stomachache the whole day. i thought i would get away from class and get away from the punishment of not having done my homework. bhavna: i felt different from the rest. young bhavna: i climbed the tree. bhavna: it was my escape from ugliness. (dattani, 2010, p. 71) 172 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 165-177 coincidentally, as bhavna climbs the highest branch on the tree, she begins menstruating, a sure sign of her turning into a ‘woman’. this causes her immense shame and embarrassment and soon she wants to hide herself from the world. she detests being the weak and timid woman that she has just become and feels utterly unwanted and ugly. this incident confirms to her miserable mind her suspicions about being spurned by her family and the world. bhavna regresses further into her past to the time when her mother was yet expecting her. once again, the haunting lullaby about a baby boy continues in the backdrop. the young bhavna resists this regression for a while saying that it is the future that she’d rather see. here, we notice once again a transcending of time; the past and the future aren’t regarded as different times but rather simultaneous and parallel as young bhavna says, “i asked you to show me the future! not the past. please! take him away”, to which bhavna replies, “it doesn’t work that way. future. past. it’s all the same now. as random as our thoughts.” (dattani, 2010, p. 71) this reluctance about going into her past reflects the kind of discomfort and pain she relates with her past. it is where the root of her fear lies; the fear of denial and rejection, perhaps the moment of rupture in her identity, which has ultimately led to this exploration into her own psyche, and perhaps the memories of her parents. as the past is unraveled layer after layer, one begins to understand the cause of her fear and the truth about her dreams. this probably explains her habit of climbing trees and being a tomboy: a veneer she puts on only to escape her gender and be the other which is more valued and preferred by her father. this also leads her to dreaming about reaching to the moon. she grows up with this burden of proving herself constantly striving to achieve all that her father had desired a son for. though her father cares for her and provides her all she needs to realize her dreams, yet he fails to accept her for who she is: a daughter. he fails to give her the identity that she is born with; that of a woman’s. here in lies the tragedy of her life and the root cause of her identity crisis. regressing further, the play reaches its climax as bhavna realizes that she has died in the shuttle explosion and her mother is gone too. finally, her father enters into a dialogue with bhavna realizing at the same time that she is dead and that he is only having an imaginary conversation with her in his mind. equally strange is the fact that her father not only fails to recognize the young bhavna but also denies knowing her at all. sankhyan, n. & sigroha, s. deconstructing false identity: exploring gender 173 discrimination and role-playing in the girl who touched the stars father: who is she? young bhavna: don’t you remember me? father: do i know you? young bhavna: no…you don’t father: bhavna, what is this girl talking about? young bhavna: i am your daughter. father: that’s not true. (dattani, 2010, p. 75) this intriguing piece of conversation gives us an insight into the minds of the characters. however, there surely is a certain amount of ambiguity involved here. since this dialogue takes place in the mind of a person who has just ceased to be alive, one cannot be sure about whether it is bhavna’s perspective or her father’s actual thoughts. dattani keeps this stylistic confusion alive to deal with bhavna’s confusion about her gender identity and her father’s initial reluctance to accept a girl child. one cannot deny the possibility of bhavna imagining her father denying her childhood self as he wanted a son, and never a daughter. one wonders where this conversation is taking place and who’s talking to whom. dattani, it seems, deliberately creates this confusion by blurring the boundaries of time, space and reality in order to get to the bottom of the whole affair. as the drama progresses towards its end and bhavna regresses in her memories to her infancy, the mystery is finally unravelled. bhavna’s mother had played the trickster by lying to her husband about having conceived a girl child since she was threatened by her father-in-law to be thrown out of the house if she failed to produce a grandson for him. therefore, she lied and carried this trickery on for five long years in order to keep her place in the household. dattani here doesn’t explicitly blame the father for her plight but does implicate him by exposing his gender bias for the girl child. the very fact that bhavna’s mother hid the truth about giving birth to a girl child from her husband and kept it hidden for five long years is sufficient a proof of how prejudiced he was against a girl child. she certainly could not trust him with the truth; therefore, she chose to lie. thus, the mother undoubtedly plays a saviour for the girl child. 174 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 165-177 first, she lies about the doctor’s report that confirmed her being pregnant with a healthy girl child, and then she is often heard singing lullabies addressing her as a baby ‘boy’. besides, the father is so blinded by his desire to have a male child that he can’t see through the pretension of his wife treating her own girl as a boy. father: i didn’t know. she tricked me. for five years. bhavna: that is not true. you knew. you pretended you had a son. of course you knew all along! mother: but i loved you. i was scared. father: it didn’t matter. when i found out. father: that is my son! (the little girl laughs. the father and mother join in.) mother: look at the stars! he wants to touch the stars! father: when bhuvan grows up, he will become a pilot and fly near the moon! young bhavna: and when i wore a skirt for the first time, you never told me that i will go to the moon. father: i did educate you, i did encourage you to study, didn’t i? young bhavna: tell me father. if you had known…if mother had told you the truth, that the doctors said that she will have a healthy girl… you would have… father: no! young bhavna: --killed me. (dattani, 2010, p. 76) through this dialogue, dattani exposes the father’s hypocrisy by stripping all the covers of pretension under which he is hiding his gender prejudice as it turns out to be that the very creator of bhavna’s life would have destroyed her had he come to know of her true identity. yet he makes claims of being a good father, of providing his only daughter with all she needed to grow up and realize her dreams or rather his dreams. it is for the first five years of her life when she is treated like a boy called bhuvan and given all attention sankhyan, n. & sigroha, s. deconstructing false identity: exploring gender 175 discrimination and role-playing in the girl who touched the stars by her father reserved only for a male child that she starts dreaming like one. however, as she is ‘discovered’ later to be an unwanted gender, all the attention and privileges that were once bestowed upon her are taken away. consequently, unable to comprehend this loss of special status, she grows up to be the shadow of a male child. that probably explains why she loves climbing trees and wants to be a pilot and fly to the moon! bhavna’s mind as a child is weighed down by the almost unbearable craving to be the ‘bhuvan’ that she could never become. this desire to be accepted, to escape the ugliness of her real selfthe girl/woman self, and to prove herself against herself poisons her entire being as she never can be free again. therefore, she grows up being skeptical of herself, her dreams and feeling utterly unwanted. bhavna: i walked on it, mummy. the moon. not what i imagined it to be, but then… it sort of takes away a part of you. the part that believes in chanda mama. uncle moon. bhavna: it takes away all that, but… it puts in something else. you look at things, in a special way. you look at yourself… it wasn’t the moon, really, that made me think in that special way. it was the earth. (dattani, 2010, p. 76) here, bhavna talks about disillusionment, about chasing a dream the whole life only to realize its sheer futility in the end. she definitely learns a few more things towards the end of her dialogues with her memories. she finally accepts her own identity in the end when she says, “you look at things, in a special way. you look at yourself…” such understanding makes her look at herself in a new light, through a vision that is no longer blinded and limited by her dreams and cravings or prejudices of her father and selfish machinations of her mother. she realizes the true cause of her pain that lay in trying to realize someone else’s dreams, in trying to live someone else’s life, trying to be what she was not. this realization heals her soul and frees herself from the bondage of her father’s dream that was imposed on her since she was a child. bhavna: out there. somewhere no indian woman has ever been. getting to the moon was no longer a dream. but then i was dreaming again, about being a part of the earth. the same magic that i believed in about the moon, i began to see it in my own world! how lucky i was to belong to that magical planet. young bhavna: where nothing weighed you down. not even the weight of your own pain. (dattani, 2010, p. 77) 176 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 165-177 conclusion bhavna is thus able to exorcize herself of the guilt and pain that she experienced being a girl. she realizes that the root of this pain lay in her neglect and denial as a girl child for which the discriminatory attitudes of the society are to be blamed. the greed for the male child has crippled the society by threatening the survival of female children. many become victims of female foeticide before they can even breathe their first breaths, and the fortunate or rather the unfortunate few who survive, like bhavna, have to strive hard to live up to the most unreasonable expectations of an insensitive and cruel male dominated world. what’s sad and disheartening is the fact that bhavna can find her salvation only in her death. as long as she is alive, she is continuously tormented by the burden of living someone else’s dreams, dreams dreamt for the boy child that she can only fail to achieve after attempting to become one. her tragedy and annihilation are almost certain. she is suffocated as the world closes in upon her, with insatiable demands and expectations. yet she remains unwanted in the end; denied, refused, and rejected. the girl who touched the stars succeeds in asking questions that are disturbing and painful, yet most urgent at the same time. it attempts to unmask the cruel face of mankind or rather the ‘unkind-man’. a woman has to pay a heavy cost for acquiring her little space and freedom in the society; often she has to pay with her life. from the womb to the grave, it is a never-ending battle for her; a battle she is bound to eventually lose. thus by exploring gender discrimination, misogyny and rupture of identity and by deconstructing the memories through transcending space and time, the playwright has created a unique psychological drama that penetrates deep into the labyrinths of the protagonist’s mind, thereby completing her quest for lost identity. bhavna: thank you for talking to me, bhavna. at this moment, when i thought of you. my last thought. i am burning; but it is no longer hell. my body is torn apart; but i no longer feel pain. my blood once again spills on the earth. the earth is one big mango tree and i am on top of it. i never have to come down again. (dattani, 2010, p. 77) bhavna is thus able to regain her whole identity that finally redeems her conscience, freeing it from the aspirations of her father and his likes. sankhyan, n. & sigroha, s. deconstructing false identity: exploring gender 177 discrimination and role-playing in the girl who touched the stars references brandt g. (2002). radio drama. in c. chambers (ed.). companion to twentieth century theatre. new york, ny: continuum. bulter, j. (1990). gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity. new york: routledge. chakraborty, k. (2014). introduction: representative playwrights of indian english drama. in k. chakraborty (ed.). indian drama in english (pp. 118). new delhi: phi learning private limited. das, b. k. (2008). form and meaning in mahesh dattani’s plays. new delhi: atlantic publishers. dattani, m. (2010). brief candle: three plays. new delhi: penguin books. definition of identity crisis in english. (n.d.). retrieved january 22, 2016 from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/identity-crisis hogg, m., & abrams, d. (1988). social identifications: a social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. london: routledge. jenkins, r. (1996). social identity. london: routledge. kroger, j. (1989). identity inaadolescence: the balance between self and other. london: routledge. lerner, j & ashman, o. (2006). culture and life span development. in k. thies & j. travers (eds.). handbook of human development for health care professionals (pp. 33-52). ontario, canada: jones and bartlett publishers canada. social contruction, ideology, and identity: key concepts: the critical media project. (n.d.) retrieved january 23, 2016 from http://www.critical mediaproject.org/about/key-concepts/ mcwhinnie, d. (1959). the art of radio. london: faber and faber. misra, c. (2006). gay themes in dattani’s plays. in a. n. prasad & kanupriya (eds.). indian writing in english: tradition and modernity, (pp. 187-188). new delhi: sarup and sons. cover-december celt 15 vol 2 index rev 2 a book review literary works in english learning as shown in discovering fiction discovering fiction: a reader of american short stories judith kay and rosemary gelshenen new york, cambridge university press xxiv + 216 pp. isbn 0-521-00559-0 reviewed by antonius herujiyanto1 discovering fiction is a two-level anthology of american short stories by classic and contemporary american authors, released on may 28, 2005. the authors, judith kay and rosemary gelshenen, have definitely worked hard in collecting the short stories and organized them into five thematic sections with two up to four units and a section review. reading the two books, kay and gelshenen may be praised as having briliantly played the roles of two american diplomats, namely, two american educational an cultural attachees providing or rather introducing antonius herujiyanto, m.a., ph.d. <heru_nanda@yahoo.com> is a faculty member of the department of language and arts education sanata dharma university yogyakarta. his specialty is teaching literature. mass media communication, cross cultural understanding, and thesis writing. 88 celt, volume 8, number i, july 2008: 85 89 place today"; etc. then, the summing up section, kay and gelshenen make use of two terms, namely, take a closer look (theme comparison: marriage, and freewriting, namely, to write the wor "marriage" and ten write any idas about marriage); and review (idiom and form review). now we can understand that the structure of the units in the books makes the texts quite manageable. as seen in chapter 14, the unit has prereading, reading, post-reading activities. for" pre-reading, each unit has wann-up questions, a new literary term, and idioms and expressions used in the story. it should be mentioned that the format for the unit reading sections is identical in both texts-information about the author followed by the story. post-reading activities include reading comprehension questions, discussion questions, and vocabulary, grammar, and writing exercises. in fact, there is a large selection of activities suitable to meet the classes' needs. admittedly, the teachers are encouraged to provide the students with explanation in order to help students gain a better understanding. this is particularly when dealing with cultural issues and idioms. i believe, the books would be more interesting if there are more short stories with different world. cultural background especially that the socalled melting pot or the salad bowl america could really be represented. this would, therefore, be in line with the sincere impression mentioned at the beginning of this review that kay and gelshenen may be praised as having briliantly played the roles of two american diplomats, namely, two american educational and cultural attachees providing or rather introducing people with american literature and culture. suggested readings jason, philip k. and allan b. lefcowitz, creative writer's handbook. new jersey: prentice hall, 1990. ousby, ian, ed., the cambridge guide to literature in english. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1992. brown, james dean .. understanding research in second language learning. new york: cambridge university press, 1991. fish, stanley. professional correctness. oxford: clarendon press, 1995. herujiyanto, antonius. "teaching english using she approach". a paper presented at a one-day seminar: "increasing the english competence a. herujiyanto, roles of literary works in english learning 89 through integrated approaches" .english department sanata dharma university and kanisius deresan yogyakana, ] 2 january 2002. __ ."literature and teaching reading in the secondary education in indonesia". a paper presented at the "in-service and workshop for teachers of tarakanita foundation". yogyakarta,25-26 march 2002 . __ ."teaching asian literature in english". in llt journal, vol. 4, no.2: 200 i: 155-]73. __ ."the universal aspects of learning english literature". in phenomena, vol. 5, no. 2,2001:75-87. lebauer, roni.journeys reading. singapore: prentice hall asia elt, ] 996. malkoy, anna maria. road to reading: american short stories for reading pleasure. washington: english teaching division, eca, usia, 1987. plowright, piers. read english: an elementary comprehension reader. london: heinemann educational books, 1981. logo: metaphors and arguments to semantic political metaphors in indonesian mass media and its persuasive effect toward readers yuli widiana and roro arielia yustisiana widianayuli@yahoo.com, lia.6606@gmail.com english department, faculty of letters, widya mandala catholic university, madiun, indonesia abstract: the research is aimed to describe kinds of political metaphors and their metaphorical meanings. furthermore, the persuasive effect of political metaphors in mass media toward the readers is also analyzed based on certain parameters. the pragmatic equivalent method and the referential equivalent method are applied to analyze the data. the kinds of political metaphors include metaphors with nature as a parable, metaphors with plants as a parable, metaphors with terms from various fields, metaphors with common things as a parable, metaphors with particular verbs, and metaphors with particular adjectives. the readers could comprehend political metaphors well although their interest in political news is low. apparently, the persuasive effect of political metaphors on the public is high. it becomes a trigger for people to take action to create a better political atmosphere. key words: political metaphor, mass media, persuasive effect abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan menggambarkan jenis-jenis metafora politik dan makna metaforisnya. lebih jauh, efek persuasif metafora politik dalam media massa terhadap pembaca juga dianalisis berdasarkan parameter tertentu. metode padan pragmatis dan metode padan referensial diterapkan untuk menganalisis data. jenis-jenis metafora politik meliputi metafora dengan perumpamaan alam. metafora dengan perumpamaan tumbuhan, metafora dengan istilah dari berbagai bidang, metafora dengan perumpamaan benda umum, metafora dengan kata kerja tertentu, dan metafora dengan kata sifat. pembaca memahami metafora 206 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 politik dengan baik meskipun ketertarikan mereka pada berita politik rendah. pada kenyataannya, efek persuasif metafora politik terhadap masyarakat untuk mengambil tindakan adalah dalam rangka memperbaiki atmosfir politik yang lebih baik. kata kunci: metafora politik, media massa, efek persuasif introduction meaning in a pragmatic point of view, and it is one of the important discussions in the field of linguistics. the research of pragmatic meaning is related to various aspects of external linguistics such as culture and tradition that could give huge influence in the process of interpreting meaning. it is this case that becomes the basic consideration to classify meaning with different approaches. one of the interesting discussions in pragmatics is metaphors. metaphors are not only found in literary works but also in political news and in mass media. one of the examples is the headline taken from the political news, hubungan diplomatik indonesia—australia memanas. the example shows that the diplomatic relationship between the two countries is compared to fire because there is a political conflict between both countries. fire is the best description for anger, describing that the diplomatic relationship between indonesia-australia is illustrated by the metaphor memanas ‘inflamed’. the use of metaphor in mass media is aimed to attract more readers to read the news. politics always involves various activities to influence the public, specifically in political campaigns. at this moment, people tend to use sentences which contain metaphors to influence the public in an efficient way. therefore, metaphors in political campaigns or political news are used to make the campaign or news more interesting so that it will be more effective to influence the public to follow certain political ideas. the power of words is believed to be a huge power to spread political ideas, inspire people, and attract them to support political ideas which are campaigned. the research of metaphors in politics has already conducted before by andrew j. gallagher (2012). in his research, gallagher discusses political metaphors in usa by using some data from political speeches of some american presidents. besides that, domínguez (2015) who also conducted the widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 207 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers research on metaphors stated that when there is a strong media impact on a population, different metaphoric images about the event are quickly created and popularized. furthermore, domínguez (2015) also stated that different metaphors compete and the fittest occupy a place in the collective imagination, gradually forcing others aside. therefore, a new communication frame boosts the emergence of new metaphors, which then start evolving and competing with each other (domínguez, 2015, p. 247). the research about metaphors in political news in indonesian mass media is conducted as further research which is aimed to describe the kinds and meanings of metaphors with the indonesian cultural background. the research measures the persuasive effect of the use of metaphors in political news in influencing the readers to do such actions in order to create a better political atmosphere. consequently, this research could enrich the research in the field of pragmatics, especially about metaphors in order to give valuable contribution to journalism in relation to political matters. literature review based on its characteristics, metaphors are one of the figurative languages. metaphors have particular features which make them different from any other figurative languages like idioms, personifications, analogies, and similes. lakoff and johnson introduced structural metaphors, cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another (1980, p. 14). in line with the previous theory, mooij stated that metaphors are to be looked upon as a bridge or implicit comparison (1976, p. 29). however, the things which are compared must have similar categories in certain ways. whereas, o’grady defined metaphors as understanding of one concept in terms of another (2005, p. 211). generally, metaphors are created by using the comparison of two different things which is not related at all but both have certain features which may describe similar characteristics in meaning. one of the examples of metaphors is time is money. in this case, time is compared to money as both of them are very important in life so that we are not supposed to waste them. however, time and money are two different things since time is abstract and money is real. apparently, identifying metaphors sometimes is not an easy task. however, there is a particular aspect that we could take into consideration to determine whether such an expression is metaphors or not. mooij (1976, 208 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 p.18) explains that strangeness or surprisingness of a metaphorical expression in its context may be the aspect to identify metaphors. metaphors could be classified in various categories as the concept in such a language may be related to various interpretations and associations. one of the concepts which are used to determine the kinds of metaphor s is spatial metaphors, a kind of metaphors which involves the use of words that are primarily associated with spatial orientation to talk about physical and psychological states (o’grady, 2005, p.212). the example of spatial metaphors in relation to psychological condition or emotion is i’m feeling down (o’grady et al, 2005, p. 212). the concept of spatial metaphors shows a close relationship between psychological emotion and spatial condition or expression of up and down. in this case, the expression of feeling down is related to sadness and disappointment. the similar concept of metaphors is what is called orientational metaphors. this also includes the concept of spatial metaphors. furthermore, lakoff and johnson explain that such metaphorical orientations are not arbitrary. they have a basis in our physical and cultural experience. though the polar oppositions up-down, in-out, etc., are physical in nature, the orientational metaphors can vary from culture to culture (1980, p.14). metaphors could also be analyzed based on their structure. concerning to this matter, metaphors consist of: vehicle as the item(s) used metaphorically, tenor as the metaphorical meaning of the vehicle, and ground as the basis for the metaphorical extension, essentially the common elements of meaning, which license the metaphor (cruse, 2000, p.203). for example, the leg of the table, in this case, leg is the vehicle. meanwhile, the tenor refers to something in the lower position which is related to the vehicle as leg is always in a lower position. the classification of metaphors and its meaning interpretation must consider various aspects as metaphors are closely related to context, field, and culture which build those metaphors. hence, the meaning of metaphors in one language might be different in other languages. method the research uses the data in written form which are taken from kompas, a national newspaper which is published in indonesia. hence, the technique of collecting data is library research. the kompas newspaper is widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 209 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers chosen as the source of data in this research because the newspaper publishes the current political news daily. there are many political metaphors found in the column of political news in this newspaper. because this national newspaper has many readers all around indonesia, kompas newspaper could be a valid source of data in the research of political metaphors. since the number of data is not too large, only 49 sentences, all of the data are analyzed by using total sampling techniques. the unit of analysis in this research is all sentences which contain political metaphors. next, a questionnaire method is applied to collect the data from the respondents concerning their interest to read political news, their comprehension on political metaphors, and how far the readers want to take action to make the condition of politics better. the result of the questionnaire shows the degree of persuasive effect which is built by political metaphors used in mass media. the method of data analysis in this research is equivalent method. the technique of data analysis which is applied in this research is the pragmatic equivalent method which analyzes data based on external factors of language like context, background, and speaker (djajasudarma, 1993, p. 58). this technique is applied to analyze the meanings of political metaphors which are found in kompas newspaper based on certain variables. in the research, the unit of analysis is observed as relationships among characteristics. the varying characteristics of units that take on different values, categories, or attributes for different observations are called variables (singleton, jr. & straits, 1999, p. 70). thus, variables may be various depending on the design of the research. the variables in this research are the external aspects of linguistics that may build political metaphors such as things surrounding us and events. those variables are taken into consideration to determine the kinds of political metaphors found in the data. furthermore, the variables are also used to explain the meaning of political metaphors. in the research, pragmatic equivalent method is also applied to analyze and measure the persuasive effect of the use of political metaphors towards the readers. next, the referential equivalent method is also used in this research to determine the kinds of metaphors which are found in political news. this method is applied to classify the kinds of metaphors based on their characteristics and meanings. 210 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 findings the kinds of political metaphors which are used in kompas newspaper consist of political metaphors with nature as a parable, political metaphors with plants as a parable, political metaphors with the terms from various fields, political metaphors with common things as a parable, political metaphors with particular verbs, and political metaphors with particular adjectives. parables of nature and plants are often found in indonesian political metaphors since indonesia is an agricultural country. meanwhile, specific terms from different fields are also used as parables in indonesian political metaphors. the terms taken various fields contain metaphorical meanings which still show similarities in characteristics with their literal meanings. next, verbs and adjectives which are used as parables in political metaphors reflect personified meanings which are related to some actions done by people or animals and the characteristics of living creatures. in this research, the persuasive effect of the use of political metaphors in mass media towards readers is measured by using some parameters based on the questionnaire distributed to respondents. there are 100 respondents which are taken from the two governmental institutions. they are from the department of information and communication of east java province and the health department of the city of cimahi west java province. the respondents for this research must fulfil certain criteria such as the age is between 20 to more than 49 years old; male and female; the educational background is high school graduates, diploma graduates, bachelor degree, and master degree; the period of work is between less than two years and more than seven years with the employment status of civil servant and contract employees. the parameter to measure the persuasive effect of political metaphors is based on some components such as the level of interest on political news, the level of comprehending political metaphor, and the level of interest to take some positive actions as a result of persuasive effect caused by political metaphors used in mass media. based on the questionnaire, the respondents are not really interested in reading political news. however, it does not influence the level of their comprehension on political metaphors. in other words, the readers could understand political metaphors well although they are not really fond of reading political news. furthermore, political metaphors used in political news in indonesian mass media contribute a great persuasive effect towards the reader that perpetuate the positive actions to fix the weaknesses in widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 211 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers indonesian politics in order to build a better political atmosphere that would contribute welfare for the society. a. kinds of political metaphors the kinds of political metaphors found in mass media are classified based on the kinds of parables which are used as metaphors. the data analysis to classify the political metaphor is conducted by applying referential equivalent method. the occurrence of various political metaphors in indonesian mass media supports the opinion of domínguez (2015) about a strong media impact on a population which could create and popularize different metaphoric images. a detailed discussion about the classification of political metaphors in indonesian mass media is provided in the following part including the relevant examples. b. political metaphors with nature as a parable nature is often used as a parable in metaphors. things in nature like wind, lightning, and fire may function as a vehicle of political metaphors. thus, the vehicle shows a particular meaning which is called tenor. basically, tenor is formed based on ground as a basic of metaphorical extension (lakoffand johnson, 1980). the following example makes the statement clear: (1) politisi di negara manapun pasti menebar “angin surga” saat kampanye. political metaphor angin surga means breaking vows. the metaphor occurs as there are many politicians who often make promises in political campaigns but when they are elected in certain governmental or political positions, they never fulfil their promise to build the societies welfare. in this example, angin or wind is used as a parable as it has the characteristics of easily disappearing. it fits to describe how easy the politicians forget and break their vows. meanwhile, surga or heaven which contains the meaning of comfortable and wonderful is used as a parable to describe how great the vows made by the politicians are. a similar political metaphor is as follows: (2) akhir cerita partai golkar tinggal menunggu waktu. membiarkan akarnya terbakar bara api, atau sebaliknya, islah tercipta bersendikan kebesaran hati pemimpinnya. 212 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 the parables petir (lightning) and akar (root) describe a conflict which causes anger and disappointment. next, the thing like api or fire is used to build a parable which shows anger and conflict as fire contains heat. c. political metaphors with plants as a parable parables by using plants are frequently found in political metaphors in indonesian mass media. basically, plants have a close relationship with indonesian culture because of its agricultural state. the following example is the political metaphor with the subject of plants as a parable: (3) bara api perlahan tapi pasti bakal terus merambat di akar “pohon beringin”. antara pemimpin baru hasil munas di pesisir pantai nusa dua (bali) dan di pantai ancol (jakarta) sama-sama bersikeras membawa kasus sengketa ke pemimpinan kembar ke pengadilan. the parable pohon beringin (banyan tree) refers to the symbol of one of political parties in indonesia. a banyan tree is a common tree that could be found in indonesia. its thick leaves could be a shelter for everything under it. it symbolizes a guardianship of a leader towards their subordinates. moreover, the banyan tree is also used as a symbol of political party since this tree is a strong tree which can live long so that it symbolizes a big political party which has strong influence in indonesian politics for a long time. d. political metaphors with terms from various fields the terms from various fields are often used as political metaphors. the terms refer to certain metaphorical meanings which are related to politics. however, the basic characteristics of the literal meanings are still seen in their metaphorical meaning. one of the terms which are used in political metaphors is exemplified in the following datum: (4) kiai menjadi sentral dalam pergerakan nu bersama dunia pesantren yang merupakan pusat pendidikan dan cagar budaya nu. the term cagar budaya (cultural conservation) means the conservation of all cultural assets. in this case, cagar budaya refers to the protection and conservation of the culture of islamic organization of nahdlatul ulama which has a huge role in indonesian politics. widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 213 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers some political metaphors use human beings as parables which refer to particular metaphorical meanings. the following datum is the related example: (5) direktur eksekutif indikator politik indonesia burhanuddin muhtadi mengatakan, kih, pendukung pemerintah, akhir-akhir ini tampil sebagai pemeran antagonis dalam drama konflik kpk-polri. the term pemeran antagonis (antagonist role) contains metaphorical meaning about the opposition group. the term is commonly used in the field of cinematography. both antagonist role and opposition group have similar characteristics and are against each other. the forestry term is also used metaphorically in the political metaphor as follows: (6) pelaporan didasari dugaan zulkarnain melakukan tebang pilih atas penetapan 186 tersangka yang merupakan pengguna dan penerima anggaran p2sem. political metaphor in this example uses a parable tebang pilih which is originally a term in science field of forestry. the metaphorical meaning in the term is the determination of the accused without any proper proof. the term from science is also used in the following political metaphor: (7) namun, kita saat itu juga sadar bahwa politik bukanlah hitungan matematika 2+2=4. mathematics is an exact science. in the example, politics is illustrated as something which is not exact so that it is different from mathematics. next, the term from the transportation field is also used in the following data: (8) namun, semua merasakan jarak pandang terlalu pendek. arahannya belum terlalu jelas karena ada realitas politik berlapis-lapis,” ujarnya. the term jarak pandang (visibility) is used metaphorically which means limited political view causes political vision and mission to become unclear. the other specific term which is used in political metaphors is taken from medical register as it is exemplified in the following datum: (9) sejumlah ketentuan masih belum disepakati dpr, seperti persyaratan ambang batas kemenangan. 214 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 the term ambang batas (threshold) in medical terms is used to measure someone’s threshold of pain. in political metaphors, ambang batas is used to measure the victory in the general election. furthermore, political metaphors also borrow terms from psychology as parables. one of them occurs in the following datum: (10) kalimat di laman facebook-nya itu, patut diduga gambaran dari upaya jokowi untuk menahan ego kelembagaan seperti yang tengah terjadi antara polri dan kpk. the meaning of ego in psychology refers to the personality of someone who is selfish. the term ego kelembagaan has a metaphorical meaning of someone possessing the characteristics who tends to pay attention more to the importance of organization than society. the term taken from governmental register is used in the following political metaphors: (11) dibawah manuskrip berjudul “revolusi mental”, masyarakat diinisiasi lewat sejumlah sekuel dramatik yang hadir ke hadapannya. revolusi mental (mental revolution) is the idea which is campaigned by indonesian president joko widodo. it refers to the massive mental and characteristic revolution of the nation that needs to occur in order for indonesia to become a better nation. e. political metaphors with common things as a parable the things which are used in daily activities could also be used as parables in political metaphors. they would have specific metaphorical meanings based on the context. one of the examples is provided in the following datum: (12) mulai dari sebuah tulisan di blog kompasiana hingga persoalan tugas masa lalu jadi senjata untuk melaporkan tiga unsur pimpinan kpk tersisa ke polisi. basically, senjata (weapon) is the thing which is used to shoot and attack the target. in the example, weapon is used metaphorically to describe a piece of evidence that could be used to attack someone if brought to court. therefore, the characteristic of weapon which is used to attack the target is used both in literal meaning and in metaphorical meaning. next, the other common thing which is used in political metaphors could be seen in the datum as follows: widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 215 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers (13) kebijakan basuki tersebut bakal menjadi magnet eksodus pns instansi lain ke pemprov dki jakarta. based on the context, magnet is a parable of attractiveness to make civil servants interested in moving and working in the jakarta province. the characteristic of magnets, to pull the things toward it, is best used metaphorically to describe the attractiveness to work in the governmental institutions of jakarta province. furthermore, the terms which have positive meanings may have negative meanings when they are used metaphorically. the following example is best used to explain this matter: (14) “publik bisa menilai ada ‘permainan’ di antara panitia seleksi,” ujarnya. to gain victory in the game, certain strategies are needed. this characteristic is seen in the use of the term permainan or game in political metaphor provided in the example. in this case, permainan or game means the trick which is done to win the election of certain position in government. furthermore, parts of the body may have the metaphorical meaning as illustrated in the following context: (15) singkat kata, wajah nu yang kuat dengan karakter tawasut (moderat), tasamuh (toleran), tawazun (proporsional), dan i’tidal (adil) kini hadir lebih sering di dunianya. the term wajah (face) is used as political metaphor to give the image of such an organization. apparently, it fits with the characteristic of face as part of the body that could give a clear image of someone. moreover, the culinary term is also used in political metaphors as a parable as it is provided in the following datum: (16) sebab, tak sedikit ruu yang tumpang tindih dalam artian judul ruu berbeda, tetapi semangat atau temanya sama. “kalau irisan-irisan itu dihapus, dirapikan, jumlahnya tak sebanyak itu,” tuturnya. in culinary terms, irisan (sliced) is a thin piece of food with almost similar size. to illustrate small rules which have nearly similar content, the term irisan, is used to make readers easier to get a clear picture to comprehend the metaphor. apparently, political metaphors often borrow terms from various fields which are even not related to politics at all. one of the examples is the term akrobat, or acrobat, which is usually used in a circus setting. the use of this term is best exemplified as follows: 216 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 (17) “rakyat lelah menyaksikan acrobat mereka,” ujarnya. in politics, acrobat may have the meaning of extreme negative actions to fulfil certain political purpose which are clearly shown to public. it fits with the literal meaning of acrobat which refers to extreme performance which is shown to an audience. the other common term which contains metaphorical meaning is shown in the following context: (18) “kalau (praperadilan) dikabulkan, dapat jadi lonceng kematian bagi kpk. kalau dikabulkan satu demi satu (permohonan praperadilan tersebut), kpk bisa rontok,” kata refly. the metaphor lonceng kematian (death knell) is often used in politics to describe the failure of such a political organization. it is related to the function of knell as an alarm to identify a certain event. the other example is provided as follows: (19) ia menambahkan, pkb harus menang di semua pilkada daerah tapal kuda, termasuk kabupaten jember. daerah tapal kuda which is used as a political metaphor in the example refers to certain region which becomes the main target to gain victory in a general election. it fits with the function of horse shoes which are very important tools for horses to protect their feet so that it may be able to walk well and run fast. metaphors in politics may also use the traditional terms taken from regional dialect as it could be seen as follows: (20) masa pak karno sangat menyenangkan. tidak pernah ada perkara beselan (‘suap’). the term beselan which is taken from javanese dialect is frequently used in political news with the topic of bribery. in politics, beselan means everything in relation to bribery for political purposes. f. political metaphors with particular verbs political metaphors may use some particular verbs to illustrate certain things. one of the examples is as follows: (21) mereka akan memburu teroris pimpinan santoso yang diduga masih berkeliaran di wilayah pegunungan poso pesisir selatan dan poso pesisir. widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 217 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers in daily life, memburu (to hunt) refers to catching prey which is usually an animal. in the next development, this verb also means catching prey which is not an animal. in this case, the preys are terrorists. hunting terrorists is compared to hunting animals as it tends to be difficult as animals are easy to runaway and hide. the next example of political metaphors with particular verbs is as follows: (22) kondisi ini membuat fraksi-fraksi anggota kih meradang dan menolak mengisi akd. meradang (inflamed) is usually used to picturize certain desease which may cause infection in body. it could be identified by the raising of body temperature. in the example, meradang describes the flammable political condition which is caused by the protest of the members of factions. the verb which is related to the characteristics of animal is also found in political metaphor in the following context: (23) publik mengendus kepentingan politik menyandera kedua lembaga itu. the word mengendus (sniff) commonly describes the behavior of a dog which has the capability to detect something by its smelling sense. in the context, mengendus means the public suspects the political matter which becomes the cause of the conflict between both organizations. g. political metaphors with particular adjectives the characteristics of human beings are often used as parables in politics. the following datum is one of the examples: (24) menteri sekretaris negara pratikno sebelumnya menepis lembaga kepresidenan terlalu gemuk. the adjective gemuk (fat) is best used as a description of body figure to illustrate certain political conditions. in this case, a fat political organization means it has too many components which may reduce the performance of the organization. h. the persuasive effect of political metaphors in mass media toward readers the persuasive effect of the use of political metaphors in mass media toward readers is measured by using certain parameters. the parameters are 218 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 determined based on the answer of 100 respondents in the questionnaire. the parameters which become the criteria to measure the persuasive effect of political metaphors are mainly based on some components such as the level of interest to read political news, the level of comprehending political metaphors, and the level of interest to perform positive actions as the cause of persuasive effect built by political metaphors in mass media. the detailed discussion of each component of the parameters to measure the persuasive effect of political metaphors is provided in the following parts. i. the level of interest on political news based on the answers of the respondents in the questionnaire, the level of interest to read political news is described in the following table: table 1: percentage of level of interest the level of interest percentage interesting 39% neutral 50% not interesting 11% table 1 shows that readers are not really interested in reading political news. only 39% of the respondents are really interested in political news. the rest, 50%, is neutral in their opinion on political news and 11% of respondents consider that political news is not interesting at all. j. the level of comprehending political metaphors the level of comprehension concerning political metaphors may be influenced by various factors such as language mastery, reader’s personal perception, and political knowledge of readers. the result based on the questionnaire concerning this matter is provided in table 2: table 2: percentage of level of comprehension criteria of comprehension percentage able to comprehend 70% difficult to comprehend 24% unable to comprehend 9% widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 219 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers the results support gallagher (2003) who stated that based on the amount of political metaphors, the rapid development of metaphors tends to describe political neutralization. consequently, most of the metaphors are part of people’s daily conversation in discussing political matters just like discussing any other matters. therefore, political metaphors are no longer something strange because society have easily comprehended them. table 2 obviously describes that most of the readers could comprehend political metaphors well. it is proven by the answers of the respondents in which 70% of them state that they could understand political metaphors in mass media very well. only 24% of the respondents find difficulty in understanding political metaphors. the rest, 9% of the respondents, do not comprehend political metaphors at all. this suggests that the level of comprehending political metaphors is high. besides that, the results suggest that the low level of interest on political news does not affect the level of comprehending political metaphors. the result also supports the theory of conceptual metaphors by lakoff and johnson (1980). the conceptual metaphors which blends in daily life not only influences language but also thought and action. it answers the question of why the level of comprehension of political metaphors is high although the level of the interest on political news is low. k. persuasive effect of political metaphors toward readers political metaphors which are used in political news are aimed to influence public to perform some actions to create a better political condition. the persuasive effect of political metaphors in this case is described in the following table: table 3: persuasive effect of political metaphors persuasive effect percentage high 67% medium 12% low 21% the result of the questionnaire supports the opinion of gallagher (2013). he stated that for the question of whether or not metaphor usage has an impact on the political process, logically, there are three possible effects – they may be harmful, beneficial or have no effect at all (gallagher, 2013, p.1) hence, the use of political metaphors in political news in indonesian mass media contributes high persuasive effect towards the readers to conduct some actions 220 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 205-221 to repair the weaknesses in political condition. it perpetuates the creation of better political atmosphere in indonesia. therefore, the political condition in indonesia is hoped to be cleaner and healthier in order to support the continuous development of the nation that would contribute to the welfare of the society. conclusion the kinds of political metaphors in indonesian mass media include political metaphors with nature as a parable, political metaphors with plants as a parable, political metaphors with terms from various fields, political metaphors with common things as a parable, political metaphors with particular verbs, and political metaphors with particular adjectives. basically, the interpretation of meaning in political metaphors still implies the similar characteristics of its literal meaning. furthermore, although political news is not really interesting for most of the readers, it does not affect the level of comprehending political metaphors as readers are able to understand political metaphors well. the result of the research shows that persuasive effect caused by the use of political metaphors in political news in indonesian mass media is high. it may be a trigger for people to conduct positive actions in order to fix the weaknesses in political condition in indonesia. thus, the function of media to influence public is fulfilled. it strongly suggests that the power of words would be a huge motivator for people to conduct some actions to create a better life in every way. references cruse, a. (2000). meaning in language: an introduction to semantics and pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. djajasudarma,f. (1993). metode linguistik, bandung: eresco. domínguez, m. (2015). on the origin of metaphors. metaphor and symbol, a literary journal. 30 (3), pp. 240-255. doi: 10.1080/10926488 .2015.1049858 gallagher, a. (2012). metaphors in american politics. 1. retrieved january 7, 2015 from http://www.political metaphors. com/metaphors-101/ widiana, y. & yustisiana, r.a. metaphors and arguments to semantic political 221 metaphors in indonesian mass media & its persuasive effect to readers lakoff, g. & johnson, m. (1980). metaphors we live by. chicago: the university of chicago press. mooij, j. j. a. (1976). a study of metaphor. amsterdam: north holland publishing company. o’grady, w., john, a., mark, a., & rees-miller, j. (2005). contemporary linguistics: an introduction, 5 th ed. newyork: bedford/st. martin’s. singleton, jr., royce, a. & sraits, b. c. (1999). approaches to social research, 3rd ed. new york: oxford university press. acknowledgement the research which discusses political metaphors in mass media and its persuasive effect towards readers is supported by some institutions. the appreciation is dedicated to the rector, the dean of the faculty of letters, and the research and social services department of widya mandala catholic university, madiun that support the process of conducting the research. next, the huge gratitude is also dedicated to the ministry of research, technology and higher education of republic of indonesia which had already given the research grant via the scheme of research for beginner (penelitian dosen pemula) in the period of 2015. the gratitude is also given to the department of communication and information of east java province and the health department of the city of cimahi of west java province for the permission to collect the data by using questionnaire for the respondents to complete the data of the research. the research about political metaphors in indonesian mass media is hoped to give valuable scientific contribution for the research in linguistics and pragmatics. it is also aimed to contribute social benefit for society especially for the script writing of political news in indonesian journalism. cover-december celt 15 vol 2 index rev 2 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 22 no.1; june 2022 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia unpacking the layers: understanding the multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity 1muhammad fahruddin aziz, 2herlandri eka jayaputri 1sekolah tinggi ilmu hukum biak-papua 2akademi perikanan kamasan biak-papua 1azizfahruddin@gmail.com, 2herlandrieka@gmail.com received: 07-03-2022 accepted: 11-05-2022 published: 30-06-2022 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj unpacking the layers: understanding the multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity 1muhammad fahruddin aziz, 2herlandri eka jayaputri 1azizfahruddin@gmail.com, 2herlandrieka@gmail.com 1sekolah tinggi ilmu hukum biak-papua 2akademi perikanan kamasan biak-papua abstract: the impact of age on language learning is often explained by various factors such as neural mechanisms, biological influences, and learning conditions. this study is a literature review that aims to analyze age influences based on various sources, including journals, books, and proceedings. the study argues that there is a cognitive mechanism known as the language defense mechanism that acts as a barrier to maintain the integrity of l1 information, leading to challenges in acquiring l2 for adults. this defense mechanism strengthens as l1 knowledge increases, making it more difficult to learn l2. the concept of the defense mechanism provides another perspective on models such as fossilization, language interference, the impact of age, and bilingualism in the context of learning new languages. key words: language interference, age effect, language defense mechanism abstrak: pengaruh usia pada pembelajaran bahasa sering dijelaskan dengan berbagai faktor seperti perbadaan mekanisme otak, pengaruh biologis, dan perbedaan kondisi pembelajaran. studi ini merupakan sebuah tinjauan literatur yang bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh usia berdasarkan berbagai sumber, termasuk jurnal, buku, dan prosiding. studi ini menjeleaskan bahwa terdapat mekanisme kognitif yang disebut sebagai mekanisme pertahanan bahasa yang bertindak sebagai penghalang untuk menjaga agar informasi l1 tetap utuh, yang kemudian menyebabkan kesulitan dalam memperoleh l2 pada orang dewasa. mekanisme pertahanan ini semakin menguat seiring berkembangnya pengetahuan l1. konsep mekanisme pertahanan ini memberikan perspektif lainnya selain konsep-konsep seperti fosilisasi, 96 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interferensi bahasa, pengaruh usia pembelajaran, dan bilingualisme dalam konteks pembelajaran bahasa baru. kata kunci: language interference, age effect, language defense mechanism. introduction in indonesia, it has been observed that language learners tend to deviate from the standard english norms when using certain words or phrases (arifin, 2016; ginting, 2019; septina sulistyaningrum, 2020). for example, instead of using the suffix “-ren” to indicate plural form, their brains are inherently wired to utilize the reduplication pattern of “child-child” as a linguistic norm. similarly, when indicating possession, they use an inverted word order like “bag andy” instead of the correct word order “andy's bag” it is important to note that these language learners are consistent in their usage of these constructions, and we have paid careful attention to their usage. however, it is also true that these constructions do not correspond to the rules of standard english. it appears that these learners have deviated from the english norm in order to adjust to the rules of english when attempting to correct their constructions. this observation raises questions about the nature of language learning and how learners adapt to new languages. it is possible that the learners are unconsciously applying their native language rules to english, resulting in these deviations. further research and analysis are required to better understand these phenomena and to develop effective language learning strategies that can help learners avoid such deviations. when indonesian language learners attempt to adhere to the standard linguistic system of english, deviant constructions may arise. it is worth noting that linguistic variation is an inherent characteristic of language and occurs systematically. according to mendívil-giró (2019) research, language is arbitrary due to the lack of a natural association between language forms and referents. indonesian learners’ use of english may exhibit changes in the standard english linguistic system due to the influence of their l1 construction. it is intriguing to consider the systematic manner in which they produce these incorrect constructions. this phenomenon raises questions about the mechanisms at play in the minds of these learners that consistently prompt them to create deviant constructions. if there is indeed a mechanism driving aziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 97 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj these deviant constructions, it brings up further questions about how it affects the retention of the linguistic system in the minds of these learners. this highlights the importance of further research to gain a deeper understanding of the language learning process and how learners adapt to new linguistic systems. such research could potentially lead to more effective language learning strategies that take into account the innate mechanisms at play in the minds of language learners. method the research methodology employed in this study is library research. its primary objective is to conduct a theoretical analysis of the age-related influences on learning. these influences include competition between different learning mechanisms, biological factors, and the conditions necessary for learning individual differences. to achieve this goal, various references from reputable sources such as journals, books, and proceedings are utilized. the documentation technique is employed to collect relevant information from these literatures. the central focus of this research is comprehensively understood through the application of qualitative data analysis. the objective of this analysis is to uncover the underlying essence of the research topic and develop a nuanced understanding of the complex relationships between the various age-related influences on learning. this research methodology offers a strong foundation for thoroughly investigating the fundamental elements that influence the learning process in various age cohorts. employing various data sources and a thorough qualitative analysis guarantees the credibility and dependability of the outcomes of this research study. in the end, this research has the possibility to influence education policies and methodologies, and assist in developing more efficient learning approaches that cater to the specific requirements of various learners. results and discussions a. language learning and change: impact and factors the impact of the indonesian language system on language learners is profound. the system is so ingrained in their mental representations that they 98 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj apply it even when using standardized english, resulting in deviations from standard english in areas such as reduplication, plurality, and possession. this phenomenon can be explained by the usage-based theory of language learning, which suggests that understanding the structure of language is acquired through real-world experiences of using language, rather than the learning of grammatical rules alone (ghalebi & sadighi, 2015; koster, 2015). this indicates that language learning is a dynamic process that involves more than just memorizing rules. language learners must also have practical experience using the language in real-life contexts to fully understand its nuances and intricacies. through this approach, it is possible for individuals to gain a more comprehensive comprehension of the language system and acquire a high level of proficiency in its usage. additionally, the mental representations of language systems are influenced by the context in which they are used. as language learners are exposed to different languages and language systems, their mental representations adapt and evolve to reflect their experiences. the significance of context and practical application in language learning, as well as the adaptable nature of mental representations of language systems, are underscored by these findings. language learners from indonesia are profoundly influenced by their native language system. the usage-based theory of language acquisition prioritizes hands-on experience and contextual immersion in language learning, while also emphasizing the dynamic and everevolving nature of mental representations of language systems. according to (koster, 2015), both adults and children have a natural tendency to observe the patterns of their daily language use. when two constituents frequently occur together, attention is drawn to the regularity of the pattern, which helps to promote the formation of grammatical mental representations. this finding may explain why the standardized language system in our hometown has undergone changes, as the local language learners have internalized the patterns of their first language and applied them to their use of standardized english. furthermore, the development of grammatical cognitive representations is not a static process but rather a dynamic one that can be impacted by changes in language usage. as language undergoes transformation and changes over time, mental representations of its grammar can also evolve accordingly. this highlights the importance of ongoing exposure to and use of a language, as it allows language learners to adapt to changes in the language and continue developing their understanding of its grammar. the study highlights the importance of daily language usage in the process of language acquisition. by aziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 99 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj observing and internalizing the language usage patterns, language learners can create cognitive representations that assist them in acquiring grammatical knowledge of the language. the research also emphasizes the significance of maintaining a flexible approach towards language learning and continually adapting to changes in the language over time. the construction of interrogative sentences in english involved subject and verb inversion before the 1700s, but after this time, the auxiliary was incorporated into negative and interrogative constructions, according to kroch (1989). while this change may seem uncertain and even unusual to some, keller (1994, p.7) argues that language change does not occur due to changes in external conditions. rather, despite changes in language, it remains a systematic entity. this prompts inquiries about the factors that uphold the coherence of the language system within the neural framework, even when language change is possible. who decides which language inputs and outputs are acceptable, and what methods are used to determine the appropriate language use approach? these are important considerations that arise when examining the relationship between language change and linguistic structure. by exploring these issues, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language evolves over time and what factors contribute to its ongoing development. there are various suggestions that attempt to explain the causes of language change. one such proposition is that children are responsible for generating language change, as argued by scholars like bohn et al. (2019 and denman et al. (2017). according to this view, children adopt and reconceptualize linguistic input in a way that contrasts with the grammar of adults, leading to language changes. however, it should be noted that most changes in a child’s language system are temporary because of their eventual development of an adult-like language system. therefore, the changes derived from the use of children’s language may be considered doubtful. another proposition is that language change may come from the use of adult language, as it is adults who create available linguistic regularity (denman et al., 2017). moreover, social factors, such as social behavior, may also play a role in causing language changes (nevalainen & raumolin-brunberg, 2017). given the various ideas put forth, there is no definitive explanation regarding the causes of language change. however, it is crucial to note that any new language system that emerges through language change should remain a systematic entity, with questions arising as to what maintains the integrity of the language system in the neural system despite the occurrence of language changes. 100 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in this particular study, the researchers have taken a keen interest in exploring the notion of language change that may be brought about by adults. while it is well established that changes in language are quite common and can often be observed occurring in a single generation, particularly with regard to alterations in vocabulary (as noted by mair in 2015), it is imperative to consider the role that maturational constraints may play in any language changes that are instigated by adults. in other words, it is important to investigate whether the changes that occur in the language system as a result of adult influence are limited by the cognitive and neurological development of the individuals involved. by considering this factor, the researchers aim to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the potential for language change that exists within a given linguistic community. b. the impact of age on language acquisition the acquisition of language is affected by various factors, with maturity being a crucial aspect. it is widely accepted that different individuals have different achievements in language acquisition. however, maturational constraints indicate that there is a specific period during which language can be acquired with ease. according to long (2013, p.4), individuals are more sensitive to language input during this period, which facilitates significant learning abilities. despite a wealth of research on the critical period for language acquisition, sla scholars have not yet arrived at a definitive conclusion. however, studies have indicated that immigrant refugee children acquire a second language more rapidly than their parents. this is due to the heightened sensitivity of individuals between the ages of 0 and 6 years, who are capable of attaining language abilities comparable to those of native speakers. conversely, individuals aged between 12 and 17 years are less likely to achieve the same level of fluency as native speakers (long, 2013, p.5-6). newport's (2018) conducted a study to explore the impact of age of acquisition on second language acquisition. the research evaluated the language proficiency of participants in english grammar, comprising both grammatically correct and incorrect sentences. the study's results indicated that individuals who acquired english at a younger age attained higher scores in the proficiency test. on the other hand, individuals who started their english language learning at 15 years old or above faced challenges in achieving native-like proficiency and showed more diverse test scores. these findings imply that the age at which one starts acquiring a language plays a aziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 101 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj vital role in language learning, and it is comparatively easier to learn a second language at a younger age. additionally, it suggests that the later a person initiates language learning, the more challenging it becomes to achieve the same level of proficiency as a native speaker. studies conducted in the area of second language acquisition have investigated the relationship between the age of second language learning and the ability to acquire a second language. schmid (2014) carried out research aimed at examining how age influences non-native english speakers in acquiring a second language. the findings of the study revealed that the participants’ native language backgrounds had a more profound effect on their second language acquisition than their age. interestingly, the language abilities of participants who acquired the second language beyond the critical period were found to be better, which is surprising. bialystok & miller (1999) conducted a study that compared the english language proficiency of three different groups of participants: native chinese speakers, native spanish speakers, and native english speakers. the findings of this study indicated that native spanish speakers outperformed native chinese speakers in terms of english proficiency. bialystok & miller's study in (1999) found that the effect of age did not have a significant impact on native chinese speakers' ability to acquire a second language. the researchers emphasized that the differences in scores between the participants were closely related to the differences in linguistic structure or the way the measurement was given, rather than the age of acquisition (critical period). these research studies indicate that the correlation between the age of acquisition and the acquisition of a second language is not simple and can be influenced by multiple factors, such as one's mother tongue and the method of measuring language proficiency. however, these findings do confirm the concept of a critical period for language acquisition, beyond which acquiring native-like proficiency in a second language becomes more challenging. lightbown & spada (2013) proposed several factors that could contribute to the observed differences in language learning outcomes between adults and children. according to their explanation, these differences are not solely due to age, but are rather influenced by a range of factors that vary between individuals. for instance, differences in learning attitudes, such as motivation, engagement and interest in the language being learned, could play a significant role in shaping learning outcomes. additionally, the duration and frequency of exposure to the second language may also affect learning 102 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj outcomes, as individuals who have more opportunities to use and practice the language are likely to achieve greater proficiency. furthermore, cognitive factors such as working memory capacity, processing speed, and the ability to notice and form grammatical patterns could also contribute to the observed differences in learning outcomes. these factors can differ between individuals, and can influence how easily they learn a second language. therefore, it is important to consider a range of factors that could contribute to the observed differences in language learning outcomes, rather than attributing them solely to age. felix (1985) offers a different interpretation of the reason for the differences in language learning outcomes between adults and children. felix posits that children have an advantage over adults in language learning because they are successful in acquiring their first language, while adults struggle to acquire a second language. felix attributes this advantage to the presence of cognitive mechanisms such as the problem-solving system (psc) and the language-specific cognitive system (lsc). felix (1985) suggests that children have special mental mechanisms that allow them to internalize language learning more effectively than adults. this is because the language learning process is very complex and encourages conceptual abilities. in contrast, an individual with mature cognitive development may think conceptually, and the psc mechanism replaces the role of lsc. once psc replaces lsc’s control, it is impossible to achieve full language abilities. it is important to note that felix’s theory challenges the idea that age is the only factor that influences language learning outcomes. instead, he argues that the cognitive mechanisms play a significant role in language learning, and these mechanisms may differ between children and adults. these differences may contribute to the variation in language learning outcomes between the two groups. moreover, felix’s view highlights the importance of cognitive development in language learning. it suggests that age-related changes in cognitive development may impact language learning outcomes. this implies that learners who are still in the process of cognitive development may have an advantage over adults in language learning. additionally, the theory also emphasizes the need for language instruction that is appropriate for the learner’s cognitive development stage. aziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 103 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj al-hoorie & hiver (2020) noted that the fundamental difference hypothesis (fdh) also emphasizes the distinction between how adults and children acquire language. according to the theory, there is a unique and inherent language acquisition mechanism in children that is absent in adults. unlike felix's theory, the fdh does not acknowledge the existence of the problem-solving system (psc). furthermore, the fdh posits that there is no potential for a role shift in second language learning, as even adults with negative attitudes and low motivation should still benefit from maximizing their language acquisition, which is not always the case. although the theories of psc and fdh contradict each other, both of the theories propose the notion that language acquisition differs between children and adults due to distinct cognitive mechanisms. adults use problemsolving abilities in language learning, which leads to language variations (cardimona et al., 2016). therefore, language variation is closely related to the various learning achievements of adults. in other words, both theories emphasize that the age at which language acquisition takes place plays an important role in determining the cognitive mechanisms used in language learning. while children have a unique and innate language acquisition mechanism, adults use their problem-solving abilities to acquire a new language. therefore, adults tend to have language variations due to their different learning attitudes, motivation, and frequency of l2 acquisition. in other words, both theories emphasize that the age at which language acquisition takes place plays an important role in determining the cognitive mechanisms used in language learning. while children have a unique and innate language acquisition mechanism, adults use their problem-solving abilities to acquire a new language. therefore, adults tend to have language variations due to their different learning attitudes, motivation, and frequency of l2 acquisition. cardimona et al. (2016) assert that the gradual decrease in language skills is not limited to adulthood, but instead begins as early as 6 years old and continues up to the age of 16. however, simon sundström et al. (2014) conducted research suggesting that children who become bilingual or possess bilingual abilities, regardless of whether they do so early or simultaneously, may experience faster changes in language acquisition age-related declines. according to their argument, the timing of language learning experiences has a considerable effect on the perception of language sounds and pronunciation skills. early language learning experiences can have a more significant impact on sound perception, while later experiences can affect the ability to produce 104 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sounds more accurately. these results imply that language acquisition age and learning experiences can affect various aspects of language abilities differently. therefore, when assessing individual variations in second language acquisition, it is crucial to consider these factors. moreover, it has been observed that the previous exposure to a language has an influence on the brain mechanisms while learning another language. recent studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) have shown that chinese children who learn french as a monolingual between the ages of 6 to 36 months exhibit a similar pattern of brain activation as bilingual individuals (pierce et al., 2015). this suggests that the early language learning experience can have a significant impact on how the brain processes and acquires language. the way a person perceives the sounds of their first language can affect their ability to learn the sounds of another language. this can cause difficulties for adults learning a second language, as their understanding of the new language's sounds is heavily influenced by their first language’s sounds. this suggests that the challenge in learning a second language lies more in the influence of the first language rather than biological limitations. the question of whether it is more advantageous to learn a second language before or after mastering the first language is worth exploring. simon sundström et al. (2014) argue that the influence of the first language on second language acquisition increases as the individual's abilities in the first language develop. as a result, it may be more feasible to learn a second language prior to attaining complete mastery of the first language. however, it is unclear how the second language system can be protected from the influence of the first language system during or after the critical periods. after considering the different perspectives presented earlier, it appears that there is no single theory that can fully account for the processes that occur during or after the critical period, particularly with regards to how the language system remains intact while still allowing for potential changes in language abilities. the preservation of the language system's integrity, especially in the absence of a distinct mechanism for adult language learning, is still a matter that needs addressing. c. the system protecting language integrity the brain has a built-in mechanism that helps maintain the structure of a language system even as the language changes over time. without this aziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 105 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj mechanism, people's understanding and use of language would become increasingly different from each other. contrary to previous beliefs about problem-solving abilities, researchers now think that this language defense mechanism may actually make it harder for adults to learn a second language. the mechanism tries to protect the first language system by interfering with the second language input that the adult brain is trying to absorb. learning a new skill can be challenging due to our pre-existing ways of thinking. this was demonstrated in a national geographic youtube video, where a backwards bike was designed with handlebars that turned the opposite way. participants, both children and adults, had difficulty riding it despite repeated attempts to control their balance. the video showed that "once we have a set way of thinking, it can be difficult to change even if we want to." interestingly, children were able to learn to ride the backwards bike in just two weeks, while adults took 7-9 months. this suggests that learning a second language should prioritize ease of learning rather than speed. children's brains have greater neuroplasticity, allowing them to adjust to new knowledge more easily than adults. however, with effort, adults can still restructure their brains to learn new skills or information. schlegel et al. (2012) conducted a study on l2 chinese learners and found that learning a second language can cause changes in the white matter of the brain. this study suggests that the flexibility of the language structure makes it easier for adults to learn a second language. however, the differences in brain capacities between adults and children cannot be fully explained by this finding. the researchers propose that there might be a language protection mechanism that safeguards the first language system, which is analogous to the immune system in the body. similarly, just like the human immune system, which is underdeveloped at birth and matures over time to defend against various pathogens, the language defense mechanism appears to undergo a similar development (simon et al., 2015, p.1). these mechanisms seek to protect the information stored in the first language system and affect the way a person internalizes a new language (pierce et al., 2015). this aligns with the idea that language learning abilities gradually decline over time. therefore, it may be easier to learn two languages simultaneously than to learn a second language after acquiring the first language. if language learning begins after the acquisition of the first language, the language defense system becomes stronger and intervenes with every new language input (simon sundström et al., 2014). this mechanism makes it 106 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj challenging to learn a second language and can lead to fossilization, where the first language system remains intact. see figure 1 the similarity between the immune mechanism and the language defense mechanism is represented in figure 1. the growth of the language defense mechanism contributes to the decline in learning l2 ability, which is known as the fossilization phenomenon. this phenomenon leads language learners to rely on the l1 system, resulting in language errors caused by l1 interference (ahibalova, 2019). on the contrary, l1 competence will keep developing without hindrance from the language defense mechanism even though language development varies during childhood and adulthood (lightbown & spada, 2013). this means that language development for individuals aged 1-12 years will differ from those aged 24-30 years. as age progresses, there is a corresponding development in l1 abilities such as ease in acquiring new l1 words, idioms, meanings, structures, and increasing l1 sociolinguistic abilities. as an individual grows older, it becomes more challenging to acquire a second language. it can be inferred that an individual's language ability will not decline if it relates to their l1 competence but will decrease if it is related to l2 competence. this suggests that there is a resistance to the enhancement of l2 ability. the language defense mechanism is responsible for maintaining the integrity of the l1 system and resists the improvement of l2 ability. this mechanism is closely linked to the l1 system and determines whether new language inputs are accepted or resisted. the mechanism adapts the new linguistic inputs to the l1 system. the concept that problem-solving abilities decline with biological maturity seems to contradict the fact that l1 abilities continue to grow. this idea was proposed by ahibalova (2019). despite the decline in problem-solving abilities, an individual's l1 ability to acquire new words, idioms, and meanings, as well as the mastery of new structures and sociolinguistic abilities, continues to develop over time. this suggests that l1 and l2 abilities are regulated by different mechanisms, and that the language defense mechanism, responsible for maintaining the integrity of the l1 system, has a greater impact on the acquisition of l2. the language defense mechanisms in the brain are responsible for maintaining the information of the first language, which in turn controls the enhancement of the second language. as a result, it resists the development of l2 abilities while l1 abilities continue to grow. in the process of learning, l2 aziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 107 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj input is transformed into new linguistic intake, which is then processed by language learners (kan et al., 2020). however, the language defense mechanism limits the linguistic intake or how it is processed. as long as the mechanism accepts new linguistic input, both l1 and l2 inputs can be processed into new linguistic intake. the mechanism works to monitor and regulate the linguistic inputs, and will adapt to the l1 system which either restricts or facilitates the internalization of l2. figure 1: the progression of the language defense mechanism and its impact on the ability to learn l2 it has been observed that when a person learns a second language, the same neural areas of the brain get activated as when they are processing their native language (weber et al., 2016). this suggests that the native language input influences the processing of the second language. however, this does not mean that the native language input constructs the intake of the second language. instead, individuals are able to absorb and store two different language inputs, which is known as the concept of multi-competency (cook, 2016, p.27). thus, if the input of the new language is consistent with the existing native language information, it can facilitate the acquisition of the second language. the language defense mechanism is an inherent mechanism in the brain that functions to preserve native language information. therefore, second language learning is not always hindered as long as the second language input corresponds with the native language information. even if no linguistic input is absorbed, the language defense mechanism continues to perform its 108 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj role as a defense mechanism and does not depend on the presence of the second language input. however, the enhancement of second language ability is strongly affected by this mechanism. d. the impact of language interference and defense mechanisms on l2 learning the mechanism that protects the first language from being lost also affects the process of learning a second language, causing interference between the two languages. this interference often results in errors such as omitting, adding, overusing or underusing certain words or grammar structures. however, language interference may also provide some advantages for language learners. for instance, individuals from different linguistic backgrounds may find different aspects of learning a new language easier or harder. for instance, french students may find learning english easier than arabic students because the french article structure is more similar to the english one, while the arabic article structure is not. a study by sarko (2009) supports this claim, as it found that native french and arabic students studying l2 english achieved different results in their tests. therefore, although language interference may negatively impact language learning, it can also facilitate it in some cases. several studies indicate that language interference is related to defense mechanisms. for example, wei & zhang (2020) conducted a study on chinese-speaking students learning english as a second language. they found that some students were unable to distinguish between the sentence structures in their first language and second language, which limited their ability to process new l2 input. conversely, students who recognized the differences between the structures of their l1 and l2 were more successful in their language learning. the study suggests that there should be a specific approach to help students identify the differences between the two languages, as this can enhance their l2 abilities. this is crucial because the defense mechanism is more likely to retain new l2 input that is similar to l1 information. therefore, recognizing the similarities between the two languages can help students improve their language learning. regardless of the order of acquisition, studies have shown that learners can benefit from similar linguistic structures when they internalize input in l2. for example, carvalho & da silva (2006) conducted a study on bilinguals proficient in spanish-english and english-spanish, and concluded that knowledge of spanish language was helpful in learning portuguese for both groups, regardless of the order of acquisition. additionally, the englishaziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 109 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj spanish bilinguals performed better than the spanish-english bilinguals, likely due to their formal spanish education and metalinguistic knowledge. these findings support the results of wei & zhang's (2020) research. foucart & frenck-mestre's (2011) research also shows that the similarity of syntactic structures and perception between german and french affects language behavior. the defense mechanism interacts with l1 information, shaping how learners compare the two linguistic structures. according to weber et al. (2016), when dutch students were exposed to language input that contained artificial structures, brain activity was more pronounced when the language structure differed from their native language as compared to when it was similar. this supports the idea that the native language can aid in the mapping of new language. furthermore, the study found similarities in brain activity patterns during the internalization of the artificial language structure and the participants' native language when some aspects of the artificial structure corresponded with their native language structure. although language structure similarities and differences play a role in l2 learning, they are not the only decisive factor for l2 achievement. the defense mechanism is not exclusively influenced by the similarity of the two language structures as they are complex and continuously interact. rather, the defense mechanism focuses on whether the new language input hinders the integrity of l1 information. furthermore, when interacting with l2 input, the defense mechanism also alters the l1 structure due to the l1 system's integrity. conclusion the present study discusses the language defense mechanism as an inherent process that preserves the integrity of one's native language. this mechanism checks and rejects new linguistic input that might harm the l1 information. as people age, l1 proficiency strengthens due to this mechanism. as a result, the defense mechanism can be used to address challenges in l2 learning such as language interference, fossilization, and ease of learning a new language. future research should investigate whether reducing the defense mechanism by emphasizing similarities between different language structures can enhance l2 learning outcomes. such research can provide evidence that language interference can have a positive influence on language acquisition. 110 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 96 – 113 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj references ahibalova, t. (2019). fossilization in adult second language acquisition. scientific notes of ostroh academy national university: philology series, 6(74), 150–153. https://journals.oa.edu.ua/philology/article/view/2476 al-hoorie, a. h., & hiver, p. (2020). the fundamental difference hypothesis: expanding the conversation in language learning motivation. sage open, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020945702 arifin, w. l. (2016). interference: its role in the target language mastery to indonesian learners. register journal, 4(1), 91–108. https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v4i1.91-108 bialystok, e., & miller, b. (1999). the problem of age in second‐ language acquisiton: influences from language, structure, and task. bilingualism: language and cognition, 2(2), 127–145. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728999000231 bohn, m., kachel, g., & tomasello, m. (2019). young children spontaneously recreate core properties of language in a new modality. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america, 116(51), 26072–26077. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1904871116 cardimona, k., smith, p. a., & roberts, l. s. (2016). lexical organization in second language acquisition: does the critical period matter? tesol journal, 7(3), 540–565. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.219 carvalho, a. m., & da silva, a. j. b. (2006). cross–linguistic influence in third language acquisition: the case of spanish–english bilinguals’ acquisition of portuguese. foreign language annals, 39(2), 185–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944–9720.2006.tb02261.x cook, v. (2016). second language learning and language teaching (5th ed.). routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315883113 denman, d., speyer, r., munro, n., pearce, w. m., chen, y.-w., & cordier, r. 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(2017). sociolinguistics and language history: the helsinki corpus of early english correspondence. hermes: journal of language and communication in business, 7(13), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v7i13.25079 newport, e. l. (2018). is there a critical period for l1 but not l2? bilingualism: language and cognition, 21(5), 928–929. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728918000305 pierce, l. j., chen, j., delcenserie, a., genesee, f., & klein, d. (2015). past experience shapes ongoing neural patterns for language. nature communications, 6(10073), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10073 sarko, g. (2009). l2 english article production by arabic and french speakers. in m. p. garcia mayo & r. hawkins (eds.), second language acquisition of articles: empirical findings and theoretical implications (pp. 37–66). john benjamins. schlegel, a. a., rudelson, j. j., & tse, p. u. (2012). white matter structure changes as adults learn a second language. journal of cognitive neuroscience, 24(8), 1664–1670. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00240 schmid, m. s. (2014). the debate on maturational constraints in bilingual development: a perspective from first-language attrition. language acquisition. language acquisition, 21(4), 386–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/10489223.2014.892947 septina sulistyaningrum, e. a. (2020). aspects of language error at morphological level in students’ descriptive texts. proceedings of the third international seminar on recent language, literature, and local culture studies, 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.20-9-2019.2296725 simon, a. k., hollander, g. a., & mcmichael, a. (2015). evolution of the immune system in humans from infancy to old age. proceedings of the royal society, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.3085 simon sundström, samuelsson, c., & lyxell, b. (2014). repetition of words and non-words in typically developing children: the role of prosody. first language, 34(5), 428–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723714550213 aziz, m.f., jayaputri, h.e., unpacking the layers: understanding the 113 multifaceted nature of l2 learning complexity https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj weber, k., christiansen, m. h., petersson, k. m., indefrey, p., & hagoort, p. (2016). fmri syntactic and lexical repetition effects reveal the initial stages of learning a new language. journal of neuroscience, 36 36 (26)(26), 6872–6880. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.318015.2016 wei, x., & zhang, w. (2020). investigating l2 writers’ metacognitive awareness about l1-l2 rhetorical differences. journal of english for academic purposes, 46(100875). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100875 untitled-1 a book review: crouching tiger and issues of culture crouching tiger y.c. compestineand y. nascimbene somerville, mass: candlewick press 2011, unpaged. isbn 9780763646424, 0763646423 reviewed by yosep bambang margono slamet1 crouching tiger, a children’s picturebook, is filled with cultural issues. as in any other picturebooks written for young children, the story in this picturebook is simple. however, the simplicity of its story is not an indication that the issues the author wants to raise are simple. the story starts with the 1drs. yosep bambang margono slamet, m.a., ph.d <bapak.jalu@gmail.com> +6282226119416 is a full-time faculty member at akademi bahasa asing 17 semarang. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:255 – 260256 arrival of master chang from china to visit his grandson, vinson or ming da, in the u.s. to vinson or ming da’s father, master chang speaks english perfectly but to vinson or ming da he always speaks chinese. in the morning of the second day in the u.s. master chang practices tai chi or, in vinson’s words “grandpa was dancing slowly in the garden with his eyes closed. his hands moved like gliding birds. he crouched like a tiger; …” vinson thinks that his grandfather is practicing kung fu so he insists that his grandfather teaches him kung fu. vinson wants to learn fast but his grandfather only teaches him the basic movements for a couple of weeks and it makes him bored. but later on vinson learns that his grandfather is right; in learning martial art, one should be patient. meanwhile, the chinese community in vinson’s city is preparing the chinese new year celebration. master chang trains lion dancers for the celebration and he is very popular among the chinese community. through this book, compestine tries to keep the balance between chinese culture (her culture of heritage) and the u.s. culture. take for example, the main character’s name, vinson or ming da. vinson is an american name while ming da is a chinese name. this is an identity that many children in the u.s. keep. living in the u.s. (whether they were born in the u.s.) or come to the u.s. with their parents and live there permanently), these children—including vinson or ming da— show the tendency towards assimilation into the u.s. culture and move away from their heritage cultures. it is clear that compestine portrays vinson or ming da as a child who has the tendency towards assimilation into the u.s. culture. on one occasion of tai chi practice, vinson says to his grandfather that his name is vinson and he does not want to be called ming da: y.b.m. slamet, a book review: crouching tiger and issues of culture257 although he speaks english perfectly well with dad, grandpa always talked to me in chinese. “my name is vinson, grandpa.” “your chinese name is ming da. you are chinese as well as american,” he said firmly. through the characters of vinson and master chang, compestine wants to deal with the issue of identities for chinese american children in particular. she seems to assert that even though living in the united states, children of chinese origin are still chinese. in the cultural context, the characters of vinson and master chang represent two different cultures. interestingly, ethnically or racially, vinson and master chang have the same ethnicity. crouching tiger is an example of a children’s picturebook in which the author grapples with this complicated issue. to many of us perhaps this sounds strange: how can two people having the same ethnicity be culturally different? in today’s world, this is not something extraordinary. people move from one country to another easily. when they do this, they not only cross geographical boundaries, but also cultural and linguistic boundaries. consequently, they may adopt the new culture and move away from their heritage culture or they adopt the new culture but still maintain their heritage culture. the internet and technology add to the complexity of the issue because these people build local, national, and international/transnational/global relationships and interactions. all of this makes culture fluid and in flux, in the sense that, as in the case of vinson and master chang, two people of the same ethnicity may adopt two different cultures. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:255 – 260258 one of the important characteristics of children’s picturebook is that it is educational and influential. compestine, as most children’s picturebook authors do, not only tells a story about a chinese-american boy and how the boy lives in two cultures but also has the intention of emphasizing the importance of the story for the teaching of cultures to transnational children or children who cross geographical, cultural, and linguistic boundaries. in american context, this book, together with other contemporary realistic children’s books, has tremendous educational value. teachers and parents can make the most of this book for introducing to young children not only american culture but also chinese culture in particular and asian culture in general. in the context of multiculturalism in the u.s., this book falls into the category of multicultural literature or generally known as literature written by and for people other than the mainstream society. historically, these multicultural literary works began to emerge in the 1960s, after the civil rights movements. since then, every minority groups in the u.s. produced their own literature to challenge the so-called cannon literature or literature written by authors of the mainstream culture. the goals of producing these kinds of literature are to give the voice to those who have been silenced and to teach their group members about their identities. as a chineseamerican, compestine is really aware of this issue. through crouching tiger, compestine also speaks to readers about cultural tensions or dilemmas—as a consequence of children living in two cultures. as described previously, vinson does not want his grandfather to call him by his chinese name. in other words, vinson identifies himself more american than chinese. this is a common phenomenon among asian-american children that they identify themselves more y.b.m. slamet, a book review: crouching tiger and issues of culture259 american than asian. even many of them do not speak the languages of their countries of origin. on the other hand, master chang insists that vinson is both american and chinese, therefore he addresses him by his chinese name, ming da. we learn from the story that vinson is not the only one who undergoes the cultural tensions or dilemmas, but also master chang. if the story is set in china (or outside the u.s.), we expect that master chang will consistently speak chinese. because the story is set in the u.s., this makes master chang has to speak english at some point. what is really intriguing is that he speaks chinese to his grandson but he speaks english to vinson’s father. there is no information from the story whether vinson’s father is master chang’s son or his son in law. this is important because if vinson’s father is master chang’s son, there is no point of master chang to speak english to him. or, does compestine as the author want to complicate the story? does she want to portray that master chang is a modern, not traditional, chinese? these are cultural questions, in the sense that in terms of language, people can speak different languages on different occasions, depending on the situation. being in the u.s., master chang crosses geographical, cultural, and linguistic boundaries and the consequence is that he adapts to the culture and language of the host society. it is not enough to give the credit to compestine only without mentioning nascimbene as the illustrator. picturebook as a totality consists of words or conventional signs and pictures or iconic signs. to understand the meaning of picturebooks we need to take the pictures into account because the meaning of a picturebook is found in the synergy between the words and the pictures. this is to say that nascimbene’s illustrations have the same contributions to that of the words in creating the meaning of crouching tiger. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013:255 – 260260 what could we, teachers and parents in indonesia, benefit from this book? if it is possible for us in indonesia to make use of this book, we can teach our young children about cultural, linguistic, and identity issues. in addition, we can introduce other cultures to our children to broaden their perspectives and world views. 7_yosep bambang margono slamet_2013_13_2(255260) cover celt december 2013_revisi_1 celt vol 13 no 2 december 2013_revisi_2# cover celt december 2013_revisi_2 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia applying skimming strategy in teaching reading descriptive text vemby ari sandi english education department, surabaya state university email: vembyarisandi@yahoo.co.id received: 20-05-2016 accepted: 28-02-2017 published: 09-06-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj applying skimming strategy in teaching reading descriptive text vemby ari sandi vembyarisandi@yahoo.co.id english language education department, faculty of language and art, universitas negeri surabaya, indonesia abstract: reading is an important activity to enrich knowledge. however, it is considered as a difficult skill to learn. there are many students facing difficulties in comprehending the content of the reading text, including descriptive text. a strategy which can solve such problems is needed. skimming strategy is the strategy which enable students to quickly find the main idea and relevant information of the text. based on those reasons, the research questions are proposed as follows: (1) how can skimming strategy be implemented in teaching reading descriptive texts? and (2) how can the second year students’ reading comprehension ability be improved using skimming strategy? this study used two research methods. those were qualitative and quantitative research design. they were collected to prove the implementation and the significant improvement by using skimming strategy. both numeric information and the real observation were evaluated to gain clear and strong data. the researcher acted as the observer to see the process of teaching and learning descriptive texts in three stages. the results of the research showed that the teacher and students implemented four steps of skimming strategy, which are: (1) read the first several paragraph; (2) leave out material; (3) find the main ideas; (4) read fast. the t-test of this research was also calculated to see whether there was a significant difference between control and experimental class and the mean was also measured to see the students’ improvement score. the mean score of experimental class was better than the mean score of control class. however, the t-test result showed that there was no significant difference between experimental and control class. key words: skimming strategy, teaching reading descriptive texts sandi, v.a., applying skimming strategy in teaching reading descriptive texts 185 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: membaca adalah kegiatan penting yang dapat meningkatkan pengetahuan. namun, keterampilan tersebut dianggap sebagai keterampilan yang sulit dipelajari. ada banyak siswa yang mengalami kesulitan dalam memahami isi teks bacaan, termasuk teks deskriptif. oleh sebab itu, dibutuhkan strategi yang dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan tersebut. strategi membaca cepat adalah strategi yang memudahkan siswa dengan cepat untuk menemukan ide pokok dan informasi relevan pada text. berdasarkan alasan-alasan tersebut, pertanyaan penelitian ditujukan sebagai berikut: (1) bagaimana strategi membaca cepat diterapkan dalam pengajaran membaca teks deskriptif dan (2) bagaimana kemampuan memahami bacaan pada siswa kelas viii dapat ditingkatkan menggunakan strategi membaca cepat. studi ini menggunakan dua desain. desain tersebut adalah desain penelitian kualitatif dan kuantitatif. keduanya dikumpulkan untuk membuktikan penerapan dan peningkatan signifikan dengan menggunakan strategi membaca cepat. baik informasi angka maupun pengamatan nyata dievaluasi untuk memperoleh data yang jelas dan kuat. peneliti bertindak sebagai pengamat untuk melihat proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran teks deskriptif dalam tiga tahap. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa guru dan siswa menerapkan empat tahap strategi skimming sebagai berikut: (1) membaca awalan beberapa paragraf; (2) menyaring materi; (3) menemukan ide pokok; (4) membaca cepat. t-test pada penelitian ini juga dihitung untuk melihat apakah ada perbedaan signifikan antara kelas kontrol dan kelas eksperimen. nilai rata-rata juga diukur untuk melihat peningkatan nilai siswa. nilai siswa pada kelas eksperimen lebih baik dibandingkan dengan nilai siswa pada kelas kontrol. akan tetapi, hasil t-test menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan antara kelas eksperimen dan kelas kontrol. kata kunci: strategi membaca cepat, pengajaran membaca teks deskriptif. introduction english has many purposes. nowadays, many people enthusiastically learn, speak and communicate using english as their second language. because english is known as an international language, it can be used for global career and world communication. it also brings us to get insight, information and knowledge about the world. accessing to the internet is one of the tools which can be used for obtaining information from world. according to graddol (2000) many economist, cultural theorist and political scientist expected that there will be significance changes in the 21st 186 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 184 – 194 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj century. the internet and related technologies are well increasingly developed and it automatically decrease the traditional patterns of communication. this shows that language and communication become a center role for human to communicate. english is important to be learnt. it becomes the first foreign language taught at school and included in the curriculum. one of the subjects that is examined in the national examination test is english. because of this, students have to prepare their english skill. to master english, students have to be able to grasp four language skills consisting of writing, listening, speaking and reading. this research will focus on reading skill. reading is an important activity to enrich knowledge. according to the the main competence of curriculum 2013 for eighth grade students, it is stated that students are expected to be able to comprehend and implement their knowledge (factual, conceptual and procedural) based on their curiosity on knowledge, technology, art, culture related with the phenomena and concrete event. it means that students are nowdays demanded to frequently read many kinds of information text. they are also demanded to think critically and creatively. they have to be able to implement their knowledge of what they have learnt into their daily life. it is also reported in the basic competence of curriculum 2013 for eighth grade students in the aspect of reading, that students are expected to understand the purpose, the structure of text and grammatical features of oral and written descriptive text about person/animal/thing, very short and simple. thus, students are not only hoped to be able to understand the written descriptive text, but they also should learn how to describe something orally in english. therefore, the goal of teaching and learning english should be intended to develop students’ language skill so that the graduates will be able to communicate and express ideas in english. all smp (junior high school) students in indonesia should be able to reach that objective, including smpn 3 waru sidoarjo. smpn 3 waru sidoarjo is a school located in jl. jenderal s. parman waru sidoarjo. that school recently implemented curriculum 2013. both teachers and students hoped that it would bring positive effect for further development in all subjects, especially english. teachers and students were expected to be able to communicate with english well. based on the interview data in smpn 3 waru, many students had difficulties in learning reading comprehension. students had difficulties in sandi, v.a., applying skimming strategy in teaching reading descriptive texts 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj grasping and understanding the content of text. in fact, english national examination test required students to comprehend kinds of text in short period of time. these conditions motivated the researcher to conduct experimental research to implement skimming strategy in reading descriptive text to the students of smpn 3 waru sidoarjo. skimming is a worthy technique for students’ reading comprehension. skimming technique is reading process which focuses on how to decide the main idea of the text (brown, 2004). the skimming technique can be applied for both short functional text and extensive text. by using the skimming technique, the students are expected to learn how to predict the topic of the text they have read. the students also know the text type/genre, the writer’s perspective and the aim of the text. abdelrahman & bsarah (2014) also conducted research in jordan. they found significant effect of speed reading strategies on developing reading comprehension. this research was conducted only on the second secondary literary male students. it was held in al-ashrafieh secondary school for boys. there were 21 students chosen randomly. citing dyon & haselgrove (2000), abdelrahman & bsarah (2014) informs that the time movement used in the process of skimming and scanning technique could gain the best comprehension. scanning and skimming often completed with several types of question. the comprehension could be caught after reading both a normal and fast reading speed. in addition, windayani, sundari & ariyanto (2014) also conducted a research on the use of skimming and scanning techniques to improve the reading comprehension achivement of grade 8g students of smp negeri 1 ambulu jember. the eighth grade students of mts n1 jember was passive in joining the reading class. they also had difficulties in reading comprehension skill. their english test score was under the school standard score. after doing the skimming and scanning treatment using two cycles, there was significance changes. in the end of the research, it proved that teaching reading using skimming and scanning technique were applicable. it improved students’ active participation in joining the reading comprehension class and students’ reading comprehension achievement. that research used qualitative research design. observation and reading comprehension test were used as the instrument to collect data. hutabarat (2012) also discovered positive effects of skimming technique on grade xi students’ reading comprehension. this experimental research was 188 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 184 – 194 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj held in sma methodist-7 medan. hutabarat conducted quantitative research design. kuder richardon formula was used to obtain the data. patmawati (2013) conducted a research on the implementation of skimming and scanning techniques in teaching reading. the english teacher and students of ix class in smpn 2 lamongan were the subjects of this research. the objectives of this study were to describe how the teacher implements skimming technique in teaching reading comprehension, to describe how the teacher implements scanning technique in teaching reading comprehension and to explain how the implementation of skimming and scanning techniques improve student’s reading comprehension. the using of qualitative data was observed in this study. only one class was being observed. the result showed that students increase their ability in reading comprehension after treatment according to the theories and previous studies mentioned above, skimming is very beneficial technique for students’ reading comprehension ability. this technique will provide them how to comprehend text, find out the most important information of the text, and search main idea or other supporting data. skimming is also used to enable the students’ how to comprehend some types of reading genre including academic reading. previous studies analyzed the data using one research design. they also conducted skimming research on general reading comprehension, there were no specialized genre text observed. the sample were chosen by using lottery. while in this research in smpn 3 waru sidoarjo, the sample were ten students. they were not selected by using lottery, but it was based on the level score including upper, middle and lower students. there were also no limitation sample on gender, both male and female are examined. in this research, skimming technique was focused on one genre text, it was descriptive text. the steps of skimming strategy was also distictive compared to the previous study. in this study, the theory of skimming stratgey was purposed by fry (2000). then, the mixed method research design was conducted. there were two classes observed. the first was experimental class and the second was control class. both qualitative and quantitative data were collected to prove the implementation and the significant improvement by skimming strategy. both numeric information and the real observation were evaluated to gain clear and strong data. sandi, v.a., applying skimming strategy in teaching reading descriptive texts 189 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method this research examined the implementation of skimming in junior high school. the research design used two studies. those were qualitative and quantitative study. qualitative data was used to answer the first research question of how skimming be implemented in teaching reading descriptive text. observation as one of qualitative data technique was used to collect data and answer the first research question due to it could show the natural phenomenan of what was happening in the teaching and learning process. the major characteristics of qualitative research are: 1) exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon 2) having the literature review play a minor role but justify the problem 3) stating the purpose and research questions in a general and broad way so as to the participants’ experiences 4) collecting data based on words from a small number of individuals so that the participants’ views are obtained 5) analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting the larger meaning of the findings 6) writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluating criteria, and including the researchers’ subjective reflexivity and bias. (creswell, 2012) quantitative data was used to answer the second research question of how the second-year students’ reading comprehension ability could be improved using skimming stategies. in this study, the students’ reading test score was indicated whether there was improvement of students’ reading comprehension ability before and after the treatment. therefore, quantitative data was used to examine those numerical data. the major characteristics of quantitative research are: 1) describing a research problem through a description of trends or a need for an explanation of the relationship among variables 2) providing a major role for the literature through suggesting the research questions to be asked and justifying the research problem and creating a 190 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 184 – 194 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj need for the direction (purpose statement and research questions or hypotheses) of the study 3) creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are specific, narrow, measurable and observable 4) collecting numeric data from a large of people using instruments with preset questions and responses 5) analyzing trends, comparing groups, or relating variables using statistical analysis, and interpreting results by comparing them with prior predictions and past research 6) writing the research report using standard, fixed structures and evaluation criteria, and taking an objective, unbiased approach. (cresswell, 2011) therefore, mixed method research design was implemented in this research. both qualitative and quantitative data were examined. miles, et. al. (2014) mentions that there are three levels in mixed-method designs. the first level is quantizing level. the second level is the comparison between qualitative data (for instance open-ended interview) and numerical data (for instance survey). the third is the mixture of case study, survey and experiments. results and discussions the descriptions are presented in two sections. the first is the implementation of skimming in teaching reading descriptive text. the second is the improvement of the second-year students’ reading comprehension ability by using skimming strategy. a. the results of the implementation of skimming in teaching reading descriptive text skimming is the strategy which focuses on how to decide the main idea of the text. by using skimming strategy, it is expected that students will be able to predict the topic of the text, the genre and the writers’ perspective. there are several steps to do for skimming. the strategies are reading the first several paragraph, leaving out material, finding the main ideas and reading fast. sandi, v.a., applying skimming strategy in teaching reading descriptive texts 191 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there were four steps of skimming strategy that already implemented by the teacher in the experimental class. those steps are reading the first several paragraph, leaving out material, finding the main idea and reading fast. several conversations between students and teacher were already mentioned above and some student’s task were also examined to see whether the students were able to answer questions by using skimming strategy. b. the results of the improvement of the second-year students’ reading comprehension ability by using skimming strategy in the control class from the first meeting until the last meeting, the teacher asked the students to read the text carefully. the teacher guided the students to focus on the prepared questions. however, in this control class, the teacher still did not explain anything about skimming strategy. he guided the students to find the answer without mentioning the steps of skimming strategy that was useful to find the relevant information quickly. although the teacher did not explain the strategy, the teachers still asked the students to discuss the text that had been distributed and read. in last activity which was named as post-reading. the teacher reviewed the lesson. he told the students what had been learnt at that time. before the teacher closed the meeting, the teacher asked the students to summarize the text. teaching and learning process in the control class were distinctive compared with the teaching and learning process in the experimental class. in the control class, the students got no explanation about skimming strategy as the way to quickly find out the main idea and relevant information of the text. however, students did pretest and posttest as what the experimental did to see the significant differences between them. the activities in the control class and experimental class were different. in the control class, the teacher did not explain the skimming strategy as what experimental class did. in short, the students of experimental class had information about skimming strategy. they were trained to quickly find the clue words of the text, the main idea, the topic, etc. as result, students in the experimental class had better understanding about the skimming strategy as the fast way to answer several reading comprehension questions. the implementation of skimming strategy can improve reading comprehension ability which can be presented based on the students’ test result, student’s participation and observation. pretest and posttest were held to see the significant improvement before and after the treatment. in this study, there were some formulas calculated. there were formulas to measure 192 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 184 – 194 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the mean, the reliability, the level difficulty of test, the standard deviation and the independent t-test. the formula of mean was to see the students’ average score. the reliability was to know the coefficient correlation of the whole items. the level difficulty of test was to see the criteria of question which tested. the standard deviation was to measure the spread out of the numbers. and the independent t-test was to see whether there was significance result between control and experimental class. after calculating the mean score both experimental and control class, there were significance difference which could be seen in quantitative result. the mean score for control class was 80.9 and the mean score for experimental class was 89. it meant that the skimming treatment had shown its good result for their students’ ability. however, by using spss, it was found that the value in the sig. (2-tailed) is above 0.05, it meant that there was not a statistically significant differences in the mean scores for control and experimental class. the success of the implementation of skimming strategy that had been proven in the result both from observation and test, it could be seen that the teacher’s role was very prominent. when the teacher developed the skimming strategy in the whilst activity, the students also had high motivation to learn more about reading comprehension. it was due to the teacher mentioned several steps which could help the students to quickly find the important information on the text. the reading class observation showed that in teaching and learning in experimental class was interesting. the students were also enthusiastic and excited to study in the class compared to the students in the control class. the students had increased their ability score in identifying the main idea of the text. they also had increased their participation score in discussion and responding the topic they had discussed. conclusion skimming is very useful strategy to comprehend many kinds of text. that strategy is proved succesfully by using several steps. those are reading the first several paragraph, leaving out material, finding the main ideas, and reading fast. by comparing the result of control class and experimental class, it can be concluded that strategy has great impact to the students’ reading ability. the students’ score in experimental class is higher than students’ score in sandi, v.a., applying skimming strategy in teaching reading descriptive texts 193 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj control class. it meant that students who learnt skimming strategy had better score in reading comprehension test than the students who didnot learn skimming strategy. in comparison to the students’ reading achievement in the experimental class, it could be seen that the implementation of skimming strategy improve the students’ reading ability. there was improvement on the students’ average score. the students’ average score in the pretest was 79.5. it had not achieved the criteria of success. after there was action of skimming strategy, the students’ average score in the posttest was 89. the increase of posttest score compared with the pretest was 9.5 points. so it had fulfilled the criteria of success at 80. after the skimming strategy was implemented in the experimental class, the mean score of experimental class was better that the mean score of control class. however, by using spss, it was found that the value in the sig. (2-tailed) is above 0.05, it meant that there was not a statistically significant difference in the mean scores for control and experimental class. the skimming strategy could also increase students’ability in comprehending reading text material, it could be seen in the result of reading test score. the use of skimming strategy could also improve students’ participation in class discussion as it has shown in the result of observation. the students also had high motivation, it encouraged the students to learn more about reading. since the skimming strategy brought positive influence toward students’ reading ability, the teacher needed this skimming strategy to be implemented in teaching and learning process. references abdelrahman, m. & bsarah, m. (2014). the effect of reading strategies on developing reading comprehension among the 2nd secondary students in english language. english language teaching, 7(6). brown, h. d. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practice. new york: longman. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. boston: pearson education, inc. 194 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 184 – 194 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fry, e. b. (2000) reading drills. http://goodcsr.in/cgibin/reading.php?article=reading_drills_edward_b_fry_2000_39_pages_re ading_pdf&code=0d14080c488cb36c137941f7e32881ee graddol, d. (2000). the future of english. uk: the british council. hutabarat, b, j. w. (2012) the effect of applying skimming technique on grade xi students reading comptrehension. undergraduate thesis . universitas negeri medan. http://digilib.unimed.ac.id/15761/ miles, m.b., huberman, a.m. & saldana, d. (2014). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook. usa: sage publication, inc. patmawati, s. (2013). the implementation of skimming and scanning techniques in teaching reading in junior high school (unpublished master’s thesis). universitas negeri surabaya. windayani, k., sundari, s. & ariyanto, s. (2014). improving the eight grade students' reading comprehension achievement by using skimming and scanning techniques at mts n 1 jember. unej jurnal, 1(1): 1-5 http://repository.unej.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/68434/kur niasari%20windayani.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y. a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 1; july 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: an analysis of the text of bush’s inaugural address mister gidion maru english department, faculty of language and arts, manado state university, indonesia tel +62 81340075651 email: mrhekang@yahoo.com received: 15-12-2015 accepted: 14-07-2016 published: 31-07-2016 118 the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: an analysis of the text of bush’s inaugural address mister gidion maru mrhekang@yahoo.com english department, faculty of language and arts, manado state university, indonesia abstract: as a textual study, this research paper aims at elaborating the rhetorical patterns in the american mind by examining the inaugural addresses of george w bush particularly on the spirit of mission. the choosing of the president‟s inaugural address as the mental evidences is not apart from the synthesis that it represents a formal speech which covers the socio-cultural aspects and they will bring a certain pattern of rhetoric in their attempt to communicate with the public. for the purpose of achieving the aim of this research, the library research is carried out by applying goffmans frame analysis. the results show that the president constructs a certain pattern of rhetoric by using the puritan expressions particularly for engaging the american people with the spirit of mission. the rhetoric patterns are found to convey the national and world mission. the expressions used in the inaugural addresses seem to meet with people‟s expectations as a new presidency begins. key words: rhetoric, pattern, spirit of mission, inaugural address abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan mengeloborasi pola retorik dalam pikiran amerika dengan mempelajari pidato pelantikan presiden george w bush terutama berkaitan dengan semangat misi. pemilihan pidato pelantikan sebagai bukti mental dalam studi ini tidak terpisahkan dari sintesis yang menyatakan bahwa pidato pelantikan mewakili tipikal pidato resmi amerika yang isinya mencakup aspek sosio-kultural dan pola retorik kepada publik. sebagai penelitian kepustakaan, studi ini menggunakan frame analysis dari ervin goffman dikombinasikan dengan pendekatan sosiologi sastra. hasil studi menunjukan bahwa maru, m.g., the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: 119 an analysis of the text of bush‟s inaugural address presiden bush menggunakan pola retorik yang memanfaatkan ungkapan-ungkapan yang biasa dipakai kaum puritan di awal berdirinya amerika. ekspresi-ekspresi tersebut digunakan sebagai cara untuk menghubungkan publik dengan semangat misi amerika. pola retorik itu ditujukan untuk mendefinisikan misi nasional dan internasional amerika. pola retorik ini juga dapat mengadopsi harapan publik untuk seorang presiden yang baru. kata kunci: retorik, pola, pidato pelantikan, misi amerika introduction the inaugural speech serves as the first presidential formal speech before his public which is most possibly constructed to adopt the values living in the country. the american presidents‟ inaugural speeches unavoidably contain american life-rooted socio-cultural values as confirmed by chyntia toolin by pointing out: … in inaugural speech, presidents give their official statement of how they view the national situation, frequently citing a cultural core or civil religion for the legitimation (1983, p. 40). grounding upon this perspective, it is not excessive to assume that the aroma of cultural life and perspectives of the american can be detected from the inaugural speech. this implies that by drawing one‟s eyes upon the text of the presidents‟ inaugural speeches and considering its tendency as well as momentum, the attempt to comprehend an existing value in american life is on the way to find its goal. lloyd e. rohler and roger cook describe presidential inaugural speeches in their book great speeches (1986): at moments like these, speakers speech audiences about the values that both share as members of a common group, the speeches given in such moments are thus noncontroversial for a specific audiences. they do not urge adoption of new values or rejection of old values (p. 18). this proposition reaffirms the propensity of the inaugural speech to take the existing values which are believed and upheld together by both the speaker and audience in the context of the nation. a president as the speaker of the speech mindfully presents the socio-cultural and political issues confronting the current condition of the people. yet it does not speculatively offers 120 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 118-132 unknown values instead of the issues that have been common in the intention to adapt the american people‟s situation and hope, and to foreshadow the future of the nation. through the inaugural speech, the image of a president of a great nation might be viewed from the president‟s appearance and performance (woll, 2004, p. 278). the world defines the impressions toward the country from the president‟ words. this means that, by empowering his speech, the president potentially implant ideas and thoughts to the mind of his people and the international world that he represents the spirit of the united states. as a president stands to express his speech, he reflects the presence of a solution for the national problems and manages to achieve the american dreams. in doing so, as the icon of the nation, the president shares his values and objectives as a nation. a president, through his speech, reflects the mood of his country and the national voice. according to woodrow wilson in understanding the presidency (2003) edited by james pfiffner and roger h davidson, in such case, the president is “the representative of no constituency, but of the whole people (p.34)”. in this occasion, he does not belong to a certain group, community or party anymore. he is voicing his people‟s voice. woll wrote, “the president has prerogative to speak the people‟s mind on the great issues of his time, to serve the spokesman for the real sentiment and purpose of the country” (2004, p.277). this informs that a president‟s inaugural speech might contain the thought of the american people in responding to the situation as summarized by the president and, of course, guard the nation to arrive at the shared objective and dream. further, it defines american presidents‟ speeches to constitute worthy resources for understanding the american mind, socio-cultural and political life. the attempt to define the concepts as well as the type of american cultural values can be carried out by observing and analyzing the inaugural speech of a president. thus if the spirit of mission is thought to be one of the cultural cores of american values, its inclusion in a president‟s inaugural speeches becomes possible and detectable. it is further theorized that fredrik merk (1963) for america, “a truer expression of the national spirit was a mission. this was present from the beginning of american history, and is present clearly today” (p.26). this proposition implies that missionary mindset occupies american people crossing generations. it has been a value accompanying america society since the early foundation of the nation. basing upon this assumption, it is logical to investigate the concept of the spirit of american maru, m.g., the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: 121 an analysis of the text of bush‟s inaugural address mission. they deserve to be examined in depth. if the spirit of american mission is part of a society belief from generation to generation, this study will, then, reveal the dynamic of the society, and further the conceptual meaning and type of the existing socio-cultural values. the other reason for choosing of the focus on the speeches of george w. bush is not for the situation during the bush administration. at the time, america were faced with the test of terrorism and the launch of foreign policy on war which questioned the concept of the american mission. in this context, this study aims at identifying the contemporary concept of the spirit of mission and defining the american mind as reflected in the president bush‟s inaugural speeches. the identification of the concept constitutes the systematic attempt to reveal the meaning of the american mission and the understanding of the cultural awareness of the american people. method the primary data of this research are the texts of bush‟s inaugural speech serving as mental evidences to answer the objective of the study. the secondary, or supplementary, data is taken from related sources in the forms of documents, commentaries, opinions, testimonies and biographies from libraries and journals as well as online data found on the internet. this sort of data is gathered in the frame of interdisciplinary perspective meaning that the supplementary data collected grounding on the consideration of enhancing theoretical knowledge from anthropological, social, political and historical. the supplementary data assist the researcher‟s formulation and analysis of the primary data which, in turn, arrive at the objective of the study. this research is conducted in the light of two phases namely data collection and data analysis. in terms of data analysis, the focus of this study is on the identification of the concept the american mission. three steps are taken in dealing with the data collected; namely identification, classification and verification. the steps involved the use of the literary approaches such as sociological approach and frame analysis. this means that the analysis demands the inclusion of socio-political, anthropological and historical views. 122 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 118-132 discussion fredrik merk (1963) wrote, for america, “a truer expression of the national spirit was a mission. this was present from the beginning of american history, and is present clearly today” (p.26). this proposition implies the sense of mission colors the thought of most of the american individuals. the conduction of goffman‟s frame analysis which is so-called double-hermeneutic on the presidential inaugural address, particularly for george w. bush‟s, comes to find the tendency of the president is to integrate the nation with the strong sense of mission. in this context, the puritans‟ sense of mission that has been chipped-in the people‟s mind could function to aggregate people‟s acceptance to the president and draw people‟s awareness to advocate the policies drafted by the new administration. the presidents by taking puritanism, as goffman argued, “present themselves in the ways to influence people” (hinkley, 1990, p.130). in terms of the inaugural address, it could mean that the inclusion of the puritanism‟ sense of mission in the text of an inaugural address indicates the president is presenting himself in a hope of influencing his people to have the same focus as him. in light of such perspective, president george w. bush in the line of his first inaugural address uttered, sometimes in life we are called to do great things. but as a saint of our times has said, „every day we are called to do small things with great love‟. the most important tasks of a democracy are done by everyone.” (1 bush line 39) president bush seems to attractively use the puritans‟ conceptual terminology of „saint‟ and „calling‟ in suggesting the sense of a mission. by comparing the nuance of „sometimes in life‟ to „but as a saint of our times…we are called to do”, the president defines the obligation for american. he urged that every individual has to be the saint of this time; “visible saints” (ahsltrom, 1967, p.2, bercovitch, 1978, p.12), within which everybody is connected with the sense of performing certain civic duty and is closely tied to the sense of a mission. president bush portrays the sense of mission which he emphasizes as „the most important task‟ for americans. this suggests that, as an american, a citizen recalls and carries out the missionary task. a. the rhetoric of american mission for national interest george walker bush, the president after the clinton administration, continues to juxtapose the national mission with the „unfolding american promise‟ for which americans “are called to enact”. for bush, in his first maru, m.g., the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: 123 an analysis of the text of bush‟s inaugural address inaugural address, the core of american promise is that “everyone deserves a chance” (line 7). this implies the availability of opportunity for all. it is typical for “the promised land”. bush‟s address highlights the idea of american promise that syntheisized the same availability of opportunity for all people in america. since the americans tie to the promise, the mission shall be acted out. this is implicitly spoken in the following lines; the grandest of these ideals is an unfolding american promise that everyone belongs, that everyone deserves a chance, that no insignificant person was ever born. americans are called to enact this promise in our lives and in our laws. and though our nation has sometimes halted, and sometimes delayed, we must follow no other course. (1 bush line 7-8) these expressions are politically remarkable. president bush portrays the expectation that the present americans are hoped to act as the puritan individuals who positioned themselves with a mission to follow god; they should follow the calling of their country. people are pictured in the frame of calling to carry out the american promise as the mission to be completed. surely, it is admitted that the accomplishment of the mission for the national sake would be uneasy. the challenges may come to hinder the process, yet it was not considered being the justification to leave the mission and ignore the realization of the promise. the journey of the puritans sailing over the atlantic with full of huge waves and storms before they stepped onto the american shore was also an uneasy task, however, they did not change their course. nathaniel philbrick in his book, mayflower (2006), delineates from the beginning, the pilgrims, another group of puritans, exhibited all the strength and weaknesses of a group held together by “a most strict and sacred bond” (p.17) that is when circumstance turned against them, these puritans demonstrated remarkable courage and endurance; indeed, adversity seemed to intensify their clannish commitment. they are covenanted and committed to the mission to reach the new world to find freedom and better hope. the coming of obstacles has to be beheld; it is the part of the mission to be conquered. therefore, in the invitation from bush to the americans to “follow no other course”, the mission is demanded to be fulfilled. the challenge might even shape the strength of america in defending its existence. bush, like winthrop, the early puritan leaders, employs his inaugural address to exhort americans “to knit together into a social security that reflects and supports their spiritual unity” which 124 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 118-132 guarantees the direction of the mission. the tests of the country are inevitable, yet as long as the people are in unity, the mission will be accomplished. this reinforces the perspective imbued by winthrop in his sermonic address in arbella that, according to deborah madsen, politically, “the federal covenant would work only so long as all members of the community voluntarily kept their faith and helped others to preserve faith (1998, p.18). in this context, it is little modified to be the faith to preserve of american sense of mission to contribute a political support for the government. likewise winthrop in the time of puritans suggesting the enactment of the sense of mission based upon “the regulated by law of nature”, innocence, and “law of grace”, one body in christ‟ (madsen,1998,p.18), bush at present voices the performance of the totality of the mission for people who “are called to enact it”. this rhetoric is politically significant for commencing a new administration. people are drawn to be in the mission for the reason of the national commitment and spiritual interest. in his second inaugural address, president george w. bush continues his elaboration of the american mission by drawing it back to the values that have been introduced and spread since the arrival of the puritans. these include equality of rights, which was translated as the freedom for religious practice, and implicit government which marked by the magistrate meeting foreshadowing the independence from the influence of the old world, england. this constitutes the legacy of the puritans (corbett and corbett, 1999, p.38) that contributes to the groundwork for democracy in america. it has penetrated generation to generation. hence, it is not surprising that the values have been fundamental and inseparable from the american national mission as it is indicated in the following lines; america‟s vital interests and our deepest beliefs are now one. from the day of our founding, we have proclaimed that every man and woman on this earth has rights, and dignity, and matchless value, because they bear the image of the maker of heaven and earth. across the generations we have proclaimed the imperative of self-government, because no one is fit to be a master, and no one deserves to be a slave. advancing these ideals is the mission that created our nation. it is the honorable achievement of our fathers. now it is the urgent requirement of our nation‟s security, and the calling of our time. (2 bush line 6) maru, m.g., the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: 125 an analysis of the text of bush‟s inaugural address this quotation clarifies that defending and maintaining the values of equality and independent government which serves the public interest and opportunity. it is “advancing these ideals” that became the ingredients that defines the mission of the nation. it is the triumph of the founding fathers. that means any challenges to the nation were assumed to be the attack to these across generation-values and had to be dealt with. in this part of the address, it appears that president bush invites his people to partake in the attempt to eliminate the challenge that faces “national security” through associating it with the puritans‟ notion of calling. the calling is addressed to everyone who sees this attack and urges them to uphold the national mission in existence. todd s purdum from new york times points out that president bush began his second terms without uttering september 11 or terrorism for the purpose of allowing him to cast the crises and controversies of his first four years and the ones he welcomes in the next mission in defense of the nation‟s founding creed; freedom (new york times, january 21, 2005). bush seals his people with a missionary zeal like the puritan individual. he frames americans to see themselves amidst the mission to support the urgency of copying with the threats to the continuation of the country. it is the “calling of our time”. bush links american public to the long time belief passed down from the puritan settlers that they have a calling to shape and witness the betterment of the community in the narrow scope. the calling might vary for every american citizen in every era. however, like the puritans, the essential of the calling remains the same for american that “strove not to please himself” (cullen, 1974, p.408). the calling is carried out for the existence of the community, in this case, the nation and surely, as bush underlined, to god who is “the maker of heaven and earth”. mr bush draws his people to an image that they are answering a calling for whom is imposed the responsibility to preserve and maintain the existence of the nation, moreover, at this time when the country‟s security is in the middle of terror as marked by the 9/11 attack. these terrorist attacks strengthen the context of bush‟s words. in light of this, bush further affirms, my most solemn duty is to protect this nation and its people from further attacks and emerging threats. some have unwisely chosen to test america‟s resolve, and have found it firm. (2 bush line 10) this affirmation indicates that responding to the attack to his countries security is one of the national missions to carry. for bush, to guarantee his people to be free from the threats constituted his duty as the leader of the nation. by taking up the puritans‟ notion of duty which is of course related 126 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 118-132 to the performing of mission and responsibility under the big picture of a calling, the declaration of bush‟s “solemn duty” politically illustrates the ground for the possibility to launch the possible action toward any menaces intended to the nation. it serves as a sort of political reasoning to invite the people‟s support for what he defines as the duty of the nation. it is the task that is needed to be carried out. using his inaugural address and the puritans‟ concept, bush voices that the nation is asking americans to be hand in hand with the government to defend their coexistence. it is apparent that bush presents the american public with the situation faced with their nation, linking them with the puritan‟s missionary vision. for such a purpose, bush claims to be the first example by referring to intention to lead the duty of guarding the nation‟s security in all forms and fronts. here bush designs, provides, and frames the justification for his later domestic political agenda. nation is insecure and is in need of proper acts as well as in expectation of people‟s support. these confirm the mission that every american is pushed to accomplish by the bush administration. b. the rhetoric of the american world mission having a sense of a world mission has been the feature of america since its early settlement. the well-known address spoken by the puritan leader, john winthrop, has declared the intention on inspiring the world by his famous expression; “the eyes of the world are upon us” which conveys the message of america as a focus of the world from which it gains its definition of mission; to be the model for the world. americans, taking up the puritan‟s heritage, are required to work for the goodness of all, in puritans‟ words, “for the entire community” (madsen, 1998, p.6). this is translated to carrying out the mission for the betterment of the world as a whole. being the focus of the eyes of the world implies the duty to enact a mission to show the world an example from which the inspiration for better life sparks. the sense of mission energizes and characterizes the making of america as well as the journey of america to a modern nation. the sense of mission is actually rooted in puritanism. the idea that everyone has a mission is brought by the puritans to suggest the attempt to spread the good news of salvation. this puritanism sense of mission continues to shape the american mind including the conduction of a world mission related to the calvinistic view of the duty of the chosen people who “shall be a city upon a hill” as voiced by winthrop. it becomes the attribute of american vision for the world‟s coexistence. this serves as a kind of puritan moralistic view. steven calabresi (2006) perceived that america‟s puritan moralistic crusade improves the fallen world by presenting that the american‟s achievement is not apart from maru, m.g., the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: 127 an analysis of the text of bush‟s inaugural address this spirit. for calabresi, such sense of puritanism describes “a missionary dimension to american life and policy” (2006, p.1366). the dimension, of course, colors americans‟ standpoint to the world interaction and affairs; it is a missionary duty. the american world mission is then stressed as well as reminded by president george w bush, in his inaugural address. recalling bush senior‟s address, the american mission for the world exists due to the fact that america cannot stand in isolation from the rest of the world. however the coexistence has to be grounded upon reliable moral basic. this is a kind of puritan mind of establishing the community based upon the strict moral standard as recommended by biblical teachings. it is american duty to set the standard for their exceptional existence as a model for the world. in other words, it is true that america is not alone in the world, yet its relationship to other nations must have been under the moral criteria believed by the americans and served to be the aim to be achieved. the following words might reflect such point of view; america is never wholly herself unless she is engaged in high moral principle. we as a people have such a purpose today. it is to make kinder the face of the nation and gentler the face of the world. my friends, we have work to do. there are the homeless, lost and roaming. there are the children who have nothing, no love, no normalcy. there are those who cannot free themselves of enslavement to whatever addiction—drugs, welfare, the demoralization that rules the slums. there is crime to be conquered, the rough crime of the streets. there are young women to be helped who are about to become mothers of children they can't care for and might not love. they need our care, our guidance, and our education, though we bless them for choosing life (g. bush line 13) apparently, these lines articulate the core of the american mission. the mission for the world is to bridge a better world within which the children are well-taken care, the drugs addiction is fought, the welfare and demoralization in the slums are mainly concerned, crime is prevented, and powerless young mothers are given necessary assistance including care, education and guidance as well. these are substances of the american mission for the world in bush administration. the circumstance slightly modifies bush‟s political mission for the world. the end of the cold war does not cease the tendency of america‟s participation in world affairs. president 128 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 118-132 bush signals that his administration may take a necessary action to guarantee the american role to set a standard of peace and liberty for the world. the president here is put forward the tendency to have a role to establish peaceful communities without oppression as once dreamed by the early american puritan settlers as they left their old world. they were persecuted for their beliefs and far from being saved and peaceful. the iraq oppression may be viewed as the hindrance for the establishment of a better community which had been long launched by the early american settlers bush is bringing the idea of a world mission conducted under the umbrella of making the community living in a peaceful life; no oppression and full of freedom. similar propensity of participating in the world mission is taken by president george w bush. the intention to flourish the world with the spirit of liberty and set a model as it continues to color the lines of the succeeding the american president‟s inaugural address. in his second inaugural address, bush states, some, i know, have questioned the global appeal of liberty— though this time in history, four decades defined by the swiftest advance of freedom ever seen, is an odd time for doubt. americans, of all people, should never be surprised by the power of our ideals. eventually, the call of freedom comes to every mind and every soul. we do not accept the existence of permanent tyranny because we do not accept the possibility of permanent slavery. liberty will come to those who love it. (2 bush line 13) from the text, it is seen that president george w. bush highlights that some people might be doubtful as to the world desire for liberty. however, for american, it is, like in the puritan perspective, the calling that needs to be answered. elisabeth bummiler and richard w. stevenson in their collaborative article in the new york times wrote that bush‟s inaugural address obviously strikes for its idealism that spreading liberty around was „the calling of our time‟ and that the nation‟s „vital interest and our deepest belief are now one” (new york times, january 21, 2005). this indicates that the world mission, for bush, is chiefly in the sense of enacting the calling to bring liberty to the world. like the puritans, president bush pictures it as a calling for american; a duty to divine purpose. this calling “comes to every mind and every soul”. the implication furthermore is that america will initiate the advocacy to all of the attempts to eradicate tyranny as once maru, m.g., the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: 129 an analysis of the text of bush‟s inaugural address experience by their ancestor in the old world. tyranny cannot be accepted. it constitutes an irresistible duty for america when it is questioned in other nation. that will be an arena for america to show its calling. president george w. bush elaborates such thought by stating, a few americans have accepted the hardest duties in this cause— in the quiet work of intelligence and diplomacy … the idealistic work of helping raise up free governments … the dangerous and necessary work of fighting our enemies. some have shown their devotion to our country in deaths that honored their whole lives—and we will always honor their names and their sacrifice. (2 bush line 22) since the world mission is considered as a puritanical calling, it is consequently bringing the demand for active participation despite the raise of the perils. it is true that bush does not mention explicitly “our enemies”. however, the omission appears to be the point; allowing the president “to cast crises and controversies” related to the issue of iraq, afghanistan, sept 11 or terrorism of his previous administration”. bush leads to the essential message of his second presidency to welcome “a seamless struggle in defense of the nation‟s founding creed; freedom” (purdum, new york times, january 21, 2005). this implicitly depicts bush‟s assumption that his foreign policy toward “the enemies” might be misunderstood and misjudged by his fellow citizens. in so doing, bush connects the american people to the nation fundamental creed of gaining and preserving liberty, and, most importantly, juxtaposes them to the puritan divine duty that namely answering “the calling of our time”. george walker bush obtains an opportunity to reset people‟s possible misunderstanding which is crucial for his political legitimization and support. there can be two ways of arranging the mission, as the lines indicated. firstly, it might be carried out thorough the work of intelligence operation. secondly, it would be voiced through diplomacy. of course, these efforts would not be an easy task to perform. the sacrifice is possibly unavoidable; “devotion to our country in deaths”. from bush‟s perspective as affirmed in the lines of the inaugural address, it confirms heroic deeds that will be remembered and honored for it was done “for fighting the enemies” and “helping raise up free government”. it is kind of dedication to the enactment of the calling whose values of commitment derived from the puritan mind; it is a duty that had to be responded for the better community of the world. in a relevant context, bush, in the text of his inaugural address, continues to assert, 130 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 118-132 america has need of idealism and courage, because we have essential work at home—the unfinished work of american freedom. in a world moving toward liberty, we are determined to show the meaning and promise of liberty. (2 bush line 24) the text implies that it is the american role expected to carry out the world mission for the purpose of accelerating the liberty of the world. bush seems to cast “the worldwide pursuit of liberty and democracy as more than rhetoric; it had become a mission” (hamilton, 2010, p.392). in other words, it is a missionary duty for america to spread the freedom for all as once declared in winthrop‟s speech, to be the example for the world in creating a better community. this signifies that george walker bush, the president of the big nation, which just suffers from the terrorist attack of 9/11, frames the intention to the world mission of guaranteeing the freedom from fear; one of the essential meanings of liberty and what freedom offers. further, it clarifies the color of the american policy in the context of a world mission, particularly in the bush administration. the search for osama bin laden who is mainly suspected for designing the 9/11 attack became the main ingredient for american policy for foreign affair as pictured by the issue of patriot act which characterized “the war on terror” policy. according to hamilton (2010), most of patriot act is due to expire at the end of 2005. the president can, however, “express his desire to continue it and perhaps expands its reach” (p.389). this hints the reasoning for bush to key his people in with the aspect of puritans‟ calling in the mission for freedom including freedom from fear of terror. hamilton further explains that bush‟s war on terror leads to the proclamation of the bush doctrine which is summarized into two important elements; ... first, the united states would wage preventive war against any group or country that threatened american interest, and it would maintain military supremacy by preventing any other nation from emerging its rival (2010, p.389). the point is that bush attempts to include the sense of mission by putting the vision of seeking and guaranteeing liberty by borrowing the puritans‟ ideals that the vission constitutes “the calling of our time”. this can be interpreted as bush‟s effort to give the moral foundation to his doctrines to for the american foreign policy. in other words, through puritan words, bush finds the ground for the american world mission related to the war on terror in terms of its historical experience and invitation to people‟s participation. maru, m.g., the pattern of american rhetoric on the spirit of mission: 131 an analysis of the text of bush‟s inaugural address conclusion american presidents define the exigency of the american public to get involved in the national mission by keying their people with typical puritan terms such as calling, duty and mission itself. these attempts hermeneutically portray the sense of the american mission in the frame of a puritanism lense which serves to support the presidents commence and successfully launch the new administration. in addition, puritans‟ notion of setting in the new world, as a city upon a hill as voiced by the leader, john winthrop, remains echoes in the voice of the present american leaders as reflected in bush‟s inaugural addresses. the ingredient of american world mission of the contemporary presidents seems to recalls such puritan ideals as marked by the employment of terms like mission, calling, and duty. within the inaugural addresses, the president tends to use the puritans‟ words to urge their people in advocating the existence and spread of liberty as the substances for their calling and duty in the world affairs for america and the invitation to participate in the mission. references brinkley, a., & davis, d. 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(2002). america’s inaugural: the speeches, the presidents, and their times. san diego: blackbirch press. http://www.pbs.hour.com/ 6 - sep2016 maru 0 -cover jul 2016 0 -p. i jul 2016 hal editor 0 -p. ii jul 2016 daftar isi p. i 1 -pp 1-21 sukarno celt 2016 2 -pp 22-48 pasaribu-kadarisman celt jul 2016 pp 17-44 3 -pp 49-66 prastikawati-wiyaka-sodiq celt jul 2016 4 -pp 67-90 yusuf-silviyanti-tauhidah celt jul 2016 5 -pp 91-117 jubhari-bazergan-mokoginta-sitoto-syarif-iswari celt jul 2016 pp.88-115 6 -pp 118-132 maru celt jul 2016 7 -pp 133-144 murniati-riyandari celt 2016 8 -pp 145 148 celt thanks to reviewers cover-belakang untitled 4 ����� �3�������� � �3�3 ���� ������� ��� �� 7 � �3�d���� ��� ������� ����� � � ���%���*��" ���� ������ ����� ���� ���������� ������������������ ���c�����������$������� ��� .���� ���� ���������� ��� ������� ��� ���� &����������� ��� ���� )����� � �"#$��%$&��%���������������������������"����������������������� ����������� ��� �������z��������������� 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����������������������� � � �,� ������ .�������l �+�055>, �)��������� �&����������������������&.�%�$��������� � �����'���055> � )�������� a � . � +28>7, � $����'����� �� ��������� ���� ���� f��� ��������� ��� �������g �!��*������������ ��7@�+i,��@d36@30 � ��������� ? � +052d, � .���������� ��������� �������� � %��� �������� $��������� 2i�+2, � ������6���������� �+�� ,�+2883, �?����������������� �)������� .e�c������ h�c����� � ������6��������� � � +0552, � %�������� ��������e� ����� �������� ��� ���������� �)������� .e�c������h�c����� � *������ � � +0558, � ������� ��������� ��������� ���� �������� � &���������� )�����e�$����������������.����&�� ���� � ="������l �+0552, �!���������������������������q������������� �-����������� �$e� �l!$� $�������� c����� ���� ��������� ���� ����������� � �l!$� ����������73@@i5 � �" ���)��*��*��%���������������������?��������������������-�������6�� �@2� .�&���������.������� %������ � �? �+055>, �%���#����� ���������������������������� �.������� �����������������&.�%�$��������� ������'���055> � %������ � ? �+0525, �.���#������������������6������������������� ��������� �������� #���� ������ ��� ���� �������� ��� �� ��������� ����� � .� ������ �����������������&.�%�$��������� ������'���0525 � -��������� . � +0522, � <������ ����� �� ������� ���� ����� ��� %���� %��=�� $��������� �4�������0522 � guide for contributors a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 learners' language challenges in writing english barli bram ....................................................................................................... 1 autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. ............................................................................................ 16 scrooge's character development in charles dickens' a christmas carol theresia erwindriani .................................................................................... 28 teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono ....................................................................................... 45 “america, you know what i'm talkin' about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson ............................................................................................... 60 a love for indonesia: the youth's effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism shierly june and ekawati marhaenny dukut ................................................. 72 a book review: discourse analysis antonius suratno ........................................................................................... 88 celt, vol.12, no.1, pp. 1-100, semarang, juli 2012 (index) teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono 1 abstract: there are various ways in teaching english to children. one of them is by using drama. drama is basically an expressive activity that is, generally speaking, suitable for children’s condition. the children’s condition mentioned in this article deals a lot with their being dynamic, enthusiastic and full of imagination. the idea of using drama to support the learning process of children is increasingly recognised in a wide range of school settings. the children here are specifically aimed at students who are in pre and primary schools – young learners. focusing on literacy and oracy processes, this article attempts to give an overview on how to use drama in teaching english for young learners. key words: drama, literacy and oracy processes, young learners introduction in general, teaching language, especially foreign language, to students is a matter of being aware on student‟s literacy and oracy 1 g.m. adhyanggono, ss., ma. <adhyanggono@yahoo.com> +6281228029666 is a lecturer of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. g.m.adhyanggono, teaching english with drama for young learners 47 processes. those literacy and oracy processes are basically about “acquiring the skills, knowledge and attitudes to become an empowered reader, writer, speaker and listener” (medwell 2009:2). thus, it deals very much with skills, knowledge, and attitude. therefore, in order to improve students‟ skills, knowledge, and attitude, drama, as a part of literary texts, can be very helpful along with those of non-literature ones. such a notion is explained as follows. the most important and complex knowledge children must gain is knowledge about how to orchestrate their skills and understandings about reading, writing, speaking and listening effectively. to do this, children need to know about successful texts – these can be written examples of literature or non-fiction, spoken discussions or reports. if children have clear, effective models they can analyse why these are effective and begin to make their own texts effective. all this knowledge is part of primary englis (medwell 2009: 2). in addition, debbie chalmers (2007) underlines the importance of using well-taught and planned drama as one of teaching activities that may develop student‟s social skills, self-confidence and a deep understanding of co-operation as well as team-work. with the use of drama, the process of teaching and learning english for both teachers and students will be more creative and engaging. why? because marcia s. pop in her book teaching language and literature in elementary classroom: a resource book for professional development has already pointed out that in dramatic activities, students explore movement, sound, speech, character, sequence, story, and their environment. through the celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 46-60 48 power of imagination, students enter the settings of stories and become its characters. moreover, she also mentions as follows. exercises in creative drama are designed to stimulate imagination and enhance appreciation of sensory experience. when used in conjunction with literature study, students re-create a story by examining the context and exploring the feelings and motivations of characters. these exercises benefit skill development in speaking and listening, but they also enrich the reading and writing experience with their emphasis on imagery (debbie chalmers 2007:250). all of these are what i call the power of drama. drama can be a very powerful medium when its text is well selected or made, and when its activities are well prepared and executed to engage both teachers and students. however, as a matter of fact, there are many teachers (inexperienced and experienced) who tend to avoid using drama as a teaching medium. of course, they have reasons. the most apparent one is that they do not want to be in “hot seat”, a term introduced by john goodwin (2006) in his book using drama to support literacy: activities for children aged 7 – 14 1 st ed. he uses the term in a situation described below. drama is active. try not to talk for too long in your introduction.work at creating an immediate tension in the drama. one basic definition of drama is: a person in a crisis. allowing the class to hot seat you as a fictional character in role is an excellent way to create tension. the class will love it but you [teacher] may be daunted. (goodwin 2006:2) being in a hot seat means that teachers may be in embarrassment, fear or even terror dealing with the situation that entails them to be as expressive as their students. this is also what g.m.adhyanggono, teaching english with drama for young learners 49 joe winston and miles tandy (2009) point out as teacher‟s “anxiety”. it is an anxiety that centres around issues of control and around their lack of “extrovert qualities” (skills) and “personal dynamism” (confidence) they feel that drama demands. they can also reflect a deeper misgiving, an uncertainty as to what drama for their students is actually supposed to be about. having considered all aspects above, i expect to have some outputs for the teachers to have. first, they will be more confirmed that drama can be one of the alternatives, which is very inspiring, fun and not as fearful as what they might have thought before, for their teaching media. second, teachers can prepare well-planned dramas for their english classes. discussion a. some facts about drama to begin with, it is necessary to highlight some facts about drama to avoid misconceptions: 1. drama is playful. that‟s why we have characters (human and non-human) playing roles as someone or something else. they do not become themselves as in their “real life” but they play on roles they cast. their interaction to one another is like a game. what they do may not happen to them in real life. therefore, they uniquely represent actions, events, problems, and experiences as if they all truly happen (winston and tandy 2009:3) 2. dramas use stories to explore issues of human significance. basically, humans communicate their experiences in story form, whether to themselves or to others. therefore, dramas through their characters/actors/actresses eventually tell us a story to celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 46-60 50 communicate. they function as storytellers. and what they tell focus mostly on the significance of human being in relation to his/her surroundings such as man versus man, man versus nature, man versus divine beings etc. (winston and tandy 2009:3.) 3. in drama, the normal rules of time, place and identity are suspended. it means that dramatic time and place are elastic. when our time in “real” life is locked in present, dramatic times can leap back into the past, or forward into the future. various places are also introduced. some of them are even imaginary ones. actors in this case, play different characters than they really do. they pretend to be others. in drama, time, place and identity are also temporary. it means that they are not presented or described fully and permanently. they are easily changeable. (winston and tandy 2009:3-4) 4. drama is a social activity and communal art form. drama becomes a drama when it is performed. although a playwright is important, drama can only be meaningful when it involves other people to perform it. therefore, drama is a communal experience, shaped and shared by individuals (actors/actresses, crew, and audience) working and watching in groups. (winston and tandy 2009:.4) 5. drama is driven by rules and convention. all social events need rules and conventions to guide them. and drama is one of the social events, even when it is conducted in class. individuals watching drama have to agree with those rules and conventions. in conventional performance, audience needs to remain seated and silent. the purpose is to respect the performers and the audience. moreover, it is the most suitable situation in which audience open their mind for concentration. they need to g.m.adhyanggono, teaching english with drama for young learners 51 think and feel the senses of the performance. for a classroom drama, teachers and students need to be clear about the rules they must agree. the rules are not supposed to be restrictive or even punitive, but they have to make the students clear and aware that to achieve the goal in drama, they need to obey them (winston and tandy 2009:5). 6. dramas should not be boring. in drama, what become the engaging elements to keep the audience interested are its subject matter and structure. the subject matter needs to be alluring to follow, which can arouse emotional pitch and tension. problem and conflicts need to be elaborated, and the actors should wittily perform them. the performance from one scene to another should also be artistically and cleverly arranged, so that the audience will not get bored easily. similarly, in classroom drama, if the subject matter is inappropriate, if the children are kept seated on the floor for too long, if talk is emphasised at the expense of other activities, or the sequence of tasks is disconnected and unfocused, then interest will quickly wane and the experience will fail to engage the children dramatically (debbie chalmers 2007:6). b. having known the facts, then what to do? 1. the first step to do is to prepare the teacher. as mentioned in the introduction, teacher plays an important role in teaching that uses drama as its medium. therefore, skills and confidence about using drama are qualities that every teacher needs to have. skills can be learnt trough modules, textbooks, and other sources, but confidence entails two important requirements. first are mental attitudes such as willingness, open-mindedness, perseverance and patience which are more difficult to do. second is celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 46-60 52 continuous practice. drama can help enormously in the building of confidence in people of any age. learning to express ourself more clearly and practising speech and movement skills are valuable aids to developing good self-esteem. role play situations can help with preparing for or recovering from difficult or worrying experiences, giving you the ability to „move on‟ and use new skills to cope more easily in the future. developing the imagination and flexibility to adapt to any situation quickly and do our best to join in or make things work out is an empowering life skill best learned as early as possible (chalmer, 2007:13). 2. second is to prepare the materials when we want to make use of drama materials for our students, there are two basic tenets worth-remembering in teaching drama, especially for students of efl: a. the level of language that a drama has should go hand in hand with the language proficiency that our students have. b. we should not expect their highly dramatic skills, instead we let them do it with fun and naturally (enjoyably). having considered the basic principles above, we can now move on thinking about technical issues arranged below: 1) who will play and what kind of drama? at this point, students‟ age and condition can be very helpful for teachers to choose appropriate drama. generally speaking students or children age 3 to 6 are more suitable for a type of drama called “living through drama”. it is a type of drama developed for classroom use featured by games and rhymes. in this kind of drama, students understand the story as a game, and the contexts of g.m.adhyanggono, teaching english with drama for young learners 53 time and place are only present and here. meanwhile, students age 7 to 14 can be introduced with “episodic drama”, a kind of more abstract drama wherein the students are led by the teacher in creating situations and events through specific techniques or strategies and where chronology is more broken. of course, most dramas have a mixture of both styles, but the younger or more inexperienced a class, the more „living through‟ will dominate to create the tensions and challenges more directly. the more sophisticated the group, the more they will look in a more abstract, artistic and less realistic way (franciss prendiville and nigel toye, 2007:36). 2) decide whether to use already made dramas or create ones when using already made one, we need to think of some considerations such as: a)choosing drama that offers an interesting theme with clear and simple plot b)avoiding complex theme and intricate plot c)paying attention on number of characters involved as for writing a drama text, things to consider: a)creating an interesting theme. teacher can set a theme in the most atmospheric situation for students to be familiar with. b)composing a simple and engaging plot as complex and intricate plot may confuse students. c)provide elements of fantasy or imagination. d)paying attention on number of characters involved celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 46-60 54 3. third step is to practice the drama a. pre-conditioning practicing drama does not always need a school hall to do. a sufficient space in a classroom can work out more effectively. the first thing a teacher needs to do in this level is what i call “preconditioning”. this pre-conditioning, based on experiences, can eventually be done through various ways. for children, the most common technique is by engaging them through a particular object or artifact (still image, picture, photograph, sculpture, or anything) that has connection with the story in the drama. the teacher in a positive mood then asks the class while holding up the object: kids, what is it?... do you know it?... okay, this is … and i have a story about it … do you want to know the story?... the teacher needs to observe the response and immediately ask them all together with him/her clear up some space in the center of the classroom. then, the teacher gathers and asks them to make a circle at the centre of the class. while still holding the object, he/she introduces and tells the story of the drama briefly but convincingly to the students, as if it really happens. why? it is because the story is the very heart in this activity as explained below. stories are what provide dramas with their substance.the story a drama tells is the key to what the drama is about. primary teachers do not need reminding of the power and significance of stories in children‟s learning. apart from their potential for language enrichment, it is through the particularity of stories that children apprehend and think through ideas and issues of human g.m.adhyanggono, teaching english with drama for young learners 55 significance. stories can thus provide a teacher with ways of accessing important areas of the spiritual, social and moral curriculum; and drama can help children linger among the ideas contained within a story‟s imagery, to engage more fully with the world the story creates. (winston and tandy 2009:25) at this very moment, it would be better for the teacher not to show or give the text/script of the drama to the students. what is the purpose? the purpose is to get their attention first, and see their further responses. b. confidence building activity the next step is aimed at two target students, those age 3 to 6 (first group), and 7 to 14 (second group) with different techniques. for the first group, the teacher needs to do confidence building activity. this activity is closely related to the telling story activity in the previous session. the teacher asks the students to choose one character they like from the story and demonstrate an imaginative action of the character they choose. this is a game. for example if the story is about sleeping beauty, then a student can do: my name is sleeping beauty and my favourite character in the story is the prince who cuts down the trees to come and give me a kiss and wake me up! (accompanied by a demonstration of a princess sleeping and/or a prince on his horse cutting through a forest) when students have hesitation to do it, the teacher can initially give a similar example as shown above. besides building confidence, celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 46-60 56 this session also encourages students to more detail in speech and acting skills (chalmer 2007:19). as for the second group, age 7 to 14, the teacher can do a more complex game as exemplified overleaf. drama game: keeper of the keys first of all, sit the children in a circle and ask for a volunteer to sit blindfolded on a chair in the centre. now place a large key under the chair. ask if any child in the circle would silently volunteer to attempt to retrieve the key. if the keeper in the centre at any point hears a noise and points successfully in the direction of the child approaching, she must return to the circle to be replaced by another silent volunteer. second, in playing the game, the keeper can hold a rolled-up piece of sugar paper. the child is out only if the keeper manages to hit him with it. this last game is very adaptable for suggesting different stories. the teacher might introduce the keeper as a monster, guarding the door to a secret cave whose treasures the children can only uncover by capturing the keys. when using a drama to suggest a story in this way, it is far better to introduce the game as a story rather than by explaining its rules. the drama activities in this session can be introduced in the following manner: we are the animals of the forest, gathered around a clearing, watching. we have many skills, which human beings do not have; we can see in the dark and can move silently over the forest floor. and tonight we need those skills for one of our friends is being held prisoner by a vicious and cruel hunter. there he sits, on a tree stump, in the centre of the clearing, with his club in his hand, guarding the keys of the hut in which he has locked our friend. he senses we are near and is g.m.adhyanggono, teaching english with drama for young learners 57 waiting for one of us to approach so he can swing the club and kill us. but, unlike us, he is afraid of the dark. he cannot see and dare not move from where he sits. which of us has enough courage to enter the clearing and try to steal the keys, i wonder? whoever would like to volunteer, raise your paw in the air. third, the teacher then chooses one of the volunteers and the game begins. this use of story effectively changes what was a game into a piece of theatre. through the story the space is transformed within the imaginations of the participants into a forest clearing; the chair into a tree stump; the player into a hunter; the roll of paper into a club; the children into forest animals; the time into the dead of night. the story implies very strongly what the rules of the drama are, and the behaviour of the keeper and those trying to steal the keys are explained and given emotional significance. these dramatic transformations engage the participants much more deeply in the game than if they were absent, with the result that the tension becomes higher, the suspense greater. furthermore, the children in the circle are given a possible right of entry into the action; as audience, they are also potential actors. in other words, they are invited not only to witness the action but also to take responsibility for it. but the game (or scene) also leaves a lot of questions unanswered. who is the prisoner? why has the hunter captured her? why do the animals want to rescue her? what will happen if the animals manage to release their friend? it therefore, implies a history and a possible future, both of which can be speculated upon and explored. all the elements of classroom drama are, in fact, introduced here (winston and tandy 2009:23) fourth, coming up this step, the teacher then needs to choose the characters or actors/actress among students. an explanation from the teacher that everyone has significant role in making the celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 46-60 58 story comes to alive is really important. therefore, it is necessary to never state that one role is more important than the others. fifth, in rehearsal session, the teacher can focus on reading, speaking, listening and movement practices with some tips to remember: a. make them aware of the fascinating language being used b. show them that they can get fun through mimic expressions and intonations from such a language c. let them read and speak confidently though some minor mistakes may occur d. don‟t be too judging about their pronunciation; they are learning step by step, therefore never push them to pronounce perfectly. e. the teacher has to listen to their reading and speaking attentively to show them that the teacher is with them actively, and to give an example how other children should behave when one is reading/speaking. f. show the children how, where and when to move, but later on it is necessary to limit the instructions as they will be very boring and confusing for the students. g. never explain any logical reasons why they have to move as such for it will ruin the mood of their excitement. let them express their movement naturally (enjoyably) h. it is okay when they cannot remember the dialogue at first, reading along with movement is acceptable; however, later on the teacher needs to show them that the excitement will be more and more gained when they don‟t have to bring the text i. never focus on some minor mistakes they may make as it will demotivate them drastically. j. give credit to them every time the practice is over. g.m.adhyanggono, teaching english with drama for young learners 59 conclusion teaching english with drama is an art. it is an art worthtrying and doing for it gives chances for both teachers and students develop themselves more creatively and enjoyably. dramatic skills and confidence are the most basic requirements for the teacher to master. teachers need to prepare themselves better so that any dramatic lesson plan they scheme might effectively work. the use of drama is basically aimed at enhancing literacy and oracy processes of the students. basic skills in english language proficiency such as speaking, listening, reading, and to a certain extent writing, can then be main objectives that frame the dramatic activities. nevertheless, it does not mean that both teacher and students put aside the natural excitement they have for learning with excitement is the key to obtaining the objectives. references chalmers, debbie. drama 3-5: a practical guide to teaching drama to children in the foundation stage, routledge: london and new york, 2007 goodwin, john. using drama to support literacy: activities for children aged 7 – 14 1 st ed., paul chapman publishing: london, uk, 2006. medwell, jane. et.al. primary english: teaching theory and practice 4 th ed., learning masters ltd.: essex, uk, 2009. pop, marcia s. teaching language and literature in elementary classroom: a resource book for professional development 2 nd ed., lea publisher: london, uk, 2008. prediville, franciss and nigel toye. speaking and listening through drama 7-11, paul chapman publishing: london, uk, 2007. winston, joe and miles tandy. beginning drama 4-11 3 rd ed., routledge: london and new york, 2009. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 46-60 60 some web sources of drama teaching materials for children: http://www.freedrama.net/ginger.html http://www.proteacher.com http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/using-drama-texts-classroom http://www.teachkidsdramastuff.com http://iteslj.org/techniques/chauhan-drama.html http://www.freedrama.net/ginger.html http://www.proteacher.com/ http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/using-drama-texts-classroom http://www.teachkidsdramastuff.com/ http://iteslj.org/techniques/chauhan-drama.html index of subjects celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 acquisition, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28 african american, 62, 69, 70 african american culture, 69 american television, 6163, 66 anti-christmas character, 37 approach, 1822, 2428 articles, 1, 2, 7 autonomous learning, 19 behaviourist method, 20 bernie, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 beulah, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 black sitcoms, 62, 68, 70 black, 61-69 charity, 30, 31, 43-46 classroom, 16, 22-23, 25-28 cognitive approach, 21 cohabitation, 24 comma splice, 11-12 communication, 16, 18, 20-22, 28 communicative approach, 19, 21, 28 computer-assisted communication, 21 corruption, 79 cuisiniere rods, 19 cybernautical approach, 16-20, 22-23, 26-29 cyberspace, 20, 23 dickens, 29, 30-32, 35-46 diction, 1, 10 diversity, 67, 73-79, 89 drama, 46-57, 59-60 elle, 16-18, 25, 27 english education programme, 2, 5, 6, 12 english extension course, 2, 5 6 english novelist, 30 episodic drama, 53 ethnicities, 74, 76 finite verbs, 1, 7-8, 15 foreign language, 47 fox network, 67 game, 49, 53, 55-57 grammar-oriented writing, 14 indonesia, 73-77, 79, 81-84, 8788 injustice, 79, 82 language-learning process, 17 learning, 1628 linguistic, 1, 2, 6 misanthropy, 29, 36, 38, 45 multicultural, 73, 74, 88 multiculturalism, 73-77, 79, 81, 82-85, 87-88 multiculturalist discourse, 67 multilingualism, 7 multimedia technology, 24 neuro-scientific research, 21 non-conventional methods, 19 number-noun concord, 8 oracy processes, 46-47, 59 paragraph writing, 1, 3 pluralism, 76, 79, 84, 89 punctuation, 3, 9, 12 reformation era, 79 scrooge, 29, 31-45 second-language learning, 21 segregationism, 61-62 student’s literacy, 47 subject-finite verb concord, 8 systemic functional linguistics approach, 90 television, 61-62, 64, 66, 68-69 tenses, 9 unity in diversity, 78 victorian age, 30 youth, 72, 73, 76-79 index of authors celt, volume 11, number 1, year 2011 adhyanggono, g.m, 46 bram, barli, 1 erwindriani, t., 29 george c., j. 16 june, s. and ekawati m.d., 73 nelson, a., 61 suratno, a. ,89 index of articles celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 adhyanggono, g.m. teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 4660. bram, barli. learners’ language challenges in writing english. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 1-15. erwindriani, theresia. scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 29-45. george c., jacob. autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 16-28. june, shierly and ekawati marhaenny dukut. a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 73-88. nelson, angela. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 61-72. suratno, antonius. a book review: discourse analysis. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 89-93. celt volume 11, number 2, year 2011 thank the following people for their outstanding work as reviewers: a. effendi kadarisman (universitas negeri malang, indonesia) c. soebakdi soemanto (universitas gadjah mada, indonesia) fr. borgias alip (universitas sanata dharma, indonesia) helena agustien (universitas negeri semarang, indonesia) subur wardoyo (ikip pgri semarang, indonesia) 4_adhyanggono_2012_12_1(46-60) 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 89-93 anton untitled-1 the gothic elements in tim burton’s (1999) sleepy hollow the headless horseman: a literary and cinematic aspect analysis gerardus majella adhyanggono1 and fransiska linda marcelina2 abstract: sleepy hollow is a film directed by tim burton. the story tells about a young policeman ichabod crane, who is sent to a village called sleepy hollow to investigate a murder case there. at first, he was a person who never believed in supernatural things especially ghost, but after facing the reality of the ghost itself, he becomes very scared, but all he has to do is to find the villain behind the ghost of headless horseman. this thesis analyzes the gothic elements that are shown in this film. the theories that are used in this thesis are from film studies, literary and cinematic aspect. in this paper, the pictures from the scenes are also shown to show the evidence of the gothic elements. the theories that are used will also show how they can advocate the “gothicness” of this film. key words: cinematic, film, gothic, literary 1 g.m. adhyanggono, s.s., m.a. <adhyanggono@yahoo.com> +62812256 71315 is a full-time lecturer at the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. 2 fransiska linda marcellina, s.s. <lin2_chan@yahoo.co.id> +62818453900 is an alumnae from the english department, faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university student. this paper is based on the thesis argument she defended for her sarjana sastra degree. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 240 introduction nowadays, film has been popular among people of all ages. there are many kinds of films that have been created up until now. many film directors compete to make good films. a film director is also called as an auteur if he or she is a complete film maker. boggs and petrie (2008:365) defines that the auteur is a person who gives the idea of the story, writes the script or screenplay, and then is involved in the film making process until the end of it. the style or characteristic of a film usually describes the director’s personality himself. in this paper, the writer will analyze one of tim burton’s movies because she is interested in this director’s movie making. almost all of his movies contain dark and horror environment, so it is considered a gothic movie. from all of burton’s movies, the writer chooses one of his films entitled sleepy hollow. this movie was directed by tim burton and it is an adaptation from the short story the legend of sleepy hollow by washington irving. the story was set in 1799. it is about a young policeman ichabod crane who is sent from new york to the village of sleepy hollow to investigate the mystery of murders. many villagers there say that the murders happen because the village is cursed by the headless horseman. after the head of a hessian horseman is stolen, the horseman returns from hell to take the heads of the people of sleepy hollow until its own is returned. through the investigation, ichabod learns about the legend of the headless horseman, but he does not believe that the story is true because he believes only in logic. yet, it is not for long until he sees with his own eyes when the horseman takes off one of the elders’ head. many people accuse that the villain is katrina; a daughter of van tassel, but ichabod can unravel the murky plot by katrina’s stepmother lady van tassel who controls the gm adhyanggono and fl marcelin, gothic elements in sleepy hollow241 horseman by taking the head skull to revenge on his family. after the fight in the local windmill, ichabod can conquer lady van tassel by returning the skull to the horseman and makes him go back to the hell along with lady van tassel. after his job is completed, ichabod goes back to new york along with katrina and young masbeth. (imdb 2012) from the story above, it shows that tim burton has the characteristic of making the film in the sense that it contains dark and creepy situations with some ghostly things on it. this characteristic seems to meet some of the elements from gothic film that will be analyzed by the writer by using the literary and cinematic aspects. all of the elements like the setting that always takes place in an old castle; dark room, etc are basically taken from the gothic tradition which appeared in horace walpole’s novel the castle of otronto because it has influenced the making of the gothic film up to the present day. with regards to the facts above, the writer decides to analyze the gothic elements throughout the literary and cinematic aspect of tim burton’s film “sleepy hollow”. the literary aspects in film the elements in gothic film are taken from the gothic tradition in literature. some of the elements of gothic are based on the novel by horace walpole in 1764 the castle of otranto and it contains essentially all the elements that constitute the genre. walpole’s novel has influenced not only the gothic novel, but also the gothic film making up until now. harris (2008) explained that gothic elements include the following: 1. setting in a castle usually the action takes place in and around an old castle; sometimes it seems abandoned but celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 242 sometimes occupied. but in the modern film making, the setting might be in an old house or mansion, darkness and shadows create the same sense of claustrophobia and entrapment. 2. an atmosphere of mystery and suspense the work is pervaded by a threatening feeling, a fear enhanced by the unknown. often the story itself is built around a mystery such as the unknown parentage, unknown events like murders. 3. an ancient prophecy it is connected with the castle or its inhabitants (either former or present). the prophecy is usually obscure, partial, or confusing. 4. omens, portents, visions a character may have a disturbing dream vision, and in modern gothic fiction, a character might see something and think that it was a dream. 5. supernatural or otherwise inexplicable events to make the story more dramatic, amazing events occur, such as ghosts, giants walking or inanimate object coming to life. sometimes, the events are ultimately given a natural explanation, while in others the events are truly supernatural. 6. high, even overwrought emotion the characters are often in anger, sorrow, surprise, and especially terror. characters suffer from nerves and feel like death to come. crying and emotional speeches are frequent. gm adhyanggono and fl marcelin, gothic elements in sleepy hollow243 breathlessness, panic, and screaming are common 7. women in distress the female characters often face events that leave them fainting, terrified, screaming, or sobbing. a lonely, pensive, and heroine women that make them suffer because they are often abandoned, left alone, and have no protector at times. 8. the metonymy of gloom and horror metonymy is a subtype of metaphor, in which something like rain is used to stand for something else like sorrow. for example, the film industry likes to use metonymy as quick shorthand, so viewers can notice that it is raining in funeral scenes. 9. villains this character is usually cunning and shifty in their behaviour. 10. protagonists the gothic heroes, usually they are burdened by the sorrow. 11. romance usually the romance part will have the tragedy and sorrow line (buzzle, 2012). in the literary aspect, the most common things to analyze a film are identifying the characterization, setting, point of view (pov), and symbol. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 244 a. characterization the first main character in sleepy hollow is ichabod crane. the writer assumes that he is a protagonist character which is included in one of gothic elements. the second character is katrina van tassel. she is a powerful character who helps ichabod in doing the investigation. here, we can see that katrina is a round character because at first, she is a lovely and charming girl, but then her character is changing from charming into heroine character. she can also be mentioned as the damsel in distress character because of her personality that makes the audience feel that this character is so lonely and full of suffers where the damsel in distress itself means about a woman character that often faces the events that make her being suffer (harris 2008:¶ 8). the third character is young masbath. he is the son of jonathan masbath who has been murdered by the evil. this film shows that young masbath helps ichabod and accompanies him in his investigation after his father is murdered. the fourth character is lady van tassel. she is katrina’s step mother who is actually a villain behind the murder. she is able to perform spells that can control the horseman to kill the villagers in sleepy hollow. here, the witch character is important in gothic film because it shows the atmosphere of mystery and magic which included in gothic elements. (harris 2008:¶ 3) from the explanation above, this type of character of lady van tassel can be identified as antagonist and flat character. the last main character in this movie is the headless horseman or the hessian. he is a ghost who is controlled by lady van tassel to kill the villagers in sleepy hollow. the type of this character is antagonist and also flat character. he gm adhyanggono and fl marcelin, gothic elements in sleepy hollow245 supports the main antagonist character by helping her to kill the villagers. this character embodies the elements of supernatural power which often appears in gothic film. the following is a sample of using close-up technique: picture 1 b. setting in this film of sleepy hollow, the setting sets in new york in 1799. the place of the setting fulfills the gothic element which is almost always in the dark place and gloomy situation, because most of the scenes are always set in the forest and old houses. like when ichabod comes to the village for the first time, where many old houses and darkness situation are all shown. it can prove that from the setting of the film, the gothic elements are shown. the foggy and stormy weather in this film also point out the gothic elements c. point of view this film is using the first point of view because it brings the audience into the film so that they can feel that they are the character and they know what the characters feel in the creepy situation. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 246 d. symbol in gothic films, the audience will often see and find some symbols in them. why? it is because gothic itself has many symbols that each of them has a specific meaning related to the supernatural or magical things and make it advocates the “gothicness” in a gothic film. the first symbol of the film is blood. it is an important symbol that often used in gothic films because it has a specific meaning. the scene that shows about this symbol can be seen when ichabod meets a fortune-teller to ask about the headless horseman’s place. the fortune-teller : he rides to the hollow and back. i hear him. i smell the blood on him. ichabod : do you? well, i’m here to find him and make him stop. from the statement, the gothic element of an atmosphere of mystery and suspense is shown. another gothic element is about the prophecy from the fortune-teller statement, “i smell the blood on him” (show the minutes/ hours) means that the horseman will come back to kill another victims even though he has been dead. it is like harris (2008) said that the prophecy is usually obscure, partial, and even confusing. the second symbol found is a tree. it is often identified as an important symbol in gothic films. it is because from the earliest times trees have been the focus of religious life for many people and they think that it is a sacred thing to be worshipped because they believe that tree is a gate of heaven that makes the dead person to be returned to the womb of the mother tree goddess. (christopher 1998) in this film, this tree is called as the tree of the dead. it becomes a gate for the gm adhyanggono and fl marcelin, gothic elements in sleepy hollow247 headless horseman to come out from his world to kill the villagers in sleepy hollow. the last symbol is the evil eye. it is drawn by katrina to protect ichabod against evil spirit. it appears when she draws the symbol on the church floor. it can be proof that there is a kind of supernatural things in this film. in general, the picture that katrina draws is called a penstagram and it is used for protection and to banish energy depends on how it is drawn. picture 2 the picture above, the penstagram is drawn with five-point stars pointed up, to show that it makes the protection against the evil spirit. that is why katrina draws this symbol to protect her beloved one, ichabod, but when he sees this penstagram upside down like the picture above, the five-pointed stars pointed down. if the star pointed down, it will represent the dark side and also a symbol of evil. this is why after seeing this upside down penstagram ichabod thinks that katrina is the villain because she draws this kind of symbol to call the headless horseman. the cinematic aspects in film in this part, the writer discusses about the cinematic aspects in gothic film based on the movie sleepy hollow. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 248 these aspects will help the writer to analyze the gothic elements from this film. in a gothic film the use of cinematic aspects are very important to show and advocate the “gothicness” of it. a. cinematic point of view in this film, the cinematic point of view that is often used is the indirect-subjective point of view because the camera movement often used close-up shot. there is a scene when ichabod sees the fake headless horseman who is actually the villagers who want to scare him. in this scene the camera takes a close-up shot to show the fear and surprised expressions of ichabod. picture 3 this scene also contains gothic element which is high, even overwrought emotion that in this case, we can see ichabod’s emotion like surprise, fear, nervous, and feel like death to come. b. elements of cinematic compositions the first technique of the size and the closeness to the object from this film support the gothic element that shows the atmosphere of mystery and suspense. it is shown in the scene in the beginning of the film when a man who is on the way to send a letter to sleepy hollow. in the middle of his travel, he gm adhyanggono and fl marcelin, gothic elements in sleepy hollow249 feels like there is someone following him. here the camera is looking closer to the man, so that the audience can feel the feeling of the man who is being scared at that time. the sharpness focused on the object is also shown in the film. in the scene when ichabod finds a corpse in the river, the camera shoots to the object of ichabod and the other objects are blurred. its purpose is to make the audience stay focus to ichabod only. from this scene the gothic elements are conveyed in the situation from the picture which shows the dark atmosphere and the panic looking character. the use of the lighting set in this film is very determining to convey the gothic elements. most of the scenes in this film use the low key lighting that make the whole scene of it becomes darker and builds the gloomy atmosphere in every setting in this movie. but, there are scenes that use the high key lighting. it is used when it comes to the ichabod’s vision of his dream. picture 4 the gothic element of a vision is seen in this part when ichabod is dreaming, and also the supernatural when his mother is flying in the air. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 250 c. specialized cinematic technique some specialized cinematic techniques are also used in this film. like the first technique of the extreme close-up shot that is shown in the scene when ichabod is told about the story of how the horseman was killed and the camera shoot in ichabod’s hands that are holding a glass tremble because it can tell the audience that ichabod is so scared when he heard the story. the audience will think that ichabod is a coward and it also show that he is a protagonist character which is included in the gothic elements. the second technique is close up. it is used when a man who is running away from the hessian (headless horseman) and he is trapped in the corn field with a terrified expression showed on his face. by taking this shot, the gothic elements of the atmosphere of mystery is shown from the murder event. with this technique, the gothic element such as high, even overwrought emotion is also shown from the character’s expression like fear, surprised, and terror. the headless horseman here can be categorized as the omen that is included in gothic element, and the next gothic element that is shown is the supernatural or otherwise inexplicable events from the appearance of the headless horseman. another technique is dutch tilt, it shows in the scene when ichabod meets the headless horseman and sees him killing the magistrate in front of him. this shot makes the audience to see the surprised expression of ichabod when he sees a ghost for the first time and realized that headless horseman really exists. the feeling of tense can be more shown with the bad weather with the light of the thunder makes the situation become creepier. the atmosphere of mystery and suspense is also seen from the murder scene of the magistrate. gm adhyanggono and fl marcelin, gothic elements in sleepy hollow251 an extreme long shot is used in the scene when the first time ichabod arrived in sleepy hollow. the camera shoots on the setting of the village from far away and make the audience know that this village of sleepy hollow is so scary and gloomy with the graves inside it, the old houses, and the weather that is always cold and foggy. the medium shot is shown in the scene when ichabod is going back to his home and he suddenly feels that there is someone following him. at this time, the audience will feel that something is going to happen to ichabod. from this scene the atmosphere of mystery and suspense and the elements of high, even overwrought emotion like scared and terror are all shown. here, the metonymy of gloom and horror is also shown when ichabod heard the horse footsteps approaching where actually the one who is following ichabod is a fake headless horseman to scare him. the technique of panning is also used in the scene when ichabod and brom are running away from the headless horseman. in this technique, the camera shots from right to the left to show the gothic elements of the atmosphere of mystery and suspense, because the characters feel like they are going to be killed by the headless horseman, so they are running away from him. the gothic element of high, even overwrought emotion is also shown from the character’s expression like scared, panic, and feel like death to come. besides, the low angle is used in the scene when katrina is trapped by her mother in law lady van tassel. here the camera shoots lady van tassel from below to show the powerful, the superior, and the madness of the villain. this scene also shows the atmosphere of mystery and suspense when the villain is going to kill the victim. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 252 another angle shot like high angle shot is also used in the same scene when katrina is going to be killed by her mother in law lady van tassel. here the camera takes closer from high angle to show the gothic element of woman in distress of katrina as the victim, and a character that is being suffered because she knows that she is going to be killed by the headless horseman. this camera technique can also show her expression of the fearfulness and panic in that situation, and also the powerlessness of the victim. conclusion from the analysis, the writer can find the gothic elements from this film by the literary aspect like characterization, point of view, setting, and symbol. most of the characterization in this film is protagonist, and others are the antagonist or in the gothic elements we call it as the villain. from the setting, the gothic elements that can be found are dark and gloomy setting such as forest, and old houses with foggy and stormy weather. the symbol is also related to the supernatural or magical things, for example the tree of the dead which means very sacred and as a gate to the heaven to make the dead people go back to the womb of goddess. the second theory is from the cinematic aspect such as the cinematic point of view, elements of cinematic composition, and the cinematic technique. in the cinematic point of view, the writer found that this film is using indirectsubjective camera to show the gothic elements of fear, surprised expression, nervous and feel like death to come. the using of cinematic composition here also advocates the gothic elements. for example, the use of low key lighting can show the darkness and gloomy setting of this film. in conclusion, this gm adhyanggono and fl marcelin, gothic elements in sleepy hollow253 film of sleepy hollow contains many gothic elements. these are proven by using the theories that the writer used, literary and cinematic aspects that also advocate the “gothicness” of this film. references ben, andec. “filmography of tim burton”. retrieved from http://sensesofcinema.com/2003/great-directors/ burton/, 24 june 2012 boggs. j. m. and d. m. petrie. the art of watching films, 7th ed., mountain view, california: mayfield publishing company, 2008. brown. t. j. mr (marketing research). united states of america, 2012. buzzle. “elements of gothic literature”. retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gothic-literature.html, 25 june 2012. harris, r. “elements of the gothic novel”. retrieved from http://www.virtualsalt.com/gothic.htm, 2008; 6 june 2013, hill, j. and g. pamela. the oxford guide to film studies, 2nd ed., england: university of oxford, 1998. imdb “synopsis for sleepy hollow”. retrieved from http://www. imdb.com/title/tt0162661/ synopsis, 21 november 2012. jerrold. e. h. cambridge companion to gothic fiction. cambridge university press. eds., 2002. kaye, h. a companion to the gothic. edited by david punter. oxford: blackwell publishing company, 2001. celt, volume 13, number 2, december 2013 : 239 – 254 254 laurence. p. literature: structure, sound, and sense. harcourt brace college publishers, 1979. lewdon, l. “twin peaks and the television gothic.” in literature/film quarterly, 1993. morgan. j. the biology of horror: literature and film. board of trustees, southern illinois university: usa, 2002. richard. d. introduction to film studies. edited by john hill. oxford: oxford up, 1998. snodgrass. m. encyclopaedia of gothic literature. united states of america, 2005. “what is gothic fiction?” horror.org. horror writers association. retrieved from http://www.horror.org/horror-is.htm, 2 novem ber 2012. “what is horror fiction?” horrordatabase.wordpress.com. retrieved from http://horrordata base.wordpress.com/2010/03/30/whatis-horror-fiction/, 8 november 2012 “wordpress presentation about tim burton”. retrieved from http://animationbegins.wordpress.com/2012/03/02/presenta tion-about-tim-burton/, 8 january 2012. 6_gmadhyanggono dan fransisk_2013_13_2(239-254) cover celt december 2013_revisi_1 celt vol 13 no 2 december 2013_revisi_2# cover celt december 2013_revisi_2 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no.1; june 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the implementation of jigsaw technique with musical background in comprehending reading text 1ammang latifa, 2rafi’ah nur, and 3muhammad faried wadjedy 1,2,3graduate program, universitas muhammadiyah parepare, parepare, indonesia email: 1latifa_ammang@yahoo.com; 2rafiahnur@yahoo.com; 3muhammad_fariedwadjedy@yahoo.co.id received: 14-12-2019 accepted: 29-01-2020 published: 07-06-2020 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the implementation of jigsaw technique with musical background in comprehending reading text 1ammang latifa, 2rafi’ah nur, 3muhammad faried wadjedy 1latifa_ammang@yahoo.com; 2rafiahnur@yahoo.com; 3muhammad_fariedwadjedy@yahoo.co.id 1,2,3graduate program, universitas muhammadiyah parepare, parepare, indonesia abstract: this research studies the impact of the implementation of the jigsaw technique with a musical background to comprehend reading at senior high school in sidrap, indonesia. this research uses a quasi-experimental method to answer the question, "is the use of jigsaw with a musical background as a technique able to improve the reading comprehension of senior high students at senior high school? this research also uses a random sampling technique to select the sample in the experimental and control class. the data is analyzed by using descriptive statistics. the result of the calculation of students' scores from the post-test indicates that there is a significant improvement in students' comprehension achievement before and after learning reading by using the jigsaw technique with background music. the result of this research finally shows that the use of the jigsaw technique with background music improves the reading comprehension of the eleventh-grade students of senior high school in sidrap, indonesia. it is proved by the students' comprehension in the reading text that was 42.3 in their pre-test, but increasing in the post-test by mean score was 63.35. it means that the alternative hypothesis is accepted, which the t-test value is more significant than the t-table value. in the post-test, the t-test value is 11.92, while the t-table value is 2.042. based on the result of data analysis, the writer concludes that using the jigsaw technique with background music is useful to improve the reading comprehension of the student in reading text. 118 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: background music, jigsaw technique, reading comprehension abstrak: penelitian ini mempelajari dampak dari penerapan teknik jigsaw dengan latar belakang musik untuk untuk meningkatkan kemampuan membaca pemahaman di sekolah menengah atas di sidrap, indonesia. penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuasi eksperimen untuk menjawab pertanyaan, "apakah penggunaan jigsaw dengan latar belakang musik sebagai teknik mampu meningkatkan pemahaman membaca siswa di sma? penelitian ini juga menggunakan teknik random sampling untuk memilih sampel pada kelas eksperimen dan kontrol. data dianalisis dengan menggunakan statistik deskriptif. hasil perhitungan skor data siswa terlihat pada post-test yang menunjukkan bahwa ada peningkatan yang signifikan dalam pencapaian pemahaman siswa sebelum dan sesudah belajar membaca. dengan menggunakan teknik jigsaw dengan latar belakang musik. hasil penelitian ini akhirnya menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan teknik jigsaw dengan latar belakang musik meningkatkan kemampuan pemahaman membaca siswa sekolah menengah atas di sidrap, indonesia. hal ini dibuktikan oleh pemahaman siswa dalam teks bacaan pada hasil pre-test mereka yakni, 42,3 tetapi prestasi membanca pemahaman siswa mengalami peningkatan pada post-test dengan skor rata-rata yakni, 63,35. ini berarti bahwa hipotesis alternatif diterima, yang nilai t-test lebih signifikan daripada nilai t-tabel. dalam post-test, nilai t-test adalah 11,92, sedangkan nilai t-tabel adalah 2,042. berdasarkan hasil analisis data, penulis menyimpulkan bahwa menggunakan teknik jigsaw dengan musik latar bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan pemahaman membaca siswa dalam membaca teks kata kunci: latar belakang musik, teknik jigsaw, pemahaman membaca introduction nowadays, english is an imperative language, which is used by people as an international language (wang & dostál, 2017; gamboa, 2017). there are many reasons why we should focus on learning english? one of them is that english is difficult to learn. therefore, it requires serious attention. some reasons are english is the most commonly used language among speakers of foreign languages throughout the world latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 119 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (ushioda, 2017; baker et al., 2017), for example, in international scale activities where english is used as a communication tool. another reason is that it is the language of science, aviation, computers, diplomacy, and tourism (king, 2019; rameez, 2019). knowing english increases our chances of getting an excellent job in a multinational company within the home country or of finding work abroad. based on school-based curriculum (kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan) 2006 of at senior high school, the english language competency that students must master are four skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing and having communication skills of using english (irshad & anwar, 2018). for examination, english always become the central issue in every source of information (kristianto, 2019), both in schools and in various electronic media (smith & nelson, 2005). in the english examination, the skills tested are the reading skill, and however, it is clear that the ability to read texts understanding more of their positions in the test is tested (liu, 2010; langenberg, 1989). therefore, students are expected to master the ability to read a higher understanding in order to score the assessment that reaches the graduation standard set by the final exam (lee, 2014; kudo & bazan, 2009). good reading comprehension is to achieve excellent results in their final exams (meijer et al., 1999; daneman, 1980). this condition ultimately makes teachers tend to focus more on reading skills than other skills. conditions that require students should focus more on reading comprehension skills because students always hope to get a satisfactory passing score (duke & pearson, 2009). this condition eventually makes the teacher tend to focus more on the reading skill rather than the other skills: writing skills, speaking skills, and listening skills (lee, 2014). in the efl context, reading has been an essential part of the english skills which are needed to master (lems & miller, 2012; liaw, 2007). the reading activity can help students to gain knowledge and information all over the world (hirsch, 2003; scadarmalia, marlene & bereiter, 2015). besides, reading is also a useful source for students to achieve and develop the other skills (matsunaga & koda, 2006; inoue et al., 2011). as a receptive skill, reading can improve the vocabulary mastery knowledge, and ideas (akuibuilo et al., 2015), so it is believed that it can assist the learners to develop other skills like speaking and writing (sadiku, 2015). also, reading is the most critical skill in constructing the meaning 120 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from the written language and giving the background knowledge for producing oral language (berninger et al., 2017). furthermore, richard & renandya (2007) stated that reading is a skill that is highly valued by students and teachers alike. reading is an activity that involves an understanding and comprehending the text to get the intended information (gamboa, 2017). reading comprehension is the most challenging skill for students and needs to improve (roehling et al., 2017; aziz, nasir, & ramazani, 2019). this impact is proved by the result of researcher observation at senior high school sidrap, indonesia. the result of the students' reading comprehension test showed that 94,8% of nineteen students in the low category (13 students at a very poor level or 68,5%, five students at the poor level or 26,3%, and one student at an appropriate level or 5,2%) when measured using the range category by dirjen pendidikan dasar dan menengah 2005. the observation result showed that the factors that cause the low ability of students' reading comprehension are insufficient technique or technique used by the teacher in teaching reading. it is proved by the result of the questionnaire with the students showed that 63,2% of the 19 students need the technique to learn. to solve the problems above, the writer tries to apply the jigsaw technique with background music. jigsaw is one of technique in cooperative learning model. the primary consideration the researchers chooses cooperative learning is because this model is suitable for the student's needs. johnson et al. (2013) outlined that cooperative learning is the instructional use of small classes, so to get optimal learning outcomes, the students work closely with each other students. this situation can be compared between students who study and work on assignments together with students who learn and work on assignments individually, in cooperative and individualistic learning, the teacher evaluates student efforts on criteriareferenced the basis of time in competitive learning, reference norms become a reference for the assessment of students (poch et al., 2019). although there are limits to the time and place of the learning process in a competitive and individualistic manner, it will not reduce the objectives of the learning process made by linda darling. therefore, whatever the form of the curriculum is, it can be arranged cooperatively. latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 121 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review a. concept of reading there are many studies about the importance of reading, and many experts define what reading is. outlined by richard & renandya (2002) reading has a significant concern both in the second and foreign language teaching situations. there are two reasons why reading has to take into account language teaching. first, many foreign language students have a goal in reading, such as reading for information and pleasure, reading for their career, and reading for study purposes. second, good reading texts provide useful models for writing and provide opportunities to introduce new topics, to stimulate discussion, and to study language features. thus, reading is a skill that is highly valued by students and teachers alike. additionally, mikulecky b & jeffries l (1996) say that "reading is one meaningful way to improve students' general language skills in english. it is because reading help students learn to think english. reading can enlarge students' vocabulary, reading help students to improve their writing, the reading may be an excellent way to practice english if students live in a non-english speaking country, reading can help students prepare for study in an english-speaking country, and reading is a good way to find out about new ideas, facts, and experiences". in this regard, they emphasize the essence of reading, which is useful for the students to improve not only english proficiency mastery but also knowledge and insight. reading is a receptive skill, which is to receive any information as the input data. many experts have defined what reading is. pointed out by aljawi (2010), reading is one of the four language skills, which is a receptive skill as same as listening. it deals with making sense of the text that encompasses understand the language of the text at the word level, sentence level, and whole-text (pokharel, 2018). from the definitions above, it revealed that reading is a valuable skill in order to get information by inferring and comprehending any written works which involve a text, a reader, and a social context. the effectiveness of cooperative learning has proved by some researchers. one of them is the study by tran (2014) showed that after approximately eight weeks, students who were treated using cooperative learning significantly improved on the achievement in the post-tests than 122 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj did students who though used lecture-based teaching. this study provides information about the effectiveness of cooperative learning in vietnamese higher education. another study by ahmad & mahmood (2010) described that cooperative learning presents its challenges to the academic performance of teachers compared to the use of traditional instruction. cooperative learning can also enrich teaching experiences that are fun and interactive. this study provides an impact on teachers to be smarter in choosing innovative learning methods as cl when teaching prospective teachers. cooperative learning has several teaching techniques. one of them is the jigsaw technique. jigsaw is developed by aronson (1971) and first used in 1971 in austin, texas. according to hoerunnisa & suherdi (2017) stated that jigsaw is a cooperative learning technique that enables each student of a 'home class' to specialize in one aspect of a learning unit. student meets with other members from other classes who are assigned the same aspect called "expert class" and after mastering the material, return to the 'home class' and teach or explain the material to their class members. the effectiveness of the jigsaw technique has proved by some researchers. one of them is the study by artini, (2017) and perez (2016) found that the jigsaw task not only improves learner's language skills but also creates a supportive learning environment. furthermore, dwiniasih & nugraha (2019) assumed jigsaw task was useful in reading ability. the students' reading comprehension also influenced by the students' environment in learning. they cannot concentrate well because their learning environment is not comfortable. pohlandt et al. (2019) claimed that students could focus and study content that influences from outside and in the environment. a positive change in the positive changes in the classroom environment can enhance learning. music is a media that is believed to be able to provide positive changes in the atmosphere (bopp et al., 2016). music that has become a learning tool in the classroom has received recommendations from several research results (haning, 2015). a number of brain-based learning, such as multiple intelligences, social and emotional learning, and the mozart effect, recommend music as a very important tool to be used in the classroom (rose, 2016). studies have shown the effectiveness of a lowthreatening environment to student disposition and achievement. latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 123 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a conducive environment and situation can guide students to be ready to learn. the physical arrangement of the room is not a thing that can limit the child to want to learn, but rather leads to the welfare of children who are the main capital (phifer & hull, 2016). teachers need to be aware of their students and their daily moods. adolescents are usually more focused on their personal lives rather than their classes. when teachers are aware of their students' wellbeing, it can be used as a classroom tool (hwang et al, 2017). although modern media like music has received recommendations from many research results, teachers must still be careful about these findings (stronge, 2010). the study has given quite a variety of results so that some have concluded that music is not so useful in memory retention or ability in certain tests. likewise, others stated that the use of soft and calm background music can make a significant improvement in one of the several thinking functions. however, in the end, it still shows up the interpretation that background music has the effect of thinking, directly questioned. the effect of music indirectly impacts mood and stress (linnemann et al., 2016). numerous studies have shown the benefits of background music in classroom study and test situations. a case study of 39 1st graders by lewis (2002) resulted in studying with background classical music resulted in higher retention of letter sounds and names than studying without it. a study of ten 4th grade students at logan elementary school by white (2007) argued that implementing background music has proven to be a useful tool. dumont et al., (2017) believed exposure to music and music education could have a positive influence on child functioning. silor (2012) developed students who read the stories and answered the comprehension examination with the use of classical music as background in the story video got higher scores compared to the result of students taking the comprehension test without the background of classical music. b. several problems emerge on the identification of the research this project is limited to the use of the jigsaw technique with a musical background in teaching reading. especially for reading comprehension, in the ktsp 2006 of senior high school english curriculum, there are four types of the text to be taught to students, they are narrative text, exposition text, report text, and spoof text. however, this research will focus on the narrative text. 124 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this research focused on finding out the influence of the jigsaw technique with background music in improving students' reading comprehension. as a result, the researcherss compared the achievement between the students who are taught by the jigsaw technique with background music, and the jigsaw technique for those without background music. c. cooperative learning the concept of cooperative learning has been developed over the years and is practiced using a number of tiger approaches in the classroom. slavin (1987) stated the techniques applied in cooperative learning include stad (student team achievement division), circ (integrated cooperative reading and composition), tai (instructional acceleration team), tgt (team match tournament), and jigsaw technique. 1. stad (student team achievement division) at stad, students are assigned to a four-person learning team based on performance, gender, and ethnicity. the teacher presents the lesson while the students work on their team. this learning process aims to monitor and ensure all team members have mastered the lesson. then, all students obtain quizzes individually on the material presented by the teacher. circ is a comprehensive learning approach that can be used to teach reading and writing (durukan, 2011). in most of the circ activities, the teacher gives a series of instructions to students to do exercises, pre-assessment, quizzes. all forms of this instruction are carried out in a team form. students must ensure the readiness of their team members to work together. 2. tai (team accelerated instruction) in most circ activities, students engage in a learning process by instructing the teacher in the form of team exercises, team pre-assessment, and quizzes (r. e. slavin, 2015). in this type of approach, students must ensure the availability of their team members to take the test simultaneously. tgt (teams – games – tournaments) tgt was initially issued by devries (2015) which uses the same teacher presentations and teamwork latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 125 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as in stad but replaces the quizzes with weekly tournaments, in which students play educational games with members of other teams to contribute points to their teams' scores. in the jigsaw technique, students work in the same four-member, different teams like in stad and tgt (garcia et al., 2017). students get chapters, short books, or other material to read. all teams get random assignments acting as experts on several aspects of reading assignments. cooperative learning has several teaching techniques. one of them is the jigsaw technique. in the research, the researchers chooses to use the jigsaw technique to improve students' reading comprehension because this model is appropriate for the students' needs. d. concepts of jigsaw technique garcia et al. (2017) stated that jigsaw is one of the techniques that can be used in the teaching-learning activity. it is categorized as cooperative learning that makes the students more active in the classwork. furthermore, said (2017) stated that jigsaw s a cooperative learning technique that avoids racial conflict among school children, introduces a better learning process, triggers, and increases student motivation. thus, there is enjoyment in the learning experience. 1. implementation of jigsaw technique with background music according to blackburn (2016), the implementation of the jigsaw in the classroom is straightforward use. these are the steps of using jigsaw: divide students into 5or 6-person jigsaw classes. the classes should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and ability. one student from each class is appointed as a leader. initially, this person must show good ability in the classroom. 2. divide the day's lesson into 5-6 segments each student must complete one segment. next, make sure students have direct access only to their own segments. then, the students are given the opportunity to read their segment at least twice and become familiar with it. they are not encouraged to memorize segments that have been learned from temporary "expert classes" by having one student from each jigsaw class join other students assigned to the same segment. students are 126 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj given the opportunity in this expert class to discuss the main parts of their segment. they are asked to practice their presentations in their jigsaw class. students should present their segments in class and can encourage others in the class to ask questions for clarification. floating from class to class, the teacher observes the process. if any class is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), an appropriate intervention is made. eventually, the class leader should handle this task. leaders can be trained by slowly passing instructions on how to involve themselves until the leader understands well. at the end of this session, the teacher gives students a quiz. this quiz tends to know the students' understanding that this activity is not only for fun, but it also provides an individual assessment of their learning activity (chapman & sellheim, 2017). ali zarei (2012) mentioned advantages of applying the jigsaw technique in the classroom. they are providing space for students to be able to learn and work together in racial and cultural mixing classes, and placing their learning atmosphere on the theme of language acquisition by considering relevant learning content. 3. support the communicative approach in language teaching in this process, students' skills of analysis, comparison, evaluation, and synthesis of information are developed. the benefits stated by banky (2003) are mostly from students because, students have a significant role in the engineering process, thus, students must be well involved in the process. cliffs et al. (2015) stated that one of the benefits of the jigsaw technique is that it providing space for students to play a significant role in indirect involvement in the learning process. therefore, the atmosphere of the process provides opportunities for students to work in class and to share ideas that are likely to be efficient and effective. besides, the jigsaw technique can also enable the students to develop their skills. the advantages are mostly to improve students' reading ability in the term of comprehension. another advantage of the jigsaw technique according to aronson et al. (1978) are: latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 127 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1. jigsaw is easy to learn. 2. jigsaw is enjoyed by most teachers. 3. jigsaw can be used with other teaching strategies. 4. jigsaw works even if only used for an hour per day. 5. jigsaw is free for the taking. aronson et al. (1978), however, identified some of the disadvantages of the jigsaw technique, such as the problem of students is slow; the teacher must ensure that students who have poor learning skills ensure that the student does not present a report that is inferior to the jigsaw class. the problem is that intelligent students will get bored, this boredom condition often occurs in any class, regardless of the type of instructor used by the teacher in the class. the problem is that intelligent students will get bored, this boredom condition often occurs in any class, regardless of the type of instructor used by the teacher in the class. according to the disadvantages mentioned above, teachers who are willing to apply the jigsaw technique should get prepared for all of the possibilities that may happen. 4. concepts of background music styles of music or soundscapes are primarily intended to be passively listened to. it was not intended that the audience be the central part, but as a part to compliment what was intended to be the primary concern. pointed by sigman (2005) background music is music that is intended to be heard, but not actively or purposely listened. another definition of background music is music played at a low level (60 db or less) while other activities occur (dartt, 2009). ostrander & schroeder as cited in harmer said that the baroque music used in suggestopedia with its specific rhythm could influence the human brain to think in real relaxation at maximum material retention. this type of baroque music can create an atmosphere of relaxed thought and concentration. besides the advantages, using music in a learning atmosphere also hurts people who do not like noisy situations. lozanov in james (1978) claimed that music can create a comfortable atmosphere that makes the brain can think optimally and become relaxed when the learning process 128 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj takes place. this condition can be done in non-rowdy conditions in class. it means that this music can function as a means to gain peace and replace the noisy atmosphere in the classroom (white, 2007). the learning process is not useful at all because it will irritate and disturb them. they claimed that it was too complicated to be practiced. they also said that it was difficult for them to divide their mind into two sides, to the music, and the lesson. so, it is assumed that music cannot have a positive impact on children's learning motivation during the learning process. therefore, they prefer to study without background music. method to collect the data, that shows the subjects’ pragmatic competence, the researchers employ the discourse completion tasks or discourse completion tests (dcts) (tanck, 2002; rinnert, nogami, & iwai, 2006; umar, 2006; o'keeffe, a., clancy, b., and adolphs, s., 2011) which were distributed to indonesian efl teachers, indonesian efl students and american native-speaker teachers, who were selected based on a convenient sampling. a. type of research the design of the research employs a quasi-experimental method which applies two classes and divides two classes into two classes, one class as an experimental class and one class as a control class. b. research subjects this research involved the population from the eleventh-grade students of senior high school who are registered and active in the academic year 2015-2016. in this grade, there are two parallel classes. each class has 20-20 students, so the total numbers of respondents are 40 students. the sample is taken by using a random sampling technique. then the researchers determine one class for the experimental class and the other class for the control class. c. research procedure the researchers use an instrument in collecting data, namely a reading comprehension test. the researchers give the pre-test before giving latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 129 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj treatment to the students. the researchers give 20 items of reading comprehension test to students. its purpose is to define the students' prior ability of reading comprehension. after giving treatment, the researchers give 20 items of reading comprehension test to students. it will be given to know a significant difference between the students' abilities before and after applying the jigsaw technique with background music. results and discussions a. results in the research findings, the researchers found that the use of the jigsaw technique with background music in teaching reading comprehension has improved the students' reading test, which was conducted repeatedly in the pre-test and post-test. the score of the students' reading comprehension are as follows: table 1: pre-test and post-test no score classification pretest post-test experimetal group control group experimetal group control group f % f % f % f % 1 81-100 very good 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 2 71-85 good 0 0 0 0 3 15 0 0 3 56-70 fair 2 10 2 10 13 65 5 25 4 41-55 poor 10 50 10 50 2 10 10 50 5 ≤40 very poor 8 40 8 40 1 5 5 25 20 100 20 100 20 100 20 100 the score of the students’ achievement in the pre-test shows that in under expectation, it is mostly in poor classification, because there were 130 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 100% students who are in the level very poor to fair level; so, there is no achievement in the good level or very good level. the same thing also happened in the under expectation of the control group. this reveals that there are 100% students who are in the level of very poor to fair. in the post-test, the students’ achievement seemed to be a little bit much better than in the pre-test. the students who got a jigsaw treatment with music showed their achievement in about 20% from good to very good level. this shows a little indication of improvement of their level from pre-test to the post-test. while, the control group only revealed very few improvements of their level from very poor to fair. in other words, it does not reveal any improvement in good or very good level of achievement. b. mean score the mean score of the students is 42.3, which is categorized as poor classification based on score classification (dirjen pendidikan dasar dan menengah: 2005) and the standard deviation of 11.08 shows that the students' ability is quite varied in the class. whereas, the mean score of the students' reading comprehension in the post-test is 63.35, which is higher than the mean score in the pre-test has indicated that the students' reading comprehension is improved. the standard deviation is 12.57, thus, it means that the students’ mean score in the control class has also showed an improvement but it is under progression of the experimental group improvement. table 2: experimental and control group group pre-test post-test difference gained score experimental 42.3 63.35 21.05 control 41.7 48.2 6.5 the improvement of students' reading comprehension was also proven by the calculation of the students' score of the two classes after latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 131 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj treatment, because the researchers found that the t-test value of 11.92 was higher than the t-table value of 2.042 with the level of the significance of 0.05 and degree of freedom 38. it means that there were significant differences between students who were taught by the jigsaw technique with background music. as a result, this research has successfully showed the improvement of students' reading comprehension. this finding implies the theory from aronson et al. (1978) who stated that jigsaw is cooperative learning as a strategy can minimize racial conflict among children, promotes better learning, improves student motivation, and increase the enjoyment of the learning experience. this finding also proved that music helps us learn (brewer & klein, 2006). other theories by saracho & spodek (2007) supported the research because songs could be used to teach new concepts and to introduce new vocabulary, songs allow children to explore adult roles, and movement to music develops children's awareness of their bodies and what they can do. several other researchers also support the theory of jigsaw technique and background music. chen (2016) described that jigsaw tasks improve not only learner's language skills but also create a supportive learning environment. the effectiveness of jigsaw is also proved by meng (2010) who states that the jigsaw cooperative learning approach is one of the most effective ways of teaching english reading in college. the jigsaw technique is an effective way to promote student participation and enthusiasm as well as a useful technique for language learners to accomplish learning tasks in the efl classroom (mengduo & xiaoling, 2010). another research by houda (2018) pointed out the use of jigsaw reading techniques resulted in lowering the foreign language reading anxiety of the treatment class subject. this research, is also supported by maury & rickard (2016), who applied music exposure and music education. they found that music can positively motivate children's communication and learning functions. silor (2012) also stated that students with multiple intelligence in music could effectively comprehend once their classical background music in the story video presentation with the use of headset while reading the story and analyzing the context. the researcher, white (2007) also implemented background music in the fourth-grade classroom at logan elementary school and proved that background music can be a useful tool. 132 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 1, june 2020, pp. 117 – 141 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conclusion based on the findings and discussion of the research, it can be concluded that the use of the jigsaw technique with background music improves the reading comprehension of the eleventh-grade students of ma ddi tellu limpoe significantly. it is proven by the difference between the data of the reading comprehension test in pre-test and post-test. this is shown by the rate of the score of the post-test in the experimental class is higher than the control class which is 63.35 > 48.2. jigsaw cooperative learning method planning for reading comprehension material, therefore, can be implemented well to improve the competency of high school students in sidrap regency, indonesia. in this particular research, the planning begins with the creation of study groups and expert groups that are tailored to students' abilities in cognitive aspects so that group discussions can be carried out well. the next stage is the creation of a learning plan and a worksheet with reading material that is used as a guide in the application of the jigsaw cooperative learning method. then, the final stage is the making of observation sheets, performance assessment sheets, and multiple-choice tests that are used to assess and evaluate the application of jigsaw type cooperative learning methods. suggestions based on empirical evidence that has been obtained, the following suggestions can be considered in an effort to improve student competencies: 1. teachers should apply more varied learning methods, so students can understand the subject matter delivered better and can actively participate in the learning process in class. one learning method that can be applied is a jigsaw cooperative learning method. 2. in the 2013 curriculum application to the learning process, teachers should not dominate learning in the classroom and provide opportunities for students to actively participate in learning. the teacher in this case, acts as a facilitator and guide students so students can understand the material properly. latifa, a., nur, r., & wadjedy, m.f., the implementation of jigsaw 133 technique with musical background in comprehending reading text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3. in practical learning, the teacher should apply standard assessment criteria so that students are accustomed to carrying out practice well and in an orderly manner from self-preparation (cleanliness and completeness of practice attributes) to the packing process. acknowledgment in the preparation of this article cannot be separated from the support of various parties. the researchers specifically thanks as much as possible to all those who have helped. many researchers receive guidance, guidance and assistance and encouragement from various parties both moral and material. on this occasion the authors express their deepest gratitude to prof. dr. muhammed siri dangga, m.s., chancellor of the muhammadiyah parepare university who has provided much motivation and direction for completing this article. furthermore, my very deep gratitude to dr. amaluddin, m.hum, director of postgraduate who incessantly took the time to process the consultation of some information about the learning issues in this article. lastly, our gratitude is also to all postgraduate lecturers without exception, who are so earnest in providing input in the form of ideas and suggestions that strongly support the completion of this article. references ahmad, z. 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(2007). the effects of background music in the classroom on the productivity, motivation, and behavior of fourth grade students. online submission. microsoft word 50b1-2d88-8bd5-f8f3 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.2; december 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . mooc as an alternative for teaching and learning during covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation reza anggriyashati adara universitas islam “45” bekasi, indonesia email: reza.adara@gmail.com received: 15-04-2021 accepted: 10-12-2021 published: 30-12-2021 mailto:suwarni@bundamulia.ac.id https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj mooc as an alternative for teaching and learning during covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation reza anggriyashati adara reza.adara@gmail.com universitas islam “45” bekasi, indonesia abstract: covid-19 pandemic has forced educators and students to use online learning instead of real-life classrooms. one of the learning platforms that seems to be popularly used during the pandemic is mooc (massive open online course). the present study aims to analyze the motivation dan demotivation factors of indonesian efl learners toward mooc by using a qualitative descriptive method. in order to obtain the results, ten respondents were interviewed. the interview results were transcribed and analyzed using nvivo software. based on the present research’s findings, despite relatively positive attitudes toward moocs shown by the majority of respondents, the respondents were demotivated by moocs because they can get easily distracted when learning through moocs, they get lack feedback from tutors and peers and unreliable internet connections. however, the respondents are motivated to join moocs because moocs provide diverse subjects, encourage students to be autonomous, and provide effective and flexible learning. the results suggest that moocs can be an effective alternative for efl teaching and learning during the pandemic but moocs need to be provided with better interaction between students and tutors to reduce students’ demotivation and encourage more positive attitudes as well as motivation. keywords: mooc, attitudes, motivation, foreign language learning, online language learning. abstrak: pandemi covid-19 telah memaksa pendidik dan siswa untuk menggunakan pembelajaran online alih-alih ruang kelas kehidupan nyata. salah satu platform pembelajaran yang tampaknya populer digunakan di masa pandemi adalah mooc (massive open online course). penelitian ini bertujuan untuk adara, r. a. moocs as an alternative for teaching and learning during 207 covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj menganalisis faktor motivasi dan demotivasi peserta didik efl bahasa indonesia terhadap mooc dengan menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. untuk mendapatkan hasil tersebut, sepuluh responden diwawancarai. hasil wawancara ditranskrip dan dianalisis menggunakan perangkat lunak nvivo. berdasarkan temuan penelitian ini, meskipun sikap yang relatif positif terhadap moocs ditunjukkan oleh mayoritas responden, responden mengalami demotivasi oleh moocs karena mereka dapat dengan mudah terganggu ketika belajar melalui moocs, mereka mendapatkan kurangnya umpan balik dari tutor dan teman sebaya, dan internet yang tidak dapat diandalkan. koneksi. namun, responden termotivasi untuk bergabung dengan moocs karena moocs menyediakan mata pelajaran yang diajarkan beragam, mendorong siswa untuk mandiri, dan memberikan pembelajaran yang efektif dan fleksibel. hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa moocs dapat menjadi alternatif yang efektif untuk pengajaran dan pembelajaran efl selama pandemi tetapi moocs perlu diberikan interaksi yang lebih baik antara siswa dan tutor untuk mengurangi demotivasi siswa dan mendorong sikap serta motivasi yang lebih positif. kata kunci: mooc, sikap, motivasi, pembelajaran bahasa asing, pembelajaran bahasa online. introduction the covid-19 pandemic has changed the education system. in order to prevent the spread of the virus, schools and colleges need to be closed. teaching and learning have resorted to online-based ones. thus, finding suitable online learning and teaching platforms during the covid-19 pandemic seems imperative to cater to the needs. mooc (massive open online course) seems to be a suitable solution for teaching and learning during the covid-19 pandemic. it is reported that the enrollment rate of moocs saw exponential growth during the early stage of the covid-19 pandemic (impey, 2020). on the other hand, demotivation is regarded as the opposite of motivation. analyzing demotivation factors seems important because it can provide insights to reduce demotivation among learners (adara & najmudin, 2020). investigating both motivation and demotivation factors can provide more information to educators and researchers regarding learners’ perceptions toward moocs. therefore, it seems important to analyze learners’ motivation 208 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 206–226 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and demotivation factors toward moocs to see whether it can be a suitable alternative for teaching and learning during the covid-19 pandemic. in this sense, investigating factors which affects learners’ motivation and attitudes toward mooc has become an interesting topic among researchers (cho & heron, 2015; kizilcec & schneider, 2015; shroff, vogel & coombes, 2008). it is because learners’ motivation and attitudes can influence their success in learning english through moocs. there is a relationship between learners’ motivation and achievement in an online learning context (hart, 2012). a motivated learner might finish her online course with better results than an unmotivated one. a similar conclusion is also found in cho & heron’s (2015) study. in addition, a study by kizilcec & schneider (2015) showed how different motivational goals could affect different behavioral patterns of mooc learners. for example, they found that learners who enrolled with their friends were likely to put more effort into their course materials. several studies also showed how mooc participants who were engaged more intensely with their peers were less likely to drop the online classes, showing the benefits of holding online classes with smaller participants (ferguson & clow, 2015; halawa et al., 2014; jordan, 2014; onah et al., 2014). therefore, the learner’s motivation is a major issue that ensures success and encouragement to complete these online courses (lusta, 2018). it can be said that analyzing learners’ motivation and attitudes toward moocs might provide educators and moocs providers with insights to provide moocs which encourage positive attitudes and improve learners’ motivation in the near future. although there are numerous studies that investigate moocs (bates, 2014; chacón-beltrán, 2014; pence, 2012), there is a lack of studies that specifically analyses learners’ motivation and demotivation toward moocs, especially in the context of efl learning during covid-19 pandemic in indonesia. kizilzec & schneider (2015) conducted a study on learners’ motivation in the online learning environment. in addition, berliyanto & santoso (2016) analyzed seven opportunities and challenged conducting moocs in indonesia. nevertheless, the above studies have not touched on efl learners’ motivation and demotivation toward moocs, especially during the covid-19 pandemic. a study that analyses learners’ motivation and demotivation toward moocs will provide deeper insights into how moocs should be designed, particularly in indonesia. the present study aims to analyze a group of efl learners’ motivation and demotivation factors toward moocs. specifically, the present study is guided by the following research questions; adara, r. a. moocs as an alternative for teaching and learning during 209 covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj rq1. what are the attitudes of a group of indonesian efl learners toward moocs? rq2. what factors motivate a group of indonesian efl learners to join moocs? rq3. what factors demotivate a group of indonesian efl learners to join moocs? literature review this section aims to discuss theories and previous studies which became the background of the present study. following is the organization of this section. the first sub-section will discuss learners’ attitudes and motivation in efl learning whereas the next sub-section will review the theoretical background and studies related to moocs. a. learners’ attitude and motivation both attitudes and motivation can predict learners’ success in efl learning. in this regard, attitudes can be defined as either positive or negative feelings toward a language which might reflect a person’s impressions of linguistic difficulty or simplicity. in addition, attitudes reflect a person’s feelings toward speakers of that language (richards et al, 1992). attitudes are considered parts of motivation in language learning because they can determine a learner’s motivation and motives for learning (gardner, 1985, p.10). thus, motivation can be regarded as an initiative that starts actions (dörnyei, 1998). there are numerous studies that analyze efl learners’ attitudes and motivation (lightbown & spada, 1993; victori & lockhart, 1995; walqui, 2000). those studies showed how important positive attitudes and motivation to maintaining learners’ interest. without having positive attitudes and motivation, learners are unlikely to maintain their language learning process. it can be said that those variables are important in efl learning. attitudes and motivation have a co-dependency relationship. it is argued that attitude and motivation cannot exist separately (ellis, 1997) as they are needed to reach a successful language learning experience (gardner, 1985). several studies have shown that students with positive attitudes are likely to be more motivated than those with negative attitudes toward language learning 210 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 206–226 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (bidin et al, 2009; thang et al, 2011). it is because students’ negative attitudes might obstruct their learning process, making it difficult for them to obtain new knowledge in the target language (littlewood, 1983). furthermore, there is a relationship between learners’ motivation, attitudes, and needs (petrides, 2006). in this sense, students might be more motivated because they have positive attitudes as well as needs to master a certain language. the weight of evidence suggests a connection between learners’ motivation and positive attitudes. furthermore, motivation can be divided into extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. in this regard, the prior one can be defined as factors from external sources which make someone wants to achieve something (tuan, 2012). harmer (2001) elaborates that when a learner is extrinsically motivated, he/she learns a target language for functional reasons such as passing exams, getting better jobs or passing university entrance tests. extrinsic motivation can come from various sources such as peers, family, and teachers. on the other hand, intrinsic motivation refers to certain feat that someone is willing to do to master a language (gardner, 1985). if someone is intrinsically motivated, he will view learning activities, not the rewards, as something satisfying (harmer, 2001). although intrinsic motivation is deemed crucial because it can fulfill psychological needs (deci & ryan, 2000) and several studies have shown its effect on learners’ success in language learning (cordova & lepper, 1996; deci & ryan, 1985; gottfried, 1990), it does not mean that extrinsic motivation is less important. both types of motivation affect with each other. this point will be elaborated in the next paragraph. extrinsic motivation can affect intrinsic motivation. ryan & deci (2000) argue that learners will be more intrinsically motivated toward activities that suit their interests. this intrinsic motivation can be cultivated by providing suitable external factors such as learning environment and motivating teachers. numerous studies show how supportive learning environment (good lighting, suitable temperature, the acoustic, desks’ layout) can affect learners’ motivation positively (harmer, 2001; haynes, 1998; lumsden, 1994). in addition, teachers seem to have huge impacts on learners’ motivation. this point is suggested by several studies (davies & pearse, 2000; lumsden, 1994). furthermore, groves (2010) found that a learner could be intrinsically motivated if he/she was faced with supportive learning environment and get extrinsic motivation they need. therefore, it can be said that both types of motivation are needed to support learners. adara, r. a. moocs as an alternative for teaching and learning during 211 covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. mooc the chances of using massive open online course (mooc) in efl learning seems bigger. it has been predicted that moocs might dominate the main part of future education, especially higher education (chauhan, 2014). it will be unsurprising if mooc can eventually be a fixture in efl learning. mooc has been claimed as an efficient platform to provide accessible and affordable higher education (carey, 2012; de waard et al, 2011; lewin, 2012). it is because moocs make it possible for learners from diverse background to join a class rather than using a traditional mode of teaching (wong, 2016). the above factors show how beneficial moocs for learners. nevertheless, it does not mean that moocs are not without criticisms. the huge number of participants in moocs imply a low instructor-to-learner ratio, implying that instructors have to deal with numerous participants and less time to provide individual attention needed to improve learning outcomes (hew & cheung, 2014). besides that, numerous discussions and interactions may make it difficult for the participants who want to keep with key points of respective courses and follow course’s schedule (knox, 2014). thus, as argued by wong (2016), it seems important for institutions and researchers to be aware of best way to deliver mooc for effective learning. one of solutions to provide effective learning experience in moocs is understanding learners’ motivation to join mooc. this point will be discussed further in the next paragraph. understanding learners’ motivation to join moocs might provide better inputs for institutions and researchers to design better moocs. kizilzec & schneider (2015) argue that learners who choose to engage in online learning have their own motivation to do that. thus, understanding their motivation might provide information to design moocs that can serve numerous goals from both learners and instructors. several studies have analyzed learners’ motivation in online environments. a study of cho & heron (2015) showed that intrinsic motivation of online learners is correlated with their learning performance. several studies suggest that in online learning environment, participants tend to focus on segments which related to their goals and interests (kizilcec & schneider, 2015; wang & baker, 2015). these studies toward learners’ motivation in mooc might help course developers to build better online courses. 212 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 206–226 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. demotivation demotivation has negative effects toward students and investigating it is imperative because it can provide insights to reduce it among learners. demotivation refers to factors which reduce learners’ motivation (dörnyei & ushioda, 2013). in contrast to motivation, demotivation can influence learners negatively (falout, elwood & hood, 2009) as demotivated learners may not achieve their learning goals (vibulphol, 2016). in addition, kaivanpanah & ghasemi (2011) remark that the existence of demotivation might contribute to a failure in second language learning as demotivation may make language learning becoming more difficult and less interesting to students. besides that, demotivation can decrease lessons’ efficiency and purpose (dörnyei & murphey, 2003; krishna & pathan, 2013). demotivated learners might lose both instrumental and integrative motivation (bahramy & araghi, 2013) and influence vocabulary learning of learners negatively (tanaka, 2017). it can be said that demotivation is something that needs to be avoided at all cost by language learners in order to reach their language learning goals. furthermore, investigation on demotivation may give information to teachers on how to deal with it (ghadirzadeh et al, 2012) and comprehend target language effectively (kikuchi, 2009). the weight of evidence suggests that despite its negative effects, demotivation is important to be analyzed because learners will benefit from its investigation. method the present study uses a descriptive qualitative method to obtain its data. the qualitative method is applied because it is more suitable to investigate l2 classrooms were experimental research maybe not feasible due to the generalisability of its findings which seem difficult to be found in reallife classrooms (nassaji, 2015). in addition, the sampling used in the present study is convenience sampling. the participants are ten efl learners in a private university in bekasi, indonesia. the participants had taken an online course related to english learning for three months. semi-structured interviews were conducted in bahasa indonesia and translated into english. the interviews’ results were transcribed and analyzed using nvivo software. adara, r. a. moocs as an alternative for teaching and learning during 213 covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results and discussions this section aims to discuss the results of the present study. in order to provide better organization, the discussion will be organized based on its respective research question. rq1. what are the attitudes of a group of indonesian efl learners toward moocs? the results of the present study suggest that most respondents perceive moocs positively. following are the comments of student 1 and student 2 regarding moocs: “i think mooc is a good way for them who wants to learn english in a practical way because they can access it everywhere, every time they want.” (student 1) “i really like (teaching method given in) moocs. in my opinion, english learning with such method is very good because we can rewind the part which we could not understand or skip or if we want to understand the [materials] more because most moocs provide videos like udemy [a moocs’ provider] where all materials are structured…so i think moocs are very good.” (student 2) the above comment shows the respondents’ positive attitudes toward moocs. they regarded moocs as a valuable platform that can provide a good quality education that can be accessed everywhere and at every time. in addition, unlike real-life classrooms, moocs allow them to repeat certain parts they want as moocs usually provide videos for their presentations. it can be said that the majority of respondents have positive attitudes toward moocs. in regard to the above findings, several studies also suggest a positive relationship between moocs and learners’ attitudes. a study of razak & alsuhail (2017) on the attitudes of a group efl iraqi learners toward mooc indicates how students perceived mooc as useful for learning english academic writing and improving their academic performance. in addition, a study of hashemifardnia et al (2021) on the effects of massive open online course (mooc) on iranian efl learners’ speaking complexity, accuracy, and fluency suggests significantly positive attitudes of participants toward mooc instruction for speaking classes. besides positive attitudes, the study suggests 214 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 206–226 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the advantages of moocs toward participants’ speaking skills. using an experimental method, hashemifardnia et al (2021) divided their participants into two groups; experimental and control groups. unlike the control group, the experimental group showed better performance in the speaking test. besides that, lytovchenko & voronina’s (2020) study on the use of moocs as a remote learning tool for teaching english for specific purposes (esp) at universities during the covid-19 pandemic indicates participants’ positive attitudes toward moocs. the above results suggest the positive impacts of moocs on learners’ attitudes. rq2. what factors motivate a group of indonesian efl learners to join moocs? despite the challenges in implementing moocs, the findings of present study show that most respondents are motivated to learn english through moocs. furthermore, the findings of present study found some factors that motivate the participants to join moocs. the following are factors that motivate the respondents to learn english through moocs: a. moocs provide diverse subjects to be learned one of the main factors which motivate the respondents to learn english through moocs is that they can provide diverse subjects to be learned. below is the comments of respondents regarding diverse subjects which are offered by moocs: “in my opinion, mooc is good because it is an online-based platform so that we can choose a course that we like…” student 2 “in my opinion, mooc is very effective because it can, umm, add knowledge besides one we get from the college, of course.” student 6 “i think [moocs] are pretty effective, because, umm this online learning system [allows] us to know english language learning system which is offered by reputable universities abroad.” student 8 the following comments indicate that the respondents seem to regard moocs positively because they offer various knowledge besides one offers by the college. having diverse choices of learning materials allows learners to broaden their knowledge. in addition, moocs provide the respondents with a chance to see language learning systems from other countries. the adara, r. a. moocs as an alternative for teaching and learning during 215 covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj participants of ma & lee’s (2018) study also mention the abundant and diverse materials offered by moocs as a motivating factor. a study of uchidiuono et al (2017) on understanding english-language learners’ motivation in english-language moocs shows that enrolling in moocs allows learners to obtain specific knowledge that they cannot get in their colleges or a specific set of skills that can enhance their careers. in this sense, moocs seem to be able to cater to learners’ specific needs regarding the subject they want to master. furthermore, zheng et al (2015) argue that moocs can evolve into a reliable learning channel that helps individuals to enrich their professional knowledge. however, it may be difficult to cater to all needs of learners. in addition, creating moocs for every subject of knowledge may not be beneficial. instead of designing moocs for diverse subjects that may not be beneficial in the long run, as argued by uchidiuono et al (2017), it is important to design moocs that can meet the long-term goals of learners such as being a fluent speaker of english or mastering certain skills that can benefit their professional lives. b. moocs help the respondents to be more autonomous moocs link with learners’ autonomy. as moocs provide learners with flexible time and a more relaxed attendance approach than real-life classrooms, it helps learners to be more autonomous in arranging their schedules. below is a comment from student 5 regarding the effects of moocs on her autonomous learning style: “in my opinion, moocs are very good to train me to be more autonomous. in this online era, we are demanded to be more independent, especially when we do [college tasks]. during the pandemic, we are used to being independent because we [have been learning through moocs before].” student 5 moocs help the respondent to be more autonomous because of their nature which allows more freedom than in real-life classrooms. instead of being ruled by schedule as dictated in real-life classrooms, moocs let learners to set their own schedule. during the pandemic, it is useful because the respondents are used to setting their own pace. it can be said that the findings of the present study suggest that moocs are considered useful to promote autonomy. related to the above paragraph, autonomy can be developed through moocs as they give learners a chance to practice autonomy through feedback and guidance provision (perifanou, 2014). furthermore, the success of 216 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 206–226 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj moocs depends on learners’ autonomy (davis et al., 2014). the findings of ginting et al’s (2020) study reported that autonomous students are more likely to complete mooc programs. unfortunately, only a small percentage of students is autonomous. on the other hand, a study of misir et al (2018) shows that students who enrolled in moolc (massive open online language course) are highly autonomous and more responsible for their own learning. those studies show that each learner may have different levels of autonomy. similarly, ding & shen’s (2017) study on learners’ autonomy in efl mooc in china reports that each respondent is different in the extent to which they exercised autonomy and how moocs have the potential for developing learners’ autonomy. it can be said that learners’ autonomy is something that needs to be developed and moocs can be a platform to promote it. c. moocs provide an effective and flexible learning one of the main factors which motivate learners to opt for moocs is their flexibility. unlike real-life classrooms with exact time schedules, moocs allow learners to commit to their studies at their own pace and schedule. for some learners, it can be considered more effective than in real-life classrooms. following is a comment from student 3 regarding moocs’ flexibility: “my opinion, i like the mooc because we can study anytime as long as we have internet connection also a solution for those people who don’t have time to go to the courses’ place” (student 3). the above comments show that the respondents think the advantages of moocs are its flexibility and effectiveness as they are not bound to classrooms. similarly, islam et al (2019) add that moocs are effective in achieving the goals of sustainable development as they provide an effective learning environment where students can learn at their own pace and generate less amount of carbon footprints. in addition, yildirim (2020) argues that this format of mooc allows 24/7 access to education and supports lifelong learning. therefore, moocs seem suitable for an extraordinary situation such as the covid-19 pandemic. based on the findings of the present study and previous studies, learners seem to have positive attitudes toward moocs. nevertheless, it does not mean that moocs are free from their perceived disadvantages. the adara, r. a. moocs as an alternative for teaching and learning during 217 covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj respondents of the present study express some of the perceived advantages of moocs. following are respondents’ perceptions of moocs’ disadvantages. d. a lot of distractions unlike real-life classrooms, moocs have a more-relaxed approach in attendance. learners do not have to attend the class in a specific time and can study anytime they want. although san uch approach seems to offer greater freedom and more relaxed, it can make learners to be easily distracted. following is a comment of student 4: "although i ththe ink online course is quite effective, students can be distracted easily with social media in their smartphones [during online course]. umm, personally i prefer real-life classrooms because it is more understandable and we can practice [the lessons], especially [if we learn] applied linguistics courses that need to be practiced directly.” the above comment suggests that learners can be distracted easily when they learn through moocs. as smartphones are connected to internet and usually equipped with various social media, learners may get distracted from learning lessons from moocs. it is why student a prefers real-life classrooms, especially with classes that need practices. the findings rai & chunrao’s (2016) study on fact that affect the success and failuresmoocsmooc show that students can be easily distracted while browsing onlcoursesurse. thus, they note that it is important for students in moocs to devote their time to study. similarly, ma & lee (2018) argue that learners should be equipped with learners’ self-regulating strategies in order to manage distractions while learning in moocs. it can be said that this disadvantage can be overcome with self-regulating strategies. a further study that specifically analyses learners’ self-regulating strategies in moocs can provide better insight into this matter. e. lack of feedback from the instructors or peers besides distractions, the findings of the present study suggest that lack of feedback becomes one of the disadvantages of moocs. due to its massive size, the ratio of instructors and participants is not proportional. there are more participants than instructors can handle. it is why getting personal feedback seems impossible in moocs due to its nature (hodges et al, 2016; roth, 2013). following are the comments of respondents regarding the lack of feedback in moocs: 218 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 206–226 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj “i think mooc is a good way for those who want to learn english in a practical way because they can access it everywhere, every time they want. and for the effectiveness i think for me, not really effective because i need a feedback from my teachers about my progress, problem or my improvement through face to face.” student 1 “in my opinion, what makes moocs less effective is its lack of feedback. it is because when we learn through moocs, we don’t get direct feedback. sometimes we need to wait for feedback or we don’t get any. it is difficult when we have some questions regarding the lessons but we can’t find the answers from anywhere including the internet.” student 9 the above comment suggests that a lack of feedback can make moocs lose their effectiveness. in addition, moocs participants may feel at a loss when they have subsequent questions regarding the materials because of this lack of communication between the participants and the instructors. in addition to the findings of the present study, the findings of yıldırım’s (2020) study on teachers’ views on moocs also indicate a lack of feedback as a factor that leads to reduced motivation among moocs participants. besides reduced motivation, lack of feedback can lead to students’ dropout decisions (aldowah et al, 2019; halawa et al, 2014; hone & el said, 2016; jordan, 2015). in addition to the lack of feedback between the instructors and the participants, the latter party seems to be deprived of interaction with each other. a study by cole & timmerman (2015) shows that limited possibilities for interaction in moocs make it hard for participants to interact with each other. thus, in order to overcome such problem, aldowah et al (2016) suggest providing regulations or changes in moocs’ system that ensure timely feedback of instructors. in addition, as proposed by lytovchenko & voronina (2020), the use of moocs during pandemic should be accompanied with additional technologies that allow real time on-line communication such as zoom, skype or microsoft teams. it can be said that lack of feedback can be a challenge for implementing moocs but it can be overcome with better regulations regarding timely feedback and additional technologies to ensure interaction between instructors and moocs’ participants as well as one among participants. adara, r. a. moocs as an alternative for teaching and learning during 219 covid-19 pandemic: students’ motivation and demotivation https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj f. internet connection moocs depend on the availability of internet connection. without a reliable internet connection, it seems impossible to learn through moocs. despite knowing the benefits of moocs, reliable internet connection makes it difficult for most respondents to attend moocs. numerous studies also report lack of reliable internet connection as one of challenges in implementing moocs (lytovchenko & voronina, 2020; ma & lee, 2018; yıldırım, 2020). thus, educators need to take into consideration whether their students have reliable access of internet before implementing moocs in their classes. conclusion the present study analyzed motivational factors and attitudes of a group of efl learners in learning english through mooc (massive open online course). the present study applied a qualitative method by giving semistructured interviews to ten respondents. the results showed that the respondents have relatively positive attitudes toward moocs. in addition, the respondents were motivated to learn through moocs because they can provide diverse subjects to be learned, help learners to be more autonomous, and provide an effective and flexible learning. nevertheless, the respondents were demotivated with moocs because they were more prone to be distracted when learning through moocs, they get lack of feedback from instructors and peers, and lack of reliable internet connection. the findings of present study suggest that moocs can be a suitable alternative for learning and teaching during covid-19 pandemic. however, there are several factors which need to be considered before implementing moocs to regular classrooms. firstly, students need to be familiar with moocs’ format. the respondents of present study have been familiar with moocs prior data collection. this familiarity will help them to gain benefits from moocs. in addition, moocs are more suitable for autonomous learners. thus, teachers cannot directly implement moocs to their classrooms before understanding their students’ characteristics. besides that, teachers should make sure that students will not lose their interaction to teachers or peers. such interaction will motivate students better. teachers can provide students with online meeting such as ones from zoom or google meet. in addition, teachers can group their students for certain projects or study groups while finishing mooc. by conducting those actions, teachers 220 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 206–226 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj can make sure students get some interaction with their classmates. nevertheless, teachers still have to make sure that all students have reliable internet connection because the positive sides of moocs will not matter if there is no access to internet connection. despite the efforts to minimize it, the present study is not without some limitations. firstly, the present study will benefit from longer duration of data collection and a bigger number of respondents. in addition, the present study will gain deeper insights if it is conducted with varied research instruments such as questionnaires or students’ journals to record students’ perceptions of moocs. nevertheless, it does not the present study is not without merits as it can be a milestone for similar studies. next studies can investigate students’ perceptions of moocs and the effects of feedback toward moocs’ completion rates. references adara, r. a., & najmudin, o. 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(2015). understanding student motivation, behaviors, and perceptions in moocs. cscw 2015 proceedings of the 2015 acm international conference on computer-supported cooperative work and social computing. https://doi.org/10.1145/2675133.2675217 microsoft word d5cc-63eb-895d-a33d a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena wati’s novel cakra waruga 1muhammad syafri badaruddin, 2simon sitoto, and 3husain hasyim 1,2,3 english department, faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia email: 1msyafri@unhas.ac.id, 2simonsitoto22@gmail.com, 3husain.hasyim.61@gmail.com received: 29-04-2021 accepted: 10-06-2021 published: 30-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena wati’s novel cakra waruga muhammad syafri badaruddin 1 , simon sitoto 2 , and husain hasyim 3 msyafri@unhas.ac.id 1 , simonsitoto22@gmail.com 2 , husain.hasyim.61@gmail.com 3 1,2,3 english department, faculty of cultural sciences, hasanuddin university, makassar, indonesia abstract: through the novel with malaysian background, arena wati includes socio-cultural aspects of bugis-makassar and javanese in social interaction of malaysian community. the aim of the study is to compare cultural assimilation between indonesia and malaysia in arena wati’s novel, cakra waruga. the writing applied multidisciplinary approach which emphasizes the disciplines, such as literature, culture, history and sociology. the analysis of this writing used multidisciplinary approach, which includes intrinsic and extrinsic elements. the study indicates that the occurrence of cultural assimilation between indonesia and malaysia was possible due to many bugis and makassar people who came and settled in malaysia. this is due to the existence between the two countries despite their differences, but they belong to the same family that is malay. key words: assimilation, culture, novel, intrinsic, cakra waruga abstrak: melalui novel berlatar belakang malaysia, arena wati memasukkan aspek sosial budaya bugis-makassar dan jawa dalam interaksi sosial masyarakat malaysia. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan asimilasi budaya antara indonesia dan malaysia dalam novel cakra waruga karya arena wati. penulisan ini menerapkan pendekatan multidisiplin yang menekankan pada disiplin ilmu, seperti sastra, budaya, sejarah dan sosiologi. analisis penulisan ini menggunakan pendekatan multidisiplin yang meliputi intrinsik dan ekstrinsik. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terjadinya asimilasi budaya antara indonesia dan malaysia dimungkinkan karena banyaknya orang bugis dan makassar yang datang dan menetap di badaruddin, m.s. cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena watt’s 141 novel cakra waruga https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj malaysia. hal ini dikarenakan adanya perbedaan antara kedua negara tersebut meskipun berbeda tetapi masih satu keluarga yaitu melayu. kata kunci: asimilasi, budaya, novel, intrinsik, cakra waruga introduction literary work, especially novel, is one of the media to express a particular culture and human social activity in narrative form. the source of inspiration is of course from various events and social activity in the culture of the community which is recorded, experienced, or witnessed by the author, let alone if the author is a part of that culture such as arena wati in her work cakra waruga. therefore, the characters shown in a novel will represent the culture which acts according to the custom and habit of the community. an interaction between indonesian and malaysian has lasted for a long time since there was a contact between the two countries. the interaction for life is the most important principle because it does not only occur between the two races and customs but also between individuals. the indonesian and malaysian communicate to fulfill social desires and their needs for living. the communication between genders may result in marriage and this will cause assimilation. when the marriages produce offspring, then the offspring will assimilate themselves in the two cultures: malaysian culture and indonesian culture. in cakra waruga novel, the assimilation between indonesian and malaysian cultures was found through marriage between leaders and the social interaction in a community. this paper gives a social and cultural interpretation toward the assimilation between indonesian and malaysian cultures in arena wati’s novel cakra waruga. the most interesting thing in the novel is the use of characters which have indonesian culture especially bugis-makassar and javanese in the context of life of malaysian community. this is of course due to the existence of both countries which is different, but they belong to the same family that is malay. arena wati himself is a malaysian and poet of malaysia, he is also the descendant of bugis-makassar who was born in indonesia. the use of the main character of bugis-makassar and javanese background in the context of malaysian community with the setting pontian, malaysia was the realization of the role of literary work represented by arena 142 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 140–152 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj wati’s works in eliminating the gap between indonesia and malaysia viewed from social, economic, and political aspects by using literary work as a medium particularly in cultural assimilation between the two countries. among the characters of the story were kang juri and raden mas sutarto bin rm.sastromulyo of mataram kingdom, salam the son of kang juri, mustafa the son of datuk dan, the great grandson of wak coneng of wajo, south sulawesi, rubiah and kintan the descendant of andi massek. the role of the main characters in the story brings their own tradition and culture in social interaction. cakra waruga was arena wati’s work, a malaysian literary man who was a descendant of bugis – makassar. through the novel with malaysian background, arena wati includes socio-cultural aspects of bugis-makassar and javanese in social interaction of malaysian community. even in the family tree of the characters of the story, there was a mixture of indonesian and malaysian blood, indonesian and indonesian which becomes the third generation. this reflects the cultural assimilation in the novel, namely between indonesian and malaysian cultures. the research question posed in this study is on how the interrelation of cultural assimilation between indonesian and malaysian in cakra waruga novel by arena wati is. this research was done to find out cultural assimilation between indonesian and malaysia through the novel entitled cakra waruga by arena wati. method this study is based on library research that is conducted in different places. the primary data used in the analysis was taken from arena wati’s novel cakra waruga. the secondary data were collected from journals, articles, books and historical documents such as letters, autobiographies and notes. the writing applied multidisciplinary approach which emphasizes the disciplines, such as literature, culture, history and sociology. badaruddin, m.s. cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena watt’s 143 novel cakra waruga https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj general review of cultural relations between indonesia and malaysia the position of the two countries is very important in the field of trade to develop the culture. at the same time the similarity of religion (islam) also contributes to the relationships between the two countries. at this paper the review of megalithic, aceh gravestone and artifact of islamic shilling to view the sustainability of relationships of both countries. in evaluating sociocultural relationship, sumijati (1984) points out that this relationship involves a broad scope since it has simple or complex value of culture interacts one another to form a system. this system will motivate the community to preserve it. first, geldern points out the effect of megalithic into two stages; (1) initial stage disseminated through ethnic and cultural wave; (2) what is disseminated through immigration (nik hassan suhaimi, 1999). i.h.n. evans (1921: 160) was the first who studied megalithic in malaysian peninsula indicates that there are two main elements in the relationship between malay land and sumatera. first, based on trade and second, dissemination and exchange of culture. fifteen granites were reported by evans and three megalithic stones and other late rites are still scattered, slanted and on the ground. along the process of excavation, man skeleton was never found at the foot of this megalithic stone (mohd supian, 2003). the art form developed simultaneously before and after islam can be seen based on the archeological remain of megalithic stones in pengkalan kempas, negeri sembilan (miksic, 1984: 40). it can be seen from two aspects: form produced through physical observation having a wheel, umbrella, and creese. second, the form of shilling produced by the malacca malay sultanate viewed from the aspect of physical indicates the effect of initial government developed previously. this can be seen in the archeological remain of shilling once found in samudra pasai kingdom. through the archeological remain of shilling, it indicates that there was a title used to increase the destiny of islam in daily life. the symbol was printed on the back of the shilling and the name of government was printed at the front part of the shilling. third, data on aceh features of tomb can be related to the use of nature elements as a symbol viewed from the point of view of islamic archeology. the ornament pattern in aceh gravestone has art elements based on two main aspects: elements before and at the time of islam and adjustment between arts before and at the time of islam. the ornaments can also be divided into four: 144 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 140–152 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (1) related to nature such as in the form of mountain (head), related to nature such as lily flower (part of the shoulder and part of the foot); (2) geometrical elements are in the forms of line, curve, round (part of the foot); (3) animal symbol in the form of spiders web (part of the foot) and (4) symbolism element that is tears form (part of the head), ladder ornament (part of the body) and shoulder (part of the body) othman, 1988; perret and kamaruddin 1999, 41-44). the interesting aspect of this aceh gravestone is its types of art which is physically can be differentiated according to development and periods. the name and year of the dead is also found in aceh gravestone. cultural assimilation assimilation is the mixture of elements causing the loss of the originality of an element and formation of a new element which then called mixture of elements. therefore, the assimilation of two cultures is the mixture of one culture with the other and this creates an assimilation of culture. the assimilation is due to interaction, but this does not always result in assimilation, therefore interaction between malaysian and indonesian people does not always result in cultural assimilation. but the assimilation was initially begun with interaction. interaction resulted in assimilation is interaction between malaysian people and visitors especially from indonesia who are muslims. social interaction and trade between the two countries was then continued to the level of marriage. the marriage resulted in the birth of mixed descendants and united into one malay malaysian community. the assimilation also occurs due to interaction of malay and non-malay ethnic groups and intermarriage between ethnic groups of the same religion. such marriage is regarded to be very beneficial, because it can broaden the family relationship, for instance, the marriage between malay-malaysia and bugis-makassar; malay-malaysia and javanese, etc. the main factor hampering the discontinuity of the interaction to the level of marriage was the difference in religion. when one left his religion and embraced other religion or the belief of his opposite sex, then marriage could take place. the marriage between malay and non-malay muslim or between malay and non-malay of non-muslim malay who is not from malay race can develop toward assimilation provided they have the same religion or same belief. muslim malay who married to non-malay who is muslim can easily assimilate than between non-muslim malay and non-muslim non-malay because the badaruddin, m.s. cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena watt’s 145 novel cakra waruga https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj malay people are not easy to accept the second assimilation. on the contrary, non-muslim non-malay can accept the assimilation with malay people who have the same religion. in this case, factors regarded to malaysianism and islamism or similarity of religion fully determine the assimilation between the malay and non-malay people. it is no wonder if the non-muslim non-malay people left their religion and embraced islam. they are then called malay people because some of the community members notice that malay and islam are identical. socio-culture in cakra waruga the realization of custom gives the live to the community. ideas, concepts, norms and belief in it arranges and gives direction to human social activity who interacts and to the human work itself including literary work. direction and guide of the cultural system cause patterned action in human activity which interacts (koentjaraningrat, 1990: 187). wiranata (2002: 103) points out further that the realization of culture in the form of interaction human activities, socialize, and communicate one another follow certain pattern based on behavioral system. this reflects the inseparable link between literary work and human in it which is related to social, cultural, customary aspects of human community. this novel basically talks about the behavior of the rich family, datu dan and kang juri. the relationship among the three families was strengthened by friendship due to marriage. in cakra waruga novel, the death of salam, the son of kang juri and mbak ngisa, was followed by a set of activities reflected the civilization of bugis-makassar including javanese, namely on the third day of taksiah (religious gathering to commemorate someone’s death), tembosa (ritual meal) and juadah (cake made of rice) were served and on the seventh day tembosa was not served. tembosa is a symbolic matter related to the condition of the corpse in the cemetery. therefore, juadah or offering on the third day was different from juadah on the seventh day of the death due to the different of corpse condition in the cemetery. besides that, wak coneng’s house between two trees, namely tamarind and binjai (a fruit tree) is the reflection of bugis traditional house in which there are several symbols depicting the habit of bugis people. 146 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 140–152 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cultural assimilation through marriage indonesia and malaysia are two countries of the same race with different cultures but reflects similarity with one another. and even indonesian national language has many things in common with malaysian national language because the two countries are of the same origin of language, namely malay language. living together in one continent that is asia makes easy interaction between the two countries and this makes it very possible for cultural assimilation through marriage. arena wati himself is a man from makassar, indonesia and became a citizen of malaysia. his arrival in malaysia, of course would also bring his own custom and habit and at the end assimilate with custom and habit of malay people. cultural assimilation between the two countries through marriage gave color to arena wati’s work whose real name is muhammad dahlan bin abdul biang. datuk haji hamdan and ustazah maimunah are parents of prof. dr. mustafa as one of the main characters in cakra waruga novel. datuk hamdan, the father of mustafa was the son of bilal mion of lebai haji sarwan descendant from banjar who was an imam in karimun during his life. whereas ustazah maimunah, the mother of mustafa was the daughter of sabiah who a real descendant from wak coneng was whose nick name was patta lasinrang from wajo. mustafa knew from his grandmother’s story, sabiyah binti wak coneng, that formerly there was no road connected kukup and pontian. tigers proliferated in the forest at the upstream of rimba terjun. the tigers roamed and came to the coast keeping an eye on the monkeys’ eating conches during the ebb tide. conch is the food for monkeys and monkey is the food for tigers. that was the situation of pontian at that time, namely when tuan haji usman bin yahya from trengganu came to rimba terjun. he cut down trees of sultan abu bakar. then he planted bananas and beetle nuts and then changed it to rubber plantation. he brought unskilled laborers from java to work at the rubber plantation. tuan haji usman was asked to be an imam, but he refused. then, nik senik and his family came from kelantan, engku mumba, bugis selangor and family came from kelang. there had been bugis selat there named madamin then married to banang malay. madamin worked on the swamp at the coast and then planted it with coconuts and beetle nuts. during the era of sultan ibrahim, he opened rubber plantation as well. badaruddin, m.s. cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena watt’s 147 novel cakra waruga https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the family initially had forest land at rimba terjun. at that time the malay people from karimun and siak, bugis people and banjar alai arrived at rambah, teluk kerang, penerok, permas and serkat. among the banjar people, including mion’s father, mustafa’s grandfather named lebai haji sarwan who came from martapura. he was an imam at karimun. therefore, mion who was born at pamerok, mustafa’s grandfather was older several months than sabiyah, mustafa’s grandmother. mustafa was a descendant of bugis, and banjar became a citizen of malaysia. therefore, bugis, banjar and malay cultures have assimilated in mustafa’s own body. the assimilation occurred through marriage among their ancestors. mustafa then married to kintan, datuk haji bob’s son and juriah. datuk bob, kintan’s father was born in benut. his father’s name was andi ambak bin andi masse, a bugis of wajo descendant and his mother was habibah alias bibi binti adam khan. adam was from patan, a descendant of peshawar was married to malay woman, batu pahat a descendant of the mixture of hakka chinese and malay. further, kintan’s mother, juriah, was malay from parit botak, rengit. his father was buginese of javanese descent and chinese mother. this means that kintan was of bugis, javanese, malay and chinese blood. the second son of datuk bob and juriah was rubiah married with salam who has pure blood of central java. salam was one of the sons of haji bajuri bin raden mas sutarto known as kang juri and hajjah aisyah binti raden mas sumiarto known as mbak ngisa. this couple has three children: suratmo, sumarni, and supardi. the marriages mentioned above was an event causing cultural assimilation between indonesia and malaysia. although most of them came from bugis and makassar and java, indonesia to pontian, they have already become malay citizen from their ancestor. therefore, in themselves there have been mixture of two cultures, namely indonesian and malaysia cultures and of course gave color to their daily life. all this gave color to the assimilation of two cultures: indonesia and malaysia in the story. culture at the tombstone when a person dies, a tombstone is put on his/her cemetery as a sign that in that place a human being has been buried. for the indonesian people, especially muslims the tombstone of adult is different from the tombstone of a child. the shape of the tombstone is different between male and female. the 148 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 140–152 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj tombstone of a male is round, and the tombstone of female is flat. for the tombstone having a heart shape, it faces up for the male and it faces down for the female. for the latter, not all tombstones use it, but it is also one of the cultural elements in indonesia. the phenomena toward the tombstone are one of the cultural aspects in indonesia especially the form and heart shape on the tombstone is also found in cakra waruga novel as one of the indications that cultural assimilation has occurred in the architecture of the tombstone: “the male tombstone angle faces up and the tombtone is hexagon in shape which is almost round. the female tombstone angle faces down and quadrangle in shape, and is almost flat” (arena wati, 2006: 16). however, the beauty of architecture of both types of tombs told in the story expressed the identity of the tombstone owner that he/she has prepared himself/herself to face the death. awareness and perception to life after death is the guide of the attitude and social behavior which is always directed to the ways which are not contradictory to the norms of their religion. culture in the implementation of taksiah of the dead taksiah (religious gathering to commemorate someone’s death) is a ceremonial activity which has been adopted in indonesia especially for muslims is usually done at the first, second and third nights. but it is also done until the seventh day of the dead. the people who come at this time listen to religious lecture related to death as a kind of expression of condolence. in cakra waruga, on the third and seventh days of the death of salam, kang juri’s son it was done with special food according to custom as said by kintan: “tembosa (ritual meal) for the feast on the third day, whereas food served on the seventh day is mungbeans porridge as a symbol of the corpse condition on the seventh day of the death”. culture of bringing souvenirs in the context of feast or ceremony according to bugis-makassar culture and javanese culture, people who come is served with food and when they go home, they are also given souvenirs to take home. during taksiah on the third badaruddin, m.s. cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena watt’s 149 novel cakra waruga https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj day of the death of salam, women filled plastic with rice, meat and cake. this is a souvenir for the guests to take home for the family. the custom to give souvenir to the guests is carried out at pontian with additional variation accustomed to malay people. in java, the implementation of selamatan (commemoration of someone’s death) or taksiah is done by preparing nasi tumpeng (a cone of rice with dishes) kept in a parcel of pyramidal shape surrounded by meat and vegetable. this is not eaten by the guests, but it is meant to take. they only eat food that has been prepared and they drink coffee. there is also nasi ambang (red rice) with meat put on tray. the content can be eaten by twelve people divided into four then wrapped for the guests to take home. then the javanese at pontian varied it so that the guests can eat rice and other dishes. nasi tumpeng is symbolization of gratefulness to god for his blessings. creese for bugis-makassar and javenese community for bugis-makassar and javanese community, creese is a symbol of masculinity associated for a man. many bugis-makassar people view the creese as their souls so that for them no day without creese. the masculinity of a man with a creese on hand was shown by prince diponegoro in java and sultan hasanuddin in gowa, south sulawesi in defending their country against colonialism. viewing a creese as a friend in struggle for life especially during the colonial time make this weapon special for the community so that by having and keeping this weapon is assumed to be a cultural aspect of indonesia. its cultural aspect is clearly viewed in the way of handling it. the creese has a historic value or even certain mystic value in the eyes of those who own it. in cakra waruga novel expressed in narrative form of cultural assimilation of indonesia and malaysia, datuk dan, the father of mustafa, was a man who loves creese. he kept many creeses as mentioned by rubiah who was touched by the hobby of datuk dan in keeping the creese. for datuk dan including noblemen of java and bugis-makassar, keeping a creese is something comfortable. viewing and touching the creese can give personal comfort. for them the creese can give entertainment to make the depressed mind calm. 150 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 140–152 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj horse riding there are several characters in the novel mentioned about the dissemination of culture such as kang juri from java, mustafa from banjar, wak conneng from bugis, datuk bob and rubiah from malaysia. prof. dr. rubiah knew from sawitri that man in the past loved a horse very much so that by having a horse was a pride. in indonesia the horse is a means of transportation to help community in their activity such as carrying paddy from the rice field and carrying people from one place to another or carrying heavy things using a cart. horses were used as a means of transportation in the past when roads had not been built. horses in the past were viewed not only as a true helper in doing activities but also, they were assumed to improve social status of someone. this is due to not all people own a horse. therefore, a horse is a symbol of authority for a man, for javanese and bugis-makassar as well. the authority reflected the use of horses in the struggle of indonesian gains the colonialism. prince diponegoro in java with his white horse and sultan hasanuddin in gowa with his black horse struggle with people against the colonialism. many heroes in java and bugis-makassar used horses in war and they were the leaders of the squad. having a horse, especially a stallion, was a pride for a man. in jeneponto, the birthplace of arena wati is a region which is popular for its horses. today horses in jeneponto still give contribution to the life of some people there. horses are not only used for daily activities but also, they give energy for those who consume the meat. in makassar we can eat coto kuda (spicy horse meat) to improve vitality for man and is good to prevent infection on wound. all the horses consumed in makassar are generally from jeneponto regency. riding horse culture in bugis-makassar area has been promoted to tourists. in malino, one of the tourism areas in gowa regency, the tourists can enjoy riding horse around the location guided by the horse owner. this is a realization form of riding horse culture in bugis-makassar area. conclusion culture of a community is the reflection of situation and social behavior in the community of which the use has been agreed in interaction. the culture is in the form of habits of the community in the past of which the existence is still preserved until today. badaruddin, m.s. cultural assimilation of indonesia-malaysia in arena watt’s 151 novel cakra waruga https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the habit is in oneself so that wherever he/she goes the habit is with him/her. therefore, the indonesian people who travel to malaysia bring their own habits causing the assimilation of culture between the two countries. this mainly occurs when there is a marriage between indonesian and malaysian. and, between indonesian and other indonesian who has assimilated for a long time with malaysian culture. the implementation of taksiah on the third day and the seventh day of salam’s death, kang juri’s and mbak ngisa’s son at pontian was an example of cultural assimilation of the two nations. likewise, the culture of bringing souvenirs which is from java is carried out in pontian, malaysia. the appreciation to creese, horse, and placement of tomb on the cemetery is a part of the culture of both nations. the narration of cultural assimilation between indonesia and malaysia in cakra waruga novel is inseparable from arena wati’s biography as the writer of the novel. he is an indonesian with malaysian citizenship has assimilated two cultures in himself that is indonesian culture and malaysian culture. references agastja, i. k. (1951). sejarah dan perjuangan di malaya (history and struggle in malay). jogjakarta: penerbitan nusantara. arena, w. (2006). cakra waruga (social meeting to discuss problems). bangi: universiti kebangsaan malaysia. evans, i. h. . (1921). a grave and megaliths in negeri sembilan: an account of some excavations. jfm, vol.ix. koentjaraningrat. (1990). pengantar antropologi. (introduction to anthropology). jakarta: rineka cipta. mattulada. (1997). kebudayaan, kemanusiaan, dan lingkungan hidup. (culture, humanity, and environment). makassar: hasanuddin university press. miksic, j. (1987). from sriwijaya to malaka: batu tagak in historical culture contex. jmbras, 60. othman, y. (1988). batu aceh early islamic graves stones in peninsular malaysia. kuala lumpur: persatuan muzium malaysia. 152 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 140–152 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj perret, d. & k. a. r. (1999). batu aceh warisan sejarah johor. (acehnese stone and legacy of johor history). johor bharu: yayasan warisan johor. rahman, n. h. s. n. a. (1999). arkeologi pra-islam pesisir selat melaka. evolusi atau migrasi. (pra islamic archeology of malaka coast. evolution or migration). bangi: universiti kebangsaan malaysia press. sumijati, a. (1984). tempat upacara di daerah flores timur: suatu tradisi megalitic. rapat evaluasi hasil penelitian arkeologi ii.(a place for a ceremony in east flores: a megalitic tradition. evaluation meeting of archeological research result ii). cisarua. supian bin sabtu, m. (2003). arkeologi, kesenian dan sejarah: satu tinjauan terhadap budaya megalitik di pengkalan kempas (archeology, art, and history: a review of megalitic culture in pengkalan kempas). purba.bil, 22. wiranata, i, g. a. b. (2002). antropologi budaya (cultural anthropology). bandung: citra aditya. a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 1; july 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays sukarno english department, faculty of letters, jember university, indonesia tel +62 85234831136 email: msukarno08@gmail.com received: 28-01-2016 accepted: 14-07-2016 published: 31-07-2016 the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays sukarno msukarno08@gmail.com english department, faculty of letters, jember university, indonesia abstract: a language learner often faces many linguistic differences, especially if the native language and the target language are from different language families. the current study investigates the grammatical errors made by the first year students of the english department, faculty of letters, jember university, indonesia. the data were collected from 30 participants’ essays of writing 01 class (documentary data) conducted from august to december 2014. having been identified, the errors were classified into various categorizations, and analyzed based on descriptive-interpretative method to find the possible sources of the errors. the research revealed that the learners committed ten types of grammatical errors, and the six mostly prominent errors were plural form, subject-verb agreement, verb tense, word form, subject/verb omission, and passive voice respectively. this research also showed that the errors mostly resulted from the different linguistic principles of indonesian and english (interlingual transfer), and partly from the faulty of overgeneralization of english rules (intralingual transfer). the overt influences of indonesian to english as well as the overgeneralization of english rules can provide the writing teachers and course designers with insightful guidelines for better understanding of the sources of errors, which in turn, can help them to apply the more appropriate approaches to manage the foreign language learners’ errors of the students. key words: grammatical errors, native language, target language, interlingual, intralingual abstrak: karena tatanan bahasa dapat berbeda-beda antarbahasa, seseorang yang sedang mempelajari bahasa asing sering mengalami berbagai 2 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 perbedaan aturan kebahasaan, khususnya apabila bahasa ibunya (l1) dan bahasa yang sedang dipelajarinya (l2) berasal dari rumpun bahasa yang berbeda. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap kesalahan-kesalahan gramatika yang terdapat pada esei (karangan) mahasiswa tahun pertama pada jurusan sastra inggris universitas jember. data penelitian ini dikumpulkan dari 30 karangan mahasiswa (data dokumenter) yang berasal dari matakuliah writing i dari bulan agustus sampai dengan bulan desember 2014. setelah dikumpulkan, data diklasifikasikan ke dalam beberapa kategorisasi gramatika, dan dianalisis dengan metode deskriptif interpretatif untuk menemukan penyebab atau sumber berbagai kesalahan tersebut. hasil penelitian ini menyatakan bahwa terdapat sepuluh jenis kesalahan gramatika yang dilakukan mahasiswa dalam eseinya, dan enam kesalahan yang menonjol adalah kesalahan dalam hal penulisan bentuk nomina jamak, kesesuaian bentuk subjek dan verba, tenses, bentuk kata, penghilangan unsur subjek/verba, dan konstruksi kalimat pasif. studi ini membuktikan bahwa sumber kesalahan tersebut terutama berasal dari perbedaan prinsip-prinsip kebahasaan bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris (pengaruh bahasa ibu/interlingual transfer), dan sebagaian disebabkan oleh kesalahan penyamarataan aturan kebahasaan bahasa (inggris) yang dipelajarinya (intralingual transfer). pengaruh yang besar atas bahasa indonesia terhadap bahasa inggris dan penyamarataan aturan kebahasaan pada bahasa yang dipelajari sepatutnya dapat dijadikan acuan bagi pengajar kelas writing dan pihak penyusun materi matakuliah writing agar mereka dapat memilih dan menerapkan pendekatan yang lebih tepat guna menangani berbagai kesalahan mahasiswa terutama yang masih berada pada tahun pertama. kata kunci: kesalahan gramatika, bahasa ibu, bahasa sasaran, interlingual, intralingual introduction basically, learning a language consists of active and productive skills. writing is generally considered to be one of the active or productive skills of language usage. it is considered active and productive because learners have to apply many aspects of language, such as: general knowledge, vocabulary, and grammar in this subject. writing is also considered very important in every curriculum of university because it is believed that this subject can be seen as a tool for language development, for critical thinking, and for learning in all disciplines. in universities, writing becomes significant because most subjects depend on it. taking notes, writing essays, answering questions, writing reports, and finally writing thesis also need the help of sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 3 writing class. the skills presented in writing will also develop the students’ skills in acquiring the needed strategies to present the data, to analyze, to interpret, and to make inference from the data collected from their researches (bacha, 2002). there are some aspects can be evaluated from the students’ essays, such as: the content (the information presented in the essays), the organization (the ways of organizing ideas), and the language accuracy (the appropriate and acceptable forms of grammar used in the essay). the content and the organization, however, will be hard to follow if the language (the grammar) they used is not accurate. accuracy in writing occurs when the language learner conforms to the rules of the target language; and error occurs when it does not. those rules may be at different levels: pronunciation, morphology, syntax, lexicon, discourse, or sociolinguistics (carla, 2015). since the focus of the study is the grammatical errors, the appropriate levels for the errors are morphology and syntax levels made by the students in their essays. literature review a. contrastive analysis and error analysis concerning to the learner’s errors, there are two major approaches to study, namely contrastive analysis and error analysis. error analysis cannot be studied properly without touching upon the notion of contrastive analysis. both of them have been commonly recognized as branches of applied linguistic science (khansir, 2012). contrastive linguistics has been defined as a linguistic study which concerns with the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both differences and similarities between them (fisiak, 1981). the contribution of contrastive analysis in the language teaching is the description of the grammatical errors which made up the differences between the grammar of the native language (l1) and that of the target language (l2). in relation to the sources of errors, bose (2005) explained that one of the sources of the learner’s errors is the interference (or transfer, according to ellis (1997) of his native language which can be depicted as the negative and positive transfer between l1 and l2. the negative transfer occurs when the grammatical forms of l1 and l2 are different, while the positive transfer happens if they are similar. another attitude to errors is that they are the result of the influence of l1 on the learning process called interference. this process is also based on the fact that learning foreign language is strongly influenced by the habit of the learner’s native language (corder, 1987). 4 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 error analysis, on the other hand, claimed that the learner’s errors are not merely caused by the native language because many errors actually made have no parallel with the native language structures (khansir, 2012). referring to both contrastive linguistics and error analysis, errors may be caused by both contrastive difference as well as the structures of the target language itself. richards and schmidt (2010) and shekhzadeh and gheichi, (2011) distinguish between two sources of errors: interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. interlingual transfer explains that errors may result from the language transfer of similar rules from the learner’s native language to the target language. for example, the incorrect english sentence ‘john go to school every day*’ was produced as the transfer of his native (indonesian) language rule ‘john pergi ke sekolah setiap hari’ in which indonesian does not have subject-verb agreement. in contrast, intralingual transfer describes that errors are caused by the mutual interference of items in the target language (keshavarz, 1994) which is also known overgeneralization or ignorance of rule restriction of the target language. overgeneralization occurs when the learner has mastered a general rule but he does not yet know all the exceptions to that rule (ziahosseiny, 1999 p. 126). for example, a learner may produce ‘he must to go to school*’ based on the overgeneralization of the english structure ‘he wants to go to school’. b. previous studies there have been many recent publications in contrastive analysis and error analysis on the errors made by learners of english as a foreign language in many different levels. the study of the morphophonological or syntactic transfer in the acquisition of articles by syrian speakers was conducted by sarko (2008) in which he found that they transfer the syntactic properties of l1 into english grammar. ting et al (2010) investigated the grammatical errors in spoken english of university students in oral communication course who are less proficient in english. the results of the research showed that the five common errors made by the learners are preposition, question, article, plural form of noun, subject-verb agreement, and tense. the result also showed an increase in grammatical accuracy in the students’ spoken english towards the end of the course. next, isabelli-garcia and slough (2012) investigated the acquisition of non-generic definite article by spanish learners of english as a foreign language which proved that the obligatory use of the definite articles does increase accuracy rates. further study on morphological and syntactic errors was carried out by al-badawi (2012) who investigated phonetic, morphological and syntactic errors made by the undergraduate saudi students at king khalid university. sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 5 further publications of contrastive and error analysis on english essays or writing productions as well as translation for non-english speakers (chinese, spanish, arab, jordan, french, among others) have been conducted by the following researchers. research on error analysis of chinese learners of the korean language manifested errors within learners’ written works was conducted by lee (2010). this research revealed that errors resulted both from the native language transfer as well as from the target language transfer. zahwareh (2012) investigated the written english errors of tenth grade students in females and males schools in ajloun, jordan. this study revealed the grammatical errors occurring in the areas of morphology, function words, tenses, and lexical items. the next study (sokeng, 2014) presented the discussion of the difficulties that bilingual level 1 francophone students in the department of bilingual studies of the university of yaounde 1 face in english. the analysis of their compositions revealed that the most salient grammatical errors found in the students essays covering the fields of verb tense and form, subject-verb agreement, prepositions, word order, plurality, articles, passive voice, auxiliaries and double negation. these results proved that the teaching and learning of english writing skill of secondary students in cameroonian primary and secondary schools need more reinforcement and development. finally, presada and badea (2014) conducted a research on the effectiveness of error analysis within the translation classes on the theoretical framework of contrastive and error analysis. this study investigates the most frequent types of errors and their causes. the findings of this research constitute a data base which is necessary to conceive a more effective teaching and learning process that focuses not only on translation classes, but also on the acquisition of english as a foreign language in general. an overview of the importance of error analysis in teaching english as a foreign language in indonesia was carried out by hasyim (2002). this article presented some sample of english sentences containing grammatical errors made by the students and analyzed them based on the linguistic theories. by this discussion, the students are expected to increase their knowledge on their english grammar. a study on phonological errors particularly the english consonantal sounds that do not exist in indonesian phonetics system produced by english department students was conducted by tiono and yostanto (2008). the study revealed that the students produced thirty-four kinds of phonological errors and that the deviations occurred most frequently before, after, or in between vowels. andi-pallawa 6 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 and alam (2013) also conducted a comparative analysis between english and indonesian phonological systems. this study proved that some differences of phonemic and phonetic features between english and indonesian make 20 english department students of tadulako university, indonesia, as the respondents, still have problems in pronouncing english words. another study on syntax errors made by l2 learners in conversation was conducted by wiannastiti (2014). this study revealed that l2 learners made some errors in grammar and exchanging information because they are influenced by l1. they tended to transfer from l1 to l2 rather than thinking to create the utterances in l2. despite the fact that there are some preliminary researchers on contrastive analysis and error analysis which investigated english errors made by the indonesian learners of english as a foreign language, researches on english grammatical errors made by the indonesian-english learners in essays or writing works have received comparatively less attention, if not yet done. this study commences with identifying the unacceptable (grammatical) forms produced in the first task of students’ essays. in the second and third writing tasks, a special attention addressed to the students who made unacceptable forms in their first essays, to make sure whether they made ungrammatical forms systematically or unsystematically (errors vs. mistakes, according to ellis, 1997). the essays with the grammatical errors (made by the students systematically) are considered as the source of the data, and the errors committed by the students were classified into some grammatical types. next, the errors were discussed and interpreted to find the sources of the error production to widen the learners’ knowledge of english and to improve their language accuracy in writing essays. methodology this is a qualitative research using a case study approach. the case study investigated some grammatical errors made by the learners (densombe, 2007). the population of the research consisting of 120 students who took writing 01 classes from august to december 2014. the students were distributed into three classes (a, b, and c). all were new undergraduate students of the department of english, faculty of letters, universitas jember (indonesia) who enrolled in the 2014-2015 academic year. they have been studying english for 6 years in junior and senior high schools, where english is a foreign language, indonesian is a national language, and they also speak, at least, one local language, e.g. javanese, madurese, and balinese. sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 7 there are high similarities in terms of the structures of their native languages the students speak. the languages are only different particularly in the lexicons or vocabularies. the technique of data collection in this study applied the documentary method, using written material (the students’ essays) as a basis of the research (blaxter et al, 2006: 154). this research was based on the grammatical errors found in the essays and snowballed with the interview data. during the first semester of the 2014-2015 academic year, the students were given some writing tasks on various topics, such as holiday, hobby, sport, and individual experience. the general topics were chosen because they are simple, informative, and clear to be stated which could encourage them to write. the main purposes of these exercises were not to give the information (to answer) themselves, but how the participants expressed their ability to use their english in expressing their ideas. out of 120 papers (from the first writing task) were found 70 students who made some (serious) unacceptable forms. ellis (1997) raises the need to distinguish between errors and mistakes and makes an important distinction between the two. he says that errors reflect gaps in the learner’s knowledge; they occur because the learner does not know what is correct. mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance; they occur because, in a particular instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows. following ellis (1997), it needs to check whether the unacceptable forms made by the students were errors or mistakes by giving them the second and third tests. in the second and third writing tasks, attention was paid to the students who previously made unacceptable forms in their first essays (the 70 students). having been identified, the result of the second and third tests proved that 30 out of 70 students made consistently and systematically unacceptable forms (errors). to support the data analysis, ten out of 30 students who committed grammatical errors were interviewed. next, the grammatical errors made by the students in their essays were classified into some grammatical types, and interpreted to find the possible causes of the errors. the design was chosen to provide a clear framework for collecting, analyzing, discussing, and interpreting data to address the research goals (creswell and clark, 2011). findings and discussion in this section, the results of grammatical errors made by the students in their essays are presented. having been identified and selected, the data in 8 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 the form of grammatical errors found in the 30 essays of the students were classified and calculated (to find the frequencies). it was found 1,007 grammatical errors, which could be classified into 10 grammatical types. table 1 presents the types, numbers and percentage of the grammatical errors committed by the participants in their written works (essays). table 1: types and frequency of grammatical errors in the students’ essays types of errors frequencies number of data percentage (%) 1. plural form 188 18.70 2. subject-verb agreement (sva) 170 16.90 3. verb tense 145 14.40 4. word form 128 12.70 5. subject/verb omission 111 11.10 6. passive voice 102 10.20 7. article 58 5.70 8. preposition 45 4.50 9. pronoun 33 3.30 10. double negation 27 2.70 total 1,007 100 % table 1 shows that the total number of grammatical errors made by the 30 students in their essays was 1,007 errors. the grammatical errors were distributed in ten grammatical types, and the frequencies ranges from plural form, the most frequently occur, and double negation, the least frequency. in the discussion, it is only selected the types of errors which have the occurrence higher than one hundred times (or more than 10%). they are errors in plural form (188 or 18.7%), in subjectverb agreement (170 or 16.9%), in verb tense (145 or 14.4%), in word form (128 or 12.7%), subject/verb omission (111 or 11.1%), and passive voice (102 or 10.20%). each of the six findings was presented and discussed below respectively. first of all, the data extracts (if possible accompanied by the indonesian versions as the source of the errors, written in brackets) are presented on the left columns, while the corrections appear on the right column. asterisk (*) indicates an error sentence, bold shows the grammatical element of the errors and their correction, and the symbol ^ refers to a missing element in the sentence. sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 9 a. error in plural form the mostly prominent errors made by the students in their essays are errors in using the correct plural form of nouns. out of 188 errors in plural form, they deleted the plural noun markers ‘-s/-es’ in their essays. the italic elements show the key words which require plural forms in english. table 2: errors in plural form no. data extracts the (possible) correction (indonesian) 1. *they visited both the student. (mereka mengunjungi kedua mahasiswa itu). they visited both students. 2. *she enjoys food from many different country. (dia menyukai makanan dari berbagai negara.) she enjoys food from many different countries. 3. *you have a number of choice that you can take. (anda mempunya sejumlah pilihan yang dapat anda lakukan) you have a number of choices that you can take. table 2 demonstrates errors in plural form made by the students. english distinguishes two different forms of (countable) nouns: singular vs. plural forms. unlike english, indonesian does not have a marker for the plural nouns, both have the same form. whether the meaning of a noun is singular or plural is determined by the key words (e.g. kedua ‘both’, banyak ‘many’, and sejumlah ‘a number of’). in contrast, such key words require plural nouns in english. the students have had such habit in their native language which they transfer to l2 (negative transfer). according to ellis (1997) two languages having distinct linguistic structures may result in a high frequency of errors in the target language which in turn indicates an interference of l1 on l2. in a short, the course of this error belongs to interlingual transfer. 10 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 b. error in subject-verb agreement the second mostly frequent grammatical error for the students in this study is related to subject-verb agreement. rule for subject-verb agreements in english is really simple. a third person singular subject requires base form + the suffix: -s or -es, whereas other subjects do not. as indonesian does not apply such rule, the students often neglect the agreement between a subject and its verb form in their english essays, as demonstrated in table 3. table 3: errors in subject-verb agreement no. data extracts the (possible) correction (indonesian) 4. *my friend usually drive a car to campus (temanku biasanya naik mobil ke kampus). my friend usually drives a car to campus. 5. *a teacher together with his students are studying in classroom 6. (seorang guru bersama dengan murid-muridnya sedang belajar di ruang 6). a teacher together with his students is studying in classroom 6. 6. *the books on the table in room 6 belongs to me. (buku-buku di atas meja di ruang 6 adalah bukuku.) the books on the table in room 6 belong to me. 7. *all of the details in this report needs to be checked. (semua rincian yang terdapat di dalam laporan ini perlu dicek lagi). all of the details in this report need to be checked. 8. *every man and woman are eligible to vote. (setiap pria dan wanita berhak untuk memilih) every man and woman is eligible to vote. as presented in table 3, singular subjects take plural verbs, data (4), (5), and (6), whereas the plural subjects take singular verbs, data (7) and (8). there are two possible explanations why such errors happen. firstly, as applies to error in plural form, english and indonesian differ in the relation sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 11 between subject features and their verb forms (agreement). in english, a verb must agree with its subject number (singular vs. plural) which is called subject-verb agreement (phillips, 2001, p. 248). in contrast, the number or status of the subject in indonesian like in many other proto-malay-polynesian languages does not affect the verb structure. indonesian does not have a subject-verb agreement rule, so the students have had a habit of ignoring such a grammatical rule in indonesian. then, they transferred this habit (l1) into (l2) when they were writing essays in english. in short, the source of the error results from an (negative) interlingual transfer. secondly, for the other students, they may know subject-verb agreement rules; however, they still made some errors in their writing essays because they have some problems to identify whether the subjects are singular or plural. the problems particularly appear if the subjects are in the form of complex structures (long noun phrases), e.g. the noun is followed by a prepositional phrase (data 5, and 6), preceded by an expression of quantity ‘all of’ (data 7), or preceded by a certain word, such as ‘every’ or ‘each’ (data 8). as the students had problem to identify the number of subject, consequently they made errors in subject-verb agreement; singular subjects take plural verbs, whereas plural subjects take singular verbs. the source of this error, in fact, is not caused by the native lingual interference (interlingual transfer), rather than it is from intralingual (l2) feature (intralingual transfer). c. error in word form this type of error may include the incorrect use of adjective, noun, and verb forms. in their essays, it was found some errors in relation to the use of adjective and adverb forms, and noun and verb forms. table 4 presents this type of errors. table 4: errors in using adjective, adverb, and noun forms no. data extracts (indonesian) the corrections 9. *we attended a good planned conference last week. (kita menghadiri konferencsi yang dipersiapkan dengan baik minggu lalu). we attended a wellplanned conference last week. 10. *the boy screamed extremely loud. (anak laki-kali menjerit keras sekali.) the boy screamed extremely loudly. 12 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 11. *ahmad appeared rather unhappily at what had happened. (ahmad tampak kurang senang atas kejadian itu). ahmad appeared rather unhappy at what had happened. 12. *the test seems easily for the student. (tes itu kayaknya mudah bagi para siswa.) the test seems easy for the students 13. *because anita studied hardly, she could achieve a top score. (karena anita belajar dengan giat, dia meraih nilai terbaik). because anita studied hard, she could achieve a top score. 14. *the successful of our study does not depend on the long of our study … (keberhasilan studi kita tidak tergantung pada lamaya studi kita …). the success of our study does not depend on the length of our study … table 4 demonstrates the type of errors committed by the learners in learning english which dealt with the use of adjective and adverb forms. morphologically, adjective and adverb have different forms in english, but their forms remain the same in indonesian. the only clue (if needed) to the distinguish between an adjective form from its adverb counterpart in indonesian is an adjective commonly preceded by the word ‘yang’, while the adverb form accompanied by the word ‘dengan’, as in: yang baik ‘good’ vs. dengan baik ‘well’. in the writing practice, as shown in table 4, the students did not pay attention to such word-class changes. they used the adjective forms instead of the adverb ones, data (9), and (10). in contrast, they used the adverb forms instead of the adjective ones, data (10), and (11). the students were not aware of the differences between adjectives and adverbs since indonesian adjectives and adverbs have the same forms. this proves the fact that the students transferred their habit in the native language (l1) into the target language (l2), and the source of error can be called interference or interlingual transfer. in addition to l1 interference, it also appears an intralingual transfer as the source of error in using adjective, adverb, and noun forms. for some students, they know how to use adjective and adverb, but they generalized that every adverb form is always derived from an adjective plus the suffix –ly, sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 13 as in the word loud vs. loudly. by this analogy, they thought that hard was an adjective (only), so they generalized the adverb form of hard was hardly, data (13). another error occurs in the use of an adjective form instead of a noun form (14). the use of the adjective ‘successful’ and ‘long’ in this sentence is incorrect because both function as the head words of the phrases. thus, they should be changed into the noun forms ‘success’ and ‘length’ respectively. against, this occurrence of this error is not the result of the native language (l1) interference, but it results from the features of the target language (l2) or it belongs to intralingual transfer. d. error in passive voice the next grammatical error deals with the active-passive constructions. indonesian uses passive sentences more frequently and has more passive construction forms than english does. the indonesian passive form is particularly marked by the pronoun-verb, ter-verb, and di-verb while the main english passive construction is subject + be + v-3. accordingly, there is a tendency for the students to use passive sentences when writing essays in english. table 5: common problems with active-passive constructions no. data extracts (indonesian) the correction 15. *the books must be brought by us. (buku-buku itu harus kita bawa.) we must bring the books. 16. *is my book borrowed by you? (apakah bukuku masih anda pinjam?) do you still have my book? 17. *the report will be submitted tomorrow morning by me. (laporan itu akan saya serahkan besok pagi). i will submit the report tomorrow morning. 18. *siti’s finger was cut when she skinned a mango. (jari siti teriris ketika mengupas mangga). siti cut her finger when she skinned a mango. 19. *it was happened by accident. (hal itu terjadi secara tidak sengaja) it happened by accident. 20. *the problem is hard to be solved. (masalah itu sulit untuk dipecahkan). the problem is hard to solve. 14 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 21. *the ball was kicked by andi strongly (bola itu ditendang andi dengan keras). andi kicked the ball strongly. as presented in table 5, the passive constructions in indonesian are indicated by pronoun-verb forms such as kita bawa, anda pinjam, and saya serahkan (data 15, 16, and 17), by ter-verb forms such as teriris (18) and terjadi (19), ansd by di-verb form such as dipecahkan and ditendang (20 and 21). a passive construction in english is commonly used when the agent of the activity is not explicitly identified. this is called the agentless passive form (finegan et. al, 1992 pp. 190-191). consequently, the indonesian passive construction cannot automatically be transferred into passive sentences in english. since all the agents in the sentences (data extracts) above are clearly identified, they should be expressed in active constructions rather than in the passive ones (in english). such errors may happen since they are strongly influenced by their native language habit. both indonesian and english have passive sentence constructions, but the use of the passive voices can differ from one language to another. as djatmika et al. (2014) stated that the difference on the grammatical systems cause some students make grammatical errors in writing english. therefore, the students have to initially comprehend the linguistic knowledge of l2, so that they will be able to produce l2 text in a natural way. e. error in subject/verb omission the next prominent error found in the student essay writing is the omission of subject or verb, or both from the construction of english sentences. the finding of this research shows that there are 111 errors found in the students’ essays. the errors cover the absence of subject from the sentence construction or replacing the subject with an object of preposition, the omission of a finite verb from a sentence, as well as the deletion of both subject and finite verbs from a sentence, as demonstrated in table 6. table 6: errors in subject/verb omission no. data extracts the correction (indonesian) 22. * after ^ wake up, i directly ^bath. (setelah bangun tidur, saya langsung mandi). after i wake up, i directly take a bath. sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 15 23. *for those who come late are not allowed to join this test. (bagi mereka yang datang terlambat tidak boleh mengikuti test). who comes late is not allowed to join this test. 24. *the grammar book which ^ written by the muprhy is very useful. (buku gammer yang ditulis oleh murphy sangat bermanfaat). the translation book (which was) written by murphy is very useful. 25. *where ^ you met my brother and sister yesterday? (di mana kamu bertemu saudara-saudaraku kemarin?) where did you meet my brother and sister yesterday? 26. *when i^ walking home at night, i see ^ghost. (ketika saya berjalan pulang malam hari, saya melihat hantu). when i was walking home at night, i saw a ghost. 27. *he^ at home alone. (dia di rumah sendirian) he is at home alone he stays at home alone 28. *he ^ very clever in matematic subject. (dia pandai sekali dalam pelajaran matematika). he is very good at mathematics. as demonstrated in table 6, the students omitted the subject and finite verb, data (22), and replaced the subject with an object of preposition, data (23). in the next sentences, data (24 28), the students committed grammatical errors because they omitted finite verbs from their sentences, as shown by the symbol ^. the indonesian version of (22) is well accepted in indonesian because the subject of the first clause can be controlled by the subject of the main clause, and the word mandi ‘bath’ can function as a verb. the next sentences in which the finite verbs are missing are also accepted in indonesian because this language does not have the verb form distinctions (e.g. finite vs. non-finite verbs). unlike english, indonesian can have the verb ditulis ‘written’ as a full (finite) verb which makes the sentence (24) is wellform by itself, and (similarly) an interrogative sentence (25) does not need an auxiliary verb. in contrast, the (non-finite) verb ‘written’ cannot be the predicate of the subordinate clause without the (finite) verb ‘was’ (24). the only possibility for this construction without a finite verb is to change the (adjective) clause into a reduced form by deleting the connector ‘which’ as 16 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 shown in the correction. next, indonesian sentences can have adverbial predicate (27), or adjectival predicate (28) while an english sentence always needs a finite verb as a predicate element (a verbal predicate). all examples give the idea that they committed the errors because they were strongly influenced by indonesian in learning english as a foreign language. from the discussion above, it can be said that learners usually transfer the l1 rules to the l2 ones. some omissions of subject, to be, and auxiliary verbs were used by the l2 learners result from their habit in their native language (interlingual transfer). f. errors in verb tense tense is a frequent category in the languages in the world, but it is far from universal (trask, 1993, pp. 276). like many languages in asia, indonesian is an example of a language which lacks tense entirely. indonesian verbs do not correlate with the distinctions of time. whether the time is past or non-past, the verb remains the same. in contrast, english exhibits a tense system. naturally, the indonesian-english learners often made errors in choosing the right tense, and the right forms of verbs, as presented in table 7. table 7: error in tense system no. data extracts the correction (indonesian) 29. *yesterday i see you with your friends in matahari department store. (kemarin saya melihat kamu bersama teman-teman di pusat perbelanjaan matahari). yesterday i saw you with your friends in matahari department store. 30. *last holidays, we enjoy ourselves very well in our grandparents’ town. it is very good and interesting. *last holidays, we enjoyed ourselves very well in our grandparents’ town. it was very good and interesting. sukarno, the analysis of grammatical errors of first year students’ essays 17 31. *i have done my homework yesterday afternoon. (saya telah menyelesaikan prku kemarin sore) i have done my homework. i did my homework yesterday afternoon. 32. *if i become a bird, i will fly all over the world. (jika saya menjadi seekor burung, saya akan terbang ke seluruh dunia) if i were a bird, i would fly all over the world. as reported in table 7, the students made errors because they transferred the habit of their l1 rule to l2 in which the verb forms (‘see’, ‘enjoy’, and ‘is’) do not correlate with the (past tense) time markers (e.g. ‘yesterday’ and ‘last holidays’) in data (29) and (30). next, as shown by data (31), the learners mixed both the result of an activity and the specific time into one sentence. unlike indonesian, english only chooses one of them (perfect tense or simple past tense, but not both) (murphy, 1994, pp. 14). if the result of the activity is the focus of the utterance, the present perfect tense should be used. alternatively, if the speaker identifies a specific point of time, he should choose the simple past tense. in other words, we cannot combine both the result and the particular time referring to the activity into one sentence. in short, the learners made such error because indonesian does not have tense system, so they transferred the habit of their native language (l1) into l2. finally, the students also made error in term of ‘condition’ which is expressed through the wrong verb forms/tenses (data 32), which should be ‘were’ and ‘would fly’. as the beginners, they are not familiar yet with the construction of expressing a ‘conditional’ sentence realized through the verb forms. accordingly, the acquisition of tense will be very difficult for the learners since there are quite big difference rules between the two languages. conclusion based on the identified and classified errors found in 30 essays produced by the 30 first year students of the writing classes of the english department, faculty of letters, jember university, indonesia, it was found 1,007 grammatical errors. the errors committed by the students could be classified into ten types, and the six mostly prominent errors are errors in 18 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 1-21 plural form, subject-verb agreement, verb tense, word form, subject/verb omission, passive voice, article, preposition, pronoun, and double negation. from the discussion, it can be concluded that the students made errors in the grammatical patterns because they are strongly influenced by indonesian (l1) patterns that they acquired before, even the rules have become a well-rooted habit in their minds. the l1 patterns were reflected in their essays which can be depicted through errors in plural form, passive voice construction, subject/verb omission, and verb tense. such errors were strongly caused by the interference of l1 (interlingual transfer) because they do not have such grammatical features in l1 that are very important in l2. in addition to interlingual transfer, the grammatical errors were also caused by the student’s inability of applying l2 rules comprehensively. they made errors because they made overgeneralizations of l2 rules. such errors occur in subject-verb agreement and in word form. therefore, the grammatical errors are not all of them from their mother tongue interference, but also from their intralingual transfer of the target language. it is right that grammatical errors are both from the interference of mother tongue (interlingual transfer) and from the mutual interference of items in the target language (intralingual transfer), however, in case of indonesian speakers, interlingual transfer plays greater causes than intralingual transfer since l1 and l2 are from different language families which make possible to have distinct linguistic principles. the result of this analysis can be advantageous for learners, teachers, and course designers. considering the sources of the errors they made, it is expected that students will be able to analyze and correct their own errors which will improve their english more accurately. this research is also hoped to provide teachers and course designers with better understanding of the sources of the students’ errors, which motivate them to evaluate the teaching approaches applied so far, and to find the more appropriate ones to deal with the foreign language learners’ errors. references al-badawi, k. 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(1999). a contrastive analysis of persian and english and error analysis. tehran: nashr-e vira. 1 -sep2016 sukarno 1 -cover soekarno.pdf 1 -soekarno 0 -cover jul 2016 0 -p. i jul 2016 hal editor 0 -p. ii jul 2016 daftar isi p. i 1 -pp 1-21 sukarno celt 2016 2 -pp 22-48 pasaribu-kadarisman celt jul 2016 pp 17-44 3 -pp 49-66 prastikawati-wiyaka-sodiq celt jul 2016 4 -pp 67-90 yusuf-silviyanti-tauhidah celt jul 2016 5 -pp 91-117 jubhari-bazergan-mokoginta-sitoto-syarif-iswari celt jul 2016 pp.88-115 6 -pp 118-132 maru celt jul 2016 7 -pp 133-144 murniati-riyandari celt 2016 8 -pp 145 148 celt thanks to reviewers cover-belakang untitled microsoft word f233-4fdf-5dc4-9704 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 20 no. 2; december 2020 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia morphological marking irregularity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words 1bambang agus darwanto, 2pratomo widodo, and 3hesthi heru satoto 1,3 stba lia yogyakarta, indonesia 2graduate school, yogyakarta state university, indonesia email: 1agusdarwanto66@gmail.com; 2pratomo@uny.ac.id; 3hesty.h3@yahoo.com received: 26-08-2020 accepted: 07-11-2020 published: 17-12-2020 mailto:agusdarwanto66@gmail.com mailto:pratomo@uny.ac.id https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj morphological marking irregularity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words 1 bambang agus darwanto, 2 pratomo widodo, and 3 hesthi heru satoto 1 agusdarwanto66@gmail.com; 2 pratomo@uny.ac.id; 3 hesty_h3@yahoo.com 1,3 stba lia yogyakarta, indonesia 2 graduate school, yogyakarta state university, indonesia abstract: all languages share the same lexical categories such as verb, noun, adjective, and adverb. unlike english, however, bahasa indonesia carries fewer consistent patterns of morphological markers for word categories. a verb, for instance, is marked with the prefix {me-} as in me-nginjak (to step on); however, other verbs do not carry this marker as in makan (eat), tidur (sleep), and tergantung (depend). as for english, the suffix {ing} or {-ed/-en}, for instance, indicates that the root is a verb regardless of the verb transitivity. this research investigated if the irregularity in the morphological marking of bahasa indonesia verbs created problems in acquiring english words. a test of the "word category assignment" (test 1) was provided to two groups of respondents: undergraduate students of english and doctoral students of bahasa indonesia. a "word-in-context translation into english" (test 2) was given to a group of undergraduates of english. the first was to know if the respondents managed to assign the bahasa indonesia words with correct lexical categories, and the second was to know if the words were assigned with correct word categories when translated in english. this was to know if the bahasa indonesia and english words received the same word-category. the results show that errors in the assignment of the grammatical categories of the bahasa indonesia words were found pervasive among the two groups. and the lexico-grammar behavior seems to give impact on the categorization of the bahasa indonesia words when provided in english as also detected in the translation. it is strongly indicative that confusion in the word category assignment of bahasa indonesia gives impact on the acquisition of english words. darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula257 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: morphological markers, suffix, word category, language transfer, lexico-grammar abstrak: semua bahasa memiliki kategori leksikal yang sama seperti verba, nomina, adjektiva, dan adverbia. tidak seperti bahasa inggris, bahasa indonesia memiliki pola penanda morfologi yang lebih sedikit untuk kategori kata. kata kerja, misalnya, ditandai dengan awalan {me} seperti pada me-nginjak; namun verba lain tidak memiliki penanda ini seperti pada makan, tidur, dan tergantung. sedangkan bahasa inggris, misalnya sufiks {-ing} atau {-ed /-en}, akar kata (root) adalah kata kerja terlepas dari kata kerja transitivitas. penelitian ini mencari tahu apakah ketidakteraturan dalam penandaan morfologi kata kerja bahasa indonesia menimbulkan masalah dalam mempelajari kata dalam bahasa inggris. tes "tugas kategori kata" (tes 1) diberikan kepada dua kelompok responden: mahasiswa sarjana bahasa inggris dan mahasiswa doktoral bahasa indonesia. tes "terjemahan katadalam-konteks ke dalam bahasa inggris" (tes 2) diberikan kepada sekelompok mahasiswa dari kelompok bahasa inggris. tes pertama untuk mengetahui apakah responden berhasil menentukan kata-kata dalam bahasa indonesia dengan kategori leksikal yang benar, dan tes kedua untuk mengetahui apakah kata-kata tersebut diberi kategori kata yang benar ketika diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa inggris. tujuan kedua tes tersebut untuk mengetahui apakah kata-kata dalam bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris memiliki kategori kata yang sama. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan dalam pengkategorian gramatikal kata-kata bahasa indonesia ditemukan di kedua kelompok. perilaku lexico-grammar berdampak pada kategorisasi kata-kata dalam bahasa indonesia jika diberikan dalam bahasa inggris seperti yang ditemukan dalam terjemahan. hal ini menjadi indikasi kuat bahwa kebingungan dalam penetapan kategori kata dalam bahasa indonesia berdampak pada pembelajaran kata dalam bahasa inggris. kata kunci: penanda morfologi, sufiks, kategori kata, transfer bahasa, lexico-grammar introduction bahasa indonesia's lexical categorization is not as clear as that of english. in bahasa indonesia, distinguishing word-classes is sometimes challenging. the semantic sense of the word marah (angry), for instance, can be [+do]/[+action] and the word consequently can be perceived as a verb. 258 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj indonesian learners of english may write “she angry” because they probably recognize marah as a verb and it does not need an auxiliary verb. indonesians may distinguish a verb from other parts of speech by finding out whether the subjects are doing or not doing something: [+ do] or [-do]. a for english, it always classifies angry as an adjective or as [+state/-do], however. the next instance, "your tie doesn't match with your shirt" is normally translated into dasimu tidak cocok dengan bajumu. this fitting verb "match" is translated into cocok. chances are that bahasa indonesia speakers will not classify "match" as a verb, but as an adjective. it is because the semantic sense of the word cocok shows the state of being of the tie [+state], not an action of a tie [-do]. english recognizes "to match" as a verb and this can be tested syntactically by adding the morpheme {-ing} to it. when the root can receive the morpheme {-ing}, it is a verb. third, "i burnt my hand" is translated into tanganku terbakar. in bahasa indonesia, the verb in this context has a different semantic connotation from its english meaning. it has the meaning of terbakar (burnt), with the prefix {ter} and the root bakar. the prefix {ter-} carries a passivity [-do] saliency to the speakers of bahasa indonesia. in bahasa indonesia, when {ter-} is added to a free morpheme (a stem), it should indicate passivity as in tertembak (get shot). while in english, "burnt" in this context is used in the active voice. the same occurs with the verb” happen” for which bahasa indonesia speakers will translate it into terjadi (ter+jadi). "it happened" is possibly translated into itu telah terjadi ({ter}+jadi), carrying a passivity saliency. the next probable problematic area comes from such linking sensory verbs as "taste, "smell", "cost" and "weigh", whose meanings in bahasa indonesia do not show any semantic sense of verbs [-do]. as also with the verb "match", these types of verbs may create problems owing to the inherent non-verbal semantic constraints. the sentence "the food smells good" should be best translated into, "makanannya (food) harum (good)". the word harum is an adjective that carries meaning closest to "sweet-smelling" [+state] or that it carries [-do]. in short, there are several verbs that bahasa indonesia speakers may consider them as non-verbs owing to the non-verbal semantic sense. those verbs may create confusion when indonesians, especially those having received only limited instructions around this subject matter, are dealing with this kind of verbs of english. darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula259 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review two major factors shape learners’ language, the impact of the first language or l1 transfer and universal constraints on language perception and production (long & doughty, 2009). according to doughty & long (2009), l1 transfer occurs when certain linguistic structures, patterns, or rules from the first language (l1) are transposed to the second language (l2). it may be facilitating when the two rule inventories are the same or similar and vice versa. in research, the awareness of the importance of transfer took the form of contrastive analysis (ca). this theory holds that second language acquisition is filtered through the learners' first language facilitating acquisition in cases where target language structures are similar, and interfering with the acquisition in cases where the target language structures are different or nonexistent. this theoretical perspective has been the topic of many studies for long. as written in richards (2015), for instance, regarding the contrastive analysis, by systematically comparing the two languages we can predict and describe the patterns of the language that will cause difficulties in learning. to ignore or deny the fact that the native language is a major factor in language learning is like saying that adult minds are blank slates. previously acquired knowledge and skills inevitably influence our approach to new ones, especially when there are similarities among them, as in the case among languages. and lately, contrastive analysis (ca) is still used to build the answer-processing technique in tutorial computer assisted language learning (call) as suggested by chapelle & sauro (2017). in this light, the perspective of the ca hypothesis is also in line with one type of learning strategies used by adult learners. cognitive strategies suggest that learners transfer or use linguistic information to facilitate a new learning task (o’malley & chamot, 1990, pp. 45). this is because learners' l1 is believed to be able to predict ease and difficulty in second language acquisition (sla) as stated by pica in hinkel (2011). this account signified the knowledge of the two languages' linguistic inventories to then be compared for both the possible debilitating and facilitating factors. bahasa indonesia and english share the same word classes, such as verb (kata kerja), adjective (kata sifat/kata keadaan), adverb (kata keterangan), and noun (kata benda). however, unlike english, bahasa indonesia shows some gray areas of clues as to what constitutes a noun, a verb, or an adjective. while 260 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there are consistent syntactic-morphological clues to recognize parts-of-speech of english words, there are problems in knowing word classes in bahasa indonesia because bahasa indonesia does not exhibit clear-cut patterns as to what clues indicate the part of speech of a word: tidur (sleep), makan (eat), and marah (angry) do not carry certain markers. english shows more morphosyntax regularity. parts-of-speech of english words are mostly traceable from their morphological appearance. the suffix {ed} and {-ing}, for instance, indicate that the free morphemes are verbs. the suffix {-ion}, {-ness}, and {-ment} indicate that the words with the suffixes are nouns. the suffix {-ful} indicates an adjective, and so forth. bahasa indonesia, on the contrary, has only a limited number of morphosyntax regularities. bahasa indonesia has limited clues and they are frequently misleading. the word menyanyi (sing) morphosyntactically tells that it is a verb because the prefix {me-} is operative, but makan (eat) can only be classified as a verb because semantically it depicts an activity/action [+do/-state] of a subject. the prefix {ter-} or {di-} should indicate passive structure; however, there is {ter} that is not passive at all as in terjadi (happend) and terlalu (too) and many more, all of which are not normally perceived as verbs in bahasa indonesia. it is a fact that indonesian speakers cannot fully rely on word morphology to identify word parts-of-speech. they also need another strategy to recognize the lexical categories of words, which is the semantic feature of the words. in bahasa indonesia, "verb" is "kata kerja". "kata kerja" can be translated into "acting/working word". it shows that a word is a verb when it shows "something which is doing". to bahasa indonesia speakers, most ergative verbs and several static verbs (non-progressive verbs) such as depend, happen, scatter, taste, and smell do not show any "working sense" at all. as noted above, the working sense of a verb is mostly indicated by the presence of either prefix {me-} or {ber-}. when the prefix {me-} cannot be employed and when the "working sense" is not present, chances are that the words may be perceived as non-verbs. next, the prefix {ber-} and its allomorphs ({be-}, and {bel-}) operate in the same way as that of the prefix {me-} in the sense that {ber-} mostly also indicates the "working" of a word. the prefix {ber-} implies a "working sense" as that of the prefix {me-} in such cases as bekerja (to work), beranjak (to leave), berusaha (to try), and belanja (to shop). as mentioned above, the ca holds that second language acquisition is filtered through the learners' first language. if the target language and the native language forms are structurally similar, this results in a positive transfer. darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula261 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj however, when the forms in the first language (l1) and target language (l2) are dissimilar, a negative transfer ensues. the ca hypothesis predicts that the differences between l1 (bahasa indonesia) and l2 (english) will create problems among l1 speakers of l2 when they have to identify l2 word structures (elgort, 2011). and consequently, the interlingual morphosyntactic and semantic differences of the verbs will also affect the accuracy of the employment of the verbs in sentences of l2, especially among those who receive less instruction. research has shown that language transfer is more operative within speakers with a lower level of proficiency (talosa & maguddayao, 2018). beginners are more dependent on their l1 in the process of grammaticalization, resulting in a higher chance of l1 interference when acquiring l2. this is in line with the finding reported by wu & takahashi (2016) that the amount of language transfer from l1 to l2 increases among the respondents of the low level of english proficiency to intermediate level and then decreases from intermediate level to advanced level. research by al khotaba & al magarbeh (2015) found out that translating arabic into english words that do not normally receive the morpheme {-ing} was found problematic among the translators in jordan. farrag & badawi (2019) from their research on the effect of explicit english morphology instruction on efl found out that the group that received explicit instruction on the area of morphological issues highly surpassed the group without in their morphological awareness. this is also admitted by suherman et al. (2020) in their research revealing that the group of learners should get more exposure to get more awareness. also, it relates to the time of engagement admitted by nurhayati et al. (2017). the difference in the lexical issues of two languages may create what agustin-llach (2017) noted as lexical errors. she noted that lexical errors are the main sources of difficulties in the acquisition of english in the efl context. knowing the sources of errors will encourage the discovery of new ways to overcome these errors through class instruction regarding the english lexico-grammar. for instance, according to schmitt (2000, pp. 58), words can be described through pattern or patterns in which they typically occur as in "verb by _____ing" (with a free morpheme), which can be found in words of "start" or "finish" like begin, end, and close; and words that mean "respond to" like atone, counter, reply, etc. 262 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method a. instruments two tests were used to obtain different data. the first was intended to obtain data if word category assignment of bahasa indonesia was a problem among indonesians themselves. the test (test 1) was a list composed of several short bahasa indonesia sentences carrying words that the respondents had to decide the lexical category. the words were presented in sentences to provide context to help the respondents readily assign meaning and then determine the grammatical categories. the test was made in google forms and distributed through wa and emails to the undergraduates of english and doctorate students of bahasa indonesia. the second test (test 2) was a list of questions composed of the simple sentences used in the first list that the respondents of english students had to translate into english. the sentences were made short so that the respondents would not be distracted by other challenges than the words in point. this was to find out if mis-assigned word categorical assignment was observed. the data were two kinds. first, "kategori kata" (word category) of bahasa indonesia words by the undergraduate students and students of a doctoral program. the words tested were like marah, memarahi, tutup, buka, terbakar, tergantung, terjadi, terserah, tampak/nampak, ngantuk, berlari, and menginjak. the words were chosen first based on their mid-voicing (active vs passive voicing) that is when a word’s voicing can be mixed up. the prefix {ter-} can be understood as carrying passivity [-do] as opposed to {me-} that carries active voicing [+do]. the second data were the translation of those words put in context. these words were put in sentences and were then translated by the second group of students, the undergraduates of english, into english. the translation showed how these students assigned the word category of each word. it should be noted that verbs used in this study belong to the group of the most frequent words that the subjects must have understood the core meaning. the underlined words are put in sentences as shown by the following examples: 1. johno marah besar (the expected translation: johno was very angry) 2. mami memarahiku seharian (the expected translation: mom scolded me the whole day) darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula263 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3. tokonya tutup? (the expected translation: is the shop closed?) 4. tanganku terbakar. ( the expected translation: i burnt my hand) 5. manto tidak pas untuk menjadi pasanganmu. (the expected translation: manto is not right to be your partner) 6. dasimu tidak cocok dengan warna celanamu.( the expected translation: your tie doesn't match the color of your trousers) 7. tokonya sudah buka lagi. (the expected translation: the shop is open again). 8. semua tergantung mas hendri saja. (the expected translation: all depends on hendri). 9. semua sudah terjadi, tri. jangan disesali. (the expected translation: it already happened, tri. don't regret it) 10. semua terserah dian saja. (the expected translation: it is up to dian) 11. semua akan nampak indah pada saatnya.(the expected translation: all will eventually look good) 12. rini ngantuk. (the expected translation: rini is sleepy) 13. saya ingin terus berlari menuju fajar.( the expected translation: i run toward the dawn) 14. jangan menginjak rumput.( the expected translation: don't step on the grass) results were tabulated and analyzed to see the patterns of parts-ofspeech identification. this was to see if the subjects operated the process of lexical categories identification on the in/existence of morphological marker(s) of each word, or more on the saliency of [+/-do] or [+/-action]. the results from this test were then compared with the tendency shown from the second test, the translation test. this was to see whether verbs that do not carry a certain verbal marker of bahasa indonesia or do not imply [+action] in the context pose challenge among these respondents. b. the respondents there were two groups of respondents. group 1 was composed of 20 undergraduate students of english and 6 students of the doctoral program doing bahasa indonesia and group 2 was composed of the 20 undergraduate students of english, those who were part of group 1. 264 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results a. from test 1: assigning the grammatical category of bahasa indonesia words put in sentences from the test of word category assignment of words in bahasa indonesia by both indonesian undergraduates of english and doctorate students of bahasa indonesia, it was strongly indicative that the subjects operated the labeling of bahasa indonesia lexical categories on two strategies. first, the morphosyntax seemed to ease up the task of labeling. the subjects relied on the in/existence of the prefix {me-} and {ber-} along with its allomorphs to distinguish verbs from other parts-of-speech. they immediately recognized <menginjak (step on), memarahi (scold), and berlari (run)> as verbs. while such words as <terbakar (burn), tergantung (depend), terjadi (happen), terserah (up to/you)> and the rest were assigned inconsistently. the following figures help visualize the phenomenon found from the words menginjak and memarahi: figure 1: parts-of-speech recognition of menginjak (step on) note: kata kerja: verb; kata sifat: adjective; kata benda: noun; kata keterangan: adverb figure 2: parts-of-speech recognition of memarahi (scold) darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula265 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj second, figures 1 and 2 above indicate that most subjects managed to recognize the words tested as verbs accurately. apart from the morphological markers, this could be because certain semantic features have indicated that the verbality of these words is strongly salient to the subjects. this is because the word menginjak and memarahi are understood to carry the strong semantic feature of [+do/+action]. interestingly, however, quite many subjects also recognized the supposed-to-be adjectives of marah (angry) and ngantuk (sleepy) as verbs. this finding confirms that the subjects also operated the word-class identification on the semantic saliency of the words. the adjective marah (angry) was perceived to carry [+action] not [+be]. the following figure should help visualize the phenomenon. figure 3: grammatical category assignment of marah (angry) unlike the word memarahi which carries the marker {me-}, the word marah does not carry this grammatical marker and consequently, the respondents mostly recognized this word as an adjective as it should be. it is obvious that the attribution of {me-} carries a significant impact on grammatical category assignment. a different account is attested to the word ngantuk (sleepy). for this word, regardless of the absence of a verb marker of bahasa indonesia, this word somehow was assigned as a verb. the chance is that the respondents based their assignment on the semantic sense of the word ngantuk (sleepy) as [+do/+action] since when someone is ngantuk s/he is "doing" something like nodding or dozing off, not just in a state-of-being manner. let us look at how the word sleepy was categorized. 266 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 4: parts-of-speech recognition of ngantuk (sleepy) the next is about the grammatical category assignment of bahasa indonesia words with {ter-}: terbakar (burn) and tergantung (depend). the following figures will help visualize the findings for the words tergantung and terbakar. interestingly, only 8 out of 20 respondents successfully assigned the word tergantung (depend) as a verb. as for the word terbakar (burn), 10 of them managed to recognize it as a verb. nevertheless, most respondents labeled the two words as non-verb. tergantung terbakar figure 5: parts-of-speech assignment for the words tergantung (depend) and terbakar (burn) the next confusion is also observable when the words buka (open), tutup (close), cocok (match), nampak (to look) were tested. the word buka, for instance, seems to be understood as both [-do] and [+do] with more number darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula267 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of them assigned it as a verb in a sentence that in fact needs the word "open" as an adjective [tokonya sudah buka lagi (the shop is already open)], not a verb, neither at all an adverb as seen in the chart below. figure 6: part of speech of the word buka (to open) note that many of these respondents also assigned it as a verb. this can be because of the strong semantic sense of [+do/-state] in it. this will be much attested in such sentences as "buka pintunya!" (open the door) in which the word "open" is used as a verb. the same confusion was also found with the word cocok (match), the distribution of which is presented below. figure 7: part of speech of the word cocok (to match) 268 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the word cocok (dasimu tidak cocok dengan warna celanamu your tie does not match the color of your pants) in this case can be translated in different ways as in "your tie does not go well with your pants", or of course "match" as in "this color matches the whole design", or "fit" as in "your idea does not fit the objective of the organization". however, most respondents assigned this word as an adjective. this is because in bahasa indonesia the word cocok carries more [+state of being/-action], for the subject does not "do" anything in this sense. but, in english, this word can receive {+ing} which indicates that this word is a verb as its free morpheme. the same account is found with the word pas (match); that is when the respondents were asked to assign the grammatical category of this word. the word pas which can mean "to match" was assigned as non-verb word very frequently. the data is presented in the following figure. figure 8: parts-of-speech of the word pas (to fit) note that the word pas has also a translation in english like "fit" as written in echols & sadhily's (2001) kamus indonesia inggris (indonesian-english dictionary). the example of sentences with the word fit is provided in the dictionary, baju itu tidak pas untuknya and is translated into "the dress did not fit her". note that in bahasa indonesia, this word does not carry any sense of doing or [+do] at all. to make it worse, it does not carry any morphological marker to indicate verbs. the most salient semantic properties of it are anything else but a verb. darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula269 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 9: parts-of-speech of the word nampak (to look) furthermore, this finding is also accounted for the word nampak (can mean "to look"). the grammatical category of this word is extremely confusing. nampak is a polysemous word, sometimes translated into "be visible", "obvious", and "appear" (see echols & shadily). however, when translated through any machine translation, the phrase nampak indah is translated into "looks good". nampak is used as an adjective when in such sentences as kepandaiannya tidak nampak which is translated into "his ability is not evident". data in figure 9 confirms the confusion. five of the twenty respondents believe that nampak is a verb while 14 others do not, even when this word is already put in context as printed above (semua nampak indah pada saatnya – all will look good eventually). this confusion may interfere with their learning of english. b. from test 2: the translation of the bahasa indonesia words into english in test 1, the respondents were asked to make the grammatical category of words provided in bahasa indonesia sentences. in test 2, 20 respondents were to translate these simple sentences into english. test 2 was composed of the same indonesian sentences to be then translated into english. this was to know if they produced different translations of word categories in those simple sentences. this can be at least traced through whether or not the subjects provided english morphological markers to note a certain grammatical category such as {-ing}, {-ed}. 270 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1. the translation of the word marah (angry) the word marah was translated into several words: angry, mad, getting mad with most of the respondents used the word "angry". however, some students omitted "be" in their sentence construction. the attribute to this case can be twofold. first, they might think that "angry" or "mad" is not non-verbs or it is because of carelessness or because they made what so-called developmental error which is developmental in nature. most of the respondents regardless of their majors would translate jono marah into "jono is angry" as visualized below. interestingly, those who belong to the english major sub-group would use "get mad" instead of "angry". this suggests that the students have been exercising what they have got in the learning process. "get mad" is a collocational phrase rarely introduced in early learning. "angry' is much more frequent. 2. the translation of the word memarahi (scold or possibly angry with) despite some imprecise translation, the respondents have mostly used the word "scold" for memarahi. this positively corresponds with the coding of the word in echols and shadily. the word-category-to-word-category saliency is observed when the {me-} marahi is translated into "scold". interestingly, there are still a small number of respondents that used "angry" to translate the verb memarahi. this is because memarahi saya (scold me) does not differ from marah sama saya (angry with me) in their semantic senses. the word "scold" even though not grammatically well put in sentences such as in "*my mother scold me.", or "*my mother scolds me." when it is meant to report what happened (my mother scolded me.), is highly pronounced in the data. the word scold was clearly understood as a verb. 3. the translation of the word tutup (closed) most of the respondents correctly used "be closed" for tokonya tutup. some of them, however, still got confused with the correct form of "close" whether it is "close" as an adjective, "closes" as a "verb", or "closed" as a middle voice instance. some wrote "the store is close", "the shop closes", for "the shop is closed". as many as around 90% of the respondents use "closed" in their translation. 4. the translation of the word terbakar (burn) the data indicates that terbakar is translated in different ways as indicated in figure 10. the sentence tanganku terbakar is, in fact, best translated into "i burnt my hand". however, none of the respondents of both darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula271 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sub-groups use this construction. this is probably they found it illogical if "i intentionally burnt my own hand" as this sentence suggests when translated into bahasa indonesia. however, it is indicative that all the respondents have understood that terbakar is one way or another, a verb as when it is translated into english. the verb "burnt" or "burned" is saliently indicated as verbs. figure 10: the translation of the word terbakar 5. the translation of the word terserah (up to/depend) and tergantung (depend) the morpheme {ter-} which seems to be operating and perceived as a verb marker as indicated in the previous findings is not necessarily translated into an english verb by the respondents. the word terserah is commonly translated into "up to (you)" when translating semua terserah kamu. however, the same morphological clue {ter-} as in tergantung does not seem to receive the same amount of assignment when the word tergantung was translated. tergantung is understood as "depend" which is a verb although it does not carry clear a morphological clue of a verb is written in a verb in english sentences. most of the respondents would choose "depend" to occupy the predicative place of the sentence. however, as many as 18.1% of the respondents translated tergantung into "is depend", treating "depend" as a nonverb lexis. 272 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 6. the translation of the word terjadi (happen) terjadi was translated in a very similar pattern as the word terjadi (happen). the sentence was translated into: “that event was happen”; “it was happened”, “it is occur today (3.3%)”, “this are happen”, and some more. most respondents translated terjadi into "happen". however, many of them seem to structure the word "happen" with "to be" when in sentences as in "it is happen", "this was happen", and "it is happened". this indicates that the confusion of the grammatical category of verb-non-verb profound. 7. the translation of the words pas and cocok (match) these two words received a similar way of translation. however, they all tend to be assigned as adjectives. the prevalent use of "to be" for the verb "fit" and "match" (e.g. it is match….; it is fit….) indicates that the words were mostly understood as non-verbs. the word "fit" is used with the to-be "is"; the verb "match" is also used with "to be" as well. 8. the translation of the word tampak/nampak (to look) almost all respondents use the verb "look" to translate tampak as in "*mount merapi look beautiful from here", "mount merapi looks beautiful", or "merapi mountain look/looks beautiful from here". the word tampak/nampak regardless of the incorrect grammar in some of the sentences as in "*merapi mountain look beautiful from here", the finite verb "look" has seemed to be consistently employed as a verb. discussion data have revealed that categorizing parts of speech of words in bahasa indonesia can be a challenge among the respondents of bahasa indonesia speakers. this is highly indicative that words that do not carry morphemes to clearly show their parts speech may pose challenges. these challenges seem to transfer when they are required to translate these very frequent vocabularies into english. the word marah and ngantuk, for instance, are not commonly understood as ‘adjectives'. this phenomenon is found across levels of educational backgrounds. the confusion seems to carry over in the translation. next, data also indicate that some words are well categorized by respondents of different educational backgrounds. the words {me-}marahiku, {ber-}lari,{me-}nginjak have been assigned as almost 100% as verbs by all darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula273 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj respondents and have also been operated as verbs when in english sentences as indicated below. however, when verbal markers are not present in the words tested, the respondents seem to carry difficulty in assigning the word category. some words have not seemed to receive consistently correct assignments when in bahasa indonesia. some respondents would label one word as a verb, while the rest would think that it is a non-verb word. the student respondents of the doctorate in bahasa indonesia have suggested different lexical categories for such verbs as nampak/tampak, cocok, pas, tutup, and buka. these words carry less clear clues for parts-of-speech. and, this is different from when they provide lexical categorical labels for the words with clear-cut clues for their grammatical categories as already mentioned above. english recognizes verbs that can be structured in the intermediate of active and passive voices. this structure is normally called the middle voice. this structure allows the subject of a sentence to be non-agentive, as in the passive voice, but the morphology of the verb to be in the active voice. such verbs allow the object of a transitive clause to be a subject of an intransitive clause without changing the voice. these verbs are usually called ergative, or change of state verbs. ergative verbs such as close (tutup/menutup) can appear in all three forms and thus take either agent as subjects or agentless. 1. the owner closes the shop at 5:00. 2. the shop is closed at 5:00. 3. the shop closes at 5:00. bahasa indonesia recognizes this verb as having 3 translations namely menutup, ditutup, and tutup. the first clearly demonstrates an action [+action], for it carries the prefix {me-}; ditutup is clearly used in passive voice, for it carries the prefix {di-}; while tutup indicates [+state] or [+being] but not [+action] or [+do]. in other words, bahasa indonesia learners of english may recognize this <close> as non-verb as well. the case above may also occur to some other ergative verbs, those that when translated into bahasa indonesia do not carry [+do] saliency. such ergative verbs as <shatter> may create problems among bahasa indonesia learners of english, for this word brings [-do] saliency to them. the sentence, "my english improves", still carries strong saliency of [+do], for it is normally translated into membaik or berkembang, with verbal morphological 274 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj clues. on the contrary, verbs such as "close", "shatter", "break", "happen", "appear", and "burn" (when in the middle voice) can pose a challenge among bahasa indonesia learners of english. interestingly, none of the student respondents of the doctoral program in bahasa indonesia assigned ngantuk (english: sleepy) as an "adjective". they unanimously labeled this word as "kata kerja" or verb. and when in english, when a verb carries a strong feature of [+do] bahasa indonesia learners of english will readily identify the word class. however, when [+state] or [+event] is more salient to the learners, a verb can be assigned a non-verb word. for instance, the perception verb taste which is [-state] in "the soup tastes garlic" may be labeled as non-verb. the action verb like sing/{me-}nyanyi, on the contrary, should be well recognized as a verb, for it carries the strong feature of [+action]/[+do] plus that it carries the prefix {me-}. it is then obvious that the word category assignment of english and bahasa indonesia is operated differently by indonesian learners. as for english, unlike bahasa indonesia, it provides much clearer morphological markers. english words carry more consistent morphological rules to help accurately predict the grammatical category of a word. the inconsistency of categories of words of bahasa indonesia among indonesians themselves have been well accounted for in this research. the respondents across levels of educational background have strongly indicated the phenomena. this proves that determining a lexical category of a bahasa indonesia word can be challenging. this is especially attested when encountering words with less obvious morphological clues in them. this is strongly suggested in the findings that the word menginjak and tutup pose different levels of difficulty to assign their categories. and, it is much more accounted when such a word as ngantuk (english: sleepy) is tested over. it proves that even those who are doing a doctoral degree in bahasa indonesia studies find a similar difficulty to assign the grammatical category of the word ngantuk (sleepy); they consider this word as a verb. opaque morphological rules prove to make certain confusion. the discussion about how language interference occurs has been found many. the theoretical rules of second language acquisition suggest that learners of l2 bring with them the previous linguistic repertoires. contrastive analysis holds that second language acquisition is filtered through the learners' first language. if the target language and the native language forms are structurally similar, this results in a positive transfer. however, when the darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula275 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj forms in l1 and l2 are dissimilar, negative transfer ensues. the more distinct the two languages are, the more difficult the target language (tl) to acquire. l1 transfer in l2 learning can be responsible for either hindering or assisting learning. when the l1 system is congruent with that of the l2, learning can be eased up. conversely, when the two systems are different, learning can be impeded. this account confirms the findings of this research. the result of this study also confirms one of the findings of nation (1982:35) that "acquisition of the semantic content of target language words does not always entail the acquisition of the target language grammatical classification of those words". the implication, parts-of-speech and semantic constraints of the verbs should be addressed separately. addressing the cross-linguistically different semantic case is useful not only for an understanding of the cross-linguistic semantic systems but also for comparison of syntactical and morphological cross-linguistic differences (solak & bayar, 2015). it is also understood that knowledge of word categories plays a significant role in achieving the correct meaning and selecting an appropriate translation equivalent. in their study about morphological processing of derivative and inflectional words, ella, casalan, & lucas (2019) suggested that negative transfers from l1 to l2 can affect the mastery of morphological inflection and the acquisition of affixes when they study l2 even when studying l3. english teachers must know that morphological processing dictates word meaning and its grammatical function, which may be unique features of different languages. conclusion despite the small number of subjects participating in this study, the result significantly indicates that assigning word categories of bahasa indonesia can be problematic. this language does not provide more consistent morphological representations of its vocabulary than english. in english, when a word can carry such suffix as {-ing} or {-ed}, or {-en}, it must be a verb. the findings of this research also suggest that the respondents operate on different strategies when to assign the lexical category of a word. however, many verbs of bahasa indonesia do not carry any of this marker especially the intransitive verbs. for this reason, to assign a grammatical category of a word, 276 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj they also seem to rely on whether a word carries more salient semantic categories either it carries stronger [+do] or [+be]. when the "state of being" is more pronounced, chances are that they will classify the word as an adjective and when the "doing" is more salient, they would label it as a verb. when a word does not present a clear-cut clue for its part of speech classification, it will resort to another path to know it. the next finding indicates that to some extent, the l1 word category assignment affects the operation of the corresponding words in english. if a word is assigned non-verb in bahasa indonesia, chances are that the nonverbal category will transmit to the sentence of english even when the word of english is, in fact, a verb. it can be said that the errors regarding whether a "to be" is required for a sentence is partly attributable to the l1 systems, especially, in this case, to the semantic constraints of the word in the l1. many ergative verbs, fitting verbs, and sensory verbs are perceived as [-do] or [+be/+state of being] in bahasa indonesia. this small finding also brings about some other pedagogical implications. since the result shows that the subjects, especially the less proficient ones, access the grammaticalization of the verbs through their l1 grammar systems, lettings students know the difference between bahasa indonesia and english lexico-grammar will help them use their metalinguistic potentials to promote the correct use of the verbs. in the process, students will be aware that the l1 and l2 systems are different whenever they encounter the verbs concerned. in other words, explicit instructions on this subject matter should help our students acquire not only the meaning but also the lexico-grammar of the words, especially verbs vs. non-verbs of english in sentences. references agustin-llach, m. p. (2017). vocabulary teaching: insights from lexical errors. tesol international journal, 12(1), 63. al khotaba, e., & al magarbeh, b. (2015). the influence of words categories on translating postgraduate abstracts in the field of evaluation and measurement at mu ’ tah university. advances in language and literary studies, 6(2), 2013–2016. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.2p.17 darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula277 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chapelle, c. a., & sauro, s. (2017). the handbook of technology and second language teaching and learning. retrieved from https://www.wiley.com/enus/the+handbook+of+technology+and+second+language+teaching+ and+learning-p-9781118914038 echols, j. m., & sadhily, h. (2001). kamus indonesia inggris (an indonesianenglish dictionary). jakarta: gramedia. elgort, i. (2011). deliberate learning and vocabulary acquisition in a second language. a journal of research and language studies, 61(2), 367–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00613.x ella, j. r., casalan, m. c., & lucas, r. i. g. (2019). examining the morphological processing of inflected and derived words by students in grades 7, 8, and 9. the asian efl journal, 21(2), 33–56. farrag, m., & badawi, a. (2019). the effect of explicit english morphology instruction on efl secondary school students ’ morphological awareness and reading comprehension. english language teaching, 12(4), 166–178. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n4p166 hinkel, e. (2011). handbook of research in second language teaching and learning: volume ii. studies in second language acquisition (vol. 28). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263106260297 long, m. h., & doughty, c. j. (2009). the handbook of language teaching. (c. j. doughty & m. h. long, eds.), a john wiley & sons, ltd., publication. blackwell publishing ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444318159.ch8 nation, i. s. p. (1982). beginning to learn foreign vocabulary. relc journal, 13(1), 14–36. nurhayati, d. a. w., djatmika, santosa, r., & wiratno, t. (2017). effects of students’ term and educational institution on the arising of indonesian morphology-syntactical interference in ellt. dinamika ilmu, 17 (1), 101-114. o’malley, j. m., & chamot, a. u. (1990). learning strategies in second language acquisition. the modern language journal (vol. 76). https://doi.org/10.2307/329782 278 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj schmitt, n. (2000). vocabulary in language teaching. (j. c. richards, ed.) (1st ed.). cambridge cb2 2ru, uk: cambridge univeristy press. solak, e., & bayar, a. (2015). current challenges in english language learning in turkish efl context. participatory educational research, 2(1), 106–115. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1697491095?accountid=14548 suherman, r., indrayani l.m., & krisnawati, e. (2020). portraying the english morphological development of indonesian-english interlanguage learners. indonesian journal of english language teaching and applied linguistics, 5 (1), 83-96. talosa, a. d., & maguddayao, r. n. (2018). evaluation of second language learners’ syntactic errors in esl writing. tesol international journal, 3(4), 172–181. wu, h.-c., & takahashi, t. (2016). developmental patterns of interlanguage pragmatics in taiwanese efl learners: compliments and compliment responses. the asian efl journal quarterly, 18(1), 1–171. appendices: part 1: kategori kata 1 * wajib 1. pendidikan terakhir saya (wajib di isi). * tandai satu oval saja. o sma sederajat o sedang kuliah s1 o lulus s1 o sedang kuliah s2 o lulus s2 o sedang kuliah s3 o lulus s3 darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula279 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj tanpa melihat kamus atau alat bantu terjemahan, terjemahkan kalimat-kalimat di bawah ini ke dalam bahasa inggris. 2. jono marah besar. 3. mami memarahiku tadi pagi. 4. khok tokonya tutup? 5. tolong, tanganku terbakar! 6. mawar, percayalah, manto tidak pas untuk menjadi pasanganmu. 7. haliq, dasimu tidak cocok dengan warna celanamu. 8. nilna, tokonya sudah buka lagi. 9. mawar, "semua tergantung hendri saja." 10. semua sudah terjadi, tri. jangan disesali. 11. semua terserah dian saja. 12. semua akan nampak indah pada saatnya. 13. rini ngantuk. 14. saya ingin terus berlari menuju fajar. 15. jangan menginjak rumput! 280 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 20, number 2, december 2020, pp. 256 – 281 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj part 2: kategori kata 2_ terjemahan terjemahkan ke dalam bahasa inggris semampu anda. tidak dinilai. *required 1. latar belakang pendidikan saya * o sedang menempuh s1 bahasa inggris o sedang menempuh s1 non-bahasa inggris o lulusan s1, s2, atau s3 2. jono marah sama saya. 3. ibuku memarahiku. 4. tokonya tutup. 5. tanganku terbakar. 6. baju ibu tidak pas dengan celanamu. 7. dasimu tidak cocok dengan bajumu. 8. tokonya buka jam 7.00. 9. jawabannya tergantung kamu. 10. peristiwa itu terjadi tadi pagi. 11. semua terserah dian. 12. gunung merapi tampak indah dari sini. darwanto, b.a., widodo, p. & satoto, h.h., morphological marking irregula281 rity of bahasa indonesia and the acquisition of english words https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v20i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 13. saya ngantuk banget. 14. saya berlari 1 jam tadi pagi. 15. dewi menginjak rumput. microsoft word 745d-fcf3-d46b-5276 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . the implementation of “tri hita karana” ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali 1wayan nurita, and 2i gusti ayu vina widiadnya putri 1,2faculty of foreign language, universitas mahasaraswati denpasar, bali, indonesia email: 1nuritabali@yahoo.com; 2miss.vina@unmas.ac.id received: 02-04-2021 accepted: 19-06-2021 published: 25-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the implementation of “tri hita karana” ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali 1 wayan nurita, and 2 i gusti ayu vina widiadnya putri 1nuritabali@yahoo.com; 2miss.vina@unmas.ac.id 1,2faculty of foreign language, universitas mahasaraswati denpasar, bali, indonesia abstract: this research examines the form of implementing the local wisdom ideology of tri hita karana in preventing and overcoming the spread of the covid-19 virus in bali. the central government, through its policies, has dealt with this epidemic, both at the central and regional levels, including in bali. in addition to implementing the policies of the central government to prevent and cope with this outbreak, bali itself attempts to make use of its ideology in dealing with the pandemic. this local ideology is known as tri hita karana. the problem raised in this study is how to implement the ideology of local wisdom in preventing and overcoming covid-19 in bali. the purpose of this research is to understand the implementations of local wisdom in bali that useful in preventing and overcoming covid-19. the method used is the empirical method, data collection techniques with interviews, questionnaires, and literature. the theory used is structural functional theory, social change theory which supported by concept of local wisdom. the results of this study indicate that the implementation of local wisdom in bali can effectively and efficiently prevent and cope with covid-19. an interesting finding of this article is precisely when local wisdom is tri hita karana implemented on a daily basis to deal with covid-19. the beginning the standard was prahyangan, pawongan and palemahan, however, in this implementation it changed to become pawongan, palemahan then prahyangan. key words: implementation, ideology, covid-19 abstrak: penelitian ini mengkaji wujud implementasi ideologi kearifan local tri hita karana dalam mencegah dan menanggulangi penyebaran 54 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj covid-19 di bali. pemerintah pusat melalui kebijkannya telah menangani epidemi ini, baik di tingkat pusat maupun daerah termasuk bali. selain kebijakan yang telah dikeluarkan oleh pemerintah pusat dalam rangka pencegahan dan penanggulangan wabah ini, di bali sendiri terdapat ideologi lokal (local wisdom) yang pelaksanaannya sejalan dengan kebijakan pemerintah. ideologi lokal ini dikenal dengan tri hita karana. permasalahan yang diangkat dalam penelitian ini adalah bagaimana implementasi ideologi kearifan lokal dalam pencegahan dan penanggulangan covid-19 di bali. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bahwa salah satu implementasi kearifan lokal di bali bermanfaat dalam pencegahan dan penanggulangan covid-19. metode yang digunakan adalah metode empiris, teknik pengumpulan data dengan wawancara, angket, dan studi pustaka. teori yang digunakan adalah teori fungsional struktural, teori perubahan sosial didukung oleh konsep kearifan lokal. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa penerapan kearifan lokal di bali dapat mencegah dan menanggulangi covid-19 secara efektif dan efisien. temuan menarik dari artikel ini justru ketika kearifan lokal tri hita karana diterapkan sehari-hari untuk mengatasi covid-19, tatanannya berubah. awalnya standarnya adalah prahyangan, pawongan dan palemahan namun dalam implementasinya berubah menjadi pawongan, palemahan kemudian prahyangan. kata kunci: implementasi, ideologi, covid-19 introduction the covid-19 pandemic in indonesia is part of the coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) that is currently taking place around the world, which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2). the first positive cases of covid-19 in indonesia were discovered on march 2, 2020, where the sufferer in jakarta had contact with a japanese citizen living in malaysia. it was informed that the who data as of march 2, 2020, has 90,308 suffers and continues to increase, so the world health agency takes steps to deal with covid-19 (yuliana, 2020) since the outbreak the government has taken preventive and overcoming steps, one of which is on march 13, 2020, where the president signed a presidential decree no.7 of 2020 concerning the task force for the acceleration of handling covid-19. other steps are also taken by the government, especially in the health sector, for example the addition of health nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 55 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj facilities for handling covid-19. on march 15, 2020, the president asked local governments throughout indonesia to make a study from home policy for students and university students. in addition to the steps outlined above, the president hands over the determination of regional emergency status to the regional head. since then, the government with all levels of society have campaigned for social distancing in order to prevent the transmission of covid-19. the president also issued government regulation (pp) number 21 of 2020 concerning large-scale social restrictions (psbb) for the acceleration of handling covid-19. the mechanisms and indicators for implementing psbb at the regional level are regulated in detail in the minister of health regulation no. 9/2020 concerning guidelines for large-scale social restrictions in the context of accelerating handling of covid-19. in line with the bali governor regulation number 15 of 2020, the hindu community in bali actually has a local wisdom which can be said to be in line with the steps taken by the government in dealing with covid-19. this is expressed by (geriya, 1991) that the life of the balinese people cannot be separated from the breath of hinduism and local wisdom. local wisdom in bali does not only begin during the era of the ancient balinese kingdom, but even from prehistoric times local wisdom at the level of institutions (values) that causes social relations to be harmonious in the context of balinese culture. generally, an implementation of the teachings of hinduism which is the breath of balinese culture. in the context of this value, the concept of social relations meant is not only in the relationship of hindus, but is universally applicable, meaning that it applies across religions, ethnicities and even all mankind. it is not certain who first coined the term local wisdom, as well as when it was first used. in the contexts of conversation that have been developed to date, the term local wisdom is used to translate the term local genius originally coined by hg quaritch wales. the essence of local wisdom from a positive point of view implicitly involves: (1) being able to survive against outside cultures, (2) having the ability to accommodate external cultural elements into the original culture, (3) having the ability to integrate external cultural elements into the culture genuine, (4) has the ability to control, and (5) is able to provide direction to cultural development. one of the local wisdoms that still exist in the life of balinese hindus is tri hita karana (tri: three, hita: happiness, and karana: cause), which concerns the human relationship with god called parahyangan, the human-human relationship is called pawongan and the human relationship 56 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj with nature is called palemahan. this described the concept of harmony which is totality, namely a combination of vertical aspects (god) and horizontal aspects (humans with humans and nature). the philosophy of tri hita karana in pritjof capra's (1997) term is a "relational concept" and the concept of deep ecology with its dialectic so that harmony will be realized in this universe. in this case, if the linkage has occurred, there will be a balance in sustainable development. balinese cultural activities are usually a series of dynamic, repetitive and continuous activities in order to maintain the harmony of human relations with god, humans and their environment, and humans with their peers. this cultural activity is oriented towards the conception of tri hita karana (geriya, 1991) there are rules issued by the government that must be obeyed by all indonesian citizens in relation to the prevention and handling of covid-19 and local wisdom on the one hand to achieve health (read happiness), so the ideology of balinese local wisdom can be said to be in line with the government's goal to achieve something. harmony in the universe will result in a balance in sustainable development for the welfare of all indonesian people. this research determines to analyze about implementation of ideology “tri hita karana” in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali. literature review some of the literature that has relevance as a reference for data include articles by nur rohim yunus and annissa rezki from the syarif hidayatullah state islamic university jakarta in the syar-i fsh social & cultural journal of uin syarif hidayatullah jakarta vol. 7 no. 3 of 2020 concerning the policy on enforcement of a lockdown in anticipation of the spread of the corona virus covid-19. in their writings nur rohim yunus and annissa rezki stated that initially the indonesian government did not follow the methods used by several other countries regarding the information provided about the covid-19 corona virus, namely by carrying out a quick reaction to preventive socialization. the reason is so that the indonesian people do not worry about this issue, in addition to minimize hoax news from a handful of irresponsible people. finally, the covid-19 outbreak is also a matter of concern for the community, because many indonesians are affected by this virus transmission. therefore, the government took the initiative to take a lockdown policy for 14 days to anticipate the transmission of this corona outbreak. the results of the study state that indonesia has experienced a condition where the public's nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 57 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj concern about covid-19 is quite large, so a government policy is needed to carry out a lockdown, as an effort to break the chain of spreading the covid-19 corona virus. in line with the research from agustino (2020) with the title: “analysis of covid-19 outbreak handling policy: the experience of indonesia” analyses the narrative and arguments of the authorities to understand decision making and policy implementation. the important findings from his writing are, first, the negative narrative and the slow response of the government to the spread of covid-19. the narratives conveyed by the political elite before covid-19 entered indonesia show no sense of crisis that threatens to slow down decision making. second, there is weak coordination among stakeholders, especially between the central government and regional governments. this asynchrony of coordination has resulted in unstable control of the corona virus. third, citizens' indifference or non-compliance with the government's appeal. the impact is that efforts to deal with it have stalled because it is not supported by the wider community. the combination of these three factors complicates the government's efforts to control the spread of covid-19 in indonesia. the analysis by faiq tobroni (2020) with the title of the article: "restriction of religious activities in handling covid-19", found that freedom of religion is one of the human rights guaranteed in the indonesian constitution. but due to the covid-19 pandemic, indonesia was forced to make a policy to restrict religious activities to cut the spread of the virus. according to international human rights instruments, policies to restrict religious activities must pay attention to the category of limited freedom and interpretive provisions in using international human rights instruments to formulate policies to restrict religious activities. restrictions are only allowed on religious activities in the external forum freedom category. meanwhile, the interpretive provisions that must be considered are the clarity of the formulation of the objectives of limitation, which is not discriminatory, and does not have the implication of eliminating rights. therefore, there is a balance between the aims and mechanisms of limitation, and objective steps in the formulation of restrictions. in dealing with covid-19, the indonesian government has chosen the option of large-scale social restrictions, one of which has implications for limiting religious activities. the formulation of the policy to limit religious activities is documented in a series of laws and regulations arranged hierarchically. all these policies to restrict religious activities have met several provisions in international human rights instruments. 58 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj parma (2010) with an article entitled: "practicing the tri hita karana concept in hotels: a case study of cultural-viewing hotel development at matahari beach resort and spa" wrote about the pattern of implementing the concept tri hita karana (parahyangan, pawongan, and palemahan) at hotel matahari beach resort and spa bali, by focusing on the problems faced, as well as responses from the community and employees. the three concept of tri hita karana were implemented by matahari beach resort and spa. the three concepts are tri hita karana implemented as references in everyday life at the hotel. for the concept pawongan, the hotel always facilitates various arts from various ethnicities and religions from locations around the hotel area. this is done to maintain harmony between religious communities. efforts to conserve coral reefs and turtles are a form of the application of the concept palemah. hotel matahari is also actively involved in building temples and maintaining the sanctity of pretenders around the hotel area. this effort was carried out spontaneously but directed in the day-to-day operations of the hotel. attempts to apply the concept tri hita karana initially were rejected. however, with the efforts of a humanist approach, the program was finally understood and its benefits were felt by the community. employees and the community have benefited from practicing the tri hita karana concept. from some of the articles above regarding covid-19, there are some similarities in the that it is discussed in this article, namely about the handling of covid-19 and the impact it causes. the significant difference between some of the articles above and this article, however lies in the implementation of the local wisdom ideology tri hita karana owned by hindus in bali which turns out to be in line with the indonesian government's efforts to deal with covid-19 so that the implementation of government regulations does not conflict with the local culture in bali. writing this article aims to understand the form of implementation of the local wisdom ideology of bali tri hita karana in dealing with covid-19 so that the handling of covid-19 in bali can run effectively and efficiently. local wisdom is a term that should be interpreted as wisdom in traditional culture, provided that what is meant in this case is the traditional culture of ethnic groups. in a broad sense, it means that local wisdom is translated into all cultural heritages, both tangible and intangible. nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 59 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method this research entitled the implementation of the ideology of local wisdom in dealing with covid-19 is a qualitative descriptive study explaining the forms of implementation of local wisdom in bali in the face of the covid-19 outbreak. the type of data used in this study is qualitative data. qualitative data is in the form of information from informants regarding the implementation of local wisdom in dealing with tri hita karana's. qualitative data were obtained through: interviews, observations, literature studies, social media, document examination covering the reasons for implementing local wisdom ideology in the face of covid-19. the technique of determining the informants in this article was carried out through purposive sampling. samples of 44 respondents in several districts in bali were taken purposively and distributed via whatsapp to informants who were deemed to meet several criteria, for example the informant concerned was a health worker, a traditional officer assigned to handle covid-19, a member of the pecalang (a type of traditional police force), and the community according to the problems studied, the informant's age is mature, physically and mentally healthy. this is in accordance with patton's idea (satori djamian, 2013) that the determination of the sample in qualitative research is very appropriate if it is based on research objectives or problems, which use considerations from the researcher himself, in order to obtain the accuracy and adequacy of the information needed in accordance with the objectives or problem being studied. results and discussions the local wisdom of tri hita karana's is one of bali's local ideologies which orders life to achieve balance (happiness), in this case how the ideology is implemented in relation to dealing with covid-19 in bali so that the local wisdom referred to in its implementation appears is in line with the government programs and can even strengthen it. the implementation of tri hita karana's local wisdom in dealing with covid-19 can be described as follows below. a. implementation of parhyangan parhyangan comes from the word hyang which means god. parhyangan means divinity or religious matters in the framework of worshiping god. in a 60 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj narrow sense parhyangan means a holy place to worship god. according to his religious review, human worship and serve god because of their qualities parama (noble). the parhyangan aspect for balinese society raises forms of relationships related to the worship system (theological relationship). in relation to the cult system from the family level to the family temple (sanggah/penjajan) as a place of worship at the smallest level, then in a large family environment or clan, there is a single objection or a big objection (panti) which is the worship of several families who are one blood (ancestors). at the village level there are three kahyangan, up to sad kahyangan. the application of parhyangan can be aimed at the implementation of dewa yadnya. because parhyangan is a relationship between humans and god, its application can be carried out with dewa yadnya. for example, by cleaning the temples, praying diligently and also by carrying out religious teachings and staying away from god's prohibitions. the application of parhyangan at the preacher level is in the form of kahyangan jagat (padet & krishna, 2018). even though in daily life the balinese people always worship in family temples as a form of worship and devotion to god, on certain days at village temples or large temples in the bali region, whose prayer days have been regular before the covid-19 outbreak, the balinese are also obliged make prayers. during an outbreak of covid-19, not only the activities of worship to the temple are dispensed, but also several series of other religious activities such as the turn of the year caka (nyepi) in which there are activities parade of ogoh-ogoh also has dispensed since march 2020. in connection with the implementation of parhyangan , the government has also issued regulations related to the prevention of covid-19 so that there is an umbrella for hindus in bali, this is in line with the article written by (telaumbanua, 2020) that covid-19 is an infectious disease that has the potential to cause public health emergencies. therefore, preventive measures against these types of infectious diseases must be carried out as soon as possible. indonesia as a rule of law, therefore the prevention of these types of infectious diseases must be established in a rule or regulation. the urgency for the formation of regulations related to the prevention of covid-19 must be established in a government regulation and regulation of the minister of health because these two regulations are implementing regulations of law number 6 of 2018 concerning health quarantine. there are 5 government regulations that must be formed in order to take measures to overcome and prevent the threat of contagious diseases such as covid19 and there are 11 nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 61 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj related minister of health regulations that must be formed in order to anticipate the threat of covid-19. these two types of regulations are very useful in terms of anticipating health emergencies which in turn lead to quarantine of indonesian public health in order to provide legal certainty in preventing the widespread spread of covid-19. several informants stated that in prayer at several temples, strict health protocols were implemented, such as: limiting the number of people, the implementation of 3m, and arrangements between those who entered the temple and those who had finished praying guarded by pecalang (a kind of traditional police in bali), village officials, from babinkamtibmas, and babinsa. with this condition, it is hoped that it can reduce the spread of covid-19. the results of interviews with several informants also stated that in prayers led by the stakeholders (ceremony leaders) or those who are authorized in the ceremony, they always invite people to pray that the grubug covid-19 outbreak (world epidemic) will quickly end and we humans can be avoided. from the description above with regard to the implementation of parhyangan as a basis for dealing with covid-19, it can be said that even in a state of covid-19 outbreaks with awareness of surrendering to god, hindus in bali still carry out prayers following the rules issued by the government. the concept of parhyangan as a form of devotion is not only done to god, but also to the government by obeying the rules. at every opportunity of his offering, he also prayed that this plague would end quickly. picture 1: implementation of parhyangan related to covid-19 outbreaks 62 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in relation to the implementation of parhyangan, explicitly in the bali governor regulation number 15 of 2020 in chapter iii concerning health management related to covid-19 in article 7 it states (1) health care related to covid-19 consists of: a. traditional village-based health management; and b. health care by the provincial task force. (2) traditional village-based health treatment as referred to in paragraph (1) letter a consists of: a. activities in niskala (non-physical); and b. activities in sakala (physical). (3)activities niskala as referred to in paragraph (2) letter a, are carried out with nunas ica (asking for safety / blessings) with pamangku (religious ceremony leader) at kahyangan tiga/templevillage temple by means of nyejer daksina (silencing a kind of ceremony facility with name daksina) in the traditional village. the bali governor regulation number 15 of 2020 above clearly shows that in making a decision, the local government also considers input elements that come from local wisdom so that it can support and strengthen steps in implementing the decision, even though in the implementation of religious implementation in bali it follows health protocol. changes in the rituals of praying were followed by hindus in bali without changing the meaning of the prayer. this is because there is a compelling situation (covid-19) so that the patterns in social life change. this fact is in accordance with the opinion of (sztompka, 2011) that society should not be imagined as a constant state, but as a process; not as a rigid pseudo-object but as a continuous stream of events. it is recognized that society (group, community, organization, nation, state) can only be said to exist as long as something happens in it, certain actions are taken, there are certain changes, and there are certain processes that are always working. ontology it can be said that society is not in a constant state. all social realities are constantly changing with different degrees of speed, intensity, rhythm and tempo. it's no coincidence that people talk about "social life." since life is movement and change, stopping means that there is no longer life but is a completely different state called nothingness or death. for balinese hindus, in carrying out prayers during the covid-19 period by adhering to health protocols is an option to achieve the goal of balancing local wisdom. this is in line with (ritzer, 2004) that individuals act deliberately to achieve goals, where these goals (and their actions) are shaped by values and preferences. the social control that the government places on community activities in bali includes prayer activities because the authorities unilaterally transfer control over their actions to other parties. this is emphasized by (ritzer, nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 63 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2004) that the authorities do this in their efforts to maximize their utility. communities are willing to give up some controls over their own behaviour, but in the process, they gain some control (through norms) over the behaviour of other community members. such norms become effective when a consensus arises that some members of society have the right to control (through norms) the actions of community members. furthermore, the effectiveness of the norms depends on the ability to enforce the consensus. consensus and enforcement are what prevent the kind of imbalance that characterizes collective behavior. a. implementation of pawongan pawonan comes from the word wong (in javanese) which means people. pawongan is a matter relating to people in one community life, in a narrow sense pawongan is a group of people living in a community. the context of pawongan in the daily lives of hindus in bali is social cohesion in the context of carrying out social obligations so that the goal of physical and mental balance (happiness) can be achieved. in addition to harmonizing the relationship between the soul (atman) and god (paramatman) or the relationship between humans and god, as a social being, they must also develop relationships with fellow humans and other creatures. what is meant by the relationship between humans and other creatures is the relationship between family members, the community, between children, husbands and wives and others. human relations with other creatures should be able to create a harmonious, harmonious and peaceful atmosphere and help each other with a heart full of love, the balinese term: mutual development (mutual development), mutual compassion (mutual love), mutual care (take care of each other), (paramajaya, 2018) with the awareness of the concept of pawongan as part of the tri hita karana, there is awareness in the community to protect, respect, and prioritize public interests over personal interests, so that as individuals and groups respect the existence of others. personal interests include the efforts of community members in relation to the economy during this pandemic, especially for vulnerable communities. in this case, the government must take action through strategic policies as a relationship between people so that the economic downturn does not get worse (kurniawan et al., 2020). in general, the government has taken several policies in order to ward off global economic conditions caused by the corona virus. among them are providing an interest rate policy and discounting flight ticket prices so that people are still interested 64 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in making tourist visits to several tourist destination cities, (burhanuddin & abdi, 2020). the implementation of the concept pawongan of hindus in bali in the face of covid-19 is in accordance with excerpts from interviews with several informants including: implementing 3m in daily activities, following health protocols during meetings in banjar, during mutual cooperation, praying at village temples and other large temples in bali , following a circular from the authorities regarding restrictions on religious activities, monitoring the entry and exit of the community and distributing masks through the pecalang and other activities relating to activities that interact with other individuals or groups in society. the concept of pawongan that has been implemented by the community in bali is in line with the governor of bali regulation number 15 of 2020 chapter iii article 7 point 4 concerning real activities (sekala) carried out by: a. prevention of covid-19 includes carrying out education and outreach to krama traditional villages, limiting the movement of krama (members) of traditional villages, directing krama desa adat /krama tamiu (migrant residents) who are included in the odp and pdp covid-19 categories to carry out independent isolation, prepare masks, hand sanitizers, and hand washing; and b. developing mutual cooperation among krama traditional villages, among others, collecting data on krama traditional villages that require assistance with basic needs and collecting basic needs from krama traditional villages who are economically capable, voluntarily and cooperatively. in terms of international relations, the concept of pawongan has also been implemented by the government in this case the use of public diplomacy by the government against other countries because this pandemic is global in nature. this fact is in accordance with (martha, 2020) view that the emergence of a crisis due to the spread of covid-19 has made each country determine solution a fast and appropriate response. the limitations of each country have led to cooperation in various fields. first-track diplomacy is also increasing, even though it is done virtually. public diplomacy can be used to support efforts to overcome the crisis caused by covid-19 through making sense of events, networking, and craft messages. and event. handling a crisis with public diplomacy can also produce several benefits, including promoting values that can increase the stability of the country, creating mutual understanding and correcting misunderstandings and building a reputation. taiwan and georgia are examples of countries that have successfully faced crises by utilizing public diplomacy. the indonesian nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 65 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj government can also take advantage of public diplomacy to support crisis management due to covid-19. figure 2: the implementation of pawongan related to covid-19 outbreaks the concept of pawongan also educates and familiarizes individuals with discipline so that when an incident such as covid-19 occurs, individuals or social groups can obey and can be controlled. the government decision is a concrete step in implementing pawongan. the decision taken must consider all aspects and calculate the risks that arise. a policy is inseparable from the involvement of all existing stakeholders , both the community as a part of which is bound in the results of policy decisions up to the stage of the government as the policy-making body (sulistiani & kaslam, 2020). discipline becomes the general mechanism for exercising domination. disciplines impose a series of work designed to exert strict control over the body. discipline does not only occur in prisons but also in general education (such as schools, hospitals, workplaces and the military. discipline distributes individuals into the confinement and isolation space of individuals and the development of functions of places and levels. discipline creates spaces. a complex space that is architectural, functional and hierarchical (ritzer, 2004) the attitudes described above are a reflection of the existence of traditional institutions that have the potential to strengthen the solidarity of balinese people. this fact is in accordance with view (geriya, 1991) that traditional institutions are institutions that have supported the life of a socio-cultural community and have developed over the centuries through a historical process. these institutions are functional villages, banjar, subak and 66 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sekeha-sekeha, all institutions it functions on the basis of the foundation, tri hita karana balinese life socially ma'am power is bound by seven aspects, namely (1) temple worship (2) local community banjar (customary village), (3) subak organization for farmers, (4) a number of groups or voluntary organizations, (5) family ties, both for basic blood and marital relations, (6) caste ties, (7) administrative unity. however, the covid-19 outbreak in bali caused a shift in the social relations of hindus in bali with the existence of a regional quarantine policy (lockdown) to a large-scale social restriction (psbb) that was local in nature according to the severity level in the province, district or city which caused the world economy and indonesia is experiencing a slowdown, (muhyiddin, 2020). based on some results of an interview informants stated that the daily activities follow the rules promulgated by both national to village level mislead their activity changed. some activities that have an impact, for example the meeting (paruman) of members banjar (at the hamlet level) are limited to the management, limited prayers and even some piodalan (feasts at temples) are not implemented, the teaching and learning process is online, shopping online, some public facilities are limited by hours operations, and other activities cannot be as free as before. changes in people's behaviour are also influenced by the level of education and knowledge. knowledge about covid-19 is very important for the community to have so people are able to make decisions in behaving appropriately in order to break the chain of transmission. however, no less important is monitoring from the government and the community is still needed to maintain a conducive situation in an effort to break the chain of transmission (purnamasari and anisa ell raharyani, 2020). the above reality is described by (sztompka, 2011) that sometimes changes only happen in part, limited in scope, without causing major consequences to other elements of the system. the system as a whole remains intact, there is no complete change in its elements even though it changes gradually. however, on other occasions, the change may cover the whole (or at least cover the core) aspects of the system, produce a complete change, and create a new system that is fundamentally different from the old system. in a social system there is often a gradual change in characteristics as a whole and leading to new "quantitative" and "qualitative" features. an element that also plays an important role in dealing with covid -19 in terms of the aspect of human relations (pawongan) is the media. the media nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 67 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj coverage that is so intense regarding covid-19 is currently raising anxiety for the public. continuous coverage, confusing news and the emergence of thousands of articles about corona on the internet have added to the concern for some people about the correctness of information. valid data and real information are needed to become a reliable source of knowledge. this is where the role of information institutions becomes a bridge between the need for knowledge and the distribution of countless information (nurislaminingsih, 2020). one form of government policy both central and regional in dealing with hoax news regarding covid-19 is blocking problematic sites (sites that spread hoaxes or fake news can no longer be accessed, the formation of the national cyber agency, cooperation with the press council, collaboration with facebook. literacy is not just to read only but comprehensive. some people who diligently read, think of it as a necessity. type this text can be print media such as newspapers, magazines and electronic media such as television, (putri et al., 2020). the views from farahdila daughter, et al above were strengthened by(syaipudin, 2020) who saw covid-19 from the point of view of mass communication stated that mass communication has a strategic role in responding to various existing problems. in fact, mass communication can be a form of early education that directly targets the wider community effectively and efficiently. with regard to covid-19, mass communication has a central role in responding to this pandemic. the problems caused by the covid-19 pandemic which has become a global problem have the potential to trigger a new social order or reconstruction, thus it is necessary to have close communication between stakeholders and the community in responding to this problem. the media situation above is in line with the views of (davis howard, 2020) that the media practice of how a piece of text, more or less, directly covers the openness of other bits of news. here, the preferred reading is developed from the presenter's own reading of the other item or point of view given, a case which is unusually literal. b. the implementation of palemahan palemahan comes from the word weak (balinese) which means land. palemahan also means bhuwana or nature. in a narrow sense, palemahan means an area of settlement or residence. to achieve and mental well-being, humans cannot live without the physical great bhuwana (universe). humans live in nature and from natural products. this is what underlies the harmonious relationship 68 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj between humans and the universe. some embodiments of the concept palemahan to keep the balance and harmony of nature, hindus in bali ceremony tumpek uye, which aims to preserve animal life and ceremony tumpek wariga (tumpek bubuh)to preserve the plants regularly every once every six months. the concept of palemahan has been integrated with hindus in bali, who from the beginning have mostly relied on nature. from a historical point of view this is in line with the opinion of (ardika, 2013) that wet rice farming in bali has led to the formation of residential communities that are permanent in nature and the formation of social organizations that are quite high leading to the formation of a division of labor, namely the emergence of farmer groups, craft, fishermen traders and so on. this development eventually led to the formation of assistance to neighbours such as assistance from the nuclear family which eventually led to the formation of guild councils which deal with matters of a communal nature. this arrangement also regulates the irrigation system, communal land and regulates social works. therefore, there are democratic characteristics in the formed community. this certainly cannot be separated from the emergence of belief in the existence of good spirits and evil spirits as people think of spirits in a land, mountain, river and so on. the introduction of mythology reflects the experience of human life. this extends to the relationship between humans and nature in terms of maintaining a harmonious relationship between the lowland and the mountains and other dualisms. belief in the soul / spirit of the world, belief in the existence of objects that have a spirit such as large stones, mountains, the sea determine the existence of magical powers as in the banyan tree. that is why, in almost every village in bali, there is a banyan tree, which people arrange offerings so that the community is protected. the implementation of the concept of palemahan in the face of the covid-19 pandemic in relation to natural balance in the real form of hindus in bali according to the opinion of the informants, including in a small scale keeping the environment clean with mutual cooperation to avoid disease, spraying disinfectants in each banjar which is supervised by banjar andapparatus pecalang (a type of traditional police). the opinion of this informant is in line with the opinion of (putrayasa et al., 2014) as a form of implementation of the weaknesses among them provide a place for washing hands and spraying disinfectants in the customary village environment. nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 69 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 3: the implementation of palemahan related to covid-19 outbreaks one example of disinfectant spraying was published in the daily denpasar city government on june 14, 2020, that effort to prevent the spread of covid-19, dauh puri kaja village simultaneously sprayed disinfectants three times a week in all hamlets in its area. spraying simultaneously was carried out by each hamlet assisted by the task force, pecalang, linmas and youth (sekaa teruna). for simultaneously spraying the village has provided equipment and medicine to each hamlet. so that each hamlet immediately sprayed. thus, spraying can be carried out simultaneously and independently in all hamlets in dauh puri kaja village. with the involvement of all parties, the village head hopes to accelerate the termination of the covid-19 chain, so that community members can do activities as before but still apply health protocols without fear. the daily description of the denpasar city government above is an implementation of palemahan to prevent the spread of covid-19. but internally, prevention returns to each individual. prevention methods for not contracting covid-19 include: performing hand hygiene using a hand sanitizer if your hands are not visibly dirty or washing your hands with soap if your hands look dirty; avoiding touching the eyes, nose and mouth; practice the etiquette of coughing or sneezing by covering the nose and mouth with the inner upper arm or tissue, then throwing the tissue into the trash; wear a medical mask and perform hand hygiene after removing the mask; keep a distance from other people (zendrato, 2020). the implementation of the concept palemahan is in line with view (ritzer, 2004) that culture is the main force that binds various elements of the social world and mediates interactions among actors and combines personalities and social systems. culture has the unique ability to become, at least, in part, a component of other systems. therefore, in the social system, culture is manifested in norms and values, and in the personality system, culture is internalized by the actor. 70 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 53 – 73 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there is a shift in daily activities, especially thee elements of palemahan in local wisdom in bali, further (ritzer, 2004) that behavior focuses on the relationship between the influence of an actor's behavior on the environment and its influence on the subsequent behavior of the perpetrator. this relationship forms the basis for operant conditioning, or a learning process in which "behavior is modified by its consequences." some people might almost think that this behavior, at least in early infancy, is random behavior. the environment in which the behavior occurs, whether social or physical, is influenced by the behavior and then "reacts" back (reacts) in various ways. this reaction whether it is positive, negative, or neutral will influence the next behavior of the principal. if the reaction is positive towards the offender, the same behavior will tend to reappear in the future in similar situations. conclusion the direction and target of local wisdom tri hita karana’s is to achieve mokrastham jagad hita ya ca iti dharma, which is to achieve physical and spiritual happiness so that with harmony, happiness is achieved which is the ultimate goal of hinduism, namely the union of the soul with god (atman with paramatman). with this reference, the connection with local wisdom tri hita karana's in dealing with covid-19 is the implementation of these values by balinese hindus in their daily lives which is also in line with government policy so that it is hoped that the spread of covid-19 can be suppressed and can end. an interesting finding of this article is precisely whenlocal wisdom is tri hita karana's implemented on a daily basis to deal with covid-19, the order changes. so far, the standards are: 1. parhyangan (human relationship with god) in relation to praying to god, 2. pawongan (relationship between human beings), and 3. palemahan (human relationship with nature). when the tri hita karana concept was implemented in the face of covid-19, the sequence changed to: first, pawongan (human relations) is implemented in adhering to health protocols, second palemahan (human relations with the natural environment), for example cleaning the environment and spraying disinfectant, and third is parhyangan (human relationship with god) which is implemented in praying for safety and the plague to end soon. it can be said that the sequence tries to implement health protocols, obey government regulations, keep the environment clean, eat healthy food, exercise regularly and then pray to god. nurita, w., & putri, i. g. a. v. w., the implementation of “tri hita karana” 71 ideology in preventing the spread of covid-19 in bali https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj through this article, the author can also state that the local wisdom of tri hita karana in its implementation is flexible and dynamic without neglecting the meaning contained in it. the author invites all people in indonesia who have thousands of local wisdoms to preserve it as part of the national cultural treasures. through this article, it is also possible to study several problems related to local wisdom as a basis for dealing with social, cultural and environmental problems that exist around the community. references agustino, l. 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(2020). urgensi pembentukan aturan terkait pencegahan covid-19 di indonesia. qalamuna: jurnal pendidikan, sosial, dan agama, 12(01), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.37680/qalamuna.v12i01.290 yuliana. (2020). yuliana. parque de los afectos. jóvenes que cuentan, 2(february), 124–137. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvzxxb18.12 zendrato, w. (2020). gerakan mencegah daripada mengobati terhadap pandemi covid-19. jurnal education and development, 8(2), 242–248. issn: 1412-3320 english culture, language teaching & literature a journal of celtcelt accredited by dikti 040/p/2014 celt, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 celt a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature (celt) is published biannually in the months of july and december (issn: 1412-3320) presenting articles on culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics, and literature. contents include analysis, studies, application of theories, research reports, material development, and book reviews. celt was firstly published in december 2001. based on the decree from hasil akreditasi jurnal ilmiah, sk direktur penelitian dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat, direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi, no. 040/p/2014 dated on 18 february 2014, celt is nationally accredited until 2019. editor-in-chief ekawati marhaenny dukut business manager cecilia titiek murniati editors antonius suratno emilia ninik aydawati gerardus majella adhyanggono heny hartono website designer & administrator ridwan sanjaya cover designer oscar santoso correspondence: address: the editors, celt, faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university, henricus constance building, 4 th floor, jl. pawiyatan luhur iv/1, bendan dhuwur, semarang 50234, indonesia; email: celtjournal@gmail.com; celt.unika@yahoo.com; celt@unika.ac.id; website: http://www.journalcelt.com; http://journalcelt.blogspot.com; telephone: +62-24-8316142, 8441555 (hunting) ext. 1705, fax no.: +62-248445265 ________________________________________________________________________________________ celt is published by the faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university. rector: prof. dr. ir. yohanes budi widianarko, m.sc., vice rector for academic affairs: dr. ridwan sandjaja, s.e., s.kom, ms.iec.., vice rector for financial and administration affairs: ineke hantoro, s.t.p., m.sc., vice rector for students’ affairs: lita widyo hastuti,s.psi, msi, vice rector for cooperation and development affairs: dr. marcella elwina simandjuntak, s.h., cn, m.hum., dean: angelika riyandari, s.s., m.a., ph.d., vice dean for academic affairs: dra. cecilia titiek murniati, m.a., ph.d, vice dean of financial and administration affairs: drs. antonius suratno, m.a., ph.d., vice dean for student affairs: b. retang wohangara, s.s., m.hum. ________________________________________________________________________________________ contributions: contributions are welcome from anyone who is concerned with culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature. contributors should consult the current celt manuscript submission guidelines before submitting articles, which contains important information about the focus and format of articles (see back cover). cost per journal is rp 40.000 and is payable through bank bii kas unika soegijapranata, with a bank swift code: ibbkidja, bank acc. no.: 1-575-16246-4, bank acc. name: angelika riyandari dan antonius suratno. ________________________________________________________________________________________ printed by santosa print offset, yogyakarta published and copyright by soegijapranata catholic university press, semarang © 2014. mailto:celtunika@gmail.com mailto:celt.unika@yahoo.com mailto:celt@unika.ac.id http://journalcelt.blogspot.com/ heavenly tears – earthly loss: different ways of coping with life loss in tears in heaven, circus, and since i lost you akun ...............................................................................................................1 constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppet for international students yoseph bambang margono slamet .................................................................16 using popular culture's media of indonesian-english picturebooks as a way of reaching more vegetable consuming children ekawati marhaenny dukut, maya putri utami, adi nugroho, novita ika putri, and probo y. nugrahedi ................................................................................36 cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops nur utami s.k. ..............................................................................................48 analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers anna marietta da silva ...................................................................................63 teacher questioning in classroom interaction sarlita dewi matra ........................................................................................82 students' perspectives on the role of open access centre and language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills wuryani hartanto ......................................................................................112 celt, vol.14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 b ba journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 using popular culture’s media of indonesian english picturebooks as a way of reaching more vegetable consuming children1 ekawati marhaenny dukut1, maya putri utami2, adi nugroho2, novita ika putri3 and probo y. nugrahedi3 ekawati@unika.ac.id; angeliamaya@unika.ac.id; adi.nugroho@unika.ac.id; novitaika@unika.ac.id; probo@unika.ac.id 2english department, faculty of language and arts, 3&4visual communication design department, faculty of architecture and design, 5&6faculty of architecture and design, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang abstract: a questionnaire and interview recently given to 5-8 year old children and their parents show that consumption of vegetables is low. one of the factors for the low consumption is due to the lack of creativity in making various menu and creative media to obtain children‟s interest in wanting to consume vegetables. in indonesia, if young children can be taught to actively use the english language, it will be a great advantage for their future‟s education. based on these backgrounds, through the various media available in today‟s popular culture, picturebooks that can increase children‟s ability to read english language texts in addition to consume vegetables is created. a picturebook project is regarded highly relevant for teachers who specialize in english language, visual communicative design and food technology. this article shares how with a bilingual picturebook, a reader will know how to pronounce the english language well because there is a 1 this article is based on a presentation entitled “teaching children english through bilingual picturebooks: a popular culture and visual language case study” that was delivered at the 4th celt international conference: english in the professional world, 12-13 march 2014, held by the english department, faculty of letters, at the theatre room, thomas aquinas building, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang, indonesia. it is written to actualize the ipteks bagi masyarakat funding received from the ministry of higher education in indonesia. note: the name of faculty of letters has recently changed into the faculty of language and arts. dukut, e.m., utami, m.p, nugroho, a., putri, n.i., and nugrahedi. p.y., 37 using popular culture‟s media of indonesian-english picturebooks phonetic transcription guide provided at the back of the book. also at the back of the book is a menu for the vegetable that becomes the main character of the book. with this strategy, the book is projected to be popular to readers who want to also create attractive vegetable menus for children. the picturebook that is packed with simple yet interesting visual language is also a way to show how creative one can be in designing lovable vegetable characters. this article discusses the reasonings of creating the picture book. key words: popular culture, vegetables, children, bilingual picturebook, visual language abstract: kuesioner dan wawanvara pada beberapa waktu diberikan kepada siswa berumur antara umur 5-8 tahun dan kepada beberapa orang tua menyatakan bahwa konsumsi sayuran dalam keluarga cukup rendah. salah satu pemyebabnya mungkin adalah kreatifitas yang tidak cukup bervariasi melalui macam menu untuk mendapatkan perhatian siswa dalam rangka mengkonsumsi sayur. di indonesia, jika anak-anak dapat diajari untuk memakai bahasa inggris secara aktif, hal itu akan menjadi keuntungan yang besar ke pendidikannya kelak. berdasarkan latar belakang ini, maka melalui macam media dalam budaya populer saat ini, buku cerita bergambar yang dapat meningkatkan kemampuan anak untuk membaca bacaan dalam bahasa inggris selain mengkonsumsi sayur akhirnya disengaja untuk diciptakan. proyek pembuatan buku cerita bergambar ini sangat cocok bagi guru-guru yang mempunyai keahlian dalam bahasa inggris, desain komunikasi visual dan teknologi pangan. tulisan artikel ini bermaksud untuk mengsosialisasikan bagaimana melalui buku bilingual para pembaca akan dapat mengucapkan beberapa kosa kata bahasa inggris dengan benar karena di belakang buku ada pedoman fonetiknya. di belakang buku juga ada menu makanan sayur yang menjadi karakter utama buku. dengan strategi ini, buku ini dapat diproyeksikan untuk menjadi populer bagi para pembaca yang juga mau membuat masakan yang menarik bagi anak-anak. buku cerita bergambar ini yang dipenuhi oleh hal yang mudah dan simple tapi menarik untuk dibaca adalah cara untuk menunjukkan bahwa seseorang dapat menjadi kreatif dalam menciptakan karakter-karakter sayur yang menggemaskan. artikel ini memberikan penjelasan tentang terciptanya buku cerita bergambar itu. kata kunci: budaya populer, sayuran, anak-anak, dwi bahasa, cerita bergambar, bahasa visual 38 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 36-47 low vegetable consumption and its effects in children it is often the case that when asking children what they prefer to consume for their meal, a more likeable answer is to have fried chicken or have some kind of noodle dish. rarely would the answer of the children be a preference to have stir-fried vegetables or green salad. when consuming a hamburger from a mcdonald‟s restaurant or fried noodles at a nearby chinese restaurant, children tend to take out the vegetables from these meals. when asked why, some would answer that the vegetable smells or too difficult to swallow or just simply not tasty enough. an interview given to 30 children studying at don bosco pangudi luhur kindergarten and first and second grade of elementary school that are between the ages of 5-8 and also a questionnaire given out to their parents show that 80% of children dislike vegetables. there are 13.33% of the elementary school and 46.66% of the kindergarten children who do not like vegetables. their reasons are similar to the above phenomenon. it is interesting that 30% of the children‟s parents are themselves not a vegetable lover. these parents also often have no idea how to make creative vegetable menu for their children. the easy access to junk food or fast food which is made popular through the advertisements seen on television or billboards may have influenced these children and parents even further away from eating healthy vegetables in their meals. it is, nevertheless, quite shocking to find that according to bararah (2010), 50% of young children do not enjoy eating vegetables. in addition, according to dennison, rockwell & baker (1998) preschool-aged children only consume 25% of recommended vegetable servings a day. children of two years old and over should eat “more fruits, vegetables, and grain products” (dennison, rockwell, & baker, 1998, p. 372). because of this, it is recommended that the fruits and vegetables are made into fruit or/and vegetable juice, so it will be easier for children to swallow. if not consumed numerous times a day, however, only little dietary fiber gets into the body. low consumption in vegetables will directly give an advantage to children who during their adult stage will have a low body endurance and vulnerability towards deceases (hidayati, p. 7). girls are especially affected by it because they are potential to mother and baby deaths (hidayati, p. 3). the promotion of consuming high fiber like found in vegetables should, therefore, be made. one way is to promote it through a popular culture media. dukut, e.m., utami, m.p, nugroho, a., putri, n.i., and nugrahedi. p.y., 39 using popular culture‟s media of indonesian-english picturebooks a popular culture, according to danesi (2008, p. 2) not only include the beliefs and rituals of a society but also the lifestyle pattern of that society, which in this case includes the eating habit of the people living in that culture. as informed above, the lifestyle of eating fast food or junk food is also a popular culture shaped by the many advertisements shown on television as a way to answer the people‟s minimum time for cooking a healthy meal at home. in the interview with some of the children at don bosco elementary school, it was also found that some of their parents are busy workers. these kinds of parents do not even have time to take them and pick them up from school. with regards to the daily meal, these children say they do not often see either of their parents cook and what is usually consumed at home are fast food meals. in indonesia especially, there are relatively good television shows that can remedy the low consumption of vegetables. for the mothers, farah quinn‟s ala chef, which is aired at asian food channel tv station and also rcti‟s master chef cooking competition can be an input to how creative one can be in cooking healthy vegetable meals. the recent master chef junior program whose judges are from the master chef cooking competition should have also encouraged the children themselves that they can be the creative one in the kitchen. if parents and children prefer to go out for their meals in the weekends, they can also have input from bondan winarno‟s wisata kuliner aired at trans tv as a popular culture program that may give suggestions for places where a healthy vegetable menu is available. although positioned at a primetime schedule (irawadi, 2012), it seems it is still not enough to attract children and parents to love consuming vegetables. based on this background, therefore, the writers decide to popularize vegetable consumption through an „i love vegetable‟ picturebook series. ‘i love vegetable’ bilingual picturebooks as a media for vegetable and visual language learning according to hsiu-chih (2008, p. 51) a good picturebook should not only give an overall comprehension of the story, but also stimulate the readers‟ imagination. if these functions are reached, children usually have some satisfaction in reading a story. citing owen and nowel, faizah (2009, p. 252) gives further understanding that picturebooks are good media for children because they are usually brief and straightforward. they also contain a limited number of concepts, so that it is easy to be comprehended by 40 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 36-47 children. the writing style is also direct and simple with attractive illustrations that complement the text. because a picturebook usually contains lots of pictures with simple words, it is important to make the visual illustrations meaningful. faizah (2009, p. 253) informs that that visual illustrations help increase children‟s memory by 14 to 38%. it is consequently understood that a memorable character should be created, so children will want to refer to their picturebooks not once but for a number of times. pictures as visual language help speeds a story line because there is usually about 40% decrease in time when using visual language. faizah continues to explain that children usually love picturebooks because of a number of other reasons (2009, p. 254). a picturebook can make children learn more about their society based on a character from the book. the character may also help children have a let out of their own problems because they can see how the characters deal with a problem similar to their own. the pictures can help children who are not proficient enough in reading feel the enjoyment of reading books. as a consequence, a picturebook can encourage the habit of reading. thus, it is clear that picturebooks are the right media for children to learn positively about something. with lots of pictures and minimal words in a picturebook, it becomes a way to easily memorize the wordings used in the story. for this reason, picturebooks is a satisfactory media also for vocabulary learning, too. with the recent trend of not all indonesian elementary schools providing english language lessons, a bilingual, indonesian-english picturebook may be the answer to those who are eager to learn english in a fun and simple way. the creation of vegetable picturebooks children love to read books that have more visuals rather than verbal texts in capturing information (mcneal & ji, 2003). henceforth, as suggested by its name, picturebook, it must contain more pictures than words. in the „i love vegetable‟ picturebook series, the writers followed the suggestions above that the main character of the book must be made appealing and memorable. in addition to the visualization that must be there in a picturebook, the size and number of pages is also important to provide interest to children as readers of the book. because of this, before creating the book a small research was done to decide about the book type, dukut, e.m., utami, m.p, nugroho, a., putri, n.i., and nugrahedi. p.y., 41 using popular culture‟s media of indonesian-english picturebooks illustration, drawing style and typography preference, in addition to the books‟ practically. using a purposive sampling of a 3-6 year-old children who are from middle to high class families in semarang area, four different books were given for the children to comment and give insights to the researchers as writers of this article. the books are a 12 page picturebook with sponge media entitled sayang binatang, anjingku (loving animals, my dog), then a fancy paper and thick 308 page book, entitled dongeng mini: cerita binatang (mini tales: animal stories). the other book is a fancy paper and 24 page book, entitled seri mengenal profesi: “guru” (knowing professions series: “teacher”), as well as a 32 page bilingual picturebook with a popular cartoon character entitled step into reading 2: barbie, i can be a baby doctor. using a video camera recorder, we observed how the children try to read and interact with the books. we also asked their comments about the practicality of the books, the weight, types of paper used and the size of the typeface that makes them easy to read. we also asked the children‟s preference in the kind of characters they would like to see in picturebooks. the following four different types of illustration of a carrot character were used as media (see figure 1). figure 1: four different types of carrot character used in the research a b c d the research found that two out of six children prefer to have a feminine character such as a and a masculine character such as in b, so we decided to do two types of visual approach for the character being used in the picturebook. the first one is to draw a character of a person-like figure wearing a vegetable costume. second, we use a personification and provide an anthropomorphic feature to a vegetable. using a predetermined storyline, the character is incorporated into the picturebook to help convey the 42 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 36-47 message as discussed earlier. figure 2 is a sample of the vegetable characters for a: rocco the broccoli rocker and b: tommy the tomato actor. since children love to attractive pictures, the writers decide to cover the book with bright figure 2: a is a person-like figure wearing a broccoli costume; b is a tomato character with an anthropomorphic feature. a b colors that are filled with images. children also do not like lengthy pages, so we limit our pages into only about 18 pages which excluded the menu and phonetic transcription page. the typeface of sans serif is chosen since it is easier to read by beginning readers (see figure 3). figure 3: sample page from rocco the broccoli rocker dukut, e.m., utami, m.p, nugroho, a., putri, n.i., and nugrahedi. p.y., 43 using popular culture‟s media of indonesian-english picturebooks given that we also want to increase the popularity of the books by showing some indonesian feature to the vegetable character, in comparison to the broccoli and tomato character above, the other picturebooks give some visualization on indonesian images. see a sample of the preview in one of rocco the broccoli rocker‟s picturebook (figure 3) and covers of the book series (figure 4). figure 4: covers of the „i love vegetable‟ picturebook series the advantage of indonesian english vegetable picturebooks devising picturebooks as a creative media to increase children‟s consumption in vegetables as well as learn a foreign language such as english is not as simple as it seems. in order that it reaches its targeted market segment, a small research had to be done so the creation of the characters, typeface and size of the book is appropriate. a picturebook is not only a media to entertain the children but more importantly it gives advantages not only to the children as well as parents as readers of the book, but also to professionals like us who specialize in the english, visual communication design, and food technology field of teaching. the picturebooks that we created is believed to actualize the intention of making children to love consuming vegetables. this is due to the finding that most children do not like vegetables because most tv channels would show more on junk food advertisements, which are packaged attractively for children to enjoy; rather than on tv cooking shows that would show how to cook healthy vegetables for children‟s nourishment. this is a shame since 44 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 36-47 vegetables are a high source of fiber and nutrients that can increase the quality of the human resource. therefore, with a picturebook on vegetable characters, it is hoped that children would be attracted to consume more vegetables. to achieve popularity, the strategy that we made was also to have cute memorable names for our characters, i.e. rocco the broccoli rocker, tommy the tomato actor, kartini the carrot dancer, poki the pak-choy chef and spibam the super spinach. in addition to the names, the back part of the books is also provided with special menus of the vegetables in mind. we also tried to increase the vegetable consumption by giving a cooking demonstration of the menu contained in the book series, in addition to giving a talk in schools about the importance of it through a community service activity. with these strategies, we hope that children will quickly relate to actual vegetables with the picturebook series‟ characters, and thereby will love to consume the vegetables. the second advantage of the picturebook is that it can become an effective visual language media for children to read the indonesian language fluently and at the same time learn to read the english language translation in a fun, yet professional manner. in order that children, in addition to parents who will help read the picturebooks, know how to read the english words and phrases correctly the end part of each book is provided with a list of some of the words and phrases‟ phonetic transcriptions. in the story of tommy the tomato actor some of the phonetic transcriptions provided in table 1 can be seen as follows: table 1: phonetic transcriptions sample howdy = [haʊdi:] yellow = [jeləʊ] i‟m = [aɪm] you = [ju:] i‟m tommy = [aɪm tɒmi:] my friends = [maɪ frendz] i‟m so popular = [aɪm səʊ pɒpjʊlə] talented actor = [tæləntɪd æktə] since the picturebook is bilingual, the third advantage is not only for indonesian children to quickly learn english vocabularies but it can also benefit foreign children who want to learn the indonesian vocabularies dukut, e.m., utami, m.p, nugroho, a., putri, n.i., and nugrahedi. p.y., 45 using popular culture‟s media of indonesian-english picturebooks creatively. this is why in the other three vegetable picturebooks, some indonesian images and storylines are consciously created for foreigners to learn something about the indonesian (javanese) culture. below are some sample pages of the vegetable picturebook series: figure 5: kartini the carrot dancer is shown wearing the javanese golek dance costume figure 6: poki the pak-choy chef is shown with an indonesian bakso (meat ball soup) seller 46 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 36-47 figure 6: spibam the super spinach is wearing an indonesian costume from the superpower shadow puppet character, gatutkaca with a big star in the middle not only will foreigners relate the picturebook with indonesian culture, but to indonesian readers, the illustrations can help readers remember the vegetable characters with the vitamins or nutrients found in them. last but not least, english language, visual communication design, and food technology teachers can also enjoy a fourth advantage, i.e. providing an additional income if teachers can create picturebooks like discussed in this article. not only can teachers get credit for being good english language teachers since they can show their students how to read and pronounce english words, phrases, or sentences well through a picturebook as media, but they can also receive credit as creative visual language story book writers. just like us perhaps other teachers can also have the opportunity to be published by a well known publisher like pt gramedia. all in all, there is more to just teaching if teachers would care to make opportunities for the advantages of teaching children to love vegetables through a bilingual vegetable picturebook such as discussed in this article. dukut, e.m., utami, m.p, nugroho, a., putri, n.i., and nugrahedi. p.y., 47 using popular culture‟s media of indonesian-english picturebooks references bararah, v. f. (2010, januari 20). kenapa anak kecil tak suka sayuran? retrieved mei 26, 2013, from detik health: http://health. detik.com/read/2010/01/20/163054/1282637/764/kenapa-anakkecil-tak-suka-sayuran danesi, m. (2008). popular culture: introductory perspectives. usa: rowman & littlefield publisher, inc. dennison, b. a., rockwell, h. l., & baker, s. l. (1998). fruit and vegetable intake in young children. journal of the american college of nutrition, 17 (4), pp. 372-378. faizah, u. (2009). keefektifan cerita bergambar untuk pendidikan nilai dan ketrampilan berbahasa dalam pembelajaran bahasa indonesia. cakrawala pendidikan , xxviii (3), pp. 249-256. hidayati, r. n. (n.d.). hubungan asupan makanan anak dan status ekonomi keluarga dengan status gizi anak usia sekolah dii kelurahan tugu kecamatan cimanggis kota depok. retrieved februari 15, 2014, from ejournal.stikes-ppni.ac.id/article/9/1/arti cle.pdf hsiu-chih, s. (2008). the value of english picture story books. oxford: oxford university press. irawadi, h. (2012, oktober 27). nonton acara masak di tv one jam 7.107.30 setiap sabtu. retrieved mei 26, 2013, from kompasiana: http:// wisata.kompasiana.com/kuliner/2012/10/27/nonton-acara-masak-ditv one-jam-710-730-setiap-sabtu-498764.html mcneal, j. u., & ji, m. f. (2003). childen's visual memory of packaging. journal of consumer marketing, 20 (5), pp. 400-427. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.2; december 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . movie analysis: punk subculture depicted in punk in love movie 1lambok hermanto sihombing, 2puji lestari, and 3addina isaputri 123department of communication, president university, jababeka cikarang, bekasi, indonesia 1lambok.president@gmail.com, 2pujilestari.president@gmail.com, 3addina.president@gmail.com received: 25-06-2021 accepted: 08-12-2021 published: 30-12-2021 mailto:lambok.president@gmail.com mailto:pujilestari.president@gmail.com mailto:addina.president@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj movie analysis: punk subculture depicted in punk in love movie 1lambok hermanto sihombing, 2puji lestari, and 3addina isaputri 1lambok.president@gmail.com, 2pujilestari.president@gmail.com, 3addina.president@gmail.com 123department of communication, president university, jababeka cikarang, bekasi, indonesia abstract: punk is a subculture that has affected several aspects of life, such as music, film, or lifestyle. punk has become part of indonesian society. there is various point of view when society sees how the punk is. some people think that punk is identical to rebellion and crime. on the other hand, some of them also think that punk people are independent and always willing to help each other. punk in love is one of the movies that tried to show how the punk is. the researchers analyzed how the punk subculture was depicted in punk in love. in order to help the researchers doing the analysis, the researchers used the elements of movie, mise en scene from manon de reeper and theory of stuart hall‟s representation. the data sources were taken from punk in love movie, websites, articles, and journals. the results of this study showed that punk in punk in love was portrayed as the community with strong solidarity. key words: movie, punk, representation, solidarity, subculture abstrak: punk merupakan cabang kebudayaan yang telah memberikan pengaruh di beberapa aspek kehidupan seperti musik, film ataupun gaya hidup. punk telah menjadi bagian dari kehidupan bangsa indonesia. ada banyak sudut pandang ketika sesorang melihat apa arti punk yang sebenarnya. beberapa orang melihat bahwa punk identik dengan pemberontakan dan kekerasan. namun, sebagian dari mereka juga melihat bahwa punk adalah orang-orang yang mandiri dan selalu berusaha untuk saling tolong-menolong. film punk in love merupakan mailto:lambok.president@gmail.com mailto:pujilestari.president@gmail.com mailto:addina.president@gmail.com sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 188 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj salah satu film yang berusaha menampilkan bagaimana punk itu direpresentasikan. oleh karena itu, penulis tertarik untuk menganilisa bagaimana punk sebagai cabang kebuadayaan ini ditampilkan di film punk in love. untuk membantu penulisan ini, penulis menggunakan elemen film dengan pendekatan mise en scene dari manon de reeper dan teori representasi dari stuart hall. adapun sumber data penulisan ini diperoleh melalui film, website, artikel, dan jurnal yang beruhungan dengan punk in love. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa punk di dalam film punk in love digambarkan sebagai komunitas yang memiliki solidaritas yang sangat kuat. kata kunci: film, punk, representasi, solidaritas, cabang budaya introduction punk is a western cultural inheritance that originated in the sphere of music. over time, punk has evolved into a global identity representing rebellious youth with an anti-establishment and anti-government perspective (setyanto, 2015). in indonesia, punk has frequently been characterized as a spectacular performance of disarray and defiance (prasetyo, 2017). the concept of resistance cuts across a first dimension of subcultures (guerra & quintela, 2018). the dimension of resistance, as symbolic resistance, reveals itself to be transversal to all dimensions of young subcultures, manifesting itself most visibly in the subcultures' appropriation of style and meaning (guerra, et.al., 2018). punk in indonesia can also be identified as part of the global punk scene (dunn, 2016). punk has had an impact on several aspects of society. in terms of ideology, punk positions itself as a movement engaged in artistic, economic, and social contestation. it is situated within a period of severe economic distress and necessitates a (contested) identification with the working class and those excluded by contemporary society (guerra, 2017). the punk movement is often viewed as a youth culture based on teen adolescence angst. however, punk as a subculture goes much further than rebellion and fashion as punks generally seek an alternative lifestyle divergent from the norms of society (moran, 2010). commonly, punk was theorised as both a male-dominated subculture and one which was youth centred (hebdige, 1998) yet there is now growing recognition of the presence of women within punk. according to sweetman (2013), this subculture was generally interpreted through a structural-functionalist lens, with (sub)cultures viewed as responses to material/social conditions. thus, the association between punk and youth has 189 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj begun to change with research on older punk fans within the wider context of post-youth subcultural work (andes, 2002; bennett, 2006; bennett & hodkinson, 2012). punk subculture tries and creates an identity set in resistance to the dominant culture and the dominant culture in turn tries to reintegrate the aberrant subculture, or at least place it within the dominant framework of meanings (hebdige, 1979). although the punk movement was never considered to have a fatalistic attitude toward social change, it always had a pamphleteer matrix that augured to reconsider the functioning of the current social system (guerra, et.al, 2018). during (2007) stated that the initial development of punk music in the united kingdom was a mere reaction toward the overwhelming trend in the music industry that had been heavily occupied by rock genre; domination of heavy metals and glam rock, while the hippie movement among the working class was starting to fade to black. punk, both in the united kingdom and the united states, had hit the spotlight since the early 1970s with the rise of punk bands and musicians, such as television, patti smith, talking hands, sex pistols, and the clash. the primary dispute that defined punk culture from 1978 to 1984 concerns what to do with the spoils of punk, all the strength and chimera acquired in 76/77 (guerra, 2013). as stated by setyanto (2015), in the 1990s, along with the advancement of technology, the existence of the punk community began to grab the media attention and became popular. according to wallach, j. 2008), the biggest punk community in south east asia and even over the globe is located in indonesia. even though it is originated from music, punk has slightly turned into a lifestyle full of views and ideologies, this is due to the understanding that the excitement of appearance must be accompanied by the excitement of thought (setyanto, 2015). based on punk exposure in the mid-1990s, the production and distribution of punk music and ideology were dedicated to networks of bands, small independent record labels, until merchandisers. especially in indonesia cities like jakarta, bandung, and denpasar, by hyped group bands such as green day, rancid, and the offspring (wallach, 2008). according to moran (2010), punk motto, the do-it-yourself, or d.i.y. aspect of punk is one of the most important factors fueling the subculture. independent record labels, the d.i.y. press, and the d.i.y. venues are what have kept the punk subculture alive since the late 1970s. the creation of the punk subculture has allowed individuals who seek an alternative lifestyle to thrive. in its musical manifestation, punk ideology will oppose the music of sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 190 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the 1970s, the music industry and its dynamics, established ways of dissemination, progressive sonorities, and dominant aesthetics. it was a movement reminiscent of 1960s garage rock, predisposed to a youth movement by its prolific band constitution (guerra & bennet, 2015), and claiming a diy strategy for itself. punk is the catalyst for return, resurrection, and regeneration and transformation, reversal, and subversion (reynolds, 2007). the popularity of punk at that time invited the film industry to raise the punk story which was then told through a film through a scene. numerous production houses have produced films depicting punk life in indonesia. various film titles, including indonesian punk reality of love rock & roll (2006), punk in love (2007), punk love story (2018), and slank no death (2013), have increased public awareness of punk culture through television broadcasts. punk in love movie tells the real life of punk that includes comedy elements which cannot be separated from indonesian culture these days. in general, punk actually received negative opinion in society, but the appearance of the film punk in love turned out to be a phenomenon in itself for cinema in indonesia. moreover, the film punk in love tries to present the punk subculture as the theme of the film. the film punk in indonesia has a very strong cultural aspect, including the 2009 film punk in love, directed by ody c. the film tells that punk kids don't always commit crimes on the streets. just like in real life, they also want to help other people with problems, which gives punks the determination and courage to achieve their goals. the film punk in love attracted the attention of young indonesians to get to know foreign cultures, namely punk culture originating from england. this film tells the story of a punk boy from malang who intends to commit suicide because arok does not have time to confess his love for maia (girindra kara). in 5 days, maia will marry andra, in jakarta. arok's friends who are also punk kids, yoji (andhika pratama), almira (aulia sarah), and mojo (yogi finanda) who know about this, try to thwart his friend's intention. arok decides to fight for his love in five days in maia. the four friends went to jakarta. with limited money, they are determined to help arok. along the way to jakarta, they passed obstacle after obstacle. starting from getting lost, getting caught in a flood, to being attacked by thugs (dyertn, 2011). the film punk in love presents a slightly different meaning of punk to the audience. in this film, punk kids also want to feel successful like other 191 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj people in general, want to have a family, and want to achieve their dreams and love. this film has something unique and different from the punk films that have existed in indonesia. this film shows the public that punk groups prefer loud music such as rock, punk, alternative music. they perceive dangdut music as "cemen" or music that is less wild. then, because of the forced situation, they ended up singing along to dangdut songs to earn money and forget about their prestige. aside from that, this film also depicts the solidarity of punk kids, who are almost never selfish, never abandon friends in need, and use money to eat and drink together. based on the the research, the film 'punk in love' has been analyzed by a number of other researchers, including claudita sastris paskanonka, a student of the department of communication at the faculty of social and political sciences in surabaya, bambang aprianto, a student of the teacher training and education faculty at muhammadiyah university in surakarta in 2011 under the title "analysis of sarcasm majas and mix code in the film punk in love”. there is no representation of the punk subculture they attempted to analyze in previous research. they examined sarcasm, mix code, and the punk community's representation. they did not attempt to classify punk as a subculture. thus, the researchers examined how the punk subculture was portrayed in punk in love' through the characters arok, mojo, yoji, and almira. literature review making a film is a multi-step process that begins with pre-production and continues through production and post-production. the film is a set of moving images, sound, and a narrative projected on a cinema screen. films are inextricably linked to or based on human emotions and reality, which connects them to their audience, piques their interest, and influences them (jogezal, 2020). according to manon de reeper (2016), film language is the medium through which a film speaks to its audience. the people who create films (the massive collaboration of directors, producers, editors, and so on) want to tell a specific story or convey a specific idea. even if they intend to entertain, their film will certainly have some meaning, as the audience can create meaning even when they are not present. decoding is the term used to describe this process. the meaning of a story is decoded in the same way that spoken language or written texts are interpreted. we bring all our prior experiences and knowledge to a film and apply them subconsciously to what we see – we interpret the film according to our preconceived expectations. we sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 192 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cannot watch a film in isolation – we will always relate what occurs in the film to events in our own lives or even compare it to another film we have previously seen. on the one hand, the film reflects our attitudes toward specific issues (political, social, economic, and so forth), but it also shapes our attitudes toward those issues (reeper, 2016). everything in a film or television episode is crafted to fit on the screen. the creators fully consider every element (mise en scene) depicted in that scene; nothing is coincidental (reeper, 2016). he also elaborated that to assist us in analyzing and comprehending a scene, we must consider who and what is present, as well as their relative positions – also consider make-up, expressions, costume, scenery, appearance, props, sounds, and lighting. besides that, another important movie element is camera. camera includes shot types and camera angles. a shot is comprised of a single take. it can be used to establish the scene or mood and situate the spectator within the scene. meanwhile, the camera angle can significantly contribute to the film's tone and almost always convey meaning (reeper, 2016). mise en scène can also be used to convey meaning to the spectator. it is crucial to media and film studies analysis because it elucidates how to find relevant visual codes and how some may have used them to construct meaning (the media insider, 2020). additionally, the media insider (2017) stated that there are additional methods for deciphering cinematography. one of them is to give the shot meaning. applying meaning to a shot determines how the film is attempting to communicate a concept, a message, or a meaning through the lens. referring to hall (2003), representation is related to the meaning of the concepts in human minds or the production of meaning through language. it is connected with how to give meaning, to describe or to depict something. here, the representation has never been a complete or a total reflection of things, but much more than a combination of ideas of various elements (hall, 2003). as he further explains, in any representations there is a mixture of the thing itself, such as the opinion of the people doing the representation, the reaction of the individual to the representation and also the context of the society in which the representation is taking place. hall views representation as a reconstructive act instead of a reflective act. for instance, the image of the woman in this month's cosmopolitan magazine is not representative of how women look. even though the image does reconstruct something, it is not a woman. according to merriam webster (2021, p. ), representation is “one that represents or is represented: as a likeness, picture, model, or other reproduction.” to represent means to faithfully carry the identity of an area or 193 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj group, to do it honor and to make others aware. to represent is to express and experience social solidarity (hall, 2013). the concept of representation in common sense refers to a collection of processes by which signifying practices appear to represent or depict another object or practice in the real world. thus, representation is a symbolic act that reflects an independent object world. however, for cultural studies, representation does not simply reflect 'things' that exist in an autonomous object world in symbolic form; instead, representations are constitutive of the meaning of the thing they purport to represent (barker, 2004). he added that representation endows material objects and social practices with meaning and intelligibility, thereby constructing the culturally constitutive maps of meaning. thus, the study of culture has frequently been conflated with the study of representational processes. while culture encompasses representations and practices, and spatial arrangements, one could argue that it is the process of representation that gives practices their meaning and significance. in this sense, the researchers viewed that movie has intended meanings that tried to be depicted for the audience. another supporting concept of representation stated by indriani (2015). she elaborated that representation is one of the important practices of producing culture. representation means using language to say something meaningful about, or to represent, the world meaningfully to other people. through representation, the meaning of language in a culture is exchanged. it depends on how those cultures give the meaning to that language because one culture from another is different. indriani also viewed that language is one of the media through which thoughts, concept, ideas and feelings are represented in a culture. meaning can only be shared through our common access to language. so language is central to meaning and culture and has always been regarded as the key repository of cultural values and meaning. in this study, the researchers viewed that representation refers to the construction of all forms of media. one of them is film. film is seen as a reflection of the dominant beliefs and values of its culture (turner & duckham, 2006). thus, the representation that the reseachers viewed was through the words or writings and images or scenes in the film. sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 194 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method in analyzing this study, the researchers analyzed the scenes and words/writings in „punk in love‟ movie by using mise en scene approach from manon de reeper and applying theory of representation from stuart hall. the criteria of scenes and words were based on the relevance between the scenes and the punk subculture in indonesia. there are several stages that the researchers did. first, the researchers select the film that relates to punk subculte. „punk in love‟ is considered the one that could help researchers find out the representation of punk subculture. second, the researchers analyzed punk in love using the film elements, mise en scene from manon de reeper. the author analyzed the scenes, angles, and editing on the movie. third, the author connected the movie elements with the theory of representation from stuart hall. the last, the researchers interpret punk subculture based on context and selected sources. findings a. harass saying scene analysis the first observation is taken from scene on minutes 6:47. in this scene, we are shown two punk characters. they both are wearing leather jackets with some spiky accessories. however, the punk man on the right looked different as he got his hair mohawk. in a closer context, mohawks is seen as a form of expression of a more extreme rebellion. this hairstyle is used as a differentiator between punk children and society in general. it is also a symbol of resistance to oppressors and the desire to live freely. figure1: harass saying on scene 6:47 195 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from this scene, we can see that outfit is one of the important elements to show punk identity. in further analysis, cartledge et al. [24] proposed five distinct epochs of punk fashion: (1) between 1975 and 1978, a pre-punk style was experimented with, influenced by david bowie and roxy music, as well as by diy experiments; (2) from 1975 to 1978, the emphasis was on exclusive london style, and stores such as sex and seditionaries'; (3) from 1976 to 1979, a dark urban style emerged and coexisted with the previous one, based on experimentation and diy alterations such as plastic sandals, homemade tshirts with slogans or band names, and military clothing; (4) from 1979 to 1980, the most well-known punk outfit, partly descended from rock outfits, demonstrates the prominence of leather jackets, dr. martens, and bondage pants, among other things; (5) from 1980 to 1980, much remains the same as the previous point, except with increasingly exaggerated mohawks, more extreme body piercings and modifications, and a more defined style defined by political doctrines. in this scene, the dialogues were also uttered by the characters named mojo and arok. mojo says the word "your eye" responds to arok's conversation with almira, the words "mata mu" is one of the harsh words that is not good and unpleasant to hear because they can make people others take offense at such remarks. that is the perspective of common society about those harsh words. however, those words could be interpreted as intimate call or saying among close friends. in my point of view, this scene can be understood that those words are considered appropriate as they symbolize the closest relationship among friends. on the other hand, those words are inappropriate as they are part of verbal violence. consequently, from the dialogue, it is clear that verbal violence occurs indirectly as seen from the insults and insults that come out of their words, such as the dialogue "jancok", "your eyes" with curses that can offend someone. and finally provoke other people to reply with high-pitched defiant words. the word 'eye' which is pronounced in the film seems to express displeasure, which means negative. because, when used in the context of 'your eye', the eye is identical to the sense of sight or visual, so implicitly he asks means that his opponent '‟cannot see'‟. the next observation is taken from scene on minutes 10:19. in this scene, arok said "jancok" which arok mentioned in response to mojo because mojo told his friends to say goodbye to his mother before going to jakarta. "jancok" has become a habit for arok and friends to call fellow friends or respond. because for them harsh words are commonplace and do not matter. sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 196 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 2: harass saying on scene 10:19 the scene setting shows the daily life conditions of arok and his friends. at a station in the city of malang and on the wreck of a transport train to be their choice. the situation like the one above shows how their life is in accordance with their ideology. punk is anti-establishment. they choose their own way of life without any binding rules. they don't want to stay at home, they choose a place to live that is synonymous with economic activity on the streets. living outside like a punk kid reflects the behavior of those who live it, is identified with wild people, does not want to be bound by gangster rules and is full of violence. the above dialogue occurred when arok and his friends decided to go to jakarta. here mojo invited his friends to say goodbye to his mother first. if you look at his background as a punk kid, mojo's actions do feel a little strange because punk kids are people who want to be independent in any way, do something without anyone's approval or even their parents. from the dialogue, it is clear that verbal violence occurs indirectly as seen from the insults and insults that come out of their words, such as the dialogue "jancok", "your eyes" with curses that can offend someone. and finally provoke other people to reply with high-pitched defiant words. the word "jancok" is a harsh curse typical of the javanese people who are more often referred to as mesoh. the meaning of the word jancok itself according to javanese culture means intercourse or sex in english, so that the word tends to be taboo to say and is categorized into words that are inappropriate to say. verbal abuse is psychological or emotional abuse distinct from physical abuse. verbal abuse is when someone is harmed by derogatory, negative language. verbal abuse conceals aggression and is extremely manipulative, frequently disguised as caring remarks. verbal abuse can be overt or covert, but it is always associated with the victim's control and manipulation. victims are held accountable for the abuser's actions. silence, damaging gossip, and 197 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj other passive-aggressive behaviors can all be used to communicate verbal abuse. verbal abuse can take the form of shouting, insulting, intimidating, threatening, shaming, demeaning, or calling someone names (moglia, 2015). moglia (2015) also added that verbal abuse is interpersonal violence used to exert control or power over victims. verbal abuse causes anguish, pain, and distress by intimidating or bullying vulnerable people with verbal assaults intended to embarrass, harass, humiliate, insult, or threaten them. verbal abuse is unpredictable and manipulative. it can be overt and manifested through angry outbursts or covertly expressed through feigned concern that conveys mixed messages to victims. it is always intended to cause pain and distress to the victim. as a consequence of that statement, it is clear that verbal abuse targets the emotional and psychological well-being of individuals, particularly children. as a result, the child's self-development and social competence are adversely affected. in further analysis, it be concluded that words matter. the words that matter in this case are taboo ones. they are taboo in society because they are considered impolite or vulgar and can arouse others' wrath or cause others to be unconsciously offended. however, the taboo word is still frequently used by some people, including punk kids, to communicate. whereas some people use taboo words when angry or emotional, this is not the case with punk kids, who use taboo or rude words to express themselves and be themselves without fear of offense. they can use "friendship" or "affection" to denote their kinship or closeness. b. intimidation scene the intimidation scene goes to scene on minute 26:31. this scene exemplifies the second stereotype of punk, which is intimidation or bullying the satay seller through scare tactics such as pretending to be drunk, specifically to coerce the satay seller into giving them as much free satay as they want. in this scene, arok and his friends are starving and want to eat satay but do not have enough money. they only have 10,000 rupiahs, but they want 40 sticks of satay. their money can only buy seven skewers without lontong, an indonesian dish made of compressed rice cake in the form of a cylinder wrapped inside a banana leaf. thus, they force the satay seller to grant their wish despite his refusal, resulting in an unwanted fight. sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 198 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 3: intimidation scene minute 26:31 in this scene, it can be interpreted that the clothes worn by the satay seller, who is dressed modestly, are sufficient to convey the satay seller's economic situation. as seen in the scene above, this includes bullying someone due to their economic circumstances or believing they are inferior to arok and his friends and are afraid of them due to their appearance. this scene demonstrates that what they do to the satay shop and food stall is an act of bullying someone, that this act is one of the stereotypes of punk kids depicted in the film, and that it occurs in the real world according to several journals and studies. bullying by punk children is commonplace for them and is one way to survive in a harsh world, particularly in large cities where finding work and earning money is difficult, especially with their style that inspires fear and even social distancing. it is unsurprising that the public fears punk kids due to their eccentric and all-black style, clothing, and sharp iron accessories that give the impression of a person with a dark, rude, evil aura, and even the ability to harm someone based on their outward appearance. because punk kids frequently wear multiple earrings in their ears, regardless of their gender, pierce their nose, tongue, and stomach, have a distinctive tattoo on their body such as images of dragons and so on, and wear accessories made from razors and other iron objects that are oddly shaped like ghost skulls and some other weird. a weird sign that punk kids think is cool but is creepy to the average person. even bright and unconventional hairstyles. that is why people maintain a safe distance and become an easy target for punk kids to bully or scare other people into fear of them. 199 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. busking scene the next analysis is taken from busking scene on minute 52:09. arok and his friends are busking at a red light in this scene. they are attempting to earn money to purchase food. from one vehicle to the next, they work cooperatively to support their own lives. while singing rock tunes did not prove lucrative, they did not abandon any of it. in this scene, it could be understood that they help each other. they raise the solidarity. in a closer context, community was primarily associated with the diy value, e.g., helping others, diy as a collaborative effort. furthermore, there was a sense that community, and the maintenance of a sense of community, was critical to punk (way, 2021). figure 4: busking scene minute 52:09 the next observation is taken from scene on minute 54:01. in this scene, arok and his friends were singing at a red light when all the vehicles come to a complete stop. they rushed over to a public transport vehicle carrying a large number of passengers, and then one of them began kicking a bucket, transforming it into a drum. in comparison to a punk, punk kids typically prefer rock songs to sing, but this time they performed a dangdut song entitled "jatuh bangun" sung by kristina yoji; he invited almira to dance while singing, and the results were positive; the public responded that yoji's dangdut singing broke punk's association with loud music. yoji is a fan of dangdut music, and at the film's beginning, he is instructed to sing the dangdut song "anggur merah," which was popularized by the late meggy z. however, when punk children began singing dangdut music, the public's response to them shifted slightly. sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 200 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 5: busking scene minute 54:01 singing allows punk kids to express their creativity and earn money by creating their jobs. by dressing in a punk style, you instill fear and anxiety in others, particularly when giving a job. arok, yoji, almira, and mojo are aware of their community's perception of them and thus create their jobs by busking. singing has become one of indonesia's cultures that allows people to survive, including punks who are unable to find work due to society's rejection of their appearance. these punks hope to earn money by busking. even today, singing is popular in indonesia and other countries, where many people earn a living by singing along the roadside for a penny. the public is not afraid of punk children. many people give more money and want to dance together so that the proceeds from busking can be used to purchase food that is considered quite adequate. for punks, singing and singing dangdut songs is a source of embarrassment. according to collins cobuild, rock music is a style of music with a simple tone and a fast beat that is performed and sung by a group of people using electric guitars and drums. all of these musical styles originated in other countries. punk members who are fanatical about these musical genres then prohibit all other forms of music, including dangdut. dangdut music is a form of musical art that originated in indonesia. this musical style originated in 1940s malay music. elements of indian music (particularly the table / drum) and arabic articulation have influenced the evolution towards contemporary forms. the term "dangdut" is an onomatopoeia for the distinctive sound of the tabla game (in dangdut, it is referred to exclusively as a drum), which is dominated by dang and dut sounds. 201 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. fighting scene in supporting the analysis, the researchers also analysed the fighting scene minute 1:04:59. in this scene, arok accidentally struck someone walking with a claw and then struck another buyer, eliciting an outburst from the other buyers. figure 6: time of scene 1:04:59 this commotion resembles fighting and is frequently perpetrated by a gang of thugs. they are at odds with one another. in essence, they enjoy extremes but defend their solidarity. nowadays, there are numerous thugs employed as market security officers and corporate security officers. even now, the term "thugs with ties" is frequently used. this term refers to officials in departments, offices, and government agencies who act like market thugs, seeking to extort others in exchange for money. figure 7: fighting scene minute 1:14:43 sihombing, l.h., lestari, p., & isaputri, a., movie analysis: punk subculture 202 depicted in punk in love movie https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the last observation is taken from scene on minute 1:14:43. there are two fight scenes in the film. arok and his friends accidentally started the first fight. the second fight erupted when arok attempted to reclaim the thugs' ring during the first. arok dared to approach the thugs who were eating at a stall to reclaim the ring prepared for maia. the struggle to reclaim the ring culminated in a one-on-one confrontation. arok's perseverance was on display during this second fight. there are numerous brawls between punks. what they feel either makes them proud or makes them fearful. however, due to the increasing number of fights involving punk kids, the term "punk kid" is becoming feared, despised, and ostracized by the community, and of course, the police is on the lookout for them. in further analysis, punk kids are notorious for committing crimes; this, too, has a reason. in the past, screaming punks dressed according to their principles solely to express their opposition to the government through songs (metal, punk reggae, etc.). before it can tell whether a child is a punk or not, and it is becoming increasingly difficult to discern which real punk kid is not. indeed, according to the media, punk children commit crimes, but those who do so are not punks; instead, punks who commit crimes see every error. punk children are superior to others in terms of idealism, and our resistance is now manifested through resistance music. moreover, we can be certain that many today are not pure punk because they have been contaminated by not true punk and have sparked criminality. after all, punk is viewed as less humane. on the sidewalks. the deterioration of punk children's principles is also one factor contributing to crime against the punk community. conclusion to conclude, the film cannot be separated from reality because it will always tell stories about events that occurred in everyday life. 'punk in love' attempted to depict real life. as we all know, taboo words are prohibited in society because they are deemed impolite or vulgar and have the potential to incite others' wrath or cause others to offend unintentionally. however, some people, including punk kids continue to use the term taboo as a means of communication. on the other hand, punks frequently employ taboo or harsh language to express themselves and be themselves without fear of offending. they can use words to express their friendship as a way of expressing their kinship or proximity. the public fears punk kids because of their quirky and all-black style, sharp clothes, and accessories made of iron that seems like 203 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj people with a dark, violent, evil aura and can even hurt someone based on themselves. furthermore, singing has become a way for indonesian cultures to survive, including for punkers who cannot apply for jobs due to their appearance, which is frequently cited as a reason for society's rejection of them. by utilizing the mise en scene approach to analyze the elements of the film 'punk in love' and stuart hall's theory of representation, it can be concluded that, despite the negative stereotype of punk, the researchers believe that this film attempts to represent the community's solidarity. references andes, l. (2002). growing up punk: meaning and commitment careers in a contemporary youth subculture. in j. s. epstein (ed.), youth culture: identity in a postmodern world (pp. 212–231). blackwell. barker, c. (2004). the sage dictionary of cultural studies. vol. 1. sage. bennett, a. (2006). punk‟s not dead: the continuing significance of punk rock for an older generation of fans. sociology, 40(2), 219–235. bennett, a. (2012). dance parties, lifestyle and strategies for ageing. in a. bennett & p. hodkinson (eds.), ageing and youth cultures: music, style and identity (pp. 95–104). berg. cartledge, f. (1999). distress to impress?: local punk fashion and commodity. local punk fashion and commodity exchange. london: routledge dunn, k. (2016), global punk: resistance and rebellion in everyday life, london and new york, ny: bloomsbury. dyertn. (desember 2011). ringkasan cerita film punk in love. during, s. (ed). (2007). a critical introduction. london & new york: routledge. guerra, p. 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(2007). bring the noise: 20 years of writing about hip rock and hip hop. london: faber and faber limited. https://doi.org/10.5965/1982615x12232019112 https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2013.%20773674 https://doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2013.%20773674 https://www.researchgate/ https://repository.wcsu.edu/ 205 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 187 – 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj setyanto, d. w. (2015). makna dan ideologi punk. andharupa: jurnal desain komunikasi visual & multimedia, 1(02), 134–141. https://doi.org/10.33633/andharupa.v1i02.964 stuart hall and cultural studies: decoding cultural oppression. (n.d.). https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upmbinaries/13286_chapter_2_web_byte__stuart_hall.pdf sweetman, p. 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(2020). punk is just a state of mind: exploring what punk means to older punk women. the sociological review, 003802612094666. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038026120946666 https://doi.org/10.33633/andharupa.v1i02.964 https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/13286_chapter_2_web_byte__stuart_hall.pdf https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/13286_chapter_2_web_byte__stuart_hall.pdf https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203825198 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20174568 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20174568 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20174568 microsoft word 287d-0145-2c96-aa12 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.2; december 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills 1yes matheos lasarus malaikosa, 2andhika putra widyadharma, 3ikhsan gunadi, and 4mohtar kamisi 1stkip modern ngawi, 2 madiun state polytechnic, 3stt malang 4khairun university 1yesmalaikosa@stkipsoe.ac.id, 2andhika@pnm.ac.id, 3ikhsangunadi@gmail.com, and 4kamisimohtar@gmail.com received: 05-05-2021 accepted: 14-12-2021 published: 30-12-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills 1 yes matheos lasarus malaikosa, 2 andhika putra widyadharma, 3 ikhsan gunadi, and 4 mohtar kamisi 1 yesmalaikosa@stkipsoe.ac.id, 2 andhika@pnm.ac.id, 3 ikhsangunadi@gmail.com, and 4 kamisimohtar@gmail.com 1 stkip modern ngawi, 2 madiun state polytechnic, 3 stt malang 4 khairun university abstract: a curriculum is an important unit in the learning process as guidance for teachers in managing learning activities both inside and outside the classroom. since vocational education has the function of preparing the workforce, they are required to produce graduates as the demands of the working world. the manpower needed is human resources who have the competence and skills under their field of work, high adaptability, as well as competitiveness. previous studies have found that the curriculum is developed according to the demands of the working world and to anticipate developments in science and technology. schools also involved creative actors in learning activities, intended to integrate various creative activities in the curriculum, especially in the c3 component of expertise competencies in the substance or teaching materials. learning at smk grafika desa putera is presented in various competencies by integrating the important value of the creative economy for students. the learning model is presented and organized into normative, adaptive, productive, local content, and selfdevelopment programs to produce productive creative work. it can be concluded that the implementation of creative economy education aims to foster positive (creative) character, attitudes, and behavior as a form of realization of the ministry regulation no. 32/2013 concerning national education standards mandating that the learning process are required to be carried out actively, creatively, innovatively, and student-centered. malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 279 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: creative economy value, curriculum development, indonesian vocational high school (smk), integration of learning abstrak: kurikulum merupakan unit penting dalam proses pembelajaran sebagai pedoman bagi guru dalam mengelola kegiatan pembelajaran baik di dalam maupun di luar kelas. karena pendidikan vokasi memiliki fungsi menyiapkan tenaga kerja, maka dituntut untuk menghasilkan lulusan sebagai tuntutan dunia kerja. tenaga kerja yang dibutuhkan adalah sumber daya manusia yang memiliki kompetensi dan keterampilan sesuai bidang pekerjaannya, daya adaptasi yang tinggi, serta daya saing. studi sebelumnya menemukan bahwa kurikulum dikembangkan sesuai dengan tuntutan dunia kerja dan untuk mengantisipasi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. sekolah juga melibatkan pelaku kreatif dalam kegiatan pembelajaran, dimaksudkan untuk mengintegrasikan berbagai kegiatan kreatif dalam kurikulum, khususnya pada komponen kompetensi keahlian c3 pada substansi atau bahan ajar. pembelajaran di smk grafika desa putera disajikan dalam berbagai kompetensi dengan mengintegrasikan nilai penting ekonomi kreatif bagi siswa. model pembelajaran disajikan dan disusun dalam program normatif, adaptif, produktif, muatan lokal, dan pengembangan diri untuk menghasilkan karya kreatif yang produktif. dapat disimpulkan bahwa penyelenggaraan pendidikan ekonomi kreatif bertujuan untuk menumbuhkan karakter, sikap, dan perilaku positif (kreatif) sebagai bentuk realisasi peraturan menteri no. 32/2013 tentang standar nasional pendidikan yang mengamanatkan bahwa proses pembelajaran wajib dilakukan secara aktif, kreatif, inovatif, dan berpusat pada siswa. kata kunci:nilai ekonomi kreatif, pengembangan kurikulum, sekolah menengah kejuruan (smk) indonesia, integrasi pembelajaran introduction since indonesia agrees with the asean economic community (aec), consequently, indonesia has to be ready to compete with asean countries. its natural resources and human resources are required to be distinctly superior to other countries to win the asean economic integration. national education serves to develop students’ abilities and potentials, as well as 280 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 278–295 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj shapetheir characters of knowledgeability, capability, creativity, independence, and responsibility. vocational education is part of the secondary education system intended for preparing ready-for-use graduates. thus, it should lead the way to education development for the formation of creative students (raffe, 1991). the data from statistics indonesia show that in 2020, the largest contributor to the national unemployment rate (8.49%) was the vocational high school (smk) graduates (bps, 2020). the world economic forumin 2016 argued that the graduate absorption issue is no longer deals with demand and supply imbalances (rahadian, 2019). it lies in the student admission processwith a lower passing grade than that for senior high school (sma) students (ratnasari, 2018). in 2019,itwas 79.11 for smaand 66.17 for sma in jakarta. in bogor,it was 75.00 for sma and 60.00 for smk. furthermore, it was 58.63 for sma and 42.50 for smk in kupang. this indicates the imbalances among regions as well as the discrepancybetween what the education provides and the market needs (malaikosa et al., 2020). institute of good governance and regional development (iggrd) stated that the high unemployment rate of vocational school graduates is a result of the inefficient education system (ratnasari, 2018). currently, according to national recap data of the education data center (dapodik) on may 2, 2018, 14,075 smks still appealto the central curriculum although schools may administrate their own curricula by involving stakeholders, actors, and industry experts to bridge the yawning gap between the graduates’ competencies and market needs (rahadian, 2019). vocational education focuses onskills while general education gives extra weight toknowledge. hence, it requires teachers with vocational skills to develop a curriculum that can shape the entrepreneurial character of students (garbin & stover, 1980). to bring about the character through the educational process, the creative economy should be developed by creative human resources to produce creative work (munro, 2017). hence, the character education should be the basis for developing a learning model with a creative economy in smk. at the level of implementation, smk grafika desa putera jakarta has integrated the creative economy in the 2013 curriculum on craft and entrepreneurship subjects as both curricular and extracurricular activities. vocational secondary education can integrate it into the students’ character, attitude, and positivity (creativity). the target of organizing creative economy education is to foster positive (creative) character, attitudes, and behavior at the most basic level that supports the formation of creative malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 281 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students. ministry regulation no. 32 of 2013 concerning national education standards mandates that the learning process has to be actively, creatively, and innovatively carried out in student-centered learning. wu andjia-jen-hu (2015), conducting a study on skill learning attitudes, curriculumsatisfaction, and vocational self-concept, concluded that most students have good learning attitudes and skills but low motivation. this is because the learning process remains teacher-centered learning with conventional learning approaches and methods. this certainly presents a challenge for teachers to develop innovative learning models to stimulate and develop students’ creative thinking skills. during the learning process, they are supposed to provide the students with motivation and the values of creative economy education (tronsmo & nerland, 2018). the student’s creativitycan also be developed outside of classroom learning through various extra-curricular activities (malaikosa et al., 2020) since they allow the latitude to develop student creative economy value. this allows students to improve their creativity on innovations. the implementation of smk’s creative economy is to produce creative people as entrepreneurs in jakarta, kupang, and bogor. thus, it is necessary to improve the quality of creative economy education as an attemptto improve the quality of vocational high schools. to ensure the quality improvement of creative economy education, an analysis of its implementation in smk is required. the structure of the vocational high school (smk)/islamic vocational high school (mak) curriculum includes the national content, territorial contents, and vocational specialization contents consisting of basic expertise areas, expertise program basics, and expertise competencies as well as time allocation for each subject (struktur kurikulum sekolah menengah kejuruan (smk/madrasah aliyah kejuruan nomor; 07/d.d5/kk/2018, 2018). the curriculum is an important component (instrumental input) in the unity of the learning system to achieve educational objectives (ulfatin, 2016). it is vital as a part of the educational programset (d’andrea, 2012). it not only pays attention to present developments but also directs its attention to the future. curriculum development, defined as the process of planning, constructing, implementing, and evaluating learning opportunities to produce students’ desired changes is essential for high quality and relevant curriculum (albashiry, voogt, & pieters, 2015). the curriculum should be frequently updated in line with the changes. the revitalization of the smk curriculum aims to change the mindset of solely producinggraduates failing to fulfill the working world need, into a role paradigm and activeness in the job market. 282 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 278–295 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj on top of that, it calls for active cooperationwith business entities to establish it in the vocational curriculum structure. subsequently, the formulation of required job skills is standardized by the indonesian certification authority (badan nasional sertifikasi profesi/bnsp). literature review curriculum development at the school level is generally carried out through a systematic approach (brinkerhoff, 2001) over other approaches. by this approach, the curriculum development was learning outcome-oriented, which then becomes the basis for further development activities such as the selection of learning program content, learning strategies, assessment methods, and evaluation forms (albashiry et al., 2015). this approach is often defined as involving a cycle of five phases, namely analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (akaninwor, 2001). an approach involving stakeholders in the curriculum development is also needed to ensure that the curriculum responds to stakeholder needs (akaninwor, 2001; albashiry et al., 2015). this approach revolves on extensive collaboration and discussion between curriculum developers, in this case, the school and stakeholders during the drafting process to arrive at a consensus on the main objectives of the education program, such as results, content, pedagogy, and assessment.to achieve the stated educational goals, the curriculum has to be strategically formulated into certain programs relevant forsocial changes. the curriculum preparation has to consider various aspects such as student development, scientific development, community needs development, and the demands of the working world. the curriculum in the classroom learning should cover all student learning experiences and bring cognitive impacts upon their personal development. creative economy is a world trend encouraging economic growth and environmental degradation by prioritizing economic creativity to maximize the added value of life sustainability and human civilization (comunian, faggian, & jewel, 2015; cummins et al., 2018; d’andrea, 2012; malaikosa et al., 2020; sung, 2015). a creative economy is a business that encourages innovation, a convergence of expertise, and advanced scientific technologycentered on organized learning to build new markets and new employment(sung, 2015). it has strong ties with the creative and cultural industries. the critical industry refers to forms of cultural production and consumption, which are symbolic malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 283 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj or expressive elements such as music, industries of art, writing, fashion and design, media, as well as handicraft production (pratt & hutton, 2013). creative economy is the driving force of a competitive indonesia and quality social life in 2025. it allows the people to compete fairly, honestly, and uphold ethics and excellence at the national and global levels, as well as have the ability to make continuous improvement and think positively to face challenges and problems (rokhman, hum, syaifudin, & yuliati, 2014). it also aims to create a qualified indonesian society, who are physically and mentally healthy and educated, have the awareness to protect the environment, a balanced life, a social concern, and tolerance in accepting differences (yuan, wu, & lee, 2014).the increasingly important creative economy in the national economyand the state socio-cultural diversity spread throughout the archipelago certainly become a never-ending source of inspiration in developing the creative industry. the diversity characterized by local wisdom in preserving culture has been for generations. the creative sector in developed countries is difficult to imitate by other countries since it emphasizes specific abilities that involve creativity, expertise, and talents including art, beauty, design, play, story, humor, symphony, caring, empathy, and meaning aspects (sung, 2015). this implies that the highly demanded quality of human resources is those with character and creativity. masunah (2017)stated that creative industry is one of the sectors in the creative company subsystem. the creative industry employed individual’s creativity, expertise, and talents of to create products bringing real benefits and addedvaluefor life. besides, the creation of addedvalue is evident in using social, cultural, and creative human resources assets (masunah, 2017). the creative industry creates not only economic transactions, but also social and cultural transactions. this underlines that added value, in this case, is a social, cultural, and economic values. meanwhile, the london government supports new policy ideas related to the creative economy to meet the high demand and to reduce budget cuts(schlesinger, selfe, & munro, 2015).how about indonesia, with its various cultural heritages from sabang to merauke? the indonesian cultural heritage has a lot of creative values such as art, beauty, social, empathy, and ceremonies. this prefigures the great creativity of indonesian society displaying their particular skills and talents. this comes about by the ethnic diversity remaining coexist because of their high tolerance. inclusively, it proves that indonesia has powerful supporting factors in developing a creative economy. various efforts to utilize traditional cultural 284 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 278–295 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj heritage, apart from preserving it, are the pride of the national identity. moreover, it is necessary to use appropriate information technology as an important supporting factor. the recent rapid development of information technology brings ample opportunity to synthesize culture. thus, the development of the creative economy will be a fundamental force as it is supported by culture and the development of information technology. method research is focused on the model of cretaif economic value integration in shaping student life skills in curriculum and learning, so that in-depth observation is needed in natural settings so that this research will use a qualitative approach with a multi-site study research design. according to ulfatin, (2015) the goal of qualitative research design is to explore as well as understand the meaning of social phenomena to understand research problems. the rationale of research design with a qualitative approach is to gain a more complete understanding of the problem on the focus of the research. with a qualitative approach, researchers can obtain information about the phenomenon or process of strengthening character education at the school where the research is conducted. understanding of the integration of cretanive economic values in shaping student life skills on curriculum and learning can be reviewed from the point of view of the research subject, to gain a holistic, complete and thorough understanding. in conducting research at smk grafika desa putera, researchers act as the main data gathering tool or research instrument. understanding research instruments or tools here because researchers are the key to the entire research process. the presence of researchers here starts from initial observation or preobservation to real research. the above statement is in accordance with the opinion (moleong, 2014) which reveals that the researcher is at once a planner, implementer of data collection, analysis, interpretation of data, and in the end he becomes a whistleblower of the results of research obtained. therefore, the presence of researchers is very necessary and important influence for this study. the sources of this research data are principals, teachers, students and alumni and dudi through observations, in-depth interviews, and documentation studies. in the process of retrieving data, researchers can see and hear and ask informants that are done consciously and purposefully so as to produce answers as a source of information for researchers. according to malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 285 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (ulfatin, 2015) says that informants are people who provide data or information in qualitative research, both by interview and observation. according to moleong, (2014) also explained that qualitative research is categorized as research that has a variety of data sources (multiple sources of data). the determination of key informants in this study was conducted by puposive sampling techniques. according to ulfatin, (2015)the informants selected in qualitative research were selected purposively, i.e. selected because the concerned were able to provide diverse and accurate information in accordance with the focus of the research. the data validity technique used by researchers is triangulation techniques. triangulation technique means using different data collection techniques based on the same source (moleong, 2014; ulfatin, 2015). data analysis in this study, researchers build the results of interviews or observations of the process of strengthening character education to be used as study material in the discussion. researchers made questions related to the integration of cretanive economic values in forming student life skills on curriculum and learning to dig up information from principals, teachers, students and alumni and dudi to find out comprehensively. analiasis data used in researchers using the model (miles et al., 2014), which is qualitative research data analysis can be done through three flows of activities that occur simultaneously, can be seen in the following image: figure 1: data analysis component: interactive model source: (miles et al., 2014) 286 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 278–295 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results and discussion a curriculum is an important unit in the learning process since it is an instrument of guidance for teachers in managing the learning process both inside and outside the classroom. schools are given space to develop it according to their needs, without changing the substance of the curriculum.the school also involves its alumni and stakeholders engaged in the creative sector, msme actors, and business world and industrial society as graduate users, to provide material in seminars, workshops. addedly the school utilizes social media for sharing informationforums. the creative economy is a new idea that relies on creative ideas as the main capital in developing creative industries. creative industries are born and develop in big cities and become the main support for the regional economy. most of the creative actors are young people who have original and creative ideas. the creative economy can be defined as the creative work of students with superior values. with the existence of a creative economy, schools, teachers, and students are used to accommodate creative work with superior value. an example of schools that integrates the creative economy is those in which students of class x-xii work on orders from school partner companies and creative actors to sharpen theircompetence of skills, in high printing, perfect binding, montage, graphic design, billboard printing, offside printing, and the production of logos and stickers. figure 2: student creative activitie source: doc. smk grafika desa putera the creative economy is defined as the application of the value of the creative economy integrated into the curriculum, learning activities, and selfdevelopment activities to increase the creativity and innovation of students. this allows the students to be able to produce something with a sale value. the concept of creative economy education comprising thinking creatively, malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 287 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj being creative, and acting creatively can be stated in the indicators of creative values. the values explored in this study include curiosity, critical thinking, the ability to determine the right methods, and appropriate choice, intuition, innovation, and productivity(widyadharma, ulfatin, utaya, & supriyanto, 2020). in the learning activities, the teacher always instills creative values, through self-development and habituation activities of, for example, honesty, independence, creativity, discipline, and responsibility as well as achievementappreciation. this is apparent from the students’ avidity in completing assignments given by the teacher. on the other hand, they were also facilitated by technological developments to promote their creative work on social media platforms. thishighlights the significant role of teachers to engraingood values in shaping student’s mental, and character, as well as generate their motivation to compete and consistently produce creative work. education should be carried out based on the context. thus, the educational process should be in line with the social and cultural environment of the local community. education serves to maintain values and norms to meet future achievements. the process of developing the value of the creative economy requires a systematic process in an integrated learning process. figure 3: the model of cultivating values and integrating the contents of the creative economy of smk grafika desa puter source: (malaikosa et al., 2020) 288 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 278–295 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 4: instilling the creative economy values in smk grafika desa putera source: (malaikosa et al., 2020) the process of instilling the creative economy value had been carried out on an ongoing basis in their respective programs. this was done either to satisfy the demands of the school’s curriculum to prepare students to work in a certain field and join the workforce. also, this is to develop students’trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, citizenship, honesty, courage, diligence, and integrity. character-building activities developed in schools might help teachers to improve learning habits closer to industrial work cultures such as self-confidence, responsibility, discipline, competitiveness, resilience, honesty, responsiveness, appreciation, presentence, carefulness, thoroughness, and leadership. life skills education is an effort to build student character of hard skills and soft skills. hard skills emphasize the ability of students in cognitive and psychomotor aspects. soft skills emphasize the affective abilities of students. life skills aim to prepare students to have the courage and willingness to face life and its problems naturally without feeling depressed and then creatively find solutions to overcome them. malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 289 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 5: student soft skill and life skill formation. source: doc. smk grafika desa putera the working world believes that superior human resources (hr) are those who have the ability in the aspects of both hard skills and soft skills. therefore, they are believed to have a good impact on the aspects of life skills. in reality, education in indonesia shows that the learning process only provides a larger portion of technical skills or hard skills. meanwhile, the soft skill aspect is one's skill in dealing with others and himself. equipping students with soft skills does not mean adding new subjects to the curriculum. however, it is necessary to provide more value and meaning in the learning process. therefore, the teachers need to use the right model to train student’s hard and soft skills. these models include cooperative learning, experiential learning, contextual teaching and learning, and problem based learning. if both skills are obtained, the needs of users of smk graduates in the working world focusing on high productivity might be achieved. the development of a creative economy always prioritizes the creativity, ideas, and knowledge of students as an effort to strengthen the life skills of students by balancing the aspects of hard skills and soft skills. the use of learning models is important to help teachers convey theory to practice. these models include cooperative learning, experiential learning, contextual teaching and learning, and problem based learning. one indicator of learning outcomes, students can produce creative work that has high value. thus, if some students have developed printing and graphic design business, meaning that they can compete to produce high-value work. life skills education is an effective step for students of smk grafika desa putera as a basis for orientation to equip students' skills regarding aspects of knowledge, attitudes, which include mental, honesty, responsibility, and 290 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 278–295 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cooperativeness that have a direct relationship with the development of competency skills of students. thus, students might be able to face the demands and challenges of life. life skills education is an alternative educational change to anticipate future demands. the learning process in the classroom can be carried out in the form of an activity procedure that involves students at each stage of the activity systematically to build students' hard skills and soft skills. the curriculum needs to be developed in line with changes. the revitalization of the smk curriculum aims to change the mindset that previously only aimed to produce graduates regardless of the demands of the working world, into satisfying the demand of the working world. thus, it is necessary to cooperate with the business world and the industrial society to establish it in the curriculum structure. therefore, students might be equipped with new creativity and innovation according to their respective fields of expertise. the creative economy is seen as a new method that might help teachers to shape the creativity of students in their respective fields of expertise. the curriculum is a component (instrumental input) that is important in the unity of the learning system to achieve educational objectives (ulfatin, 2016). the curriculum is also seen as a set of educational programs (d’andrea, 2012). curriculum development, is a process of planning, developing, implementing, and evaluating learning to realize a quality and relevant curriculum(albashiry et al., 2015). if the creative economy has been integrated into the curriculum and vocational learning, teachers are required to find the right method to integrate the value of creative economy through self-development activities, production unit activities, honesty canteen, and school operations, as well as school business partners. therefore, students' learning processes are accustomed to creating new ideas and innovations. integrating the contents of the creative economy needs to focus on creating creative works by relying on skills, talents, and creativity as intellectual property. by integrating the creative economy, it could produce creative people and though entrepreneurs with brilliant and new ideas. howkins (2002) added that the more ideas created, the faster the community welfareincreases, either in its economic, social, and environmental perspectives. the creative economy value is integrated into learning activities to build students’honesty, responsibility, confidence, resilience, discipline, and competitiveness. teacher evaluation results show that students always showed honest and responsible behavior. in completing the given task, they were malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 291 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj confident, resilient, and discipline. moreover, in completing creative work, they constantly innovated to produce creative work with high competitivenes (figure 1 and figure 4).to increase their creativity and innovation, students are supposed to be able to think creatively, be creative, and act creatively by involving their curiosity and critical thinking (munastiwi, 2015). the creative economyvalue needs to be integrated into the learning process and practiced in the students' daily behavior. another aspect of the creative economy that beneficial to be developed in learning is hard skills, soft skills, and life skills to make it easier for teachers to direct students based on their interests and talents (pane & patriana, 2016). in integrating the value of the creative economy in curriculum and learning, the school has positioned itself as a driving force for the creation of a competitive indonesian and a high-quality community of life in 2025. the role of schools in shaping the student’s creativity, expertise, and talents is worth appreciationand full support of the government, stakeholders, and society. accordingly, the output of education can compete fairly, honestly, and uphold ethics and excellence at the national and global levels. moreover, they will also have the fighting power to make continuous improvements and to think positively in facing challenges and problems. conclusions the curriculum is teachers’instrument in conducting learning activities to achieve national education objectives. they have put creative ideas into action and conducted curriculum development tests in classrooms to obtain the right formula for the vocational curriculum. the government has anticipated the application of a creative economy in the national education curriculum by focusing on creating goods and services by relying on expertise, talents, and creativity as intellectual wealth. provided with these great ideas, the school has integrated the creative economy to form the competency skills of students through creative and innovative actions. entrepreneurship in smk has been already formed by exploring creative and entrepreneurial products. teachers also stimulatestudents’creativity by creative activities involving the business world and industrial society, creative business actors/home industries, and stakeholders. this is to integrate the creative 292 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 278–295 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj economyvalue into learning activities to build their honesty, responsibility, confidence, resilience, discipline, and high competitiveness based on their respective expertise. they will habitually innovate to produce creative work with high competitiveness.this features life skills education as an essential part of the educational process. also, teachersoccupy a significant role to providestudents with guidance, training, encouragement, and learning skills that direct them either individually and in groups to new skills, including vocational skills. contextually, life skills education places more emphasis on the link and match between the education world as the provider of human resources and the business world,the industrial society, and the community as the users. therefore, education can prepare students to compete in the present era and have a future-oriented life. references akaninwor, g. i. k. 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(2001). survey of instructional development models, third edition. techtrends, 45(1), 48–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02763388 malaikosa, y. m. l., widyadharma, a. p., gunadi, i. & kamisi, m. 293 curriculum and learning management: integration with creative economy values in improving students' life skills https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj comunian, r., faggian, a., & jewell, s. (2015). digital technology and creative arts career patterns in the uk creative economy. journal of education and work, 28(4), 346–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2014.997683 creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. in educational research (vol. 4). https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 cummins, a. m., smith, r., catling, c., watts, n., scarf, v., fox, d., & gray, j. 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(2015, july 1). the creative economy in global competition. technological forecasting and social change, 96, 89–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.04.003 tronsmo, e., & nerland, m. (2018). local curriculum development as object construction: a sociomaterial analysis. teaching and teacher education, 72, 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.02.008 ulfatin, n. (2016). pengembangan kurikulum belajar dan berkarya. um press. widyadharma, a. p., ulfatin, n., utaya, s., & supriyanto, a. (2020). situational leadership with the stifin genetic intelligence approach. systematic reviews in pharmacy, 11(6), 1409–1419. https://doi.org/10.31838/srp.2020.6.202 wu, y.-l., & jia-jen-hu. (2015). skill learning attitudes, satisfaction of curriculum, and vocational self-concept among junior high school students of technical education programs. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 174, 2862–2866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.980 yuan, y., wu, m., & lee, j. (2014). the essential difference on public or private vocational school – the student’s creativity of mechanical engineering. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 116, 2321–2329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.567 architecture as a cultural identity in the continuation of tradition witidn modernization krisprantodo· abstract: the ancient and indigenous cultures that exist in the various regions of indonesia are regarded as part of the national culture. in developing culture, indonesia should aim at advancing civilization, culture and unity without rejecting new elements from foreign cultures that may improve or enrich the national culture and the same time raise human and indonesian values. architecture plays an important part in the indonesian cultural identity. it is vital that it should be included in any plans for cultural development. key words: architecture, culture, tradition. modernity introduction in indonesia the most obvious influence of modernity in promoting and directing social change was colonial power especially that of the dutch. after the collapse of the colonial rule, the people of indonesia tended to be not far behind western countries in accepting this model by imitating many institutions, values and new elements of moderni7ation..ln this context, tradition disrupts social change into new institutions. the most obvious characteristic of development pressure in the rapidly growing urban center is that the costs of land have increased rapidly. it is said that as societies modernize, the existence of tradition gradually declines. ideally modernity, on the one band, and tradition, on the other, need to be re-examined, and should continually develop and be blended with one another in more human culturai settings. i dr. krisprantono, m.an:h. <krisprantono@unika.ac.id> is a lecturer at the faculty of architecture, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 138 celt, volume 6, number2,december 2006: 137 -148 one of the most tragic consequences of urban growth is that the conservation of cultural heritage is ignored. historic buildings in most big cities in indonesia are located in the urban center where land is economically valuable. changing the function of this area is a common solution in developing countries, where historic building is difficult for government to cope with in providing the physical and social infrastructure for a fast growing population in the urban areas. in this chaotic condition ripley draws this in-depth perspective as follows: ifwe cannot preserve our total environment, we are, of course at risk ourselves. in the same way, if we cannot preserve the capacity of mankind to maintain cultural traditions and discipline of the spirit that result from such appreciation of civilization then we are surely lost intellectually as we are physica11y(1984: 16). the symbolism" of tradition the contradiction of two ideas, modernization on one hand and cultural heritage preservation on the other hand, becomes an important problem. in this context, contemporary attitudes seek to reinforce the old symbolism of tradition. these ideas are usually supported by politicians on the basis of minimizing the site area and maximizing the number of people. they prefer to destroy old buildings and build new ones, most commonly multi-storey buildings to simplify the problem. the other group, mostly scientists and older people, tend to keep the residues of the cultural heritage preserved. the other example of the clash between conservation ideas and modernization is the fact that the density of traffic goes up in the historic urban areas. road widening is needed but requires the knocking down of the fa~ade of the old buildings so that they can be moved back. from another perspective, the indonesian government, for example, promotes the tourist industry as a major income producer. for western tourists, the most attractive aspect of indonesia is its rich and unique values of cultural diversity, which affected our cultural traditions in this way. for instance, bali is highly popular, as western people can experience a traditional mode oflife. at present, tradition and religion are practiced in both rural and urban areas and the visiting tourists help to support the continuing existence of our customs and rituals. krlspranlono,architecture as cultural identity 139 in this sense laleh bachtiar gives his wise views as follows: "tradition thus understood is the 'presiding idea' ofa normal society and the animating principle of the whole life of people" (cited inaderiand andbakhtiar 1973:xi). tradition, thus, still plays an important role in the context of integrating cultural expression, like put forward by eisenstadt below: in the process of handing down. there are many outside aspects that influence and become absorbed, in the transfonnation. the element of the traditional setting that are expressed in various historical societies were emphasized in common practice by scholars as being factors of significance for the understanding of the process of accommodating change in society (1 996: 119). tradition may be influenced, modified and changed by society. there are two crucial factors in comparing between traditional and modem society. on the one hand a traditional society is often described as a static one with 1ittje differentiation and specialization, together with low levels of urbanization and less educated and a modem society on the other hand has been viewed as one with a very high level of differentiation, urbanization, educated and exposed to mass media communication (eisenstadt 1996:261). traditional societies are usually described as ordered, stable and regulated by social life and cultural expression. modem society is often considered culturally dynamic and oriented to change and innovation, and therefore fundamentally unstable, and this is commonly expressed in the middle and upper urban societies. modernization and industrialization together with development of science and technology, the industrial revolution was pioneered by england in the mid-l sill century and followed in the rest of europe and in america during the 19th century (gross 1992:37). after world war n the overall traditional social framework was replaced by a modem cu1tural framework. although initially substantial pockets of tradition survived, the impact of the industrial revolution influenced society in accommodating and assimilating new cultural elements and caused the west to enter more rapidly what might be called the epoch of "modernity" (gross 1992:39). 140 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 137 148 the word 'modem' as habermas explains is derived from the latin modernus whic~ in the late 5th century of roman christian times, was used to distinguish the present from the past (habermas 1981 :3). modernity comes from the word modern defined in the oxford english dictionary (1995. 750) as: "of the present and recent time". in this respect, in fact it can refer to many different contexts. the term relates to the difference between re'cent 'times' as compared with the past, expressing the change from an 'old' to a 'new' representation. by this definition it is not self evident that modem indicates 'better' although this is almost always an unspoken assumption. the ideological basis of modernity has formulated its own 'new world' and is based on 'rationality', 'individualism', '"materialism' and 'developmentalism'. modernity has transferred the nomis of rational ways of life (lash and friedman 1992). some.say that development of modernity in the west is derived from the same historical process that gave us the enlightenment and industrial periods. originally, the 'enlightenment' was the title of a painting by a german artist, deniel chedowski of 18th century. the picture depicts the early morning sunlight on the village with a building like a manor house, surrounded by people on their way towards the building. in the painting of enlightenment, the light of the sun refers to contemporary reform movements: we have ever been convinced that it is~· above all, light which will ultimately bring congenial warmth. it was in the eighteenth . centwy that the idea of light acquired new status. light is now invoked over and over again when reason, liberty or happiness are mentioned. it is a light that is reflected in the ideas that characterises that centwy (1m hof 1994:4). in britain, the english employed the term enlightenment to emphasize that the 18th century society was enlightenment beyond the hopes and imaginations of former times (1m hof 1994:4). in france, at the same time, enlightenment denoted the beginning offreedom from fetters and absolutism, and these ideologies lead to the french revolution: " ... les seules 'lumieres' de la raison nature lie sont capable de conduire les 'hommes a la perfection de la science et de la sagesse huma/ne" (1m hof 1994:3). lumiere was the french word for 'light' and represented understanding and knowledge (1m hof 1994:4). in the 1780s, the german term 'aufklarung' was applied to that historical era: das zeitalter der aufklarung the age krlsp,antono,~hitecture as cultural identity 141 in the later part of the 20111 century, the invention of new technol9gy, '. . especially in communications, has created the possibility of contact between .' cultures around the world and created heterogeneous cultural fonnations. one benefit of this global exposure is that it is easier to become acquainted with and perhaps understand other cultures. against this optimism it could be suggested that the function of media has turned into a means by which one culture imposes itself on another. the impact on third world countries where various aspects of tradition have blended has changed with the 1 "during the period of enlightenment 'philosophizing' still meant, as it had done in an ancient greece, the pursuit of wisdom, or simply knowledge, an interest in scientific investigation" (1m hof1994). 142 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 137-148 development of modem society. under all circumstances, direct exposure to global culture result in a decline of the original culture of the place and its identity. in southeast asia, especially indonesia, the western influence has created new patterns of behavior, but this process of adaptation was based on local historical and cultural patterns. although their methods and organization may not be understood or approved in the west, their neotraditionalist approach to government constituted a statement that southeast asians have rediscovered and reasserted within an indigenous identity. mccloud claims that the tenacity oftraditionaj behavior within the domestic context is visible in the structures and functioning of government as well as in policy prescription [and] ... the emergence of the indigenous identity may offer grater assurance of success in the development and functioning of political institutions and social structure (mccloud 1996: 261). in indonesia, the same manner of adapta~ion has taken place to develop economic conditions mainly through industrialization. science and technology have been imported from developed countries, whose values have added their characteristics to the local culture. this may mean that other external values cannot change the host environment's influence on the local culture that is already established. in many third world countries, the development and direction toward modernization after world war n has been broadly studied by social scientists. the characteristics of social change in development are fundamental to the roots of modem social science. the difference between traditional and modem society can be viewed in terms of structural features by the implication that both tradition and modernity are seen as powers that encourage the growth of economic and social forces. most of society in rural areas lived in local agrarian communities under the legitimatization of traditional ideology. on this point beck draws an important distinction as follows: the 'greattrallition' were [was] associated with the rationalization of region, a process depending on existence of scriptural texts. rationalization was not necessarily opposed to trallition; on the contrary, although there is little evidence of specific traditional fonns well beyond anything found in purely oral culture (cited in giddens 1994:92). krlspmnlono, architecture as cultural identity 143 after world war ~ many asian countries gained their independence from one or other colonizing nations. after gaining independence from the dutch and japanese during the war in 1945, indonesia became a new modem culture controlled by indonesians, which was designed to encompass the various cultures from different ethnic perspectives or ethnics. the 1945 constitution postulated that the government should develop a national culture as an expression of the traditions of the different peoples in indonesia. recently, the development of indonesian culture has given rise to dilemmas, as vuginia matheson hooker (1995) writes in culture and society in new order indonesia. embodying traditions in modern symbols many traditions in indonesia have survived into the present only because of outside help provided by the government the state then p1'qceeds to encode these now static traditions in several ways by embodying them in signs and symbols such as flags and national monuments, which help to evoke certain sentiments associated with the newly politicized traditions; by incorporating them into state-sponsored rituals, liturgies and national co~emotations; or by translating them into official political discourses, slogans and grand narratives about the triumphant history of the state or its unique place in time (hooker 1995).3 architecture can express local sensibilities by rooting architectural expression in a local and regional context, because if architects use past legacies combined with new ideas they could express a continuation of the past and present. in indonesia, the majority of the urban middle-class in most big cities in indonesia lives in today's western world in a modem and dynamic society. the indonesian elite had long been inclined to adapt or adopt modem styles bf buildings. on the other hand, the general opinion seems to be that old ·~ays are 'unfashionable'. it is often considered embarrassing to be seen in ~e binary perspective, because a contradiction exists between tradition and hlodemity, so in that confrontation between them modem life is characterized b a permanent struggle . • 5 ! for example, the modem state function by assembling under the jurisdiction and regional traditions. it tries to politicize or nationalize these by shaping to place the state at centre of these diffuse localities (gross 1992:109). 144 celt, volume 6, number 2, december 2006: 137-148 the changing attitude of modern society the development of industrialization and education in the big cities in indonesia has caused migration that changed at a rapid pace. high levels of migration from small towns and villages towards big cities have resulted in new patterns of settlem~nt among the people who previously lived in t,he villages, where the settlements were built according to tradition. in the cities the price of land is very high and therefore the design of houses is mainly based on function and economy which tend to ignore the cultural and climate conditions. such global changes in society have resulted in an immense increase in the dynamic of change and have influenced the political focus towards the built environment, in conditions of inadequate resource bases, low per-capita income and high rates of population growth. as a result of the gradual process of deterioration and urban decay, they have destroyed the historic and traditional cultural structure in the change to modern values by importing the western model as an expression of progress. weber regarded that ''worldwide expansion of western technology, economical development and the worldwide triumph of science... had originated in the west" (cited in lowenthal 1984:4). from lowenthal's point of view the destruction of the historic and traditional cultural structure was not merely due to the dynamism of the west but the result of accelerated industrialization and other development (1984:8). it has been said that vernacular buildings do not survive mainly because it is impossible to accommodate the rapidly changing structure of family life (ouvenc 1990:291). according to this argument any group of people will gradually be transformed in their society by the adoption of new patterns of life. the architects' role cannot prevent them from this change. kluckkhohn and stodtbeck (1961) provide an in-depth perspective of these two opposing cultural views by identifying the link between so called 'modem society' and 'traditional society'. the vernacular tradition represents an overall integrity of rural or more specifically agrarian culture. the relationship between 'traditional society' and the environments is an inter-dependent one in which people see themselves as a part of their environment and their purpose is to survive with nature rather than controlling it. vernacular buildings were built in respect of nature (kluckkhohn and stodtbeck 1961, cited in ouvens 1990:293). in contrast, modern society can be viewed as an urban culture which controls nature and see nature as a resource to be exploited, so that krlsprantono, architecture as cultural identity 145 " ... civilization (is seen as) the ultimate of mastery man over nature" (kluckkhohn and stodtbeck 1961, cited in guvens 1990:293). cities in indonesia, particularly large ones, have become conscious of imitating westernization. rich people who want to increase their social status build themselves modem houses which symbolizes westernization, mainly in the fa~e and front garden of the building. a new wave of culture is emerging in which architects have no part in designing the building. rather, the client uses architects as draftsmen and pays them for their work in exactly the same way as he would with a mason. he retains control of the decisionmaking and designing, which corresponds to his life style. nowadays a large proportion of building materials are made in factories in the form of ready made component. the builders who work with prefabricated components of buildings do not have responsibility for the appearance of the building because they do not create or design any part of it. the erection of a building is being changed into a process of assembling ready made parts, are delivered and made ready for positioning on the site in a relatively short period. therefore, it is quicker and easier to handle with modem equipment it was different with from builders of vernacular houses, they were responsible directly for the appearance because they have created and designed all of their components. so, it can be concluded that vernacular architecture is the creation of local people as architects, craftsmen and builders from generation to generation. the movement of architecture from handicraft to prefabrication causes the loss of part of the culture. particularly in the last two decades, before the economic crisis in fareastern countries, the economic development of indonesia has been very fast and has caused the rapid growth of big cities. these conditions have brought fundamental changes in many aspects, not only to the changes with the time spectrum of its development, but also the cities spatially and architecturally begin to reflect the contribution to the development of the society. recently, with regard to the development of cities in indonesia, it has been noted that consumer culture has been a powerful influence, and the urban environment has suffered as a result. the visual attributes of popular modem western models, such as commercial business areas has become 146 celt, volmne 6, number 2, december 2006: 137 148 city centers, with multi-storey buildings supported by modem technology and modem houses became the inspiration of imported cultures. there are many positive impacts of the prefabrication of building components, for example the production is more accurate and the process is quicker. the appearance of architecture will move from local to international, especially in cities where the economy is more developed. the globalization era will open communication and information channels, causing architectural influences to travel from country to country more easily. indonesian architecture cannot absorb all this science and technology without losing its identity. if this is to be avoided, steps must be taken to record old buildings and vernacular architecture in every region which has historic value and cultural sense. this is the reason why the relationship between conservation and development in third world countries is usually unbalanced and the rate of development is very high, with little attention given to conservation. by conservation the spirit of the place can become the identity of the region. conclusion refunctioning a sense of the past in the present must not merely represent something old or ancient but carry a certain amount of spiritual and moral prestige. to realize such continuity, something different from the simple preservation of the past in the present must be undertaken. tradition, it might be said, is an orientation to the past which has heavily influenced and constructed the present. yet clearly, in a certain sense, tradition is also about the future. lash explains that: "a repetition in a method is a practice that needs to be examined, and reaches out to return the future to the past and also to reconstruct the future" (cited in giddens 1994:62). this means that traditions can also survive into the present, not because of the belief that some aspects of past behavior and ritual are worth preserving, but due to the calculated support strategies coming from outside agencies, such as the state or market-place. in other words, this process represents a re-functioning of tradition. in this sense, society endorses and promotes certain elements of folklore and customs since they can be useful in the pursuit of political and economic goals. krisprantono, architecture as cultural identity 147 bibliography broadbent, geoffrey. sign. symbol and architecture. toronto: john willey and sons ltd, 1980. chadirji, rifat. concept and influences: toward a regionalized international architecture. london: academy edition group ltd, 1985. eisenstadt, samuel noah. modernization, protest and change. new york: prentice haj~ 1966. __ . tradition, change and modernity. new york: john willey and sons ltd, 1973. furst, lilian renee. contours of european romanticism. london: methuen, 1980. giddens, anthony. modernity and self identity. oxford: blackwell publisher, 1990. __ . living in the post traditional society. in reflexive modernization: politics, tradition and aesthetics in modern social order. by ulrich beckand,antony giddens and scot lash. cambridge: polity press, 1994. gross, david. the past in ruins. massachusetts: mit press, 1992. guvenc, bozkurt. "vernacular architecture as a paradigm: case argument". in vernacular architecture: current challenges in the environmental social sciences. by mete turan. vennont usa: gower publishing company ltd, 1990:28-3015. heelas, paul, scott lash and paul morris. detraditionaiization: authority and self identity in anage o/cultural uncertainty. oxford: blackwell publisher, 1996. lash, scott. reflexive modernization: politics, tradition and aesthetics in modern social order. cambridge: polity press, 1994. hooker, virginia matheson. culture and society in new indonesian order. oxford: oxford university press, 1995. 1m hof, ulrich. the enlightenment. oxford: blackwell publisher, 1994. lowenth~ david. our past be/ore us. london: temple smith, 1981. ___ . the past is foreign country. cambridge: up) 1985. mccloud, donald g southeast asia: tradition and modernity in the contemporary world. oxford: westview press, 1995. 148 celt, volume6,number2,december 2006: 137-148 pocock, lohn graville agard. machiavellian moment. london: princetown university press, 1975. steele,lames. architecture in continuity.oxford: phaidon press ltd, 1985. williams, raymond. what is culture. fontana press, 1981. williams, c.l.f. whaj is identity. oxford: clarendon press, 1989. logo:   indonesian university students’ common mistakes when formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ rentauli mariah silalahi english department, institut teknologi del, toba samosir, indonesia email: rentaulisilalahi@gmail.com received: 17-07-2016 accepted: 19-07-2017 published: 13-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj indonesian university students’ common mistakes when formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ rentauli mariah silalahi rentaulisilalahi@gmail.com english department, institut teknologi del, toba samosir, indonesia abstract: this study investigated the most common mistakes university students made when formulating interrogative sentences using the ‘wh-questions: who, what, whom, which, whose.’ the research was initiated by the researcher’s curiosity when finding out that students in iie university (pseudonym) frequently made mistakes when trying to ask questions using the ‘wh-question’ in almost every occasion; either in classrooms or in general lectures. the research which was conducted using descriptive qualitative method involving 60 university students as direct participants, who received some treatments found out that students’ most common mistakes were about choosing the right ‘wh-question’ to form the question and to place every component that built the question in a correct order and the other mistakes were related to the right use of article, demonstrative, verb, an auxiliary verb, while little problem was related to a problem with diction and ability to make meaningful sentence. the study also found out that the iie students made more mistakes than ever anticipated by swan (1980) and that there was a close inseparable connection among all grammatical issues when composing any sentence in english. key words: question words/ wh-questions, errors, mistakes, interrogative sentences abstrak: penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk mengetahui kesalahan yang sangat sering dilakukan oleh mahasiswa ketika mereka menulis kalimat tanya dengan menggunakan kata tanya bahasa inggris yang diawali dengan ‘wh’. adapun kata tanya yang dipilih untuk penelitian ini adalah kata ‘who/siapa, what/apa, whom/kepada silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 155 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj atau dengan siapa, which/yang mana, whose/milik siapa.’ yang mendasari penelitian ini adalah temuan peneliti dimana ditemukan bahwa sejumlah besar mahasiswa di universitas iie (nama samaran) sangat sering melakukan kesalahan dalam mengucapkan atau menuliskan kalimat tanya dengan menggunakan kata tanya baik di dalam kesempatan belajar di dalam kelas ataupun pada saat kuliah umum. penelitian ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode kualitatif deskriptif dengan melibatkan 60 mahasiswa/i sebagai peserta dalam penelitian ini yang memperoleh beberapa tahap perlakuan. dari hasil penelitian ini dapat ditarik beberapa kesimpulan diantaranya mahasiswa/i di universitas iie sering melakukan kesalahan dalam memilih kata tanya yang tepat dan menempatkan setiap komponen dalam kalimat tanya itu dengan benar sehingga berfungsi sebagai kalimat tanya, dan kesalahan lainnya adalah berkaitan dengan tata bahasa inggris yang lain seperti penggunaan artikel, kata demonstratif, kata kerja, kata kerja bantu, pemilihan kosa kata yang tepat, dan membentuk kalimat yang memiliki makna. kesimpulan lain yang dapat ditarik dari penelitian ini adalah bahwa mahasiswa/i melakukan lebih banyak kesalahan daripada yang pernah diteliti oleh swan (1980) dan bahwa dalam membentuk sebuah kalimat di dalam bahasa inggris semua komponen dalam tata bahasa inggris sangatlah berkaitan. kata kunci: kata tanya, kesalahan, kesilapan, kalimat tanya introduction question words are very important words in every kind of language especially english because conversation develops into a longer conversation and may even into a very meaningful communication with the combination of question words in it. every class, no matter learning what subject, needs the ability to form and address interrogative sentence correctly either with ‘yes-no question’ or ‘wh-question’. the ability to use question words is a life skill compulsory to know for a real social life anywhere. lee (2015) stated that questioning had the greatest impact on how students think in an english classroom which eventually would develop higher order thinking skills. if a teacher asked a question to students in which the response would be giving information about general knowledge, showing comprehension, and practicing an application, the question was categorized into lower-order questions. meanwhile, if the teacher asked a question in which the response would need the skills for analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, then the question was categorized as a higher-order question. qian 156 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj (2014) who called questions formed with question words as referential questions also agreed that these kinds of questions could draw students’ attention and stimulate their english learning potential. on his research, qian claimed that english classroom talk activity where the teacher involved students for comprehensive discussion using questions could probably be a solution to help students improve their abilities in the application of question words for meaningful communication. it was a classic story that the students always made errors or mistakes when trying to formulate a sentence and even worse when trying to formulate an interrogative sentence. students were always mixed up about the difference between forming a statement and a question, while it was obviously different in the order of where the auxiliary verb was placed. the worst problem was when students made a wrong choice in picking up what question word was suitable for a certain purpose. for example, students generally mixed up to use either ‘who’ or ‘whom’ for formulating a question that required an object as the answer. for a learning purpose and avoiding misconception, the difference between mistake and error should firstly be made clear coder (as cited in ma’mun, 2016) differentiated between error and mistake, i.ei: “whereas a mistake is a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc, and therefore can be readily self-corrected, an error is a systematic deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the l2” (p.100). students normally made errors when they produced a sentence either in spoken or written language. khansir & ilkhani (2016) who were very interested in error study had done some series of researches towards students in india and iran and found the errors were quite repeated with different participants. the errors were mostly about syntactic errors including auxiliary verbs, passive voice, indirect forms, prepositions, tag questions, relative pronouns, whquestions, and tenses. these errors are actually very common to all students whose native languages are not english as also found in this study yet in this study, those errors became mistakes because the speakers had actually learned the norms and knew the norms but tended to fall into slips when they were speaking. ferris (2014) argued that students whose native language was other than english would find difficulties in understanding the use of articles and prepositions and therefore needed more attention because these students tended to make more errors when fixing sentences. the most probable cause of students’ difficulty to understand was the absence of articles and silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 157 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj prepositions in their mother tongue. that was the biggest case happening to chinese students learning english because there was no such article in chinese (shi, 2015) and the absence of tenses in chinese (deng, 2015) made the students more confused when trying to speak in english. kartika (2016), on her research also found that the most common error made by indonesian students on writing was the overgeneralization of article. kartika claimed that it happened because of the interference of the students’ native language. dullay (as cited in ma’mun, 2016) was convinced that making errors while learning was part of a learning process that should not be deemed but used wisely by any educators to collect data and help students learn what they were stumbled with. there had been several researches about finding the most common errors made by indonesian students and all were about the same as the previously mentioned errors. aziz (2014) who did a research to know the most common errors made by presenters on a seminar presentation, found it not very different from the previously found errors through the errors did not stop the audience to understand the speaker. despite all errors made by the presenters including lexical, morphological, and syntactical errors, aziz claimed that the seminar participants could still understand the messages delivered. however, there could be some factors that caused any speakers ended up making errors in their language. kumar (2016) revealed that indian students also tended to make the same errors like indonesian students for the use of inappropriate question word, missing verbs and wrong word order. eventually, kumar strongly suggested for schools to use songs in the english classrooms because he claimed that songs are easier than speech because songs are highly appealing, motivating, memorable, and staying longer in the students’ minds. because of those reasons, kumar believed songs are the right media to help students formulating interrogative sentences correctly. norrish (1983, as cited in perdana, 2016) stated that there were three causes for a student to make an error: carelessness, first language interference, and translation. being careless may be influenced by someone’s inherited behavior or nature and is hard to overcome. therefore, students who undergo a learning process should be taught to be careful when producing a language either for writing or speaking. being aware of what is said or written is also an indication of a learning process to be careful because, for instance, if someone can repeat his speech to be correct, it means he has been listening to what he said and being careful. nur and elsaid (2012), ma’mun (2016), and sugeng 158 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj (2016) did a research separately and claimed that students’ errors happened because of the students’ first language interference in which the students still mixed their own language rules to the english which was very much different especially in linguistic features. direct translation from one’s language to english may not be appropriate because of some english grammatical rules and word choice. grammar plays an important role in creating a quality mutual understanding between a speaker or writer and a listener or a reader. khansir & pakdel (2016) strongly believed that the way words were put together correctly in relation to grammar would be able to impress people, but words which were wrongly chosen would sound meaningless though ordered with a correct grammar. therefore, students’ ability to understand vocabulary and to know a wide range of it would be very crucial. one proposed way to enrich students’ vocabulary was by doing a conversion (sahib, 2016). sahib claimed that by doing a conversion; changing a one-word form into another part of speech, students would be easier to develop their vocabulary and understand the meaning as well. with a comprehensive exploration of errors usually made by students whose native language was other than english, and knowing the difference between mistake and error, a scope was given to this study by focusing on a mistake. actually, knowing that there was still very limited study conducted in learning about a mistake, this would be an opportunity to raise the issue of mistake that may happen to all english as a foreign language (efl) learners. the terminology ‘mistake’ was considered the most appropriate term for this study because the students were tested about certain grammatical rules they had already learned. this study was conducted in one of the universities in indonesia, named iie university (pseudonym). this study was aimed at finding answers to the following question: what are the common mistakes students make when formulating interrogative sentences using ‘who, what, whom, which and whose’ in iie university? literature review a. question words in their research, youn & meng (2015) differentiated the syntactic difference between english and mandarin to help learners of mandarin. from the research, it could be concluded that interrogative sentences in english had a very different format to mandarin in which for the first one required subjectauxiliary verb inversion. silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 159 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj thomson & martinet (1986) explained the use of each ‘wh-question’ with examples that really could help any english learner learned english easily, especially for the case of ‘who’ and ‘whom’ which might interchangeably be used to ask for an object of a verb. it was the position of the verb or auxiliary verb that determined the function of the question word ‘who.’ for instance, if ‘who’ is asking for a subject, the formula will be ‘who saw you?’ meanwhile if ‘who’ is asking for an object of a verb the formula will be ‘who did you see?’ qian (2015) in his research, emphasized the importance of the presence of question words in english classrooms to motivate learners to talk more and be communicative instead of only using displaying questions which may not encourage students to think and talk longer because they simply answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no.’ b. common mistakes when formulating interrogative sentences with question words swan (1980, pp. 512-513), in his book, elaborated some typical mistakes students made when formulating interrogative sentences. among them were mistakes with the use of ‘wh-question’. the typical mistakes were: 1. placing subject after the main verb and not after the auxiliary verb. e.g. when was made your reservation? (incorrect) when was your reservation made? (correct) it was a very common mistake for indonesian students to directly apply the rule of their first language when formulating a question in english where a subject was immediately followed by a verb and with no auxiliary verb before a subject as the auxiliary verb was not found in their first language. for example, in bahasa indonesia, someone might say "dimana kamu tinggal?" the question word is "dimana" and the subject is "kamu" and the verb is "tinggal." but, in english, the translation of that interrogative sentence should be "where do you live?" it means, in english, the subject "you" should come after the auxiliary verb "do." the same happened to the example above where the speaker put subject "your reservation" after the main verb "made." the example was actually a passive interrogative sentence but it even became very clear that the subject should have come after auxiliary verb. the subject "your reservation" should have been placed in between the auxiliary verb and the main verb. 160 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj it could be acceptable for a question word in english to be directly followed by a verb, yet it was only for a question requiring an answer positioned as the subject of a sentence or a full sentence as an answer. example 1: question: who came to the party? answer: alice <came to the party>. (the answer “alice” is the subject of the sentence.) example 2: question: what happened last night? answer: a hurricane destroyed the city last night. (the answer “a hurricane destroyed the city” is a complete sentence.) 2. missing auxiliary verb examples: why you are laughing? (incorrect) why are you laughing? (correct) the example above was interesting because the speaker seemed to be aware of the rule for using an auxiliary in his question yet he misplaced it. the auxiliary verb should have come after the question word ‘why.’ there was a tendency for indonesian students to immediately put an auxiliary after a subject. it was like an automatic rule in their mind to attach the pair auxiliary verb for any subject like ‘i am’, ‘she is’, ‘they are’, ‘you are’, and ‘we are.’ the examples for that kind of mistake are in sentences like “i am live in bandung,” “they are go to school every day.” 3. using auxiliary verb when not needed after special wh-question; ‘who/what.’ examples: a) who did leave the door open? (incorrect) who left the door opened? (correct) b) what did happen? (incorrect) what happened? (correct) silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 161 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj those two examples indicated redundancies where the auxiliary verbs were actually not necessary. these mistakes might happen after the students knew the grammatical rule for using auxiliary verb to build a question word. but, they were not aware of the simple rule for formulating a question requiring an answer in a subject position or a full sentence as an answer. this kind of question should have the form of “question word + verb?” methodology this is a descriptive research which used qualitative data for describing the study in details. the data collected were the students’ english written language which was produced in the examination. the student participants were those who had just finished a unit course learning about composing questions in english using the ‘wh-questions.’ the descriptive qualitative research was the most appropriate method to reveal the process happening during the research. it was also in congruence to what wolcott (as cited in maxwell, 1992, p. 286) said that ‘description is the foundation upon which qualitative research is built.’ this study tried to find out the students’ misconception about the rules in formulating interrogative sentences. all problems appeared in the students’ interrogative sentences were considered mistakes because the students had actually been taught the norms of the ‘whquestions’ and the students had been able to produce questions in the practices sessions correctly. therefore, the students should have understood the rules. this method is desired in this study because this study is aimed to straightly find out what common mistakes indonesian students usually made when formulating interrogative sentences using ‘question words.’ though considered as a very simple method, the descriptive qualitative method worked well for answering this study research question as sandelowski (2000) claimed that this method was the exact tool to use to find out a phenomenon for ‘what’ of an event and this method as kothari (2004) claimed could portray accurately the characteristics of the mistakes made by the particular 60 students using interrogative sentences as the instruments for collecting data. in order to analyze the data, the author used a descriptive approach. the approach was carried out using thematic analysis. a thematic analysis is one that looks across all the data to identify the common issues that recur, and identify the main themes that summarize all the views collected. the stages 162 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj taken by the author were reading the manuscript (students’ sentences), identifying themes (what mistakes could the students’ sentences have), developing a coding system (identified and decided the category of the students’ mistakes), and coding the data (applying the category of the students’ mistakes to all data collected). a. instruments this study was conducted by collecting students’ sentences as the data following some steps for direct observation. the steps could also be called the procedural steps taken for complete observation. the observation was carried out following five steps. step one was teaching 60 students about 5 question words; the function of each question word and how to formulate interrogative sentences with the 5 ‘wh-questions’. the 5 question words were ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘which,’ ‘whose,’ and ‘whom.’ step two was to ask the students to formulate an interrogative sentence for each 5 question words learned as an assignment after the learning process. step three was to categorize the mistakes students made in formulating the questions using the question words. step four was to collect the 60 students again and give more comprehensive lecture explaining how to use and form questions using the 5 question words by considering the mistakes they made in the assignment. step five was to group students; in a group of 6, and ask every group to reformulate questions by giving them 12 interrogative sentences that contained a mistake in each of the twelve sentences. this final step was carried out under a test circumstance. the students' sentences both from the assignment and test became the main data for this study. b. participants the participants of this study were 60 undergraduate students majoring information system in one of the universities in indonesia; iie university (pseudonym). the participants were varied in english ability but their english proficiency could be categorized into low intermediate to upper intermediate. the students’ levels of proficiency were known by looking at their english grades from the first half semester which was from bc to ab. the university applied a grading system as followed and the university’s english department used the grading system to do the leveling for the students' english proficiency. silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 163 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj table 1: students’ english proficiency categories range grade category for english proficiency high low 100 79.5 a advanced <79.5 72 ab upper intermediate <72 64.5 b intermediate <64.5 57 bc low intermediate <57 49.5 c pre intermediate <49.5 34 d elementary <34 e beginner the students were sitting in their first year at the university and as this study was conducted, the students were studying in their first semester. the author was also the teacher who taught the students and did the observation. results the first step was to teach the 60 students about the theory of using ‘whquestion’ to form an interrogative sentence. the ‘wh-question’ words chosen to be focused on were ‘who, what, which, whose, and whom.’ the meeting lasted for two hours with two main activities; theory delivery and practice doing exercises related to the ‘wh-question' words. during the class, the lecturer gave enough explanation and allocated time for question and answer session for more clarity of the topic learned. however, there were only a few students asked questions and they were students with good english proficiency. the second step was to ask students to write their own sentences using the 5 ‘wh-questions.’ every student, in the practice session, wrote their own free sentences for each ‘wh-question’ on a piece of paper and submitted the paper to the lecturer for analysis. the paper was used for a detailed analysis for categorizing any mistake students made in the interrogative sentence formulation or called developing a coding system. that was the third step. then, in the fourth step, the students were given an intensive class to discuss more about the topic and their mistakes while doing the exercises in the previous meeting. 164 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj in the fifth step, the researcher did some work to analyze students’ mistakes in their interrogative sentence formulas. on this final stage, the lecturer gave the students 12 sentences in which each sentence contained words which were not in order, therefore the sentences were not in the appropriate forms as interrogative sentences. the students’ task was to rewrite the 12 sentences by rearranging the words into correct order to form interrogative sentences. it was a test given to students after all of the processes of learning and exercising and the test was to be done in groups. a. students’ mistakes from the assignment from the analysis conducted toward the students' assignment, it was found that 17 students could write all interrogative sentences correctly meanwhile, the other 43 students made at least one mistake in their sentence. collected from all mistakes made by the students, the researcher categorized the mistakes into 12 categories as follows (named coding the data): 1. misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for a subject or doer. 2. misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for an object. 3. incorrect use of auxiliary verb to meet the tense. 4. incorrect use of verb to meet the tense. 5. incorrect use of auxiliary verb to meet the noun or commonly known as problem with ‘subject-verb agreement. 6. meaningless question. 7. missing auxiliary verb. 8. problem with diction. 9. improper use of article ‘the.’ 10. improper use of demonstrative ‘that.’ 11. missing articles 12. misplaced auxiliary verb. when contrasted to the mistake categories by swan (1980), it was obvious that the students in this university made more mistakes than was anticipated by swan. the mistakes students made were not only simply misplacing a component of a sentence but also more to the other simple grammatical issues such as the right use of article and demonstrative. the most interesting finding was that there were still some students who were still unable to choose the right ‘wh-question’ despite being taught earlier in the classroom before the exercise took place. the table below shows the number of mistakes made by all students for each mistake category. silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 165 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj table 2: no. of mistakes for each mistake category mistake category no. of mistake a. misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for a subject or doer. 10 b. misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for an object. 1 c. incorrect use of auxiliary verb to meet the tense. 2 d. incorrect use of verb to meet the tense. 12 e. incorrect use of auxiliary to meet the noun or commonly known as problem with ‘subject-verb agreement. 3 f. meaningless question. 4 g. missing auxiliary verb. 18 h. problem of diction. 1 i. improper use of article ‘the.’ 2 j. improper use of demonstrative ‘that.’ 1 k. missing articles 2 l. misplaced auxiliary verb. 1 it could be clearly seen from the table that the top three categories in which students made mistakes were about misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for a subject or doer, incorrect use of verb to meet the tense, and missing auxiliary verb; with the last category having the most number of mistakes. the students’ mistakes were rewritten on the following explanation one by one to get a clear understanding of the students’ real sentences. 1. misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for a subject or doer. a) whom make you suffer like this? b) whose teaching programming for us? c) whose is teach you english? d) whom kill him? e) who i your friend name? f) whom has this pen? g) whom was accompanied you to the party last night? h) whom want to go shopping? i) whom work in department store near your home? j) whose learn english? 166 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 2. misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for an object. whom you talked to in the telephone last night? 3. incorrect use of auxiliary verb to meet the tense. a) whom do you do to the market last week? b) what have you learnt about form our lesson today? 4. incorrect use of verb to meet the tense. a) who made you feel good this whole day? b) who scored a goal last night? c) who take my shampoo from my bucket? d) who found my laptop? e) whom did you eat with last night? f) whom do you talk to? g) who is the man that walked with you yesterday? h) who took my jacket? i) who sat on the chair? j) who gave this book to you? k) what happened in their house? l) whom did triana met yesterday in library? 5. incorrect use of auxiliary to meet the noun or commonly known as problem with ‘subject-verb agreement. a) whose shoes is this? b) which did your pen, the black or the red? c) whose shoes is here? 6. meaningless question. a) whom did you cry yesterday? b) what is color of a pen? c) which the one on the love? d) who do you need to finish this job? 7. missing auxiliary verb. a) with whom he talked at that night? b) with whom you go to the dinner? silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 167 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj c) whose pen on the table? d) which one from your brothers the kindest one? e) whose watch that you found in the bathroom this morning? f) whose snack on my tupperware table? g) which of do you like, a red dress or a black dress? h) with whom you play the music? i) which one your laptop? j) who cooking in your house? k) whom you go tonight to arianna’s home? l) whose phone on the table? m) with whom you shopping tomorrow? n) whose jacket on the table? o) whom you go to the cafeteria? p) whose hand phone in my bag? q) whose book on the bunk bed? r) which you like shoes or dress? 8. problem with diction. what make the flood in jakarta? 9. improper use of article ‘the’. a) whose cars are these? b) whose pencil is this? 10. improper use of demonstrative ‘that’. who is the boy that crying at the corner of the class? 11. missing article. a) whose laptop falls from table? b) what are you doing in library at 10.00 p.m? 12. misplaced auxiliary verb. whom you will go tonight? having finished the analysis, the research drew a conclusion that students had not yet understood the lesson taught in the classroom. therefore, the research came to the next step. the fourth step was to collect the students again and gave them more explanation about the theory of using ‘wh168 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj question.’ the theory lasted for one hour with more comprehensive examples from the lecturer. the lecturer gave students another one hour for exercises in which the students were asked to write their own examples and the lecturer checked on students’ created sentences one by one. with the lecturer directly helped every weak student with their own sentences, finally, all students could understand the lesson very well. b. students’ mistakes from the test the final step after all the learning processes was to group the students and give them 12 interrogative sentences that each contained a mistake. the students were asked to reformulate the interrogative sentences to be true. this was conducted under a test circumstance. the purpose of grouping the students was to enable them to have a discussion in case any of them were still confused to formulate questions using the 5 ‘wh-question’. every group member was motivated to help each other understand the topic better by reviewing the questions. each group consisted of 6 students. although the aim of the group discussion was to minimize mistakes and to help students understand the topic better because they were reviewing the interrogative sentences together, but the expectation was not met because each group still made mistakes while trying to correct the wrong formulated questions. the twelve false interrogative sentences given to the students to be reformulated were actually designed to have similar problems as found in the second step in which students created interrogative sentences; yet with some mistakes. however, although with more comprehensive explanation and one to one checking on students’ work before the final test, the students still made mistake in their effort to reformulate the false interrogative sentences. the following explanation gives description and analysis about the students’ achievement for each category. 1. mistake category 1: misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for a subject or doer. original false interrogative sentence: “whom did hit you last night?” for this interrogative sentence, only 1 group (group 10) made a mistake in their reformulated interrogative sentence. their interrogative sentence was “who hitted you last night?” silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 169 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj from the sentence, it could be concluded that the students in this group did not have a good understanding of verb formulas for regular and irregular verbs. they just added ‘t + ed’ to the verb “hit” while the verb was actually an irregular verb that should remain “hit.” the possible correct reformulated question could be “who hit you last night?” 2. mistake category 2: misunderstanding of using the right ‘wh-question’ to ask for an object. original false interrogative sentence: “whose does this motorcycle belong to?” to this second mistake category, there was also only one group making a mistake for reformulation. group 1 reformulated the interrogative sentence into “whose does belong this motorcycle?” this group seemed to ignore the appropriate ‘wh-question’ which was suitable to address the question. instead of moving parts of the interrogative sentence, the group should just change the ‘wh-question’ into “whom” which was the correct one to ask for an object. therefore, the correct question would sound “whom does this motorcycle belong to?” 3. mistake category 3: incorrect use of auxiliary verb to meet the tense. original false interrogative sentence: “what are you know about our study?” for this interrogative sentence, only group 5 made a mistake by forgetting to write the verb although the group had already been correct to change the auxiliary verb into ‘do’ which was the right auxiliary verb to help a verb. the students’ reformulated interrogative sentence was “what do you about our study?” actually, if the students were careful enough they could make it right by writing “what do you know about our study?” 4. mistake category 4: incorrect use of verb to meet the tense. original false interrogative sentence: “who drop the water at this floor?” again, there was only one group did a mistake in trying to fix this interrogative sentence by writing “who is drop the water on this floor?” group 7 was correct to change ‘at’ to ‘on’ but the group seemed to ignore the simple rule of using “who.” the students should just simply remember that “who” required a direct verb after it. as the action was a 170 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj ‘past’ so, the interrogative sentence should sound “who dropped the water on this floor?” the researcher actually found so many similar cases with almost all students in which the students tended to ignore the feeling and use of logic when formulating a sentence. very often, students did not use a past verb form for a past action. the most possible correct question could be “who dropped the water on this floor?” 5. mistake category 5: incorrect use of auxiliary to meet the noun or commonly known as a problem with ‘subject-verb agreement.’ original false interrogative sentence: “who is your parents?” there were two groups made mistakes to fix the interrogative sentence. group 9 wrote: “what is your parents?” while group 3 wrote: “who’s your parents?” actually, both ‘what’ and ‘who’ can be used for this interrogative statement yet with different purposes. however, the students should be aware of the noun following the auxiliary verbs. since the noun was in plural forms; ‘parents’, then the auxiliary verb should be ‘are.’ the interrogative sentence might be reformulated into two: “who are your parents?” and “what are your parents?” the first question asked for the names or the persons while the second question asked for the occupations of the parents. 6. mistake category 6: meaningless question original false interrogative sentence: “what do you write this book for the homework?” it was very obvious that the interrogative sentence had no clear meaning and could result in misunderstanding. similar sentences were very often found during class meetings with indonesian students. that could happen as the result of lack of knowledge of sentence structures, vocabulary, and tenses. however, from 10 groups, only group 3 made a mistake when trying to rewrite it to make correct. group 3 wrote it “what this book do you write for the homework?” that reformulated question was not any better than the previous one. there could be some varieties for correct reformulation as: “what did you write for the homework?” or “did you write this book?” 7. mistake category 7: missing auxiliary verb. original false interrogative sentence: “whose book that you reading now?” silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 171 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj three groups (group 3,4 and 8) tried to reformulate the question by writing “whose book is you reading now?” and group 2 reformulated it by writing “whose book that you read now?” while group 5 reformulated it by saying “whose book is you are reading now?” from the students’ reformulated questions, it could be understood that the students were not able to use the right auxiliary for the right pronoun. there could be a complex misunderstanding about the use of auxiliary among them. to correct the question was very simple; it was just to change the word “that” into “are.” therefore, the sentence would have sounded “whose book are you reading now?” 8. mistake category 8: diction original false interrogative sentence: “which one the games that you follow?” there was a complex problem in this interrogative sentence in which students may not aware of. it was a problem of word choice and grammar. the students seemed to consider it normal to use the word ‘follow’ in that sentence while it should have been changed into ‘play’ for a better message of the sentence itself. there were 4 groups made more mistakes in trying to fix the sentence as group 1 reformulated it to “which one of the game do you follow?” group 2 wrote “which one of the games you follow?” group 3 wrote “which is the games that you follow?” and group 9 reformulated it “which one of the games that you follow?” the most appropriate correction should be “which games did you play?” because a game is to play not to follow. looking at the correction of that question brought us to analyze the positioning of the words. the original interrogative sentence did not have any auxiliary verb to help the main verb and the speaker seemed to mistakenly use ‘that’ instead. that was a mistake in grammar for missing auxiliary verb. so, the original sentence could have been correct if the speaker used auxiliary verb ‘did’ to replace ‘that.’ it would have sounded “which one of the games did you play?” the past form ‘did’ became the most appropriate auxiliary verb because the interrogative sentence implied the action to be done in the past. 9. mistake category 9: improper use of article ‘the.’ original false interrogative sentence: “whose dictionary in the chair?” 172 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj more groups made mistakes on this interrogative sentence though four of them seemed to understand that there was an excessive use of article ‘the’ and three groups realized there was a missing “to be.” group 2 wrote “whose dictionary is in the chair?” group 3 wrote “whose dictionary is this in the chair?” group 1 and 4 wrote “whose dictionary is in the chair?” group 6 wrote “whose dictionary on the chair?” and finally group 9 wrote “whose dictionary in the chair?” from those four groups, one group realized that there was a misused of preposition ‘in’ because for noun ‘chair’ which had a flat surface, the correct preposition to suit it is ‘on.’ meanwhile, three groups understood that there should be a “to be” after the question word. therefore, the most possible correction could be “whose dictionary is on the chair?” 10. mistake category 10: improper use of demonstrative ‘that.’ original false interrogative sentence: “who is the girl that sitting next to tientri?” two out of ten groups made mistake for the reformulation of this interrogative sentence. both group 1 and 3 wrote it “who is the girl that sit next to tientry?” to fix the original sentence was actually not hard, it was just by deleting the word ‘that’ because there happened a reduction after combining two clauses. the first clause was “who was the girl?” and the second clause was “the girl who was sitting next to tientri.” the combination of the two clauses may come in 2 variations: a) who is the girl that is sitting next to tientri? or who was the girl that is sitting next to tientri? b) who is the girl sitting next to tientri? or who was the girl sitting next to tientri? the relative pronoun ‘that’ could safely be used in the interrogative sentence (variation 1) yet, the other relative pronoun ‘who’ could also be used to replace ‘that’ because ‘who’ is the relative pronoun for helping subject. the interrogative sentence in variation 1 could also be formed using different tenses like present simple, past simple, future or perfect. silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 173 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 11. mistake category 11: missing articles original false interrogative sentence: “who was student that stand next to you yesterday?” there were eight groups making a mistake in trying to fix this interrogative sentence. group 1 and 6 wrote it “who did the student stand next to you yesterday?” group 2 and 8 wrote it “who was the student that stand next to you yesterday?” group 3 and 10 wrote it “who was the student that stand next to you yesterday?” group 7 wrote it “who is the student that standing next to you yesterday?” while group 9 wrote it “who was the student stand next to you yesterday?” there were two problems found in this interrogative sentence: article and subject-verb agreement. the word ‘student’ should have been preceded by article ‘the’ because the subject was already definite and the verb ‘stand’ should be made ‘stood’ in order to agree with the auxiliary verb ‘was.’ like the interrogative sentence in point ‘l’, this sentence had a complex structure in which it was actually consisted of two clauses. the first one was “who was the student?” and the second clause was “the student who stood/who was standing next to you.” in order to join the two clauses, a reduction process needed to take place. therefore, if combined, the two clauses became “who was the student standing next to you yesterday?” or “who was the student who was standing next to you yesterday?” 12. mistake category 12: misplaced auxiliary verb original false interrogative sentence: “whom the people that you met two days ago?” there were also many mistakes happened when students tried to reformulated this interrogative sentence. group 1 wrote it “whom people did you meet two days ago?” group 3 wrote “who are the people that you met two days ago?” group 4, 5, and 7 wrote it “who is the people that you met two days ago?” group 6 wrote it “who did the people that you meet two days ago?” group 8 wrote it “whom were the people that you met two days ago?” and group 9 wrote it “whom the people you met two days ago?” this interrogative sentence was also a complex one. however, it could be made brief by just writing “whom/who did you meet two days ago?” or 174 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 154 – 177 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj in other form “who were the people you were meeting with two days ago?” after recording each group’s mistakes and paying attention to the frequency of mistakes made by each group, it was found that each group still contributed to making mistakes when reformulating the false interrogative sentences. however, group 10 was the least to make mistakes followed by group 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, while group 1, 2, and 3 were the weakest among all because they did 4 to 5 times mistakes. the table below shows the number of mistakes each group made out of the 12 interrogative sentences given: table 3: no. of mistakes made by each group group no. of mistakes 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 2 10 1 total 26 conclusion although theoretically swan (1980) had already researched that students who learned english normally made three kinds of mistakes regarding the use of ‘wh-question,’ this research found that it was more than those and more complicated since building an english sentence or interrogative sentence required inseparable knowledge of other english grammar rules from the tiniest component of ‘article’ to ‘compound complex sentence formulas.’ in conclusion regarding to the grammar related skills, there were some topics students need to be taught carefully: 1. the changing forms of verbs for regular and irregular forms; 2. how to form interrogative sentences using ‘wh-questions;’ 3. how to differentiate the use of each ‘wh-questions;’ silalahi, r.m.,indonesian university students’ common mistakes when 175 formulating interrogative sentences with ‘wh-questions’ https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.xx17xx1; pissn: 1412-3320; eissn: 2502-4914; accredited; doaj 4. how to use auxiliary verbs to form positive and interrogative sentences; 5. how to combine two or more clauses correctly and do reductions correctly; 6. how to use verbs that are suitable to the tenses; overall, the students were still careless when formulating sentences in english because they already knew the topic and they had been taught about the topic with a comprehensive explanation but still there were some mistakes. the final test to reformulate the interrogative sentences was just a repetition of similar problems students encountered in the previous assignment. so, there should be no more mistakes when students were given very similar problems. probably, further research was worth conducted by doing an interview to the students to find out the real problems students possibly have when given such assignments and whether a test circumstance has some impacts on students’ performances. collecting students’ opinions for why they keep repeating the same mistakes although they had been grouped with other students in order to promote collaborative learning will be very interesting and valuable. it can be carried out by doing personal communication or interview to the students as participants and to the class lecturer who certainly knows better about the students’ background knowledge in english and difficulties in learning the language. references aziz, j. a. 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(1980). practical english usage oxford university press. thomson, a. j., martinet, a. v., & draycott, e. (1986). a practical english grammar. youn, j., & meng, w. (2015). a discussion of the syntax of wh questions for native english speakers acquiring mandarin chinese as a second language. linguistic portfolios, 4(1), 11. 3.pdf (p.1) 003 dec2017.pdf (p.2-25) issn: 1412-3320 english culture, language teaching & literature a journal of celtcelt accredited by dikti 040/p/2014 celt, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 celt a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature (celt) is published biannually in the months of july and december (issn: 1412-3320) presenting articles on culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics, and literature. contents include analysis, studies, application of theories, research reports, material development, and book reviews. celt was firstly published in december 2001. based on the decree from hasil akreditasi jurnal ilmiah, sk direktur penelitian dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat, direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi, no. 040/p/2014 dated on 18 february 2014, celt is nationally accredited until 2019. editor-in-chief ekawati marhaenny dukut business manager cecilia titiek murniati editors antonius suratno emilia ninik aydawati gerardus majella adhyanggono heny hartono website designer & administrator ridwan sanjaya cover designer oscar santoso correspondence: address: the editors, celt, faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university, henricus constance building, 4 th floor, jl. pawiyatan luhur iv/1, bendan dhuwur, semarang 50234, indonesia; email: celtjournal@gmail.com; celt.unika@yahoo.com; celt@unika.ac.id; website: http://www.journalcelt.com; http://journalcelt.blogspot.com; telephone: +62-24-8316142, 8441555 (hunting) ext. 1705, fax no.: +62-248445265 ________________________________________________________________________________________ celt is published by the faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university. rector: prof. dr. ir. yohanes budi widianarko, m.sc., vice rector for academic affairs: dr. ridwan sandjaja, s.e., s.kom, ms.iec.., vice rector for financial and administration affairs: ineke hantoro, s.t.p., m.sc., vice rector for students’ affairs: lita widyo hastuti,s.psi, msi, vice rector for cooperation and development affairs: dr. marcella elwina simandjuntak, s.h., cn, m.hum., dean: angelika riyandari, s.s., m.a., ph.d., vice dean for academic affairs: dra. cecilia titiek murniati, m.a., ph.d, vice dean of financial and administration affairs: drs. antonius suratno, m.a., ph.d., vice dean for student affairs: b. retang wohangara, s.s., m.hum. ________________________________________________________________________________________ contributions: contributions are welcome from anyone who is concerned with culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature. contributors should consult the current celt manuscript submission guidelines before submitting articles, which contains important information about the focus and format of articles (see back cover). cost per journal is rp 40.000 and is payable through bank bii kas unika soegijapranata, with a bank swift code: ibbkidja, bank acc. no.: 1-575-16246-4, bank acc. name: angelika riyandari dan antonius suratno. ________________________________________________________________________________________ printed by santosa print offset, yogyakarta published and copyright by soegijapranata catholic university press, semarang © 2014. mailto:celtunika@gmail.com mailto:celt.unika@yahoo.com mailto:celt@unika.ac.id http://journalcelt.blogspot.com/ heavenly tears – earthly loss: different ways of coping with life loss in tears in heaven, circus, and since i lost you akun ...............................................................................................................1 constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppet for international students yoseph bambang margono slamet .................................................................16 using popular culture's media of indonesian-english picturebooks as a way of reaching more vegetable consuming children ekawati marhaenny dukut, maya putri utami, adi nugroho, novita ika putri, and probo y. nugrahedi ................................................................................36 cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops nur utami s.k. ..............................................................................................48 analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers anna marietta da silva ...................................................................................63 teacher questioning in classroom interaction sarlita dewi matra ........................................................................................82 students' perspectives on the role of open access centre and language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills wuryani hartanto ......................................................................................112 celt, vol.14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 b ba journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers anna marietta da silva anna.silva@atmajaya.ac.id department of applied english linguistics, atma jaya catholic university, jakarta abstract: the english language competence of an efl learner can be reflectedin his pragmatic competence. yet, for language learners and teachers a mastery of the pragmatic competence may unconsciously be neglected. in other words, it may not be taught in line with the grammatical competence since the initial period of learning. the article centers on two problems: (1) the similarities and differences of speech act of complaints among indonesian efl learners, indonesian efl teachers and american native speakers, and (2) the evidence of any pragmatic transfer in the complaint performance. dct was used to gather the data, which was then analyzed using rinnert, nogami and iwai‟s aspects of complaining (2006). it was found that there were both differences and similarities of complaints performed by both the native and non-native speakers of english when power and social status were involved. some evidence on pragmatic transfer was also tangible; mainly it was due to cultural differences. key words: pragmatic competence, speech act of complaints, pragmatic transfer abstrak: kompetensi berbahasa inggris seorang pembelajar bahasa inggris dapat dilihat dari kompetensi pragmatiknya. namun, penguasaan kompetensi pragmatiktampaknya belum menjadi prioritas utama para guru dan pembelajar bahasa inggris. dengan kata lain, penguasaan kompetensi pragmatik tidak seiring sejalan dengan penguasaan kompetensi tata bahasa inggris sejak awal masa pembelajaran bahasa inggris. artikel berikut ini berfokus pada dua hal: (1) persamaan dan perbedaan tindak tutur mengeluh dari para 64 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 pembelajar bahasa inggris, guru bahasa inggris, dan penutur bahasa inggris amerika, dan transfer pragmatic dalam strategi mengeluh tersebut. instrumen pengambilan data menggunakan discourse completion test, yang kemudian dianalisa berdasarkan komponen tindak tutur mengeluh dari rinnert, iwai dan nogami (2006). penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat persamaan sekaligus perbedaan antara keluhan oleh penutur dan bukan penutur bahasa inggris ketika melibatkan variabel kekuasaan dan status sosial. juga terdapat bukti adanya transfer pragmatik, yang terutama disebabkan adanya perbedaan budaya. kata kunci: kompetensi pragmatik, tindak tutur mengeluh, transfer pragmatik introduction being competent second or foreign language speakersis demonstrated not only through the linguistic but also communicative competence (hymes, 2001, p. 55). while the former covers one‟s performance with regard to grammatical forms including the phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical forms, the latter displays what functionsthat one can produce with his grammatical knowledge, e.g. requesting, thanking, inviting, and complaining (canale & swain, 1980, p. 2). nevertheless, one also needs what is called the strategic competence, which is all about one‟s capability in dealing with communication breakdown (canale & swain, 1980, p. 27). thus, to be able to produce appropriate utterances in a target language learners need to be exposed to various situations containing different pragmatic aspects, e.g. deixis, implicatures, and speech acts,that may require different communication strategies (prachanant, 2006, pp. 189-190). however, numerous research hasshown that it is not easy for learners to create appropriate utterances that involve the pragmatic strategies frequently used by the english native speakers. the pragmatic awareness, though, is an integrated part of a language that has to be reflected in one‟s language performance (rhurakvit, 2011; tanck, 2002; umar, 2006). in addition, cultural differences and lack of exposures to the commonly employed pragmatic strategies can be some of the causes of the lack of learners‟ pragmatic competence (prachanant, 2006, pp. 182-183; rhurakvit, 2011, p. 39; azarmi & behnam, 2012, p. 85). cultureis a product of a longitudinal construction of a society in which a language learner is a da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 65 member of, which can present in “the repeated act of speaking . . .”, hence it is always contextual (chaudary, 2004, pp. 56, 57). in other words, different cultures require different strategies in communicating different purposes, though many strategies may be universal or apply across cultures (kramsch, 1998, pp. 17-18; cutting, 2002, pp. 21, 33). that is why adjusting to the culture‟s target language including the pragmatic aspects may create problems for many efl or esl learners, even if it is said that the notion of pragmatic coherence may be shared by speakers of different languages (kramsch, 1998, p. 28). as a matter of fact, lack of pragmatic understanding and failure of applying the pragmatic knowledge may lead to conversational misunderstanding from the hearer‟s point of view as well as frustration from the learners‟ side (kramsch, 1998, pp. 29-30). drawing from the above problems of pragmatic competence among fl learners, the study was aimed at answering the following questions: (1) what are the differences and similarities between the indonesian efl learners complaints in english with those of the english native speakers?, and (2) what is the evidence of pragmatic transfer, if any? it is expected that the result of the study can highlight the need to introduce more various expressions of complaints in various contexts as those are the missing points in the curriculum of english skills in the faculty of education, english department, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia (based on e-mail correspondence with the head of the department, june 27, 2013). literature review a. speech act theory and politeness speech act theory is proposed by austin in 1940s, which was later developed by searle in 1957. itrooted itself from the philosophy of language, i.e. knowing the meaning of language and what the users can do with language. in other words, it is considered to be very crucial to discover and analyze how language has been used to fulfill human beings‟ needs and serve their purposes including the effect of language to the users. thus, language was not viewed as purely symbols or words from which merely descriptive analyses of the sentences and structures can be carried out (o'keeffe, clancy, & adolphs, 2011, p. 84). instead, people have used language to fulfill a number of minor to major functions in humans‟ lives. language actually reflects the interlocutors‟ mind: what they think of, how they perform their propositions and even make others also conduct the propositions and 66 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 intentions of the speakers. to put it another way using language indicates the performance of some actions, hence, the speech act. (cutting, 2002; o'keeffe, clancy, & adolphs, 2011; sbisa, 2009). austin (1962) in his speech act theory suggests that one‟s utterance consists of a locutionary act, an illocutionary act, and a perlocutionary act. the sounds, words, symbols, texts and the meanings that uttered by humans are the locutionary act, whereas what the speakers actually mean with her/his utterance is the illocutionary act. the illocutinary act therefore consists of the utterance and the proposition, which should meet several conditions so that in can be successfully carried out. it is imperative that the proposition and the meaning arecorrectly and completely understood by the hearer so that he can be expected to provide appropriate responses. the perlocutionary act then is the intended act performed by the hearers upon hearing the utterances (cutting, 2002, p. 16; mey, 2001, pp. 94-95; o'keeffe, clancy, & adolphs, 2011, pp. 84-85; sbisa, 2009, pp. 231-232). the speech act is then categorized by searle (1976) into directives, expressives, declarations, representatives and commissives (cutting, 2002, pp. 16-17; mey, 2001, pp. 120-124; o'keeffe, clancy, & adolphs, 2011, pp. 86-87). each type of the speech act is characterized by different performative verbs, hence the classification is the improvement of austin‟s performative verbs. as a speaker asks, requests, or commands a hearer to do some actions, he is performing a directives speech act. when the speaker shows his feeling which is reflected in his utterances, he is presenting the hearer with expressives speech act, and as the speaker gives utterances whose consequence is the alteration of the world, he is committing declarations. hence uttering a representatives speech act, the speaker says his opinion, stance, or belief of the world‟s state of affairs (mey, 2001, pp. 120, 124) , and employing a commissives speech act, the speaker shows that he is ready to do some particular actions in the future. the speech act of complaint for example can be said to represent an expressive speech act because a complaint represents the complainer‟s emotional state, feeling, and or opinion (prykarpatska, 2008, p. 91; azarmi & behnam, 2012, p. 78) the speech act of complaintis an example of the expressive speech act for it represents the complainer‟s emotional state, feeling, and or opinion (prykarpatska, 2008, p. 91; azarmi & behnam, 2012, p. 78). itmay require politeness, whose degree is dependent upon social contexts (brown & levinson, 1992, p. 57). however, speech act may also inherently contain politeness, reflected in the choice of words, intonation, body language, facial da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 67 expressions or gestures (leech, 2005, pp. 5-6). hence, the utterances, through which one performs speech act of complaint, will consist of one‟s effort to express politeness. in that regard, „face‟, or one‟s personal ideal selfrepresentation before the society, should be taken into account. face can be either positive or negative. the former refers to one‟s desire to be respected by others, while the latter is one‟s desire to be free from any inconvenience caused by others. complaints, as well as insults and accusations, can potentially threat the positive face (brown & levinson, 1992, pp. 61, 62, 66) if speakers produce inappropriate utterances, which may relate to improper diction, intonation, and context of efl beginners (olshtain & weinbach, 1993, pp. 120-121). b. pragmatic transfer kasper and blum-kulka (1993) note that distinctive features across cultures have been one of the causes of the inappropriate pragmatic behavior reflected in the speech acts produced by efl learners. if there is no communication breakdown resulting from from the differences, both speakers and interlocutors may expect a positive pragmatic transfer shown across the l1 and l2 cultures. so, the higher the efl learners‟ proficiency is, the more chances they have to create pragmatic transfer because they already possess “. . . control over the english . . . “ to express their intended meaning in their cultures through english (takahashi & beebe, 1993, p. 152). however, when communication problems due to the cultural differences displayed in the pragmatic performances appear, there can be a negative transfer across the different cultures. the negative transfer does not always indicate lack of pragmatics competence, though. a pragmatic transfer illustrates the effect of a speaker‟s l1 linguistic and socio-cultural aspect into the l2 (kasper & blum-kulka, 1993). as cultures are different from one to another, even though some values are shared universally across cultures, it is always possible that not all of the pragmatic aspects in l2 can be easily understood and conveyed in the learners‟ speech act. for example, in a study of refusals performed by three groups: the american english speakers, the american japanese speakers, and the japanese speakers, it was found that the former two groups produced more direct refusals than the last group (kawate-mierzejewska, 2009, p. 203). the findings indicated a pragmatic transfer of the americans who learned japanese as a foreign language. another example was a study of interlanguage pragmatics between korean and english, in which a speaker‟s pragmatic 68 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 transfer may lead to the improper selection of particular lexical items that would cause misinterpretation by the interlocutor (haugh, 2010, pp. 144145). c. previous studies on the speech act of complaint there has been much research on the difference between the pragmatic competence of efl learners and english native speakers. tanck (2002) found that the non-native speakers of english tended to produce inappropriate complaints that may lead to unexpected situations. in addition, the non-native speakers were likely to personalize complaints, which in the american culture can be irksome to the interlocutors. likewise, azarmi & benham (2012) indicated that the intermediate and upper intermediate iranian efl learners did not perform appropriate complaints: they preferred direct and explicit complaints without considering the fta strategies. in the case of complaining to someone having higher position, they did not regard power and social distance in fta strategy realization because of cultural differences, absence of pragmatic transfer & limited linguistic and socio-pragmatic competence. similarly, umar (2006) noted that the speech act produced by the sudanese students was very distinctive from that performed by the british, which was the result of cultural differences between the british and the sudanese and the low level of the sudanese pragmatic competence. furthermore, prykarpatska (2008) showed that the complaint strategies of the ukrainians were more various, and could be put in a continuum. at one end was the least offensive complaint, and on the other end to the most severe complaint. the (aes) preferred indirect strategies. ukrainians also opted for more direct and spontaneous complaints than those performed by the aes. with regard to the components of complaints, rinnert, nogami, and iwai (2006) discovered several components of complaints, i.e. main components (comprising initiators, complaints, and requests), level of directness (indirect, somewhat direct, and very direct) and amount of mitigation. they found that with regard to the level of directness, the japanese efl learners showed higher levels of directness in comparison to the less fluent japanese students and the english native speakers in both situations. the english native speakers showed low level of directness. in addition, the native speakers of english preferred the indirect complaints with a considerable amount of mitigations. on the other hand, the jefl learners viewed direct requests to be more effective. rhurakvit (2011) found da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 69 that the thai english learners in thailand seemed to have similar complaint patterns to the native thai speakers, whereas thai english learners in the uk performed the complaint patterns which tended to be similar to the english native speakers. another finding was that both groups of english learners in thailand and uk did not use downgraders appropriately from the point of view of the english native speakers. the study implied that in terms of efl learning, students must be also taught the sociopragmatic aspects of english which would enable them to produce daily utterances the closest possible to the ones produced by the native speakers. the earlier studies have shown that pragmatic competence is a problematic for efl learners. none of the above research raised the pragmatic competence of indonesian efl learnersand indonesian efl teachers in comparison to that of the english native speakers, hence the focus of the present study. methodology to collect the data i used the non-attested data since i want to get a clear picture on the subjects‟ pragmatic competence (bednarek, 2011, p. 540). hence, the study employed the discourse completion tasks or discourse completion tests (dcts) (tanck, 2002;rinnert, nogami, & iwai, 2006; umar, 2006; o'keeffe, a., clancy, b., and adolphs, s., 2011)which were distributed to indonesian efl teachers, indonesian efl students and american native-speaker teachers, who were selected based on convenient sampling. there were fourteen efl students(henceforth the ies) of the faculty of education, english department, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, ten indonesian efl lecturers(henceforth the iel), of the same universityone teacher of lia language course, and eight american english native speaking teachers of the regional english language office, jakarta (henceforth the ans) participating the study. the dct, consisting of four situations, two of which were distractors (vide appendix 1) was analyzed using the components of complaints by rinnert, nogami & iwai (2006). i am curious as to whether the ies and iel would behave similarly or differentlyfrom the japanese subjects in the study by rinnert, nogami & iwai, bearing in mind there are some cultural similarities between the indonesians and the japanese such as respect and politeness to the older generation, and indirectness in speech acts that would potentially threaten the face of the hearers,. the two distractors were taken 70 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 from tanck (2002, pp. 20, 21), while the other two situations requested the subjects to produce complaints to an interlocutor of the same age in a queue (umar, 2006, p. 36), and to a teacher about a low grade (park, 2001, p. 190). the pragmatic transfer analysis was based on kasper and blum-kulka‟s notion of pragmatic transfer (1993). in addition to the dct, i had an informed consent and demographic survey (vide appendix 1)in order to get the subjects‟ ages, genders, occupations, and language backgrounds. also, i interviewed fiveies to confirm several ambiguous lexical items that may provide several meanings. results in this section, i present my findings according to the situations for which the speech act of complaint was required. i will start by describing the third situation, followed by elucidating the fourth situation. situation 1: you need to buy a ticket to travel to a nearby city to visit your family over the weekend. you go to the ticket office at the train station and you have to wait in a long line to get a ticket. the tickets are almost sold out. you have been waiting there for more than an hour. while you are standing in line, someone about your age, tries to cut in line in front of you. what would you say to him/her? the data showedthat there are some differences and similarities in terms of the following points: (1) lexical items used in initiators, (2) level of directness, (3) mitigation and (4) patterns of complaints. in terms of initiators, while around half of the ies used sorry, the indonesian efl teachers (55%) and the ans (75%) preferredexcuse me (vide table 1). thus, both the iet and the ans would rather use excuse me than any other openings. yet, the iet (27%) and ies (14%) used one word: hey, that was not chosen by the ans. for the ies the word sorryfunctionedto mitigate their complaints (hau, 2013) (karina, 2013) (rosalina, 2013). another purpose was to express politeness (karina, 2013), and as an attention getter (hau, 2013). interestingly, one student admitted that she used sorry to remind the interlocutor that what he did (jumping the line) was not appropriate da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 71 (purwanti, 2013). the same student, who is a javanese, also employed eh, which functions as warm greeting, which was part of her culture (purwanti, 2013) (cf. kawate-mierzejewska, 2009, p. 203; haugh, 2010, pp. 144-145). another lexical item that attracted my attention was hey, that was used by both indonesian students and teachers. the interviews revealed that the lexical item heywas used for these reasons: (1) as an attention getter, (2) and to show a distant relationship with the interlocutor (karina, 2013); (purwanti, 2013). the ans didnot use hey at all, which might indicate that politeness was still maintained even when complaining to a stranger whohadcaused some inconvenience. with regards to the level of directness, the ies (93%) and iet (73%) opted for a very direct complaint in which there was an explicit mention of offense or inconvenience the interlocutor hadcaused the speaker, and the interlocutor‟s responsibility to redress the situation (cf. rinnert, nogami & iwai, 2006, p. 39), while the ans used“somewhat direct” complaints (88%) in which the speaker told the interlocutor about his wrong doing, but does not ask the interlocutor to improve the situation (vide table 1). employing very direct level of complaint, the ies and the iet did not seem to save both the positive and negative faces of their interlocutors (mey, 2001, pp. 74-75) and might potentially lead to a negative pragmatic transfer (kasper & blum-kulka, 1993; takahashi & beebe, 1993). the interviews with the ies presented some important points: the directness was a projection of their unhappy feelingsand disagreement with the interlocutor‟s action, and or an attempt to have an effective complaint, i.e. the interlocutor knows that his behavior was inappropriate and would immediately redress the situation (gabriella 2013; hau, 2013; rosalina 2013). despite their reasons, direct complaints may lead to a conflict between the subjects and their interlocutors (cf. tanck, 2002, pp. 7-8; prykarpatska, 2008, p. 94), especially when the complaint was compared to the ans who employed somewhat direct complaint, the decision of which may be due to the politeness. one student, however, said that she performed an indirect complaint because she wantedher interlocutor to infer her complaint, the decision of which was influenced by her javanese culture (purwanti, 2013), which could indicate a positive pragmatic transfer from javanese to english. all groups used mitigation constantly, regardless of the level of directness. the ies liked to use sorry and please (50%, respectively) better than could, better, and thank you, which do not support similar research. forty72 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 five percent of the iet, on the other hand, preferredplease. meanwhile, the ans didnot show strong preference for one or two particular words. instead, they used various lexemes like sorry, would, guess, think and other forms, i.e. rhetorical questions. the patterns of complaints used by the three groups weresomewhat different (vide table 2). forty-three percent of the ies used i+c+r. another 43% used i+r, the pattern which is not selected by the ans. meanwhile,more than half of the iet (64%) apply i+r, which seems to reflect their politeness. finally, 75% of the ans made use of i+c. thus, both the iet and the ans prefer one pattern to the others. the frequent use of initiators by the three groups shows an awareness of face-saving strategies regardless of the different cultures (leech, 2005; murphy & neu, 2005). situation 2: you received your final grades. you were shocked that professor andrea smith gave you a c. her class was one of your favorites and you studied very hard. you got an a on your report, so you don't understand why your final grade was so low. you knock on the door of her office. you say . . . in a different situation where subjects had to make complaints to their teacher, the ies and iet show similar ways in initiating a conversation (vide table 3). more than eighty percent of the two groups employaddress terms like ma’am, professor or sir, that are accompanied by opening expressions like would like or want to, which is contrary to what rinnert, nogami & iwai (2006) found. thus, the ies‟ and iet‟s constant use of the above address terms shows that there is a pragmatic transfer (kasper & blum-kulka, 1993, pp. 10-11;takahashi & beebe, 1993, p. 152; cf. kawate-mierzejewska, 2009, p. 203). indonesians value seniority highly, hence rarely do indonesians address their teachers or older acquaintances by merely their names. instead, they used address terms such as bapak for male, ibu for female. on the other hand, only half of the ans use the same address term. they also used hi or hello, the items of which are not used at all by ies and the iet. besides, the ans used chunk like how are you, which is not chosen by both the ies and iet. with reference to the level of directness, the three groups do not show any strong preference of level of directness. the ies do not show a strong preference for one particular style. less than half of the students (43%) performvery direct complaints; the rest are divided into those employing da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 73 „somewhat direct‟ complaints (29%) and indirect complaints (29%). on the other hand, more than half of the iet (55%) employ indirect complaints, and the rest (45%) very direct complaints. interestingly, 38% of the ans chose very direct complaints, 38% indirect complaints, and 25% somewhat direct complaints. it can be seen that in general, the subjects seem to avoid using very direct complaints when power and social distance are involved (cf. behnam & niroomand, 2011, p. 211). with regards to the lexical items used in the mitigation, 43% of the ies uswould, 21% could, and 14% sorry. meanwhile, 36% of the iet employed may, 27% would, and 27% could. hence, the frequent use of mitigation as well as the appropriate address terms by both ies and iet indicate a positive pragmatic transfer (kasper & blum-kulka, 1993, pp. 1011), which is opposed to rinnert, nogami & iwai‟s findings (2006). the ans also employwould (50%) as well as just (38%) and wonder (38%). besides, they have other expressions like a little, feel like, well, great to mitigate their complaints. the ans‟ use of more various expressions show the dynamicity and fluidity of language use, which indonesian subjects lack. the ies do not seem to have a preference for one pattern (vide table 4); 36% of the students used i+r, 29% i+c, and 21% only i. on the other hand, over half of the iet choose one particular pattern, i.e. i or initiators. the rest used i+c+r. the ans‟choice is almost similar to that of the iet. the ans also used i (38%), and i+c+r (38%). in addition, they employ another pattern: i+r (25%). the three groups had different patterns for the two situations. while the ies prefer i+c+r, and i+r (43%, respectively) for situation 3, they opt for i+r (36%) for situation 4. meanwhile, iet mostly prefer i+r for situation 3 (64%), but use i only (73%) for situation 4. the ans also have a tendency for using different patterns: 75% of them preferred i+c for situation 3. however, they do not show a strong tendency for the other situation: they either employ i (38%), i+c+r (38%), and i+r (25%). the differences, i believe, are relevant to the contextual differences reflected in the two situations, particularly concerning the power and social distance between the speakers and their interlocutors (cf. behnam & niroomand, 2011, p. 211), which does not support rinnert, nogami and iwai‟s findings (2006). 74 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 conclusion to this point, i have presented how the ies, the iet and the ans performed the english pragmatic competence through the speech act of complaints. due to cultural aspects and exposures to the english pragmatic competence, there have been several differences and similarities performed by the indonesiansubjects and the ans. in a situation that involved no power and social status between the speakers and their interlocutors, the two groups had different preferences for the different lexical items used in the initiators and mitigation. in addition, both the iet and ies tended to be more direct or explicit to a stranger of their age than the native speakers did (cf. abdolrezapour, dabaghi, & kassaian, 2012; prykarpatska, 2008;) indicating the unawareness of the facesaving strategies which may potentially lead to a negative pragmatic transfer. also, while the iet favored initiators + requests, and the americans initiators + complaints, the ies did not show a preference for one pattern of complaint over the other patterns. that may be an indication of the ies‟ lack of pragmatic awareness in conversation (cf. rinnert, nogami & iwai, 2006), which should be the attention of the syllabus maker (celce-murcia, 2007) the similarities appeared in the situation where power and social status were taken into account, i.e. teachersor older people are considered to have more power and higher social status than students do (cf. azarmi & behnam, 2012; prykarpatska, 2008). all groups evidently did not strong preference for very direct complaintwhich did not support findings of rinnert, nogami & iwai (2006) in which the student subjects performed very direct complaints to their teachers. besides, they used more mitigation, and employed it constantly, which was also contrary to the study by rinnert, nogami & iwai (2006) in which the japanese students used fewer mitigation when complaining to their teacher. finally, looking at the use of address terms and regular mitigation, i can conclude that there was a positive pragmatic transfer from indonesian to english. due to the limitations of the study, particularly concerning the sampling and validation of the dct result, a further study covering more number of subjects with in-depth interviews should be conducted in the future. da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 75 references azarmi, a., & behnam, b. (2012, february). the pragmatic knowledge of iranian efl learners in using face keeping strategies in reaction to complaints at two different levels. english language teacher, 5(2), pp. 78-92. bednarek, m. (2011). approaching the data of pragmatics. in w. bublitz, & n. norrick, foundations of pragmatics (handbooks of pragmatics 1). berlin: mouton de gruyter, pp. 537-559. behnam, b., & niroomand, m. (2011). an investigation of iranian efl learners' use of politeness strategies and power relations in disagreement across difference proficiency levels. english language teaching, 4 (4), pp. 204-220. brown, p., & levinson, s. c. (1992). politeness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press. canale, m., & swain, m. (1980). theoretical bases of communicatibve approaches to second language teaching and testing. applied linguistics, 1, pp. 1-47. celce-murcia, m. (2007). rethinking the role of communicative competence in language teaching. in e. a. soler, & m. p. jorda, intercultural language use and language learning. berlin: springer, pp. 41-57 chaudary, n. (2004). listening to culture: constructing reality from everyday talk. new delhi: sage. cutting, j. (2002). pragmatics and discourse: a resource book for students. new york: routledge. gabriella, f. (2013, june 14). amount of mitigation and level of directness. (a. m. da silva, interviewer) hau, a. f. (2013, june 12). amount of mitigation and level of directness. (a. m. da silva, interviewer) haugh, m. (2010). intercultural (im)politeness and the micro-macro issue. in a. trosborg, pragmatics across languages and cultures. berlin: de gruyter mouton, pp. 139-166. 76 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 hymes, d. (2001). on communicative competence. in a. duranti, linguistic anthropology. oxford: blackwell, pp. 53-73. karina, f. (2013, june 14). amount of mitigation and level of directness. (a. m. da silva, interviewer) kasper, g., & blum-kulka, s. (1993). interlanguage pragmatics: an introduction. in g. kasper, & s. blum-kulka, interlanguage pragmatics. new york: oxford, pp. 3-20. kawate-mierzejewska, m. (2009). refusals in japanese telephone conversation. in n. taguchi, pragmatic competence. berlin: mouton de gruyter, pp. 199-226. kramsch, c. (1998). language and culture. oxford: oxford. leech, g. (2005). politeness: is there an east-west divide? journal of foreign languages, pp. 1-30. mey, j. l. (2001). pragmatics: an introduction (2nd ed.). massachusetts: blackwell. mofidi, m., & shoustari, z. g. (2012). a comparative study of the complaint strategies among iranian efl and esl students the study of the effect of the length of residence and the amount of contact. english language teaching, 5 (11), pp. 118-124. murphy, b., & neu, j. (1995). my grade's too low: the speech act set of complaining. in s. m. gass, & j. neu, speech act across cultures. berlin: mouton de gruyter, pp. 191-216. o'keeffe, a., clancy, b., and adolphs, s. (2011). introducing pragmatics in use. abingdon: routledge. olshtain, e., & weinbach, l. (1993). interlanguage features of the speech act of complaining. in g. kasper, & s. blum-kulka, interlanguage pragmatics. new york: oxford. pp. 108-137. park, j. (2001). korean efl learners' politeness strategies in their complaints. the linguistic association of korea journal, 9 (1), pp. 185209. da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 77 prachanant, n. (2006). pragmatic transfer in responses to complaints by thai efl learners in the hotel business. suranaree: suranaree university of technology. prykarpatska, i. (2008). why are you late? cross-cultural pragmatic study of complaints in american english and ukrainian. revista alicantina de estudios ingleses, 21, pp. 87-102. purwanti, i. s. (2013, june 14). amount of mitigation and level of directness. (a. m. da silva, interviewer) rhurakvit, m. (2011, december). complaints in thai and english: an interlanguage pragmatic study. london: university of london. rinnert, c., nogami, y., & iwai, c. (2006). preferred complaint strategies in japanese and english. 5th annual jalt pan-sig conference. shizuoka: tokai university college of marine science. pp. 32-47. rosalina, f. m. (2013, june 12). amount of mitigation and level of directness. (a. m. da silva, interviewer) sbisa, m. (2009). speech act theory. in j. verschueren, & o. jan-ola, key notions for pragmatics. amsterdam: john benjamins, pp. 228-244. takahashi, t., & beebe, l. m. (1993). cross-linguistic influence in the speech act of correction. in g. kasper, & s. blum-kulka, interlanguage pragmatics. new york: oxford, pp. 138-158. tanck, s. (2002). speech act sets of refusal and complaint: a comparison of native and non-native english speakers' production. paper, american university, department of tesl, washington d.c. umar, a. m.-t. (2006, july). the speech act as realized by advanced sudanese learners of english. umm al-qura university journal of education & social sciences & humanities, 18 (2), pp. 8-38. 78 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 appendices: table 1: components of complaints to a stranger in a queue components of complaints subjects initiators ies iet ans n=14 n=11 n=8 sorry 50% 18% 13% excuse me 29% 55% 75% hey 14% 27% 0% hi 0% 0% 13% dude 0% 0% 13% directness very direct 93% 73% 13% somewhat direct 7% 9% 88% indirect 0% 18% 0% mitigation sorry 50% 9% 13% could 21% 0% 0% please 50% 45% 0% better 14% 0% 0% thank you 14% 0% 0% would 0% 9% 13% guess 0% 9% 13% think 0% 0% 13% others 0% 0% 25% table 2: patterns of complaints in a queue patterns of complaints subjects ies iel ans n=14 n=11 n=8 initiators + complaints + requests (i+c+r) 43% 9% 13% initiators + complaints (i+c) 7% 27% 75% da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 79 initiators + requests (i+r) 43% 64% 0% complaints + requests (c=r) 7% 0% 0% complaints ( c ) 0% 0% 13% table 3: components of complaints about a low grade to a teacher components of complaints subjects initiators ies iel ans n=14 n=11 n=8 good morning/afternoon 29% 36% 13% ma'am/sir/prof 86% 82% 50% would like/want to 64% 55% 63% may i/can i/could i? 21% 36% 0% sorry 7% 0% 13% excuse me 29% 55% 0% do you have time/a minute?/ 14% 0% 25% are you busy?/am i interrupting you? i need to / i come to . . . 0% 18% 0% hi/hello 0% 0% 75% how are you? 0% 0% 25% i was wondering . . . 0% 0% 13% direct very direct 43% 45% 38% somewhat direct 29% 0% 25% indirect 29% 55% 38% mitigation sorry 14% 9% 13% could 21% 27% 13% please 7% 0% 0% thank you 7% 9% 0% would 43% 27% 50% think 7% 0% 0% just 7% 9% 38% wonder 7% 9% 38% may 7% 36% 0% others 14% 9% 75% 80 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 63-81 table 4: patterns of complaints to a teacher patterns of complaints subjects ies iel ans n=14 n=11 n=8 initiators + complaints + requests (i+c+r) 14% 27% 38% initiators + complaints (i+c) 29% 0% 0% initiators + requests (i+r) 36% 0% 25% complaints + requests (c+r) 0% 0% 0% complaints (c ) 0% 0% 0% initiators (i) 21% 73% 38% part 1: discourse completion test directions: please write your response in the blank area. do not spend a lot of time thinking about what answeryou should provide; instead, please respond as naturally as possible and write your response as you feel you would say it in the situation. 1. a classmate that you have known for a couple of years stops by your desk at the library and invites you to lunch. you want to leave school early today, so you would rather work through lunch to get ahead on your project. classmate: “hi. how have you been? hey, do you want to go to the cafeteria and get a bite to eat?” you: ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 2. you are working on a group project with three other students. your group is having a discussion with your professor late friday afternoon. it is 5:30pm. you are planning to pick up a friend at the airport immediately after the meeting and must leave the university within 15 minutes. da silva, a.m., analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers 81 professor: “hey, it’s getting late. why don’t we all go down to the cafeteria? we can finish up there while we eat dinner.” you: ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3. you need to buy a ticket to travel to a nearby city to visit your family over the weekend. you go to the ticket office at the train station and you have to wait in a long line to get a ticket. the tickets are almost sold out. you have been waiting there for more than an hour. while you are standing in line, someone about your age, tries to cut in line in front of you. what would you say to him/her? you: ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 4. you received your final grades. you were shocked that professor andrea smith gave you a c. her class was one of your favorites and you studied very hard. you got an a on your report, so you don't understand why your final grade was so low. you knock on the door of her office. professor: “come in!” you: ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ part 2. demographic information 1. age and gender: 2. nationality: 3. occupation: 4. educational background: 5. first language: thank you ' .. '-"", t~'" optimizing comprehensmle input ~ second language classroom heny hartono i abstract: english teachers who leach e"glish as second la"guage with ill aforeign language context such as in iirdonesia should realize that the goal oflhe english teaching is not only 'knowing' the language but the acquisition ofthatlallguage. in order to allow lhe acquisition lake place in the classroom learning sellillg, comprehensible illput should be provided. as suggested by krashen, l2 learners gain the comprehensible inpulthrough whalthey read and w'hal the)' listen. have english teachers ill liujonesia provided their sludents such comprehellsible illput ? this paper,is inviting eilglish teachers to lrave a self-reflection towards this question. key words : acquisition. classroom leamillg selling, comprehensible ii/put learning and acquisition one factor which contributes to the success of a second language acquisition is the environment to which l2 learners are exposed in their way of the target language mastery. thus l21earners who live in the target language country have greater chance to expose the language through the supportive environment those learners have more chances to contact and communicate with native speakers which means they have greater chance to practice and learn than l2 learners who live in a foreign language context. i. heny hartono, ss. is a lecturer of the faculty of letters, soegijapmnata catholic university, ~emarang, who is currently studying in semarang slate university for her m.a. in applied linguistics. 41 •. ceit, volume 2, number i. july 2002: 34 41 ""e~tore'lhe comprehensible input itself still offers some opportunities to . ae _~te~ ·through various perspectives. consequently, how to optimize . eompreflensible input will also depend on the way comprehensible input is viewed. anyhow, what is important for english teachers is teacher's awareness to put acquisition as the goal of l2 learning. the target of a language learning is not just 'knowing' about the language but the acquisition of that language. have english teachers in indonesia started to think about this idea ., it seems that we need to have a self-reflection to answer this question. omliography chaudron, craig. second language classrooms. research on teachi"g mid learning. england: cambljdge university press, 1993. croft. kenneth. readings on english as a seco"d language. usa: lillie, brown and company. 1980. ellis, rod. instructed second language acquisition lean,;ng in the classroom. usa: basil blackwell inc., 1990. ellis. rod. understanding second language acquisition. 1989. england: oxford university press. 1989. harmer, jeremy. how 10 teach english a" introductioll to the practice 0/ english language teaching. malaysia: longman. malaysia, 1998. klein. wolfgang. second language acquistiol'. england: cambridge university press, 1990. krashen. stephen o. principles and praclice ill second language acquisition. britain: prentice hallintemational. 1987. mclaughlin. barry. theories o/second language learning. england: routledge, 1989. nation, paul. managing vocabulary learning. singapore: seameo regional language center. 2002. pasaribu, baharuddin. the use o/bahasa indonesia in the el..tclassroom. teflin ~icles, 2001. tang, nnlan. using li in the english classroom. forum. january 2002. logo: 3 ������ �.� �� ���� ���� ��� ���� ������ ��-��������� �,� ��� ���� � ������ ����� �3� ���� ���,� ����@������������� ������ ��3� � ��'�����������(0������������� ��s��#����0 ����� ����������s������ ����� ���� ��������������������&?l!���� ����������������� � � �"#$��%$&� %���� ������ #��� ���������� #���� ���� �'/���� ��� ��� �������� ���� #������� ��� ���� ���� ��������� ��������� ��������� f�������� ���� )������$��������g� �� ������� '�� ���� ������������ ��������l�h���#�������������������������������������� ��#���� ������������(����������� ��� �������������������������i�������� c���������������� ��������.������������������#������������� ������� 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����� �="����e�c��������� ������������������%������� � ��'�����������h�=�������������� �+28>@, �*��� ��"� ���(�"�#���������������� �� ����� ���������������������� �$��'�����e�$��'��������� �������&���� �� ��������� %���������� � +055>, � *����� ��� � ��� ����� ��� � %�������� 20� =���'��� 0525 � =�� #�'����� ����eqq����'�������� '������� ���q� 0525q25q&���������s�������� ���� �.����������� ���3 �� ��0522 � ��������h���#��� ��+0557, ��3���� ���"���*����� ��������� ��� �%�������������� �����������������������������q=����0557�������������%����x����������� ������ � ���� � �����e� yb���.���.�$��������� �������� y� .�������� ��� .������d5 ��� �0520 � &����������������h�=�����-������������� �+28>3, �� �������� �&�������e�1��� c�������&���� !��� heavenly tears – earthly loss: different ways of coping with life loss in tears in heaven, circus, and since i lost you akun akun@binus.edu english department, faculty of humanities, binus university abstract: this is a qualitative study of three pop songs rooted from the same tragic event of eric clapton‟s son conor who fell from the 53rd floor of his spouse‟s new york apartment in march 1991. two songs are from clapton himself i.e. tears in heaven and circus and one song from his friend phil collins entitled since i lost you. the goal of this study is to elaborate the attitude of the author through the study of formal aspects of the song such as rhyme, rhythm, tone and picth and also the metaphorical expressions in their wording. this is a library research of the three songs using a comparative technique of elaboration. the study concludes that phil collins as a friend who is not directly involved in the tragedy shows his sympathy through a negative and hopeless way of seeing the tragedy. he focuses more on the tragedy directly rather than the impact, psychologial process and lessons learned afterward. eric clapton, on the other hand, as the one who directly suffers the impact of the tragedy sees the tragic event from a more positive angle. he tries to somehow show his grief but does not want to be drifted away in this sorrow. he focuses more on the process after the tragedy—by remembering the sweet moment before the tragedy (in circus) and imagine the same sweet thing after the tragedy (in tears in heaven) by setting an emotional spin around the good memory and nice after life state of the child with sweet hopes and strengthening consolation. key words: comparative study, pop songs, attitude, eric clapton, phil collins mailto:akun@binus.edu 2 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp 1-15 abstrak: ini adalah kajian kualitatif terhadap tiga lagu pop yang berakar dari latar peristiwa tragis yang sama yakni tragedi anak lakilaki erik clapton yang bernama conor yang terjatuh dari lantai 53 apartemen istrinya di new york pada bulan maret 1991. dua lagu diciptakan oleh clapton sendiri yaitu tears in heaven dan circus dan satu lagu lagi dari sahabatnya phil collins yang berjudul since i lost you. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengelaborasi sikap sang pengarang melalui kajian terhadap aspek formal lagu seperti rima, ritme, nada sikap dan intonasi serta ekspresi metaforis dalam kata-katanya. ini adalah kajian pustaka dari tiga lagu tersebut dengan menerapkan teknik elaborasi komparatif. kajian ini menyimpulkan bahwa phil collins sebagai seorang sahabat yang tidak secara langsung terlibat dalam tragedi ini memperlihatkan simpatinya melalui sudut pandang yang negatif dan tanpa harapan dalam menyikapi peristiwa tragis itu. ia lebih banyak memusatkan perhatiannya langsung pada tragedinya daripada pada dampak dari tragedi itu, proses psikologis yang terjadi dan pelajaran berharga sesudahnya. sebaliknya, eric clapton, sebagai orang yang secara langsung menderita akibat tragedi tersebut justru memandang peristiwa itu dari sudut pandang yang lebih positif. ia berusaha untuk memperlihatkan duka citanya yang mendalam, namun tidak ingin terhanyut dalam penderitaannya. ia lebih memusatkan perhatiannya pada proses sesudah tragedi itu—dengan mengenang saat-saat indah sebelum peristiwa itu (dalam circus) dan membayangkan momen indah yang sama sesudah tragedi itu (dalam tears in heaven) dengan cara mengangkat gejolak emosi di seputar kenangan indah dan baik dari kondisi kehidupan sang anak setelah kehidupan dunia ini dengan harapan-harapan indah dan penghiburan yang menguatkan. kata kunci: kajian komparatif, lagu pop, sikap, eric clapton, phil collins introduction song, just like any other literary or art expressions, is a strong medium to communicate something internal to the external world. song lyric is normally poetic, having so much in common with poetry characteristics such as“acute perceptions, vivid impressions, compressed language, the musically rhythmic use of language, a heightened sense of attentiveness, and an overall intensification coupled with intensity of detail. poetry is singing thought” (drury, 2006, p. 216). through the lines, a song writer pours both consciously and unconsciously necessary emotions, feelings, experiences, akun, heavenly tears early loss: different ways of coping with lifeloss 3 hopes and other life intricacies, including attitudes in getting over a great loss of someone dear. the expressions can be put across by the one directly involved as a tragedy or someone close as sympathy. but, the tone and can be shockingly different or even inversely anticipated as the following discussion on eric clapton and phil collins‟ songs reveals. this can be easily traced from the tone of the song. just like common responses to a tragic situation, a person may have his or her expressed attitude toward the tragedy, and this is literarily called the tone in literature. it is the attitude of the author toward the subject or theme of his or her creation. in poetry, specifically tone is, the emotional spin a poet puts on his words; the edge or attitude in the voice of the poem. when we talk to someone, we can hear his tone of voice—how he says something. sometimes we can even see it (tongue in cheek, for example). in a poem, tone is the coloration of the words, their shading, their warmth or coolness—as in painting. it is also how they sound, their pitch (high or low), harmony (sweet or shrill), and volume (loud or soft)—as in music. (drury, 2006, p. 322) there are three songs written in connection to the death of eric clapton‟s son conor: tears in heaven, circus, and since i lost you. the first two songs were written by clapton himself in collaboration with will jennings and mick jones while the last song was written by phil collins, mike rutherford, and tony banks. the three songs will be compared as to give better understanding of the tragic reality in the light of understanding that “comparing and contrasting are also natural ways to describe our responses to poetry” (madden, 2002, p. 31). damono has even emphasized that comparing is actually done in any research, but in comparative literature, this is the main step or method (damono, 2009, p. 1). further, this is also due to the fact that in addition to the previous explanationsone way of comprehending literary works as stated by mathew arnold which is still relevant in this context of discussion is to see the relation of one piece of work to others. arnold plainly put it as follows: “everywhere there is connection, everywhere there illustration. no single event, no single literature is adequately comprehended except in relation to other events, to other literatures” cited in (bassnett, 1993, p. 1). it is clear therefore that merely studying one event in one piece of literary work without associating it to other contexts or perceptions is never satisfactory. it does not mean that the singled way of comprehending a literary work is not worth doing or not advantageous; it is just not enough to understand fully the possibilities of responses on the intricate life as the source of all literary expressions. this 4 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp 1-15 study does not somehow claim to be more accurate, but just to provide those possibilities of different reactions toward a single event so that the event can be better comprehended. this constitutes the basic idea of comparing the different responses through the three songs, to see the diverse responses away from the oneness and to see the oneness beyond the diversity, as francois jost has emphasized as follows, often, however, great writers and critics have recogniozed that diversity means wealth and that variety is the spice of intellectual life. it is necessary, they have concluded, to study several national literatures in order to become aware of the spendid multiformity of european and even universal letters, and, at the same time, to see their oneness and unity beyond all appearances. the discipline that today is called comparative literature is based on this reflection. (jost, 1974, p. 9) beyond the one and same source of tragedy, clapton and collins have responded quite differently toward this very tragedy. but again, this is the wealth of life when diversity is accepted as richness in comprehending one single event. further, claudio guillen as quoted by juliati, “sugests three focuses of comparison: the authors and the process of writing, the socialhistorical background of the writings, and the discernible problems in the works” (juliati, 2006, p. 84). it is obvious that there are three possible focuses in a comparative literary study i.e. the author‟s creative writing process, the context of the work and the issues addressed in the work. the first and the second will be then the focus of this study. it is mostly undeniable that one can channel any repressed traumatic past event into a certain medium of expression, and clapton as a singer and song writer did it by pouring his grief, solace, and ideas into a song. the following website explains about the background of the song, in addition to information on who clapton was working with in creating the work: eric clapton wrote this about his 4-year-old son conor, who died when he fell out of a 53rd floor window in the apartment where his mother was staying in new york city… clapton wrote this with will jennings, who has written many famous songs from movies, including "up where we belong" from an officer and a gentleman and "my heart will go on" from titanic. jennings wrote the lyrics to many of steve winwood's hits and has also written with b.b. king, roy orbison, the crusaders, peter wolf and many others. (wiser, 2006) akun, heavenly tears early loss: different ways of coping with lifeloss 5 in case of tears in heaven, clapton had will jennings do it — admiring and believing jennings can best interpret his yearning — though the basic ideas all came from him. the tragedy happened in march 1991 and clapton was adversely affected by the tragedy, and then consciously showed his intention to put his feelings, emotions and expectations into the song entitled tears in heaven. he said, “i want to write a song about my boy”. will jennings saw this as something so personal and he completely could sense the sensitivity of the situation. the context for the creative process of writing the song and its background can clearly be traced in the following testimony from jennings: “eric had the first verse of the song written, which, to me, is all the song, but he wanted me to write the rest of the verse lines and the release ('time can bring you down, time can bend your knees...'), even though i told him that it was so personal he should write everything himself. he told me that he had admired the work i did with steve winwood and finally there was nothing else but do to as he requested, despite the sensitivity of the subject. this is a song so personal and so sad that it is unique in my experience of writing songs.” (wiser, 2006) further, circus has similar background. clapton expressed himself as a way to cope with the hard time—he even called it therapy—by writing about the nice day he spent with his son conor just one day before the accident. the day was so meaningful as clapton learned thegrace to be a real father despite the fact that he had been ignorant and reluctant as told by clapton‟s ex-spouse lory del santo (clapton, 2007) about his son‟s existence when he was alive for years. clapton confessed it in 1998 bbc interview, “the last night i spent with conor, we went to the circus. we went to see one of those huge things that they do in america where they have three rings going on at the same time. you've got clowns and tigers and everything. they don't do anything in half measures. they just pile it all in. plus, they‟re trying to sell you things at the same time. i mean it was an amazing thing. after the show, we were driving back to new york and all he could remember, all he could talk about was this clown. he'd seen a clown with a knife, which i didn't see at all. some clown was running around brandishing a knife, which was something quite frightening but he liked it — i mean it excited him. and so that is in the lyrics. but, and i suppose what i was doing, i was 6 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp 1-15 remembering, i mean paying tribute to this night with him and also seeing him as being the circus of my life. you know that particular part of my life has now left town.” (eric, 1998) the vivid description of what happened during their visit to the circus has later colored the lyric of the song where clapton has tried to remember, even as tribute to his life, the momental togetherness as he metaphorically called the moment with the son as the “circus” of his life. phil collins as a friend of clapton showed his deep sympathy by writing and singing a song as well: “while on its surface this sounds like just another lament for a love lost, phil collins actually wrote it in response to the accidental death of the 4-year-old son of his longtime friend and occasional musical collaborator eric clapton” (songfacts, 1991). the following parts of the article detail the goal, methodology, discussion and conclusion of the study. the goal of this study is to reveal the attitudes shown by the personas as a way of dealing with hard time, especially in understanding and coping with the death of a beloved child from a father and a friend. this goal is achieved through the study of the song formal aspects i.e. rhyme, rhythm, pitch, tone, and the metaphors used in the songs. further, the idea of comparing is also closely connected to metaphor because metaphor is “a comparison that likens two different things by identifying one as the other... unlike simile, methaphor does not use linking words („like‟, „as‟,‟such as‟) to indicate similarity between two otherwise things... metaphor, however, is also the general term for any comparison, including simile, metaphor, coceit, and analogy” (drury, 2006, p. 168). therefore, the study of metaphors in the songs is considered helpful in revealing the attitudes of the personas. in addition, oxymoron methaphor is another focus. oxymoron is “an expression that combines opposite, contradictory qualities, seemingly nonsensical but capturing some psychological or emotional extreme ambivalence. romeo‟s complaint to benvolio in act i, scene i of romeo and juliet is a good example: „feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!‟” (drury, 2006, p. 206). the repressed emotions toward the loss can thus be traced through this use of oxymoronic methaphor. akun, heavenly tears early loss: different ways of coping with lifeloss 7 methodology this is a comparative study of three pop songs rooted from the same source of inspiration—the tragic death of a child. the theories on comparative literature will be applied in discussing the points of comparison. library research is employed in searching for background data around the incident and responses from eric clapton, his family, and friends. after the data are gathered, the three songs themselves are analyzed as to elaborate the similarities and differences by detailing the attitude of the author through the study of formal aspects of the song such as rhyme, rhythm, tone and picth that become the aim of this study. metaphors—including oxymoronic metaphor—used by the song writers will also be analyzed to disclose the attitudes of the personas. discussion thecomparative discussion of the songs is divided into three parts: the surface form (rhyme and rhythm) of the songs, the metaphorical expressions used by the song writers,and the attitudes of the personas. the analyses below start with phil collins‟ since i lost you and then move on to clapton‟s tears in heaven and circus. firstly, collins‟ since i lost you utilizes high pitch (typically matched to collins‟ voice) with a rather quick rhythm, giving the impression of mourning and regret. the regular booming of the soft rocking rhythm really gives the nuance of grief and sadness, especially when it is associated with the title since i lost you—the loss must have been so heartbreaking. the interlude electric guitar is also roaring to strenthen the idea of mourning the loss. this great loss is emphasized many times through the repetition of the stanza consisting of the following expression (lines 5-7, 14): cos my heart is broken in pieces yes my heart is broken in pieces since you've been gone .. since i‟ve. lost you (banks, collins, & rutherfort, 1991) even the sentence “cos my heart is broken in pieces” is repeated 10 times, stressing the idea of how great is the impact of the loss. 8 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp 1-15 then we have a rather loose rhyme (aabc-aab-abbc-aab-abca-abc-aab-aabaab as can be seen in “shatter-disappear-floor-same; pieces-pieces-gone; granted-say-away-same; pieces-pieces-you; see-know-you-me; tightly-go-same; pieces-pieces-you; pieces-pieces-gone; pieces-pieces-gone”) and in a loose stanzaic form (9 stanzas, consisting of 3 four-line stanzas and 6 three-line stanzas), signifying the rather instable emotional state in facing the painful reality, though still within control. the song gives a somber and soul screamingtone with high pitches in almost all words at the end of the lines such as on “shatter, disappear, like dust, same, heart, pieces, gone, granted, say, away, lost” indicating brokenheartedness, sudden shock and regret of losing someone. the metaphors used at the same time give clear depiction of the loss. the metaphoric expression of “a castle in the sand the water takes away” (line 10) shows how sudden is the tragedy happens without prior warning. castle of course means something or someone so precious, but the sudden coming of the water takes everything away. this instant loss is strengthened by the use of other metaphors previously written at the beginning of the song: “morning dreams” (line 2) and “dust in your hand” (line 3). the morning dreams just disappear in an instant. presumably the dreams are beautiful dreams which suddently vanish before reaching the end. the “dust in your hand” howeverstresses how fast is the disappearance and just like the soft tiny grains of dust, we can hardly notice that it can suddenly fly away or fall to the floor. the above discussed outer tone and metaphor also signify the lamenting, regretful and hopeless attitude of the persona. this attitude of regret is openly stated in the fifth stanza ( lines 15-18): ooh now you'll never see ooh now you'll never know all the things i planned for you things for you and me (banks, collins, & rutherfort, 1991) the above lines not only picture regret but also lamentation. still, the regretful tone is stressed and repeated through questioning “how can life ever be the same” (line s 4, 11, 21) for three times, significant enough to put forward the idea of feeling so sorry for the loss. the whole idea of shocking loss and lamentation can be best represented by the first line that “in a moment your whole world can shatter" (line 1). therefore, overall, collins shows his deep sympathy through an attitude of regretting the sudden loss by placing himself in clapton‟s difficult position, showing how deep is the akun, heavenly tears early loss: different ways of coping with lifeloss 9 impact and without any trace of hope for the bright side of the incident. what about clapton himself? the following part will elaborate his reaction to the same tragedy in his own way. eric clapton‟s tears in heaven shows a different outer tone, mellow and slow, but very regular and in order, especially the rhyme (abab-abab-ababaaab-abcb-aaab-abab-abab as seen in “name-heaven-same-heaven; strong-onbelong-heaven; hand-heaven-stand-heaven; way-day-stay-heaven; down-kneesheart-please; door-sure-more-heaven; name-heaven-same-heaven; strong-onbelong-heaven”). this can be interpreted as stability of emotion while dealing with the hard time. the rhythm or beat of the song is also slow and orderly, with low picthed voice. the tune sounds flat and pitiful. the dominating slow and soft guitar strengthens this image. it is quite clear that the persona has reached a stage of accepting the reality and tries his best to positively think of the tragedy as a lesson in life. he also has used the word “heaven”many times (10 times) to indicate the positive attitude and hope toward the loss. instead of lamenting that life can ever be the same (in collins), clapton hopefully expects that the gone child will feel the same when they meet in heaven. the strong repeated word “heaven” seems to cover all the sadness and give solace to the empty soul. this way the persona realizes his weakness during his ignorant life with the kid and especially after his leaving, but still he tries to see the kid and heaven as the source of strength, hoping that he can help him stand by holding his hand while he is looking for strength night and day. this state is a stage where the persona has realized that time (read life experience) can bring him down, bend his knees and break his heart, but he believes that the child is happy and peaceful in his new heavenly life: “beyond the door there‟s peace i‟m sure, and i know there‟ll be no more tears in heaven” (lines 21-24). besides, the persona consoles and convinces himself that after learning from his own weaknesses through the tragedy he must be stronger and continue his life: “i must be strong and carry on” (lines 29-30). so, there is no sense of regret and negative attitudes traced in this song. the metaphoric expression used is all related to heaven. the word “door” in the song refers to the door of heaven. and the phrase “tears in heaven”, --which is actually oxymoron metaphor (we will not assume sadness tears in heaven because heaven is a place of peace and joy) reflects the persona‟shealed sadness which again ends in his belief that there will be no more tears in heaven, eventhough for the time being there is still a distance between the persona (father) and the child. 10 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp 1-15 from the above discussion, we can clearly see the attitude depicted in this song: facing the hard time with realization of the need to become stronger, hoping to meet in another life with better condition, and focusing on the “after tragedy” (pay attention to the use of present conditional and future reference) with the strength got. this is different from collins‟ song which is so much focused on the tragedy itself, the regret, present realization that life can never be the same. the last song, circus, formally has a very regular rhyme pattern (abcbabcb-ababc-abcb-abcb-abab-aa as shown in “fire-bright-gave-delight; clownknife-hear-life; sad-round-sad-round-town; pure-fine-you-line; you-night-youright; town-town”) with low pitch and tune, similar to tears in heaven, indicating the positive and stable state of emotion, seeing things from the bright side. this song is on the surface telling a story of the persona and the child‟s visiting a circus just like clapton has confessed in the previous part of this writing. but then beyond the surface, the circus man (clown) turns to be an image of a little man with pure heart. in this context, the clown is a metaphor of two sides: the sadness and the strength. the sadness is shown when the entertaining clownis depicted as leaving the town, and froma child‟s perspective it is sad because the amusement comes to an end. but, further, this can mean that the sadness is experienced by both the father and the son (clapton and conor) because their getting warm relationship is finally ended. clapton himself indicates this in the song through an expression of deep impression or perhaps scar in life i.e. “what you see and what you will hear will last you for the rest of your life” (lines 7-8). while on the bright side, this clown represents a wise and loving man (supposedly a father) who is ready to ride the child to explore the life funs, even to hold and guide him through the darkest night. the man promises and learns to be gentle and smiling and there he will, through the smile, will always remember the son, and everything will be fine, even the most trivial thing in his life and his relationship with the child. therefore, it is obvious that the father gets pure solace in this confession and acceptance. the metaphoric “circus” in this song can both signify happiness and sadness as well—thus oxomoric—when clapton describes it as joyful (note the words: “eyes on fire, smile so bright, toys, fill heart with delight” in lines 1-4). but then at the same time, suddenly he depicts the situation as “so sad, no easy way round, cause the circus left town” (lines 9-13). this is similar to the “tears in heaven”, an expression with double meanings. akun, heavenly tears early loss: different ways of coping with lifeloss 11 however, the tone or attitude of the author is mostly positive and hopeful. despite the reality that the circus has left town—that the joy of their togetherness has ended—clapton set his positive emotional spin by giving himself a psychological consolation that everything will be just allright as seen in lines 18-21, hold my hand and i'll walk with you through the darkest night. and when i smile i'll be thinking of you and every little thing will be all right. (clapton & jones, circus, 1998) this is the tone of the last two songs, an author‟s attitude that may be labeled as oxomoric attitude, set-as drury puts it-through the coloration of the words, their shading, their warmth or coolness, that has finally colored both of clapton‟s songs. the two last songs have depicted the ambivalence of tones: sad, sorrowful yet strong, hopeful and positive just as the words “tears in heaven” or “circus” may ambivalently signify. this is quite different from the first song “since i lost you” which decisively stresses the desolate and sorrowful attitude toward the tragedy. conclusion life tragedy can mean different things for different people. this all depends on how the individuals see the tragedy. there is no question that tragedy always brings sadness and sorrow, but that is not the end of everything. however, other people can see it from a different angle, resulting in completely different perception and attitude. this study has proven that through the study of three different songs rooted from the same tragic event, the perception and attitude depicted in the song can be shockingly different. through the study of the song external forms (i.e. rhyme, rhythm, tone, or pitch), the metaphoric words and the attitude or tone of the song writers, it is concluded that phil collins as a friend who is not directly involved in the tragedy shows his sympathy through a negative and hopeless way of seeing the tragedy. he focuses more on the tragedy directly by stressing how sorrowful the tragic experience is rather than the impact, psychologial process, and lessons learned afterward. eric clapton, on the other hand, as the one who directly suffers the impact of the tragedy sees the tragic event from a more positive attitude. he tries to 12 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp 1-15 somehow show his grief but does not want to be drifted away in this sorrow. he focuses more on the process after the tragedy—by remembering the sweet moment before the tragedy (in circus) and imagine the same sweet thing after the tragedy (in tears in heaven) by setting an emotional spin around the good memory and nice after life state of the child with sweet hopes and strengthening consolation. references banks, t., collins, p., & rutherfort, m. (1991). since i lost you. (p. collins, performer) bassnett, s. (1993). comparative literature: a critical introduction. oxford: blackwell publishers. clapton, e. (2007, november 20). eric-clapton.co.uk. retrieved february 11, 2013, from http://www.eric-clapton.co.uk/interviewsandarticles/loryin terview.htm clapton, e., & jones, m. (1998). circus. (e. clapton, performer) damono, s. d. (2009). sastra bandingan: pengantar ringkas. ciputat: editum. drury, j. (2006). the poetry dictionary. ohio: writer's digest books. eric, w. (1998, march). eric clapton's songs: the backstories. retrieved february 11, 2013, from where's eric: http://www.whereseric.com /the-vault/song-information/eric-claptons-songs-backstories jost, f. (1974). introduction to comparative literature. new york: pegasus. juliati. (2006). common people in carl sandburg‟s poems and wiji thukul‟s: a comparative study. humanitas:journal of language and literature, pp. 84-93. madden, f. (2002). exploring poetry: writing and thinking about poetry. new york: longman. songfacts. (1991). since i lost you by genesis. retrieved february 12, 2013, from songfacts: http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=6329 akun, heavenly tears early loss: different ways of coping with lifeloss 13 wiser, c. (2006, may 7). song facts will jennings. retrieved february 27, 2012, from song facts: http://www.songfacts.com/blog/interviews/ will_jennings appendices: since i lost you (tony banks/phil collins/mike rutherford, 1991) it seems in a moment, your whole world can shatter (a) 1 like morning dreams they just disappear (a) like dust in your hand falling to the floor (b) how can life ever be the same (c) cos my heart is broken in pieces (a) 5 yes my heart is broken in pieces (a) since you've been gone (b) it's all too easy to take so much for granted (a) but it's so hard to find the words to say (b) like a castle in the sand the water takes away (b) 10 how can life ever be the same (c) cos my heart is broken in pieces (a) yes my heart is broken in pieces (a) since i've lost you (b) ooh now you'll never see (a) 15 ooh now you'll never know (b) all the things i planned for you (c) things for you and me (a) i held your hand so tightly (a) that i couldn't let it go (b) 20 now how can life ever be the same (c) cos my heart is broken in pieces (a) yes my heart is broken in pieces (a) since i've lost you (b) cos my heart is broken in pieces (a) 25 yes my heart is broken in pieces (a) since you've been gone (b) 14 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp 1-15 cos my heart is broken in pieces (a) yes my heart is broken in pieces (a) since you've been gone (b) 30 tears in heaven (eric clapton/will jennings, 1992) would you know my name (a) 1 if i saw you in heaven? (b) would it be the same (a) if i saw you in heaven? (b) i must be strong (a) 5 and carry on, (b) 'cause i know i don't belong (a) here in heaven. (b) would you hold my hand (a) if i saw you in heaven? (b) 10 would you help me stand (a) if i saw you in heaven? (b) i'll find my way (a) through night and day, (a) 'cause i know i just can't stay (a) 15 here in heaven. (b) time can bring you down, (a) time can bend your knees. (b) time can break your heart, (c) have you begging please, begging please. (b) 20 beyond the door, (a) there's peace i'm sure, (a) and i know there'll be no more (a) tears in heaven. (b) would you know my name (a) 25 if i saw you in heaven? (b) would it be the same (a) if i saw you in heaven? (b) akun, heavenly tears early loss: different ways of coping with lifeloss 15 i must be strong (a) and carry on, (b) 30 'cause i know i don't belong (a) here in heaven. (b) repeat first verse circus (eric clapton & mick jones, 1998) little man with his eyes on fire (a) 1 and his smile so bright. (b) in his hands are the toys you gave (c) to fill his heart with delight. (b) and in the ring stands a circus clown (a) 5 holding up a knife. (b) what you see and what you will hear (c) will last you for the rest of your life. (b) and it's sad, so sad, (a) there ain't no easy way round. (b) 10 and it's sad, so sad, (a) all you friends gather round (b) 'cause the circus left town. (c) little man with his heart so pure (a) and his love so fine. (b) 15 stick with me and i'll ride with you (c) till the end of the line. (b) hold my hand and i'll walk with you (a) through the darkest night. (b) and when i smile i'll be thinking of you (a) 20 and every little thing will be all right. (b) chorus: the circus left town, left town. (a) the circus left town, left town. (a) a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 1; july 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class (a case study) ria jubhari, etty bazergan (decs), karmila mokoginta, simon sitoto, besse puspita syarif, and ery iswari english department and department of local languages, faculty of cultural sciences, hassanudin university, indonesia tel +62 81342647559 email: ac.riajubhari@gmail.com received: 15-01-2016 accepted: 14-07-2016 published: 31-07-2016 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class (a case study) ria jubhari1, etty bazergan1, karmila mokoginta1, simon sitoto1, besse puspita syarif1, and ery iswari2 ac.riajubhari@gmail.com english department1 and department of local languages, faculty of cultural sciences2, hassanudin university, indonesia abstract: this descriptive-qualitative case study aims to (1) identify the values of buginese/makasaresse local wisdoms that shape the learning process of hasanuddin university students attending the writing2 (mbi2) subject in the even semester, 2014; (2) find out which of the local wisdoms that strongly shape the student-centred learning (scl) process in the writing ii class. the study focused on students‟ classroom interaction. data were collected from classroom observations, questionnaires, interviews and teachers‟ note on the learning process in classroom. this study found that what is thought as buginese or makassarese local wisdoms especially respect to older people and mutual help can both support and inhibit the scl process in mbi2. key words: local wisdom, student‟s interaction, respect to the elderly, mutual help abstrak: penelitian deskriptif kualitatif ini bertujuan untuk (1) mengidentifikasi nilai kearifan lokal buginese/makassarese yang membentuk proses belajar mahasiswa universitas hasanuddin yang mengikuti kuliah menulis bahasa inggris 2 (mbi2) di semester genap 2014; dan (2) mengetahui kearifan lokal mana yang kuat membentuk proses scl di kelas mbi2. fokus penelitian ini adalah interaksi mahasiswa dalam kelas. data didapat dari observasi kelas, kuesioner, interview, dan catatan dosen tentang proses belajar di kelas. penelitian ini menemukan bahwa apa yang dianggap sebagai kearifan lokal bugis/ makassar, khususnya hormat kepada yang lebih tua dan gotong 92 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 royong, dapat mendukung sekaligus menghambat proses scl di kelas mbi2. kata kunci: kearifan lokal, interaksi mahasiswa, hormat kepada orang tua, gotong royong introduction december 2013 edition of identitas reported the sixth-year implementation of student-centred learning (scl) in hasanuddin university (unhas) which does not seem to show any difference with the previously practised teaching-centred learning. what may have triggered this unchanged learning process ? scl is a learning approach which was highly influenced by lev vigotsky, as cited in brown (2007), who said that students are responsible for their learning. students reconstrut what they learn in class into something relevant to them and become independent of their own learning inside and outside the class. it is clear that students, as the primary factor in learning process, belong to the society where they they live or come from. this means that the students and the society are interchangably influenced one another. this impliesthat the efforts to implement scl in unhas are inseparable from the traditions in the society. this further indicates the necessity to study relevant local wisdoms, which occurs in scl-based classrooms in unhas. the local wisdoms here refer to all products, processes or traditions rooted in indonesian society, especially in south sulawesi, and are apart of the traditions influencing indonesian people‟s activities in their community. literature review a. the main features of student-centred learning donnelly & fitzmaurice‟s (2005) review on scl from lecturers‟ and students‟ perspectives highlights a number of important scl features in teaching english at university. one of them is the better interaction between teachers and students. the hierarchical relationship between teachers who are often associated as the knowledge provider and students who receive the knowledge is minimized in such a away that teachers do not merely teach but listen to students‟ needs and facilitate their learning activities in classroom. jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 93 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class learning in vigotskyan view is a social interaction which plays an important role in developing students‟ cognition. such social interaction can be seen when learners interact with their classmates during their learning activities and from the culture or traditions ascribed to students‟ life. brown (2007) cited vygotsky who claims that everything is learned from our interaction with others and the result of the learning is integrated into our mental structure. meanwhile donnelly & fitzmaurice (2005) believes that sociocultural belief on second language learning considers that learners‟ behaviour in class can be well understood when teachers involve them as individuals and as groups of learners where the learning strategies are used and developed.their utterance and behaviour in class reflect their cultural traditons which form their learning process. thus, quoting jang and jimenez (2011), it is socioculturally important to study learners‟ traditions. they say that the strategies used in class are inseparable from the relationship between learners and their teachers in class. in their review of two different forms of scl in higher eduction namely collaborative project based learning and problem based learning, donnelly & fitzmaurice (2005) clarify the roles of teachers and learners. teachers in student-centred learning are involved more in designing and assessing the project or problem based learning. quoting aspy et. al. (1993), they also highlight teachers‟ roles to keep students on track, avoid negative feedback, and assume the role of fellow learner. in student-centred learning, teachers and students should work out together clearly defined criteria of asssessment in which students are allowed to assess their own learning and their peers‟ based on their individual or group learning targets (savin-baden & major, 2004). such an assessment, which should help students monitor their own learning, includes among others the team skills, interpersonal skills and communication skills and need to be clear, positive and specific. the important feature of student-centred learning lies on the student‟s range of roles and responsibilities. they should take initiative on their own learning goals, identify their learning strategies, decide some procedures to reach the goals, and evaluate learning outcomes.to reach these goals they should shift their paradigm from being a passive listener and note taker to critically question the raised arguments and actively contribute to solving problems emerging in their learning process, and above all they should keep 94 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 being motivated to reach their learning target. in this way the knowledge students acquired is no longer the one directed by the teacher. instead the acquired knowledge is blended with their own specific target. b. review of studies on scl practices in her study of communicative approach in improving students‟ academic reading achievement, irmawati (2012) reported that minimum contribution in class discussion activities and teacher domination in learning process are two major factors that inhibit the learning in classroom. this finding is relevant to student-centred learning with its communication skill as one of the important skills required from students. nguyen (2011) who researched on the problems faced by vietnamese, thai and indonesian students during their study in australia found that the students are difficult to express their views due to the fact that, in the living cultures in asia, people tend to avoid disharmonious relationship with the interlocutors, especially the elderly, resulted from having different opinions. sawir (2005) who conducted an in-depth interview with students from five asian nations confirmed that language difficulties focused on grammar and reading skills in teacher-centred classrooms are rooted from students‟ prior learning experiences in their home countries which do not enhance student‟s confidence in speaking and proactive role in classrooms. such difficulty was also addressed by marcellino (2008:57) which claims that “the success of english teaching indonesia cannot be freed from the student cultural backgrounds, values, customs” which assumes that to contradict or criticize teachers‟ ideas is unacceptable. a study on the self-directed learning readiness, perception toward student-centered learning and predisposition toward student-centered behaviour at sultan agung islamic medical school shows students from java island showed a higher tendency towards student-centered behaviour when compared to those from outside java island (lestari & widjajakusumah, 2009). using causal layered analysis (cal), pham thi (2010) resorts the major challenge of implementing scl in vietnamese universities to vietnamese people‟s way of thinking. this review claims that the studentcentredness does not need to impose a set of principles to students but upgrade the infrastructure to make local cultures support the scl and modify scl principles in order to adapt to local people traditions. jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 95 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class all these studies indicate that to uncover challenges of implementing scl we must go beyond the classrooms where students live their tradition while having to make use english orally. in this study, the practice of scl process in mbi2 class is explored in the way it is shaped by buginese/ makassarese local wisdoms. c. the role of local wisdoms in scl-based classrooms although definition of „culture‟ is debatable and often mixed up with „tradition,‟kartawinata (2011, p. viii) pointed out that „tradition is something transmitted and passed on from past to current generation in the form of patterns or images of our behaviour, belief, rule, advice and prohibition which continuously change, and this tradition is later on interpreted as „local wisdom.‟ kartawinata (2011) stated that the term „local wisdom,‟ also known as indigenous or local knowledge, or as local genius, can be defined as local ideas which are thoughtful, invaluable, rooted and followed by its society. this further indicates that students‟ background can be in contrast with learning principles they live in, and in turn affects their way of thinking. these wisdoms, like the river culture in south kalimantan and siri in south sulawesi, are normally orally practised in daily life. another indigenous knowledge in the life of indonesian people, the spirit of gotong royong is originated from the traditional javanese village, where labour is accomplished through reciprocal exchange and the villagers are motivated by concern for the common good (mardiasmo & barnes, 2013). especially in disaster affected areas, this culture of „gotong royong‟ provides the necessary spirit needed to endure the hardships and for all involved. nowadays these wisdoms are gradually eroded and tend to be left behind by their people although undeniably such wisdoms are still strongly attached to their believers and influence their daily utterances. these local cultures provide a context of those practised traditions with their own characteristics. in response to the globalisation in indonesia, there is a greater awareness among universities in indonesia to base their academic policies on the local culture where the university is established. for instance, the scl approach to learning applied at gadjah mada university was inspired by patrap triloka, a local wisdom originally introduced by ki hadjar dewantoro, the indonesia‟s first minister of education (widayati et. al. 2010). in a teaching-learning process. patrap triloka literally refers to three good conducts that a teacher should practice in facilitating his/her students‟ learning -ing ngarso sung tulodho, ing madyo mangun karso and tut wuri andayani - 96 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 which means that teachershould be a model for their students, facilitate their students and empower students to develop their own potentials. these qualities are expected to bring the student-teacher relationship into a harmonious academic atmosphere. another example of local wisdom-based policy is reflected in strategic programs of the research unit at padjajaran university and on research road map at many universities in indonesia such as padjadjaran university and andalas university. besides, local wisdoms have been widely used as learning resources such as digital story telling (susanti 2013) or in shaping student‟s character (faridi, 2014). bax (2003) emphasised that the feature of context where the language is used should be attended to when applying communicative language teaching. without considering the culture and the context where the teaching and learning happens or experienced, teachers would fail conveying their message to students. this means that the influence of culture and its local wisdoms to students is inevitable in learning process irrespective of the approach used including the learner-centred approach. the embedded values of culture which bears student‟s identity (savin-baden & major, 2004:47) unavoidably affect student‟s interaction in classroom. due to the role of local wisdoms, the occurrence of dynamic interaction in scl-based writing class may not take place despite the fact that such an interaction is expected to lead student‟s writing activity and guide its relevance to student‟s interest and writing process. savin-baden & major (2004) reminded that certain local wisdoms may disrupt the successful implementation of scl. for example, the local wisdom of respecting older people, which requires students to respect and not to make their teacher lose face, may discourage students to critically raise questions in which the teacher may not be able to answer. thus, such efforts of facilitating students to share their views and ask questions and at the same time learn from the group members or from their classmates in class discussion may be counterproductive to the implementation of scl principles. pertinent to this study, it is necessary to search for the values of buginese / makassarese local wisdoms that shape the learning process of unhas students attending mbi2. d. buginese and makassarese ethnicities the term buginese/makassarese indicates two different ethnicities which dominantly inhabit south sulawesi and west sulawesi provincies. this combined term of buginese and makassarese etnics makes many people jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 97 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class think that buginese is synonymous with makassarese. pelras (1996, p.14) who wrote the well known book the bugis argued that many publications written by local experts such as siri: bagian kesadaran hukum rakyat bugismakassar (marzuki, 1995) and kebudayaan bugis makassar (mattulada, 1971) tend to minimizethe difference between the two etnics due to the way the two names of ethnicsis written as a compound word. pelras explained that this tendency was due to the same islamic religion adopted by the two peoples which reduces the difference in their ethnicity and language. these local experts on buginese and makassarese note that the way of living of buginese and makassare are principally the same. although many buginese words can be found in makassarese or vice versa, the way such words are pronounced can indicate whether the speaker is buginese or makassarese. for instance, the word pesseé in buginese and paccé in makassarese both literally refer to being irritatedor painful looking at someone‟s suffering (marzuki, 1995, p.132). mattulada (1985, p. 5) stated that from the four major ethnics in south sulawesi, namely to-ugi (bugis), to-mangkasara (makassar), to-raja and to-menre‟ (mandar), the buginese has the biggest population and occupy fourteen out of twenty three regencies in south sulawesi: maros, pangkep, bone, soppeng, wajo, luwu, sidrap, bulukumba, sinjai, pinrang, enrekang, pare-pare, barru, and polmas. while makassare people mostly live in gowa, takalar, bantaeng, jeneponto and selayar regencies, makassar, maros and pangkep are currently considered as transitional areas where buginese and makassarese are both used in daily conversations. we can say that bugis and makassarese have been recognized as one entity, at least, since the use of the same script lontara which spread throughout the southern tip of sulawesi island. although buginese and makassarese people seem to be geographically separated, these two ethnics seem to spread all over the regencies in south sulawesi with some distinctive regions for buginese and makassarese and the so-called transitional area in makassar, the capital city of south sulawesi. e. core values in buginese and makassarese rahim (1985) said that in buginese tradition there are six core values, namely honesty, scholar, appropriateness, determination, efforts and siri which are all used in buginese expressions stated in lontara. these values are interchanged in framing the behaviour of buginese people. the following is the summary of rahim‟s (1985) account of these values. 98 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 first, honesty (lempu, buginese) literally means sincere, correct, good, yet, it could refer to good behaviour and fear the lord. one‟s honesty is considered so important that the judge la pagala nenek mallomo (15461654) at sidenreng considered it is equalled to death penalty sentenced to his own child who did not practisehonesty (rahim 1985, p. 149). second, the buginese people‟s scholarly characteristic means that nothing is difficult and difficulties are responded with sincerity and kindness. having an academic degree does not automatically bestow intellectuality, but those buginese figures mentioned in lontara who were not holding university degree were very influential in their era and can be grouped as being scholastic. third, the concept of appropriateness (assitinaja, buginese) which originates from the word tinaja (appropriate) refers to one‟s physical and spiritual ability in carrying out a mandate or assignment. the fourth concept, determination (getting, buginese), means that buginese people are strong and determined in principle, and committed to the work being done. the fifth, effort (reso, buginese), is the key to the successful implementation of honesty, scholarness, appropriateness, and determination. these four concepts can be effective if they are accompanied by some efforts. some excerpts in lontara denounce effortless people. the last but the most important is, siri, central to south sulawesi especially to buginese and makasareseand has been defined by many buginese scholars as “shame” or “honour” and is reflected in their behaviour and way of thinking (abdullah 1985 as cited in samsuni, 2010). in buginese/makassarese tradition, the way we orally talk which shows how we respect others, called sipakatau in buginese/makassarese, can be shown in three ways which are reflected in their different expressions. first, someone mappakaraja when he/she shows his/her respect to someone older or more highly educated, richer or more powerful. for instance, whenever we greet a lecture idi puang (ya bu x, said to senior lecturer) we treat him/her a seniour lecturer who is more educated). second, the respect for our colleagues or others who are at the same age or position is called sipakalebi/ sipakalabirik. third, mapakamase, is said to people who are younger or have lower positions. another feature of relation is expressed in siammaturuk (buginese)/ sibali-balii (makassarese) which means helping one another. jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 99 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class methodology the qualitative case study was utilized in this study to get clear illustration of scl process in semester-three university writing class. following seliger & shohamy (1989), the case study here specifically attends to students‟ interaction inwriting class in order to have a more detailed data on the forms of local wisdoms practised while interacting in class.this study assumes that students‟ patterns of interaction in each subject is different due to different teaching methodology, the objectives, and teaching/learning maerials. seliger & shohamy (1989) emphasized that data in a qualitative study should focus on the observed participants in order that researcher‟s cultural and intellectual biases do not interfere the collection, presentation and interpretation of data. the only problem in qualitative study is in data collection because data are not measured statistically like in quantitative study. mckay (2006) argues that the lack of control in qualitative study can be eliminated by the researcher‟s intensive engagement in data collection, continuous and persistent observation, and the use of various data and methods. this leads to the main purpose of qualitative research applied here that is to contextualise and to interprete rather than to generealize, to predict and to explain causal relationships between variables. a. sources of data data in this study were collected from four different sources. first, the native speakers of buginese and makassarese languages employed in this study were two academics – one is buginese, and the other one is makassarese who can clearly pinpoint aspects of buginese and makassarese traditions and way of thinking, which they have gone throughout their lives. second, data on classroom activities were video-recorded to observethe interaction among students and between students and their teachers. third, although this study does not focus on teachers‟ perspectives, teachers‟ note is considered important to support the observation data, especially between students and lecturers. fourth, the questionnaire was distributed to find out detailed information on student‟s ethnicity and tradition. because it is not easy to determine whether student‟s background tradition is influenced by certain tradition and to find out the form of influence of local wisdom towards the student-based learning process, the tradition in this study refers to student‟s place of birth, hometown where student spent their time before pursuing their education at hasanuddin university, and the location of their senior high school. for example, a 100 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 student who was born in buginese-based bone, has spent his time in buginese-dominated soppeng and has joined high schoolwhich is in wajo, which is also buginese dominated, we can consider that the buginese tradition has to some extent formed this student‟s traditon. thus, the questionnaire provided the information on students‟ dominant tradition influencing the learning process in mbi2 class in the second semester 2013/2014. table 1: student‟s dominant traditions in mbi2 class place of birth /hometown/location of high school and elementary school class a class b class c class d total 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. buginese(b) 10 10 10 9 39 2. makassarese (m) 0 2 2 4 8 3. mix of b and m 0 5 4 2 11 4. mix of (b or m) and non (b or m) 0 6 5 3 14 5. non b or m 3 5 6 5 19 6. transitional areas 3 10 11 10 34 total 16 38 38 33 125 note: 1. column 1 refers to the grouping of areas which are dominantly inhabited by buginese and makassare in sulawesi (mattulada 1985, p. 5), the information on place of birth, hometown and location of high schools is subdivided into groups of regencies dominated by buginese tradition (number 1), by makassarese (number 2), group of mixed buginese and makassarese (number 3), group of mix of buginese and makassarese and of non buginese/makassarese (number 4) and areas which are dominated by neither buginese nor makassarese (number 5), and group of transitional areas of buginese/makassarese (number 6). 2. columns 2, 3, 4 and 5 show the number of students for the 6 groups in each parallel mbi2 class. jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 101 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class b. participants the main participants in this study were unhas english department students who took mbi2 in the second semester 2013/2014. this sample of this study represented all unhas english department students. c. procedure of data collection first, lecturer and students in four parrallel classes carried out the teaching and learning process of the subject mbi2. the researchers observed the four classess in turns, using checklist while the recording was performed by the student involved in this study. the recording was carefully watched several times in order to identify students‟ interaction in classroom, especially the interaction between students and lecturer, between individual students, and between students and students in group works or when these students represent their groups and interactwith students from other groups in class discussion. the meeting with native buginese and makassarese was conducted to search for information on buginese and makassarese traditions. the questionnaire was distributed in meeting sixteen to find out students‟ background tradition. based on the information from this questionnaire, two students from each class, representing buginese and makassarese, were interviewed to dig out further explanation on specific aspects of students‟ traditions such as chatting, marriage proposal, parents‟ burial ceremony, and relationship with older people and friends. d. procedure of data analysis raw data from classroom observation, recording and the questionnaire, including information from the buginese and makassaree resource persons, were triangulated. the typical interactions in classroom were identified and were related to relevant values of buginese and makassarese local wisdoms. the result was cross-checked with the teacher‟s notes on the interaction between students and teacher, and with students‟ information from the interview. . results and discussion in this section we present the activities in each observed class, including the important points on students‟ interaction, and teacher‟s notes on students‟ interaction in scl-based class. 102 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 a. the outline of activities in the four writing classes following schriffin‟s (1994) functional approach, ellis & barkhuizen (2005) claim that the grammar feature which is embeded in an utterance is functional because in essence language is used more to communicate a meaning than simply to be a form, and to understand the meaning of a word in an utterance we need to know the context of thetterance. although this research does not focus on language function, but the utterances reflected from the interaction between students should be looked at from the perspective of each classroom. the following is the important features of activities in each class based on the recording. class a before attending the mbi fourteenth meeting, students have decided one of the three given topics for the two-sided arguments and have proposed a writing outline based on the chosen topic. in class, the lecturer led the negotiation among all sixteen students to decide which topicwould be the majority. then, for about fifteenminutes students worked in groups of three and proposed one possible outline for a two-sided essay based on determined topic. the lecturer walked around from one group to the others and facilitated them just in case they have problems in outlining which needs to be solved. some students tried to show them the outline they were working with. every representating student was asked to present their outline before their friends and at the same time the lecturer noted the group outline‟s important points on the whiteboard while other students in their groups were askedto check for the relevance and coherence. at the end of each presentation, the other groups were asked to offer comments, questions and inputs to the presented outline which were then responded by the presenting group. most of the time students‟ responses to the questions or comments were said in bahasa indonesia. when this happened the lecturer encouraged students to say them out in english by saying for example “are you from another planet” at the end of this meeting, students were instructed to submit the two-sided essay in the facebook group, and were reminded of things to prepare for the next meeting. class b following what has been discussed in the previous meeting, i.e. the structure of problem solution essay, the 34 students in this class were put into jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 103 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class 11 groups of three or four people. they were asked to determine a problem and propose some possible solutions to the problem. during the meeting the lecturer walked around the class, and checked whether students were doing what they have been asked for. from the beginning until the end of the class, there was no interaction between students or between groups of students. the only interaction noted was when a student, with her loud voice due to the noisy classroom, asked whether what she understood about the lecturer‟s instruction has been correct. soon after the lecturer clarified the instruction, the students from the nearby groups echoed “ooooo” which can indicate that they now understand the teacher‟s instructions. this can also indicate a support to their friend who has raised a question. the only question raised by student followed by the echooing “ooooo” may indicate that other students also needed help but was reluctant to ask the lecturer. class c the class began when the lecturer informed the planned activities in classrooms with regard to the topic „dowry‟ while students listened attentively. students formed their groups based on their ethnicities. for instance, in one group all members are makassarese. there are two groups whose members are makassarese, two are buginese, and one is torajanese. there is one group whose members consist of various ethnicities. working in their groups, students are allowed to brainstorm their ideas on „dowry‟ which are going to be put in their group‟s one-sided essay. after fifteen minutes, the lecturer walked around each group and facilitated the progress of their discussion. this group discussion rose some noises because all students were quite interested in the topic and were so eager to tell how dowry has been practiced in their tradition. after about 20-minute group discussion, each group briefly presented their arguments about the amount of money to be paid as dowry in their tradition while the other groups commented and compared with their group‟s argument on dowry. while the buginese and makassarese groups clearly indicated that dowry was so determining in their tradition, the torajanese group claims that not all torajanese people especially from the bride‟s family consider dowry a must for a marriage proposal to be accepted. class d while waiting for students to get into the class, the lecturer wrote the important points which will be discussed in class including the reminder for 104 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 the next meetings. when students were all in classroom the lecturer then explained those points which included the mid-test date and the submission of essay via emails because the next meeting is a holiday. when a student asked whether he could bring a dictionary while doing the test in class, the lecturer said she would think about its necessity and let him know in the next meeting. the lecturer asked students to continue the group discussion which started in the previous meeting which discussed the topic „living together.‟ while being observed, the lecturer attended all the six groups which consist of four or five students. two groups agreed to living together, while four groups showed their disagreement to practice living together. after ten minutes, the lecturer and students discussed the points in each paragraph in the passage and the following exercises. while every group provided their answer, a few students very actively respond to the lecturer‟s questions and their classmates‟ statements about the points being talked about. these same students who represented their group appear to take all the opportunity to answer their lecturer‟s questions so the lecturer commented “… i am happy you want to give a try to answer my question but i‟d like to give the opportunity to your other classmates.” this reply was timely in the sense that the lecturer noticed a number of students who looked very passive and never responded to hers since the class began. the lecturer indicated this when she said “who else would like to answer my question” directing to such students and waiting for their response. these students never responded either their lecturer or their classmates even when the other members of the group where they belong to told them the answer of the question. at the end of meeting the lecturer reminded again what the students are going to do in the next meeting. b. important interactions from the class observation there are three types of typical interactions observed in the four classes. the first type is the interaction between students representing their groups and students from other groups. their sample interactions are as follows. when the lecturer‟s question was answered by a student / group, the lecturer provided an opportunity to students from other groups to comment on this student‟s answer. the following is the lecturer‟s statement encouraging students to participate. jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 105 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class datum (1) “.... anymore answer? so we all agree to lt‟s? does anybody disagree with lt‟s, with lt‟s, explanation?” (d003, 00:29-0.35) following this utterance, a student who was sitting in front of her and on her right side of lt provided his response (see datum 2). datum (2) “...eee according to lt....eee....we have to take the answer after the underlined words...” (d1/4, d003 0.50) while directing her eyes to other student who was raising his hand, the lecturer said „yes‟ which indicated that the lecturer gradually moved her attention from student d1/4 to other student who said the following (datum 3). datum (3) “i think ...e... the underlined word is it‟s a clue...every number of exercise. [so what‟s so, it‟s a clue] ....so ... eee... we cannot .... we cannot ...say .. say that the underlined words is .... ......it says ... it says using the underlined words is just to help.... [ya just to help...ok?] (a1/1, d003, 01:22-01:50) datum (4) “e.... i agree with the number one...cose it‟s more ...more specific than number one mam. [ya] [ok.. more specific than number 2] (d1/4, 2:14-2.41) it can be seen here that two students presented their comments on lt‟s answer. the second type of interaction can be noted when the lecturer asked student from other groups to express their comment on the group four‟s outline. while starting to express her opinion in english, she does not seem to have enough vocabulary to continue what she would like to say and finally she said in bahasa indonesia. 106 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 datum (5) “they said that ...... but how how if a student and teacher have...elected but in in that elected there is.... i don‟t know how to say ... dalam benak saya bagaimana kalau semua pelajar semua....” (a0111, 8:40-9.35) after one group presented their answer the members from groups sitting close to the presenting groups talk directly to each other whisperingly comment on what has just been presented ignoring the other groups who might also want to know what is being talked about. (a0111 22.57 – 23.04). the lecturer then asked to share ideas with other friends. datum (6) “come on share with your friends” (a111, 22.58-22.60). second, some interactions occur between individual students and the lecturer. just when a lecturer has finished his instructions on what to do in group work, a student sitting close to the wall spontaneously and loudly asked him to repeat his explanation. this was because the class, consisting of 34 students. once the lecturer finished her explanation, we could hear this voice from a number of students. datum (7) [ooooo] (b0066, 00:58 – 01.20). this voice may signal that they have understood the explanation and will try to work out the task based on the lecturer‟s explanation. before presenting her group‟s comment on the other groups‟ comment, a student named h from group one corrected one point in their outline which has been put down on the whiteboard. datum (8) “firstly, i would say the „conclusion‟ you wrote is a bit wrong. [oh yes l] we do not mean all nepotisms but it could reduce the nepotism.” (a111, 9.47-10.00) a student attempted to offer her response to the group which thought that students and lecturers had the right to select the faculty‟s dean and this selection is similar to the selection of leaders in indonesia. he stated hesistantly in bahasa indonesia jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 107 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class datum (9) “tadi kan ee... misalnya kalau mahasiswa memilih....the dean eee tetapi eee apa oh my god” [ha ha ha – teman yang duduk di dekat mahasiswa yang bersangkutan tertawa mungkin karena dia tidak berhasil menyampaikan gagasannya]. (a111, 9.47-10.00) at the same time, students‟ noise and laughter burst out, and the lecturer interrupted these saying. datum (10) “oh look look let me sum up the points of arguments h‟s arguments ok that ..... number one says that....all students must select. that‟s the point” (a 0111 23.3624.23). after the lecturer summed up the student‟s point of talk, which was initially intended to said in bahasa indonesia, the student suddenly said the following. datum (11) l: “… all students must select. we must select. that‟s the point.” s: yes, that‟s it all ss: [ha haha ha ha ha] (a 0111, 24.24-24.26) everyone in the class laughed when a student suddenly echoed the lecturer‟s statement. this lecturer‟s utterance indicates that the student might consider what has just been said by the lecturer was exactly the same with the point she wanted to raise. another possible reason for this utterance is that the student wanted to end the interaction between herself and the lecturer and her classmates because she was confused what she would say further. this kind of interaction between lecturer and students indicates that they are close enough one another because they can laugh at their classmates‟ silly reply and she was brave to say what she thought, although she was not sure of what she just said. third, some other forms of interaction inside the class are illustrated below. 108 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 datum 12 when the lecturer finished writing the points of the group‟s outline on the whiteboard, she turned around and found two students raised their hands which does not only indicate that they want to talk but can also be interpreted that these students asked for permission to talk (a 0111 16.5817.02). this willingness to share what they think showed students‟ initiative without having to be appointed by lecturer. there were a number of students in class d who never talked at all. one of these students was a who sat at the very back and belonged to the group of students sitting nearby him. this student was attended by the lecturer who asked him a question. there was a silence for about one minute waiting for this student‟s response when finally the lecturer encouraged him to speak by saying as follows (see datum 13). datum 13 silence for about one minute (a0111 16.30-17.25) … andre …. come on everyone waiting…they are waiting for you…come on say [the student smiled at the lecturer] something… so so what‟s your answer then … what‟s your group answer for number 3… you can ask zn or lt or … or anyone … so what‟s the answer …[silence 17.2517.38]… several people view… you have the answer or not …so just read it… [his friend pointed to him the statement he had to read]… (a111-17.2519.10) towards the end of the meeting, the lecturer asked a student about the lesson learnt which he got from the class today. busily browsing the pages of his handout, he did not say any single word. even when lecturer signaled him what to say or his friends told him what to say in bahasa indonesia just in case he did not understand the instruction, he just mumbled unclearly uttered his answer while following what the lecturer said. finally the lecturer read the answer which should be stated by the student (d103 23:48-25.20). datum 14 …what is the benefit … apa gunanya … apa ya … yang pertama berpikir secara kritis. apa lagi yang lain. [silence] apa sebenarnya maksud dibalik itu… what is the …how to connect the sentences ya… [… how to connect …. this student very softly mumbled this, almost unheard) jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 109 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class (d103 23.48-25.20) this student looked as if he said something but it was very soft and almost unheard. he did this while looking at his friend who seemed to tell him what to say in responding to the lecturer‟s question. c. teaching notes the following is the notes on students‟ interaction in class c and the reflection made by the lecturer in charge. it happened in one of observed teaching sessions when the lecturer assigned the students to have small group discussion on “living together” before they were to write their group‟s agreed opinion about the topic.a student seemed to agree with the idea of the whole class that “living together” is a sin and an act against culture. each group was busy organizing their text. just before the group work activity was resumed, the student raised his hand asking for the lecturer‟s permission if he could express his idea that “living together” was actually not a sin, nor an act against culture. the lecturer allowed him but thought what came across his mind.he said that for a man to stay in one of the rented single rooms in a house and for a woman to stay in the other rented room in the same house can be called “living together” and this is not a sin, neither an act against culture. the class was quiet. the lecturer guessed the students were waiting for the lecturer‟s response. the lecturer took the opportunity complementing the student for having his own definition of “living together” (although the lecturer understood that his definition is quite contrary to the universal definition of “living together”). the class was noisy, as the other students in class did not seem to be impressed with his idea. there are four lessons learnt from the teacher‟s notes. first, as a member of the group, he seemed to feel that he should agree with the class idea. perhaps, culturally he did not feel appropriate to go against the group opinion. second, perhaps, as a result of his passion to argue against the class idea, he felt that it was appropriate to express his own idea after the group session was resumed. however, as a cultural being, he felt that he needed to ask the lecturer‟s permission to express his idea. third, only after the lecturer gave a permission that he felt he was entitled to express his idea. had the lecturer not given the permission, he might keep his idea to his own self. fourth, the lecturer found later in her interview with the student that he is a makassarese. 110 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 from this teacher‟s notes, it can be assumed that the scl method can be said to have an effect to this particular student as he was able to express himself in class by arguing against the class opinion. however, his culture belief may have constrained him to do so during the class discussion, as he was obliged to wait until the class discussion session was concluded before he took the opportunity to ask his teacher's permission to allow him to express his own idea. d. discussion there are two important points that can be drawn from the findings. first, there are a few cases of interaction which cannot be clearly fitted into either between lecturer and students or between individual students and their classmates. for instance, datum 13 and datum 14, which show that a few number of students almost never participate, interact in classroom, ask questions or respond to the lecturer‟s question or statement can be clearly reflected from their limited interaction only to the group where he belonged to. marcellino (2008) also noted this tendency for students to wait for teachers‟ questions or calling their names otherwise they are just busy talking with their friends. such tendency though depends on the way the teacher encourages their students to actively participate in class. the finding from this study strengthens lestari & widjajakusumah (2009) on the scl implementation in the medical faculty at moslem university of sultan agung which indicated that students from javanese, compared with those from outside java, tend to follow scl principles. following guild (1994) and gutierrez (2003), as cited in lestari & widjajakusumah (2009), they argued that this was possibly attributed by their cultural tradition which influenced their study skills. this then fits what is claimed by marcellino (2008) that values of student‟s cultural tradition plays a crucial role in shaping the teaching and learning process in classroom but does not seem to promote the success of student-centred learning. such an inhibition to scl process was also noted by the lecturer in charge of class c who pointed out that although students had the initiative to be against with his classmates he should ask permission from the lecturer to say out his different opinion on the topic being discussed in the class. if taking initiative is covered in the concept of barani in makassarese and buginese culture, which is in line with student-centred learning, this taking one‟s standpoint should be carried out in such a way that shows honor to jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 111 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class teachers or parents being older people and it does not hurt others. the importance of paying respect to the parents is reflected in sangkarupa kelong mangkasara which is a collection of poetric rhymes telling among others how older people especially parents and teachers should be highly respected. second, while waiting for students with very limited participation in class to show his interaction in classroom, his friends helped him by providing the specific answer that he should say to the lecturer. we can see that the cultural value „gotong royong‟ was implemented here. gotong royong which is commonly stated as mutual assistance) can be seen when a number of people work and help each other to finish a certain task. thus, members in the group would help the other members so then their group would finish the task and possibly a reward follows. although it was claimed to be “depicted” in most traditional villages in java (mardiasmo & barnes, 2013, p.1), this mutual assistance is commonly practiced throughout indonesia such as in moving or building a house (sakai sambayan in lampung, masohi in maluku or merawale in minahasa) or in dayto-day activities among disaster victims. this mutual assistance clearly indicates that the various forms of participation and interaction among members of the society have been rooted in the traditional cultures in indonesia. nowadays, though, this value of mutual assistance has been degraded. as reported in kompas (26 november 2014, p.11), this changing value has slowly began since the new order era where mutual assistance has been modernized by such appreciation and assessment and lacked the sense of togetherness. in the context of learning and teaching process in classroom, this tradition of helping one another while working in groups was carried away to other activities; not only when the question is directly addressed to the group but also to individual students in the group or when offering answers to friends in the exam. thus, while we acknowledge that gotong royong supports the studentcentred learning when students work together to finish the assigned task, such a practice in the exam does not acknowledge one‟s competence and discourages the student-centred learning. these features of local wisdoms and their relation to the scl practice in classroom are summed up in the following table 2. 112 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 91-117 table 2: buginese/makassarese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class local wisdoms student centred learning supporting inhibiting barani versus respect ability to express one‟s opinion (despite being different with classmates) inability to interrupt class discussion led by lecturer, possibly to respect to the elderly. students need to ask for lecturer‟s permission to comment on the given topic. mutual help (gotong royong) versus less respect to other people‟s ability participation in class activities working together in group to finish the assigned task helping friends answer the lecturer‟s questions. misuse of friends‟s helps during exams by providing answer/clues third, the findings from interview and class observation on students‟ interaction in the four mbi2 classes showed that it is difficult to claim that respect for parents (see teachers‟ notes) and mutual assistance (gotong royong) is the local wisdom specific to makassar/ buginese. the main reason for this is the fact that the context of this research, which is hasanuddin university, is the meeting point for students from various ethnicities (see appendix 1 and appendix 2) to pursue their undergraduate studies. thus, those so-called buginese and makassarese students mix up with students from other traditions in indonesia. the fact that mbi2 was offered in fourth semester means that for over one and half year students have experienced such a „mixed‟ culture and this quite possibly leads to their fading tradition. thus, from the findings of this study, it is difficult to claim whether what happened in the four mbi2 classes is influenced by either buginese or makassarese cultures. conclusion this study concludes that what is thought as buginese or makassarese local wisdoms can both support and inhibit the student centred learning process in mbi2. such local wisdoms include barani versus respect to older jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 113 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class people and mutual help. as depicted from this study, siri here which was indicated from data, can boost the competition which means if other people can do it, why i cannot do it, while barani can means the bravery to express one‟s opinion. thus, while these local wisdoms do occur in classrooms, we have to consider their effects to students learning process. because of this, the subject outline or learning contract should be very detailed in stating what students must perform in class, so that students can understand the importance of being active in taking part in scl classes. this further requires teachers‟ continuous updates and trainings which allows them selfevaluate their classroom activities whether they have followed the scl principles. it is necessary to replicate this study with different subjects both content and skill subjects to see whether the claim made in this study can generally represent all other subjects offered to students. it is interesting to see to what extent the teacher-centred learning which has long been practiced influences teachers and students‟ interaction in classroom and, as a result, whether the university policy to implement the scl principles across all faculties should be improved. students‟ utterances and behaviours in sclbased classrooms and their relation with students‟ essays are also worth investigating to see whether the scl implementation has effectively contributed to students‟ success in learning. references bax, s. 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(2010). guidelines research based learning. yogyakarta: universitas gadjah mada. retrieved from http:// ppp.ugm.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/pupbringgris.pdf. retrieved december 12, 2013. acknowledgement this study was supported by hasanuddin university 2014 research grant (no. 1454/un4.20/ pl.09/2014) appendix 1: the number of 2013/2014 students across four non-exact faculties at hasanuddin universities provinces tl ad sma sulsel 1232 1307 1273 sulbar 43 51 54 sulteng 33 26 25 sultra 36 29 28 sulut 9 4 5 gorontalo 3 6 7 jabar 16 21 23 jateng 6 4 5 jatim 20 15 19 dki jakarta 35 14 25 dki jogja 1 0 1 banten 1 2 4 kalbar 1 1 0 kaltim 32 31 38 kalsel 5 4 2 kalteng 0 0 0 aceh 0 0 0 sumut 6 5 4 sumbar 1 1 2 riau 3 5 5 jambi 0 0 0 bengkulu 1 0 0 jubhari,r., bazergan,e., mokoginta,k., sitoto,s., syarif,b.p, & iswari,e. 117 makassarese and buginese local wisdoms in scl-based writing class lampung 1 1 sumsel 2 1 2 bangka belitung 2 1 1 ntt 9 10 6 ntb 9 5 10 maluku 16 14 14 maluku utara 5 3 4 papua 20 10 14 papua barat 5 4 4 bali 1 1 1 luar negeri 7 0 0 timor leste 1 0 0 malaysia 15 0 0 kinibalu 1 0 0 kaero 0 1 0 total 1577 1577 1577 tl = place of birth, ad = hometown address, sma = senior high school location appendix 2: the number of 2013/2014 students across four non-exact faculties at hasanuddin universities areas tl ad sma bugis1 519 531 489 makassar2 88 103 109 transitional areas3 587 624 620 toraja 37 47 54 toraja utara 1 others (sulsel) 1 1 1 tl = place of birth, ad = hometown address, sma = senior high school location bugis1refers to regencies in south sulawesi in which the majority of their population speak buginese. makassar2refers to regencies in south sulawesi in which the majority of their population speak makassarese. transitional areas3refers to regencies in south sulawesi in which buginese and makassarese are spoken by the people. 5 -sep2016 jubhari.bazergan.mokoginta.sitoto.syarif & iswari 0 -cover jul 2016 0 -p. i jul 2016 hal editor 0 -p. ii jul 2016 daftar isi p. i 1 -pp 1-21 sukarno celt 2016 2 -pp 22-48 pasaribu-kadarisman celt jul 2016 pp 17-44 3 -pp 49-66 prastikawati-wiyaka-sodiq celt jul 2016 4 -pp 67-90 yusuf-silviyanti-tauhidah celt jul 2016 5 -pp 91-117 jubhari-bazergan-mokoginta-sitoto-syarif-iswari celt jul 2016 pp.88-115 6 -pp 118-132 maru celt jul 2016 7 -pp 133-144 murniati-riyandari celt 2016 8 -pp 145 148 celt thanks to reviewers cover-belakang untitled logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.2; december 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . guessing game effectiveness for improving student speaking skill in elementary school suwarsih madya and fitria ayu meningsih yogyakarta state university, yogyakarta, indonesia email: fitriaayum@gmail.com received: 29-05-2021 accepted: 10-12-2021 published: 30-12-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj guessing game effectiveness for improving student speaking skill in elementary school suwarsih madya and fitria ayu meningsih fitriaayum@gmail.com yogyakarta state university, yogyakarta, indonesia abstract: english speaking skills are very important because game is communicative language teaching (clt) which will create an atmosphere that will increase students' desire to learn languages. however, there is an assumption that learning with games makes students undisciplined and difficult to do because it requires a long time and many teachers. this study aims to determine the effect of learning english using a guessing game method on the speaking skills of elementary school students. this research is a one-group pre-test post-test design that was implemented at the islamic elementary school in yogyakarta. the research sample consisted of 68 elementary school students in grade 6 in 2019. the sampling technique used was total sampling. the research was conducted by classroom action with intervention in the form of learning english with guessing games for 3 months in two cycles. the measured learning outcomes are speaking skills in the form of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and understanding. the assessment was carried out before and after the intervention. the data were processed using the wilcoxon test. the results showed that the students' speaking skills improved after going through the learning process with guessing games. the speaking skills that have improved significantly are pronunciation, vocabulary and fluency. grammar and comprehension improved but not significantly. the conclusion is that the guessing game can improve the students' speaking skills even though it has not covered all its aspects. key words: communicative language teaching, elementary student, guessing games, speaking skill 228 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: keterampilan berbicara bahasa inggris sangat penting karena game adalah communicative language teaching (clt) yang akan menciptakan suasana yang akan meningkatkan keinginan siswa untuk belajar bahasa. namun ada anggapan bahwa pembelajaran dengan permainan membuat siswa tidak disiplin dan sulit dilakukan karena membutuhkan waktu yang lama dan dengan banyak guru. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh pembelajaran bahasa inggris menggunakan metode menebak-nebak terhadap keterampilan berbicara siswa sekolah dasar. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian one group pretest-posttest design yang dilaksanakan di madrasah ibtidaiyah yogyakarta. sampel penelitian terdiri dari 68 siswa sd kelas 6 tahun 2019. teknik pengambilan sampel yang digunakan adalah total sampling. penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tindakan kelas dengan intervensi berupa pembelajaran bahasa inggris dengan permainan tebaktebakan selama 3 bulan dalam dua siklus. hasil belajar yang diukur adalah keterampilan berbicara berupa pengucapan, kosakata, tata bahasa, kefasihan, dan pemahaman. penilaian dilakukan sebelum dan sesudah intervensi. data diolah menggunakan uji wilcoxon. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa keterampilan berbicara siswa meningkat setelah melalui proses pembelajaran dengan permainan tebak-tebakan. keterampilan berbicara yang meningkat secara signifikan adalah pengucapan, kosa kata dan kefasihan. tata bahasa dan pemahaman meningkat tetapi tidak signifikan. kesimpulannya adalah bahwa permainan tebak-tebakan dapat meningkatkan keterampilan berbicara siswa meskipun belum mencakup semua aspeknya. kata kunci: pengajaran bahasa komunikatif, siswa sd, permainan tebak-tebakan, keterampilan berbicara introduction english is a very important language to learn, especially in everyday conversation. this is because english is an international language that is used globally. fluency in conversations using english can be an asset in the future to be able to communicate globally, both for the benefit of work and education to a higher level. most people realize the importance of mastering english by children so that children have started to be taught english as early as possible. english learning has also been held in formal schools, one of which is elementary school. english for elementary school has been introduced since 1998 when madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 229 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the competence-based curriculum is applied (rusiana, 2016). although it is still debatable on the importance of english to be taught at the elementary level. the english skills needed to teach primary school children differ from higher levels. kasihani (2007) explained that the cognitive abilities of a 10 year old child will develop when taught a foreign language, including english. that's because at that age there is a phase shift from the egocentric phase to the reciprocal phase. there is a shift in the child's view from seeing things from his own point of view to trying to see phenomena from another point of view. effectiveness in teaching children to the english language related to increasing children's interest and how to make english language teaching more interesting. therefore, the teacher's role in the teaching process is very important so that the goal of teaching english to elementary school children can be fulfilled well. the teacher's role is an important factor in the learning process. to achieve learning success, teachers need certain appropriate methods (cummins, 2000). good teachers generally always try to use the most effective teaching methods and use the right teaching aids or media. likewise, in choosing material, the teacher must adjust to the ability level of students' interests and needs. in addition to teachers, schools also have a large role, because the curriculum is formed by schools as a legitimate educational institutions. fun media is needed when doing second language learning for children. however, there are several obstacles faced by the teacher in providing language learning for children, namely a large number of students in one class, the lack of facilities and media that facilitate children in practicing the english they learn, children still feel ashamed to show their english proficiency, and lack of motivation. from students to take part in learning english which is indicated by low interaction when learning takes place. this problem becomes a challenge for teachers to be able to find appropriate and effective learning techniques in increasing student motivation and activeness in speaking english. one of the english language learning techniques that can be applied to elementary school children is games. game is communicative language teaching (clt) which is a learning technique that is able to increase students' desire to learn english through conditioning the learning atmosphere. games relax the learning environment, thereby eliminating fear and enhancing practice. games are also funny and interesting so that it motivates students to learn english speaking skills (al-jarrah et al., 2019). 230 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there were four basic skills in english, speaking, listening, writing, and reading. an important language skill to master in learning the second language is speaking skill. speaking skills enable students to communicate by exchanging information, providing ideas and holding daily conversations. teaching speaking skills is a difficult thing because it needs a supportive environment and an interest in the language. the teacher's job is to help students have an interest in learning resources and create a supportive environment in learning to speak english. previous research was conducted by haryanto (2015) in studying the effects of games on grammar where the results improved learning outcomes. ho et al. (2019) conducted research using games in teaching english language skills to students. the result shows that students' motivation increases in learning english and speaking skills are increasing rapidly. similar results were reported by valipour & aidinlou (2014), language games were able to improve speaking and listening skills related to the effects of games in increasing student motivation and encouraging students to continue to progress and be active in practicing the language. freitas (2019) reported different results that teachers and students prefer to avoid games in the classroom. the teacher avoids the use of learning techniques with games because they have negative assumptions about the use of game learning techniques, namely that it is considered to have no educational value and is a waste of time. some teachers assume that game learning techniques have educational value, but rarely use them (stojkoviĥ & jerotijeviĥ, 2011). this is because there are several difficulties faced by teachers in using games for student learning, including games that are considered unsuitable for an hour of lessons, and in single learning with one teacher which can make game learning ineffective (freitas, 2019). in addition, it is reported that game play has weaknesses, namely creating noise in the classroom so that it is considered to be undisciplined, learning activities deviate from their goals due to lack of instructions/rules and inadequate learning time, and the games used are commonly used by students so that students become bored (stojkoviĥ & jerotijeviĥ, 2011). the difficulties and negative assumptions can be overcome if there is a lot of evidence that strengthens the use of games as a learning technique to be effective in improving learning outcomes. this research is interested in studying the effect of using games on speaking skills. dewi et al. (2016) examined game communication in general and did not explain what games were used so that it could increase students' activeness, self-confidence and madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 231 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fluency in speaking skills. eviyuliwati et al. (2020) researched the bingo game which turned out to be able to improve speaking skills effectively. both of these studies conducted a study on the effect of game learning techniques related to the results of speaking skills in general. speaking skills consist of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and understanding where previous research has never focused on every aspect of speaking skills and only examines speaking skills in general. in addition, previous studies have reported the use of learning techniques with different types of games. research on the use of guess games related to the results of speaking skills has never been researched before. this study conducted a study of guessing games associated with their impact on aspects of speaking skills in the form of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and comprehention. therefore, this study aims to determine the effect of learning english using a guessing game method on elementary students' speaking skills which include pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and comprehention. literatur review a. young learner young students give a different learning response from adult students where they are more enthusiastic in participating in classroom learning. children understand language from an early age by sorting and issuing words that require concrete objects. the introduction of a second language, too, requires a very concrete object in providing vocabulary recognition so that it is easy to understand. they respond in the meaning and not in the language. thus, learning can run well with interaction, fluency and accuracy. children need sensory stimulation from all five senses through play and other physical activities. children have an attention span to concentrate in a short period of time so they need activities that are fun, interesting and funny in order to attract children's attention (brown, 2004). various factors are reported to influence the success of language learning in children including social factors, such as social class, environmental factors such as student home background and parents' attitudes towards language. individual factors that affect the success of language learning in children are students' attitudes towards language and motivation to learn (copland & garton, 2014). 232 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. speaking skill effective communication can be developed through increasing skills in speaking between communicants and communicators. however, it is a difficult thing which is indicated by many students who find it difficult to express language lessons in pronunciation. they have difficulty expressing what will be said in learning a foreign language. these obstacles sometimes make people no longer want to speak due to psychological constraints and do not find suitable words to express them (leong & ahmadi, 2017). the components of speaking skills include syntax, phonology, vocabulary, and semantics. psychological factors that affect speaking skills include motivation and personality. english is not a phonetic language. the pronunciation of english words is not the same as their spelling, and words with the same spelling are sometimes pronounced differently. in addition, it is due to related contexts such as phonemes and tenses. it causes a lot of trouble for non-native english speakers and gets confused in coming up with english words.(mahripah, 2014). evans & green (2007) examined speaking skill difficulties including pronunciation, grammar, and fluency, as well as academic writing such as style, grammar, and cohesion in students. c. pronunciation pronunciation is a way of saying words in general. english pronunciation is different and causes difficulties for some individuals. the sounds that are pronounced in different words in english are sometimes similar to each other making it difficult to distinguish and it is very difficult to understand what a native speaker is saying. the way to pronounce the sound of a word in english is called pronunciation which is usually written in italicized symbols. meaning is conveyed through the tone used in speaking (hidayatullah, 2018). pronunciation is an important part of communication and not just the production of sound. the main source of understanding meaning is pronunciation instructions. pronunciation instructions can help students understand what is being said by natives and improve their ability to communicate effectively and easily. good grammar is not enough to be understood, but it is also necessary to pronounce it correctly when speaking in lesan communication (gilakjani, 2012). madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 233 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. vocabulary vocabulary is the number of words needed to communicate ideas and express meaning to listeners. that's the reason it's important to learn vocabulary. learning vocabulary is an important part of learning foreign languages as the meaning of new words. teaching vocabulary can be a problem because many teachers are unsure about best practices in teaching vocabulary and at times do not know where to start to form a learning emphasis on vocabulary for learning words (alqahtani, 2015). vocabulary is one of the three elements of language, building materials, and the basis of language. fluent in communicating with others must have a certain vocabulary. faced with so many words to learn, it is necessary to investigate lean vocabulary strategies (bai). the voice is an important factor in increasing the vocabulary of learners. therefore, students will have an advantage when they listen to good sayings from the teacher, quality recording, and quality stories, etc (lumettu & runtuwene, 2018). e. grammar grammar is not easy to understand but needs to be practiced regularly and teachers have to use multiple approaches to explain. it deals with rules that are developed to control what is used by natives. it is also a set of rules taught in schools which pertain to writing and using it correctly (al-jarrah et al., 2019). grammar teaching can be done using communicative techniques (meaning-based) or one-way explanation (form-based) in presenting songs, games, maps, poetry, pictures, or maps. these techniques have advantages and disadvantages. grammar teaching using communicative techniques can be done in order to create a pleasant atmosphere, not boring and interesting (haryanto, 2015). f. fluency fluency in speaking is considered a measurement of a person's level of communicative proficiency. consequently, speaking fluency is an essential component of communication competence. (yang) fluency in speaking should be broadly defined as the student's ability to produce words quickly and comprehensively. in a broad definition, searching for words cannot be observed. besides, grammar allows students to get information without ambiguity (brand & götz, 2011). fluency disorders can be found in children, deaf people, and hesitant speakers that cause speech. a person can achieve fluency in the spoken language when he has a great knowledge of english 234 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj vocabulary and pronunciations to speak fluently and accurately. fluency in speaking means that speaking can be articulated and carried out naturally or language is used more easily and accurately. speak fluently makes so few mistakes in speaking that it is very easy to understand the other person and to understand some of what is being said to him/her in normal and casual contexts (gawi, 2015). g. comprehension comprehension is a complex cognitive process in which the reader deliberately interacts with text in an attempt to derive meaning, using a series of strategic actions to extract and construct understanding from language. speaking comprehension is a combination of several components, between which coherence allows the listener to understand the entire speech, not only this side or that side (phuong, 2018). speaking comprehension is an understanding of what the author is attached to in the text. from the reader's perspective, the factors that influence speaking comprehension are the metalinguistic background, intuition, goals, and language aptitude (liu, 2014). h. communicative language teaching (clt) communicative language teaching (clt) is a teaching method that has been widely used by language teachers because it focuses on developing students' communicative competencies and also emphasizes interaction as a teaching tool. it is declared the best practice in english language teaching (elt) because it is able to develop students' communicative abilities (desai, 2015). it was then further developed in the early 1980s by canale and swain (sreehari, 2012). i. games on communicative language teaching many of the elements in the game include rules, learning, relaxation and competition. the characteristics of the game include time and place limitations, fun, uncertainty, non-productivity, rule by rules, and fiction, accompanied by an awareness of different realities (pequeno & seziau, 2002). games can activate and mobilize students' mental capacities so that students are motivated to learn. this also applies to shy students who can participate by putting aside fear and shame because of fun activities. games also use language that is meaningful and useful in practical contexts. this means that games can grab students 'attention, encourage student participation and practice all language skills, as well as increase students' desire to learn more, madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 235 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj which transforms the classroom into a more challenging and engaging environment (al-jarrah et al., 2019). the game increases learner interaction and cooperation because players want to score points and win. as a result, they are motivated to participate in activities in the group or pairs. this context makes them more willing to ask questions, communicate, discuss, and think more creatively about how to use english. games also help improve language acquisition. because motivation and interaction are driven by games, students can acquire skills and absorb lesson content more enthusiastically than when learning through other methods. while playing, students realize that they have to use language creatively if they want others to understand them. finally, games can improve student achievement in terms of test scores, communication skills, vocabulary, and other language skills (al-jarrah et al., 2019). games are considered a very useful and important strategy for stimulating language acquisition. games are interesting and fun activities that have a set of rules and are played individually or in groups. the use of games is to attract students to learn english because it is fun and makes them want to have an experiment, discover, and interact with their environment (klimova, 2015). games in language teaching are activities that allow students to interact, think, and learn language through physical or mental activities. the game must be fun, comfortable, comfortable, and as interesting as usually this situation will invite students to concentrate on learning activities (kiryk, 2010). classified games into more detailed forms which are composed of both the elements defining linguistic and communicative games, i.e. ordering, arranging games, sorting, guessing games, information gap games, matching games, searching games, exchanging games, labeling games, role-playing games, and board games (wang et al., 2011). the other classification of games has been classified into nine categories: structured games that provide an experience of the use of particular patterns of syntax in communication, spelling games, vocabulary games in which the learners’ attention is focused mainly on words, number games, pronunciation games, writing games, listenand-do games, role play, discussion, and miming games (al-jarrah et al., 2019). j. role games on speaking skill communicative games have an impact on teaching speaking skills and illustrate how communicative games influence the speaking skills of students in junior high school which is carried out in two cycles using collaborative 236 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj action research with several english teachers. communicative games have contributed positively to the teaching and learning process. communicative games can increase students' enthusiasm and motivation to learn. games have an impact on positively increasing student active participation, self-confidence, and fluency in speaking skills. good teaching and learning strategies can create pleasant conditions and reduce boredom and stress in the learning process (dewi et al., 2016). learning using games is collaborative learning. collaborative activities can help students construct their knowledge. reading skills are characterized by fluency in conversation, discussion, group work, role-playing, and games, the accuracy that can be proven through the functions of both grammar and vocabulary, pronunciation as identifiable through segmental phonemes, suprasegmental phonemes, and the ability to speak in certain contexts such as oral presentations, speak english for academic purposes, and interview (lumettu & runtuwene, 2018). game is the newest consideration for foreign language teachers is to make students use communicative language. after the realization of communicative competence, activities and techniques are task-oriented and lead students to use language creatively. task-based games are examples of better communicative activities in grammar teaching. play and competition provided by games increase student motivation (haryanto, 2015). method a. respondents this is one group pretest-posttest design research was conducted in islamic elementary school, yogyakarta. the study population was grade 6 elementary school students. the research sample consisted of 68 students in 2019. the sampling technique used was total sampling. b. instruments and procedure this study used an instrument in the form of a game card for guessing games. the game card contains a picture and a question that will be randomly selected by the students. then the students will guess what is in the picture. each picture is in pairs then students are asked to find a pair. each pair asked and answered according to the question on the card. the teacher's assessment madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 237 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj consists of 5 measured aspects, namely grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, and comprehension in speaking english. thus, an assessment form is needed from the five aspects of speaking ability with 5 assessment categories from poor to excellent with a score of 1-5. this research was conducted for 3 months in two cycles through four stages: action plan, implement, observe, and reflection. the researcher acted as the practitioner and the observer was the teacher of english. the main of the collaborative teacher was observing the activities done by the researcher and student participation in the teaching activity. in observing, the researcher used observation sheets, tests, and field notes. the speaking skill assessment was carried out before and after the intervention. c. data analysis the collected data were analyzed statistically with descriptive analysis to find the mean speaking skill between the posttest and pre-test. furthermore, a hypothesis test was carried out to determine the differences in the results of the speaking posttest and pre-test using the paired t-test if the data were normally distributed and the wilcoxon test if the data were not normally distributed on a significant level of 5%. results and discussion a. comparison of the speaking skill mean scores on pre-test and post-test this study measures speaking skills which consist of aspects of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, and comprehension, and all aspects of speaking skills between pre-test and post-test are presented in figure 1. grammar describes the ability to use grammatical rules when speaking. vocabulary describes the skills to use proper vocabulary in speaking. pronunciation describes the ability to pronounce words according to their meaning. fluency describes the fluency in speaking english. comprehensively describes the ability to capture the conversation of friends/teachers in english. 238 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 1: histogram graph of the mean speaking skill between pre-test and post-test all aspects of communication skills show that the mean of communication skills on the post-test is greater than that of the pre-test. these results indicate that the intervention carried out in the form of learning english using the guessing game method has been able to improve all aspects of the students' speaking skills. the speaking skill that increased the most was in the vocabulary aspect, while the speaking skill that increased the lowest was comprehension. vocabulary skills have improved from moderate to good. b. the results of the normality test results of kolmogorov-smirnov with lilliefors correction normality tests for all speaking skill aspects are shown in table 1. table 1: kolmogorov-smirnov normality test result variable statistik df p values pronunciation pre-test .422 68 .000 post-test .342 68 .000 vocabulary pre-test .401 68 .000 post-test .402 68 .000 grammar pre-test .314 68 .000 post-test .457 68 .000 fluency pre-test .419 68 .000 post-test .408 68 .000 comprehension pre-test .445 68 .000 pos-tets .359 68 .000 speaking skill pre-test .180 68 .000 post-test .164 68 .000 madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 239 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj it is clear that all speaking skill aspects have a p-value are less than 0.05. thus, all data are not normally distributed. thus, hypothesis testing is done by using the wilcoxon test. c. hypothesis test results hypothesis testing was conducted to test the significance of the difference in the mean score of speaking skills between the pre-test and posttest using the wilcoxon test with a significance level of 5%. the wilcoxon test results are shown in table 2. the speaking skill aspect in the form of pronunciation resulted in a pvalue of 0.000 which was lower than 0.05 so that h) was rejected. this means that there is a significant difference in pronunciation scores between the pretest and posttest. the speaking skill aspect in the form of vocabulary resulted in a p-value of 0.000 which was lower than 0.05 so that h0 was rejected. this means that there is a significant difference in vocabulary scores between the pre-test and posttest. table 2: wilcoxon test result variable mean z p values pronunciation pre-test 2.88 -8.124 0.000 post-test 3.85 vocabulary pre-test 3.07 -7.606 0.000 post-test 4.06 grammar pre-test 2.65 -1.000 0.317 post-test 2.66 fluency pre-test 2.62 -2.449 0.014 post-test 2.71 comprehension pre-test 2.26 -1.732 0.083 post-test 2.31 speaking skill pre-test 13.49 -7.590 0.000 post-test 15.59 the speaking skill aspect in the form of vocabulary resulted in a p-value of 0.317 which was greater than 0.05 so that h0 was accepted. this means that there is not a significant difference in grammar scores between the pretest and posttest. 240 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the speaking skill aspect in the form of fluency resulted in a p-value of 0.014 which was lower than 0.05 so that h0 was rejected. this means that there is a significant difference in fluency scores between the pre-test and posttest. the speaking skill aspect in the form of comprehension resulted in a pvalue of 0.083 which was greater than 0.05 so that h0 was accepted. this means that there is not a significant difference in comprehension scores between the pre-test and posttest. overall speaking skill resulted in a p-value of 0.000 which was lower than 0.05 so that h0 was rejected. this means that there is a significant difference in speaking skill scores between the pre-test and posttest. d. discussion overall, it shows that the speaking skills of elementary school students differ significantly between before and after learning using guessing games. speaking skills improved after learning using guessing games. speaking skills that improved significantly after learning with guessing games included vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency, but not grammar and comprehension. in this study, teaching english using guessing games contained rules such as not being allowed to mock, cheering on friends who made the wrong answer, but on the contrary, they were given rules to give appreciation to each friend who answered with applause. this process also contributed to encouragement in the learning process using guessing games. students become motivated to attend lessons happily and do not feel anxious and worried about doing them even though they cannot. it means that the child dares to try to pronounce the english word. this research is relevant to the results of research in wang et al. (2011) that playing games can motivate them more than students with poor english skills. regarding the anxiety factor due to peer pressure, the findings reveal that high-level students have significantly less anxiety due to peers than lowlevel students, which indicates that students with low abilities are still afraid to express themselves. games can motivate, master vocabulary, and reduce their anxiety from peer pressure. students feel comfortable and confident when they are produced oral assignments, especially during game activities (leo & cely, 2010). madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 241 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj communicative games have also succeeded in increasing students' opportunities to use english. it can be seen that most of the students could have a dialogue with others using several expressions. communicative games also make for a lively class. it can be seen that students appear confident and comfortable when they speak english and they don't get bored of joining class activities. by implementing a variety of communicative games, students are expected not to get bored with it. at the end of the cycle, the students' speaking ability can be improved. this activity involves students working in groups and pairs. in this study, vocabulary also increased with learning games because they heard what their friends said, which they then recorded. they were also asked to chat with pairs of friends according to the questions on the cards which made them apply the vocabulary in conversations that made the students remember them even more. the conversation is carried out between students so that the atmosphere becomes relaxed compared to that of the teacher. results from huyen & nga (2003) also reported that a positive attitude in the way that games can help them to learn vocabulary. students can learn newer words and they can apply words in a relaxed and comfortable environment. students get the motivation to speak english; the students have the opportunity to interact between classes. the results of this study increased fluency speaking skills after learning for 3 months of students where students were required to speak when the english learning process was by the rules set in the game. students are asked to speak according to the picture on the card which was taken by the students randomly. this is relevant with mudofir et al. (2019) based on the analysis that the learning process using the learning role-playing strategy can improve their english speaking fluency skills in the first cycle, their english speaking fluency skills improved significantly. besides, students are very interested and happy with the implementation of the learning strategy role-playing to improve students' english skills as shown by the results of the student questionnaire. educational games help create more interest, encourage a learning atmosphere, and reduce difficulties in teaching and learning grammar, making it easier for students to learn from experience (al-jarrah et al., 2019). however, in this study, grammar increased but not significantly. this is because teaching emphasizes speaking which prioritizes the courage to try and grammar is also learned in the realm of making sentences that will be conveyed when asking and answering questions with friends. the results of 242 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the study also showed an increase in the comprehension of speaking skills after the learning process with guessing games, but it was not significant because basically the learning process was also short and there were still many students who uttered inappropriate pronunciations and whose vocabulary was not fully known so that students became less comprehensive with such short learning. however, overall it can be stated that the learning process using guessing games has been effective in improving elementary students' speaking skills, especially about vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency of speaking. playing games is an effective way to promote students' vocabulary acquisition as it helps students to learn words by acting or recognizing objects. playing games is effective in teaching english to young learners (wang et al., 2011). overall, games can improve students' speaking skills. as reported by freitas (2019), games increase student motivation, are interesting, and cause changes in behavior to be more active in learning which have an impact on the results of good speaking skills. however, with regard to the aspects of speaking skills, guessing games in this study were not effective in improving grammar and comprehension. this can be related to the focus of what is conveyed in the game. a guessing game that emphasizes writing structures. this means that basically the improvement of speaking skills is not only related to interest, motivation and pleasant atmosphere conditions, but it must also be studied carefully, what you want to convey in game play, the target to be achieved and the minimum time required must be studied again. in various further studies. conclusion learning using communicative games through guessing games can increase interaction, motivation and familiarize children with speaking and speaking in english. in addition, children also feel comfortable and are not afraid to try because conversations are carried out with friends so that the use of guessing games has been effective in improving elementary students' speaking skills in pronunciation, vocabulary, and fluency, but not in grammar and understanding. limitations in the material presented and the short learning time can be the cause. this research implies that guessing games can be an alternative learning method for elementary school children to improve their english speaking skills, especially with regard to pronunciation, madya, s. & meningsih, f.a., guessing game effectiveness for improving 243 student speaking skill in elementary school https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj vocabulary and fluency. limitations of this study were only carried out for 3 months and did not include the control group. further studies can compare with a control group and can evaluate over a longer period. in addition, it is necessary to develop learning materials using games to achieve more effective learning. references al-jarrah, j. m., waari, o. t., talafhah, r. h., & al-jarrah, t. m. (2019). improving english grammar achievement through educational games among eleventh grade students in east jerusalem. international journal of academic research in progressive education and development, 8(1), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarped/v8-i1/5529 alqahtani, m. (2015). the importance of vocabulary in language learning and how to be taught. international journal of teaching and education, iii(3), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.20472/te.2015.3.3.002 brand, c., & götz, s. (2011). fluency versus accuracy in advanced spoken learner language: a multi-method approach. international journal of corpus linguistics, 16, 255–257. brown. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. pearson education. copland, f., & garton, s. (2014). key themes and future directions in teaching english to young learners: introduction to the special issue. elt journal, 68(3), 223–230. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccu030 cummins, j. 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(2020). the bingo effect on english speaking ability. in proceedings ofthe 1st international conference on recent innovations (icri 2018), icri 2018, 275–283. https://doi.org/10.5220/0009928802750283 freitas, s. de. (2019). are games effective learning tools? a review of educational games. journal of educational technology & society, 22(2), 14–25. gawi, e. m. k. (2015). towards a better fluency in english as a foreign language : a case study of sudanese students at sub rural secondary schools. international journal on studies in english language and literature, 3(4), 63–71. gilakjani, a. p. (2012). the significance of pronunciation in english language teaching. english language teaching, 5(4), 96–107. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n4p96 haryanto, s. (2015). teaching english grammar with clt and explanation method. wahana akademika, 2(2), 3. https://doi.org/10.21580/wa.v2i2.373 hidayatullah, m. s. 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(2015). the role of feedback in efl classes. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 199(august 2015), 172–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.502 leo, u. ., & cely, v. e. (2010). encouraging teenagers to improve speaking. skills trough games in columbian. profile, 12(1), 11–31. leong, l.-m., & ahmadi, s. m. (2017). an analysis of factors influencing learners’ english speaking skill. international journal of research in english education, 2(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.18869/acadpub.ijree.2.1.34 liu, s. (2014). l2 reading comprehension: exclusively l2 competence or different competences? journal of language teaching and research, 5(5), 1085–1091. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.5.5.1085-1091 lumettu, a., & runtuwene, t. l. (2018). developing the students’ english speaking ability through impromptu speaking method. journal of physics: conference series, 953(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/17426596/953/1/012035 mahripah, s. 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(2018). can using picture description in speaking sessions help improve efl students ’ coherence in speaking ? european journal of foreign language teaching, 3(3), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1310086 246 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 227–246 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj rusiana. (2016). teaching english for young learners through traditional. journal of language and literature, 10(2), 193–200. sreehari, p. (2012). communicative language teaching: possibilities and problems. english language teaching, 5(12), 87–93. stojkoviĥ, m. k., & jerotijeviĥ, d. m. (2011). reasons for using or avoiding games in an efl classroom. 1st international conference on foreign language teaching and applied linguistics may 5-7 2011 sarajevo. valipour, v., & aidinlou, n. a. (2014). the effect of language games on learning english listening-speaking skills of iranian pre-school. indian journal of fundamental and applied life sciences, 4(2), 647–650. wang, y.-j., shang, h.-f., & briody, p. (2011). investigating the impact of using games in teaching children english. international journal of learning and development, 1(1), 127. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v1i1.1118 is soeguapranata catholic university ready for international classes? heny hartono i abstract: soegijapranata catholic university which is one of the leading private universities in semarang. central java, is plamring to run international classes. the idea of establishing the international classes should be supported by good preparation of all components involved in the teaching anli lea ing process. rutlning a class in english will create some ew and perhaps unexpected problems. as the first step in preparing the international classes. soegijapranata catholic university has held a teuher training for international classes preparation. the teacher training could be used as a reflection to answer the question: is soegijapranata catholic university ready for the international classes? key words: international classes. soegijapranata catholic university. teaching and learning process. the importance of english language as an international level communication means have made a lot of universities in non-english speaking countries start introducing english language as the introductory language in the process of knowledge transferring besides the first or the national language used in those countries. indonesia, which is one of the world developing countries in asia is also facing the new globalisation era in which english would be a 'must' for those specially involved in the country's development from academic sector. i. heny hartono, ss. is a lecturer of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. semarang 2 celt, volume i. number i. december2001 : 1-9. why english is a must ? as we can not avoid. most knowledge is transferred from the more advanced countries by means of a language. sapir (1921 :8) says that language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions. and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. meanwhile. in essay on language, hall (1968:58) also defines language as an institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral auditory symbols. english has been spoken as an international language by nearly three hundred millions people in the united states of america, canada, britain, ireland, australia, the caribbean, and many other places (leech and svartvik, 1974:22). considering the other function of a language to build social relationship (spolsky,1998:3) english has been also used more intensively in non english speaking countries including indonesia. for some countries like indonesia, english is not spoken as the second language. it is still a foreign language which is only spoken by certain people. therefore, there are many indonesian people who are not familiar or even do not understand eng ish at all. it is a fact that to make the people familiar with english is not an easy task. considering. the position of english as a foreign language, ind':mesian people learn english for numerous reasons. however, the most reason is because english is in the school curriculum. it is the government policy to put english as a compulsory lesson in junior and senior high school. therefore, in fact. most indonesian have started learning english since they were in junior high school or even elementary school. ignoring the fact that indonesian people have started learning english since they were young, some learners say that english is a difficult subject. usually, most learners who say that english is difficult do not have a good motivation in learning english which results in unsatisfied achievement. it can be understood since sometimes this situation makes some students work under pressure. they have to learn english because they have no other choice. meanwhile, some other english learners have better motivation to learn english. they usually go to english courses to learn and improve their english. this group usually has certain targets to reach dealing with their willingness to learn english. they may have a plan to work, study or visit other countries where they have to use english to communicate with others. some of these people may be interested in learning other cultures which requires them to master english first. h. hartono, is soegijapranata catholic university ready .l out of those two facts about english learning described above. university as the fonnal academic institution have duties to prepare qualified human resources who have capability both in their field and english language so that after they graduate they are ready to compete in the real world either in national or international level. soegijapranata catholic university, one of the private leading universities in semarang, central java, is also preparing its graduates to be competitive scholars. nonenglish department students must take english in the centre of language training for two semesters. those students will be given english for general purposes and english for specific purposes. meanwhile, the english department students are supposed to use english actively in their classes because the subjects are delivered in english. considering the fact that soegijapranata catholic university has been one of the leading universities in semarang and it also has the faculty of letters with its english department, the idea of establishing international classes at this university is just a great idea. however, there is still a big question hanging around this idea: is soegijapranata catholic university ready for the international classes? anyway, this is just a briuiant idea that should be supported by all the university components including the lecturers, the students, and the given materials. perhaps it is better to analyse the components mentioned in the previous paragraph before the university really starts the international classes. it is true that to run the international classes, soegijapranata catholic university must have excellent students with good english. however, perhaps, the more important thing to prepare in the first step is the lecturers who will be actively taking important role in the teaching process. we should admit that not all the lecturers in this university have good capability in english language. in average, those lecturers'basic english is not bad, in fact, most of them have good basic english although they are not active users. however, university needs to give a kind of teacher training for them considering most of them have no experience to teach in english. the rector of the university recommended the faculty of letters to prepare and hold an english course in international classes preparation for non-english department lecturers. therefore, the faculty of letters held the program from april until july 200 i. the participants who came from numerous faculties were grouped in small classes according to their field background and placement test achievement. 4 celt, volume i. number i. december 2001 : 1-9. basicajly. the participants were put in two different kinds of classes: a. eap class (english for academic purposes class) this class was for those whose english was quite good and ready to deal with the preparation for the international classes itself. b. egp class (english for general purposes class) this class was for those whose english still needed 'help' or in other words, they still needed another preparation before they went with the international class preparation. the participants in this class got integrated course material to improve their language ability. actually the names eap and egp given to those classes were only to differentiate and to put the participants with the same level in the same class. what is interesting to see in each class is the participants numerous education background. some of the panicipants were s i graduates. some were masters from indonesia and the rest were masters from abroad. another fact is almost all of them have ever taken english course before. the program was designed as well to give the participants more chance to speak english because the english skill wh' ch was going to be emphasized in this program was speaking. each panicipant was gi ven a chance to demonstrate their ability in using english through class presentation and group discussion. for about three months and a half the panicipants came intensively to this training and worked with these following materials: a. english as a foreign language in indonesia b. autonomy and independence in language learning c. presentation techniques d. laboratory work e. integrated course f. lesson plan g. microteaching microteaching is used a technique for professional renection which is expected to help teachers get a better understanding about the process of teaching and learning. microteaching also provides teachers with opportunities to explore and renect on their own and others'teaching styles and to acquire new teaching techniques. h. hartono, is soegijapranata catholic university ready 5 essam hanna wahba in her article about microteaching stated that: besides being an effective technique for professional growth. microteaching as a tool for reflection. helps teachers scrutinize their own teaching in order to discover their strength and weakness. reflecting on their own teaching styles enables teachers to focus on certain areas of teaching and to view them form different perspectives. it also makes teachers conscious of developing their own skills and strategies in order to understand their teaching. through microteaching teachers are able to pursue self-initiated. self-directed. and self-observed growth. this growth comes about because teachers are able to criticize. either positively or negatively. their own work" (forum. volume 37. number 4. october-december 1999) during the teacher training, the writer (who also taught both eap and egp classes) observed and finally found that the achievement in language progress gained by the participants was not the same from one to another. ignoring the different basic language acquiring between the students in eap and egp class. in almos every class, there were fou r groups of learners : a. learners who were very good ~tluent) in speaking but weak in written english b. learners who did not speak a lot but did well in written english c. learners who perfonned well both in spoken and written english d. learners who were weak both in spoken and written english learners who were in group a and c were usually easy to express their ideas orally even spontaneously. these groups always enjoyed every class discussion and individual presentation. they were also very good in answering questions and giving reasons. some of the learners in these groups were those who got their masters abroad. meanwhile, those who were in group b would perform well in class presentation if they were given a chance to prepare it before. they might be good in delivering their presentation but they often got nervous when somebody interrupted their presentation or gave them 'unexpected' questions. they hardly participated in class discussion except they had to answer questions given to them by their colleagues. learners who were in group d often complained that they could not follow the sessions. some of them were lack of self-confidence, some had 6 celt, volume i. number i. december 2001 : 1-9. no talent in language and some others were just lazy to improve their english by having self-study instead of merely rely on the tutors in class. learning from those groups of learners above, it is interesting trying to see some issues behind the existence of those groups in every language class. at least. the writer finds two factors which can be the reasons for the existence of those groups of learners: language learning background a. indonesian people especially the javanese are very self-conscious when asked to express their view or opinion in public. it is also true in language class although their english abilities are comparatively good . some historians said that before indonesia gained its independence in 1945. it had been colonialized for such a long time by other countries which made indonesian people lose their freedom including the freedom to express their own ideas. this fact also drives the language learners to a situation when they prefer not to speak in english because they are afraid of making mistakes and being ridiculed. b. the freedom to spear and the independence in learning is also .nuch influenced by the political system of the country. in liberal countries. people are easier to express their ideas and arguments while in a country like indonesia sometimes people are afraid to express their own view. therefore, there have not been many learners who have a self-study. they tend to wait and rely on their tutors or teachers in class. c. the teaching of english in junior and senior high school is very book-centred in which the learners learns a lot about grammar and reading from a text book. speaking practice is only done through text reading. the worst thing, the teachers always delivered english in indonesian. this fact makes english learners tend to be english passive users. d. english has been learnt as a science not a skill. students (learners) tend to memorize the english grammar as a formula when they are having a test. the final target of learning english is to be successful in the test. this kind of learning has made english learners weak in speaking and listening but perhaps good in grammar. h. hartono, is soegijapranala catholic university ready 7 learning styles reid (as cited in kang,1999:6) defined learning style as internally based characteristics of individuals for the intake or understanding of new information. further. reid also said that people learn differently and at different paces because of their biological and psychological differences. the choice of learning style by a learner can stimulate him/her to achieve the best progress. however. since learning style is also influenced by psychological factors. the achievement gained by a learner can not be guaranteed. learners who enjoy having a lot of conversation and speaking practice will tend to be english active users. these learners are usually those who are easy going and extrovert. on the other hand. learners who enjoy reading and writing practice will tend to be english passive users. the combination of those learning styles would contribute a lot to the best achievement by learners. out of the facts described above. actually as ~uggested by gardner. every human being can apply the multiple intelligences when learning a language. gardner said : it is of the utmost imporlance that we recognize and nurture all of rhe varied human inte lligences. and all of the combinations of intelligenl"es. if we recognize this. i think we will have at least a better chance of dealing with the many problems we face in the world" (forum. volume 36/1998) gardner himself suggested eight intelligences which should be applied when learning a language which is called multiple intelligences : a. bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence the ability to use the body to express ideas and feelings to solve problems. b. intrapersonal intelligence the ability to understand ourselves-strength.weakness. moods. desires, and intentions. c. interpersonal intelligence the ability to understand another person's moods. feelings. motivations. and intentions. d. linguistic intelligence the ability to use words effectively both orally and in writing 8 celt, volume i, number i, december2001 : 1-9. e. logical-mathematical intelligence the ability to use numbers effectively and reasons well including the principles of cause and effect f. musical intelligence the ability to sense rhythm, pitch, and melody g. spatial intelligence the ability to sense form, space, colour, line, and shape h. naturalist intelligence the ability to recognize and classify plants, minerals, animals, and all variety of flora and fauna. by applying those multiple intelligences, some problems dealing with language learning could be overcome or at least minimized. the teacher training program for non-english department lecturers which has been held recently at the faculty of leners soegijapranata catholic university, could be used as a reflection to answer the question : is soegijapranata catholic university semarang ready for international classes ? the four groups of english learners as mentioned and discussed above would be possibly found in the international classes. learning from the teacher training program for international classes preparation, it is really not a bad idea for soegijapranata catholic university to prepare the best teaching and learning strategies for the international classes. then, the success of the international classes entirely depends on all the components involved in the teaching and learning process and so does the answer to the question hanging around the idea of having the international classes. h. hartono, is soegijapranata catholic university ready 9 references benson. phil and voller, peter. 1997. autonomy and independence in language learning. london and new york: longman. forum jollrtlal. volume 36. april-june 1998. applying multiple intelligences in perservice and inservice tefl education program. hall. ra. 1968. an essay on language. philadelphia: chilton books. hartono. heny. 2001. english/or academic purposes module . semarang:faculty of letters soegijapranata catholic university. kang. shumin. 1999. learning styles implication for esuefl instruction. forum journal. volume 37. number 4. pp 6-11 sapir. edward. 1921. language. new york: harcourt brace. spolsky. bernard. socioliguistics. oxford: oxford universily press. wahba. essam hanna. 1999. microteaching. forum journal. volume 37. number 4. logo: y. hartadi, cau-bau-kan: a story of the contribution oftionghoa 108 professionalism of the 110nghoa is seen on the economy life, trading, and industries. these are truly professionals although some are only depending on the powerful people of the country. if we keep on being fussy and doubtful over 110nghoa, indonesian nation will never be a great nation. by reading the novel or watching the movie, we hope that people will be more aware of the danger of stereotypes. we hope that we can separate individual deeds from group deeds. omuograpby coppel. charles a. 1ionghoa indonesia dalam krisis. jakarta: pustaka sinar harapan. 1994. darma. budi.lroni si kembarsiam. jakarta: kalam jumal kebudayaan no. 18. p. 171.2001. lippmann, walter. opini umum.antara rekayasa dan realitas.jakarta: yayasan obor indonesia. 1998 lohanda, mona. the kapitan cina of batavia 1837-/942. jakarta: penerbit djambatan, 2001. pejuang ltd tetap wa~a kelas dua (tan joe hok). harian ljmum kompas. monday, 29'" april 2002, p. 6. scollon, ron and scollon, suzanne wong. intercultural communication.a discourse approach. massachussers: blackwell publishers inc., 2001 siddique, sharon and suryadinata, leo. bumiputera and pribumi. nasionalisme (pribumisme) ekonomi di malaysia dan indonesia. jakarta: pt pustaka lp3es indonesia, 1999. suara merdeka daily. sunday, june 9, 2002 p. xii remy sylado: jangan berjarak dari orang cina. suryadinata. leo. mencar; identitas nasional dari tjoe bou san sampai yap thiam hien. jakarta: penerbit lp3es, 1990 suryadinata, leo. poutik 7ionghoa peranakan di jawa. jakarta: pustaka sinar harapan, 1994. sylado, remy. ca-bau-kan. jakarta: kepustakaan populer gramedia (kpg), 4111 ed., july 2001. toer, pramoedya ananta. hoakiao di indonesia. jakarta: penerbit garba budaya. 1998. walla 7ionghoa membawa profesionalisme. harlan umum kompas. monday, 6111 may 2002. cabau kan.pdf logo: comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit ekawati marhaenny dukut' abstract: popular culture by definition includes customs. beliefs and practices. which is massed produced and shared by a sociel): it can include a best selling magazine. film. food or drink products. it is widely enjoyed by the society because of its cheap price alld meets the consumer s needs. comic strips. is olle oft/lose products. reading comic strips is full and enjoyable because it does i/ot need full collcelllratioll or extra money as a way of passing time. it is massed produced cheaply ill popular magazines. newspapers and films. although it is a way of passing tine. it is also a way of learning about the american h;sto1)~ politics. ec(jnom>~ society and spirit of hones i)'. freedom and the hope of a better future. the comic strip. to say briefly, is a reflection of the american spirit. key words: comic strips. popular culture. american spirit. introduction culture is a term often used to reflect fine an or the "highbrow" (wilson, 1995:4) of activities and interests that only highly educated professionals do. the anthropologists, ember and ember (1985:485) funher explain that culture is a set of the learned behaviors and beliefs that are characteristic of a particular society or situation. on a similar view the linguist, lado (1981: 111) defines culture as "structured systems of patterned behavior". in other words, it is everything that occurs in a society all of the customs and practices that are handed down from one generation to another generation. i. drs. ekawati marhaenny dukut, m.hum. is a lecturer at the faculty of letters. soegijapranata catholic university, semarang. 64 celt, volume 1. number i. december 200 1 : 63-77 culture is categorized into elite culture, popular culture and mass culture (wilson, 1995:5). he explains that the elite culture consists of fine art, literature and classical music and is sometimes referred to as "high culture". popular culture, on the other hand, is basically the culture of everyone in a society. mukerji and schudson (1991 :3) refer to it as the "beliefs and practices, and the objects through which they are organized, that are widely shared among a population. here, wilson continues by quoting ray b. browne which states popular culture as the cultural world around us our attitudes, habits and actions: how we act and why we act; what we eat. wear; our buildings. roads and means of travel. ourentertainmaent, sports; our politics and religion. medical practices; our beliefs and activities and what shapes and controls them. it is. in other words. to us what water to fish; it is the world we live in. historically, in the nineteenth century, the term popular culture has taken over the termfolk culture. this means that popular culture belongs to the peasant's, the non-elite's, or the ordinary people's culture. because nowadays, it refers to the mass production of for example: cheap paperback novels, levi's je:.ms and mcdonald's hamburgers popular cultu~'e is used interchangeably with mass culture that are mass produced and shared through the mass media. in his lecture, dr. j. david slocum of new york university (27 june 200 i), american popular culture includes the films on the cinema or television, country music, quilt making, sports, gambling, food, fashion, quiz, drinking, the newspaper and magazine articles, talk shows on the radio and television. thus, if this is related to brown's and wilson's opinion above cartoons which appear as films or comic strips in the newspaper or magazines which are mass produced is also a part of popular culture. comic strips comic strip characters are usually drawn on students' pencils, erasers, lunch boxes, advertisements and shown on television or newspapers so people can see their comical aspects. its themes are mostly about children and pet frolics (hllp:llwww.geocities.com/sohoi5537ihist.htm) that adults take it for granted and consequently from an academic view point, veron (1976:298) stipulates that not many scholars are interested in making use of it as their research project. in my opinion, this is odd. fortunately, berger (1976:298) e.m. dukut, comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit 6s and canaday (1970:234) supports this opinion by pointing out that popular culture is bulldozing its way through the grooves of the academe because graduate students of american studies are seriously studying this important dimension of culture. in addition to the feeling of enjoyment, reading comic strips in a political sense can deliver critical points about a society's heated problem. dialogues, which exist in the comic strips, can show the relationship of those being criticized and the one doing the criticizing. there is a suggestion that the criticizer hopes to find the answer to the heated problem faced. in other words, comic strips are not just an artistic creation that shows off its humorous aspects but it also contains a plea, a suggestion or an advice of the ethical standards of a society. when digested in depth, american studies scholars believe that reading a comic strip is one way of learning the american culture. it can show the creator's world, which reflects the cultural happenings of the society, the economy and the political situation. this is in line with smith (1960:7) who believes that a study of a particular work of an is "at once biographical, historical. sociological, and literary". who are the ost popular authors and what forms of cornic strip are popular? what is its relationship to the cartoons? how did comic strips enter into the american culture? how has it developed itself? how does it reflect the american spirit? answers to these questions are among those that will be discussed in the following paragraphs. types of cartoons according to the microsoft ® encarta ® 98 encyclopedia (1997) and the encyclopedia americana: international edition (1978), the cartoon is a drawing made on paper in preparation for and in the same size as a painting, tapestry, mosaic, or piece of stained glass. since the 18405 the term has come to also mean any humorous. satirical. or opinionated drawing, typically one printed in a newspaper or magazine, with or without a short text. rather than the drawing, the text cast within the cartoon as speech or set as caption may be the bearer of the joke or the witticism. the earliest cartoon, which has been preserved were by the italian painter, michael, who in 15 i 6 drew the wall tapestry of the sistine chapel of rome. the other well-known artist was the italian, leonardo da vinci with his the virgin and child with saint john the artist and saint anne in 1499. 66 celt, volume i, number i, december 2001 : 63-77 depending on their purpose, most cartoons fall into one of several different categories: editorial, gag, illustrative, animated cartoons and comic strips. editoriav political cartoons the editorial cartoons are also referred to political cartoons, which serve as a visual commentary on current events. they may communicate the political viewpoint of the canoonist or add depth to an editorial opinion article in a newspaper or magazine. often a cartoonist would deliberately diston or make an exaggeration of a person's feature in a caricature, to make fun off well-known figures to sway the public opinion. for politicians, humorous stories and witty repanee have often been as effective means of public communication as serious discussion and debate (clark, 1977:424). henceforth, it is understood that there is no better way to criticize the political system than to put them in cartoons. america's well-known canoonists of the editoriav political section are among others: thomas nast, boardman robinson, bill mauldin, jeff macnelly, and mike luckovich. an example of the american caricature cartoonist's work can be seen in figure i below, where david levine exaggerates rudyard kipling (the encyclope ia american: international ed., 1978:660) and albert hirschfeld's satire of franklin d. roosevelt (the encyclopedia american: international ed., 1.978:661). -,. ...... __ ......-" .... , ..... 0a .. """" ........ ·_ ....... a.... .. ..... -...-."""_.'1 f===-====-· figure i e.m. dukut, comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit 67 gag cartoons gag cartoons, consist of a single panel and are often accompanied by a caption, usually placed outside the panel. the characters would appear only once, rather than recurring as in other types of cartoons. it usually makes fun of groups of people rather than lampooning individuals. they are often found in the new yorker magazine and on greeting cards. the well-known gag cartoonists are james thurber, charles adams and peter arno. illustrative cartoons illustrative cartoons are used in conjunction with advertising or learning materials. they illuminate important points, highlight special aspects of a new product, or give visual representations of processes to reinforce an advertisement or educational text. for example. charles schulz's peanuts began to appear in life insurance advertisements in 1985. in a similar way. toucan sam became a trademark for froot loops cereal. animated cartoons the animated cartoons are really those funny and comical cartoon creatures that we see on television everyday. most of the time the characters are animals, which can speak and are lovable, and surprisingly intellectual that they have human qualities in them. because of these features, children enjoy watching them and it is a good way for the cartoonist to indirectly give some moral teaching to them. one of the most enjoyed pop cartoons of 1997 was walt disney's lion king. comic strips finally, the comic strips are actually narratives told by means of a series of drawings arranged in horizontal lines, or strips or rectangles called pallels and read like a text from left to right. the term applies specifically to comics found in newspapers. characteristically, it usually depicts the adventures of one or more characters in a limited time sequence. the dialogue is represented by words encircled by a line, called a balloon, which issues from the mouth or head of the character speaking. sometimes captions also appear. black and white comics usually appear in daily newspapers, and its feature occupies a single strip. the colored ones usually appear in sunday editions in a special section and may occupy part or all of a page. 68 celt, volume i, number i, december2001 : 63-77 an example of the washington post's sunday edition of comic strips can be seen in the appendix of this article. whereas, the history of america's first comic strips, its development, impact on society and other media is discussed in the following paragraphs. origin and development of comic strips some characteristics of the comic strip, including the balloon are derived from the cartoons of english caricaturist of the 18lh and 19111 centuries such as william hogarth, thomas rowlandson. james gillray. and george cruikshank. from the beginning of i 8890s the comic strips appeals both to young and adult readers. the encyclopedia american: international ed. describes that comic strips passes through four distinct periods: first phase the initial phase marks the emergence of the firs t great newspaper comic stri p artist such as richard felton outcalt and james guilford swinnerton. these artists began to apply their cartl)oning abilities to fulfill th~ needs of a press that sought mass readership. the man named outcalt to the history of american comics is the first american who draws the essential characteristics of a comic strip. his first series, the hogan s alley was first published on 5 may 1895, in the new york sunday world. the setting of the cartoon is usually a squalid city tenement that has backyards filled with dogs and cats. tough characters and ragamuffins. one of the urchins is a flap-eared bald-headed. oriental-looking child with a quizzical, yet knowing smile. he is often dressed in a long. dirty nightshirt. which outcalt used as a placard to comment on the cartoon itself. the printers experimenting with yellow ink chose the urchin's nightshirt as a test area. the yellow is reported a success and so is the yellow kid as it became known. because of this color, people refer to newspapers also as "yellow journalism" (wilson, 1995:104). the yellow kid series turns to be such a success that it helped sold many papers in 1898 that it rapidly became a newspaper staple (mcluhan. 1972:89). two other early comic strip cartoons, each having its own supporters who considered their favorite the first true comic strip. were the katzenjammer kids by rudolph dirks, which first appeared in the american humorist in 1897, and lillie bears by james guilford swinnerton. which e.m. dukult comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit 69 first appeared in the san farancisco examiner in 1892. pictures of the mentioned cartoons, can be seen below: tile ratunja.iimi. lids ,u"" .&an'n "uuii tit. the golden age iwtuf ....... '.n •... ..... ,u·".u ...... c_ hi '.'&hili "i'ti ' .. u" ... figure 2 nuow lid f'-' , .. "iii "'''''',.tr..ht 'pici &i"h&&lt. newly fonned newspaper syndicates~ such as king feature in 1914, has made mass circulation of comics possible. every small town newspaper can obtain, for reprinting, matrices of the strips from the syndicates, which employs the comic strip anists. eventually, american comic strips are distributed worldwide and established its golden age. canoonist such as george herriman with his family upstairs appeared in 1910 with his distinct krazy kat character. more than any other strips, krazy kat appeals to intellectuals and the literary minority who at first rejects comics as wonhy of their intention. even the president, woodrow wilson, always finds time to read it before his cabinet meetings. john alden, in 1926, has also composed a ballet about it and the distinguished poet e.e. cummings has written an appreciative introduction to the collection of the strips' hardcover edition volume. in addition, chic young's blondie is also regarded as the most widely syndicated comic strip of the mid twentieth century. 70 celt, volume 1. number 1. december 2001 : 63-77 the third phase until the 1930s the comic strips were essentially humorous exaggerations of american life and manners. until the end of world war ii. the trend moves towards adventure strips. there emerged such heroes like roy crane's captain easy and buz sawyer. it was also the decade for science fiction adventures. such as superman, flash gordon, buck rogers. brick bradford and ai capp's li'l abner comic strips that dwell on domestic problems emerged. postwar comics after world war ii, there is a fairly sharp return to humorous comic strips. this is stimulated by the creations of two of the most enjoyable comic strips in the history of the medium, i.e. walt kelly's pogo (1949) and charles schulz's peanuts (1950). thirty-two out of thirty-nine new comic strips produced in 1956 to 1960 are purely hu orous. among the popular cartoons to mention are dick tracy, wizard of /d, and beetle baily. this phase is often regarijed as the "funnies". impact on society, media and others from the discussion above. it is evident that even though at one stage comic stri p is overlooked by scholars. it has however, been proven to make an impact on the society and media. reflecting on the former president. woodrow wilson, who makes time to read krazy kat, it shows a psychological factor of him looking at his day from the easy and humorous perspective rather than a hard, stressful day. series of comic strips do not only reflects the american life but also molds it. comic strips manage to inspire plays, books, toys. popular songs, musicals. ballets, motion pictures. radio and television series. the following is a discussion on some of the effects. music in music, there are a number of songs that are derived from these comics i.e. yes, we have no bananas and barney google with the goo goo googly eyes in 1920. ten years later, there are musical attributes to popeye the sailor man, uttle lulu. u'i abner in 1959 as well as a broadway musical ii 's a bird ... it 's a plane ... it 's superman whose intention is to satirize the comic strip superman in 1966. e.m. dukut, comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit 71 film, radio, television in films, radio and television, comic strip characters are found everywhere and at anytime. from 1931, live actors are used in feature films for blondie, captain midnight. jungle jim. superman. tanan and many others. the radio station makes afternoon serials on dick tracy. little orphan annie and buck rogers. the television uses both live actors and cartoon figures in the ever popular the flinstones. dennis the menace. and batman. food and fashion the influence of the comic strips characters has also affected the american culture's eating habits. for example, the citizens of the spinachgrowing community in texas have erected a statue of popeye in honor of the comic character that made america spinach-conscious. it, too, has affected american fashion. at the tum of the century, whole generations of american boys are dressed like popeye. superman. batman and the like. the teenage girls are inspired to wear a collection of hats from penny and brenda starr. other merchandise includes al caps' shmoos such as in their glassware, underwear, soap, fishhooks, binhday cards, and household deodorizer products. education because comic strips have such an influential market in books, some fear that it will disrupt children's education. however, educators eventually see the beneficial side of it. with the nine out of ten children who have their first exposure to print by reading the comics and whose habit is continued to their high school years, felt overwhelmed with the idea that some classical subjects can be fonnalled into comics. also educational researchers find that the 10.000 vocabulary words offered by the comics has helped stimulate the increase of children's reading habit. language in addition to the four categories above. the comic strip has influenced modem language that has been penneated with idioms and onomatopoeic words created. for example, the code word for the allied forces on d-day is "mickey mouse" and thomas a. dorgan's strips have introduced the slang words such as "twenty-three skidoo, cat's pajamas, yes-we have no bananas" to americans. 72 celt, volume i, number i, december 2001 : 63·77 in summary, just like the political cartoons which affected the political life of the americans the impact of comic strips on the society and other medias have molded them. comic strips contribute to the development of the national ethos. their creators, seeking the widest possible audience has reflected that audience and their thinking. to see how this is done and how it reflects the american spirit, a brief argument on charles schulz's peanuts is discussed below. charles schulz's peanuts one of the most successful and widely loved comic strip by all ages is charley schulz's peanuts wityh its characters: charlie brown, his sister sally, his smart dog snoopy, his friends lucy, linus, schroeder, peppermint patty, marcie and the bird woodstock. quoting pierre couperie and maurice c. hom, berger (1976:298) notes that, his heroes are not animals but preschool·age children, "led" by charlie brown, whose faith in human nature (and in that of his liule comrades) is always cruelly deceived. his chief tormentor is a scowling, cynicalliule girl, a real child shrew, named lucy van pelt. linus, lucy's brother, is a precocious, delicate intellectua whose nerves give way with the loss of the blanket he always carries around him to reassure himself. schroeder, whose greatest pleasure is to play' beethoven on his toy piano, the dirty pig-pen, and several others complete this childish team, to which must be added snoopy the hedonistic young puppy who is very pleased with living. schulz, or to be more complete, charles monroe schulz, was born in 1922 in minneapolis, minnesota. very early when he was two days old, he was nicknamed "sparky" by his family. in this case, his family was influenced by barney google's horse character named sparkplug (microsoft ® encarta ® 98 encyclopedia, 1997). up to now he is known, as "sparky" to his friends and because of that it may be the start of schulz thinking of being a cartoonist as his profession. when graduating from high school, schulz became interested in an advertisement of an art school course found in a match-book cover. feeling as the only fairly person, he took up work as a cartoonist. schulz says that in being a cartoonist, you have to be fairly intelligentif you were really intelligent you'd be something else; you have to draw fairly wellif you drew really well you'd be a painter; you have to write fairly wellif you wrote really well you'd be writing books .. . (conrad, 1970:243). e.m. duku~ comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit 73 another factor is perhaps schulz's simplicity. he uses the same old characters with the same kind of characteristics. consequently, it becomes easy to grasp the comic strips, which only comes up briefly each day in the newspaper. so, when, for example, in one of the cartoons linus has no lines to say, many readers could more or less substituted a line for schulz, which in reality is not far away from schulz's own line. consider the comic strips of peanuts (see figure 3 ), which is published in the washington post last 6 august 1995. knowing how much linus loves his blanket; readers can still see the comical side of it when being told that after snoopy help get his blanket down from a tree snoopy decides to get rid of it again. this is because linus did not even bother to thank snoopy for all the hard struggle of climbing up a tree to get his lovable blanket. it is hard because everyone knows that in reality a dog cannot climb a tree but in this case, snoopy did. at the same time, reader 's are asked to make a retrospect of why one often do not give respect to another's hard work. schulz's themes are always simple and about simple th ings. for example, in a child 's mind the idea of a kid starting up his day and about what to do when he cannot dance is possibly like how schulz drew in the cartoons (see figure 4 ). if 'i'cij ,/tit, ~ .. ..aj. sfq.u) at least pcaiu ..ca................ " do a happy t40p~_f __ fu~~ s"""" .. ••• nn r .. ' ....... ""', .. , ... figure4 figure 3 74 celt, volume i. number i. december 2001 : 63-77 schulz's use of terms like the "happy hop" has a folkish ring to it. it is a kind of term that ordinary people would say not those belonging to intellectuals. so immediately his cartoons are popular and massively produced. the peanuts cartoons are bought and read just by every old and young people because the themes are familiar and often touches very ordinary things and homely events. yet. it may be for this ordinariness that scholars had once taken his cartoons for granted. nowadays, people see it as a popular culture that needs to be researched on. in addition to free entertainment. schulz manages to transfer a political and social satire. in the comic strips published by the washington post of 16 july 1995 (see figure 5 below), schulz is actually criticizing the vietnam war. his purpose is possibly asking a plea to those people in the high ranks to give more attention to their "little" soldiers. when reflected to the idea of the american spirit, readers can see that everyone is eligible to pursue their own american dream by giving attention to snoopy's criticism to spike about duty for the infantry. figure s snoopy has done a number of things for the american people. he brings the american spirit alive, i.e. he brings the hope for a better future by bringing forth the danger of a society full of egoists who pursue on their individual wants to reflect themselves so justice can prevail. the cruel harsh world that is often kept under cover can now be freely expressed through schulz's comics. snoopy. who enjoys living, has ultimately shown that people are free to do as they please, no matter what status or rank of society they live in. once people have the courage to do something, therefore the wish e.m. dukut, comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit 7s can be turned to reality. comic strips offer a moral guidance to keep people on the right track. more importantly, comic strips enable a release on the aggressions felt by reading and seeing the remarkably cute, funny and laughable characters that exemplify the fools living around a society (see appendix for more comic strips). so, it is not surprising that peanuts deserve the acclaim for being an american popular culture product. it is a best seller and with this example. scholars should try to find what other american spirit is in store in other popular comic strips! references anderson, benedict. "cartoons and monuments: the evolution of political communication under the new order". in political power & communication. london: california press. ) 978. berger. arthur asa. "peanuts: the americanization of augustine". in humor jn america: an anthology edited by enid veron. new york: harcourt brace jovanich, inc., 1976. canaday, john. "pop art sells on and on why'?". in pop clilture in america edited by david manning white. chicago: quadrangle books, 1970. clark, thomas d. "the pageantry of american political humor". in the comic imagination in american literature edited by louis d. rubin, jr. usa: voice of america, 1974. conrad. barnaby. "you're a good man. charlie schulz". in pop culture in america edited by david manning white. chicago: quadrangle books, 1970. ember, carol r. and melvin ember. anthropology. 4'h ed. usa: prenlicehall inc ., 1985. hnp:llwww.geociljes.com/sohoi553j/bist.htm. j 8 august 200 i. lado, robert. linguistics across cultures. ann arbor:the university of michigan press, 1978. microsift ® ellcarla ® 98 encyclopedia. a microsoft computer software. nashville: microsoft corporation. 1997. 76 celt, volume i, number i. december 200 1 : 63-77 mcluhan marshall. "the comics". in the pop culture tradition: readings with analysis for writing edited by edward m. white. usa: w.w. norton & company. inc.,1972. mukerji, chandra and michael schudson. rethinking popular culrure:comemporary perspectives in cultural studies. oxford: university of california press. 1991. slocum, j. david. "american popular culture". a lecture delivered to american studies summer institutes program at new york university, new york, usa, 27 june 2001. smith. henry nash. "can american studies develop a method?". in studies in american culture: dominam ideas & images edited by joseph j •. kwiat and mary c. turpie. minneapolis: university of minnesota press, 1960. the encyclopedia americana: imernational edition, vol. 5, 7. usa: americana corporation, 1978. veron, enid (ed). humor in america: an all1hology. new york: harcourt brace 10vanich. inc., 1976. white; david manning (ed). pop cu1ture in america. chicago: quadrangle books, 1970. wilson, stan le roy. mass medial mass culture: an introduction. 3rd ed. new york: mcgraw-hili. inc., 1995. e.m. dukut, comic strips: a reflection of the american spirit 77 appendix non 1 c; ~ikf •..• comic strip.pdf logo: linking metaphors and arguments to semantic prosodies: a case study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news prihantoro prihantoro2001@yahoo.com english department, faculty of humanities, diponegoro university, indonesia abstract: the use of hyperbolic victory verbs such as menghancurkan ‘to destroy’, menekuk ‘to fold’, menggunduli ‘to shave bald’ characterizes football news report in indonesia. these verbs are used in the specific domain; therefore, suggesting that they need further examination. the objectives of this research are 1) to map metaphor classes and the arguments of these verbs and 2) to confirm whether the metaphor classes and the arguments are determinant to the semantic prosody of these verbs. texts under football domainthat contain victory verbs were collected from different online news portals. the examination of victory verbs resulted on 10 affix formations and 10 different metaphor classes. of these victory verbs, the frequent semantic roles are <agent> (the victors), <patient> (the defeated teams) and <theme> (the victories). the identification of the semantic prosody has shown that affix formation is fairly distributed and not significantly correlate to prosody. however, there is a strong tendency that metaphor class with negative nuance (like +destruction, +war, +fight) and the presence of an argument that takes <patient> semantic role suggests negative semantic prosody. they might be major cues to prosody in this data, but reexamination on a terminal level is still required to formalize this description, as some exceptions and irregularities are also present. key words: indonesian football news, victory verbs, metaphor classes, semantic prosodies, semantic roles prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 179 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news abstrak: penggunaan verba-verba hiperbolik yang menunjukan kemenangan seperti ‘menghancurkan’, ‘menekuk’ atau ‘menggunduli’ adalah salah satu karakteristik berita sepakbola di indonesia. kata-kata yang sifatnya spesifik ini patut untuk diteliti lebih lanjut dalam penelitian ini. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah 1) memetakan kategori metafora besrta argument pada verba kemenangan dalam domain sepakbola, 2) mengkonformasi apakah kategori metafora dan argument merupakan penentu prosodi semantic verba-verba ini. teks dikumpulkan dari beberapa portal berita online. hasil pengamatan verba kemenangan menunjukan ada 10 formasi afiks dan 10 kategori metafora. argumen yang sering muncul pada verba-verba ini adalah <agen> pemenang, <penderita> pecundang, dan <tema> kemenangan. hasil dari identifikasi semantic prosodi menunjukan bahwa formasi afiks bukanlah penentu prosodi karena terdistribusi secara rata. namun demikian, ada korelasi yang kuat antara jenis metafora, prosodi negative (seperti +penghancuran, +perang, +pertikaian). kehadiran argument dengan tipe <penderita> memperkuat prosodi semantic negatif. aspek-aspek tadi merupakan determinan yang sangat berpengaruh dalam pencirian prosodi semantic negatif. meski demikian, pengujian dan formalisasi pada level akhir, yaitu leksis, karena ada potensi iregularitas dan pengecualian. kata kunci: berita sepakbola indonesia, verba kemenangan, kategori metafora, prosodi semantic, peran semantik introduction victory verbs are defined as a set of verb that is used to indicate that a team is victorious. sport is the domain where these verbs are frequently in use. in english, words like ‘to defeat’, ‘to win’ or ‘to champion’ fall to the category of these verbs. the goal of this paper is mapping the victory verbs to different metaphor classes and identifying the semantic prosody that each verb carries. by understanding the semantic prosody, we will later be able to understand whether victory verbs in football news have the tendency to lean towards positive or negative semantic prosody. in this paper, the affix formation and semantic roles of the verbs argument are described. whether they are related to the verbs’ prosody is also investigated. before further reading, it is important to realize that this study is performed under metaphoric framework. hence, some of the data might be translated literally to understand how target words are used metaphorically. 180 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 in football news columns, hyperbolic words are often used. bergh & ohlander (2012) as well as lewandowski (2012) believe that this is one of the features of language used in football domain. the words seem to violate selectional restriction, readers, however, seem to accept this very well and have no difficulty in identifying the reference(s). consider (1) and (2): (1) juara la liga musim lalu atletico madrid mendapatkan amunisi baru di lini pertahanan la liga champion last season, atletico madrid will get a news defensive amunitions (2) sturridge belum 100 persen fit jadi akan bagus jika menyimpannya sebagai senjata pamungkas sturridge is not 100 percent ready so it would be good to keep him as an ultimate weapon in the sample above, (1) it is reported that atletico madrid has managed to buy a new defensive player. the player here is presented as amunisi ‘amunitions’. in (2), one of the team members, daniel sturridge, is reported to be unprepared and it would be useful to keep him on reserve. she is referred here as senjata pamungkas ‘an ultimate weapon’. “amunitions” and “ultimate weapon” are +war terms used in +football domain and are, thus, acceptable in this domain because they are frequent metaphors. the [+uppercase] symbol is used to mark conceptual domain. it will be used throughout the paper. as for arguments/roles, they are marked by these brackets <>. literature review kovesces (2010) believes that metaphor can be defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. here +football is the source domain, while the target domain is +war. the use of +war metaphors in football news domain is not something new. for this reason, the violation of selectional restriction seems acceptable as the semantic feature of the target domain is transferred to the source domain. this allows readers to tolerate the use of inanimate features such as munitions, weapons, or other war terms, to refer to football players that have the feature of animate. prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 181 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news back in 2004, charteris-black published the result of a metaphor study by a corpus approach. in the book, he investigated metaphors in different domains, and in sports, +war metaphor is noted as one of the most frequently used metaphors in sports (charteris-black, 2004, p. 122). bergh (2011) conducted a more specific study with a more provocative title: football is war. physical aggression in football (mostly from fans , but also from team members) is a common phenomena as observed by russel (2008), but whether this is determinant in the use of +war metaphor in football needs further investigation. although some studies show that +war metaphors are a common phenomena, lewandowski (2009) has shown that at least in polish, non-violent metaphors are also used in football articles. at this point, lewandowski work football is not only war (2012) seems to complement bergh’s football is war (2011). on the other hand, spandler, et al. (2014) studied metaphors from the applied science perspective, and commented on how football metaphors are used to assist therapy. but this is beyond the scope of this research. there have been some studies about metaphors in indonesian football news. khairina (2012) listed some metaphors that are unique to indonesian and german via a comparative study. metaphor of +war was also listed here. later we will see how the categorization may differ orcomplement this study. prayogi (2013) claimed to describe conceptual, structure and ontological metaphors as related to this topic, but the data is quite scarce. lestari (2013) investigated football articles under dysphemism framework. from the framework, we understand that she focused on negative prosody words. this study will reveal whether positive prosody is also present. wardani (2014) focused her metaphor study on nouns. as for this study, it is focused on verbs. however, as verb arguments take crucial roles, they are also included in the analysis. as for semantic prosody, it is a term that refers to the positive ornegative nuance projected by a word. there has been some intense discussion on this topic. to my knowledge, hunston (2007) was the most recent work that revisited this topic. this phenomenon has been known by many names, such as polarity analysis or sentiment analysis in computer science. i, here, prefer to use semantic prosody as this term is widely used in works following corpus linguistics tradition. on the application level, prihantoro (2015) recently worked on the semantic prosody of indonesian words of effect (conjunctions), 182 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 and the data is obtained from bppt corpus (adriani & hamam, 2009), a corpus with four different domains. this research is different, as it will focus on victory verbs under one specialized sub-domain: football news, which is under sport domain. methodology in this research, i employed metaphor identification procedure (mip) to recognize victory verbs. the procedure begins by full text reading, and proceeds to determine the lexical unit(s) to investigate. left and right context are analyzed and basic contemporary meaning is defined (e.g +vision, +body parts etc). if the contextual meaning is undertood non-literally, then the unit is marked as metaphorical. please see gerard, aletta, herrmann, kaal, krennmayr, & pasma (2010) for further details. as verbs take crucial roles here, data driven examination, particularly the affix formation, is required before the metaphor classification begins. it is also important to understand what metaphor classes and semantic prosodies are present for the victory verbs in indonesian. besides the metaphor class, i also investigate whether the prosody is affected by the semantic role of the argument. the classification of the roles here follows saeed (2009) who distinguished between <theme> and <patient>. in this study, this distinction is useful to investigate whether certain verbs have the tendency to license certain arguments. the procedures of data collection and analysis are described as follow: (1) football news articles from different news portal repositories (http://sport.detik.com/, http://bola.okezone.com/, http://tabloidbola.com, http://www.juara.net/, http://www.goal.com/id-id ) were retrieved, but only articles with victorious verbs were selected; the texts were built as a text corpus (1507 tokens in total) (2) victory verbs used in these texts were identified along with their affix formation. (3) the verbs were categorized based on their metaphor classes (see metaphor identification procedure that has been commented on previously). (4) prosodies and semantic roles were assigned to each verb prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 183 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news (5) whether the semantic role of the argument correlates to the prosody was investigated findings and discussion a. affix formation affix formation in the data is divided as follows: {men-}, {men-i}, {menkan}, {men-per} and {men-per-kan}. there are five patterns in total and table 1 summarizes them: table 1: affix formation prefix stem suffix ({men-}) {-ø} {-i} {-kan} {per} {-kan} prefix menseems to be obligatory, but not when they are in the form of headline. contrasting examples are in (3) and (4): (3) cetak kemenangan ke-tiga, madrid naik ke puncak klasemen sementara ‘print the third winnings; madrid goes on top of the league’ (4) juventus mencetak kemenangan perdana di laga pembuka lega calcio ‘juventus printed the first victory in the opening match of lega calcio’ example (3) is a headline, while example (5) is taken from an article in the body text. prefix {men-} is not present in (1) but present in (2). these two sentences are totally acceptable in indonesian. as attested in alwi, dardjowidjojo, lapoliwa, & moeliono (1998), prefix {men-} is not obligatory in indonesian, but it functions as formal domain marker. in this football text collection, it becomes a distinctive feature of headlines. when this fact is taken into consideration, the number of the patterns can multiply from 5 to 10 and {men-} is considered optional. there are several functions of suffix {-i} and {kan}, but in the data they are used to mark transitive verbs. prefix {per-} is a verbalizer that derive verbs from adjectives. 184 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 not all stems can be attached to any affix(es). sufix {-i} attaches to menang ‘to win’, sudah ‘to finish’, unggul ‘to advance’, genap ‘to be even (as in even number), gundul ‘to be bald’ and pecundang ‘a loser’. without the presence of the suffix, or the attachment to the wrong suffix, these words might sound odd, unnatural (?), or wrong (*). (5) brazil meng-gundul-i polandia 4-0 ‘brazil shaved bald poland 4-0’ (6) brazil gundul-i polandia 4-0 (7) brazil menggundul-kan? polandia 4-0 (8) brazil gundul-kan? polandia 4- (9) brazil meng-gundul-ø* polandia 4-0 (10) brazil gundul-ø * polandia 4-0 the stem gundul means to shave bald. example (5) to (10) shows both licensed and unlicensed affix formation. this valence is unique to gundul and does not necessary apply to other verbs. each verb has a unique valence that license some prefixes (un) attachable to it. now, consider some stems that must take suffix {-kan}: singkir ‘to get rid’, tunduk ‘to make someone nod down’, hancur ‘to destroy’, takluk ‘to subjugate’, jinak ‘to domesticate’. there is one stem, malu ‘to be embarassed’ which has to take simulfix {per-kan}. example (11) to (12) show licensed and unlicensed affixes for malu,‘to embarrass’: napoli mempermalu-ø * inter di kandang sendiri ‘napoli embarrassed inter on their home stadium’ (11) napoli malu-kan* inter di kandang sendiri (12) napoli mem-per-malu-kan inter di kandang sendiri however, stems taking obligatory simulfix are not many. another verb that licenses simulfix is tahan ‘to hold’, which takes {per-kan} simulfix, resulting in pertahankan. the configuration of this stem is just like malu, where the absence of one of the affixes makes the word unacceptable in indonesian. prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 185 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news (13) persipura berhasil pertahan-ø * piala liga indonesia ‘persipura has managed to maintain the indonesian league cup’ (14) persipura berhasil tahan-kan* piala liga indonesia (15) persipura berhasil mem-per-tahan-kan piala liga indonesia prefix {per-} is obligatory only to one adjective stem, which is panjang ‘to be long’. unlike gundul, this stem cannot take {-i}suffixes. consider (16) to (18); (16) barcelona per-panjang rekor kemenangan di kandang lawan barcelona extended the winning record in the enemy’s field. (17) barcelona panjang-kan rekor kemenangan di kandang lawan (18) barcelona panjang-i* rekor kemenangan di kandang lawan b. semantic roles: <gent>, <benefactor>, <theme> and <patient> the team, which wins a match or a championship, is referred as the victor, while the loser will be referred as the defeated (team). the semantic role of the victor here is as an <agent>, responsible for the victory to happen. frequently, the <agent> slot is filled with the name of the winning team like barcelona/barca, real madrid/madrid, manchester united/mu and etc. however, besides its official team name, a team is sometimes addressed by different referring expressions. see (19) where argentina team is referred as tim tango ‘tango team’, and (20) where manchester united is referred as setan merah ‘red devil’: (19) tango menggilas bolivia dengan skor telak 5-0 tango grinded down bolivia with a large score gap of 5-0 (20) setan merah berhasil mengalahkan rival abadinya the gunners the red devil has managed to defeat the gunners, their eternal rival victory can be defined in terms of a match, or a series of matches in a championship. on (21) we can see that the victor is real madrid in a match against deportivo. in (22) however, the defeated team is not mentioned, but it clearly suggests that borussia dortmund has just finished the race of the league 186 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 championship by being in the first position, which is a winner of a series of matches (a competition). (21) real madrid mengalahkan deportivo 2-0 real madrid defeated deportivo 2-0 (22) borussia dortmund kembali merengkuh titel bundesliga jerman musim ini borussia dortmund grabbedthe bundesliga title again this season a victor can not only be represented by the name of the team orcountry (e.g. juventus, parma, brazil, japan) or by one of the members of the team. see (23) where arjen robben defeated hungaria. the reference of arjen robben is part-of-a-whole relation. this means the one who defeated hungaria is not arjen robben himself, but along with all the team members of the dutch team. in this case, the use of the player’s name, coach, manager or someone related to the victor is to highlight his/her significant role to the victory. the same applies to (24): (23) arjen robben sukses menggunduli hungaria dengan skor 8-1 ‘arjen robben successfully shaved bald hungaria 8-1’ (24) gol van persie ke gawang klub asal yunani itu membawa fenerbahce menang 1-0 van persie’s goal to the greece origin club has brought fenerbache victory 1-0 the optional slot to fill either the team or one of its members allows the restriction of the noun to both animate (human) and inanimate (team) noun. besides the team member, the team is sometimes addressed to the relation to their homebase: tim tamu ‘away team’ or tim kandang ‘home team’. consider (25), where it was actually a match between persibo bojonegoro and bontang fc that ended in persibo’s victory. in (26), the defeated team is not referred as bontang fc, but by tim tamu as they were the away team. note also the last discussed pattern, where a member of the team may represent the team as a whole. we see syamsul arif in (26) takes the slot of <agent> instead of his team persibo bojonegoro. (25) syamsul arif berhasil mempecundangi tim tamu dengan skor 4-2 prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 187 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news ‘syamsul arif has managed to make the away team lose with 4-2’ (26) yossi benayoun memberikan kemenangan untuk liverpool ‘yossi benayoun gave winnings for liverpool’ the winning team is not explicitly mentioned in (25), therefore the presence of anaphoric resolution in the text, or the background knowledge that a player is a member of a team is necessary. example (26) is different as the winning team, liverpool, is mentioned. in this case, the winning team might take the slot of the <benefactor>. while the role of the argument in subject position is already clear as the <agent>, the role of the object must be discussed further. nouns in the object position are usually the defeated team, or the victory itself (of a match, title, champion, record etc). hence, the arguments in object position can be divided into two categories based on the predicate-argument framework. the first category is the argument that undergoes a change of state. the second one is the argument that does not undergo a change of state, but the verb indicates that there is a possession transfer. (27) mancester city akhirnya meraih gelar juara liga inggris manchester city has finally reached the title of the league (28) timnya bakal mampu mencuri kemenangan the team will be able to steal a victory (29) jakarta merebut gelar juara liga futsal perindo jakarta took over the title of perindo futsal league by force (30) tim tango menggilas bolivia dengan skor telak 5-0 tango team grinded down bolovia 5-0 (31) real madrid menghancurkan granada real madrid destroyed granada (32) persib u-21 akhirnya menekuk juara bertahan pelita jaya 2-0 persib u-21 has finally folded the previous champion, pelita jaya 2-0 188 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 there is no state of change identified for the object position argument in (27) to (29). what happened is the transfer of champion title gelar juara (27 and 29) and victory kemenangan (28) to the direction of the winning team as specified by the verb meraih ‘to obtain’, mencuri ‘to steal’ and merebut ‘to take over’ respectively. as for (30) to (32), the nouns undergo a change of state as specified by the verb menggilas ‘to grind’ , menghancurkan ‘to destroy’, and menekuk ‘to fold’. the arguments are all for the defeated teams. in literal nonassociative meaning, arguments specified by these verbs (menggilas, menghancurkan) are usually solid inanimate entities or two dimensional entities when specified by menekuk. when used in football domains, the semantic features of the inanimacy or the 2-dimensions are transferred to the defeated teams, making the violation of selectional restriction acceptable. it can be summarized that the victor may take the role as either an <agent> or a <benefactor>, while a member of the team always takes the role as an <agent>. both the victor and a member of the winning team take the subject position. c. metaphor classes and semantic prosody +amount victory verbs +amount deal with verbs indicating an increase or decrease in amount. it might be the number of the winnings, or the number of goals. at this point, victory is math, where the concept of subtractions and additions are adopted. see table 2: table 2: +amount class sub class lemma affix word gloss increase panjang men-permemperpanjang to extend increase genap men-i menggenapi to make even increase kumpul men-kan mengumpulkan to accumulate increase lanjut men-kan melanjutkan to continue increase ganda men-kan menggandakan to double decrease sisih men-kan menyisihkan to subtract decrease singkir men-kan menyingkirkan to get rid prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 189 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news the term increase deals with how the winning teams add victory/ies to their records, as reflected by memperpanjang ‘to extend’ and melanjutkan ‘to continue’ as for the word mengumpulkan ‘to accumulate’, it might describe victories as a group. the word menggenapi ‘to make even’ is a little bit different, because it does not directly refer to the victory or the number of the goal. it describes a victory, where the last goal scored by a player is highlighted. for this reason, although genap literally means odd (as opposed to ‘even’ number), odd and even scores are both acceptable. see example (33) and (34) where the same team, arsenal (or the gunner) won the match 3-0 and 4-1. as for menggandakan ‘to double’ the score is always 2 for the victor. this is interesting as it does not apply to the other two-folds. see (35): (33) ia mampu menceploskan bola untuk menggenapi kemenangan the gunners malam itu 3-0 ‘he managed to score, completing the gunner’s victory 3-0’ (34) dan akhirnya giroud menggenapi kemenangan arsenal menjadi 4-1 and finally, giroud completed arsenal’s victory 4-1 (35) mantan bintang liverpool, luis suarez, menggandakan kemenangan barcelona menjadi 2-0 ‘ex-liverpool star, luis suarez, doubled barcelona’s victory 2-0 the term decrease deals with how the victors take the chance of winning from the defeated team. it is shown by words menyisihkan ‘to subtract’ and menyingkirkan ‘to get rid’, which collocate with the name of the defeated team as in (36) and (37). (36) klub jerman yang menyisihkan inter milan di perempatfinal ‘the german club that substratced inter milan in quarter final’ (37) keberhasilan barcelona menyingkirkan ac milan ‘barcelona success in getting rid of ac milan’ +body parts among the classes of metaphorical expressions, +body parts substantially dominates. the fact that +body parts are often used in metaphors is 190 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 attested in deignan (2006), lingzhi (2007) and yu (2008). this class is divided into four sub-classes: hand, head, foot and mouth. among these, hand mostly vary with10 different types. the rest are represented by one word each: table 3: +body parts class sub class lemma affix word gloss hand rengkuh menmerengkuh to embrace sth hand gondol menmenggondol to steal hand bawa menmembawa to carry hand genggam menmenggenggam to hold hand raih menmeraih to reach hand rebut menmerebut to take over with force hand tekuk menmenekuk to fold hand angkat menmengangkat to lift hand cukur menmencukur to shave hand gundul men-i menggunduli to shave bald foot jegal menmenjegal to use your foot to stumble block other's foot so that s/he will fall mouth bungkam menmembungkam to not talk head tunduk men-kan menundukan to make someone/sth nod foot and mouth are represented by only one word each, menjegal and membungkam. these two words are negative in polarity. menjegal means to make someone stumble, and membungkam means to shut one’s mouth. head is also represented by menundukkan. this word means to make someone’s head nod down, where the victor successfully subjugates the defeated. the next sub-classes are mencukur and menggunduli where both of them are related to shaving activities. this sub-class is interesting as hand (self) interacts with head (another). i include these words under the coloumn “su blcass as“hand” as the role of hand is more active and dominant here, while head is the object. prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 191 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news while mencukur ‘to trim’ still leaves some of the existing hair, menggunduli ‘to shave bald’ is an activity of shaving head that leaves no hair. the baldness here at first seems to reflect zero-goals scored by the defeated team. however, this may apply to non-zero score from the defeated teams as well. therefore, whether or not the defeated team was able to score there is a score gap present between the victor and the defeated. see (38) (41): (38) argentina mempermalukan paraguay dengan mencukurnya dengan skor 6-1 ‘argentina embarrassed paraguay by trimming it 6-1’ (39) bayern muenchen mencukur hamburg 8-0 ‘bayern muenchen trimmed hamburg 8-0’ (40) arjen robben sukses menggunduli hungaria dengan skor 8-1 ‘arjen robben successfully shaved bald hungaria 8-1’ (41) thailand menggunduli tim indonesia 7-0 ‘thailand shaved bald indonesian team 7-0’ other body parts are also used, such as foot menjegal, mouth membungkam, and menundukkan. however, they are more or less dominant than hand, which is only has one lemma for each sub-class. (42) persipura jayapura ingin membungkam persiram raja ampat ‘persipura jayapura wanted to shut-the mouth of persiram raja ampat -down’ (43) barca sukses menjegal madrid ‘barcelona successfully stumbled down madrid’ +emotion some verbs have the effect on the emotional state of the experiencer, which is the emotional reaction that the experiencer has (langacker, 2011). in the data, i identified mempermalukan ‘to humiliate’, a verb requiring an object, where in this data, the defeated team experiences humiliation from the victor. 192 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 the verb mempermalukan ‘to embarrass’, is placed under the +emotion class. focus on (44) and (45): table 4: +emotion class sub class stem affix word gloss cognition malu men-per-kan mempermalukan to embarrass someone (44) palermo sukses mempermalukan roma dihadapan publik sendiri palermo successfully embarrassed roma on their home turf (45) lazio mempermalukan filippo inzaghi dengan skor tipis 0-1 di san siro lazio embarrassed filippo inzaghi with thin score 0-0 in san siro example (45) is interesting as it is uncommon for fillipo inzaghi (ac milan’s coach, a member of the team, to represent the defeated team, ac milan here. a member of the team might usually replace the team when it takes the role of an <agent> (as it has been commented previously). +competition verbs that fall under the category of +competition are very productive in frequency although it only comprises of four words: mengalahkan ‘to defeat’, memenangi ‘to win’, mempecundangi ‘to defeat’, and mengungguli ‘to advance’. among these, mengalahkan and memenangi are the most productive. table 5: +competition class class stem affix word gloss competition kalah menkan mengalahkan to make someone/sth lost competition menang men-i memenangi to win over prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 193 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news someone/sth competition pecundang men-i mempecundangi to make someone/sth a loser competition unggul men-i mengungguli to advance over sth (46) real madrid mengalahkan deportivo 2-0 ‘real madrid made deportivo lose 2-0’ (47) barcelona memenangi pertandingan itu dengan skor 2-1 ‘barcelona won the game 2-1’ (48) perseba super mempecundangi purwanto dkk 1-0 perseba super made purwanto and friends lose 1-0 (49) namun arema akhirnya sukses mengungguli tim tamu but arema finally succeeded in advancing the away team +creation and +destruction the metaphor class of +creation and +destruction suggests the change of state of the argument. +creation is represented by only one verb membungkus ‘to wrap’, while the +destruction is represented by menggilas ‘to grind sth down’, menghancurkan ‘to destroy sth’ and meruntuhkan ‘to collapse down’. <patient>s of the verbs are usually solid inanimate entities, but specific to a tree for menumbangkan. table 6: +creation and +destruction classes class stem affix word gloss destruction gilas menmenggilas to crush over sth destruction hancur men-kan menghancurkan to destroy sth destruction runtuh men-kan meruntuhkan to collapse sth down destruction tumbang men-kan menumbangkan to cut (a tree) down creation bungkus menmembungkus to wrap sth 194 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 the verb membungkus however, does not suggest that the entity’s basic shape has changed. it implies that the entity is covered by something so that the original shape is hidden. as for the words under +destruction class, the basic shape of the entity has undergone changes. (50) tim tango menggilas bolivia dengan skor telak 5-0 ‘tango team crushed downbilivia 5-0’ (51) real madrid menghancurkan granada ‘real madrid destroyed granada’ (52) akankah as roma dan ac milan mampu meruntuhkan dominasi juventus? will as roma and ac milan can collapse down juventus domination?’ (53) arema menumbangkan psm makassar 2-0 arema cutdown psm makassar 2-0 (54) madrid membungkus hasil sempurna dari tiga kali berlaga madrid wrapped perfect results of three matches +conflict: +crime, +war and +fight as described by some previous studies, bergh (2011) and charteris-black (2004), the use of +war metaphorsare a common phenomenon in sports especially in the football domain. this is attested also by the data, with other two similar sub-classes, +crime and +war. together, they are placed under +conflict class, where they share one common feature: aggression. the verbs that belong to the category of +war, +fight and +crime, are actually not used very frequently. however, the pattern of metaphors is unique as victory is something good but the way it is obtained, as reflected by the verbs, is described as something negative. this goes to all verbs, except mempertahankan ‘to maintain’, which is positive in meaning. see table 7: prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 195 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news table 7: +crime, +war and +fight classes subclass stem affix word gloss crime curi menmencuri to steal crime bobol menmembobol to break through crime bekuk menmembekuk to arrest (a criminal) war ganyang menmengganyang to destroy with excessive force war takluk men-kan menaklukan to conquer war tahan men-perkan mempertahankan to maintain war bumihangus men-kan membumihanguskan to destroy sth totally fight hajar menmenghajar to physically hurt someon fight gebuk menmenggebuk to smack mencuri ‘to steal’ and membobol ‘to break’ (as in breaking and entering) are verbs where the inherent lexical features already suggest a crime. the verb membekuk ‘to arrests’ also specifies a criminal. the +war verbs mengganyang and menaklukkan, are all simple verbs used specifically to describe the destruction in a war. of the verb stems presented on table 7, one is a compound, which is bumi hangus. the compound bumi ‘earth’ and hangus ‘overburn’ is an expression used in war to indicate an action of total attack leaving not even a single enemy alive or single building standing. that means every enemy must be killed, and every buildings must be burned down. the <patient>s of the verbs under the category of +fight are usually human such as menghajar ‘to hurt’ and menggebuk ‘to smack’. in this football domain, however, these verbs are used specificalyfor the defeated teams. +script another metaphorical verb class to express victory is +script. this verb includes membukukan ‘to bundle (papers into a book), mencatat ‘to write down’, mencetak ‘to print’, and menorehkan ‘to strike (a brush on a paper). 196 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 what these verbs do is create a victory record parallel to the record in a form of written manuscript. table 8: +script class stem affix word gloss script buku men-kan membukukan to bundle script catat menmencatat to write down script cetak menmencetak to print script toreh men-kan menorehkan to strike (a brush) the collocation of +script verbs are all with kemenangan ‘victory’. please consider (55) to (58): (55) barcelona membukukan kemenangan besar 8-0 atas cordoba ‘barcelona bundleddown a big victory against cordoba 8-0’ (56) inter mencatat 25 kemenangan, sembilan hasil imbang ‘inter noted 25 victories, nine draws’ (57) …setelah mencetak kemenangan 1-0, advocaat masih… ‘…after printing 1-0 win, advocaat is still’… (58) persipura berhasil menorehkan kemenangan perdananya ‘persipura managed to stroke down their first winning’ +time there are two sub classes of +time, initial and end. the verb mengawali ‘to begin’ falls to the initial sub type, while menyudahi and menghentikan ‘to finish’ falls to end sub type. the first suggests that a victory has just begun. this does not seem to make sense at first as we cannot predict what is going to happen until the match ends. however, as the news reports past events, the use of this verb already indicates the victor of the game. prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 197 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news table 9: +time class stem affix word gloss end sudah men-i menyudahi to finish end henti men-kan menghentikan to finish intial awal men-i mengawali to begin (59) …kesempatan bagus bagi liverpool dalam menghentikan perlawanan the gunners ‘...a good chance for liverpool to finish the gunner’s resistence’ (60) …setelah menyudahi perlawanan adelaide 1-0, mereka… ‘…after finishing adelaide’s resistance 1-0, they...’ (61) carlos tevez mengawali kemenangan juventus ‘carlos tevez began the juventus victory’ +elevation the verb menenggelamkan ‘to sink down’ might be one of the verbs that is infrequently used to indicate victory. it however is used although the verb is also used in war domains. when used to indicate something neutral, other words with equal meanings are usually used such as selam, celup, masukkan ke dalam air etc. when used in football domain, the victor is illustrated as stay afloat, while the defeated sinks down. table 10: +elevation class class stem affix word gloss elevation tenggelam men-kan menenggelamkan to sink (62) didepan publiknya, cina menenggelamkan indonesia lima gol ‘in front of their public, china sank down indonesia five goals’ 198 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 +domestication the use of the verb menjinakkan ‘to tame’ is specific to wild animal, therefore is a violation to selectional restriction. as it has been discussed by molinaro, carreiras, & duñabeitia (2012) and friederici & weissenborn (2007), this is anomalous clause. one that can domesticate must have the feature of a human, and the object tamed must have the feature of an animal. the defeated team here, the <patient>, is illustrated as a wild animal, and has to be domesticated. when the wild animal is defeated then the <agent> taming the animal is the victor. table 11: +domestication class class stem affix word gloss domestication jinak men-kan menjinakkan to tame (an animal) (63) the blues menjinakkan tuan rumah west brom 3-2 ‘the blues tamed the home team west brown 3-2’ +transfer as it has been discussed by saeed (2009), transfer verbs, like “give”, indicate a transfer from one entity to another. unlike other verbs discussed for metaphorical verbs, the agent transfer verb memberi ‘to give’ is always a person, usually the player. a victory is given by a person to his/her team. the person can be the player, the referee, the coach, or even the player from the opponent team. see (65) where an own goal from the opponent team gave a victory to manchester united. the position of <theme> and <benefactor> can be swapped. see (65 and 66) where the <benefactor>, manchester united, and the <theme>, kemenangan, can be swapped. it therefore justifies the transfer verb beri as two arguments verb. table 12: +transfer class class stem affix word gloss transfer beri menmemberi to give prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 199 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news (64) yossi benayoun yang memberikan kemenangan untuk liverpool ‘yossi benayoun gave a victory for liverpool’ (65) gol bunuh diri dari kyle walker memberi manchester united kemenangan ‘kyle walker’s own goal gave manchester united a victory’ (66) gol bunuh diri dari kyle walker memberi kemenangan pada manchester united ‘kyle walker’s own goal gave a victory to manchester united d. semantic prosody the semantic prosody of the verbs here is divided into three: negative, neutral, and positive. verbs carrying negative semantic prosody are observed at the number of 22, while there are 24 verbs carrying neutral semantic prosody. verbs carrying positive semantic prosody are the least, which are only four verbs. most of the verbs carrying negative semantic prosodies come from +conflict metaphor classes, such as +war membumihanguskan ‘to totally destruct something’, mengganyang ‘to destroy with excessive force’, and menggebuk ‘to smack’ etc. however, there are some verbs from other classes as well such as +domestication menjinakkan ‘to tame/domesticate’, +emotion mempermalukan ‘to embarrass’, or the class which at the surface seems to be neutral like +bodyparts. consider menjegal ‘to use your foot to block another's foot so that s/he will fall’, and membungkam ‘to shut one’s mouth’: table 13: negative semantic prosody verbs verb gloss verb gloss menenggelamkan to sink mempecundangi to win over sth meruntuhkan to ruin down menjegal to use your foot to block other's foot so that s/he will fall 200 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 membumihanguskan to destroy sth totally mencuri to steal menghajar to physically hurt someone membobol to break through membungkam to not talk menggilas to crush over menumbangkan to fall menghancurkan to destroy menggebuk to smack menggondol to steal mengganyang to destroy with excessive force memukul to hit menaklukan to conquer menundukan to make someone/sth nod merebut to take over with force mempermalukan to embarrass menjinakkan to tame in contrast to negative semantic prosody verbs, there are only four types of positive polarity verbs. most of the verbs are +competition class, but there is one positive semantic prosody verb from +war sub class, which is mempertahankan. table 14: positive semantic prosody words verb gloss memenangi to win over sth mengalahkan to defeat mengungguli to advance over sth mempertahankan to maintain although it is not absolute, negatively associated classes might lead to negative semantic prosody. the unparallel distribution between class and prosody might be driven by the fact that some verbs might take the feature of more than one class. consider menggondol which is classified as +bodypart. it refers to the activity of carrying stolen goods (by hand). this meaning also suggests that it can actually also be classified into +crime class. see (67), where the prosody is positive, as contrasted to (68), where the prosody is negative. if we consider the collocate of the <agent> of menggondol can also be prihantoro. linking metaphors & arguments to semantic problems: a case 201 study of victory verbs in indonesian online football news an animal. one that is frequently used is a cat as in (69), where the prosody is negative: (67) madrid kembali menggondol piala liga champion again, madrid carriedthe stolen champion league cup (68) maling itu menggondol sebuah tv led dan satu unit pc the thief carried an led tv and a pc (69) jangan biarkan kucing itu menggondol ikan kita lagi do not let the cat steal and carry our fish away again. there are two structures of semantic roles. the first one is v (<agent>, <theme> <benefactor>) and the second one is v (<agent>, <patient>). the role of <agent> is usually assigned for the victor or its member. as for <patient>, the defeated teams dominate this role. the role of <theme> on the other hand is filled with the victor’s achievement like title, championship, cup and etc. when we link semantic prosody to semantic role, there is a tendency for arguments that take the slot of a <patient> to collocate with negative prosody verbs. consider the statistic for <theme> (pos=1/neu=11/neg=4) and patient (pos=3, neu=13/neg=16). the proportion of negative prosody verbs for <patient> is more than that of a <theme>. as it has been commented previously, a <patient> is different from a <theme> as it undergoes a change of state. one reason why the <theme> has less tendency to collocate to negative semantic prosody is because, only transfer of possession takes place. the state of the argument remains intact. conclusion although not absolute, in this study, i have discovered that metaphor type and argument type is influential toward negative/positive prosody. i here have managed to identify 10 metaphor classes of football victory verbs used in indonesian news portals, which are +amount, +body parts, +cognition, +competition, +creation & destruction, +conflict, +script, +time, +domestication, and +transfer. there is a tendency for some classes to have negative prosody verbs, such as +destruction or +conflict. however, negative semantic prosody is 202 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 178-204 also discovered from metaphor classes which seemed neutral (e.g menjegal ‘to use your foot to stumble block other's foot so that s/he will fall’ which is under the category of +body parts). several roles are identified from analyzing arguments in the data in this study. the victors, most of the time, are <agent>s. it may take the role of <benefactor>, but the 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(2008). the relationship between metaphor, body and culture. in t. ziemke, j. zlatev, & m.-f. roslyn. body, language and mind, 2 (pp. 387408). berlin and new york: mouton de gruyter. cover-december celt 15 vol 2 index rev 2 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.1; june 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence ferry hertog mandang indonesian language and literature education department, faculty of language and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia email: ferrymandang@unima.ac.id received: 19-05-2021 accepted: 25-06-2021 published: 30-06-2021 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence ferry hertog mandang ferrymandang@unima.ac.id indonesian language and literature education department, faculty of language and arts, universitas negeri manado, manado, indonesia abstract: the implementation of ngana as one of the personal pronouns is found in manado malay language. the word ngana is often used in sentences by manado malay speakers. usually, the use of the word ngana used by parents for younger people, close friends, and peers. the purpose of this study is to describe the word ngana in the sentence, the word ngana as subject in the sentence, and the word ngana as function in the sentence. this research used distributional method and the technique used is substitution or replacement, namely by replacing other units or certain elements of morphological constructs or logical phrases by other elements. the results showed that ngana in sentences can be seen from interlocutors, age, closeness, socioeconomic, education and position. ngana can be placed in front of the subject and also behind the subject of the sentence. in terms of syntactic function, ngana occupies the function of the subject in active sentence. key words: pronouns, ngana, manado malay abstrak: pronomina pesona bentuk kata ngana merupakan salah satu wujud pronomina persona yang terdapat dalam bahasa melayu manado. kata ngana sangat produktif digunakan dalam konteks kalimat terutama dalam bahasa lisan. biasanya penggunaan kata ngana dimanfaatkan oleh orang tua terhadap orang yang lebih muda darinya termasuk pada orang muda bahkan anak-anak, teman yang sebaya dan sangat akrab, orang muda dengan orang muda bahkan anak-anak dengan teman-temanya. tujuan penelitian ini untuk mendeskripsikan: a. kata ngana dalam kalimat, b. kata ngana dilihat dari posisi subjek kalimat, c. kata ngana dilihat dari fungsi kalimat. 128 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 127 – 139 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj untuk mendapatkan data penelitian ini digunakan metode distribusional dengan teknik substitusi berupa pergantian dan teknik ekspansi berupa perluasan baik ke kiri maupun ke kanan juga permutasi dimana kata ngana dipermutasikan dalam kalimat. hasil penelitian menunjukkan penggunaan kata ngana dalam kalimat dapat dilihat dari mitra tutur, usia, kedekatan, sosial ekonomi, pendidikan dan jabatan. dari posisi subjek kata ngana dapat berada di depan subjek dan juga dibelakang subjek kalimat. dari segi fungsi sintaksis kata ngana menduduki fungsi subjek kalimat pada kalimat aktif. kesimpulan bahwa kata ngana sangat produktif dalam bahasa melayu manado. penggunaannya tergantung pada status lawan tutur yang dihadapi. kata kunci: pronominal, ngana, bahasa melayu manado introduction manado malay is colloquial language used in north sulawesi. according to manoppo in mandang (2006), manado malay has pronouns consisting of 1) singular person: saya, aku, kita, 2) second person: ngana, ngoni, and 3) third person: dia (he or she in english) and mereka (they). all these pronouns are used daily by manado malay speakers to communicate, both in speaking and writing, from children, teenager and adults. the use varies so there are often differences which are difficult being analyzed. this means that the process of using these pronouns is in accordance with the habits created the manado malay people. pronoun in second person ‘ngana’ used in various contexts and adapted to the background of the speakers. however, this study aims to analyze the patterns of ngana use as found today. research on pronoun ngana has been conducted before by rattu (2006), yet the word ngana is not discussed clearly because it is only integrated in the discussion of words. this paper focuses on the use of ngana in the context of a sentence, whereby ngana is seen from the position of the subject, and from the function of the sentence. literature review kridalaksana (2007, p. 200) and verhaar (2006, p.121) stated that pronominal persona is a pronoun used to refer to someone, while according to alwi, et. al (2008, 2014), pronominal persona refers to ourselves, mandang, f.h. personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence 129 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interlocutors, and person whom being talk about. thus, both the speaker, the interlocutor and the person who is being talk about becomes a personal pronoun study (muslich, 2008, p. 122). meanwhile chaer (2006, p. 94) highlighted the pronouns ngana and ngoni (you) are included in the second pronoun. the pronoun ngana, whether in the form as you, or your, is used to denote the second person to whom you talk to and can be used by people who are already familiar, such as those who are younger or people of low status of social position, and for people who are in certain emotional situations (angry or irritated). for example: dad said to the person, "you have to come tomorrow!" "you must be diligent in studying," said the uncle to the brother. the word ‘you’ here is frequently abbreviated to express the second self or self of the person being spoken to. another example is in the use of ngana as ‘your’: "who was the person who reprimanded you earlier?" mother asked dad. "what is your name?" asked the officer to the younger brother. "you shouldn't mess with me!" snapped the officer to the brother. pak amin said to the driver, "you’d better go right now". pronoun ngana can be replaced by another unit in the form of a pronoun such as angko 'you', for example in “where did so come? 'you have come?'; angko so come? 'you have come?'. ngana can also have expansion techniques or expansion to the left or right, such as: ngana so makang. 'have you eaten'. or he was ngana basudara. 'he is with you brothers'. it can also have permutation technique, which tries to reverse the order of the elements of a construction. for example: ngana ronny if you want to go to college? 'you're ronny already finished college?'. so where do you go to college, ronny? 'have you finished college, ronny?'. through these techniques, the essence of the word ngana is, therefore, a unit which can be replaced by other elements, which can be brushed left or right and can be moved around in sentence construction. 130 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 127 – 139 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj method the research used distributional method. this method is used for certain lingual units based on the linguistic behavior of the unit and the relation to other units (subroto, 2007, p. 90). the technique used is substitution or replacement, namely by replacing other units or certain elements of morphological constructs or logical phrases by other elements. results and discussions a. the use of the word ngana 1. ngana viewed from interlocutors one of the determining aspects of communication in language is interlocutors. since these interlocutors are very complex, the next description will be seen from the factors of age, closeness, socio-economy, education, and position. the age factor is classified as: children aged between 5-12 years old, adolescents aged between 13-18 years old, youth aged between 19-30 years and elder people aged between 30 years old or more, or married people. a. factor of age the factor of age here is to determine the age of interlocutors involved in the context of the sentence. the following are the examples: 1) ngana so kelas berapa? what grade are you? 2) so beking pr matematika ngana? 'ave you done your math homework? 3) dimana ngana ja kerja akang? where do you work? 4) kita deng ngana mo bermain falinggir. you and i play flying kites. 5) ngana pe anak so brapa? mandang, f.h. personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence 131 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj how many children do you have? how many children are you? sentences 1), 2) and 4) are speeches that occur among children, teenagers and adult. here, it is indicating the partner as a student or is in school. in sentence 3) the interlocutors can be youths or adults, while the speakers are teenagers who has the same age or older person. however, in certain areas in north sulawesi, this speech is also spoken by children. sentence 5) is spoken by young people as well as adults to interlocutors who are married in the sense that the age of marriage is long so that it is thought that they already have children. b. the closeness factor the closeness factor can also affect the use of word ngana in utterances like for example: 6) somo pulang ngana eso? are you coming home tomorrow? 7) kita pinjam ngana pe buku. i want to borrow your book 8) eso, kita mo pigi pa ngana. we are going to see you tomorrow 9) kapan ngana mo belajar dengan kita? when do you want to study with me? 10) ngana so bole kaweng. you can marry you can already marry. sentence 6) can be spoken by the speaker to interlocutors who is very close because of work or assignment, whereas in sentence 7), this intimacy can be created because of school friends or college friends, but it can also be due to work relationships. for sentence 8) the relationship between speakers and interlocutors are biased between young men and women who are dating, but can also apply to brothers and sisters, even ordinary friends. sentence 10) is spoken by speakers who are close friends with biased interlocutors because 132 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 127 – 139 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj they are siblings or vice versa, as well as parents and young parents (their children). however, the closeness of superiors and subordinates due to tasks is sometimes implied or replaced with people's name, the examples are as follows: 11) selfie, bawa tu berkas ini ka bawa! 'selfie, bring that file down!' 12) coba ambe akang tu map sana! 'try to get that folder over there! please get the folder! sentence 12) is spoken by the superior to the subordinates who are close to him or because they were alone in the room. c. social and economic factor social and economic factors can also influence the use of ngana in sentences such as: 13) eso, ngana beking barsi tu kintal! you can clean the yard tomorrow 14) kalu ngana bermain nimbole di jalang! "if you want to play, you can't go on the street!" you want to play not on the street! ' 15) ngana so bole cari kerja! you are already able to find work! 16) dimana ngana beli akang tu oto? 'where did you buy that car?' 17) ba bisnis apa ngana sekarang? 'what is the business you are doing right now? sentence 13) is usually spoken by parents to their children, but sometimes also spoken by fellow siblings or by employers to their assistants. in sentence 14) mandang, f.h. personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence 133 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this utterance was conveyed by parents (father or mother) to their young children. however, it can also be said by older siblings. sentence 15) is the speech of parents to their children who have graduated from high school or tertiary education, can also be spoken by the village head to a young man, even among friends. this certainly becomes a motivation for the partners who are looking for job. in sentence 16), this type of speech usually occurs between adults of any status. what clear is that kind of this speech only occurs among wealthy people, especially interlocutors, for sentence 17), the speakers here are not limited by their social status, but for interlocutors, people who are accustomed in doing business. this kind of speech usually occurs among adults, as well as young people, but it can also be spoken by young people to parents who have close relationship. d. education factor education factor has the influences on the use of ngana. the example are as follows: 18) sekolah di sd mana ngana? where is your elementary school? 19) semester ini ngana kontrak berapa sks? how many credits do you contract this semester? 20) ngana dosen atau tata usaha? 'are you a lecturer or administrator?' 21) kiapa ngana nyanda’ pigi karja? 'why don't you go to work?' why don't you work? ' 22) ngana so dapa profesor? 'have you got a professor?' have you got a professor? ' sentence 18) is spoken by someone to an interlocutor who is still in elementary school. it could be that the speaker certainly knows the age of the interlocutors, but they did not know where the interlocutor’s school is. speakers in this case can be a parent, youth, adolescents and even children with the same age as the speaker. 134 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 127 – 139 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in sentence 19) it is believed that the interlocutors here are students. this is corroborated by the term sks (semester credit system) which only applies in tertiary institutions, while the speakers are also student educated, because these speeches are only made by the level of education of students. for sentence 20) the interlocutors here have an undergraduate education, both in the status of a lecturer and an administrative officer. thus, partners here are in the location on campus. in sentence 21), the interlocutors here can have different levels of education, because the workplaces referred here can be offices, companies, markets, shops or gardens with different educational backgrounds. as for sentence 22), of course, the partner has a doctoral title who works as a lecturer. requirements to get a professor must be a doctor's degree or have a doctoral education. e. position the effect of position on the use of the word ngana can be seen in the following example: 23) besok ngana mangada pa bos di kantor! you are going to meet your boss tomorrow 24) ngana musti kase klar itu berkas ini hari! 'you must finish this file today!' you must finish today's file! 25) ngana antar akang tu surat-surat ini! 'you deliver these letters, please!' please send these letters! 26) kiapa tu laporan ngana belum kase maso? 'why is that a report you haven't given in?' why haven't you submitted the report? 27) so iko pelatihan di jakarta ngana? "have you followed in training in jakarta, you?" have you followed training in jakarta? mandang, f.h. personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence 135 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sentence 23) is conveyed by someone to an employee who must face his boss tomorrow at the office. speakers are usually colleagues who work in the same office. in sentence 24) is the superior's order to his subordinates to complete the papers today, whereas sentence 25) shows the order to send the letters from the senior to the junior. likewise with sentence 26) in the form of the senior to his subordinates so that they send the report immediately assigned to him. in sentence 27), the interlocutors have the same position as the leader. 2. ngana viewed as subject the position of the subject here is intended to see the position of the word ngana in the sentence, whether it is in front of the subject or behind the subject, for example: 28) ngana ronny so tamat sma? ronny, have you finished high school? 29) ngana herlan so kaluar sekolah? herlan, did you out from school? ' 30) ngana mega so momasa nasi? 'mega, have the rice already been cooked? sentences 28), 29) and 30) show, the use of ngana precedes the subject. this aim is to emphasize the position of the subject referred to the sentence, however, it can also be done, because there are several people involved in the speech, so combining the word ngana with the person's name as the subject of the sentence will make it clear who is meant in the speech. furthermore, considered to the sentences 31), 32) and 33) below: 31) rinny, ngan ape anak so brapa? 'rinny, how many children do you have?' 32) leo, ngana pe badan so gode’ 'leo, you are getting fat’ 33) sonny ngana pe anak datang tadi. sonny your child has come. 136 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 127 – 139 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sentences 31, 32) and 33) show that the position of the word ngana is behind the person's name. the word ngana here has crucial role, if the word ngana in the three sentences above omitted, then the sentences will have a different meaning in this case being the object of conversation (in third person), not as interlocutor (second person). the presence of ngana in the sentences above will make it clear who is being addressed in the sentence. 3. ngana viewed as syntax functions as a lingual unit of word, ngana can occupy the subject's function in sentence construction. the examples are in sentences 34), 35) and 36): 34) ngana batulis surat di kamar! 'you wrote letters in the room!' 35) batimba aer ngana di kuala! take your water in the river! 36) sabantar bacuci piring ngana! 'you wash the dishes later’ sentence 34) ngana = subject, batulis = predicate, letter = object, and in room = description; in kuala = description; sentence 35) batimba = predicate, aer = object, ngana = subject, di kuala = description; sentence 36) sabantar = description, bacuci = predicate, plate = object, and ngana = subject. based on the description above, it turns out that ngana can occupy the function of the subject in the active sentence. meanwhile, ngana in sentence structure can occupy the initial position as in sentence 34), the middle position as in sentence 35) and even the final position, as in sentence 36). some of the sentence examples above in the form of active sentences, and the word ngana occupy different positions, at the beginning, middle and the end of the sentence. however, if the sentences are made passive, ngana will be in the middle position or precisely behind the subject of the sentence, as in examples of 37), 38) and 39). 37) surat ngana tulis di kamar! the letter you write in the bedroom! 38) aer ngana timba di kuala! mandang, f.h. personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj you take the water in the river! 39) the plates you wash later! you wash the dishes later! through the example above, it turns out that the ngana position is always in front of or before the predicate in the passive sentence. it can also be explained that subject of a sentence always followed by the word ngana as the object and it is never found that ngana is in behind the predicate of the passive sentence. the following are the explanations: the word ngana is also used in spoken language. here it implies that the speaker is directly dealing with the interlocutors. the examples are below: 40) buku itu ngana ada bili di mana? "where did you buy that book?" 41) ngana tunggu kita sabantar. 'wait for me for a moment' wait a moment you wait for me. 42) tu ada sadia di meja for ngana. 'what is on the table it’s for you. what's on the table it’s for you. from the example above, it showed that this verbal communication occurs directly between the speaker and the interlocutors. in other words, ngana here is used in a sentence that is in the form of a verbal, not written form. related to ngana position which functions as the subject in sentence construction, in principle it can occupy a variety of positions, both the initial position as in example 34) the middle position as in sentence 35) and the final position, the example is in sentence 36). the social distance between speaker and interlocutors are quite close and intimate. however, it is different if the communication created using the family name or position of the partner. for example: 43) ngana so pigi di kampong kalamaring? 'did you go to the village yesterday?' 138 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 1, june 2021, pp. 127 – 139 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 44) ibu palar mo pulang di tomohon mrs. palar wants to go home in tomohon? ' 45) pesik, so pigi ambe tu oto? 'pesik, have you taken the car?' 46) pak camat baku dapa deng kita tadi. pak camat met me. 47) lurah, ada tamu datang tadi. head of the village, there is a guest has come. sentence 42) shows that the speaker and interlocutors are close, whereas in sentence 43), the word ngana is not used because the speaker greets by using interlocutors’ family name. the reason is that speakers are reluctant or respectful to the interlocutors they address. avoidance of using the word ngana also occurs when speakers address interlocutors by mentioning their positions as in sentences 45) and 46). the close social distancing shows the speaker's tendency to create egalitarian relationships with interlocutors, as in the examples: 1), 6), 13), 18) and 23). whereas egalitarian relations are created because of the same factors: age, closeness, socio-economy, education and position. as examples are in sentence 2), until 27). the word ngana can also be used by speakers who are subordinate to interlocutors who have superior status. this happens because the relationship between the two is very close, both because of family relationships, friendship and because the subordinates are older than their superiors, for example: 48) kiapa ngana ada mara kita tadi di kantor. 'why are you angry with me at the office'? 49) apa kiat apa barkas nae pangkat ngana so tanda tangan? do you sign my files for promoted? 50) ngana bapimpin rapat tadi talalu lama. you lead the meeting for too long. 51) kita nemau’ ngana mo kase mutase pakita. i don't want you to mutate me mandang, f.h. personal pronoun ngana and its use in manado malay sentence 139 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conclusion based on the description has been explained, it indicates that the use of ngana is always influenced by interlocutors and factors causing it, such as age, closeness, socio-economy, education and position. in relation to the position of the subject, ngana can precede the subject, in this case the name of the person, it can also follow the subject. these different positions can have different functions. meanwhile, the function of the word ngana in a sentence can occupy the function of the subject in active sentence, while the ngana has the function as object in passive sentence. ngana in active sentence as subject, has a position in front of the sentence, in the middle or behind the sentence. in passive sentence, the word ngana always placed before predicate and never been placed in behind predicate. references alwi, h., dardjowidjojo., lapoliwa, h., & moeliono, a. m. (2008). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. alwi, h., dardjowidjojo., lapoliwa, h., & moeliono, a. m. (2014). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. chaer, a. (2006). tata bahasa praktis bahasa indonesia. jakarta: rineka cipta. kridalaksana, h. (2007). kamus linguistik. jakarta: pt. gramedia. mandang, f. h. (1996). kata tugas bahasa melayu manado. . manado: lembaga penelitian unima. muslich, m. (2008). tata bentuk bahasa indonesia. jakarta: gramedia. rattu, a. b. g. (2006). struktur bahasa melayu manado [unpublished thesis]. manado: state university of manado. subroto. (2007). pengantar metode penelitian linguistik struktural. surakarta: lembaga pengembangan pendidikan (lpp). verhaar, j. w. m. (2006). asas-asas linguistik umum. jakarta: gadjah mada university press. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales ceisy nita wuntu c_wuntu@yahoo.com english department, faculty of languages and arts, manado state university, indonesia abstract: this study aims at connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the indian removal policy in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales. this research applies an american studies’ interdisciplinary principle supplemented by the myth and symbol theory proposed by henry nash smith. smith claimed the importance of imaginative works in revealing american culture. he declared that the historical, anthropological and cultural, sociological, and ecological data as covered in this research can be equipped by data from imaginative works. hence, in this research, those data are presented integratedly in their context of past and present. in this research, in order to highlight environmental matters in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales, the analysis covers the data above that are integrated with the data revealed in the leatherstocking tales as a whole by employing the concept of ecocriticism. the spirit of the immigrants to have a better life in the new world, stimulated by its rich, lush and beautiful circumstances, in fact, is not an aim of a sustainable life. the desire to improve their life is not enough without using and treating its environment wisely as well as facing it with the environmental conservation paradigm. the spirit of doing the exploitation is a consequence of western humanism value. the reason of coming to america to avoid the population density as well as the competition of life cannot be attained when the immigrants experience the same population density and harsh competition as in their old world and when the beautiful nature disappears, the forests become cities, the tranquility becomes noisy and crowded, and the people experience the uncomfortable life that many kinds of conflict can follow. it is not on the right path when they cannot 98 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 maintain the grandeur of nature, because they are not directing their way to the right, sustainable way of life as alerted and meant by cooper. ecologically, the superabundance of the land when it was encountered by the european immigrants had been a factor that had made the american people arrogant with the environment. the damage of the environment that is understood anthropologically, culturally, sociologically and ecologically was not an individual mistake. it was the responsibility of the government to provide law enforcement but unfortunately the government got involved in the violation of human rights and of the activities of exploiting natural resources. to cooper, as seen in his work, the spirit of exploiting life and the environment can be overcome by the moral of ecological awareness. it is a hierarchy that starts from love or compassion, then appreciation, respect, wisdom, and justice and this hierarchy should be assisted by law. cooper’s ecological moral awareness arose as a protest against american progress. the immigrants’ progress to cooper is an extermination of human, flora, and fauna. key words: vanishing flora, fauna and indians, james fenimore cooper, the leatherstocking tales, cooper’s ecological hierarchy abstrak: kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap hubungan menghilangnya flora, fauna dan orang-orang indian dengan kebijakan penggusuran orang-orang indian penelitian ini mengaplikasikan prinsip antar disiplin yang dilengkapi dengan teori mitos dan symbol dari henry nash smith. smith menyatakan bahwa karya-karya imajinatif dapat mengungkap budaya amerika, sehingga dapat digunakan untuk menjelaskan data sejarah, antropologi dan budaya, sosiologi dan data ekologi demikian pula sebaliknya dimana data-data dari berbagai bidang tersebut dapat juga digunakan untuk menjelaskan karya-karya imajinatif. karena itu, data-data dari bidang-bidang tersebut bersama dengan datadata imajinatif dapat berintegrasi dalam konteks masa lalu dan kekinian menjelaskan persoalan lingkungan dalam the leatherstocking tales dengan menggunakan perspektif ekologi. keinginan para imigran untuk memperoleh hidup yang lebih baik di dunia baru, telah distimulasi oleh kekayaan, kesuburan, dan keindahannya dan bukan untuk suatu kehidupan yang berkelanjutan. adalah tidak cukup bagi para imigran untuk melakukan tindakan-tindakan bijaksana untuk menjaga kelestarian lingkungan. semangat eksploitasi adalah konsekuensi dari nilai humanisme barat. alasan untuk menghindari kepadatan penduduk serta kompetisi hidup tidak akan dapat terwujud ketika mereka kembali wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 99 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales menjumpai pengalaman yang sama ketika keindahan alam hilang, hutanhutan menjadi kota, ketenangan menjadi kegaduhan, serta konflik-konflik yang menyertainya. mereka berada di jalan yang salah seperti yang diperingatkan cooper ketika mereka mengabaikan keagungan alam. secara ekologi, kelimpahan yang merka jumpai di dunia baru, juga telah memicu mereka untuk berlaku tidak bijaksana terhadap alam. kerusakan lingkungan yang dipahami secara antropologi dan budaya, secara sosiologi, dan secara ekologi bukan merupakan kesalahan individu. adalah tanggung jawab dari pemerintah untuk menyediakan perangkat hokum untuk menjaganya, tetapi saying pemerintah juga terlibat dengan pelanggaran hak asasi dan kegiatan-kegiatan eksploitasi sumber daya alam. bagi cooper, semangat merusak lingkungan dapat diatasi dengan moral kesadaran lingkungan yang merupakan suatu hirarki yang dimulai dengan cinta, penghargaan, rasa hormat, kebijaksanaan atau kerifan, dan keadilan. hirarki ini harus didampingi oleh hukum. kesadaran moral ekologi cooper merupakan protes terhadap kemajuan amerika. bagi cooper, kemajuan tersebut merupakan penghancuran manusia, flora dan fauna. kata kunci: tumbuh-tumbuhan, hewan, dan orang-orang indian yang menghilang, james fenimore cooper, the leatherstocking tales, tahapan sikap ekologi cooper introduction environmental issues are often overlooked although the global environmental issue, namely global warming, is exacerbating natural phenomena. the recent natural disasters have been the results of environmental imbalance. environmental conservation should be pursued to avoid the certain destruction of the earth. according to meijer & berg, the "environmental protection is successful when the relevant root cause of the problem is removed or alleviated" (2010, p. 351). the environment imbalance is triggering the destructive floods, landslides, erosion and storm that often occurred everywhere in indonesia, as well as 'hurricane sandy' that also occurred in the east coast of america including new york at the end of 2012. these disasters had been exacerbated by global warming (barrert, 2012) human actions and human activities that can damage the environment become a serious problem that requires awareness of the effects and dangers they cause. in an attempt to raise public awareness of the importance of treating the environment with care, ecological ideas in literature integrated with the society's perspective on the environment need to be revealed. here, 100 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 glotfelty & fromm comment that “an ecologically focused criticism is a worthy enterprise primarily because it directs our attention to matters about which we need to be thinking. consciousness raising is, its most important task. for how can we solve environmental problems unless we start thinking about them?” (1996, p. xxiv) a literary work which has affective nature is a significant power to touch the deepest sense that can produce perfect consciousness as it successfully carries out its mission as a form generator of human consciousness. american studies is a discipline which regards literary works not merely as fictions but also as intellectual documentations which can complement historical, cultural anthropology, ecological, and sociological data, as well as the data for various other fields. in this research, the writer uses the leatherstocking tales as a viewpoint in understanding the vanishing flora, fauna and the indians from james fenimore cooper’s time in the united states. the piece written by cooper contains ideas that are aimed at the activities and actions of the destruction as well as the views or the way of maintaining the sustainability of life. the understanding of the views or ideas about life sustainability contained in this work is in the whole unity of the elements of the work; the author, the world, and ecosphere. through this understanding, the leatherstocking tales can be clearly seen that it is not only regarded as a work of fiction but also contains the value of truth which is discovered through the experience of cooper as the writer of the leatherstocking tales itself. his experience was obtained from intellectual and personality odysseys years before he wrote the story. the formation process on cooper’s view and thought towards the destruction and his ideal view in the leatherstocking tales shows the situation and the view of environment in america in cooper’s time. the next idea is that the leatherstocking tales, which was written a long time ago between 1823-1841 will always be relevant for indefinite period of time is seen in this way for human will always be responsible for his own life. in realizing this, human will always be dependent on the natural environment. moreover, the nature of human life as well as the nature of the environment which are universal has made the ideas in cooper’s work as the guardian for the sustainability of life. ecocriticism theory that emerged in the late of 1970s used this work as a significant object of the study when the ecocriticism emerged in america at that time did not document cooper’s work as a work that contained environmental criticism which was beneficial to save life and humans. therefore, this study is important to promote the leatherstocking tales wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 101 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales as a work that deserves attention so that it can always be a reference for the ever evolving human civilization in sustainable life. in cooper’s time, stories about people and their environment were often found in many kinds of writings, which at that time were called literary works. these works comprised travelogues, diaries, sermons, and letters. america’s land that is rich, fertile, and beautiful when it was found by christopher columbus in 15 th century has resulted in a variety of dreams, ideals, and hopes that were found in these works. for this reason, 'myth and symbol school' has put the works in a strong position and counts them as important documents. even though until today, cooper’s idea in his masterwork of the leatherstocking tales is not used as a reference or an important document by the united states of america to support the attempts to decrease gases causing greenhouse effect. cooper’s ecology concept which accompanies his view on america needs to be revealed to put him as a monumental american environment writer so that his work will always be used as a reference, especially in addressing today’s crisis of global environment. as an objective, this research aims at revealing the connecting vanishing flora, fauna and vanishing indians and its relation to the indian removal policy in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales. theoretical framework a work in the field of american studies is a collective work of several people from different disciplines who accommodate imaginative works as supplementary data. historical, cultural, social, and anthropological data can be completed with the data from literary or imaginative works and vice versa, so, the data of literary or imaginative works can be completed with historical, cultural, social, and anthropological data (smith, 1980, p. 14). the concept mentioned above is derived from the 'myth and symbol’ school as proposed by smith. imaginative works by this school is considered to have essential elements that contribute to the formation of culture. the element is called as the inner element of image builders that produces images which has a place in consciousness. these images construct mental entities which then exist as collective representations. mental construction can be understood through attitudes, process, and activities which can be observed. myths and symbol, according to nash smith, describes smaller or bigger units of an object which build an intellectual construction that merges into the concept of an ‘image’. the most prominent phenomenon in the leatherstocking tales is the 102 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 phenomenon of environmental destruction which reflects american culture. the multi-disciplinary concept proposed by smith (1980, p. 14) opens a room for this study to accommodate the discussion on the environment as seen in the work of cooper. since the environmental destruction issue is dominant in this work, the writer brings this issueof ecocriticism as a literary criticism which examines the relationship of literature and the environment, as the main focus of discussion. the criticism explores how literary works view the concept of the world as a place for life. the principle of this criticism then changes the concept of 'world' or the world in literature into a larger concept, which is called ’ecosphere‘. its coverage consists of ”text, writer, and the ecosphere” (glotfelty & fromm, 1996, pp. xviii-xix). rueckert says that all environment elements have the right to be protected by law so that the vision of ecology should be complemented by a legal instrument (cited in glotfely & fromm, 1996, p. 108). with regards to cooper, the environment destruction in his time needs to be confirmed through historical events that happened in the past to give a basis for the multidisciplinary analysis in anthropology, culture and sociology. sociological basis is employed to reveal the strong driving factors that the community causes inherent environmental destruction. historical approach from collingwood argues that history is “thought about the past” (dray, 1995, p. 16), anthropological approach states that genetic changes can be caused with radiation factors, extreme temperature, and chemical changes (crawford, 2007 p. 171). meanwhile, cultural approach, according to hoenigman, is an approach which is related to the manifestation of culture, such as ideas, activities, and artifacts (sampurna, 2013, p. 237). social approach is applied to understand the events related to the environment in america starting from the era of exploration to the period of construction in america of cooper’s time. ideas and activities which go along through the understanding of social reality that exists in community through an understanding that “reality is socially constructed” are applied to analyze the problems of the environment (berger & luckmann, 1966, p. 13). this approach is then employed to identify the truth which is obtained through the internalization process of how the immigrants as well as the native americans determine their attitude and action. wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 103 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales method of study the method applied in this study is a grounded theory of generating theory. the process to obtain the theory is done inductively, in which the acquisition of theory is done through collected data and not through testing theories (glaser & strauss, 1995, pp. 2-4). the main factors of grounded method are the data collection and analysis. these two steps are related to each other since analysis already starts during the process of data collection. the principle of application is the data conceptualization activity obtained after encoding the data or labelling activity by doing a comparison and logical questioning. coding is seen as the main activity to generate a theory. coding consists of three stages, namely encoding based on the nature, encoding to make the linking between categories, and encoding to simplify the varied data until arriving at the core category. the next step is redefining main problems and eventually re-testing to reach the generated theory. the data used in this paper are qualitative data but the study also accommodates supporting data which are related to numbers and statistical data by taking account the principle of american studies and the myth and symbol theoretical approaches. from these two theoretical approaches, the writer can conduct a comprehensive study to obtain the intellectual constructions that are derived from the collaboration of various fields that comprise the past and present the concept and emotions in the 'image' portrayed by cooper. the fields involved in this study are history, culture and anthropology, sociology and ecology that are presented as a whole. the data used are categorized based on these fields to accommodate the data from the imaginative works. in principle, the data collected are based on the problems of study associated with the phenomenon under study. as an initial step, although this method does not start from a theory, an understanding of the concepts and phenomena are required as initial asset which is called as a 'determination of context and phenomenon' to determine topics. from the topics, problems of the study can be formulated as a guideline in collecting the data. as for the object of this research, the work of the leatherstocking tales written by james fennimore cooper was chosen. the formal object is the environmental destruction in america during cooper’s time. the data collected is based on the problems of the study even though the problems themselves are still general. the main discussion is actually to identify forms of environmental damage as seen in the leatherstocking tales as a starting point 104 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 for the study of environmental destruction from a historical, cultural, anthropological, sociological, and ecological perspective. the discussion is then linked to ecological vision that is understood through the work acquired through the application of ecocriticism theory which also became reference of an ideal environment that can maintain sustainable living. the data is then collected as much as possible and then continued with encoding that starts with the naming or labelling the data with certain concepts. in this stage, there are a few labels from the collected data that is the destruction of flora and fauna as seen in the leatherstocking tales. the cause of the activities of environmental destruction was perpetrated by european settlers and this can be figured out through the historical, anthropological, cultural, sociological and ecological perspectives. treatments for the elements of environment covered by this study are then linked to the environmental destruction in the perspectives of history, anthropology, culture, sociology, ecology, and the concept of environmental conservation to arrive at the last stage which determines the core category which then returns to the process of the problems of the study to sharpen the more specific problem and a fitting test is done among the categories, problems of study, and the data. the conformity of these three elements produces a core category as a theory that is considered strong. result a. james fenimore cooper and the environmental ideas of the leatherstocking tales the leatherstocking tales has made cooper known as one of the founders of american literary identity. to be a great writer, cooper was supported by his intellectual ability even though formally he did not complete his higher education. it can be proven through his ability to overcome personal and family problems, as well as the problem of facilities limitations that could have hampered him from being a good writer. it can also be seen in his ability to overcome competition in his career as a writer and his ability to digest the problems faced by american authors in their attempt to confirm the identity of the material as well as the form of american literature. moreover, he managed to choose the right materials for the issues faced by then ascent state. he could also give an early warning to the americans to do great things that turned out to have significant effect on solving global environmental problems today. these works contain cooper’s views about the environment in america wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 105 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales as well as his ideas about environmental preservation that will always be significant. one example is about his concern on the environment, and sustainable life on earth is that his hero’s warning to judge temple “put an ind, judge, to your clearings…use, but don’t waste” (p. 250). another example of natty bumppo’s feeling of envy to the flora destruction is reflected in this quotation: “… i never visited the towns; but often have heard the place you speak of named.”’t is a wide clearing there, i reckon.””too wide! too wide! they scourge the very ‘arth with their axes. such hills and hunting grounds as i have seen stripped of the gifts of the lord, without remorse or shame! i tarried till the mouths of my hounds were deafened by the blows of chopper, and then i came west in search of quiet. it was a grievous journey that i made, a grievous toil to pass through falling timber, and to breathe the thick air of smoky clearings, week after week, as i did. ‘t is a far country too that state of york, from this !” (the prairie, p. 674). for natty bumppo, it is a shame to destruct hills and hunting grounds as the place for flora, fauna and human beings to live. cooper also has mentioned in this quotation about pollution when he mentions “to breathe the thick air of smoky clearings, week after week, as i did.”. he had reminded the pollution issue long before the issue arises. being raised in a family that embraced quaker christianity enabled cooper to have a deep sense of empathy towards all of god's creations comprising men and the flora and fauna and it can be seen clearly in his work, the leatherstocking tales. the feeling of closeness to tranquility and peace reflected from the tranquility and shade of the forest he got from childhood until his teenage years when he lived with his family in a frontier area surrounded by forests also contributed to the emergence of the ideas in the work. forest loss due to the forest clearing for residential areas as well as the loss of the mohican tribe who used to live in the area around his house has triggered the feeling of hatred against the forest clearing activity done by the pioneers. cooper himself had experienced unfair treatments from the government where he lived. they uncompromisingly set their authority over the land of his family. cooper had significant capabilities as a competent writer. he succeeded in empowering varieties of elements comprehensively such as american problems as well as his problems, opportunities in which he is at the right time to remind american people early to give their attention on 106 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 their environment, needs of all people, and his potency either cognitively or affectively and in psychomotor through his success in presenting his works the leatherstocking tales that is well-known and admired not only in america but almost throughout the entirety of europe. b. the vanishing flora, fauna and the indians as seen in the leatherstocking tales currently, the data show that approximately 635 species have disappeared from the plains of north america and hundreds more species were endangered within the interval of the 1800s to the 2000s. the species are classified into three categories: (a) the flora and fauna which have become extinct, (b) the flora and fauna that are thought to have become extinct, and (c) the flora and fauna which have become extinct in the wild, but still exist in preservations, such as national parks, botanical gardens, etc. in the span of two centuries – between the 1800s and 1900s – there had been a significant number of extinctions of the flora and fauna in the united states. in the 1800s the total species of flora and fauna according to stein, bruce, kutner, lynn, adams, & jonathan (2000) were considered extinct was 73 species whereas in 1900s the total species of flora and fauna which have become extinct or are deemed to be extinct reached the number of 557 species. cooper's fears were confirmed when martha, a local name for the last bird of the species of passenger pigeon, died at cincinatti zoo, ohio, on september 1st 1914 (stein, bruce, kutner, lynn, adams, & jonathan, 2000, p. 49). cooper’s cry about the vanishing of the birds happened long before the vanishing of the pigeons in 1914. in the novel, natty says “i wouldn’t touch one of the harmless things that kiver the ground here, looking up with their eyes on me, as if they only wanted tongues to say their thoughts” (cooper, 1985, p. 250). there has been no sighting of this species to this day, thus it is considered extinct. this was the species of bird that cooper selected for his work, the pioneers, one of the works in the leatherstocking tales. it was used as the object of pleasure for the people from templeton village, by killing them in mass number and leaving them to rot. the us government has also supported a wave of immigrants heading west with programs such as homestead act in 1862, the timber culture act in 1873 "to make western lands more appealing", and desert land act (petulla, 1988, pp. 177-178). so too was made through the pacific railway act by loaning money and providing a vast land for the union pacific railroad company and central pacific railroad wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 107 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales company to build the transcontinental railroad, and to not enforce any tax to the industrial players which resulted in the continuous growth of their industrial companies (petulla, 1988, p. 175). the policies set by the government had given a sad influence for the indians who inhabited the lands. "land was very much an article of white americans bargained over especially after the revolution ... (it) offered the greatest promise of financial gain" (petulla, 1988, p. 64). the native americans were not treated humanely. it had been proven with the existence of the "indian removal policy" to facilitate the need to exploit the gold in the regions of georgia. prior to the enactment of the policy in 1830, cooper's masterpiece the last of the mohicans emerged, precisely in 1826. thousands of victims as the result of the eviction were known as the 'trail of tears' or in the language of the cherokees "nunna dual tsuny". in “the last of the mohicans” cooper writes about chingakhook’s grief when his son, the last of the mohicans dies “i am a ‘blazed pine, in a clearing of the pale-faces.’ my race has gone from the shores of the salt lake and the hills of the delaware. but who can say that the sepent of his tribe has forgotten his wisdom ! i am alone…”have i live to see that last warrior of the wise race of the mohicans!” (p. 878) when the first immigrants succeeded in turning the wilderness into urban areas and exterminated the natives, as experienced by the mohican tribe in new york and cherokees tribe in the "trail of tears", it can be said that the spirit of success which was based on the spirit of capitalism was not an absolute savior. if humans could coexist in harmony, and could maintain a good balance with their environment such as with the flora and fauna, as well as all the elements of the earth, then god would not bring any disaster upon the earth. however, in reality, the government in cooper's era was involved in the destruction. at the current moment, the government's attention toward environmental safety is overlooked and instead, focused on the economic sectors. on september 24th 2014, in new york, many marches were organized in an effort to arouse the determinants of the environmental policy on safety issues to be discussed in the un conference in the city. the marches were conducted by the environmental activists, one of which was al gore who is an environmentalist fighting against global warming. these could be interpreted as a warning aimed at the us as well as the world in general. in reality, in materializing their dreams to acquire a good life, liberty, and happiness, they took the path that led to destruction. the prosperity and peace offered by the 108 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 new world of america were only temporary and it could jeopardize the harmony of life as feared by cooper. cooper’s s protagonist, natty bumppo, harbored a deep hatred towards environmentally damaging activities such as the destructions of flora and fauna as well as the unfair and inhumane treatments towards the indians. the activities that show the immigrant’s greediness can be understood from this quotation: “it seems to me, if there’s a plenty of anything in this mountainous country, it’s the trees. if there’s any sin in chopping them, i’ve a pretty heavy account to settle; for i have chopped over the best half of a thousand acres, with my own hands, counting both varmount and york states; and i hope to live to finish the hull, before i lay up my axe. chopping comes quite natural to me, and i wish no other employment…” (cooper, 1985, p. 229) natty's friendship with chingachgook, who belonged to the mohican tribe, which was part of the delaware tribe, showed that they shared the same principles. it was made clear that natty was raised among the delaware tribe, a tribe famous for its wisdom. honoring the cooper award to the young chief of the pawnee tribe represented the old trapper or natty's admiration toward the young pawnee tribe chief in the prairie. nevertheless, natty seemed conflicted in justifying the act of killing as punishment, as what the chief of the pawnee tribe was going to carry out, even though it was in retaliation of what his enemies had done. according to the old trapper, it was against the virtues she had believed in. evidently, cooper had met the head of the pawnee tribe he admired and he sensed the presence of such trait which he described as 'savage heroism'. this explained that in the leatherstocking tales cooper was not in favor of the indians, he only defended their commendable nature and attitude. similarly, he did not hate the white men either. however, he refused to disregard the values of righteousness such as the sense of responsibility toward themselves as well as their surrounding environment such as in the leatherstocking tales,.cooper’s hero, natty bumppo really admires chingakghook and the whole of his tribe, the delaware mohicans in “the last of the mohicans” (1826) as well as the pawnees in “the prairie” (1827) that belong to the good indian stock, and he does not like the hurons and the sioux that belong to the bad stock (cooper, 1985). wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 109 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales the belief that all of the elements of the earth were interrelated and would last forever was believed by the indians and chingachgook, who was highly respected and admired by natty bumppo. she believed that he could prevent his people from destructing the environments. in living her life, natty bumppo with her christianity teachings centered on love for others, was no different from chingakhook's indian. there were rituals performed to compensate the animals they had killed for food. the indians understood that these animals had the right to live and be protected (hughes, 1983, p. 50). they often compared these animals with human beings, which in return would make it hard for them to kill the animals even if it had been for food. the christian teachings to love our fellow human beings and our surroundings were implemented by both natty bumppo and the indians. the attitudes, behaviors, and actions of natty bumppo, which were based on the christian teachings of love, led to her passion for flora and fauna and her strong feeling against hurting others as written in the bible "love your peers as you would yourself" (matthew, pp. 22-39). the indians also believed in treating the surrounding environments with the utmost care, which derived from their deep sense of empathy for the lives of the living beings. compassion is a form of love. this sense of love, as commanded by god, had dissuaded natty from brutal actions that damaged the environment. she felt that the living environment should be protected accordingly because here is where love actually came from. compassion is the manifestation of god's mandate of love, and the manifestation of love as life's mandate is to save others and the environment. this is the basis of the other forms of environmental preservation such as appreciation, respect, wisdom, and justice. these are cooper's ecological hierarchy in the leatherstocking tales. c. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and the vanishing indians and its relation to the indian removal policy changes that occur in the wilderness of america were a result of human destructive activities. these changes were the essence of cooper’s biggest concern and protest towards european settlers. he was troubled because these settlers had had a higher civilization, measured from the knowledge and the technology they possessed, compared with the american indian. the existence of america today made possible by european settlers cannot be separated from the enlightenment that happened in the 11 th century when europe underwent the dark age in the 5 th century. the later years influenced and opened up the ideas which had confined them in political, economic and religious crises. the 110 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 wealth of the eastern world brought by the 'crusaders' had lured europeans to acquire wealth of the eastern. through this step, the period of exploration emerged and created some areas considered to be new and rich that could be colonized, one of which was american that was initially discovered by columbus (barck & lefler, 1959, p. 2). along with the exploration period and the opening lines between eastern and western world, occurred the 'revolution of taste' that thrived on the activity of observations and experiments leading to the development of science and technology that gave birth to western humanism which led to the superiority of europe over the developing countries (hoffer, 2006, pp. 42-44) the attitude of superiority was not received well by the natives. in addition, according to the law governing european settlers, coming to a new land and taking over the property of others could not be justified. the opposition from the indians was a resulting fight for their rights. therefore, the idea of western humanism which they believe to be able to shift the rights of the indigenous people was also experienced by settlers from africa, china and japan. the tempting properties, wealth and abundance undermined the ideal view of religious communities at the time. an example is the decision made by john wintrop, a priest, for his community. he decided to separate from another religious community led by thomas hook and live in a coastal area with a better economic prospect. likewise, thomas hook and his followers moved from an area they initially agreed for their residential area. they move to a larger area for the sake of convenience and ownership (rohrer, 1957, pp. 15-21). these changes displayed by religious settlers reflected the strong desire of the immigrants that could adversely give impacts on the nature and human resources. therefore, the desire for conquest became a dominant atmosphere. how religious figures such as john wintrop and thomas hook and their followers were affected cannot be separated from the influence of the super abundance in america. america’s large land has diverted thomas hook and his followers from their initial mission, which was to spread their religion. the spirit towards the industry and technology advancements as promoted by benjamin franklin when he was faced with america’s abundance had been forwarded by walt whitman in his poem i hear america singing. melodious songs in the work of whitman showed his appreciation for what america had achieved in various fields (http://www.poets.org/poetsorg/ poem/i-hear-america-singing). appreciation toward human achievements was more clearly visible in whitman's passage to india. he explicitly stated his admiration for the development of telecommunications and railroads wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 111 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales (whitman, http://www.cliffsnotes. com/literature/l/leaves-of-grass/summaryand-analysis-calamus/passage-to-india) whitman’s appreciation for the work and achievements of american people represents the price of hard work and suffering which had been experienced by the settlers in conquering 'american wilderness'. the decision to leave the 'old world' or the old state was not an early joy for the european immigrants to be where they wanted to be. on the way to their destination as experienced by john smith and his friends, they had to face harsh storms and some of them became ill. their hopes to arrive safely and well at their destination had not yet been acquired when they had several times passed islands in hardships. another difficulty was when they had to deal with hostile indigenous people. in that place they had to deal with the views of vile deeds. the murder carried out by native americans was a serious terror especially for those who were sick and starving when they did not have a place to stay in the 'wilderness' and they still had to work hard (baym, 1989, pp. 1113). when they worked hard they should have been provided with food that met the standard for nutrition. in reality, they were getting weaker and sicker because they only ate biscuits every day. sometimes they did not eat anything. 1624 was a time of famine for them. this incident was recorded by captain john smith in the general history of virginia. the number of immigrants decreased drastically from 500s of people to no more than the 60 people. the remaining immigrants were portrayed in a devastating picture. the period of famine and the difficult times had resulted in cannibalism, where humans prey on each other for food. the harsh environmental factor received little attention. the reality faced by immigrants in america was in contrast to what they had believed to be the new canaan with the promise of prosperity. one of the many hardships experienced by the first settlers in the new world was when the winter came they were not equipped with the proper equipment. they were not prepared for the different condition as what they were used to in europe. they were not equipped with enough medical equipment and medicine. they did not have enough places to take shelter from the storms. they had shortage of food supplies, and numerous psychological sufferings caused by the hardships they encountered. another difficulty they faced was the fear of facing the indians with their traditional fighting equipment such as arrows and axes. these conditions were far from what they had hoped for by moving to america. 112 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 the success of the immigrants to clear land from the west to california in 1809 did not come easily. it was achieved through many physical and mental hardships and sufferings, even deaths. the clearings were conducted for more than two hundred years, from the year 1607 to 1809. during this period, they had managed to adapt well to the present circumstances and conditions, which were different from where they came from in england. the keys in conquering the harsh american land were strong will, high spirit, courage and hard work. the rigors of life in the middle of the wilderness had been conquered at last, despite the number of casualties. a new life in the new world was successfully pioneered. the american wilderness is a determining factor in the country's success in various fields (turner, 1920, pp. 3-4). frederick jackson turner stated that the stimulation of the american wilderness has spawned the american spirit, the spirit of success, the new americans regardless of where they were originally from. the american wilderness has brought forth the characteristics, traits, habits, and new cultures which are authentically american. the persistence for hard work which was the trait of american character had generated a great price for these european settlers, which were primarily from the uk. the difficult experiences at the beginning of america had formed a spirit based on the 'myth of innocence' or the feeling of being free from sin and moral guilt (adi, 2003, p. 129) this myth was the power, the strength of which has been proven by the remarkable achievements of today. so too was the belief of the confidence gained from the success of the unyielding and hardworking attitude. america as a developed country can be seen from its achievements in various aspects of life. these proved the validity of the beliefs they keep. it is understood that the aspects that determined the success of america were, first, the opportunity. the prospective settlers of the new world had the opportunity to learn about the prosperity stored in the east, an opportunity to escape from the suffering they faced in the dark period in the fifth century europe, the opportunity that came when christopher columbus discovered the american continent, the opportunity when there were challenges on the way from europe to america across the ruthless ocean, and the opportunity to face the american wilderness. the second was the will to maintain a life which generated goodwill, determination, strong courage, and hard work. the third was the confidence that generated beliefs of the existing cultures at the time they were conquering and opening the american wilderness as a place to develop the civilization for more than 200 years, from the arrival of the first settlers on the of north american soil in 1607 in virginia, and eventually wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 113 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales stopped in california in 1809. the spirit which has developed was the spirit of capitalism, the spirit to gather as many crops without any consideration toward the enslaved groups which were displaced and treated unfairly. the act of destruction was not considered an individual error when the european settlers had to fight for their life. the social circumstances in europe starting from the dark age which has caused their desire to make the journey to the east has opened their mind to build a culture community that emphasized reason and progress. it was supported by the abundance of natural resources that allowed them to take actions that damaged the environment as it is shown by kirby, the wood chopper in “the pioneer” (1823) (cooper, 1985). these violations were the government's responsibility, but it turned out that even the government was also engaged in such activities as indian removal policy and the government policies to stimulate people moving west. conclusion the vanishing flora, fauna and the indians feared by cooper in his time emerged as a consequence of the cultural, social and ecological condition in the united states.; culturally, the condition arises from the values of western humanism that are derived from reason and rational value, socially, the immigrants’ hardship experience, and ecologically, the superabundance in the new world. cooper gave high appreciations to the rights of living creatures, and to life itself through love or 'compassion', and thus appreciation, respect, wisdom, and justice would follow. these appreciations arose from the universal moral values which were also enshrined in cooper's christian belief and the spiritual beliefs of the native americans, the indians. cooper firmly addressed this through a work called deerslayer (1841) that those destructive actions must be addressed by law made by man. the laws should always accompany government's policies concerning the environment, and the enforced policies must be obtained through politics. all the while the government’s responsibility in addressing those destructive acts was involved in the tragic events that befell the indians, and the government’s extravagant behavior affected their policies. cooper acknowledged that the source of human life came from nature. cooper was not completely against the killing of animals and tree loggings when he said "... use but do not waste" (cooper, 1985) which he wrote in his novel section, the pioneers (1823) a real life is the life that takes into account 114 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 the environment. a life without any consideration toward the environments will perish. 'the center position' of his every stance emerged from his spiritual beliefs. every characteristic of nature he understood showed his wisdom in facing the dilemma between progress and environmental preservation. the ecological principles over his wisdom had shaped a hierarchy that started with compassion, respect, wisdom, and justice that offered the solution to address life issues or 'life awareness' currently faced by the united states and the world in general. these issues of the advancement of science and technology, followed by the capitalistic society without any environmental awareness, which could lead to dehumanization and destruction, are basically what cooper was against. references adi, i. r. (2003). reconciling the american myth of innocence with popular consciousness: a study on american action films of 1990s. an unpublished dissertation. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university. barck & lefler. (1959). colonial america. new york: the macmillan company. barry, pr. (2002). beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory. uk: manchester university press. baym, n., et al. eds. (1989). the norton anthology of american literature, 3 rd ed., vol. 1. new york: w.w. norton & co. baym, n., et al. eds. (2003). cherokee memorials. the norton anthology of american literature. 6 th ed, vol. b. new york: w.w. norton & company, pp. 1029-1039. berger, p.l. & luckmann t. (1966). the social construction of reality. england: penguin group. bloomberg. (2012 november 5-11). it’s global warming, stupid. businessweek. usa. bradford, w. (1989). plymouth plantation. in baym, n., gottesmasn, r., holland, l.b., kalston, d., murphy, f., parker, h., prichard, w.h., wallace, p.b. (eds). the norton anthology of american literature. new york: w.w. norton &co. wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 115 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales burdick, n. s. (1981). the evolution of environmental consciousness in nineteenth-century america: an interdisciplinary study. an unpublished dissertation. calloway, c. g., (2012). first peoples. new york: bedford/ st. martin’s. cooper, j.f. (1985). the pioneer, the last of the mohicans, and the prairie. the leatherstocking tales, vol. i. usa: the library of america. cooper, j.f. (1985). the deerslayer and the pathfinder. the leatherstocking tales, vol. ii. usa: the library of america. cooper, j.f. (1979). introduction. the last of the mohicans. new york: dodd, mead & co. cooper, j. f. (1838). the american democrat or hints on the social and civic relations of the united states of america. new york: h. & e. phinney. dodd, elizabeth. (2014). ecocriticism: literary studies in an age of environmental crisis. natural resources and environmental sciences seminar series. usa: kansas state university, ackert. franklin, w. (2007). .james fenimore cooper: the early years. usa: yale university press. garrard, g. (1998). ecocriticism. london and new york: routledge press. glaser, b. g., & strauss, a. l. (1967). the discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. usa: a division of transaction publisher. glotfelty, c., fromm, h., eds. (1996). the ecocriticism reader landmarks in literary ecology. georgia: university of georgia press. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/quakers1. html. http://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/i-hear-america-singing. http://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/l/leaves-of-grass/summary-and-analysiscalamus/passage-to-india). hoffer, p. c. (2006). the brave new world: a history of early america. maryland: the john hopkins university press. hughes, j. d. (1983). american indian ecology. usa: texas western press, el paso. 116 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 97-117 jackson, a. (1838, june 12). on indian removal policy. message to congress. national archives and record administration. records of the united states senate, 1789-1990. record group 46. jahoda, g. (1976). the trail of tears. great bitain: george allen & unwin publisher, ltd. kammen, m. (1980). people of paradox: an inquiry concerning the origins of american civilization. usa: oxford university press. lounsbery, t. (1886). james fenimore cooper. new york: houghton, mifllin and co. meijer, j., & berg, d. a. (2010). handbook of environmental policy: environmental science, engineering and technology. new york: nova science publishers, inc. national center for public policy research. (1997, july 25). text of the byrdhagel resolution. retrieved november 2, 2006 from http:/www. nationalcenter.org/kyoto senate.html petulla, j. m. (1988). american environmental history. ohio: merrill publishing co. and a bell & howell co. porter, t. (2008). and grandma said… iroquois teachings: as passed through the oral tradition. usa: xlibris corporation. slotkin, r. (1986). the fatal environment: the myth of the frontier in the age of industrialization, 1800-1890. connection: wesleyan university press. spiller, r.e., throp, w., johnson, t.h., canby, h.s, ludwig, r.m., gibson, & w.m. (eds.) (1974). literary history of the united states. new york: macmillan publishing co., inc. spiller, r. e. (1965). james fenimore cooper. new york: mcgraw-hill book co. stein, b., kutner, l. s., adams, j. s., (2000). precious heritage: the status of biodiversity in the united states. new york: oxford university press. tate, c. (1973). the search for a method in american studies. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. turner, f. j. (1920). the frontier in american history. new york: the arizona board of regents. wuntu, c. n. connecting the vanishing flora, fauna and its relation to the 117 indian removal policy as seen in cooper’s the leatherstocking tales united nations commission of experts’ final report (s/1994/674), section iii. b. retrieved january 10, 2006 from http://www.ess.uwe. ac.uk/comexpert/iii-iv_d.htm#iii.b. whitman, w. 1900. a passage to india. http://www.bartleby.com/ 142/183.html. winthrop, j. (1630). a model of christian charity. retrieved january 10, 2006 from http://www.john-uebersax.com. zhao, x. & park, e. j. (2013). asian americans: an encyclopaedia of social, cultural, economic and political history (3 volumes). santa barbara: abcclio. cover-december celt 15 vol 2 index rev 2 untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the impact of different types of testings on teachers’ classroom practices arina shofiya english education department, faculty of education and teacher training, iain tulungagung, indonesia email: arina.shofiya@gmail.com received: 23-10-2016 accepted: 17-12-2016 published: 2-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the teachers’ classroom practices arina shofiya arina.shofiya@gmail.com english department, faculty of education and teacher training, state islamic institute of tulungagung, indonesia abstract: to promote the quality of national education, a test, especially high-stake test, has received special concern from the government. such kind of test brings serious consequence (impact) to some related parties like teachers, students, school systems, and society. this article is intended to highlight how different type of testing affects the teachers’ teaching practices in the classrooms. in indonesian secondary schools, two types of tests, national examination (ne) and school examination (se) are administered to measure students’ achievement in a particular level as well as to decide students’ graduation. the two tests are different at some points. first, the test for ne was developed and administered by the government through the board of national education standard. meanwhile, the preparation and administration of the test for se were done by the english teachers at every school. second, the test of ne was in the form of objective test, whereas, the test of se is subjective in which the students should create writing products. using descriptive qualitative research design, the current research investigated how four indonesian secondary school teachers carried out the teaching of efl writing in their classroom as the impact of the two types of test. the findings of this research revealed that the administration of the different types of tests brings different impacts on the preparation and classrooms practices in which the teachers were more enthusiastic and serious to prepare for the se rather than the ne. it can be concluded that a particular type of test which requires full involvement of the teachers either in the preparation or the administration like se brings positive impact on their classroom practices. shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 223 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: impact, different types of tests, efl writing, classroom practice abstrak: untuk meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan di indonesia, pemerintah menyelenggarakan ujiannasional (un) dan ujian sekolah (us). bagi beberapa pihak seperti guru, siswa, dan masyarakat luas, hasil yang diperoleh dari dua jenis pengujian tersebut membawa konsekuensi yang serius terutama dalam mengukur pencapaian siswa dan menentukan kelulusannya dari sekolah menengah. dalampelaksanaannya, un dan us memiliki beberapa perbedaan. pertama, soal un dirancang dan diujikan oleh pemerintah melalui badan standar nasional pendidikan (bsnp) sedangkan soal us dirancang dan diujikan oleh guru bahasainggris. kedua, jenis tes pada un adalah tes obyektif sedangkan pada us jenis tesnya subyektif yakni siswa harus mempraktikkan berbicara atau menulis dalam bahasa inggris. artikel ini membahas dampak kebijakan un dan us terhadap praktik pembelajaran bahasa inggris oleh guru sekolah menengah atas. temuan penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan jenis pengujian memiliki dampak yang berbeda terhadap praktik pembelajaran oleh guru di dalam kelas yaitu guru lebih antusias dan serius dalam mengajar untuk persiapan us.bisa disimpulkan bahwa suatu jenis pengujian yang melibatkan guru secara penuh berdampak positif terhadap praktik pembelajarannya di dalam kelas. kata kunci: dampak, perbedaan jenis pengujian, menulis, praktik pembelajaran dalam kelas introduction issue of education always receives great concern by the government. as a manifestation of the law number 20/2003 about the standard of national education, the government issued the regulation number 32/2013 about standards must be met in carrying out education at school level. the regulation covers standard of content, standard of process, standard of graduate competence, standard of facilities, standard of financial, standard of teacher and administration staffs, and standard of evaluation. schools are obliged to meet the standards so that quality education can be achieved, with regular supervision, of course. to measure the students’ achievement nationally, the government through the ministry of education has set up national evaluation. in the government regulation number 32/2013 it is stated that evaluation is conducted to control as well as to guarantee the quality of various components of education in any level and type of education to maintain accountable national education. to implement such regulation, the government carries out high stake tests. thomas (2005, p. 2) defines a high-stake test as a test that 224 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj brings serious consequence to students, school systems, or the society being served. in the academic context, the result of high stake testing serves some purposes such as for tracking/assigning students for certain level, promoting students for the next level, or graduating students from certain level (heubert & hauser, 1999, p. 1), as rewards for success or punishment for failure of a school (thomas, 2005, p. 4), and exit test for students (carnoy, elmore, & siskin, 2003, p. 5). in indonesian upper secondary schools, the results of the high-stake test serve some purposes such as a measurement of students’ achievement, a reflection of the schools’ quality, and/or a map for the government to do intervention for the underperforming schools. high stake test appears in the form of national examination (ne) which has been administered since 20032004 academic year and has undergone several revisions. until 2010 ne, scores from the ne determined students’ graduation and the passing grade increased gradually from 3 until 5.5 for each subject. however, in 2011 ne there was a change in the national examination system in which the government issued the decree of the minister of education number 04/2010 about school examination (se). in the decree it was stated that se is activity in the form of written and practice test to measure and evaluate students’ competence for all subjects in science and technology fields which it is prepared and carried out by schools of any level of education. in the administration of the two tests, ne and se, some differences can be identified. first, the test in the ne is in the form of multiple-choice test, whereas, the test in the se is practice (performance) test. second, the test in the ne is designed and administered under the control of the government through the board of national education standard, while the se is prepared and administered by the teacher(s) at school. since the tests are different in nature, the impact can also be different, especially on how the teachers practice teaching writing in the classroom. investigating such topic is, therefore, worth doing. in some previous studies by sukyadi & mardiani (2011), arapah (2013), furaidah (2013) ginting (2014), and saehu (2015), investigation about the impact of the administration both ne and the se on the teachers’ classroom practices were not their main interest. mostly they focus the investigation on the impact of ne only or se only. in fact, the efl teaching practices are not directed to one type of test only. thus, the current research is intended to figure out the practices in preparing the students for the ne and the se that covers the following issues: (1) how do the teachers prepare their teaching of efl writing? (2) how do the teachers implement their teaching of efl writing? and (3) how do the teachers assess students’ efl writing? shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 225 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review a. concept of testimpact in the terminology of testing, impacts of test are known as wash-back. wash-back is defined as the effects of tests on teaching and learning, educational system, and various stakeholders in the education process (bailey, 1999; andrews, 2004; cheng, watanabe, and curtis, 2004). according to bachman & palmer (1996) test impacts might be viewed as micro effect in the classroom as well as macro effect on educational systems and societies. at classroom level, the impacts of tests can be seen on the better teaching preparation such as syllabi, lesson plan, selection of teaching material and media. other impacts can be observed in the procedure of teaching, for example, in which teachers apply effective methods and strategies, and the practice of assessment in which teachers pay more attention on the procedure of assessing students. at the macro level, impact refers to the extent to which a test influences within the society, ranging from government policymaking, school administration, publishing, and general opportunities, to parents’ expectations of their children. in practice, both at micro level and macro level there is a synergy in which the tests in the classroom influence and are influenced by the societal system of education. like two sides of a coin, high-stake testing has negative and positive impacts at both micro and macro levels. at the micro levels, the negative impact of test will lead to narrowing of curriculum. what the students learned is test of language, instead of total phase of understanding (shohamy, 1992 cited in pan, 2009). further, shohamy explains that many teachers have high anxiety, fear, and pressure to cover the material as their job performance was assessed by students’ test scores. for students, a number of paid coaching classes prepare them for exams and make them learn skills to pass exam rather than language skills (wiseman, 1961). at the macro levels, high stake testing brings negative effect especially when it is related to policy of education. pan (2009) asserts, “decision makers overwhelmingly use tests to promote their political agendas and to seize influence and control of educational systems.” despite the negative impacts discussed previously, a test also brings positive impacts at the micro and macro levels. at the micro level, teachers and learners will be motivated to fulfill their teaching and learning goals (alderson & wall, 1992). the teaching and learning activities will be positively encouraged by the administration of good tests. in other words, teachers are more challenged to prepare their students to succeed in the test by doing good practices in the classroom instruction. at macro level, decision makers will make use of the result of test as to promote some changes in 226 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj education field like the implementation of new curriculum or provision of textbooks, etc. to be specific, the impacts of high-stake test covers five areas including curriculum, materials, teaching methods, feeling and attitude, and learning. b. high-stake test in indonesia in indonesia, tests which are categorized as high-stake are the national examination (ne) and the school examination (se). those tests are categorized as high-stake since they have large impacts, for example, as a measurement of students’ achievement, a reflection of the schools’ quality, and/or a map for the government in doing intervention for the underperforming schools. using certain formula, students’ scores from the of language lesson (alderson & wall, 1992), the narrowing of curriculum to areas most likely to be tested (lam, 1994), and the teachers teach to the test (pizarro, 2010). 2. materials: the teachers are exam-slaves and textbook-slaves with high reliance on past-exam papers (lam, 1994), use exam-related materials to prepare students for test (pizarro, 2010), and take the materials from previous examination questions (furaidah, 2013). 3. teaching methods: the teachers are potential to focus their teaching on coaching the students for exam. the closer to the exam, the more frequent the drilling activities in the classroom (alderson & wall, 1992), focus on linguistic accuracy and neglect the communicative aspect of text (furaidah, 2013). teachers are motivated to increase their teaching level higher than the standard (ginting, 2014). 4. feeling and attitude: students show mixed feeling towards the exam in which at one side exams make them work hard to gain success and on the other side exams do not accurately reflect all aspects of their research (cheng, 1998, p. 296), some teachers show reluctance to innovation in teaching (pizarro, 2010), positive and negative attitudes were revealed in the schools of different level of achievers. the higher the level of achievers, the more positive wash-back was shown (sukyadi & mardiani, 2011). 5. learning: students prepared the exam by learning more seriously especially closed to the due days and preparation to ne made them 1. curriculum: the examination has a demonstrable effect on the content shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 227 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ne and the se are computed and the results are decisive in determining students’ graduation from secondary level of education. in terms of language skills being tested in the ne and se, since 2012 there is a significant change in the administration of ne in which writing skill was tested. in the table of specification of 2012 ne in secondary school, it is stated that the evaluation of writing includes: (1) arranging jumbled sentences to become a short text under the type of recount/ procedure/ narrative/ descriptive, and (2) filling three blanks in short texts of recount/ procedure/ narrative/ descriptive (board of national education standard, 2011). writing, nevertheless, has been tested previously in the se, a test which is designed and administered by the schools prior to the ne and is usually known as practice examination (ujian praktek). in such test, the students are instructed to produce a text of particular type. viewed from the theory of writing assessment, writing test in the ne is an indirect assessment and in the se is direct assessment. studies in relation to the implementation of high-stake tests in indonesia come up with two different results. the teachers feel they are being under pressured as to prepare the students to achieve the passing grade in the high-stake test. it does not represent the quality improvement of education because it is dishonestyprovoking, the only standard to measure school quality, unfair, and useless (sukyadi & mardiani, 2011). in addition, furaidah (2013) asserts the involvement of all teachers including those who teach at the tenth and eleventh grade in collecting materials for drilling activities to prepare for the ne. however, in relation with the implementation of writing test in the se, more positive response is shown by the teachers. se was implemented by the schools to measure speaking and writing appropriately even though there were some weaknesses mainly in term of content validity (arapah, 2013). the teachers are in favor of the policy of writing test in the se because it is likely to promote their creativity in assessment practices. in the classroom practices, the teachers will be motivated to teach english better than the level required by the standard (ginting, 2014). saehu (2015) notes that in the implementation of se the teachers followed the operation procedures standard and the final scores from se were interpreted based on mastery learning criteria (kriteria ketuntasan materi/kkm). the current research was intended to figure out how the teachers carry out efl writing instruction to respond the policy of implementing two types of writing tests, namely objective test in ne and subjective test in se. hence, method 228 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the research focused on getting information about how the teacher prepare, implement, and assess students’ writing through some techniques. a. types of research the current research used descriptive qualitative design since it was intended to figure out teachers’ practices in teaching writing in the context of the ne and the se without doing any manipulation to the subjects. it was in line with the general characteristics of qualitative research, namely, (1) has the natural setting as the direct source of data and the researcher is the key instrument, (2) descriptive, (3) concerns with process rather than simply with outcomes or product, (4) tend to analyze data inductively, (5) meaning is of essential concern to the qualitative approach,(6) small sample size, and (7) interpretive analysis (bogdan & biklen, 1992, pp. 27-29, dornyei, 2009, pp. 37-38). b. research subjects the research was conducted in secondary schools in blitar municipality, east java, indonesia in the academic year 2014/2015. with regards to the profile of exemplary teachers developed by anugerahwati & saukah (2010), the criteria in selecting the subjects were: (1) personally, the teachers were close to the students, understanding, helpful, and friendly, (2) pedagogically, the teachers were excellent in using various methods, strategies, media, and learning sources, (3) professionally, they were competent as proven by their bachelor degree and length of teaching experience, (4) socially, they were active in joining teacher organization and any professional development activities. in the research, four teachers from four schools were considered to meet the predetermined criteria. c. research procedure in conducting the research, it followed a qualitative research procedure which started by observing the phenomenon, in this case, the different efl writing instructions due to the policy of high-stake test in indonesia. to collect the data, some techniques were employed. in-depth interviews were employed to explore particular experience of the subjects in teaching writing in the context of preparing students to succeed in the ne and se. basically interview was the prime technique to elicit information from the teachers. the interviews were done twelve times. each teacher was interviewed four times. 1. interview shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 229 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj beside in-depth interview, non-participant observations were conducted to confirm the teachers’ explanations in the interview sessions. the observations were done by joining the teachers’ classes without disturbing the teachers and the students. the behaviors of the teachers and the students during the writing instructions were the foci of observation. the results of the observations which were conducted eight times were the other source of data. to support the data from two previous techniques, namely, interview and observation, it is necessary to check the teachers’ document. yearly program, syllabi, curriculum map, lesson plan, and samples of students’ writing products were investigated to get information about how the teachers practiced the teaching of efl writing. the collected data were analyzed by following miles and huberman’s (1994, p.10-12) data analysis procedures that involved three stages: (1) data reduction (transcribing the records of interview and observation, selecting the data relevant to the research, simplifying and sorting the utterances in the conversation), (2) data display (analyzing and categorizing the assorted data into three categories of research questions, comparing the findings with the findings of the current research about the teaching of efl writing in the global context, identifying the uniqueness of the practices of teaching efl writing and classifying the findings based on the above-mentioned categories), and (3 ) conclusion drawing (the conclusion was done continuously along with the process of the research). results and discussion in this section, the findings of the research are presented and then followed by the discussions of the findings. a. how the teachers prepare their teaching of efl writing data about the teachers’ preparation in teaching efl writing were taken from interview, observation, and documentation. developing a sound lesson plan was perceived as essential prior to conducting practices in teaching efl writing to prepare the students for the ne and se. the data of the present research showed that the teachers developed specific lesson plan of writing mainly to prepare students for the se, not for the ne. similarly, ginting (2014) and saehu (2015) report that the materials for writing test in the se 2. observation 3. documentation 230 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj were developed by referring to standard of competence and basic competence as stated in the document of standard of content. the implication was the students should be given adequate practices in writing the text of the type to be tested in the se. in this case, positive wash back of the writing tests occurred in the development of the lesson plan where the lesson plan is intended to design classes with adequate exercises on writing various types of text. evidently, the findings confirmed a survey that students will never learn unless they are taught in an organized, systematic, efficient way by a knowledgeable teacher using a well-designed instructional approach (american federation of teachers, 1999 cited in kent, 2004, p.30). the findings of the research revealed that in developing the lesson plans the teachers went through two stages, namely, collaborative and individual stages. the teachers collaborated with other teachers from different schools in developing the drafts of lesson plan. the activity was a part of semester program of the association of subject matter teachers (musyawarah guru mata pelajaran/mgmp) in the city, blitar municipality. collaboration was an effective way to strengthen the partnership of the members of mgmp since they got the same pressure in preparing students for the ne and the se as well as sharing information about what they would do in intensifying the teaching of writing. collaboration was also worthy in building uniform perception about good practices in teaching writing. collaboration had the potential to not only engage teachers in talk, but also talk about each aspect of the instructional core. it was in line with alloway’s (2013, p.156) research which found that talking about students, content, and teaching each other offer learning opportunities, including opportunities to learn about individual students, develop more extensive content knowledge, and learn new teaching strategies. to finish the lesson plans, the teachers did it individually. referring to harmer (2004, p. 369) who states that in making a lesson plan the teachers shape the lesson, the lesson planning activities were affected by some factor such as situation and condition of the students, type of schools, possible supplementary curriculum applied at schools, and others. the data of the present research confirm haynes’s (2010, p. 29) statement that context really matters in the process of designing a lesson. in this case, the vision and mission, the excellence, and the type of schools were the context that caused differences in finalizing the lesson plans. teaching materials are of important matters to consider in preparing the teaching of writing. the teachers realized the importance of teaching materials for the students and thus employed various activities to develop materials as well as meet the teaching objective. the following table showed that various activities were done in developing teaching materials. shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 231 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj type of materials steps in developing teaching materials teacher-made non teacher-made • handout • modified materials from internet • materials browsed by the students • contextualized stories (adapted stories) • real life tasks • buku sekolah elektronik / bse (the governmentendorsed electronic books) • student worksheets issued by mgmp • previous year test items • imported textbooks • authentic materials • check the lesson plan • check the standard of competence and basic competence • check the standard of graduate competence • select the materials • discuss with colleagues in table 1, it is revealed that the teaching materials in general were classified into two: teacher-made and non teacher-made materials. according to the observed teachers, the teacher-made materials like handout or modified materials from internet were used prior to the distribution of student textbooks or worksheets. such materials helped the students learn writing better because the selected materials were adjusted to the students’ need, knowledge, and experience. in line with titone, plummer, and kielar’s (2012, p.22) statement that the teacher-made materials ameliorate the students’ learning if the content is true to students’ live experiences, the content of the teacher-made materials shows respect to the students’ native home/culture as well. meanwhile, non teacher-made materials such as buku sekolah elektronik/ bse (the government-endorsed electronic books), student worksheets issued by mgmp, previous year test items, imported textbooks, and authentic materials such as the wrapper of instant noodle and the wrapper of medicine were used to provide adequate exercises to the students. all the teachers agreed they used non teacher-made materials more often than the teacher-made materials for the practicality and availability reasons. table 1: the development of teaching materials 232 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj another prominent issue in relation to the development of teaching materials to prepare for the ne is the kind of adjustment of teaching materials. this issue becomes important because the modes of tests in the ne and the se are different. in the table of specification of the 2012 ne, it is stated that the modes of writing test in the ne cover cloze procedure and arranging jumbled sentences to become paragraph. in the perspective of the teachers, such kind of test only measured micro skills of writing, so the materials for teaching writing were not adjusted as much as the ones for writing test in the se where the students were instructed to produce text. therefore, the adjustments were conducted more on the materials related for writing test in the se. to select suitable materials, the procedures were started from checking the lesson plan they developed previously. then, they checked the standard of content, the basic competence, and the teaching objective. discussions with colleagues were done to make sure that the teachers have selected suitable materials to meet the students’ need. in this case, collaboration with other teachers helped them very much. in the global context, preparing students for high stake testing is a widespread issue. teachers employ specific teaching strategies to carry out effective teaching. giouroukakis and honigsfeld (2010) explore that the teaching strategies commonly employed by english teachers in preparing for high stake test of writing include writing frames, vocabulary building, graphic organizers, and repetition. meanwhile, shelton, fu, and smith (2004) highlight the effectiveness of using writing workshop to prepare students for entrance test in university. in the indonesian context, the current research found that the teachers employed some teaching strategies like pair work, group work, individual writing, mentoring, a combination of writing and speaking, outlining, mind mapping, vocabulary check, guided writing, providing linguistic cues of a text, and providing interpersonal support. in conclusion, the teachers employed various teaching strategies in preparing students for the ne and se. the intensity in using of each strategy changed as the d-day of examinations was coming closer. the closer the examination days, the teachers more intensively taught and the classroom activities were directed at developing students’ skill in doing examination such as through answering multiple choice questions and writing various texts. this finding confirmed the conclusion of the studies by shohamy et al. (1996) and read & hayes (2003) which state that close to the due date of examination, the classroom activities were much heavier than in the general classes. the classroom activities were carried out to develop exam skills or strategies (e.g., brainstorming, working in pairs or in groups, jigsaw activities, simulating authentic situations, engaging in debates, discussions, speeches, etc.) shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 233 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. how do the teachers implement their teaching of efl writing? a discussion about teaching preparation for writing test in the ne and the se come up with several important issues such time management, type of writing tasks, and procedures in teaching writing. as the teachers of the twelfth grade, the teachers receive greater pressure because the impact of the ne and the se was so serious especially its decisive power in determining students’ graduation from secondary school. the teachers were, therefore, forced to apply some strategic efforts in implementing the teaching of efl writing. time management was the first issue in teaching efl writing in relation to preparing students for the ne and se. due to the pressure of the ne, in the even semester the teachers focused on teaching the theories of writing at the first half of the semester. the second half was used for doing exercises in writing and short reviews of writing various text types. in this case, the teaching of writing was more directed to preparing students for the se since the test in the se asked students to produce text. meanwhile, to make the students get more practice in doing test in the ne, the teachers held additional classes in the morning. in the morning classes, writing was taught in the form of drilling students with exercises of doing cloze test and arranging jumbled sentences. in other words, the teaching of writing was very much testdirected. this evident confirms, pizarro (2010), sukyadi and mardiani’s (2011), and furaidah (2013) studies which revealed that schools carried out additional classes as the wash back effect of the administration of high-stake test. accordingly, it also confirmed bachman & palmer’s (1996, p.33) statement that when high-stake is involved, teaching to the test in unavoidable. writing tasks performed in the classroom were various. by following brown’s (2004, p. 220) classification of writing tasks, the findings showed that four type of tasks were performed in the classroom, namely, include imitative, intensive, responsive, and extensive. imitative type requires the attainment of the fundamental writing such as spelling, punctuation, and basic sentence development. intensive type of writing task was performed in the form of constructing compound sentence, complex sentences, and compound complex sentences. responsive type requires students to write at a limited discourse, connecting sentences into paragraph, and creating a logically connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. extensive writing task implies the success in managing the process and purposes of writing in the form of an essay or even a thesis. the teachers stated that they need to teach various writing tasks because the tests in the ne and the se appeared in different modes including micro skills and macro skills of writing. the summary of the writing tasks is presented in table 2. 234 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj type of task micro skill macro skill imitative • spelling exercises mechanics exercises intensive/controlled • vocabulary practices • sentence construction responsive • writing a summary • writing ending of movie • writing warning card extensive • writing essay • individual writing assignment in the classroom practice the teachers conducted a writing workshop within process writing approach. in the pre-writing, the activities included brainstorming, mind mapping, clustering, and topic gathering. brief explanations about the macroskills and micro-skills of writing were given in the planning (pre-writing) activities to help students develop their plan. prior to writing a particular type of text the teacher did vocabulary checking to make sure if the students understood the meaning of the words related to the topics. the teachers also provided linguistic cues of text to ease the students in recognizing the characteristics of a text. referring to the concept of second language writing by hyland (2003, p. 3), the teachers perceived that learning to write in foreign language mainly involves linguistic knowledge and the vocabulary choices, syntactic patterns, and cohesive devices that comprise the essential building blocks of texts. in the drafting session, the data from the observation showed that collaboration was promoted through pair work. in the perspective of the teachers, using pair work is effective to overcome the problems of limited time and large number of students in the classroom. it was evident, however, that pair work promoted peer feedback. getting feedback from their peer seemed to be more comfortable and less threatening for the students. this fact confirmed the finding of a research by hussein & al ashri (2013) that peerfeedback could lower anxiety, increase motivation, and allow for the growth of writing sub skills because feedback activities take place in a non threatening climate where students were not afraid of taking risks. table 2: summary of efl writing tasks • punctuation and shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 235 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to help students organize their ideas, various activities were carried out. controlled writing, guided writing, writing workshop, teacher-student conference, and student-student conferences were the effective practices conducted by the teachers to boost students’ writing skill. meanwhile, various writing tasks included writing essay, summary writing, creating an ending of movie, and writing a warning card could help the students widen their understanding about various types of writing tested in the se. to some extent these findings were in line with the studies conducted by shelton et al. (2004), higgins, miller, & wegmann (2007), salimi & fatollahnejad (2012), hussein & al ashri (2013), and mutwarasibo (2013). the last step in the process approach was publishing students’ writing. the findings of the interview and observation came up with two kinds of publishing methods. the first was written publication done by putting students’ writing on the schools’ wall magazine. the second was spoken publication. in this case, contextual teaching writing was applied. when the learning material was about short functional text like announcement, the teachers taught how to write the announcement. the students wrote their announcement text and after getting input from the teachers, the students read their announcement by using the school’s loud speaker. the positive thing of doing so was that, it increased students’ self confidence because their works would be read or heard by other students of different classes and levels. to optimize students’ learning of efl writing, the observed teachers provided individual home writing assignment. writing at home was good for the students because they had more time to think as well as having more supportive environment for learning rather than writing in the classroom. c. how do the teachers assess students’ efl writing? the findings of the data in the present research showed that in general the assessment conducted by the teachers served two purposes, as evaluation of students’ achievement and as information about students’ strengths and weaknesses in efl writing. as evaluation of students’ achievement, the assessment was done when the teachers checked the students’ final product. the score obtained was by reflecting on student’s achievement in writing. the result was contributive for the students’ learning because they could see their achievement. the scores were collected and later computed by using certain formula to get the final score to be put in the students’ report books. meanwhile, assessment used for gathering information about the students’ strength, weaknesses, and problems in writing was done by using special codes on the students’ writing. it was conducted at the same time with the process of teaching efl writing. the teachers put circles or crosses on the parts of the texts which were incorrect. 236 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students understood such codes because they were accustomed to being corrected that way. the findings from interview and documentation revealed that in general, three kinds of assessment techniques were employed, namely indirect, direct, and portfolio assessment. indirect assessment was used when the teachers assessed the micro skills of writing like grammar, word-choice, etc. direct assessment was used when the teacher assessed the macro skills of the writing. portfolio assessment was used when the teacher assessed all of the students’ document as well as kept students’ score. in line with hyland’s (2003, p.214) opinion where the teachers use assessment to motivate students to work harder or feel positive about their achievements, the use of different kinds of assessment provide comprehensive feedback to the students and thus, make them realize that they were potential to be good writers. assessing is closely related to scoring. based on the teachers’ document, in general, the teachers used two kinds of scoring techniques, namely, holistic and analytic scoring techniques. holistic scoring was employed when the teachers assess the students’ individual writing because they dealt with large number of writing products within limited time. in addition, the scores did not very much affect students’ english achievement. students’ scores in english subject were an accumulation of several scores in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. meanwhile, analytic scoring was employed to maintain consistency of scores. since writing assessment is something subjective, the scores achieved are expected to be consistent when a writing product is assessed by different raters or in different time. analytic scoring technique leads on the high consistency of the score even when it is applied by novice raters (hunter et al., 1996; barkaoui, 2008, p.ii). the result of documentation showed that the teachers adopted a scoring rubric provided by the association of subject matter teachers (musyawarah guru mata pelajaran /mgmp) as it offered practical strategy in assessing students’ writing. conclusion the teachers were more enthusiastic in preparing for the se because they were involved in the design and administration of the test. the materials for the se were developed by the teachers by referring to the document of curriculum. the serious consequence of the ne and the se causes the teachers to carry out additional classes in the morning where the activities are mostly in the form of doing exam-like exercises. in this case, wash back of highstake test truly occurs. the current research also notes the importance of collaboration. the teachers collaborate in developing the drafts of lesson plans and the students collaborate in drafting their writing. through collaboration shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 237 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there is a shared knowledge and peer feedback so that the administration of writing tests in the ne and the se is not a threat for the teachers and the students. nevertheless, assessment is essential to serve the purpose of evaluating students’ strengths and weaknesses as well students’ achievement. in the context of preparing students for the ne and the se, assessment plays significant role in giving information about students’ ability in writing. as a result, the teachers can provide suitable treatments to the students to make them ready for the ne and the se. all in all, it can also be said that a test which requires full involvement of the teachers in the preparation until scoring process like the one in the se raise more enthusiasm among the teachers in their classroom practices. in other words, the impact of se on the teachers’ classroom practices is more positive. based on that fact, it is recommended that the government make sustainable program to increase the capability of the teachers in administering teacher-made tests as well as to control the quality of the test. references: alderson, j. c. & wall, d. 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(2012). creating culturally relevant instructional materials: a swaziland case research. international education, 42(1), pp.22-107. appendices: part 1: interview guide for the teachers name : ____________________ school : ____________________ date : ____________________ no questions 1 have your school implemented the policy of administering writing test in the school examination? shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 241 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2 how do the school/ the teachers implement the writing test in the school examination? 3 do you think that the policy of administering writing test in the ne and se affects the practices in teaching writing? 8 in the teaching practice, how do you manage the time since teaching efl writing requires a length of time and all the language skills must be taught? part 2: observation guide name : ...................................... school :....................................... date :....................................... start :....................................... finish :....................................... no aspect indicator description yes/no not e 1 opening the class motivation prepare students’ mental for the class through interesting activities apperception (activating students’ schemata) relate new topic/ material with students’ background knowledge 2 main activities teaching method/techniques method employed stimulates students to be active learners method employed stimulates cooperative learning method employed stimulates fun learning appropriateness of the material the material presented support the attainment of basic competence 9 what are the procedures of teaching efl writing that you do in your class? 10 when do you conduct writing assessment? 11 how do you conduct writing assessment? 12 do you think that the assessment is effective? how? 13 what do you think of the policy of administering writing test in the ne and se? 4 do you prepare the students for the writing test in the ne and se? 5 how do you prepare your teaching of efl writing? 6 do you make use of the products from mgmp such syllabus or lesson plan? 7 how do you select and develop the teaching materials for efl writing? 242 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 222 – 243 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the material is appropriate theoretically teaching competence demonstrate competence to be mastered by the students provide clear feedback toward students’ performance respond students’ questions, opinion, or comment sufficiently the use of teaching media using appropriate teaching media the media is used effectively involving students in using the media 3 closing the class reflection and assessment encourage students to express their feeling help students make conclusion of the material assessing students by using instruments that are appropriate with the basic competence part 3: document analysis guide name : ...................................... school :....................................... date :....................................... no aspect indicator description yes/no note 1 identity and competence (syllabi and lesson plan) completeness name of the subject, grade, class, semester, time allotment, and date competence standard of competence, basic competence, indicator objective teaching objective is clearly stated 2 learning material material development coverage of material is in accordance to the basic shofiyah, a., the impact of different types of tests in efl writing on the 243 teacher’s classroom practices https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj competence the teaching material is correct and suitable the material is systematically arranged the material is contextual 3 teaching media media development media is designed according to teaching objective the media can be used to improve students’ understanding. 4 teaching scenario pre activity apperception is clearly stated technique to motivate is clearly stated main activity main activities are stated clearly and systematically according to the sequence of achieving basic competence time allotment of each learning sequence is written each learning sequence provide opportunity student-student interaction and student-teacher interaction post activity the post activity leads students to make reflection enrichment or remedial program is stated 5 evaluation suitability with competence instrument for evaluation is in accordance to the basic competence instrument covers all materials answer key and scoring guide are clearly written a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia an error analysis of using phrases in writing recount text at tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan 1gadis selvia sitorus, and 2 kammer sipayung 1,2 english department, teacher training of nommensen medan, medan, indonesia email: 1gadisselviasitorus14@gmail.com; 2 ksipayung@yahoo.com received: 21-06-2016 accepted: 25-06-2016 published: 23-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj an error analysis of using phrases in writing recount text at tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan 1gadis selvia sitorus, and 2kammer sipayung 1gadisselviasitorus14@gmail.com; 2ksipayung@yahoo.com 1,2english department, teacher training of nommensen medan, medan, indonesia abstract: this article deals with an error analysis of using phrases in writing recount text at tenth grader in sma parulian 2 medan. the objective of the study is to identify the types of common phrases’ error made by the students of tenth grader in sma parulian 2 medan in writing recount text. this study used descriptive qualitative research. the subject of this study is the tenth grade students of sma parulian 2 medan which consists of three classes. the object of this study is class of x-a. the instrument of collecting data used writing test, writing recount text. the data were analyzed by identifying the students’ phrases errors by underlining each error from students’ answer sheet, after that classifying the types of error based on five types of phrases. finally, the research result showed that there are 145 phrases errors made by the students x-a in writing recount text. the types of phrases which indicate common error is on noun phrase. the number of noun phrase error are 83 with percentage 57,24%, followed by verb phrase has 28 with percentage 19,31%, the third is prepositional phrase which has 22 with percentage 15,17%, the fourth is adjective phrase which has 10 with percentage 6,90%, the last is adverb phrase has 2 with percentage 1,38%. it was caused the students constructed or arranged the words or sentences based on indonesian meaning. english has different rules in constructing phrases. the students also were lack of knowledge about phrases. therefore, english teachers are expected to focus on types of phrases in learning english. key words: error analysis, error on phrases abstrak: penelitian ini adalah merupakan studi tentang analisis kesalahan menggunakan frasa dalam menulis recount text di kelas x di 80 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 79 – 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sma parulian 2 medan. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengidentifikasi jenis kesalahan frasa umum 'yang dibuat oleh siswa dari kelas x di sma parulian 2 medan dalam menulis recount text. penelitian ini menggunakan penelitian kualitatif deskriptif. subjek penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas x sma parulian 2 medan yang terdiri dari tiga kelas. objek penelitian ini adalah kelas x-a. instrumen pengumpulan data yang digunakan menulis tes, menulis recount text. data dianalisis dengan mengidentifikasi siswa frase kesalahan dengan menggarisbawahi setiap kesalahan dari siswa lembar jawaban, setelah itu mengelompokkan jenis kesalahan berdasarkan lima jenis frase. akhirnya, hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada 145 frase kesalahan yang dibuat oleh siswa x-a dalam recount text. jenis frase yang menunjukkan kesalahan umum adalah pada noun phrase. jumlah kesalahan noun phrase ialah 83 dengan persentase 57,24%, diikuti oleh verb phrase memiliki 28 kesalahan dengan persentase 19,31%, yang ketiga adalah preposition phrase yang memiliki 22 kesalahan dengan persentase 15,17%, yang keempat adalah adjective phrase yang memiliki 10 kesalahan dengan persentase 6,90%, yang terakhir adalah adverb phrase memiliki 2 kesalahan dengan persentase 1,38%. hal ini disebabkan siswa membuat atau menyusun kata-kata atau kalimat berdasarkan makna bahasa indonesia. bahasa inggris memiliki aturan yang berbeda dalam membangun frase. para siswa juga kurang memiliki pengetahuan tentang frase. oleh karena itu, guru bahasa inggris diharapkan untuk fokus pada jenis frasa dalam belajar bahasa inggris. kata kunci: analisis kesalahan, kesalahan pada frasa introduction language is a set of rule. realization of rule can be recognized through grammar. grammar is a set of structural rules that show how words are combined, arranged, or changed to give certain meaning. it is also basic elements of a language to build up sentences in expressing their ideas for communication activities. the grammar of foreign language is different with our mother language. therefore, the students have to comprehend in learning the language skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing). writing is productive skill that students have to master. it is more complicated than other skills (speaking, reading and listening) in english. writing relates with coherence, cohesion, diction,and grammar. as we know, grammar plays big role in producing writing text. we have to think how the readers can understand and comprehend what we write.writing is a language sitorus,g. s., & sipayung,k., an error analysis of using phrases in writing 81 recount text at tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj skills by which students can express their ideas in written form. writing is a complex process of decision making—of selecting, deleting, and rearranging material (kirzner and mandell, 2008, p. 29). it means that there are some steps to produce writing. it’s not instant to do writing. the students have the difficult to make sentences with good grammar. they usually make wrong organization and the placement every word in constructing phrases in sentences or paragraphs. in other hand, the students are lack to comprehend the using of english phrases. it makes the teacher confused to understand what the students mean in their writing. based on explanation above, the writer would like to conduct a research entitled “an error analysis of phrases in writing recount text at tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan.” review of related literature james (as cited in bao, 2015) says that error analysis is the process of determining the incidence, nature, causes, and consequences of unsuccessful language. error analysis (ea) is the first approach to the study of second language acquisition which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to construct language (saville-troike, 2006, p. 37). error analysis is a method used to analyze error that appears in learning language. it means errors are not only in foreign language but also our mother tongue. the errors can be analyzed and observed to know what caused them. ellis (as cited in krisnawati, 2013) states errors reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge; they occur because the learner does not know what is correct. mistakes, on the other hand, reflect occasional lapses in performance because the learner is unable to perform what she knows. to know the distinguish by rechecking the mistake to the students, the students can recognize and correct the mistake that they have made. it is showed that the mistake that students have made is ‘error in performance’ or ‘mistake’. but, if the students cannot recognize and correct the mistake that they have made, it means the mistake is ‘error in competence’ or ‘error’. a. types of errors according to dulay, burt, & krashen (1982, p. 146), the commonly used as bases for the descriptive classification of errors is linguistic category, surface category, comparative taxonomy, and communicative effect taxonomy. in surface category, errors are divided in four parts namely: 82 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 79 – 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1. omission error is characterized by omitting of an item that should appear in a well-formed utterance. for example: she walks the street (dia berjalan di jalan). 2. additions error is the presence of an item which should not appear in well-formed utterances. addition are divided three parts : a) double marking is the failure to delete certain items which are required in some linguistics contraction but not in others. for example, “she doesn’t works”. b) regularization is those in which a marker that is typically added to a linguistic item is erroneously added to exceptions that can be found in english. for example, the verb eat cannot be changed into eated but ate. c) simpe addition is if an addition error is neither a double marking nor regularization. for example: i want a that bag. 3. misformation error is characterized by using of the wrong form of the structure. for example, “the man went on bus”. 4) misordering error is the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group morphemes in an utterance. for example, “he is boy handsome”. b. sources of errors there are source of errors (brown, 2007, p. 263): 1. interlingual transfer interlingual errors may occur at different level such as transfer of phonological, morphological, grammatical and lexica-semantic elements of the native language into the target language (cited in ratnah, 2013, p. 161). 2. intralingual transfer intralingual errors result from faulty or partial learning of the target language rather than language transfer. c. writing writing is a complex process of decision making—of selecting, deleting, and rearranging material.writing is the process of using vocabulary, spelling, symbols, sentence to communicate ideas or thoughts in a readable form though many steps to produce good writing (kirszner and mandell, 2008, p. 29). there are six stages in the process of writing, they are: planning, shaping, drafting, revising, editing and proofreading. sitorus,g. s., & sipayung,k., an error analysis of using phrases in writing 83 recount text at tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj d. recount text recounts are the simplest text type in this genre (knapp, 2005, p. 223). formally, recounts are sequential texts that do little more than sequence a series of events. recount is one of text that functions to tell what happen in the past to their audience. e. phrases a phrase is a group of words forming a unit and united around a head, e.g. a noun or a verb (gelderen, 2010, p. 45). murdibjo & murdibjo in prihandini (2011) describes phrase is a group of words, which has a unit of definition, but it cannot be a complete sentence. phrase cannot stand alone (dependent). phrase can put as subject or object in the sentence. we can conclude that phrase is a substance to construct the sentence. there are five types of phrases or group (knapp and watkins, 2005, p. 60): 1. noun phrase noun phrase has a noun as headword. headword can be noun or pronoun. there are some constructions of noun phrase in english: determiner, pre modifier (modifier before noun), post modifier (modifier after noun) and the combination of them. a) determiner + noun, for example: (i) my bag: possesive +noun, (ii) an apple: article + noun, (ii) that book: demonstrative + noun b) pre modifier (modifier before noun such as: determiner, adjective, participle or others noun). for example: (i) my beautiful girl, (ii) a love letter c) post modifier (modifier after noun such as prepositional phrase, wh-clauses, participial phrase). for example: (i) the book on the table, (ii) the city where i was born d) the combination of determiner, pre modifier and post modifier. for example: (i) my cute cat stole the fish on the table, (ii) the handsome man give me the dark chocolate. 2. verb phrase a verb phrase consists of main verb and one or more auxiliaries (martin, 1984, p. 144). the main verb can be either action verb or a linking verb. 84 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 79 – 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj for example: (i) i have finished my biology task, (ii) she is cooking the noodle. 3. adjective phrase adjective phrase has an adjective headword. adjective phrase can be used an attributive or a predicative adjective. a) attributive adjective an attributive adjective is adjective that puts before the noun or inside the noun phrase. for example: the old man is sitting in the park b) predicative adjective a predicative adjective is adjective that puts after the noun or outside the noun phrase. for example: the building looks high. 4. adverbial phrase adverbial phrase has an adverb as their headword. it has function like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. it itself are (optionally) accompanied by a degree marker such as very, too, extremely, really. for examples: i) she runs very fast. (modifies verb run) ii) he always sings in loud voice. (modifies verb sing) 5. prepositional phrase a prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (a word such as on, to,in, or with) and its object (the noun or pronoun it introduces) kirszner and mandell, 2009, p. 248). for example: preposition + object = prepositional phrase on the street on the street to siska’s room to siska’s room in her red wallet in her red wallet sitorus,g. s., & sipayung,k., an error analysis of using phrases in writing 85 recount text at tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology this research is descriptive qualitative method to analyze phrases errors in writing. descriptive qualititative refers to human phenomenon or behavior that happen naturally. subject of this research is the students of tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan in the academic year 2015/2016, especially in class of x-a. there are three parallel classes and each class consists of 35 students. this research uses writing test, writing recount text to test the students’ ability in analyzing phrases errors in recount text. in analyzing collected the data, the writer (1) identify all the types of phrases’ errors by underline the words in students’ sheet based on the types of errors namely; errors of omission, errors of omission, errors of addition, errors of misformation, and errors of misordering, (2) count the number types of phrases’ errors which students used in writing recount text, and (3) convert the frequency types of phrases’ errors percent by following formula based on sudijono (2014, p. 43): x 100% x = the percentage type of phrases’ error f = frequency type of phrases’ error n = total number of phrases’ error 100% = standard percentage result of the study after analyzing and counting phrases’ error from students’ answer sheet, the writer shows the list of the percentage of phrases’ errors in writing recount text. it can be seen on the figure 1. based on the figure, the total of phrases error are 145. the number of noun phrase errors is 83 and the percentage is 57.24%. the number of noun phrases included errors of omission are 28 and the percentage is 33.74%, errors of addition are 3 and the percentage is 3.61%, errors of misformation are 23 and the percentage is 27.71% and errors of misordering are 29 and the percentage is 34.94%. the number of verb phrase errors is 28 and the percentage is 19.31%. the number of verb phrase includes the errors of omission are 1 and the percentage is 3.57%, errors of addition are 18 and the percentage 64.29%, 86 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 79 – 88 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj errors of misformation are 9 and the percentage is 32.14% and there is none of error of misordering. figure 1: percentage of phrases errors in writing recount text noun phrase verb phrase adjective phras e adverb phrase prepositional phrase the number of adjective phrase errors is 10 and the percentage is 6.90%. it is only an error for misordering. there are no errors of omission, addition and misformation. the number of adverb phrase error is 2 and the percentage is 1,38%. it is only having error of addition and there is none of error of omission, misformation and misordering. the number of prepositional phrase is 22 and the percentage is 15.17%. the number of prepositional phrase included errors of omission is 8 and the percentage is 36.36%, errors of addition are 2 and the percentage is 9.09%, errors of misformation are 12 and the percentage is 54.55% and there is none of error of misordering. the highest number of errors on noun phrase is with the percentage 57.24%. it was common errors of phrase made by the students x-a. the second place is verb phrase with the percentage 20,74%, in the third is prepositional phrase with 16.30%, in the fourth place is adjective phrase with percentage 2.96% and the last is adverb phrase with percentage 1,48%. the error of misformation was common error from four types of error which occurred in using phrases in writing recount text. it was caused by the students who were lacking to comprehend the constructing phrases in sentences or paragraphs. the students just learnt about using articles and they do not know sitorus,g. s., & sipayung,k., an error analysis of using phrases in writing 87 recount text at tenth grade in sma parulian 2 medan https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj that it is part of the noun phrase. they did not have knowledge about the phrase and its parts. therefore, the students made errors in using the phrases. conclusion and suggestion the study reveals that the students made many phrases errors in writing recount text. the total number of phrases errors are 145 from all types of phrases available. it means that the teacher should pay attention about this problem. noun phrase becomes the type common phrase error made by the students because the students lack comprehension in using the phrase. for this reason, a number of suggestions are as follows: 1. the teacher has to make learning phrases become interesting. they should make phrases understood to students because a phrase is useful for students’ skills. 2. the students are expected to pay attention when learning english especially about phrases. the students have to learn about phrases in detail because it is useful for their skill to not only master it in writing but also in other skills (ie. speaking, reading and listening). 3. the writer also suggests to the writers of grammar books to write and arrange english material especially about types of phrases in more detail in order to enrich knowledge how to use types of phrases well. 4. other researchers are suggested to explore and develop another study about phrase. it is useful to make more knowledge about phrases in order that people can understand better in using the phrases. references bao, x. 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��� �� ��4� � ��� %�� 9�'� ���=� .� � '!��� "74 ��!�� � ��� � �� 5���� ���4=66 �&4�� ����&��6����&� !6#$$�$ $�s$�6#��i����#$���� )��� �� 2��&� �� ��� ���� �� (�� ��� $����� 789:� ;� 789<� o������� ������� 2��� �!��������� ��&������#$� �@�#$��p��e#$�#f��3���������=�2��� �!���!� ��������������� �� � �1�9��e#$�#f��"0(��������!�����=��� ��� ���������� ������"����!���!� ��0������(���&���0"$�6�� ���1� �e�f1�����c�� ��� ��j���1� '�� e#$�$f�� %������&���� ��� �!���� �5� "����!�� ����� "0.=� ���� ��� � �&� �!8�� !4��! !>�0"$�6�� ���1� ��e#f1�����c�� �� d�&� �!1� '�� e��� ��� f�� <'�!�������� ��� �!� ! �� ��� %���� !��>1� 2�4�;��!� �� 2��g�4�4 ��� � the implementation of mbkm policy and its impact on the curriculum and learning model heny hartono, berta bekti retnawati, hironimus leong, tri hesti mulyani, lucia hernawati this article is a report of a research on the implementation of merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) at soegijapranata catholic university (scu), semarang supported by the directorate general of research and technology, directorate general of higher education, republic indonesia). this study involved 5275 respondents as the sample taken from a total of 7775 population which consisted of lecturers, administrative staff, and students. it aimed to see the implementation of mbkm at scu and how the stakeholders perceived the impacts of mbkm implementation on the curriculum, syllabus, and learning model. this study applied sequential method by which the results of qualitative and quantitative data analysis were elaborated. the instruments used were focus group discussion and spada survey. the results of this study showed that respondents had positive perceptions on the implementation of mbkm but not all respondents fully understood the system, process, and procedure of the mbkm implementation. the implementation of mbkm also affected the curriculum and learning model. therefore, a model of curriculum and learning model based on contextual learning was suggested to support the implementation of mbkm at scu. keywords: mbkm policy, curriculum, learning model implementasi kebijakan mbkm dan dampaknya terhadap kurikulum dan model pembelajaran heny hartono, berta bekti retnawati, hironimus leong, tri hesti mulyani, lucia hernawati artikel ini merupakan laporan penelitian pelaksanaan merdeka belajar kampus merdeka (mbkm) di universitas katolik soegijapranata (scu), semarang yang danai oleh direktorat jenderal riset dan teknologi, direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi, republik indonesia. penelitian ini melibatkan 5275 responden sebagai sampel yang diambil dari total 7775 populasi yang terdiri dari dosen, tenaga administrasi, dan mahasiswa. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat implementasi mbkm di scu dan bagaimana persepsi dosen, tendik, dan mahasiswa akan dampak penerapan mbkm terhadap kurikulum, silabus, dan model pembelajaran. penelitian ini menggunakan sequential method yang menggabungkan hasil analisis data kualitatif dan kuantitatif. instrumen yang digunakan adalah focus group discussion dan survei spada. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa responden memiliki persepsi positif terhadap pelaksanaan mbkm namun tidak semua responden memahami sepenuhnya sistem, proses, dan prosedur pelaksanaan mbkm. penerapan mbkm juga mempengaruhi kurikulum dan model pembelajaran. oleh karena itu, model kurikulum dan model pembelajaran berbasis pembelajaran kontekstual disarankan untuk mendukung pelaksanaan mbkm di scu. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) 1alberta natasia adji and 2 athaya prita belia 1master of literature and cultural studies, faculty of humanities, airlangga university, surabaya, indonesia 2 english department, faculty of humanities, airlangga university, surabaya, indonesia email: 1alberta.adji@gmail.com; 2 ayapritabelia@gmail.com received: 31-05-2016 accepted: 02-06-2017 published: 15-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) 1alberta natasia adji and 2athaya prita belia 1alberta.adji@gmail.com; 2ayapritabelia@gmail.com 1master of literature and cultural studies, faculty of humanities, airlangga university, surabaya, indonesia 2english department, faculty of humanities, airlangga university, surabaya, indonesia abstract: monsters have always been a part of children fictional tales, representing the evil side of nature. they are the reason why heroes and heroines struggle to fight against, but at the same time they balance the whole realm, existing side by side with the heroes. there have been numerous children stories which depict the monsters as the villains, but they have rarely done so in portraying monsters as the wronged ones. in holly black’s valiant (2005), the troll character named ravus is presented as an outcast, a banished figure from his folk because of a misjudged rumor in his former kingdom. unlike others who constantly challenge and trap humans, ravus becomes a scholar who loves to explore his alchemy. he helps other outlaws to secure their well-being and health, even teaching valerie the protagonist with her sword practicing, rescuing her whenever possible and eventually falling for her. the study highlights a new perspective on monstrous identity in a young adult book, making a counterpoint in presenting a fact that monsters can also be portrayed as very human and gentle instead of rude and dangerous. key words: children’s literature; monstrous identity; outcast portrayal abstrak: monster telah lama muncul dalam banyak kisah kanakkanak, merepresentasikan sisi jahat dari alam. monster seringkali menjadi alasan bagi para tokoh pahlawan untuk bertarung, tapi di sisi lain keberadaan mereka menyeimbangkan keseluruhan alam 172 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dan mampu berdiri berdampingan dengan keberadaan para tokoh pahlawan. ada banyak kisah kanak-kanak yang menampilkan monster sebagai tokoh jahat, namun tidak banyak kisah yang menampilkan monster sebagai pihak yang tersakiti atau korban. dalam novel valiant (2015) karya holly black, karakter trol bernama ravus ditampilkan sebagai orang buangan, sosok yang disingkirkan oleh kaumnya karena sebuah fitnah yang beredar di kerajaan asalnya. tak seperti tipikal tokoh monster yang terbiasa melawan dan menangkap manusia, ravus justru menjadi cendekiawan yang senang mendalami ilmu alkemi. ia sering membantu tokoh-tokoh pelanggar hukum yang dibuang dan terasing dengan membuat ramuan untuk menjaga kesehatan mereka, bahkan mengajari valerie sang tokoh utama bertarung dengan pedang, menyelamatkannya di banyak situasi berbahaya dan bahkan pada akhirnya menyukai gadis itu. artikel ini menggarisbawahi sebuah perspektif baru terhadap identitas ‘mengerikan’ yang kerap disematkan pada tokoh monster dalam sebuah karya sastra untuk remaja, menegaskan fakta bahwa tokoh monster sekalipun dapat direpresentasikan sebagai sosok dengan sifat-sifat manusiawi yang lemah lembut, bukan sebagai pribadi yang kasar dan berbahaya. kata kunci: sastra anak; identitas ‘mengerikan’ yang sering disematkan pada tokoh monster; penggambaran tokoh yang terasing introduction in most contemporary young adult (ya) books, themes like love, discord, immaturity, betrayal, friendship, and rebellion are all familiar with how they are carried out within the narrative. of course, this does not mean that the issues found in there are not entwined with the usual genres that any work of literature takes. being one of the most prominent is fantasy, it allows readers to enter another realm, bringing the great unexpected so close to them that it may be enabled access throughout simple everyday things that actually mask this ominous existence of another, regardless the consequences. incorporating dual versions of exteriors, fantasy is a literary genre that is heavily considered to resemble folklore or fairy tales, only much more extended or elaborated in long retellings. it presents a scenario with a range of wild creatures as characters but acting with human qualities as well as emotions. both fairies and monsters unfailingly fall to this category, projecting the traditional relationship between animal and human in the way they deal with adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 173 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj each other. while fairies tend to be portrayed as unworldly idyllic, graceful, magical, glamourous, untouched, and deceiving, monsters are doomed to be primitive, volatile, brutal, cruel, violent, unsympathetic and above all, dangerous. generally, they cater for vampires, werewolves, fairies (for some wicked ones), goblins, trolls, and other metaphysical or astral beings. adjoining ya literature, holly black establishes her reputation as a fiction writer by creating fairy stories filled with monstrous figures. born in 1971, wench long beach, new jersey, she had spent her childhood with a mother who was an avid reader of fairy and ghost stories, also a painter and doll maker, in an old victorian mansion that heavily supports her fantasy imagination while writing her novels (black author's profile). so far, she has penned ya novel series, short stories, middle-grade stories, graphic novels, and a collection of poetries with many awards followed. the most notable is her series of middle-grade mini novels which have been made into a movie, the spiderwick chronicles. among her early ya novels, the trilogy of modern tale of faerie, tithe, valiant, ironside, stands out as a fresh perspective on the shared universe between mundane and fairies. valiant in particular made black a winner of the andre norton award for young adult fiction from the science fiction and fantasy writers of america, an ala best book for young adults, with two more book selected awards from locus recommended reading list and new york public library book. the second instalment, valiant (2005), resides in the same faerie world like the first volume, tithe (2002), only that it concerns a different heroine named valerie who stumbles upon the faery realm right after she discovers her mother’s affair with her boyfriend and escapes from home. told in a third person point-of-view, she comes across a group of street kids who show her how to use glamour, an addictive drug that is used by faeries so they can keep their human exterior while being exposed outside. caught between several rough incidents, val finds herself torn whether she should come back and forgive her mother, or continue to live as a street gang member and work as a courier for the honorable troll she has come to love. ravus, the troll, is an expert in both medicine and sword fighting who lives in the human world as an exile. he has been long trusted as drugs and potions maker, creating healing ones for other fairies to protect themselves from iron and the prying eyes of humans. when another exile, a she-faun, frames him for a series of uncommitted murders, ravus does not have any other choice than letting val to be the one who commits his innocence against the faerie court and eventually saves his life. 174 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in that notion, the study aspires to discuss the projection of monstrous identity of ravus, the troll from the faerie kingdom in holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie. out of other possible faerie characters in the book, ravus is selected for his different personality and capability although he is of immortal faerie blood. he can be very thick and proud and a bit of misanthrope or loner most of the time, but once val gets to know him and fall in love with him, ravus is actually a tender and caring figure to those he cherishes best. although his current status in third half of the novel is a disgraced exile who cannot return to his own homeland in the court, he is actually just a wronged man who was trapped at the wrong time, as he was accused of murdering his only best friend tamson in a duel. thus, ravus’s portrayal as a faerie monster and his relationship with the only human he loves, valerie, is investigated in detail. the analysis or discussion will only cater for ravus’s two issues since the other monstrous faeries behave quite in the same brutal or rude way, which is already common and mostly expected of them. what is more, the study is written using a descriptive-qualitative method because the evidences embedded in it are all analysis writings, direct quotations, and citations. it is focused on revealing the monstrous identity of ravus the troll presented in holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie, and proves whether ravus’s portrayal of a monster affect his relationship with valerie, the only human he loves, in holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie. literature review the knowledge associated with monster in ya literary works, classen (2013) pays attention to the reflections of beasts found in medieval literary masterpieces from beowulf to melusine, stating that in a way monsters should be taken deeper into their epistemological function in the narrative rather than the morality, as they consistently contribute to the development of individual protagonists in the stories. what is thought further, these monsters actually represent the negative side of the heroes themselves, so that they can recognize their darker side whilst undergoing a struggle in the journey of ever existing battle between the light and the dark (classen, 2013, pp. 521-522). similarly, doll (2011) finds the same thing when she relates the cannibalism issue embedded in the plot of greek myth with the sins of the united states’ controversial criminal jeffrey dahmer. she highlights the crucial demonism that emerges because of the failed relationship with the daimon, adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 175 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj which in myth she describes as the fate that calls to someone (doll, 2011, p. 23). it means that when someone becomes a criminal or a ‘monster’ in real life is because he/she cannot accept their own daimon, finally choosing rebellion and setting themselves in the wrong path of life, becoming the accursed enemy of the society. third and likewise, russell (2010) posits how demonic monstrosity is much more likely to be figurative than literal. he presents the argument whether some certain people are born in pure evil, corroborating with the belief if some individuals are truly representing the banality of evil and thus unable to change it because it is just the way the nature is. although the majority of people in society commit criminality just because of bad choices, everyone should be aware that some or several individuals do not seem to possess the light side in their personality, in a way that they only yearn to relentlessly grind people with pleasure, disregarding the moral and ethics codes that each of people should adhere to (russell, 2010, pp. 45-46). enclosing the review, bradford (2013) implies that monstrous identities in ya literature include the worshipped vampires, discriminated werewolves, wicked fairy mothers, and greedy incestuous fathers who want to marry their beautiful daughters. focusing prominently on stephenie meyer’s the twilight saga, the vampires and the werewolves are oppositions depicted as the western white and the native american non-white communities, in which the author herself and the readers preferring the first. this is not surprising since vampires are usually very pale, seductive, and having superhuman strength, and of course their appearance is still human, only much more interesting. on the other hand, though werewolves are the ones that truly have the equal superhuman strength like vampires, they are just placed as second best because they are shape-shifters, taking the transformation form of a wolf, a wild animal (bradford, 2013, pp. 115-116). as for fairy stories or novels, the fairy queens are usually portrayed as wicked, cold-hearted, ambitious, and a sole tyrant even to their own children. the last, some fathers in famous fairy tales are obsessed with their charming wives that they refuse to marry any other woman other than their own wife-like daughters, performing incestuous relationships (bradford, 2013, pp. 120-123). 176 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discussion a. the traumatic family past belonging to a fairy folk many years ago, ravus was born from a troll mother and a human father. he tells valerie or val that he had a complete family once when they were still living in a small forest in iceland together. his troll mother was recalled to be very graceful and dazzling, having very good, icing-like hair that glowed like bejeweled fire, burning under the sunlight (black, 2005, pp. 58-59). she fell in love with her husband, a human, and agreed to marry him and gave birth to his children. however, she had to keep her own identity and the children as monster in the dark, since most humans are paranoid toward those who are completely different to them, especially magical or astral beings like faeries. somehow it is a bit ironic since monsters like trolls are rare to be blessed with such great beauty, but the one female troll who possessed that must refrain herself in full awareness from displaying it to the only man she loved the most. her true existence as an ominous faerie was not an appraised privilege but a feared curse to the eyes of the humans including her own beloved husband: “despite all that beauty, my mother never showed her true self to my father. he was mortal, like you, and around him, she always wore a glamour. oh, she was beautifully glamoured, too, but it was a muted beauty. my brothers and sisters—we had to wear it, too.” (black, 2005, p. 159) his father, a mundane or a human, was mortal and he had another human family back in town but none of his parents ever made a fuss out of it. on the other hand, his mother performed some tricks to not letting her husband know who they all were. in order to maintain the harmony of the family, he and all of his siblings had to hide their true physical identity as faerie monsters, pretending to be humans (black, 2005, p. 160). neither of them could expose themselves freely to their biological father, which is quite ridiculous and somehow pitiful, because their mother had refused to show herself for what she really was before her marriage. perhaps if her mother had defined her status as a faerie troll years ago at her first encounter with her husband, there is a possibility that her and her children would always be accepted and not avoided in fright by their own father after all. perhaps ravus’s human father would even respect his troll wife’s bravery for loving and committing herself to an ordinary human man, providing every comfort for him and their offspring. adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 177 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj according to ravus’s retelling, his mother had requested her husband to signal his arrival with the bell so that they could wear their glamour and thus not making him frightened with their monstrous appearance. but of course, just like in classic fairy tales, the worst has to happen: “one day my father forgot to ring the bell… he saw us all as we really were. and fled, never to return.” (black, 2005, p. 160) there is no doubt that their identity was entirely rejected and denied. once again, the old fear of things and beings that cannot be explained shared among humans had won. though their harmonious family life had been finely wrought, it was all ruined in a split second, throwing his mother into the furor of hate and bitterness. it was never the same again for them. his mother was all in rage and spiteful, blaming it the unfortunate to her own children although ravus had been sure that inwardly she must had known that it was inevitable to happen, since most covered-up things are surely bound to be found, one way or another (black, 2005, pp. 160-161). the trauma in his mother’s failed trust to his father plays a big factor in his lonely upbringing in the next years. ravus still keeps himself calm and preserved but he cautiously chooses to move on and live alone in the bright court, only coming out at night since he, as a troll, is naturally nocturnal. his family or siblings are only mentioned at the story when they were still living in the far woods of iceland, indicating that none of them keeps in touch with each other upon reaching adulthood. this somehow makes it clear that he prefers to live as a sole individual rather than keeping a company (be it his siblings or friends), including his early reluctance to response to val’s affection for him. b. the sensitive misanthrope in their first meeting, val breaks into ravus’s house in the old and abandoned corner of underground subway tunnel with lolli out of curiosity. she stumbles upon a corridor within it, revealing a chamber that is full of dangling thick roots, which are unnatural because they have ripe fruits even though there is no sun and soil to feed them. there were also “rusted stairs, their railing wrapped with sodden cloth, (black, 2005, p. 83)” that lead to the working room of the troll. in that room, val sees piles of dusty ancient books, a makeshift desk for experimenting, and a made-of-glass sword. what is more, lolli is then attacked with a boneless white doll that is meant to be the guardian of that small place, finally arousing ravus into scene (black, 2005, pp. 84-85). this implies that the troll ravus does not desire his place to be easily 178 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj found and interrupted by anyone, particularly curious humans. he prefers it to be well hidden and difficult to be found, whether or not someone means to or in an accidental moment. even his style of dressing is very conservative and pallid in taste, wearing “a buttoned black coat that covered him from neck to calf, with black trousers underneath that seemed to emphasize the shock of green at the frayed cuffs and nape where cloth met flesh, (black, 2005, p. 86)” that highlights his locked, introverted self. ravus is angry and cross when he sees val and lolli poaching into his hidden place, threatening them physically by twisting lolli’s finger as a painful reminder not to wander among someone else’s property, since he finds out that lolli has just stolen some of his glamour medicine jars into her backpack. he also condemns val to atone her prank by bounding her as a deliverer. his harsh reaction is actually typical for anyone who has just red-handedly caught up some stray intruders in his/her home and stealing things that are not theirs. as there is only one human, luis, who works as his courier to other faeries, he interrogates them what luis has told them about him and his place. ravus accuses them being curious about wanting to see a real monster as a childish dare-to-see game or challenge. he accuses them to be answering some foolish challenge from luis, to see if the monster, ravus himself, is cannibal or dangerously carnivorous just like the spooky monsters in children fairy tale books: the troll took another step toward them, his voice soft and furious. “did he dare you to go inside? did he say there was a monster?” val looked at lolli, but she was stunned and silent. the troll ran the point of his tongue over an incisor. “but what did louis intend, that’s the real question. to give you a good scare? to give me a good scare? a good meal? it is entirely possible luis might think i would want to eat you.” he paused, as if waiting for one of them to deny it. “do you think i want to eat you?” (black, 2005, p. 87) still, with those challenging but demanding questions, it is proven that ravus is actually no brute, not even close. perhaps he is just a little bit sensitive since his status as a monster who lives among humans has made him very cautious and above all, suspicious. he only wants to know the truth if his human courier luis is still loyal to him or not, and make the two girls responsible of their actions. of course, he also intends to warn them not to deal with things that adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 179 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj are not their business and obviously out of their league, just for their own good sake. fairies are indeed enchanting, but so do their cruelty and cunningness. it is actually very lucky of both girls to be meeting such much lenient creature, in which they can escape with just a minor finger fracture for lolli and a delivery contract task with val because she is the one who chooses to hold the responsibility, making her status as the same as luis now, only under threat: he sighed. “you will serve me for a month, one week for each item stolen.” pausing for a moment, he added, “in whatever way that i need.” she flinched and he smiled. “each dusk you will go to seward park. there, you will find a note under the wolf’s paw. if you do not do what it says, things will go hard with you. do you understand?” (black, 2005, p. 90) when it comes to living as an exile, he prefers to do it all alone without anyone interfering, except for some occasional guests like luis his courier and mabry, his late friend tamson’s ex-lover. if he needs to contact another faerie outside who also dwells in the urban city corners, he just passes his message through luis or uses black birds to deliver them. ravus is not the only exiled faerie in new york, but he separates himself from the rest of his folk so that no one can disturb him from his medicine work. he prefers to be the misanthrope healing drug provider who sends his ailment indirectly to others. this behavior does not come for him as an ashamed feeling of living as an exiled member of honorable fairy court, but it had always been his choice long even before that. when he was still new to the bright court or seelie court, he chose experimenting with his potions rather over dueling like any other decent gentleman faerie in the kingdom, although he is very much able to fight with his accomplished sword skill: “the queen of the bright court likes fighting best of all the sports. she would organize tournaments where the folk could show off their skill. i was new to the court and i did not much like to compete. my delights came in my work, my alchemy.” (black, 2005, p. 166) nonetheless, when val finds herself starting to fall for ravus and unthinkingly tries to be intimate with him just a little, he brushes her off abruptly as part of 180 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj his fear of close intimacy between lovers, a childhood trauma that still reminds him of his mother’s failed marriage to his father (black, 2005, p. 196). val, who is quick to read him, feels hurt and she wanders aimlessly until she gets another chance to meet him in a faerie night party, though it is accidental. ravus treats his feelings coldly though he cannot deny his inevitable attachment to her. still, most of the time, particularly through val’s eyes, he is very distant and guarded of his emotions, never letting them pour out of control. it is obvious that ravus has always been so used of being alone that he still feels the urge to assure himself that he is still an adherent to it. as a lone survivor, he does not trust new things easily and that includes his own growing love to a human girl. c. a wronged paragon once having a dear friend, tamson’s sudden death by ravus’s own hands still haunts him in most of his choices. ravus keeps the sword that has killed tamson unexpectedly in his work room, to remind him so that he will never repeat the same mistake again (black, 2005, p. 123). he claims to val that he is an excellent swordsman, having been trained by his own mother and siblings back then on his childhood days. they taught him to feed his fury with fighting, thus leading him to be very aggressive in duels. finally, the worst chance came as tamson proposed a duel with him to win back mabry’s heart, never truly suspecting that the woman did some cunning trick to his armor, making it terribly easy to breach by just one single stroke of ravus’ sword, finally ending tamson’s life and sending ravus into choosing the life as an exile: “tamson’s armor was formed from bark, magicked to be harder than iron.” he stopped speaking, closed his eyes and started up again. “he was a better swordsman than i, but he was distracted and i struck first. the sword, it cut through the bark like it was paper.” (black, 2005, pp. 166-167) becoming an expert in the field of medicine, ravus is trusted by the exiled communities to send them healing potions to ease their pain after contacting their skin with iron (black, 2005, p. 125). this is why he needs human couriers such as luis and val, since he naturally cannot go out in bright daylight to deliver them himself. however, this has become a double-edged sword for him because luis secretly entrusts some of the deliveries to his reckless brother dave. adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 181 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj though luis also never expects his brother to betray him, in fact he does. mabry, who wants to claim her place once more in the faerie court, tries to make ravus a scapegoat once more, this time in poisoning others, compromising with dave. she quietly inserts poison in ravus’s ailment that is going to be transported by dave, so that the other faerie folks will be dead one by one. unbeknown to him, ravus is once again confronted and punished for the crimes he never commits. all this time he has remained true to himself and gentle toward others, but he is still wronged. d. the gentle monster lover seeming menacing both in appearance and personality at first, ravus quickly becomes a figure that val respects and eventually loves. although technically she is nothing but a rude poacher, the troll seems having no resentment or reluctance in answering her curious questions. he even explains to her in detail before delivering the medicine, to make her much informed and careful, that the exiled faeries are divided into some courts and occupy some territory, occasionally fighting those from nearby courts, which are bright court or seelie court and night court or unseelie court (black, 2005, pp. 126-127). not only that, he also gives her some magic protection and good advice before setting off, so that she will not be lured into unnecessary traps by these cunning faeries, something that is rarely found in a monster master to his street messenger. ravus does not harshly exploit his courier like a slave, but instead he treats val with respect, politeness, care, and gentle guidance while initially she thought him to be a tyrant. he always makes sure that the journeys she is going to take are secure and manageable. when val later reports to him that she has found a murdered mermaid by the river, he comes to see it himself with luis and val as company. there, he gets confronted and challenged in a duel by some rude ogre faerie community, but ends up being saved by val who throws herself in front of him to accept the blade in her leg. in a delirium state after stabbed, she is awakened by ravus’s tight grip on her arm, being confused of who he is since he clothes himself in glamour, but finally recognizes him and earns his mutual friendship after all: “val,” luis said. “it’s ravus. ravus.” “don’t touch me,” said val, wanting the pain to stop. 182 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a bitter smile touched his mouth as his hands left her. “you could have died,” ravus said quietly. val took that as an encouraging sign that she wasn’t actually dying. (black, 2005, p. 155) ravus takes care of her and nurses her back to health, as well as answering all of her questions about his work, his magical healing ailments, his origin, his past, his possession, his difficulties living in human world’s city—in short, almost all aspects of his life—without getting annoyed at the slightest, even enjoying playing the knowledgeable teacher to his most favorite and critical pupil from time to time. he always has patience for val no matter what, being a dependable figure to her, replacing the empty hole that is supposed to be filled with val’s dysfunctional egoistic parents and jerky ex-boyfriend. as he is faced with a growing love, ravus regards it as a gentle mutual affection that is normal to occur between two gender-different coworkers. however, in rare moments he shows his care for her through small, simple gestures of focused attention: she reached one hand toward him and he took it, running his fingers over her calluses. she looked up into his face, trying to convey her sympathy, but he was looking intently at her hand. “what are these from?” he demanded. “what?” “your hands are rough,” he said. “calloused.” “lacrosse,” she said. he nodded, but she could tell from his face that he didn’t understand her. she might have said anything and he would have nodded that way. “you have a knight’s hands,” he said finally and let go of her. val rubbed her skin, not sure if she was trying to erase the memory of his touch or to recall it. (black, 2005, pp. 169-170) realizing the dangerous impact that will fall upon his precious messenger, ravus intends to repay val’s sacrifice by setting her free of the servitude right away. however, val has a different perception and asks to be adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 183 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj mentored in sword fighting instead, also wanting to be his courier still (black, 2005, pp. 170-171). without further ado, he accepts her request, promising that he will teach her to be a brutal fighter as she wishes. he is greatly indebted to her, thus any kind of unpleasing demand from her costs little to him. in short seconds, he shows concern and regret that val has asked such thing that would surely make her a bad human being, slightly indicating his growing attachment to her. he conceals it through his snapping at her while val is disorientated on failing to block his attack, hitting her head strongly by the wall (black, 2005, pp. 189-190). he is actually not angry at her but more at himself for letting her learn something too hard and hurting. just like most men who cherish the women they love, they tend to protect their female partners from doing dangerous things that are likely to cause injuries or accidents. interestingly, he has never denied it bluntly in words, only in abrupt self-drawings from her each time after one sudden close physical contact after the long tiring days which they are engaged in sword fighting exercises together: his eyes were half-lidded as he pushed himself off the desk, their bodies sliding together, his hands still holding hers. then, suddenly, he froze. “is something—,” she started, but he pushed away from her abruptly. “you should go,” he said, walking to the window and then just standing there. she knew he dared not part the blinds while it was still day outside. “come back when you are feeling improved. it does neither of us any good to practice when you’re sickly. if you need something, i could—” “i said i was fine.” val’s voice pitched louder than she’d intended. (black, 2005, p. 196) when val wanders aimlessly at the folk party of exiled faeries, she runs into mabry and then ravus. he pretends to be flirting with her shortly, surprising her with his disguise and his annoying warning of her coming there. somehow val becomes much more glad and calm after knowing how much he cares about her by reading between the lines of his words. ravus belongs to the type who likes to lecture his beloved person to restraint himself from making the first move rather than romancing her directly 184 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj through intimate or seductive physical contacts. as a decent figure, he honors old ways of encountering the opposite gender so he is still not used to displaying obvious affection to the young woman he holds dear. still, val, who is a modern-born girl, rebels by kissing him passionately and somewhat forces him to admit his feelings for her, though implicitly (black, 2005, pp. 230-231). ravus turns his face away in shock, but he confesses that he likes the kiss, conveying the love he has nurtured for her is finally shown. wanting to avoid it, he insists on accompanying her home, but val interposes and thus makes him deal with their inevitable attraction toward each other. ravus finally states his fundamental reasons to forget whatever it is between them: he spread his hand as though trying to express something inexpressible. “we both know that i am a monster.” “you’re not—” “it demeans you to cover rotten meat with honey. i know what i am. what would you want with a monster?” “everything,” val said solemnly. “i’m sorry i kissed you—it was selfish and it upset you—but you can’t ask me to pretend that i didn’t want to.” (black, 2005, p. 232) at last, right before he is charged as the serial murder of mysterious deaths happening around the exiled courts, val bravely points out how much ravus means to her, telling him how she loves his fascinating gold eyes and never minding his monstrous appearance. both are a little bit awkward with their feelings, yet nevertheless they are mentally ready to accept them. incredibly, ravus responses positively as he seems pleased with her unexpected comments: he snorted with amusement, but stayed still. she reached up and touched the pale green of his cheek. “i like all the things that make you monstrous.” his long fingers threaded through the peach fuzz of her hair, clawed nails resting carefully against her skin. “i’m afraid that whatsoever i touch is spoilt by the contact.” “i’m not scared of being spoiled,” val said. the side of ravus’s mouth twitched. (black, 2005, p. 233) adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 185 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj when mabry interferes with her wicked schemes, the goat-hooved faerie manages to separate the budding romance between them and fatally injures ravus when she tears his heart out of his chest to bring it as a proof to the bright court (black, 2005, p. 267). enraged, val vows to defeat mabry and return his heart back in time after turning ravus into stone under unshielded sunlight. after going into a hard battle that is watched by the entire folk of dark court, val finally sends mabry to her death and hurries back to ravus’s place, only to find that his life is no longer there. fortunately, fate is kind to both of them since ravus awakes right after val kisses him, coughing but alive once more. they rekindle their relationship in a much calmer situation: he pulled her close, hands careful not to touch her wounds as they wrapped around her. “i hope that you feel for me as i do for you,” he said, his voice like a sigh against her throat. “and how is that?” she asked, her lips so close to his jaw that she could taste the salt of his skin when she moved them. “you carried my heart in your hands tonight,” he said. “but i have felt as if you carried it long before that.” she smiled and let her eyes drift closed. (black, 2005, p. 307) finally, all is settled and that val has gone back to her old life with her mother and best friend ruth, ravus sends his black bird to deliver his message to his new human lover, always informing her of what is going on with luis, dave and the faerie court. she keeps the habit of waiting news from him, and this time the note tells her that he wants to meet her that night at her school backyard, promising to give her a gift. val is glad with this but she jokingly signifies to ruth that she will never be able to introduce ravus to her mother, as he is an ogre who lives in an underground subway. later, she comes to him and finds that ravus is bringing her a true sword that is made up of iron, just so she can protect herself from evil faeries (black, 2005, pp. 310-311). she recites her plan into entering university in new york to be closer to him, and that she wants her sword lessons to continue again just like before. val also asks if ravus will return to the bright court since he is now a free and innocent man, but he rejects the idea by staying in the human world so that he can always be near to her as long as he can. ravus is indeed a gentle figure, always so caring from start to finish, even in the slightest things. 186 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 171 187 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conclusion belonging to the faerie folk, ravus is destined to be the troll who somehow always ends up living all by himself. although he possesses regrettable pasts involving his mother’s ruined marriage and his friend, tamson’s death, ravus never uses them as a reason to behave badly or brutally against others in his adulthood. he just quietly resumes his favored work in alchemy and keeps minimum contact with the outside world as an exile. faeries are supposed to be cruel, tricky, and ignorant of humans, but ravus are obviously none of these things. he goes as far as being generous in giving his potions freely to other suffering faeries, saves dave’s life, shows val mercy, takes care of her, mentors her well, and eventually loves her. clearly different from what typical portrayal of monstrous faeries, as a troll ravus is unrelentingly cultured, highly educated, very skilled and terribly gentle especially toward those he loves. even his way of speaking to val when she has already become his lover is never rude or obscene. of course, he still has the fury of troll monster when in fights, but most time he never crosses the line or behaves wildly and astray like his majority other species. in fact, despite his obvious monstrous appearance, he resembles humans in many ways, particularly in his honorable character. what shields him from val is only his past trauma and low self-esteem in his own monstrous physical appearance that makes him thinks that he is unworthy of her affection. meanwhile, val sees him as a true man who is not only wise and highly skilled in many things, but also excellent in his moral values and personality, far better off compared to her own divorced parents and former boyfriend. she respects and looks up to him as a paragon as well as a lover, thus thinking that falling in love with ravus might be the most sensible thing she has ever done. references black, h. (2005). valiant: a modern tale of faerie. new york: simon & schuster children's publishing division. bradford, c. (2013). monsters: monstrous identities in young adult romance. in (re) imagining the world (pp. 115-125). berlin, heidelberg: springer. classen, a. (2013). the monster outside and within: medieval literary reflections on ethical epistemology. from beowulf to marie de france, adji, a. n. & belia, a.p. falling for the troll: a children’s literature study on 187 holly black’s valiant: a modern tale of faerie (2005) https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the nibelungenlied, and thüring von ringoltingen’s melusine. neohelicon, 40(2), 521-542. doll, m. a. (2011). the monster as other, as self. the more of myth (pp. 2339). springer. russell, l. (2010). evil, monsters and dualism. ethnic theory moral prac, 13 (1), 45-58. 10.pdf (p.1) 0010 jul2018.pdf (p.2-18) 5 indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols represented in richard lewis’ the flame tree rosyida ekawati idasunyigono@gmail.com english department, faculty of social and cultural sciences, university of trunojoyo madura abstract: islam is one of the official religions in indonesia, with its adherents constituting the majority of the population. muslims in indonesia have their own values in accord with the teachings of islam, practiced in their daily life and adapted to the culture. historically, islam in indonesia, particularly in java, was introduced through acculturation. today’s ceremonies accompanying the implementation of islamic teachings is an example of the daily practice that characterizes muslims being influenced by the local culture. moreover, in their everyday life, muslims in indonesia often use islamic terminologies and arabic words. they include greetings and expressions for starting as well as ending an activity. as for islamic symbols, the star and the crescent on the top of the mosque dome or a qur’anic verse put at home or in the workplace are typical representations, distinguishing the muslims from adherents of other faiths. key words: indonesian muslim, muslim values, symbols and terminologies abstrak: islam adalah salah satu agama resmi di indonesia dengan mayoritas penganutnya. muslim di indonesia memiliki nilai-nilai mereka sendiri sesuai dengan ajaran islam, dipraktekkan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dan disesuaikan dengan budaya setempat. secara historis, islam di indonesia, khususnya di jawa, diperkenalkan melalui akulturasi. kegiatan upacara keagamaan yang ada dapat dilakukan berdampingan dengan pelaksanaan ajaran islam. hal tersebut adalah contoh dari praktek sehari-hari yang mencirikan muslim yang dipengaruhi oleh budaya lokal jawa. selain itu, dalam kehidupan sehari-hari mereka, umat islam di indonesia sering menggunakan istilah islam dan kata-kata dari bahasa arab. diantaranya dalam mengucap ekawati, r., indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols 203 represented in richard lewis’ the flame tree salam dan doa-doa untuk memulai serta mengakhiri suatu kegiatan. adapun simbol-simbol yang diidentikkan dengan islam juga banyak digunakan, misalnya bintang dan bulan sabit di atas kubah masjid. selain itu, ayat al-qur'an atau penggalannya dalam huruf hijaiyah (arab) juga banyak diletakkan di rumah atau di tempat kerja sebagai representasi khas yang membedakan muslim dari penganut agama lainnya. kata kunci: muslim, jawa, indonesia, nilai-nilai, simbol, istilah introduction the majority of indonesians are muslims, which makes islam the dominant religion in indonesia. moreover, indonesia is the country with the largest muslim population in the world. its modern history, however, manifests a pluralistic national identity encompassing multiple faith histories. according to the pew research center report “mapping the global muslim population”, dated october 8, 2009, muslims in indonesia comprise 88.2% of the total population, constituting the dominant majority of the population in java, sumatra, kalimantan, west nusa tenggara (ntb), sulawesi and north maluku. in contrast, muslims make up the minority of the population in other parts of indonesia, such as papua, bali, east nusa tenggara (ntt), north sumatra and north sulawesi. there are other acknowledged and official religions in indonesia−hinduism, buddhism, protestantism, catholicism, and confucianism–which coexist and interact with each other. the country takes pride in showing the rest of the world that the majority of the muslims in the country are tolerant moderates. indonesia is not an islamic state, and the constitution guarantees religious freedom. muslims in indonesia, especially in java, in practicing their religion are greatly influenced by their culture as the spread of islam in java by walisongo (the nine holy men) was well adapted with the native culture. furthermore, azra (2006) in his paper “indonesian islam, mainstream muslims and politics” points out indonesian islam’s distinctive characteristics compared to middle eastern islam: indonesian islam is a moderate, accommodative kind of islam, and the least arabicized islam. the term “accomodative” here refers to the fact that islam in java accomodates the need and the tradition of the people living in this island. 204 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 202-214 ceremonies and other forms of religious rituals in java performed by javanese muslims are evidence of how javanese culture got well adjusted with islamic values. and term “the least arabicized” tells us that islam in java is not overloaded by arabic terms nor dominated by values of arabic culture. a novel about indonesian muslims, more specifically javanese muslims, is interesting to study as it represents their social and cultural identity. this novel portrays indonesian muslims in their daily practices, so that it suggests that every practice in this novel represents indoensian muslims in general, because a novel is not a dream nor is it guesswork, but it is an imaginative literary work based on facts. from the previous rationale, indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols found in richard lewis’ the flame tree are intended to be discussed here as those features represent the specific identity of indonesia muslims. briefly, the setting and the synopsis of the novel may well be presented as follows. the novel tells about the story of isaac williams, a twelve-year-old son of american missionary doctors in java, indonesia. isaac is a gifted student and has already mastered the local language. his curiosity has led him out into the community to develop a friendship with an indonesian muslim boy named ismail. despite their religious, cultural, and economic differences, isaac and ismail became playmates and best friends. the story depicts the ordinary muslims affiliated with the muslim organization called nahdlatul umat islam in wonobo. they are considered to be the muslim extremists, doing actions purportedly in the name of islam, even if those deeds are not in accordance with the islamic teachings. the leader, tuan guru haji abdullah abubakar, fortunately always try to guide them to the right path of muslim. the extremist muslims started their attacks against the american christians in wonobo, expressing their antiamerica sentiments through the street mobs, riots, robbery and looting. practicing a religion that preaches peace and yet has the possibility to lead to fanaticism, tanto and imam ali treated the american boy badly. they forced him to undergo circumcision, although they were not qualified to perform the procedure, because they insisted that the uncircumcised male is an infidel to the muslim faith. tanto’s wife, ibu halimah, reported about the wicked actions to their leader, tuan guru haji abdullah abubakar, after the men had detained isaac. the boy suffered from malaria relapse and ibu halimah was the one who took care of him by administering traditional ekawati, r., indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols 205 represented in richard lewis’ the flame tree medicine. she strongly opposed the detention and admonished her husband to treat isaac humanely. review of related literature according to praja (2007), as the world’s fourth largest country and the most populous muslim nation on earth, indonesia hosts an array of muslim groups ranging from traditional muslims to highly liberal ones. the vast majority of indonesian muslims can be considered moderate and tolerant, but several radical groups have emerged. in an article entitled “javanese santri islam”, dean (1999) characterizes islam in java as extremely diverse in its manner of expression, and highly variable in terms of depth of commitment to the religion. muslims in java are usually divided vertically, according to their level of identification with islam. such is evident in geertz's abangan/santri dichotomy, with the santri much more closely identifying themselves as muslims. in addition, there is also a horizontal traditionalist/modernist dimension within the javanese islam. further, he also explains that a santri was originally simply a student or follower within an islamic school called a pesantren (literally, "place of the santri") headed by a kiai master. the word santri used to refer to persons who removed themselves from the secular world in order to concentrate on devotional activities, and pesantren becomes the focus of such devotion. it was only later that the word santri came to be used to describe that a particular class within javanese society that identifies strongly with islam is distinct from the more nominal islam of the abangan and priyayi. islam in java eventually developed into two apparent traditions: a javanese islam with its syncretic characteristics and a 'puritan', modernist islam. the first is an islam infused with a complex mix of animist-hindubuddhist beliefs and concepts, which is inclined to mysticism. the second is relatively freer of these syncretic accretions, much closer to the dogma of the defining arabian orthodoxy. however, the santri should not be considered as a homogenous group, as its members are themselves polarised along traditionalist/modernist lines. it is usually difficult to immediately differentiate 'mystically inclined' traditionalist santri from the modernist 'orthodox' santri. both may well observe the five pillars of islam and strongly identify themselves as muslims. essentially, the differences can be reduced to identity. the member of santri consciously identify themselves as muslims and attempt as far as possible to live in accordance with their own 206 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 202-214 understanding of islam, whether this be the traditional syncretic islam, the purist islam of the modernist, or mixtures of both. moreover, those belonging to santri will frequently pepper their speech or communication with expressions of a highly arabic flavour, even (perhaps especially) when communicating with non-muslims or the abangan. bismillahir-rohmanir-rahim ('in the name of god the all merciful') is an expression used before the commencement of any task, whether large or small. the use of this phrase is not limited to santri muslims, though; abangan muslims also frequently use it. tasks such as starting a motorbike, driving a nail into a wall, speeches, the slaughtering of meat animals, or even sex will all be preceded with bismillah as a reminder that everything−every action and every word−should be done for god and in the name of god. assalaamu ‘allaikum, along with its reply wa ‘alaikumsalam, is used when meeting, greeting and bidding to farewell to people. it is also frequently used as a formal opening greeting for speeches. santri adherents consider any expression of certainty about the future to be slightly arrogant, and they very often use the term insya allah ("god willing") to prefix any statement of positive intent or prediction, or any agreement to do something. this expression is also sometimes used as a polite way of saying 'no' or for expressing ambiguity in answer to a question pertaining to something to be done in the future. insya allah also expresses what some may see as a rather negative fatalism, allowing muslims to avoid personal responsibility. javanese santri islam, however, is not monochromic; there is great variability in the way that it is expressed and in the depth of commitment and knowledge of its adherents. however, indigenous mystical beliefs persist in the subconscious of all javanese. many traditional practices and ceremonies are still performed, albeit only in a formal manner. javanese society has become increasingly 'santrified' over the past few decades, and the modernist expression of the religion has greatly influenced, outwardly at least, the more mystically-inclined traditionalist islam. despite this apparent modernity indonesian islam needs to be considered on its own terms, and not just as a branch of middle eastern islam. in term of value, ebady (2005) defines muslim values as those that are created as part of the culture of the muslim communities. these include the muslims’ day-to-day interaction among themselves along with their outlook on islam's rules and regulations. the values they formulated may or may not be in accord with islam. in addition, the symbol emerges from cultural ekawati, r., indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols 207 represented in richard lewis’ the flame tree diffusion and the spread of islam to the javanese muslims who ruled a large area and also put symbols that have become associated with islam. the symbols are meant to distinguish islam from other religions. meanwhile, islamic terminologies are commonly used by the indonesian muslim community. the words are in arabic. in this study, muslim terminologies refer to the terminologies used by the muslim community in java which are associated with islamic terminologies, particularly in the arabic language. methodology the study uses the method of qualitative research, designed to deal with the complexities of meanings in social contexts. qualitative research methods are naturalistic (not controlled) and more focused on problems of validating than on those of reliability and generalization. according to locke et al. (1987) the intent of qualitative research is to understand a particular social situation, event, role, group or interaction. further, qualitative research is fundamentally interpretative. this means that the researcher makes an interpretation of the data and filters the data through a personal lens situated in a specific sociopolitical and historical moment. the study uses the data taken from richard lewis’ novel the flame tree. the analysis proceeds as follows: (1) reading and re-reading the novel, from the first page to the last one, to facilitate recall of the highlight contents; (2) marking the page numbers and paragraphs to ease the reference; and (3) using an operational form list to simplify the analysis. the listed data comprise the following: text, page number, and functions of texts (roles, values and practices, symbols, and terminologies).aside from reading the novel, the researcher also reads other materials and literature related to it, in order to get additional information that supports the objectives of the study. like other qualitative methodologies, this study does not use any set of prescribed step-by-step procedure since there is no hard and fast rule in employing qualitative research. bernard (2000) states that in qualitative research there are several approaches to analyzing the data. this study uses an interpretive analysis. it means that the process is laden with the researcher’s attitude and beliefs as well as the assumption that there is no ultimately ‘correct’ interpretation. interpretations are open, dynamic and subject to change. the researcher continually interprets the words of the texts to understand their meaning and their directives. 208 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 202-214 results and discussion a. indonesian muslim values and practices the existing muslim values in indonesian society underwent a relaxed enforcement of islamic laws (ebady, 2005). when there is relaxation then a distorted concept of freedom is adopted; it gives the muslims the courage to challenge the islamic laws and present their own philosophy as to why following the laws is not necessary. they make excuses to oppose the laws and create their own. islamic laws contain these inherent values, principles, and priorities: prayer, fasting, charity, hajj, hijab, modesty, kindness as well as practices of observing the obligations to parents, emphasizing the importance of marriage, attending the religious activities at the islamic centers and mosques, gaining knowledge, and even undergoing circumcision. all of these are designed to build spiritually healthy individuals and society. when the performance of these actions is relaxed, then a void is created and followers become receptive to outside and often un-islamic ideals. the muslim values cited in the novel are the practices that prevail among the javanese muslims. one of those practices, implemented in accordance with islamic teachings, is the required circumcision of young boys, usually done for those in grade school. toorn (1995) mentions that circumcision is a collective term which denotes various types of operations on human genitalia, male as well as female. meanwhile, in indonesia, the practice of circumcision has been an original cultural feature already being practiced before the advent of islam. it is also practiced by non-muslims and people who never have any contacts with islam. there is a ceremony during which a circumcision is performed on boys, and this is often followed by festivities after the ritual. all practices in connection with circumcision ceremony are of pre-islamic origin. from this point, it is common that young boys, muslims or non-muslims, who do not undergo circumcision during their grade school years are usually mocked by their peers. ismail, an indonesian muslim boy, underwent circumcision during the age when boys usually go through the ceremony. isaac, an american christian boy, has not yet been circumcised although he was of the same age. ismail calls him an infidel because he has not undergone circumcision at his age. ekawati, r., indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols 209 represented in richard lewis’ the flame tree “…hey, by the way, i had my circumcision ceremony when you were in america." "i'm sorry i missed that," isaac said. "i would have loved hearing you crying and wailing." ismail looked offended. "i didn't make a sound." his expression turned sly. "so when are you going to have the blanket taken off your worm?" isaac said loftily, "worms with blankets grow to be bigger snakes." "infidel," ismail said, flashing his grin and punching isaac's arm (lewis, 2004, p. 10). other pages show how the young american boy has been living in javanese society, but not yet circumcised. he gets teased by his javanese peers, and other javanese muslims. he is often ridiculed and considered as infidel by others who are disappointed knowing that the young boy has not undergone circumcision yet. they want to perform circumcision by themselves. udin said, “a true infidel. look at that thing. an uncircumcised worm in the blanket.” “hey, i know, we can circumcise him ourselves,” someone said, and tugged hard on his foreskin. (lewis, 2004, p. 152) moreover, circumcision is performed by one who has enough experience in doing so, and not just any ordinary person. nowadays, in indonesia, the circumcision may be done, using traditional or nontraditional ways, by doctors or experts. ismail added, “of course, i think you’d had to be circumcised by a cleric, but that’s probably the only ritual you’d have to observe.” (lewis, 2004, p. 69) from these, it can be understood that circumcision is one of the muslim practices prevailing in the javanese society of indonesia, considered to be an obligation for young boys, either muslims or non-muslims. another value existing in the muslim society is respect. in their daily interaction, muslims should respect others, whether fellow muslims or non210 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 202-214 muslims. in the novel, the value of how the muslims interact with the christians is illustrated in such a way that muslims can also be teachers or officers in a christian institution. page 20 paragraph 1 details how a muslim, mr. suherman, becomes a teacher in a christian school, while page 22 explains how a muslim can also attend a christian church. both of the descriptions show that muslims can be part of christian activities as long as they are not bothering and not being involved in the religious worship. the one teacher excused from pledging was the new indonesian language and culture instructor, a javanese man who spoke perfect bbc english, and from whose amber skin wafted english leather cologne. the principal, miss augusta, asked the teacher to introduce himself. he said that his name was mr. suherman, that his father was a banker, that he'd grown up in london, and that he was a muslim but was honored to be teaching in this christian school (lewis, 2004, p. 20). “…out of the sanctuary's other side strode mr. suherman. he waved a greeting at isaac, who blurted, "i thought you were a muslim." "i am, but that does not mean i cannot attend church," mr. suherman said. he bent close, humor rising in his clear black eyes, and said, "are you praying with the others for my salvation? “(lewis, 2004, pp. 22-23). the novel describes how muslims, who consider others or nonmuslims as infidels for being not in the same faith, are still respecting others because they realize that not everyone can be a muslim. the novel gives a clear understanding of how muslims respect christians implying that in an imperfect world, at least a handful of infidels must be allowed to exist as there are good infidels and bad infidels. “hai, little isak, it is true that you are an infidel, but it is also true that not everyone can be a muslim. in a world that is not paradise, those must be at least a handful of infidels allowed to exist. hmm?” he patted isaac on the back, his calloused hands rough against isaac’s neck. a small smile played across his lips and then disappeared. “but let me tell you, little isak, that there are good infidels and bad infidels. which are you? (lewis, 2004, p. 54)” ekawati, r., indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols 211 represented in richard lewis’ the flame tree respecting others is manifested not only in attending american christian activities but also in visiting the american christians who are grieving. page 88 describes how muslims sympathize with americans who are grieving because of the 9/11 attack that killed thousands of people. although the perpetrators of the 9/11 attack were muslims, most indonesian muslims were against it. it is clearly shown as the haji and many other people express their grief and condolences for the american tragedy. they bring dozens of wreaths to be stacked beside the gate, near the signage of the hospital that is run by american christian missionaries, and also the surroundings of the american compound. moreover, although it is actually not in accord with the islamic value, the javanese muslims sometimes still believe in the mystic. for instance, mas gatot, an indonesian muslim, who lives in java, is the one whom other muslims considered as a mystic. indeed, the worship of the spirit of keris blade (a graceful dagger) and the practice of seeking magic charms from dukun santet (witches) are also known in the muslim society in java. although they understand that islamic teachings do not allow muslims to believe in no one else but the god almighty, they still believe in such mystical things. b. indonesian muslim terminologies and symbols the symbols associated with the muslim community include the plaque bearing an arabic inscription, as if everything that contains an arabic inscription is to be considered part of islam. for example, pak harianto posts on his barber’s wall mirror the plaque bearing the arabic inscription, a phrase from the qur’an, “bismillah ar-rahman ar-rahim”, meaning “in the name of allah the compassionate, the merciful”. people would assume that pak harianto is a muslim from the symbols he put on in his workplace. in addition, in their daily interaction, indonesian muslims often use terminologies associated with islam, particularly in the arabic language. common among santri or non-santri/muslim abangan alike is the use of “assalamu ‘alaikum” to greet others along with the reply “wa ‘alaikumsalam” instead of the use of the indonesian language for greeting. to show their sympathy for sorrow or condolence, indonesian muslims often use the islamic jargon “innalillaahi wa innaa ilaihi raaji‘un” meaning “in the name of allah, to allah we belong, and to him is our turn”. such words are not only expressed by santri, it has also become common words for muslims in general during times of suffering or sorrow, while 212 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 202-214 “masya allah” is often spoken by muslims to express astonishment or surprise. the term haji is attached to the muslim men who have made the obligatory pilgrimage to mecca. bahtiar (2009) stated that for the people of indonesia, the title of haji or hajjah is used as a marker for the completion of a series of religious pilgrimage (hajj rituals), and this usually becomes attached in front of his name. for example, the novel refers to the muslim leader as tuan guru haji abdullah abubakar. parallel to the use of haji to address muslim males, muslim women who have made the obligatory pilgrimage to mecca are called hajjah. the novel also mentions hajjah wida, ibu hajjah yanti as examples of the common terminology used by indonesian muslims. the haji and hajjah are not required titles in islam, but these terms are commonly used as terms of address in indonesian society. meanwhile, muslim men also have their own dress code. the novel provides the common view of muslim men wearing sarong and pecicap, which traditional muslims wear as their daily attire. sarong and peci/kopiah also often distinguish muslims from other religious groups in society. another accessory worn by muslims is the turban, usually for the kiai or imam or muslim leaders. it is a man’s headdress consisting of a long piece of cloth that wraps the small cap and head covering hair. the kiai is thus commonly seen wearing sarong and peci cap completed by his turban. the identified symbols in this novel are the symbol of colors attached to the dress code of muslims. page 88 paragraph 2 describes the dress code for an occasion of grieving, when muslim women are supposed to be wearing black dresses. black is associated with grief, sorrow, and condolence. the girls from the pesantren are described as wearing green dresses and jilbabs. the color green has a special place in islam and is often used to distinguish it from other world religions, so that this can be commonly found in mosques and other important places. since the nahdlatul umat islam pesantren is one example of islamic schools or institutions, the green color has become associated with it. regarding the symbols used by the muslim community to represent their faith, however, islam is so strict on the concept of “no other gods” but allah and no images of any kind. that is why there are no official symbols or images that have a special place in islam. the crescent moon and star are an internationally-recognized symbols of the faith of islam, although technically ekawati, r., indonesian muslim values, practices, terminologies and symbols 213 represented in richard lewis’ the flame tree symbols of the ottoman dynasty, which have come to be thought of as symbols for islam even by muslims. “…the central dome soared hundreds of feet into the air, thrusting a pure gold star and crescent insignia up to the clouds...” (lewis, 2004, p. 26). the star and crescent can be frequently seen in mosques in indonesia as the places of worship for muslims. the five points of star are sometimes associated with the five pillars in islam, while the moon crescent represents the new month of the lunar system. the islamic calendar follows the phase changes of the moon. in indonesia, a mosque usually has a central dome where the loudspeakers are placed to broadcast adzan, a call for prayer. the star and crescent symbols are used to distinguish islam from other religions. cornell (2007) states that clothing in islam, is governed by the principle of modesty. men must cover themselves from the waist to the knee; women are required to protect their modesty in the presence of persons (outside the family). in deference to the man whom she is eligible to marry, a muslim woman dresses modestly by covering the entire body, except the face and hands. women’s garments are supposed to conceal the figure done, by wearing a form that is loose and does not accentuate the body. the indonesian muslims can be distinguished as well from the dress they wear. indonesian muslim women are commonly seen wearing the headscarf called jilbab with its varieties along with the long dress with long sleeves. those who are wearing such clothes with jilbab are considered to be the santri. they consciously identify themselves as muslims and attempt, as much as possible, to live in accordance with their understanding of islam. conclusion the novel the flame tree by richard lewis clearly depicts muslim practices and values that prevail in the indonesian muslim community and nicely co-exist with javanese culture. it also proves that muslim values and practices, symbols, and terminologies “operate” together showing specific ways of life of muslims in indonesia. they reveal that indonesian muslims are moderate muslims with great social tolerance, and yet at the same time distinguish them from adherents of other religions. 214 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 202-214 references azra, a. (2006). indonesian islam, mainstream muslims and politics. paper presented at taiwanese and indonesian islamic leaders exchange project. the asia foundation in taiwan, taipei, october 26-31, 2006. www.la.nccu.edu.tw/20061027document--prof.%20azra.pdf retrieved from october 19, 2012. bahtiar, asep purnama. (2009). haji dan hajah sebagai panggilan atau penanda. rubrik bahasa. majalah tempo. desember 28, 2009. bernard, h.r. (2000). social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. cornell, vincent j. (2007). voices of islam. united states: praeger publishers. dean, g. (1999). javanese santri islam. retrieved from http://okusi.net/garydean/works/santri.html september 10, 2012. ebady, a. (2005). islamic values vs. muslim values. international committee for the support of the final prophet. http://www.whymuhammad.com/en/contents.aspx?aid=2952. retrieved september 10, 2012. lewis, richard. (2004). the flame tree. new york: simon & schuster. locke, l.f., spirduso w.w. & silverman s.j. (1987). proposals that work: a guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals (4 th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. pew research center. (2009). maping the global muslim population. http://www.asianwindow.com/tag/mapping-the-global-muslimpopulation. praja, juhaya s. (2007). islam post 9-11: indonesia’s experience. 132 nd international senior seminar participant’s papers. toorn, van der & jan platvoet k. (1995). pluralism and identity: studies in ritual behaviour. e.j. brill. leiden: netherland. revisi celt.cdr issn: 1412-3320 english culture, language teaching & literature a journal of celtcelt accredited by dikti 040/p/2014 celt, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 celt a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature (celt) is published biannually in the months of july and december (issn: 1412-3320) presenting articles on culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics, and literature. contents include analysis, studies, application of theories, research reports, material development, and book reviews. celt was firstly published in december 2001. based on the decree from hasil akreditasi jurnal ilmiah, sk direktur penelitian dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat, direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi, no. 040/p/2014 dated on 18 february 2014, celt is nationally accredited until 2019. editor-in-chief ekawati marhaenny dukut business manager cecilia titiek murniati editors antonius suratno emilia ninik aydawati gerardus majella adhyanggono heny hartono website designer & administrator ridwan sanjaya cover designer oscar santoso correspondence: address: the editors, celt, faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university, henricus constance building, 4 th floor, jl. pawiyatan luhur iv/1, bendan dhuwur, semarang 50234, indonesia; email: celtjournal@gmail.com; celt.unika@yahoo.com; celt@unika.ac.id; website: http://www.journalcelt.com; http://journalcelt.blogspot.com; telephone: +62-24-8316142, 8441555 (hunting) ext. 1705, fax no.: +62-248445265 ________________________________________________________________________________________ celt is published by the faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university. rector: prof. dr. ir. yohanes budi widianarko, m.sc., vice rector for academic affairs: dr. ridwan sandjaja, s.e., s.kom, ms.iec.., vice rector for financial and administration affairs: ineke hantoro, s.t.p., m.sc., vice rector for students’ affairs: lita widyo hastuti,s.psi, msi, vice rector for cooperation and development affairs: dr. marcella elwina simandjuntak, s.h., cn, m.hum., dean: angelika riyandari, s.s., m.a., ph.d., vice dean for academic affairs: dra. cecilia titiek murniati, m.a., ph.d, vice dean of financial and administration affairs: drs. antonius suratno, m.a., ph.d., vice dean for student affairs: b. retang wohangara, s.s., m.hum. ________________________________________________________________________________________ contributions: contributions are welcome from anyone who is concerned with culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature. contributors should consult the current celt manuscript submission guidelines before submitting articles, which contains important information about the focus and format of articles (see back cover). cost per journal is rp 40.000 and is payable through bank bii kas unika soegijapranata, with a bank swift code: ibbkidja, bank acc. no.: 1-575-16246-4, bank acc. name: angelika riyandari dan antonius suratno. ________________________________________________________________________________________ printed by santosa print offset, yogyakarta published and copyright by soegijapranata catholic university press, semarang © 2014. mailto:celtunika@gmail.com mailto:celt.unika@yahoo.com mailto:celt@unika.ac.id http://journalcelt.blogspot.com/ heavenly tears – earthly loss: different ways of coping with life loss in tears in heaven, circus, and since i lost you akun ...............................................................................................................1 constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppet for international students yoseph bambang margono slamet .................................................................16 using popular culture's media of indonesian-english picturebooks as a way of reaching more vegetable consuming children ekawati marhaenny dukut, maya putri utami, adi nugroho, novita ika putri, and probo y. nugrahedi ................................................................................36 cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops nur utami s.k. ..............................................................................................48 analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers anna marietta da silva ...................................................................................63 teacher questioning in classroom interaction sarlita dewi matra ........................................................................................82 students' perspectives on the role of open access centre and language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills wuryani hartanto ......................................................................................112 celt, vol.14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 b ba journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 teacher questioning in classroom interaction sarlita dewi matra starlighta_unique@yahoo.com english department, teachers’ training and education faculty, pekalongan university abstract: questions play an important role in every classroomboth students’ questions and teachers’ questions. the types of question used by teacher can help students to lift their own levels of understanding toward the concept given or even to build up new ideas. the study explored (1) how eventually teachers provide some ease to the students in creating an interactive classroom interaction through questions and answers exchanges; (2) how the questioning technique used by the teachers might encourage the students to be active in classroom interaction. by using brown’s interaction analysis system (bias) the data were analyzed in order to find out what types of question were mostly used by the teachers during teaching learning process in encouraging the student’s activeness. the data were collected through observations in two english classes in smp n 2 pekalongan with two different english teachers. the data showed that the cognitive level of teacher’s questions which mostly occurred was lower order cognitive questions. the questions were aimed to invite the learners to speak and deliver their ideas. based on the observed data, in details, the result showed that teachers used recall questions for 52%, comprehension for 42% and application occupied the remaining that was 6%. the target language was usually used on several occasions such as praising, encouraging, explaining and giving directions during the classroom interaction. therefore, the suggestions are given to the teacher to understand practical uses of questioning techniques in minimizingstudents’ barriers to speak up in english. matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 83 key words: teacher’s questioning, types of questions, bias, cognitive level, classroom interaction abstract: pertanyaan memainkan peran penting di setiap kelasbaik pertanyaan guru dan pertanyaan siswa. beberapa jenis pertanyaan yang digunakan oleh guru dapat membantu siswa untuk meningkatkan pemahaman mereka terhadap konsep yang diberikan atau bahkan untuk membangun ide baru. penelitian ini berupaya menggali (1) bagaimana guru mempermudah siswa dalam menciptakan interaksi kelas yang interaktif melalui pertanyaan dan jawaban; (2) bagaimana teknik pertanyaan yang digunakan oleh guru yang mungkin dapat mendorong siswa untuk aktif dalam interaksi kelas. dengan menggunakan brown interaction analisys system (bias) data dianalisis untuk mengetahui jenis pertanyaan yang sering kali digunakan guru selama proses belajar mengajar dalam mendorong keaktifan siswa. data dikumpulkan melalui observasi di dua kelas bahasa inggris di smpn 2 pekalongan dengan dua guru bahasa inggris yang berbeda. data menunjukkan bahwa tingkat kognitif pertanyaan guru yang sebagian besar terjadi adalah pertanyaan kognitif dengan tingakatan yang lebih rendah. beberapa pertanyaan itu bertujuan untuk mengajak peserta didik untuk berbicara dan menyampaikan ide mereka. berdasarkan data yang diamati , secara detail , hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa guru menggunakan jenis pertanyaan recall sebesar 52%, comprehension sebesar 42% dan application sebesar 6%. bahasa target biasanya digunakan pada beberapa kesempatan seperti memuji, mendorong, menjelaskan dan memberikan arah selama interaksi kelas. oleh karena itu, saran yang diberikan kepada guru untuk memahami penggunaan praktis dari teknik pertanyaan dalam menguragi kesulitan siswa untuk berbicara dalam bahasa inggris. kata kunci: pertanyaan guru, jenis pertanyaan, bias, tingkatan kognitif, interaksi kelas introduction nowadays, english is important and used by people all over the world. that’s why people are interested in learning this language. based on the newest curriculum-2013 curriculum, the purpose of english education in indonesia is to enable students to use english communicatively as a 84 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 communication means. students of junior high school are targeted to be able to develop their communication competence to achieve the functional literacy, means that students should be able to communicate in english either spoken or written to solve daily problems they face (depdiknas 2006, p. 5). the target that has to be reached will be a challenging task for the teachers. furthermore, the inexistence of speaking class in junior high schools becomes another case to be paid attention for the teachers in gaining the purpose since there is no appropriate time to train students’ speaking skill. as the result, teachers have to conduct good and successful teaching. although there are no agreed conceptual or operational definitions of good teaching and successful teaching, brown (1975, p. 11) explains that good teaching is in the eyes of the beholders and successful teaching is in the performance of the students. harmer (2002, p. 56) also asserts that the indicator of a good lesson is the student’s questioning activities during the teaching learning process, not the performance of the teachers. in this case, the teachers must create an interactive class so that the teaching learning process will go interactively and eventually students can understand the concept given well. a good teaching learning process does not only put the teachers as single main source but also involve the students in that process. the involvement of the students is an important thing in every teaching learning process as there will be an excellent interaction among the teachers and the students. in creating an interactive classroom, teachers need to provide supports, which can be in the form of questions, to students by interacting and involving them in order to train their speaking skill also to ensure that the students master the concepts. the supports given by the teachers and the result of them will clearly be seen in spoken cycle through teacher’s talk and students’ talk or students’ speaking performance. the purpose of this study was to describe what types of questions used by the teachers in helping the students to find some ease in speaking english particularly in classroom interaction. the types of question used by the teachers might help students to lift their own levels of understanding toward the concept given or even to build new knowledge therefore;it also matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 85 could train students’ speaking skill. how the teachers provide and support students using some types of question would be discussed in this study. the questions raised in this study are presented as follows: 1. what types of question which are mostly used by the teachers in teaching learning processes? 2. how do the questioning technique used by the teachers encourage the students to be active in classroom interaction? the general concept of questioning there are lots of studies about the use of questioning in helping students learning target language and improving students’ achievement. regarding the study done by cotton (2001) entitled “the schooling practices that matter most”, the findings reported in his summary are drawn from thirty-seven study documents. the study is concerned with a variety of treatments. by far the largest number of documents twenty-six is concerned with the relative effects on student learning produced by questions at lower and higher cognitive levels. that’s why i am interested in carrying on the study about the use types of question in helping students understand the concepts or materials given and even to build new knowledge also improving their speaking skill. the skills of questioning are as old as the instruction itself. they are the basis of the method of the teaching developed by socrates in the fifth century b.c. despite this long history of the use of questions, it is surprisingly difficult to define precisely what a question is. brown (1975, p. 103) has given a general definition of question. he states that a question would be any statement which tests or creates knowledge in the learner. cotton (2001) defined a question inas any sentence that has an interrogative form or function. in classroom settings, teacher questions are defined as instructional cues or stimuli that convey to students the content elements to be learned and directions for what they are to do and how they are to do it. according to the quotations above, in my opinion, a question is any sentence in the interrogative form that can arouse learners’ interest to the content elements to be learned and create knowledge of them. the 86 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 idea of using questions came up as the result of creating active and interactive classroom activities so that the teachers can use students’ knowledge to lift their understanding toward the lesson to develop their speaking skills. yet, the students will produce english sentences while they are conveying their idea, interacting and communicating each other by increasing their talking time. turney states,“the purposeful use by teachers of questioning provides a sound structure for the promotion and sustaining of pupil learning” (1983, p. 72). it can be drawn that these purposes are generally pursued in the context of classroom performance, defined as a series of teacher questions, each eliciting a student response and sometimes a teacher reaction to that response. it is clear that in order to help students through questions; the teacher should be able to identify various types of question, effectively use the various types of question in teaching, and help the students to give better answers. the awareness of the use of various types of question will also help the teachers to plan ways of monitoring how far the students master the concepts given and evaluating students’ learning. the components of questioning according to brown (1975, p. 104), there are at leastfourout of eightcomponents in questioning techniques which should be mastered by teachers: a. clarity and coherence teachers should give questions clearly, easily to be understood by the students, not confusing, and coherently expressed. teachers should not give questions with conflicting alternatives or ‘double barreled questions’ in order to avoid confusing the students. if the students do not respond the questions, the questions should be repeated and rephrased. in the early stages of teaching, clear and coherent questions should be planned and written in the lesson plans and scrutinized carefully, especially in using high level cognitive questions. matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 87 b. pausing and pacing pausing after asking and also varied pacing at which teachers ask a question is important. beginner teachers frequently ask more questions than they receive answers (brown, 1975, p. 105). the speed of delivery of a question is determined by the kind of questions asked. low level cognitive questions can be asked quickly, but more complex questions, in this case are high level cognitive questions, should be preceded by a short pause, should be asked slowly and clearly, and also should be followed by a long pause. c. directing and distributing teachers should direct some questions at individual students and distribute questions among the whole group of students around the class. while asking questions, teachers can use them as controlling tools since teachers should monitor the class to see who is attending and who is not attending. if a question cannot be answered by the first person asked, after a pause, teacher can redirect it to another pupil. directing questions towards students in a non-threatening way will help to draw them in a discussion. if they give response and their responses should as far as possible be praised and subsequently used again in the discussion. if they cannot respond, teachers should redirect the question to another pupil after giving them an encouraging nod and remark. d. prompting and probing prompting and probing can be givento any weak answers uttered by the students. prompting consists of giving hints to help the students formulating their answers. a series of prompts followed by encouragement can help students to gain confidence in giving replies. probing questions can direct the pupil to think more deeply about his initial answer and to express himself more clearly. in so doing they develop a pupil’s critical awareness and his communication skill. prompting and probing can be given to help students especially for higher order cognitive questions because these types of questions need more hints to help students formulating their answers in giving replies. prompting and probing can also help teachers deliver the questions and choose which types of question which appropriate so that they do not overwhelm the students. 88 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 these components of questioning are important to be accomplished and used by the teachers, so that they can create effective and interactive classroom through the exchanging of questions-answers during the teaching learning process in a conversation class. however, i will only analyze prompting and probing since in bias only these two components of questioning which are included to be analyzed in this study. cognitive level of question there are many types of question. according to bloom there are 6: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. while according to brown (1975, p. 103) there are two types of question: lower order cognitive questions and higher order cognitive questions. and supporting brown’s idea, cotton (2001) also grouped types of question into two: lower and higher cognitive questions. even though question is the basis of the teaching method and interest to researchers and practitioners because of its widespread use as a contemporary teaching technique, but often coming up some questions, such as, should the teachers be asking questions which require literal recall of text content and only very basic reasoning? or ought the teachers to be posing questions which call for speculative, inferential and evaluative thinking? the majority of researchers, however, have conducted more simple comparisons: they have looked at the relative effects on student outcomes. cotton (2001) has given the definition of lower and higher cognitive questions. lower cognitive questions are those which ask the student merely to recall verbatim or in his/her own words material previously read or taught by the teacher. higher cognitive questions are defined as those which ask the student to mentally manipulate bits of information previously learned to create an answer or to support an answer with logically reasoned evidence. while brown (1975, p. 103) defines lower order question are questions which are used to create correct single answers and higher order questions are questions which used to create new knowledge in the learner. in my study i will use brown’s types of questions.categories of teacher questions are as follows: lower 1. compliance: the pupil is expected to comply with a command worded as a question matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 89 2. rhetorical: the pupil is not expected to reply. the teacher answers his/her ownquestions 3. recall: does the pupil recall what he has seen or read? 4. comprehension:does the pupil understand what he recalls? 5. application: can the pupil apply rules and techniques to solve problems that have a single correct answer? higher 6. analysis: can the pupil identify motives and causes, and make inferences and give examples to support his statement? 7. synthesis: can the pupil make predictions, solve problems or produce interesting position of ideas and images? 8. evaluation: can the pupil judge the quality of ideas, or problem solutions, or works of art? can he give rationally based opinions on issues or controversies? (brown, 1975, p. 108) research method classroom interaction has primarily been studied from a psycholinguistic or cognitive perspective to examine how individual learners acquire linguistic knowledge and skills through in teraction with teachers or other language learners. hughes (2002, p. 27) shows that these studies are generally based on empirical, semi-real world data, gathered through recording and transcribing oral performance to investigate a central reasearch question or a hypothesis. nevertheless, thisstudy only focused on the teachers’ questioning. this is a study of teacher questioning and student response interaction during conversation class. it emphasizes on the verbal interaction among the teacher and students, which is considered as a core element in the teaching learning process. i tried to find out what types of question mostly used by the teachers during the teaching learning process in a conversation class. the idea of giving types of questions during the teaching learning process in conversation class was to train students’ speaking skill since the students would produce english sentences in answering the questions which increased students talking time. 90 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 iused the qualitative data analysis, in which idescribed, explained, and gave reason for the findings, data, and arguments. nunan (1992) suggests that qualitative research advocates the use of qualitative methods concern with the understanding of human behavior from the actor’s own frame of reference, exploratory, descriptive and process-oriented. this study tried to explore the teacher questioning and student response interaction which were analyzed in seven categories based on brown’s interaction analysis system (bias). it also tried to identify the types of question used by the junior high school english teachers during conversation class based on brown (1975, p. 103). even bias can be regarded as old-school theory, but the framework of this system is really suitable for anayzing the questions. dealing with the validity upon this study, i used triangulation method to maximize the validity of it. triangulation is a method in research used to measure the validity of data by using other instruments (moleong, 2004).the triangulation method which was used by the researcher in this study was by comparing and crosschecking the data gained from observation with that of from interview (alwasilah, 2002). site and particicipants the object of the study was the classroom interaction in conversation classes at smp negeri 2 pekalongan since the purpose of this study was the analysis of teacher questioning and student response interaction. the participantswho involved in the interaction were two english teachers of smp negeri 2 pekalongan. teacher a was graduated from semarangstateuniversity in 2007. she has already had experiences in teaching for almost five years. she had ever taught a kindergarten level student, she taught all the primary subjects in english. she also had ever taught an immersion class and in international school. teacher b was a senior english teacher who was graduated from semarang state university in 1991. she has had teaching experiences for more than 10 years at the level of junior high school. all participant was voluntary. i guaranteed their anonymity although they me permission to use their real names in my reserach report. matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 91 data collection and coding in order to collect the data, idirectly observed the teachers and students interactions in the english conversation class. idid the observation in two ways: by recording the teaching learning process and taking field notes. the procedures of collecting data were as follows: 1. making a try out in coding before doing the observation and witnessing the classroom activity,imade a try out in coding. the try out was done in smp n 2 pekalongan. 2. witnessing the classroom activity as field observation. because of the limit of the time, ionly recorded two classes and one meeting for each class. so, there would be two meetings altogether. the meetings occurred in 90 minutes. 3. recording the classroom activity in the form of audiotape. while recording the classroom interaction, imarked and coded also took notes any information about types of question used by the teachers. 4. copying the record into written form in copying the record into written form, iplayed the record and listened to it then transfered the data in transcription of the dialogues. 5. analyzing the data interaction by classifying the data by using brown’s interaction analysis system (bias) suggested by brown (1975: 66-67). iclassified the interaction data into seven categories: tl = teacher describes, explains, narrates, directs, tq = teacher questions, tr = teacher responds to pupils’ response, pr = pupils’ response to teachers’ questions, pv = pupils’ volunteer information, comments, or questions, s = silence, and x = unclassifiable. the teachers’ questions were classified into two: lower order cognitive questions consist of recall, comprehension and application; and higher order 92 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 cognitive questions consist of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. results and findings initially the data analysispresents general finding of the use types of question by the junior high school english teachers during teacher – student interaction in conversation class. afterwards, the data analysis describes the implementation of types of question during the teaching learning process. in recording the interaction during teaching learning process, i followed the model suggested by brown that was three seconds as one time unit recording instead of ten or five second intervals. as he explains that ten or five second intervals prove to be more difficult than three seconds because so many things can happen in the time interval that judgment of what is happening at the end of the intervals is difficult (1975: 73). the results of the two time observations are presented below: teacher a beginning the lesson, teacher a discussed about the students’ favorite stuff. the class activities were guided by some questions about the topic. she pointed at the students randomly. the teacher encouraged her students to answer the questions and accepted any answers from them. it lasted for about 5 minutes. then, the teacher read a dialog in part a for the students and asked them to repeat. next, the teacher discussed the difficult words. she then asked the students to practice the dialog with their partners and also checked the students’ pronunciation. those activities lasted for approximately 10 minutes. next, the teacher gave a game and played it with the students. the game was giving some statements based on the dialogue in part b, and the students should give responses to every single statement. if the statement was true, the students should stand up but if the statement was false, the students should raise their left hands. the situation in the class was alive and the students enjoyed the game. while playing the game, the teacher also asked the difficult words to the students. it took 10 minutes. then, matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 93 the teacher asked whether the students like playing the game or not. she also explained the expressions of like and dislike in part c. then she drilled the students using the expressions by asking them to find out 5 friends who have the same opinion about “like and dislike”. but before that, she gave examples in order to make the students understood. it lasted almost 15 minutes. then, the teacher moved to activity in part d that was practicing dialog by using provided words. the students were assigned to practice that dialog with a partner. it took for about 15 minutes. then the teacher moved around the class to check the students’ work. next, the teacher asked the students to do exercise in part f that was continuing a dialog. it took about 15 minutes. after that, she asked them to practice the dialog they made in front of the class until the bell rang. next, i completed each of verbal interaction with the descriptive codes based on the seven categories of teacher – student interaction of brown’s interaction analysis system (bias). after that, i plotted the coded data into a matrix to find out the teacher-student interaction during the teaching learning process. a brief analysis from table 1 above indicates that the teacher is responsible for 16 % of the talk, the students for 9 %, silence period for 1 % and unclassifiable occupied the remaining that is 74 %. explicitly the teacher’s talk time was spent in the following ways: a. teacher lecturing 11 % b. teacher question 2 % c. teacher response 3 % while the students’ talk was spent in the following ways: a. pupil response 8 % b. pupil volunteer 1 % the silence period was 1 % and the unclassifiable was 74 % which was spent for activities that were not included in the seven categories based on brown. the examples of the activities were: teachers checked the attendance list, teachers gave handout, students helped teachers distributing handout, students talked in their native language (bahasa 94 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 indonesia) so that it made the classroom situation became sonoisy and the communication could not be understood, students gave response to the teachers in the form of actions or gestures while they were playing games, students did exercises from the handout e.g. preparing their dialog, teachers circulated the class to check the students’ work, students looked for the meaning of some words in the dictionary, students moved around the class and make some noise. teacher a used three types of question; they were recall, comprehension, and application questions. she used recall questions for 81 % from the whole questions, comprehension questions for 8 %, and application questions occupied the remaining that was 11 %. teacher b in the beginning of the lesson, teacher b asked the students’ favorite foods, like and dislikes expressions. it took about 5 minutes. then the teacher gave handout and read the dialog loudly. the teacher also asked the students whether they understood what the dialog told about. next, she asked the students to practice the dialog with their partner at their seats. the teacher pointed the students randomly. after that the teacher read the dialog and the students repeated the teacher. the teacher then divided the class became two groups. group one got the turn to read anna’s dialog and group two got the turn to read katie’s dialog since there were two girls namely anna and katie in the dialog. then, the teacher switched the role. group one acted as katie and group two acted as anna. after that she discussed the difficult words. next, the teacher asked the students to identify like and dislike expressions in the dialog. it lasted for about 10 minutes. then, she moved on activities b. the students did the exercises and after they finished doing the exercises in part b, the teacher discussed the answers and some difficult words. next, she moved on activities in part c. she explained the expressions and then drilled the expressions. she mentioned some foods’ and drinks’ name then asked the students to give response which was determined by the teacher. those activities lasted for approximately 10 minutes. then the teacher moved on activities in part d. the teacher asked the students to make a dialog. but before that, she read the example on the handout then asked them to practice it first. the class became so noisy since they practiced the dialog and asked each other. after 15 minutes, the teacher called her students randomly to perform the dialog in front of the class with their partner. matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 95 there were 10 pairs presenting the task in front of the class. some of them acted very well, but most of them only read the text plainly. next, the teacher moved on activities in part e. the teacher asked the students to find another partner’s favorite foods and drinks also the reason why they like them using the expressions they have learnt. the teacher checked the students’ work and asked some students to practice using the expressions in their seat. after that, the teacher moved on activities in part f. she asked the students to make dialog with their partners and performed it in front of the class. after 15 minutes, the teacher pointed the students randomly to practice in front of class. thus, the activities lasted almost 35 minutes until the bell rang. a brief analysis above indicates that the teacher is responsible for 17 % of the talk, the students for 16 %, silence period for 0 % and unclassifiable occupied the remaining that is 67 %. explicitly the teacher’s talk time was spent in the following ways: a. teacher lecturing 10 % b. teacher question 4 % c. teacher response 3 % while the students’ talk was spent in the following ways: a. pupil response 16 % b. pupil volunteer 0 % the silence period was 0 % and the unclassifiable was 67 % which was spent for activities that were not included in the seven categories based on brown. teacher b used three types of question; they were recall, comprehension, and application questions. she used recall questions for 72 %, comprehension questions for 24 %, and application questions occupied the remaining that was 4 %. record of the overall types of question used by the teachers we can see that from the whole time of teacher talk, it was mostly spent for lecturing that was 8 %. the teacher questioning was 4 % and teacher respond was 2 %. from those only 4 % of the whole time which were used for questioning, there were 469 utterances. to find out what 96 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 types of question mostly used by the teachers, those 469 utterances were analyzed and the results are presented in the following table: table 1: types of question no types of question observation a b total % 1 2 3 4 5 6 recall comprehension application analysis synthesis evaluation 29 3 4 0 0 0 41 14 2 0 0 0 70 17 6 0 0 0 75 18 7 0 0 0 total 36 57 93 100 from the table above, it can be seen that the teachers totally used lower order cognitive questions in the classroom observation which can be described further as follows: a. recall 75 % b. comprehension 18 % c. application 7 % on the other hand, higher order cognitive questions were not used at all by the teachers. this study has proved that the cognitive level of teacher’s questions in teaching children was mostly lower order cognitive questions. this study also has proved that there is no significant difference in using the types of questions during the teaching learning process between graduated teachers (teacher a and b). but there seems little difference in the amount of questions used by the teachers between the first and the second observation. conclusions in every classroom there will be some talks among the teachers and the students and usually the teachers’ talks will dominate it. it is good for matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 97 the teachers to dominate their classroom as long as those talks bring good impact toward the students’ behavior. on the other words, they will stimulate the students’ development in mastering and understanding the concept given and gradually they will be independent learners. the use of questioning is actually to know how well pupils understand the concept given to them. the questions given by the teachers will lead the students’ interest and curiosity also. it will encourage the students to have some contributions in the teaching and learning process. turney et al (1983, p. 73) provides nine components of the skills of basic questioning to consider in teaching and learning process: structuring, phrasing or clarity and brevity, focusing, re-directing, distributing, pausing, reacting, prompting, and changing the level of cognitive demand. here are the types of questions which have been formulated to answer the first research question: types of question which were mostly used by the teachers were lower cognitive questions (recall questions). lower cognitive questions were quite effective when the teacher's purpose was to communicate factual knowledge and help students in committing this knowledge to memorize. higher cognitive questions were not better than lower cognitive questions in eliciting higher level responses or in promoting learning gains with junior high school students (primary level). greater frequency of questions was positively related to student achievement when there are great numbers of appropriate lower level questions. moreover, when the mostly lower level questions were used, their level of difficulty should be sustained in order to elicit students’ correct responses. futhermore, the second result of this study showed that the types of question not only can be used to guide, lead, direct the students but also can be used to promote students to speak up and give contribution during the teaching learning process.questions can create an interactive classroom interaction, so that the students enjoy learning english. through questions, learners can learn new words and grammatical structure in a simple way because their capacity for taking in and retaining new words, structures, and concepts is limited. that’s why the concepts or materials should be presented in simple segments by the teachers that do not overwhelm them. moreover learners can also learn grammar of the target language through questions when they use the full-length replies in formulating their answers. 98 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 references alwasilah. a. c. (2002). pokoknya kualitatif: dasar-dasar merancang dan melakukan penelitian kualitatif. jakarta: pustaka jaya. brown, g.(1975). microteaching. great britain: methuen & co. ltd. brown, h. d. (1994). principles of language learning and teaching. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall regents. cotton, k. (2013) questioning strategies: the schooling practices that matter most. in the northwest regional educational laboratory (nwrel) http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/3/cu5.html, retrieved 13 september 2013. direktorat jenderal manajemen dikdasmen depdiknas. (2006) pengembangan model pembelajaran yang efektif. jakarta: depdikbud. harmer, j. 2001. the practice of english language teaching”. new york: longman. jamshidnejad, alireza (2011). developing accuracy by using oral communication strategies in efl interaction.journal of language teaching and research, vol.2 no. 3, may 2011. moleong, l. j. 2004. metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: pt remaja eka karya. nunan, d. (1982). research methods in language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. nunan, d. (2003). practical english language teaching.new york: mc graw hill. turney, c. (1983). sydney micro skills redeveloped series 1 handbook. australia: sydney university press. 1983. turney, c. (1983). sydney micro skills redeveloped series 2 handbook. australia: sydney university press. matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 99 appendices: teacher : teacher a day/date : saturday, 1 st february 2014 time : 10.30 – 12.00 p.m. duration : 2 x 45 minutes tl = teacher describes, explains, narrates, directs tq = teacher questions tr = teacher responds to pupils’ response pr = pupils’ response to teachers’ questions pv = pupils’ volunteer information, comments, or questions s = silence x = unclassifiable table 1: category of teacher-student interaction time (minute) category of teacher-student interaction tl tq tr pr pv s x 0-5 31 3 7 14 0 6 42 6-10 45 8 11 29 0 1 1 11-15 32 7 4 46 5 2 2 16-20 36 16 13 16 3 0 7 21-25 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 26-30 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 31-35 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 36-40 13 2 1 4 0 1 73 41-45 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 46-50 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 51-55 16 0 9 17 12 1 35 56-60 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 61-65 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 66-70 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 71-75 2 0 0 1 0 0 100 76-80 4 0 0 1 0 1 101 81-85 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 86-90 7 0 0 10 0 0 2 total 186 36 45 138 20 12 1263 % 11 2 3 8 1 1 74 f ig u re 1 : t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f t e a ch e r – s tu d e n ts i n te ra ct io n c a te g o ry o f t e a ch e r a t e a c h e r s tu d e n ts i n te ra c ti o n c a te g o r y t l 1 1 % t q 2 % t r 3 % p r 8 % p v 1 % s 1 % x 7 4 % t l t q t r p r p v s x 100 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 t a b le 2 : m a tr ix f o r r e co rd in g t yp e s o f q u e st io n u se d b y th e t e a ch e r l o c q = l o w e r o rd e r c o g n it iv e q u es ti o n s h o c q = h ig h e r o rd e r c o g n it iv e q u e st io n s = r e ca ll c o m p = c o m p re h e n si o n = a p p li ca ti o n = a n a ly si s = s yn th e si s = e v a lu a ti o n t im e (m in u te ) t l s a c ti v it ie s t a sk c h a ra c te ri st ic s q u e st io n s l o c q r e c o m p a p p a n b k o f d is cu ss a b o u t st u d e n ts ’ fa vo ri te s tu ff t e a ch er a sk e d st u d e n ts ’ fa vo u ri te st u ff s tu d e n ts a n sw e re d te a ch e r’ s q u e st io n s 1 . d o yo u k n o w th e m e a n in g o f st u ff ? 2 . d o yo u k n o w w h a t d o ll i s? 3 . f a ik a le b ih su k a n o k ia d ar i p a d a m o to ro la a ta u s ie m e n s. h o w d o yo u s a y th a t? √ √ √ 101 r e a p p a n s yn e v a s y n 0 -5 matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 102 6 -1 0 m o f d is cu ss in g th e d ia lo g a n d t h e d if fi cu lt w o rd s t e a ch er a sk e d st u d e n ts a b o u t th e d ia lo g t h en d is cu ss in g d if fi cu lt w o rd s 4 . a ll r ig h t, w h o h a s th e b ir th d a y? 5 . w h o h a s th e b ir th d a y? 6 . k a ti e o r a n n a ? 7 . w h a t is t h e m e a n in g o f tr e a t? 8 . a n yo n e k n o w s w h a t o rd e r is ? 9 . w h a t is h o t in b a h a sa in d o n e si a ? 1 0 . w h a t’ s so u r in b a h a sa in d o n e si a ? 1 1 . h o w a b o u t sw e et ? √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 1 1 -1 5 1 2 . w h a t is b it te r? 1 3 . w h a t a b o u t sa lt y? 1 4 . k a la u s p ic y a p a ? 1 5 . o k a y, w h a t’ s th e m e a n in g o f it ’s o n m e? √ √ √ √ t e a ch er co rr e ct e d th e st u d e n ts ’ p ro n u n ci a t 1 6 . o k a y, h o w d o y o u s a y p re fe r? 17 . h o w d o y o u p ro n o u n ce p re fe r? 1 8 . [p rε ‘f ə r] o r [p ri ‘f ə r] ? √ √ √ io n celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 e x p re ss io n s o f li k e a n d d is li k e 2 5 . r ia n d o y o u l ik e d u ri a n ? 2 6 . e n d ra d o y o u l ik e a vo ca d o ? 2 7 . h o w d o y o u sa y sa ya le b ih s u k a so to in e n g li sh ? 2 8 . s a ya le b ih s u k a d u ri a n ? 2 9 . s a ya le b ih s u k a r a m b u ta n ? 3 0 . f a ik a , w h y d o yo u li k e c h ic k e n n o o d le ? 3 1 . d o yo u l ik e c o ff e e ? 3 2 . w h y yo u d o n ’t l ik e i t? 3 3 . d o yo u l ik e i ce cr e a m ? 3 4 . w h y d o y o u l ik e ic e c re a m ? √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 3 6 -5 0 jc o t d o in g a ct iv it ie s in p a rt e o n th e h a n d o u t t e a ch er d is cu ss e d th e d if fi cu lt w o rd s 3 5 . d is g u st in g ? a n yo n e k n o w s th e m e a n in g o f d is g u st in g ? 3 6 . w h a t is d is g u st in g ? √ √ t o ta l 2 9 3 4 0 0 % 8 1 8 1 1 0 0 1 6 -2 0 d is cu ss in g , e x p la in in g , a n d d ri ll in g e x p re ss io n s o f li k e a n d d is li k e t e a ch er a sk e d st u d e n ts ’ li k e a n d d is li k e 1 9 . o k a y, a n n a a n d k a ti e s a y th a t th ey p ay t h e ir o w n f o o d . w h a t d o e s it m e a n ? 2 0 . d o yo u k n o w c h ic k en n o o d le ? 2 1 . c a n i sa y i li k e o ra n g e ju ic e o r i lo ve o ra n g e j u ic e ? √ √ √ t e a ch er d ri ll e d st u d e n ts to u se t h e 2 2 . o k a y n o w , d o y o u l ik e p e ce l, y a n i? 2 3 . f e ri , d o y o u l ik e o b lo k -o b lo k ? 2 4 . a yu , d o y o u l ik e d u ri a n ? √ √ √ √ 103matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 104 teacher : teacher b day/date : monday, 3 rd february 2014 time : 12.30 – 02.00 p.m. duration : 2 x 45 minutes tl = teacher describes, explains, narrates, directs tq = teacher questions tr = teacher responds to pupils response! pr = pupils response to teachers questions! ! pv = pupils volunteer information, comments, or questions! s = silence x = unclassifiable table 3: category of teacher-student interaction time (minute) category of teacher-student interaction tl tq tr pr pv s x 0-5 21 14 3 20 0 1 23 6-10 41 2 1 56 0 0 0 11-15 16 10 8 51 0 4 0 16-20 4 0 1 0 0 0 100 21 -25 12 22 12 40 1 1 0 26-30 27 7 6 11 3 1 45 31 -35 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 36-40 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 41 -45 15 0 5 32 0 0 55 46-50 7 2 3 12 0 0 75 51 -55 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 56-60 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 61 -65 9 0 5 12 0 0 25 66-70 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 71-75 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 76-80 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 81-85 2 0 0 1 0 0 100 86-90 6 0 2 31 0 0 0 total 160 57 46 266 4 7 1123 % 10 4 3 16 0 0 67 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 105 f ig u re 2 : t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f t e a ch e r – s tu d e n ts i n te ra ct io n c a te g o ry o f t e a ch e r b t e a c h e r s tu d e n ts i n te r a c ti o n c a te g o r y t l 1 0 % t q 3 % t r 3 % p r 1 6 % p v 0 %s 0 % x 6 8 % t l t q t r p r p v s x matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 106 t a b le 4 : m a tr ix f o r r e co rd in g t yp e s o f q u e st io n u se d b y th e t e a ch e r l o c q = l o w e r o rd e r c o g n it iv e q u es ti o n s h o c q = h ig h e r o rd e r c o g n it iv e q u e st io n s r e = r e ca ll c o m p = c o m p re h e n si o n a p p = a p p li ca ti o n a n = a n a ly si s s yn = s yn th e si s e v a = e v a lu a ti o n t im e (m in u te ) t l s a c ti v it ie s t a sk c h a ra c te ri st ic s q u e st io n s t y p e s o f q u e st io n l o c q h o c q r e c o m p a p p a n s y n e v a 0 -5 b k o f q u e st io n – a n sw e r a b o u t st u d e n ts ’ fa vo u ri te fo o d s a n d d ri n k s t e a ch er a sk e d st u d e n ts ’ fa vo u ri te fo o d s a n d d ri n k s a ls o li tt le b it in se rt e d e x p la in in g th e 1 . h o w a b o u t yo u , k ri sn a , d o y o u l ik e fr ie d c h ic k en ? 2 . g a n i, w h a t’ s yo u r fa vo ri te d ri n k ? 3 . h o w a b o u t yo u , d e sk a ? w h a t’ s yo u r fa vo ri te d ri n k ? 4 . d o yo u l ik e m il k ? 5 . h o w i f yo u d o n ’t √ √ √ √ √ √ √ celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 107 e x p re ss io n s o f li k e a n d d is li k e s tu d e n ts g av e re sp o n se s li k e m il k ? 6 . w h a t w il l yo u s a y? 7 . c a n y o u m e n ti o n in d o n e si a n f o o d , st u d e n ts ? 8 . d o yo u l ik e s a yu r a se m ? 9 . d o yo u l ik e sa n d w ic h ? 1 0 . d o yo u l ik e m e a tb a ll ? 1 1 . d o yo u l ik e c a k e? 1 2 . d o yo u k n o w c a k e? 1 3 . w h a t is t h a t? 1 4 . h o w a b o u t d ri n k ? √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 6 -2 0 m o f r e a d in g d ia lo g t e a ch er a sk e d st u d e n ts w h a t th e d ia lo g t el ls a b o u t s tu d e n ts a n sw e re d te a ch e r’ s q u e st io n s 1 5 . w h a t a re t h ey ta lk in g a b o u t, d o yo u t h in k ? 1 6 . w h o a re t h ey ? √ √ d is cu ss in g t e a ch e r 17 . w h a t is b ir th d a y in √ matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 108 d if fi cu lt w o rd s a sk e d t h e d if fi cu lt w o rd s d is cu ss e d to g et h e r b a h a sa i n d o n e si a ? 1 8 . w h a t a b o u t “i ’l l tr e a t yo u ” in b a h a sa in d o n e si a ? 1 9 . w h a t’ s “l et ’s ta k e a n o rd e r” in b a h a sa in d o n e si a ? 2 0 . w h a t’ s o rd e r? 2 1 . h o w a b o u t so u r? w h a t’ s so u r in b a h a sa in d o n e si a ? 2 2 . w h a t a b o u t “i t’ s o n m e ” in b a h a sa in d o n e si a ? 2 3 . w h a t s d e li ci o u s in ! b a h a sa i n d o n e si a ? √ √ √ √ √ √ id e n ti fy in g th e e x p re ss io n o f li k e a n d d is li k e i n th e p a ra g ra p h t e a ch er a sk e d st u d e n ts to id e n ti fy t h e e x p re ss io n o f li k e a n d d is li k e i n th e d ia lo g 2 4 . c a n y o u i d e n ti fy t h e se n te n ce s? 2 5 . k ir a -k ir a k a li m a t it u m e n ya ta k a n l ik e o r d is li k e ? 2 6 . c a n y o u m e n ti o n a n o th e r se n te n ce ? √ √ √ 2 1 -2 5 d o in g e x e rc is e s in t e a ch er ch e ck ed 2 7 . w h a t’ s th e a n sw e r? 2 8 . p u tr i, a o r b ? √ √ celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 109 p a rt b st u d e n ts ’ w o rk s t e a ch er d is cu ss e d th e a n sw e rs 2 9 . c a n y o u s h o w m e th e s e n te n ce t h a t re fe rs t o yo u r a n sw e r? 3 0 . w h a t’ s th e a n sw e r, n in o ? 3 1 . c a n y o u s h o w m e th e s e n te n ce t h a t re fe rs t o yo u r a n sw e r? 3 2 . w h a t’ s th e a n sw e r, r is m a ? 3 3 . c a n y o u s h o w m e th e s e n te n ce t h a t re fe rs yo u r a n sw e r? 3 4 . w h a t’ s th e a n sw e r, d e sk a ? 3 5 . c a n y o u s h o w m e th e s e n te n ce t h a t re fe rs to yo u r a n sw e r? √ √ √ √ √ √ √ d is cu ss in g e x p re ss io n s o f li k e a n d d is li k e i n p a rt c t e a ch er d ri ll e d t h e e x p re ss io n s o f li k e a n d d is li k e 3 6 . w h a t is y o u r fa vo ri te d ri n k , p u tr i? 3 7 . w h y d o yo u l ik e so ft d ri n k ? 3 8 . w h a t’ s yo u r fa vo ri te √ √ √ √ matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 110 fo o d , is m i? 3 9 . w h y d o y o u l ik e so p ja g u n g ? 4 0 . d o yo u l ik e s a te a ya m ? 4 1 . w h y d o y o u l ik e sa te a ya m ? 4 2 . d o yo u l ik e g a d o g a d o ? 4 3 . w h y d o y o u h a te g a d o -g a d o ? 4 4 . w h a t a b o u t yo u b ra m a n ty o , w h a t’ s yo u r fa vo ri te f o o d ? 4 5 . w h y d o y o u l ik e p iz za ? 4 6 . d o yo u l ik e f ri e d ri ce ? 4 7 . w h a t a b o u t yo u r fa vo ri te d ri n k ? 4 8 . d o yo u l ik e i ce d t ea ? √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 2 6 -4 5 4 9 . h o w a b o u t o ra n g e ju ic e ? 5 0 . h o w a b o u t p la in w a te r? 5 1 . a g is ty a , d o y o u l ik e √ √ √ √ √ celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 82-111 111 p iz za ? 5 2 . r is m a , d o y o u l ik e g a d o -g a d o ? 5 3 . f a ra h , d o y o u l ik e so to ? 5 4 . r iz k y, d o y o u l ik e g a d o -g a d o ? 5 5 . a zm i, d o yo u li k e ic e d t e a ? √ √ 4 6 -9 0 jc o t d o in g e x e rc is e s in p a rt e t e a ch er a sk e d st u d e n ts to p ra ct ic e p a rt e 5 6 . h o w i f yo u w a n t to a sk y o u r fr ie n d ’s fa vo ri te f o o d ? 5 7 . h o w a b o u t yo u r fr ie n d ’s fa vo ri te d ri n k ? √ √ t o ta l 4 1 1 4 2 0 0 0 % 7 2 2 4 4 0 0 0 matra, s.d., questioning in classroom interaction 6 uncovering the writers’ purposes: an analysis of the goals of the jakarta post’s opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election fitri budi suryani and ahmad hilal madjdi fitribudisuryani@gmail.com, hilalmadjdi@gmail.com english department, f.k.i.p., muria kudus university, kudus abstract: during the open campaign of the 2014 indonesian legislative election, the way how the writers of opinion articles in newspapers perform their writing in relation with the context of the campaign is an interesting phenomenon as the fact that people writing about social matters are inevitably influenced by the way they perceived them, as well as their choice of topics and the way they approach them, by their own social experiences and values and political commitments (fairclough, 1992). this study is aimed at revealing the short term goals and long term goals of the opinion articles in the jakarta post towards 2014 indonesian legislative election. the data were collected from sixteen opinion articles in the jakarta post during the open campaign. the result indicates that the number of articles with unparallel purpose is higher than that of articles with parallel purpose. key words: short term goals, long term goals, the jakarta post opinion articles, 2014 indonesian legislative election. abstrak: selama masa kampanye terbuka pemilihan umum anggota legislatif indonesia tahun 2014, cara para penulis artikel opini menuliskan komentarnya pada surat kabar dalam konteks periode kampanye terbuka merupakan fenomena yang menarik berdasarkan fakta bahwa orang yang menuliskan permasalahan sosial tidak bisa terhindarkan dipengaruhi oleh persepsi mereka, pilihan topik dan bagaimana mereka memandangnya, oleh pengalaman sosial, nilai-nilai, dan komitmen politik mereka (fairclough, 1992). penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap tujuan jangka pendek dan tujuan jangka panjang komentar-komentar tentang pemilu legislatif tahun 2014 di surat kabar the jakarta post. data penelitian berasal dari enam belas suryani, f.b. & madjdi, a.h., uncovering the writer’s purposes: an 237 analysis of the goals of the jakarta post’s opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election artikel opini di surat kabar the jakarta post selama masa kampanye terbuka. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa jumlah artikel yang memiliki tujuan yang tidak paralel lebih banyak daripada artikel yang memiliki tujuan paralel. kata kunci: tujuan jangka pendek, tujuan jangka panjang, artikel opini surat kabar the jakarta post, pemilihan umum anggota legislatif indonesia tahun 2014. introduction during the open campaign of the 2014 indonesian legislative election, commentaries on the campaign colored printed media like newspapers. this commentaries mostly belong to opnion articles. the writers of opinion articles on newspapers can be political party activists, political observers or political experts. the way how the writers of the opinion articles in newspapers perform their writing in relation with the context of the open campaign period is an interesting phenomenon. this is because of the fact that people writing about social matters are inevitably influenced by the way they perceived them, as well as their choice of topics and the way they approach them, by their own social experiences and values and political commitments (fairclough, 1992). since the open campaign is known as the period of “the last battle” before the election, the writers of opinion articles in newspapers will usually express their thoughts, values, and ideologies within their text related to the 2014 indonesian legislative election. in other words, they try to realize their purposes through their writings thoroughly so as to achieve those purposes. as connor (1996) notes, newspaper commentaries, including the editorials, are the best examples of persuasive writings. this means that newspaper commentaries have the purpose to persuade their readers on particular issues or matters. however, not all newspaper commentaries or opinion articles might intend to persuade their readers since every text has purpose that can be grasped easily and directly as well as purpose that is hidden and needs to be explored further. according to butt et al. (2001), every text has two kinds of purposes. they are the short term goal and long term goal. short term goal deals with the immediate purpose of the production of the text, while the 238 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 236-248 latter refers to the text’s place in the larger scheme of things. the long term goal is said to be rather more abstract compared with the short term goal. this study is aimed at revealing the short term goals and long term goals of the opinion article in the jakarta post towards the 2014 legislative election. the opinion articles include both editorials and articles. in addition, they are limited only to the topics of the open campaign activities of the 2014 legislative election. literature review a. text and context text is influenced by two contexts, one of which is the context of situation or register. the concept of register is actually a theoretical view of language use on the basis of different situation which is known as context of situation (eggins and martin, 1997, pp. 237-243). context of situation has three register variables, namely field, tenor, and mode. field concerns with what is happening or kind of action in its social nature. meanwhile, tenor refers to the interactive roles involved in the text production that constitute who is taking part, what is his/ her status or discourse role. the last register variable, mode, deals with the organization of the text. in other words, it describes the channel in which the communication takes place, whether spoken, written or combination of these two channels. those three variables of context of situation will always affect us in language choice in order to convey meaning as it is understood that language is essentially a system of meaning potential (halliday, 1994). furthermore, halliday and hassan (1989) explain that field is used to reflect ideational meaning. this means that the field is expressed through the ideational function in the semantics. tenor is used to reflect lexico grammatical features which carry interpersonal meanings or in other words tenor is expressed through interpersonal function in the semantics. the mode register variable is reflected in lexico grammatical features which carry textual meaning. thus, mode is expressed through textual function in the semantics. since language is thought as a resource for making meaning (halliday and matthiesen, 2004), thus the three variables of context of situation, that is, field, tenor and mode are linked to the three main functions of language or semantic meta function which includes ideational meanings, interpersonal suryani, f.b. & madjdi, a.h., uncovering the writer’s purposes: an 239 analysis of the goals of the jakarta post’s opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election meanings, and textual meanings. semantically then, language is structured to make three kinds of meanings, namely ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings (halliday, 1994). the ideational meaning is concerned with the content or the proposition of the message. it can be grouped into experiential and logical subtypes. according to eggins (2004), experiential meaning is expressed through the system of transitivity or process type, with the choice of process implicating associated participants roles and configurations. the interpersonal meaning is concerned with the interaction between the speaker/ the writer and addressee. this kind of meaning is mainly manifested in the level of clause through mood, modality and evaluation. textual meaning is related with the organization of text in achieving its cohesion and coherence. this meaning is realized in lexico grammar through theme and rheme. butt et al. (2001) assert that the text and context of situation are related dynamically. by this, they mean that when the field, tenor, and mode of the context of situation of a text are acknowledged, the grammatical structure of the text can be predicted with a great deal of certainty. on the other hand, by knowing the grammatical structures of a text, the context of situation can be revealed. b. short term goals and long term goals every text has their own purposes. this purpose can be revealed from the field of the context of situation. since the field is realized through exepriential meanings in the transitivity of the text, thus to find out the purposes of a text, the transitivity needs to be explored which means that the elements of process, participant, and circumstance should be analysed. butt et al. (2001) differentiate the purposes of a text into the short term goal and long term goal. short term goal refers to the immediate purpose of the production of the text. the readers can easily grasp this kind of goal by reading the text at a glance. it is the first impression of purpose that the readers catch from the text they read. people do not need to have special or extensive knowledge or particular professional background to know this short term goal. on the other hand, the long term goals are not easily identified by readers. to reveal the long term goals, readers need to place the text in the larger scheme of things. the long term goal is said to be rather more abstract compared with the short term goal. because of the characteristics of the long 240 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 236-248 term goals, not all people can see this kind of purpose the first time they read the text. besides needing to place the text in the larger scheme of things or in a broader perspective and context, people usually will be required to have special and extensive knowledge on particular issues and matters if they want to be able to reveal the long term goals. even though a text usually has the short term goals and long term goals, it does not mean that those goals will always be the same or parallel. there is a possibility for a text to have the short term goal which is far different from its long term goal. this condition will result in unparalleled short term goals and long term goals. the causes of the unparalleled short term goals and long term goals may vary. the professional background of the writers may influence this condition. besides, the intention of the writers towards particular topics might also result in the unparalleled short term goals and long term goals. furthermore, the values and ideologies of the writers can be another reason for the short term goals to be different from the long term goals. c. opinion articles articles in newspapers can be differentiated based on who writes those articles. articles which are written by regular contributors are called columns. meanhwile, articles which are written by members of the community variously are called commentary or opinion. editorials are articles which are written by newspaper editorial staffs (“editorial”, 2014). it means that editorial is not always written by the chief of the editor. according to lagonikos (2005), editorial is a type of opinion discourse which is written with the purpose of persuading the readers to accept new opinions. this implies that the content of the editorial is a kind of personal opinion of the writer. however, in writing new opinions, van dijk (2009) states that the writer should consider factual knowledge or public knowledge about specific events and the readers need to be familiar with this knowledge in order to understand the text. opinion articles have critical role and play an important communicative function because of their contributions to the media’s role in formulating certain preferred view points about the world. the function of newspaper commentaries is to offer newspaper readers a distinctive and sometimes authoritative voice that will speak to the public directly about matters of public importance (lavid et al, 2014). suryani, f.b. & madjdi, a.h., uncovering the writer’s purposes: an 241 analysis of the goals of the jakarta post’s opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election d. indonesian legislative election since the reformation era, indonesian citizens have had two important elections. they are the election to elect indonesian legislative members or the so-called legislative election and the election to elect president and vice president. the main difference of the general election for electing legislative members in this reformation era from that in the previous era is the allowance to use several campaign methods by all participants which include the party and/or each candidate. the participants could hold limited meetings and face to face meetings, open meetings, use printed and electronic mass media, distribute campaign materials, install campaign instruments, and do other campaign activities as long as they do not break laws and regulations of the general election. although several campaign methods are allowed to be used, the open campaign is considered as the main method which attracts all general election participants and indonesian society. this is because this campaign is considered to be critical event as they are given only 21 days for conducting this activity. the open campaigns of the 2014 legislative election were held from january 15 th , 2014 until april 5 th , 2014. during those 21 days, all participants of the general election try to assure and persuade indonesian people to elect them. in other words, it can be assumed that during 21 days of open campaign period, all political parties used as many materials, methods, and media as possible in their campaign activities. one of media that is popular and likely to be used is newspaper. the reason is because newspaper has commentary or opinion articles which belong to persuasive writings (connor, 1996). in this context, the writers of opinion articles in newspaper can be political party activists, political observers or political experts. method the method of this study is qualitative using systemic functional analysis. the data were collected from opinion articles that consisted of editorials and articles in the jakarta post during the open campaign. the time of the open campaign was from january 15 th 2014 until april 5 th 2014. to collect the data, there were some steps taken. first the data were grouped into different areas like humanity, law, economics, politics, religon, 242 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 236-248 education, health, culture, entertainment, and environment. after that, the opinion articles from the political area only were sorted and then they were grouped into different topics. those topics include presidential election, legislative election, political party, election logistics, campaign activities, election procedures, voters, and election commision. the next step was finally to select only those opinion articles that were related directly or indirectly with the open campaign activities of the 2014 indonesian legislative election. those opinion articles then became the data in this research. there were sixteen opinion articles towards the open campaign activities in the 2014 legislative election that derived from editorials and articles of the jakarta post as the data of this study. the following table presents the titles of those opinion articles. table 1. titles of the opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election in the jakarta post to analyse the data, the field of the opinion articles were analysed. as the field is realized thorugh experiential meanings in transitivity, thus elements of transitivity need to be analysed. those elements analysed from the opinion articles were process, participant, and circumstance. from the analysis of the process, participant, and circumstance, the short term goals and long term goals were then revealed. no title 1 graft allegations engineered to undermine golkar 2 political parties roll out campaign 3 pdi-p eyes victory in golkar, pks strongholds 4 pan aims high sespite declining influence 5 golkar mulls long-term alliance with pdi-p 6 gerindra rebuffs claims it is a socialist party 7 party-based regional heads affect north sumatra election vote gains 8 pks face uphill battle to woo muslim voters 9 poor candidate relies to friends network 10 hanura pledge to boost business climate 11 campaign period ends in high 12 gerindra, pdi-p tangled in complicated relationship 13 ppp calls for bold agricultural reforms 14 parties fight over support in central java 15 pdi-p targeted as campaign heats up 16 ppp tries new recipe to stop the riot suryani, f.b. & madjdi, a.h., uncovering the writer’s purposes: an 243 analysis of the goals of the jakarta post’s opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election findings the result of the data analysis shows that not all long term goals in the opinion articles towards the open campaign activities of the 2014 legislative election are parallel with their short term goals. the summary of the data analysis can be seen in table 2 below. table 2. short term and long term goals of the jakarta post opinion articles towards the open campaign activities of the 2014 indonesian legislative election it can be seen from the table above that the short term goals of the opinion articles in the jakarta post during the open campaign of the 2014 legislative election comprise of four types. they are explaining, reporting, informing, and describing. meanwhile, the long term goals identified are informing, persuading, convincing, and influencing. the data analysis also reveals that not all short term goals are parallel with their long term goals. the number of the opinion articles in which their short term goals are parallel to their long term goals is 43,75%. on the other article short term goal long term goal 1 explaining informing 2 reporting informing 3 informing persuading 4 explaining persuading 5 informing convincing 6 explaining persuading 7 informing influencing 8 describing informing 9 describing informing 10 describing persuading 11 describing informing 12 describing informing 13 describing informing 14 describing persuading 15 informing persuading 16 informing convincing 244 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 236-248 hand, the opinion articles whose short term goals are not parallel with their long term goals consitute 56,25%. the articles that have their short term goals and long term goals parallel are opinion articles 1, 2, 8, 9, 11, 12, and 13. those articles belong to the short term goals of explaining, reporting, informing, and describing. their long term goals fall on the same category, i.e informing. this kind of long term goal has similar function as well as features as the short term goals mentioned previously. this means by reading, for example opinion article 1, the readers can grasp the immediate purpose of the article as explaining. however, place in larger perspective and context, the article has the purpose of informing which is quiet similar to explaining. therefore, it is said that the opinion article 1 has the short term goal which is parallel to its long term goal. the same thing occurs with the opinion article 2 entitled ‘political parties roll out campaign’. this article indicates the short term goal of reporting the political parties’ activities in rolling out the legislative campaign. if the readers of the article try to view the article in bigger perpective and put it in larger context, they will still end up with similar article writer’s purpose, that is to inform the ways political parties roll out their campaign during the legislative election. in other words, the short term goal and the long term goal of the opinion article 2 are parallel. another opinion article 8 also shows the parallel between the short term goal and its long term goal. reading this opinion article entitled ‘pks face uphill battle to woo moslem voters’, the readers will see that it has the short term goal of describing the large amount of effort done by pks to attract moslem voters. when they place the opinion article in the larger scheme and context, they will still see that the purpose of the article is just informing them on the same matter. there is not much distinction between the short term goal and the long term goal of the opinion article 8. this applies the same for the other five opinion articles that signal the parallel between their short term goals and long term goals. the intention of the writers of the opinion articles of the open campaign activities during the 2014 legislative election in the jakarta post to have parallel short term goals and long term goals seem to be simple and limited only to merely giving information. they just want to inform their readers on particular issues or matters that they think their readers need to know about. therefore, it can be inferred that those writers might have no suryani, f.b. & madjdi, a.h., uncovering the writer’s purposes: an 245 analysis of the goals of the jakarta post’s opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election subtle intention in writing their opinion articles other than just giving information to the readers. the unparallel goals are found in nine opinion articles, that is, opinion articles 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, and 16. the short term goals of those articles consist of informing, explaining, and describing, whereas the long term goals belong to persuading, convincing, and influencing. comparing the short term goals and the long term goals of those opinion articles, it can be seen that the immediate purpose of the article and the purpose of the article in the larger scheme are far different. take example article 3 entitled ‘pdi-p eyes victory in golkar, pks strongholds’ that has the short term goal of informing. by this, it means that the readers, at first glance of reading the article, will come up with information on the parties’ competition dealing with their chance in winning the legislative election. surprisingly, when the readers put the article in larger scheme and context, they will find out that the purpose of the article is no longer informing, but persuading them to choose particular parties. this long term goal of persuading is realized through the short term goal of informing how the political parties compete one another during the legislative election. thus, there is unparallel between the short term goal and the long term goal in the article opinion 3. the opinion article 10 with its title ‘hanura pledge to boost business climate’ reveals the short term goal of informing, that is, the readers will catch its immediate purpose of the article as giving them information on hanura’s view on nowadays and future economy of indonesia. but when the readers try to see the opinion article in its larger context, they will see that there is a hidden purpose of the article that intends to influence them on seeing the party as a party that have well economy view and plan for indonesia. from the opinion articles that have the unparallel short term goals with their long term goals, it can be seen that most of the short term goals of those opinion articles are informing. meanwhile, those opinion articles’ long term goals include persuading, influencing, and convincing. even though the kinds of the long term goals in the unparallel opinion articles are more various than those in the parallel opinion articles which only have informing as their long term goal, the opinion articles with unparallel purposes actually refer to similar purpose. that purpose is intended to have influence on the readers on certain matters, either by persuading the readers to do something like choosing and voting for particular party, or convincing the readers on some issues in order to have good image in the readers’ eyes. however, at the 246 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 236-248 end the purpose is still the same, that is to gain voters for particular political party in facing the 2014 indonesia legislative election. the readers’ ability to uncover these hidden purposes or the long term goals of those articles will then depend on the readers’ background knowledge and their wide perspective. the readers’ professional background might also contribute in the ability to see the long term goals of the opinion articles. the readers who do not know much about political issues and have no political background at all might have difficulty to see if an article brings with it different long term goal from its short term goal. on the other hand, those who are actively and intensely involved in political arena might find it easy to identify whether an article contains long term goal that is unparallel with its short term goal. the data also shows that the number of the opinion articles which have parallel short term goals and long term goals is lower than that of the unparallel ones. this indicates that not all opinion articles, when written as opinions, have the long term goals that are quiet similar with the shor term goals. many writers of opinion articles prefer to have the other purpose other than their immediate purpose of writing. this other purpose surely is far different from the purpose that their readers might have in their first impression when reading the article. the reasons why those writers have unparallel short term goals and long term goals might vary. this is due to their various background profession as those opinion articles can be written by political-party activists, political observers, or political experts. another reason for those writers having the unparallel goals may be caused by their having subtle intention on the legislative election. this intention can be personal or group to win particular legislative candidate or particular party. the values and ideologies held by the writers might influence to result in unparallel short term goals and long term goals as well. apart from various reasons the writers hold for having unparallel goals in their articles, this fact reveals that text might bring with it more than purposes. conclusion the present study concludes that the opinion articles in the jakarta post towards the open campaign activities in the 2014 legislative election reveal two kinds of purposes. the first purpose is parallel purpose, that is, suryani, f.b. & madjdi, a.h., uncovering the writer’s purposes: an 247 analysis of the goals of the jakarta post’s opinion articles towards the 2014 legislative election the short term goals of the opinion articles that have similarity with the long term goals. the second purpose constitutes the unparallel purpose in which the short term goals of the opinion articles are different from the long term goals. this shows that a text might have more than one purpose. in addition, the number of the parallel purpose of the opinion articles is lower than that of the unparallel ones. the higher number of the unparallel purpose opinion articles indicates that dealing with the 2014 legislative election, the writers of the opinion articles in the jakarta post might have subtle intention. this can also be caused by the writers’ values and ideologies as well as the writers’ various background professions which include political-party activists, political observers, and experts. as a result, they approach particular issue or matter in different way from their own background that makes the short term goals and long term goals of their opinion articles distinct. however, not all the readers of the opinion articles might be able to grasp the long term goals easily. they need to have the ability to place the text in the larger scheme, perspective, or context if they are to reveal the long term goals. therefore, it requires the readers to have extensive knowledge on the issues or matters written in the opinion articles. furthermore, knowing the background of the writers is also a necessary information to find out the long term goals as each writer of the opinion articles has their own intention when writing their articles dealing with the 2014 legislative election. references connor, u. (1996). contrastive rhetoric: cross cultural aspects of secondlanguage writing. cambridge: cambridge university press. editorial. (2014, december 6). retrieved from journalism.about.com/ od/journalismglossary/g/editorial.htm. eggins, s. (2004). an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publisher. eggins, s. & martin, j.r. (1997). genres and register in discourse. in t.a. van dijk (ed.). discourse as structure and process. london: sage publication. 248 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 236-248 fairclough, n. (1992). language and power. new york: longman. halliday, m.a.k. (1994). an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold. halliday, m.a.k. & ruqaiya, h. (1989). language, context, and text: aspect of language in a socialsemiotic perspective. deakin: deakin university press. halliday, m.a.k. & matthiessen, c.m.i.m. (2004). an introduction to functional grammar. london: edward arnold. lagonikos, i.t. (2005). ideology in editorials: a comparison of selected editorials in english-medium newspapers after september 11. unpublished thesis. rhodes university. lavid, julia, jorge a. & moraton, l. (2014, august 15). genre realized in theme: the case of news report and commentaries. retrieved from discours.revues.org/8623. van dijk, t. a. (2009), october 26). discourse, knowledge and ideology. retrieved from http://www.discourse-insociety.org/dis-kno-ideo.htm. untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia jews in hollywood, altering image through religious cinema witriani faculty of adab and cultural science, state islamic university sunan kalijaga, yogyakarta, indonesia email: witriani@uin-suka.ac.id received: 10-05-2016 accepted: 23-01-2018 published: 30-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies witriani witriani@uin-suka.ac.id faculty of adab and cultural science, state islamic university sunan kalijaga yogyakarta, indonesia abstract: this article discusses the altering image of american jews in hollywood movies. coming to america during the great migration, mostly from eastern europe, this azkenazic jews then contributed to the building and transformation of the hollywood movies as a world icon. though quite dominant, jews are quite careful in this industry. anti-semitism, the world war and the great depression are some of the things that make jews uncomfortable about being in the spotlight or talking about their identity among the christian audience of the movies. however, the condition changed after the second world war and the civil rights movement in the 1960s. jews and judaism later appeared in various representations, which does not only change their image in hollywood, but also the acceptance of american society broadly. focusing on the movie, ben hur: a tale of the christ (1959) as the object of research, the study explores how jewish people represent themselves through films produced, including the negotiations and changes made as part of the american jews. using the theory of stuart hall’s politics of representation and critical discourse analysis from fairclough and leuween as an approach, this work focuses on the analysis of text and images as a sign that represents the jews and judaism in the movie. related to movie as a media construction, the filmmakers are able to reconstruct jews in different image. through the movie, the represented jews are found to have conveyed various messages to the audience about their cultural and religious identity. keywords: american jews, movie, religious, politics of representation, discourse abstrak: artikel ini mendiskusikan perubahan imej bangsa yahudi america dalam film-film hollywood. datang ke america pada masa witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 203 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the great migration, sebagian besar berasal dari eropa timur, bangsa yahudi azkenazic ini telah berkontribusi dalam membangun hollywood dan menjadikannya sebagai ikon film dunia. meski cukup dominan, bangsa yahudi cukup hatihati dalam industri ini. antisemitism, perang dunia hingga the great depression adalah hal –hal yang membuat mereka tidak nyaman berada dalam sorotan kamera ataupun berbicara tentang identitas mereka di antara mayoritas kristen yang merupakan penonton utama film-film hollywood. namun demikian kondisi ini berubah setelah perang dunia kedua dan gerakan masyarakat sipil di tahun 1960. yahudi dan yudaisme kemudian muncul dalam berbagai macam representasi, yang tidak hanya merubah imej mereka di hollywood, namun juga penerimaan masyarakat amerika secara lebih luas. fokus pada film , ben hur: a tale of christ, kajian ini mengungkapkan bagaimana bangsa yahudi merepresentasikan diri mereka lewat film yang diproduksi khususnya lewat film yang bertemakan religius, termasuk negosiasi dan perubahan-perubahan yang dilakukan sebagai bagian dari yahudi amerika. menggunakan teori politik representasi oleh stuart hall serta analisis wacana kritis dari fairclough dan leuween sebagai pendekatan, tulisan ini menitikberatkan pada analisis teks dan gambar sebagai tanda yang merepresentasikan yahudi dan yudaisme dalam film tersebut. terkait pada film sebagai konstruksi, para pembuat film ini mampu merekonstruksi yahudi dalam wajah yang berbeda melalui analisis film, ditemukan bahwa bangsa yahudi dapat menyampaikan berbagai pesan kepada pemirsa tentang identitas budaya dan agama mereka. kata kunci: yahudi amerika, film hollywood, agama, politik representasi, wacana introduction one of the jews’ strength in america is their involvement in media and film. the majority of the film industry founders were the jews. neal gabler (1988) maintains that there were many major and minor jewish characters in hollywood. the most prominent are adolf zukor, who was instrumental in creating paramount; carl laemmle, the founder of universal; william fox of fox pictures, which later merged with the 20th century; louis b. mayer, who built mgm; harry and jack warner of warner brothers; and harry cohn of columbia. each contributed to building a hollywood entertainment industry that remained at the center of cultural production throughout the first half of the twentieth century. miles (1996) states that cinema was one of the areas of this ethnic success. though hollywood itself is not the only area for many people from various ethnicities’ backgound, which have their contributions, it can not be 204 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj denied that jews's contribution to hollywood is crucially dominant. in miles’s words, the jews have been “the backbone of film production in america” (1996, p. 84). in such a position, the jews has been able to control and direct their business of bringing issues of their cultural and religious identity to light. however, although jews have built this industry since the dawn of the twentieth century, it was not easy for jews to depict jews’s identity on the movies. gabler (1988) mentions that as the world war began and the rise of anti-semitism increased in america, the jews portrayal in the movies began to lessen. along with the promotion of american unity as a national priority, the notions like ‘the melting pot’ and ‘the salad bowl’ of how to integrate many etnicities into american society had become the focus of hollywood presentation. thus, the stories on inter-ethnic assimilation, success in the mainstream community and intermarriage with gentiles (nonjews) was popular at that era. gabler (1988) also recognizes that jewish did not use movies to spread jewish thoughts and cultures and ‘hollywood’ was itself a means of avoiding judaism, not celebrating it. as he further mentions, the studio bosses like fox, warner, and cohn did not use their power to make jewish film or to mold american culture into jewish likeness. the portarayals of ‘non-jewish jewishness’ was itself a feature of being jewish in america. the 1960s was called a time of growing ethnic awareness. friedman (1987) calls it “the self-consciousness sixties.” this decade was marked by the social and political changes in america in which social movements namely civil rights, new wave, feminism movement, right equality including ethnic concern, began to synthesize. this affected hollywood, especially the american jews in which the self-awareness of being jewish began to strengthen. abrams (2001) further states that the representations of the cinematic jew entered a new phase. the period witnessed a shift towards more subtle, nuanced, playful and even outrageous representations of jews and judaism including jewish rituals and traditions such as kashrut, endogamous marriage, wedding ceremonies, bar-mitzvahs, and so on. a new generation of jews and american-born actors starred are consequently in a range of jewish films that represent the jewish experiences. one of the encouraging conditions for jews and judaism in america was the judeo christianity tradition. though the tradition begun in europe since the national conference of christians and jews in 1928, the movement developed and grew in america. it aims to combat religious prejudice and seek to improve religious tradition. from that conference, the religious leaders of all three faiths agreed to stress their similarities in judeo-christianity heritage witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 205 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and not overlooking such doctrinal differences that drive them (gordon, 1984) it is interesting to note that, this agreement was more of a response to the social and political conditions in america at that time. sarna (2004) mentions that it was to counter earlier explosions of social hatred. under the judeo-christianity commitment, the liberal-minded protestant, catholics, and jews worked together to promote ‘brotherhood’ and no longer defined america as a christian land but rather as one nurtured by three ennobling spiritual traditions. even, the phrase ‘judeo-christian’ entered the lexicon as the standard liberal term for the idea that western values rest on a religious consensus. apart from the effectiveness of this notion in society, in the field of cultural practice, this idea has interested the american hollywood industry to promote the religious tradition of biblical narration through the movies. some of them are depicted through religious movies such as the ten commandments (1923, 1956), the king of kings ( 1927, 1961), or ben hur: a tale of the christ (1925, 1959). this article intends to explore the correlation between judeo christianity and jews acceptance by american society as well as their representations through media, especially in ben-hurben hur: a tale of christ (1959) connected to jews-christians relationship in america, the hostility between christians and jews had existed since the early of christianity. according to telford (2005) the source of the hatred itself, was the new testament, the earliest gospel from mark to john. as he further mentioned, the jewish religion was depicted in a poor light, jewish practices are disparaged, as are other practices (cf. mk 7.1-23). judaism is implied to be obsolescent (cf. mk 2.22-22). even jesus himself was presented as more gentile than jewish. these religious discrepancies, as telford further states, lead to jewish stereotypes and antisemitism for centuries. the jewish people were depicted as hard of heart, as hypocrites, as guilty of the unforgivable sin in questioning the source of the markan jesus’s power, and as wicked murderers for rejecting jesus (p, 268). similarly, holmes (2003) also says that the humiliation of the jews became policy as well as doctrine. the church believed that to hate the jews was the will of god. jews were a people to be shunned or scorned, unworthy of association because of their presumed responsibility for decide in the death of jesus (p, 11). considering this fact, the choosing of ben hur: a tale of christ as a research is interesting because it portrays a diffrent relation between jews and christians. by portraying jewish experiences in the early life of jesus christ , the movie is not only about depicting a jew ( ben-hur ) and jesus 206 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj christ in one frame, but also sharing the religious teachings of judaism and christianity, including the jewish identity in its relation with other religion especially christianity. by applying the representation theory and cda as an approach, the analysis explore the social practice and intended messages which constitute the ideology behind the scene, especially the religious discourse which is represented through the movie. the movie shows how to see these abrahamic religions as one, believing in the same god as well as sharing stories of the old testament. theoretical framework referring to hall (2003), representation is related to the meaning of the concepts in human minds or the production of meaning through language. it is connected with how to give meaning, to describe or to depict something (p, 17). here, the representation has never been a complete or a total reflection of things, but much more than a combination of ideas of various elements. as he further explains, in any representations there is a mixture of the thing itself, such as the opinion of the people doing the representation, the reaction of the individual to the representation and also the context of the society in which the representation is taking place. in this sense, the designs, messages, as well as how and why things are represented in the movie have intended meanings which possibly brings a broad impact to the audience film is a medium of contestation among different powers that have a chance to construct a certain kind of issue. the film industry makes any constructions happen, whether one might agree or not. in this regard, film is seen as a social practice, which in fairclough’s (1995) argument, has a dialectical relationship with other social dimensions. as fairclough further insists, this form of social practice both constitutes the social world and is constituted by other social practices. in this sense, film offers a concept of whose ideas are derived from social life that may inspire or affect society as well. thus, the primary focus of this discourse is on the way its structures enact, confirm, legitimate, reproduce or challenge relations of power and dominance in society. furthermore, fairclough as cited by jorgensen (2002) also emphasizes that discourse is just one among many aspects of any social practice. it is a way of the dominant power to legitimate its interest toward certain things in any field of background. it both reproduces and changes knowledge, identities and social relations including power relations, and at the same time is also shaped by other social practices and structures. here, related to the film, witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 207 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj whatever presented in the movie is possibly comprehended differently by different people. though the industry often assumes that film does not affect the viewers other than entertainment, the construction of meaning is formed through a regular presentation. it is interesting to know more on how representation works in the films including its relationship with ideology, social practice, and power relations. this is why this research concerns on how the intervention of particular interest works and changes the film’s production and orientation. the ability of this industry to broadcast particular movies regularly and globally has led the film to have a worldwide cultural impact both negatively and positively. method of the research in analyzing the research, the writer applied the critical discourse analysis (cda) theorized by fairclough (1995). cda as a method is essentially relevant in explaining the film’s messages. not only does this explanation discuss the impacts and influences of a certain medium or film towards society, but also the ideology and power working on the medium. this exploration explains why certain messages need or need not to be delivered. furthermore, van dijk (1993) also defines cda as a type of discourse analytical research that aims to offer a different ‘mode’ or ‘perspective’ of theorizing, analysis, and application throughout the whole field, including film in this sense. cda is critical in the sense that it aims to reveal the role of discursive practice in the maintenance of the social world, including those social relations that involve unequal relation of power. it aims to contribute to social change along the lines of more equal power relations in the communication process and society in general. fairclough (1995) defines that what is depicted in media especially in films is indeed a text in a very broader sense, as an element of social life which is closely interconnected with other elements such as social problems and power relation. related to this research, the analysis of the film has what fairclough (1995) mentioned as a dialectical relationship with other social dimensions. as mentioned above, film is not only about art nor entertainment per se, but also a kind of knowledge production which is related to the social dimensions such as identity, ideology or other causal effects of the text. besides, according to jorgensen (2002),like supported by fairclough (1995) cda tries to unite three traditions of detailed textual analysis within the field of linguistics, macro-sociological analysis of social practice and the micro-sociological, interpretative tradition within sociology. in this sense, as a theory and method, fairclough explains that detailed analysis is to gain insight 208 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj into how discursive processes operate linguistically in specific texts. here, an interdisciplinary perspective is needed in which one combines textual and social analysis. in this context, the discussion will be focusing on the relationship between the movies as a textual analysis (micro-level) including the form of representations, constructed ideology, as well as the definite power relations of people behind the scene (american jews). these analyses are interrelated to social practice (macro-level) which is connected to the social changes, solidarity, and identity of american jews. the way to analyze the data is through discursive practice (mezzo level). it involves ideas of ethnic and religious representation of american jews in the movies, including how the jews depicted in hollywood and their involvement in this industry (jurgensen 2002, p 66) results a. religious cinema as a religious discourse the emergence of religious movies in the american film industry is not such a coincidence. miles (1996) says that the relationship between religion and movies has already existed since the film industry began. the photographic film itself was invented by an episcopal priest, hannibal goodwin and the first photographic film shown was the passion play of oberrammergau, on january 31, 1898. here, religion is something personal. in john tillich terms, it is an area of culture that involves basic beliefs about the ultimate nature of reality, our purpose in the world, and meaning in it (leyden, 2003). for this reason, depicting a religion or religious idea in the movies is always interesting for the producers or the film industry because it is close to the audience or society that it represents. in america, movies such as from the manger to the cross (1912) by sydney olcot and judith of bethulia (1914) by d.w griffith are considered as the earliest religious movies of american production. but the jewish involvement in producing a similar genre began in 1923 when the ten commandments by cecil b. demille of paramount picture produced and then continued by king of the king (1927), and ben-hur (1927) by mgm production, etc. after the silent era, ben hur and the ten commandments were remade by the same production, but with larger budgets and production values in 1959 and king of king in 1961 by mgm. the most interesting point of this remake is not only about how to present the similar narratives in a different way to probably different audience, but also the ‘impact’ of those presentations, both in tangible or intangible form. witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 209 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj miles (1996) explains that it is not accidental that the film’s first topics were religious. film, like the religious drama of the earlier ages, was understood to have a tremendous capacity for generating and focusing the desires not only of the individual but of societies. from this point, it is inferred that, as long as religions exist and are part of human experience, the religious themes will always interest the movie industry. this is because people or the audience prefer to see something close to them that reflect their own experiences. in this sense, the religious films under examination are not only limited to the presentation of a certain religion, the religious narratives, or religious characters in the movie, but also the religious values, point of view, and image of both in direct or indirect representation. for the united states, the concept of america as a religiously pluralistic country was considered as an alternative to ward off the development or the infiltration of communistatheist ideology in america. judeo-christianity offers a pluralist vision of what kind of faith the united states fought for. when america was involved in the cold war with the soviet union, this concept became part of the national identity, namely ‘diversity within unity’ wherein the plurality of religion into one entity is preferred. hollywood itself, in many ways, of course, was part of the propaganda of the state and society. narrative epics were becoming popular because of the american public enthusiasm for religious themes. for hollywood, these themes certainly have a lower political risk compared with the stories of wars or ethnicities. this is another reason for hollywood to turn to religious themes. ben hur: a tale of the christ is directed by william wyler (1959) and is based on a novel by lew wallace’s ben-hur: a tale of the christ (1880). this movie was a remake of the silent movie in 1925, produced by the same studio, metro-goldwyn-mayer (mgm). this colossal film was nominated for twelve academy awards and the first film to win eleven oscars. in 1998, this movie was selected as one of the top 100 american films of all time by the prestigious american film institute that ranked it the 72nd best american epic film, and placed it in the afi’s top 10. similarly, in 2004, the national film preservation board selected ben-hur for preservation by the national film registry for being a ‘culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant motion picture’ (http://www.wikiwand.com/en/ben-hur_1959_film). set in jerusalem during the time that jesus was born, the plot focuses on an honored jewish man, judah ben-hur, a prince of judea, who was betrayed by his boyhood roman friend, messala, and has to carry out a miserable life in exile. finally, he comes back to defeat his enemy and reclaim 210 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj his family. here, ben hur, is described as heroic, helpful, intelligent, tough, loyal, and full of confidence. he believes in his principles and would do anything he could to defend his beliefs. as mentioned by crowther (1959) “mr. wyler and his studios have smartly and effectively laid stress on the powerful and meaningful personal conflicts that are strong in this old heroic tale”. the interesting thing about this movie is not only the achievement and serious production as the most expensive film ever made during that era, but also the way to tell the story and depict the main character, judah ben-hur, as the charming prince of judea. the heroic characteristic of jews seems to bring a different nuance to this ethnicity that contradicts ‘the common belief’ of how people understand this people and their narratives. related to the cinematic representation, ben hur marks the beginning of the awareness that through this narrative, it is necessary for jews to know about themselves, as well as to share their stories with the public or gentiles. b. promoting jews through christian movies the representation of ben-hur: a tale of christ is interesting to discuss here, not only because the jews and christianity are depicted in the same framework of the movie, but also, the mutual relationship among the two religions and the ‘myth’ constructed to be delivered to the audience. the film itself was adapted from the novel by general lew wallace in 1880 with the same title. it was considered as the most influential christian book of the 19th century. the title indicates that the movie is indeed a christian story. the film opens with a map of jerusalem and judea and ‘anno domini xiii‘, which indicates a place and time of the birth of jesus christ and followed by a prologue : to begin our lord…, in judea, for nearly a century had lain under the mastery of rome, in the seventh year of the reign of august caesar on imperial decree ordered every judean each to return to his place of birth to be counted and taxed, converging ways of many of them led to their land. the old city was dominated by the fortress of antonia, the seat of roman power and by the great golden temple. the outward sign of an inward and imperishable faith, even while they obeyed the will of caesar, the people clung proudly to their ancient heritage, always remembering the promise of their prophets that one day there would be born among them a redeemer to bring them salvation and perfect freedom (wyler, 1959) witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 211 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this prologue is clearly about the background of the story, the days in which jerusalem was occupied by the roman empire and the coming of jesus christ who is believed as the redeemer of humankind. however, the focus of this prologue is actually about jews. ‘imperishable faith’ is indeed connected to judaism and ‘the people clung proudly to their ancient heritage’ thus refers to jews. ‘imperishable faith’ here is not only related to the longest religious tradition of humankind but also the faithfulness of their people so as it is called ‘imperishable’, a faith which would last forever. in this sense, since the beginning of the film, the movie maker has placed a strength of these people and an eternal faith of this religion in the framework that they are worthy to be called ‘the chosen’ one however, at the beginning of the movie, the moviemaker is trying to construct a christian framework about jesus’ tale. however, it is only an incidental representation, in the early ten minutes of the movie of the three and half hours of the movie duration. overall, the whole plot then shifts to the prince of judea, judah ben-hur who is betrayed by his roman boyhood friend, messala, enslaved in exile, involved in a war, and takes revenge to win back his dignity and family. at the end of the movie, the scene about jesus comes back when he gives a sermon on the hill and finally ends with his crucifixion by the roman. as christ’s tale, this seems to be a key idea that wraps up the story as a christian story. though depicted in a minor portrayal, the movie successfully describes the social and political background from the birth to the death of christ, including his followers. besides, the director was also smart enough to insert ‘christian messages’ that regularly appear at the second half the movie, especially from esther (judah girl’s friend) and balthazar like: ‘ love your enemy ‘, 'blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy, ‘blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of god’, etc. thus, although the story is mostly about a jew, the film itself is accepted by the two communities, in which both of them would feel represented. likewise, the plot is very much concerned with the depiction of judah ben-hur and his sufferings and the way he gets his dignity and family back. the interesting thing is, as part of the title ‘a tale of christ’, jesus appears incidental in the movie. though one might relate jesus and ben-hur to have a similaritywhere both are suffering and then having a fulfillment, the story of the two is different. as is acknowledged by wallace (1880) the purpose of the book is only to prove that jesus is not a myth anymore. it is through judah ben-hur, that people would understand more about jesus and his teaching. the depiction of jews and christian on one side and the roman on the other side has explicitly been planted from the beginning. the suffering of 212 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj jews started soon after the roman troops conquer jerusalem and arrest jews and the followers of jesus who are considered against the roman. the arresting of judah ben-hur is also related to his connection with the people who follow this new religion. that is why, as depicted in a prologue above for roman, jews and jesus (followers) are considered as one and the man (jesus crist) who is believed to be a redeemer of humankind was born among jewish people. thus, it implies that jews and christians are ‘one’, sharing similar ancestors, narratives, and beliefs. a new religion is born among jews, and jews are the first followers of jesus and his teachings. for example, after his arrival to judea, a new tribune of roman in jerusalem, mesala discuses with a previous tribune, sexus about the condition in jerusalem, as follows: sexus: …and then there’s religion. i tell you they‘re drunk with religion, they smash the status of our gods even those of the emperor mesala: punish them sexus: we do, when we can find them mesala: find the leader sexus: you don’t know, there’s nothing you can put your finger on, there are strange forces at work here. this ‘messiah’ business mesala: i know there was one predicted when i was a boy sexus: a king of the jews, who will lead them into some sort of anti-roman paradise, ah.. makes your head spin. there’s a wild man into the desert named john. john who drowns people in the water and the carpenters’ son who does magic tricks ‘miracles’ they call them mesala: there’s always rebel – rouser string up trouble. sexus: no..no..no this man is different. he teaches that god is near in every man. it’s quite profound, some of it. as expressively mentioned in the dialog above, ‘a religion’ here refers to christianity, and ‘a king of jew’ is related to jesus. however, the text does not explicitly state that jesus is a messiah. instead, it prefers to relate this kind of movement as ‘messiah business’, a prediction that one day among the jews, there would be born a redeemer to bring them salvation and perfect freedom (wyler, 1959). witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 213 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj over the centuries, a notion of the messiah 1 has been conflicting between these two religions. in many ways, the concept of the messiah has been interpreted differently in christianity and judaism. thus, in this movie, the moviemaker seemed to be careful in presenting such sensitive issues including the messiah, besides, the movie itself is intended for christian and jewish audiences. hiding or manipulating a certain notion seems to be the best choice as a way to be accepted in the pluralistic community, so, in this sense, considering the religious messages constructed through the movie, it is interesting to find out how the moviemaker is trying to stand between the two religions – christianity and judaism by presenting the scenes which are acceptable by both. c. jew as a hero when most jews were involved in the film industry in the early of the century, these imported stereotypical images were often found in the silent movies since most of the industry only reproduced the story based on their preconception. as friedman (1988) explains, the two most popular works, shakespeare’s the merchant of venice and charles dicken’s oliver twist alone account for at least eleven adaptation during the silent period, not including film such as female fagin (1913) that draws its inspiration from dickens. in brief, he further explains that in the earlier movies, jews usually appeared as hapless victims of society, clever/ sneaky jews, jewishgentiles relationship, jews as butts/ creators of humor, ghetto life, and foreign jews. 1 in judaism teaching, the messiah itself is actually the third element in the trilogy of creation, revelation and redemption. this term is used in biblical hebrew as ‘an anointed priest’ first encountered in the leviticus 4: 3-5, used for anyone with divine mission such as prophets, priests, and king. he was believed as the savior and the redeemer at the end of the days.1 more specifically, the term signified the king of davidic dynasty , and in particular the future ‘son of david’ who would deliver israel from foreign bondage, restore the glories of a former golden age, and inaugurated the ingathering of israel and god’s kingdom of righteousness and peace1. picture 2: tevye in fiddler on the roof picture 1: fagin in oliver twist 214 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fagin (see in picture 1) is an antagonist character in the work of charles dickens. in the novel, he is portrayed as an evil jew, cunning, who took advantage of employing abandoned children to steal, including oliver. when this work was later adapted into a movie, the visualization of this character completed with a typical cunning face, big nose, slovenly, even with long fingernails. thus, he is described in a very negative jewish stereotypes both physical and behavioral. another jewish popular character can be seen in tevye (see picture 2) from the jewish contemporary literary works fiddler on the roof. this film is originally a musical theater script and has been very popular among the jewish community. this work was also adopted to several versions and later stage it into a movie. tevye is a lovely gentleman, friendly, humanist, who maintains his ancestral traditions well. though in the characterization presented, this figure is very much different from fagin, in other aspects, people will see them both characters as a jewish common representation. in judah ben hur ( see picture 3) the audience could see a different picture of jew. supported by a muscular, tall, and good-looking white man, a real gentleman jew depicted here is a real hero. as a remake of the similar movie of the silent era, ben-hur depicted here is much more interesting and remarkable. the heroic, wise, and nobleman is embodied in the character of judah ben-hur, a prince of judea who lived in the same era as jesus of nazareth. this depiction is indeed contradictory to the image of jews in the later centuries, especially since the middle age in which jews’ stereotype was depicted in such derogatory way, both in physique and characterization. in depicting the character on the screen or photograph, leeuwen (2008) argues that two dimensions are always co-present, realizing both ‘ how are the people in the picture represented’ and ‘how the viewer’s relation to the picture 3: judah ben-hur in ben-hur witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 215 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj people in the picture represented’. in the case of ‘fagin and tevye’ and ‘benhur’ above, it indicates that there are two opposite constructed relation, exclusion, and inclusion, which is understood by the audiences. fagin is an exclusion one, with the long and dirty nail, messy hair and shifty eyes, he represents a complete package of the antagonist both physically and behaviorally. thus his presence is not acknowledged in the community, though, in reality, they are present. the similar with tevye in his tradition. though he is not an antagonist and depicted as a friendly, his tradition is seen as an ‘uncommon’ jew on the contrary, the director depicts ben-hur, in leeuween’s words, as a social agent, a doer, to whom people or viewers entrust their agency. though the setting was in the early years of jesus christ, the director has constructed his heroic character like the reality found in our immediated. thus, he is accepted. in this sense, to see a jew differently is reversing the lens because the audience recognizes a different world of jews the interesting thing here is that the choosing of the actor, charles heston, who appeared as judah ben hur. the new face of jew’s figure is significant, not only will it lead to an altering image of jew but also create a certain kind of media discourse as to how to perceive jews differently heston himself was not a jew, though he acts well as a jew both in the ten commandment and ben-hur. born in illinois from a scottish descendant, heston can represent himself as a classic figure of israeli, who was believed as the chosen people, both from jews and the christian community. however, since the jews’ characterization of both movies is very strong, it is not necessary anymore, even probably for the jews themselves, whether he is a real jew or not. people believe what they see. they believe that judah benhur is a jew, and his heroic and noble personality represents the jews as a whole. it is this character of a movie which makes it strong as visual art furthermore, the jewish history records that for centuries, antijewish sentiment was found among the christian teachings and societies. concerning the ben-hur production, for example, it was an era when hiding self identity behind christians is much secured. thus, it was common for gentile actors/actresses to play as jewish roles. the jewish moguls were indeed dominant in this industry, but as they said ‘too many jews’ in certain productions was quite risky, especially in the era when the social and political change in america was unsecured for jews. it was an era when being a minority was not widely accepted in the public sphere. this is probably realized by william wyler, the director, and mgm as well. the film was necessary to share the similar narratives of both religions since the story is indeed about christian and jews. related to this, though it belongs to the religious genre, ben hur is indeed a popular culture which according to turner (1999, p.3) takes place in 216 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the arena where the audience’s pleasure is the most important thing– both for the audience and for the film’s producers. thus, as he further mentions the pleasure here is connected to the spectacle of film’s representations on the screen, in the recognition of stars, styles, and genre and in our enjoyment of the event itself. as seen in ben-hur, the most important thing is what it appears on the screen. in his heroic tale and charisma, ben-hur interest audiences in which they feel represented and amused. in this sense, the performance of a goodlooking hero must be a primary consideration rather than ethnicity background or religious affiliation. besides, characterization in the movie is much more important than the representation of ethnicity. before the sixties, it was common for gentile actors/actresses to play as a jewish role. the jewish moguls were indeed dominant in this industry, but as they say ‘too many jews’ in certain productions was quite risky, especially in the era when the social and political change in america was unsecured for jews. this is probably realized by william wyler, the directors, and mgm as well. the film was necessary to share the representatives of both religions since the story is indeed about christians and jews. as cited by erens (1984) from john stone report, no 127 ( nov 12, 1959), jewish reaction to the film was enthusiastic. finally, there was an epic to equal all the screen version of the life of christ. as erens further says, never before in the history of motion pictures have critical and timely changes in scripts paid off so handsomely as in the ten commandments and ben-hur, both of which are certain to break all existing records in worldwide viewing. what is the most important in ben-hur, is the steadfastness with which the jewish characters clung in their faith (p. 226). as a colossal popular movie, this film is very entertaining. the chariot race (see picture 4) that becomes the climax of the rivalry between judah and messala depicts the classical fight between virtue and evil, the battle between black and white. picture 4: the chariot race between judah ben-hur and messala witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 217 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as represented through the horses of judah and messala, the white hero finally defeats the black villain. in this sense, it represents the jew as the hero, especially among the christian spectators, it is indeed a very rare representation. jews, who were previously seen as ‘outsiders’ and even as an enemy of christian followers, are constructed in the film as their ally to defeat rome. d. jesus as the king of jews considering the religious messages constructed through the movie, it is interesting to find out how the movie maker was trying to stand between the two religions – christianity and judaism by presenting the scenes which are acceptable by both. first, it is depicted that, the christians and jews are on one side opposing the roman empire. jesus himself was called ‘the king of jews‘. his death brings salvation for his people, including judah and his family. thus, from the beginning of the story, the film is trying to say that the death of jesus has nothing to do with jews since both religions were, in fact, the victims of the roman occupation. thus, the film is noteworthy for its avoidance of the old myth of jews as christ-killers. concerning the notion of ’the king of israel’, it is interesting to note how movie makers emphasize it in addressing jesus. for christians, jesus is the messiah, who before his birth was foretold by israelites prophets. at the beginning of the story, it is also described how three mages, which may be considered as spiritual leaders, follow the birth process and then prostrate. then, the story about the 'new religion' extended quickly by word of mouth which also become a rumor among the roman rulers. however, for jews themselves, the notion itself has another implication. by saying that jesus is a ‘king of israel’ which is mentioned two times during the movie, the film itself is trying to say that when jesus himself is jewish, why should there be anti-semitism among christians? this emphasizes that the early gospel (mark), which according to telford (2002), tried to negate the fact that jesus was a jew, is not true. apart from different opinions about the concept of the messiah from the two religions, the most fundamental thing here is that christians and jews are actually in the same group, siblings of the abrahamic ancient faith. if jesus himself was a member of israel, and even regarded as the king of israel, why does then christian hate the jews? the choosing of the name ‘judah’ in this sense is interesting. at a glance, it reminds the audience to ‘judas’, an israel who was believed as a betrayal of jesus and caused him to be redeemed. but, judah portrayed in the film is a faithful, nobleman, who represents a trustworthy jew. since the root of religious disputes between jews and christians was about trust, particularly ‘judas’ who for hundreds of years was seemingly ‘cursed’ as betrayal, 218 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj derogatory, and negative; in ‘judah’ people get their trust, and loyalty, from a gracious man. this is possibly the way the director ‘redeems’ judas. the real novel was based on the christian perspective, but as a film, the director has constructed scenes that are a little bit different from the original novel without losing the essential message of the story. for example, different from the novel in which judah transforms into a christian and finally devotes his wealth to the new religion, in the film the director avoids the conversion and ends the movie as soon as judah realizes that he should release his revenge and anger in him, and reunite with his family. likewise, the director indeed provides another interpretation of the movie which possibly omits the religious disputes among the jews themselves. this shows the power of the movie makers, who have a significant role in producing, controlling, or even manipulating a certain meaning as it is constructed in the movie. moreover, for the jew, jesus himself was regarded as a young rabbi in that era. thus, jews who followed jesus, including esther and balthazar, who were depicted in the movies as jesus followers were pursued by messala and romans, and are thus, considered as unfaithful to the roman empire. this becomes the reason why in the film these people need to be slaughtered. regardless of various controversies and representations of the jews and christian in this movie, the interesting thing in this analysis is that the film is accepted by viewers of both religions. however, the movie is just a movie, besides the religious issue, therefore, the entertainment is indeed the primary focus of the moviemakers. with a significant budget at that time, including the chariot race which is considered very outstanding, the film did not function solely as religious myth. the battle between good and evil, where good will always win, is the classical model of many genres, thus satisfaction of the audience is the primary intention. as a colossally popular movie, this film is very entertaining. this is why in the chariot race between the horses of judah and mesalla, the black villain is finally defeated by the white hero. conclusion jews' trajectory in the film industry is part of hollywood‘s history, and it is more than a success story. their involvement in this industry does not only give different colors of hollywood but also contribute to shaping the american popular culture. although a minority in numbers, jewish strength in film and media industry is, however, very significant. the rise of religious films which was generally taken from the biblical narratives gave a distinct advantage for american jews who since the beginning was in this realm. strengthened by the judeo-christian tradition witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 219 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj which reached its understanding after world war 2, then came the stories which deconstruct the old myth which was previously believed by most christians and taught in the churches, such as jews as the jesus killer, etc. however, in ben-hur, this old myth is later altered into a different way of presentation. for example, instead of implying jews as a christ killer, that has been the sources of anti-semitism, jesus himself is called a king of jews in this movie. the notion of jesus as the king of israel has indeed a wide implication for the judeo-christian relation. in line with choosing the hero’s name judah that is almost similar to ‘judas’, the director can construct scenes that are not only seen from the christian perspectives but also jews. in this sense, as a movie construction, it implies a hidden jewish ideology in the framework of christian presentation. related to the ideology of althusser, this notion is conceptualized within the context of social-cultural changes, especially the relationship between jews and christian. concerning this heroic presentation, this movie also alters the jews' image on the screen. depicted as a muscular, tall and good-looking white man, judah ben hur represents a real jew, who is representative of the gentile people. thus, in leuween’s words, he is seen as a social agent, to whom people or viewer entrust their agency. the heroic image presented in the film is not merely about the physical shape of the actor, but also the characteristic. the strength of ben hur's character is on his personality, the way he defends and protects his people, by showing his bravery bravery, and coping with his problems which includes his salvation toward the ones he loves. references abrams, n., bell, i. & udris, j. (2001). studying film. london: bloombury academic. crowther, b. (1959). “ben hur a blockbuster”. the new york times, november 19th 1959. demille, c. b. (1927). king of the kings. pathe exchange. demille, c. b. (1956). the ten commandments. paramount picture. dijk, v. (1993). principle of critical discourse of analysis in discourse and society. london: sage incorporation erens, patricia. (1984). the image of jews in american cinema. indiana university press. 220 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 202 – 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fairclough, n. (1989). language and power. new york: longman group limited fairclough, n. (1995). critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language. new york: longman group limited female fagin (1913). kalem company friedman, l. d. 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(1996). seeing and believing, religious and values in the movies. boston: beacon press. monaco, j. (2009). how to read a film. new york: oxford university press. olcot. s. (1912). from the manger to the cross. kalem company, vitagraph studio. rosenberg, j. (1996). jewish experience on film – an american overview. american year book. sarna, j. d. (2004). american judaism. london: yale university press. witriani, the jews in hollywood: altering image through religious movies 221 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj telford, w. (2002) the new testament: a short introduction, a guide to early christianity and the synoptic gospels. oxford, england: one world. van dijk, t.a. (1993). principles of critical discourse analysis. discourse and society – sage 4 (2), pp. 249-283. walace, l. (1880) ben hur : a tale of the christ harper &brothers. weiss, g. & wodak, r. (ed.) (2003). critical discourse analysis. theory and interdisciplinary. new york: macmillan, ltd. wyler, w. (1959). ben-hur: a tale of christ. mgm production. 4. articles.pdf (p.4-197) celie a potrayal.pdf logo: microsoft word franky 2 the relationship pattern of learning and teaching method-en-converted_proof_revised a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.2; december 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . the correlation pattern of learning style and teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta 1franky and 2thomas budiman 1post-graduate management, universitas prof. dr. moestopo (beragama), jl. hang lekir i/8, jakarta pusat, indonesia 2information technology, stmik jayakarta2, jl. salemba raya no. 24. jakarta pusat, indonesia email: 1franky@dsn.moestopo.ac.id, 2thomas@stmik.jayakarta.ac.id received: 04-08-2021 accepted: 13-12-2021 published: 30-12-2021 mailto:2thomas@stmik.jayakarta.ac.id https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the correlation pattern of learning style and teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta 1 franky and 2 thomas budiman 1 franky@dsn.moestopo.ac.id, 2 thomas@stmik.jayakarta.ac.id 1 post-graduate management, universitas prof. dr. moestopo (beragama), jl. hang lekir i/8, jakarta pusat, indonesia 2 information technology, stmik jayakarta2, jl. salemba raya no. 24. jakarta pusat, indonesia abstract: as a source of the learning process, a teacher is expected to understand and be aware of the learning style of their students. every student has a unique learning style. some students prefer to auditory style, other students prefer to visual style, and another student may prefer the kinesthetic style. these are a few teaching styles, sensing– feeling (people-oriented), sensing–thinking (outcome-oriented), intuitive–feeling (intellectually oriented), and intuitive–thinking (innovationoriented). this study aims to evaluate the correlation pattern between students’ learning styles and several teaching styles. the sample of this study is 133 senior high school students in jakarta. the method used in this study is correspondence analysis. the result of this study shows that students with auditory type suit to the intuitive–thinking method and students with visual type suit to sense–the feeling method. meanwhile, students with kinesthetic type have not suitable for any teaching method if the analysis is conducted by using correspondence analysis. nevertheless, observation of the mean of the teaching method score has shown that it suits to the intuitive–feeling method. key words: education, learning style, teaching method abstrak: sebagai pusat pembelajaran, seorang guru diharapkan untuk memahami dan mengetahui gaya belajar murid-muridnya. setiap murid memiliki gaya belajarnya masing-masing. beberapa ada yang menyukai franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 261 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj gaya auditori, ada yang menyukai gaya visual dan yang lainnya memyukai gaya kinestetik. berikut ini adalah beberapa gaya mengajar, penginderaan perasaan (berorientasi pada orang-orang), penginderaan berpikir (berorientasi pada hasil), penginderaan intuisi (berorientasi pada intuisi atau kecerdasan), dan pemikiran intuitif (berorientasi pada inovasi). penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menilai hubungan pola-pola antara gaya belajar siswa dan beberapa gaya mengajar. sample dalam penelitian ini adalah 133 murid sekolah menengah atas yang ada di jakarta. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisis koresponden. hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa murid dengan gaya belajar auditory cocok dengan gaya mengajar pemikiran intuitif dan murid dengan gaya belajar visual cocok dengan gaya mengajar penginderaan perasaan. sedangkan untuk murid dengan gaja belajar kinestetik tidak memiliki kecocokan terhadap gaya mengajar apapun jika dianalisa menggunakan metode analisa koresponden. namun demikian, pengamatan terhadap rata-rata skor metode pengajaran telah menunjukkan bahwa itu sesuai dengan gaya penginderaan intuisi. kata kunci: pendidikan, metode pembelajaran, metode pengajaran introduction everyone has a unique learning style, where this uniqueness contributes significantly to the absorption of the various information they receive. every single person has different ways in absorbing an information, this is caused by different learning styles they receive. each learning style has its own advantages and disadvantages, all of them depend on the learners. learning style of every person is related to comfortable feeling in following the learning process. when a person feels comfortable with a learning style, the learning style suits to them. there are three types of learning method, they are auditory (by listening), visual (by vision) and kinesthetic (by movement). every person, at least has one of those learning styles, each style provides its own benefit to students. in fact, there is no a single style which is superior than other styles because they have their own characteristics and every style adjusts to the comfort and students’ habit. if students feel comfort and enjoy the learning process, they will end up with an optimal result, hence the results will be aligning with the environment of learning situation. if the environment is conducive, an optimal performance will be achieved. otherwise, when 262 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 260–277 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students endure some pressures or certain obligations, the results will be far from the expectation. based on this fact, we need to create a supportive environment to support every learning style that could develop conform to all students, either to the auditory, visual, or kinesthetic. the results of a students’ learning process depend on what style the students use. students with an auditory learning style will get maximum learning quality when the learning process is carried out by listening. on the other hand, students with a visual learning style will get the maximum quality of learning when the learning process is carried out by seeing or reading. likewise, students with a kinesthetic learning style will get the maximum quality of learning when the learning process is carried out by practicing or moving. one other factor that has a significant impact on the learning process is the learning environment. the learning environment has a fundamental role to make the learning process run well. a bad learning environment will affect a person's learning style, so that the results and quality of the learning process are not optimal. otherwise, a positive learning environment will provide support for learning styles, so that the results of the learning process will be maximized. the learning environment in question is the readiness of the students themselves and the support of learning facilities. some of the learning facilities needed include textbooks, both printed and digital versions, computers, and internet networks. all of these learning environments will have a significant positive impact on one's learning style in order to get the maximum quality of learning. thus, the three learning styles are auditory, visual, and kinesthetic require the support of a conducive learning environment for the creation of maximum learning outcomes or quality. with the uniqueness of a student with the auditory method provides an important instruction to teacher as an educator. the roles and responsibilities of the teacher are very important to produce a maximum learning process. every educator should know in detail each learning styles their students have. by knowing the completeness of each student's learning style, educators can use appropriate learning methods so that learning outcomes and quality are achieved. the first is auditory or learning through listening which focuses on the listening ability. usually, students with this ability are good listener, they are capable to receive learning through something producing sounds such as music and speech. this style will not be distracted by the visual appearance of learning material or even the teachers as far as the material presented with good and clear voices, the learning process will go well. franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 263 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj an auditory type has some characteristics, one of them is listen carefully so learning process will be easy to understand through what is heard not what is seen (kayalar & kayalar, 2017). auditory-type students are those who are easily distracted by other sounds when they try to focus on a particular sound, any other sounds will distract their concentration (gilakjani, 2011). by knowing some characteristics of auditory learning styles, educators can compile and create learning method which can be adapted to the learning styles of their students. teachers can deliver teaching materials using the oral method, either through direct lectures or carried out with the help of other learning tools. the learning tool in question is one that can produce a clear sound. every student with an auditory learning style will greatly get benefit, they will feel comfortable and not feel overwhelmed when the learning process suits to their learning characteristics, so they will produce a maximum learning quality. therefore, teachers’ responsibility in improving the quality of learning process is quite necessary. the second method is visual learning, the process of learning focusing on vision. visual-type students feel comfortable and more focus when learning process presented through images and visualizations (syofyan & siwi, 2018). videos containing an image would trigger them to develop a frame of mind. images or visual properties will be a long narration in their brain, they will tell what they see systematically and concrete. therefore, colors and graphics materials will attract their interest in learning (raiyn, 2016). students with visual learning type usually prefer to give information based on what they see, if something odd or unusual appears, they will be distracted easily. they would rather read, find out, and see by themselves rather than hear the information from someone else. in learning process, this type will easily remember what they see, they will not be distracted by any noise. the third learning style is kinesthetic which focuses on movement. students with kinesthetic learning style will feel comfortable to adopt learning materials through practice. they are not attracted by images and sounds; however, it is different when those images and sounds are being applied in practices, then they will finally discover the process of learning they prefer. they will understand and easily remember materials had been thought through practical activities rather than visual and auditory learning. therefore, practical activities will be their preferred way of learning materials (ay, et. al., 2018; syofyan & siwi, 2018). the kinesthetic type has some characteristics, one of them is they practice what they see and what they listen by doing a certain movement. they 264 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 260–277 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj will not enjoy a routine, monotonous and rigid learning style. when teachers fail to understand this style, this kind of students will be considered as disturbances for the learning process (alhamdani, 2015; tyas & safitri, 2017). in line with students’ specific learning style preference, to achieve an optimal learning process, an appropriate method of teaching is needed. if the teaching methods are not match with students’ preferences, then it will be a burden for students. this will become a tedious routine and will not achieve the desired goals. therefore, the knowledge of teaching methods is required by teachers to meet the needs of their students according to the learning styles preferences of each student. teacher is the most responsible person to create and produce the maximum learning process for each of their students. teachers have an important role so that every student can follow the learning process according to their learning style. one other thing that can be considered as a challenge to the learning process faced by teachers is that all students do not have the same learning style. thus, teachers must have a solution to deal with all students’ learning styles. learning is a process involving personalities of each student and this cannot be changed by other parties including teacher. teachers only have space and opportunity to provide stimulation so the learning process can take simultaneously. teacher must be careful in deciding whether a particular teaching method is suitable for students and whether through specific teaching method students are able to understand material well (wuisang, korompis & lempas, 2019). personal approach is required to understand every student’s learning style. this is both and challenge and opportunity for every teacher to be creative in a such a way as to achieve maximum learning results and quality. therefore, every educator is expected to have various skills or teaching methods. having a wide variety of teaching methods will provide assistance to students who have a various learning style. a personal approach to students conducted through auditory, visual, and kinesthetic will provide a sense of comfort and will have an impact on learning outcomes and quality. thus, it becomes an important note, that teachers are expected to be able to use appropriate teaching methods for each student’ learning style possessed. moreover, if it is associated with technological developments that have an impact on the creation of various learning innovations, teachers must continue to improve themselves in order to have novelty in the teaching methods. for example, the learning process in generation z cannot be approached by conventional and traditional learning. they need novelty in teaching methods that are adapted to the development of generations, for example the use of technology such as internet and learning process by using franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 265 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lcd and android. technological advances may have some adverse effect on students’ characteristics, but if it is used wisely, it will be useful in improving the quality of learning and teaching process. this study reviewed several teachings methods and the explanation below: in their research, hanson, silver & strong (1991), james & maher (2004), and partani & sonawat (2006), explained that teaching method divided into four categories, the first is sensing, one of teaching method conducted through sight sense. by these sense abilities, everything must be verified by facts, observations and finally formulating the summary. this approach requires a valid scientific approval. the second method is intuitive, teaching method conducted through perception. perception points to composing activities, identifying and interpreting sensory information to give a certain understanding and depicts them about their surroundings. this approach put intuition before verification. the third method is thinking, a method conducted through deep thinking process. the process started with an observation, logical truth, and real verified information. this approach optimizes thinking ability to judge something by cause and effect. the last method is feeling, a method that put feeling before logic. this method of learning is full of subjectivity and personal affair. the approach is based on likes or dislikes preferences. teaching approaches above can be seen in every student in every level of the study. most of students prefer one or two methods or even combination. there are four combination method of teaching, first is people oriented, is a combination of sensing and feeling approach. this method accommodates a sensitive attitude and emotion to personal and others feeling, prefer practice to theory, prefer to personal or emotional involvement, prioritizing the impulse of feeling and attention. by using people-oriented method, teachers are expected to have personal-oriented skills of students, so that the learning process can be maximally achieved. the second is outcome oriented, is a combination of sensing and thinking. this method accommodates efficient attitude, oriented result, practical, organized, systematic, focused, neat and structured. however, the process for achieving the result needs to be considered. learning outcomes are the ultimate goal of the teaching and learning process carried out by students and teachers. however, this does not ignore the attention of ongoing learning process. every teacher must have an insight that the learning process must be followed systematically, holistically, and directed so that it will give students an insight that to get a maximum result requires a good and maximum process. 266 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 260–277 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the third method is intellectually oriented, is a combination of intuitive approach and feeling. this method accommodates ‘dare to be different’ attitude, commitment, open, new self-expression, passionate, ideally, solutional, imaginary and flexible. increasing students' intellectuality is an essential goal in the learning process. every student who is involved in the learning process is required to develop systematically in terms of their intellectuality. teachers are expected to have the right teaching method so that the intellectuality improvement of each student can develop significantly. the last method is innovation oriented, is a combination of intuitive approach and thinking. this method accommodates intellectual attitude or intelligence, prefer to new ideas, logical, systematic, structured, independent, keen and prefer to be a perfectionist. the innovative approach in teaching methods can be said to be the highest method in the stages of teaching techniques. the productivity of the learning process must produce innovations that support the improvement of the knowledge and skills of students. the innovation approach is the right approach for the generation of learners in the millennial era, where learning technology interventions are common. in fact, the learning innovation approach is a contemporary learning culture. however, on the other hand, there are many teaching staff who are still in conventional areas and have traditional tendencies in terms of teaching methods. this condition can negatively affect the process of developing the knowledge and skills of the millennial generation (bulle, 2013; hanson, et. al, 1991; mavrina et al, 2016; murugesan, 2019; nakkeeran, et. al, 2018; rampelt & suter, 2017; raufelder et. al, 2013). thus, students are expected to find their teaching method which suit to their preferences by using teaching methods mentioned above, so that result of their learning process is optimally gained. likewise, with teachers, they are expected to be able to find suitable teaching methods in accordance with the learning styles that are specifically owned by these students. teachers must find the right combination of teaching methods for each of these personal learning styles. in fact, there are students facing difficulties to adopt teaching materials given by teachers. as a result, poor result depicted in certain subjects. these difficulties are caused by many factors, one of them is unsuitable teaching method. unsuitable teaching method does not suit the need by students learning methods. hence, if the learning method is well-suited to students’ preferences, the results will be optimal, and also along with students’ high achievement, the learning process conducted in a fun and conducive manner. thus, the purpose of this research is to find an appropriate pattern of franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 267 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj relationships between the students’ learning styles and the teaching methods practiced by the teachers. by knowing the pattern of the relationship, the results and the quality of the learning process will be maximally achieved. this is the essential goal of the ideal learning process, where students and educators like to enjoy the learning process without any burden. literature review a. variables definition the following section discuss about conceptual definitions of variables used in this study as follow: learning style, is styles used by students to absorb knowledge from teachers. the learning style is divided into three types: 1. auditory style which focuses on sounds and voices. this variable is measured by the following indicators: • i prefer to listening • i cannot imagine something without being described at first • i like to imagine somethings visually as my teacher told • i can understand what people told me without seeing it my self 2. visual style which focuses on vision on image or shape. this variable is measured by the following indicators: • i prefer my teacher to describe lessons verbally • i prefer my teacher to give lessons through videos • i like laboratory activity • i remember lessons while i take notes of it • if it is possible, i wish my learning session is recorded so that i can play it back at home 268 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 260–277 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3. kinesthetic style which focuses on movement. this variable is measured by the following indicators: • learning something which is reachable is more fun than think about math • i like crafting subject • i prefer being asked to walk around the room to take notes • i like sport teaching method is the method used by teachers to give lessons to students. teaching method is grouped into some criteria: 1. sensing feeling and people-oriented teaching method are conducted through some activities involving an interaction with other people such as storytelling and creating interactive class environment. this variable is measured by the following indicators: • i like teachers who give opportunities to students to share their learning experiences. • i like teachers who make a lot of discussion with students • i like teachers who make an interaction with students in class • i like teachers who tell a story in class 2. sensing thinking and outcome-oriented teaching method conducted by giving assignments, discipline, exercises, and theory. this variable is measured by the following indicators: • i like hard-working teachers • i like teachers who gives a lot of assignments • i like teachers who teach discipline • i like teachers who give more theories • i like teachers who give homework 3. intuitive feeling and intellectually oriented teaching method are conducted through creating a flexible class condition. teachers help students to deal franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 269 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj with their difficulties. this variable is measured by the following indicators: • i like creative teacher • i like teachers who give more practices • i like teachers who make a flexible class • i like teachers who like arts • i like teachers who understand the difficulties experienced by students and help students to deal with it 4. intuitive thinking and innovation-oriented teaching method conducted by providing questions to students that make them analyze and discover new things. this variable is measured by the following indicators: • i like logical teacher • i like teachers who push student to discover new things • i like teachers who give more questions to students in class • i like teachers who rarely take attendance • i like teachers who give assignments which make students in depththinking method the sample of this study is 133 senior high school students in jakarta which were taken by using purposive sampling (etikan, musa & alkassim, 2016; teddlie & yu, 2007). data analyzed used correspondence analysis. this analysis method used to find the relationship pattern of teaching method suits to students learning style. results and discussions this section describes learning style gathered. data from correspondence analysis table of students as follow: 270 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 260–277 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 1: learning style correspondence analysis the table 1 above has shown that as many as 45,9% students preferred visual learning style, 27,8% students preferred auditory style and 27,3% preferred kinesthetic style. data of teaching method preferred by students presented in figure below: figure 1: teaching method the figure 1 has shown that as much as 57,14% students suit to intuitive–feeling method, 24.81% students suit to sensing–feeling method, 12.03% students suit to intuitive–feeling method, and 6.02% students suit to sensing–feeling method. the next step is to see the pattern of relationship between learning style and teaching method preferred by students. the pattern depicted in the following graph: franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 271 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 2: the pattern of relationship between learning style and teaching method table 2: the teaching method correspondence analysis: 1 students with auditory learning style are well suited to intuitive–thinking teaching method and innovation oriented. 2 students with visual learning style are well suited to sensing-feeling teaching method and people oriented. 3 students with kinesthetic learning style cannot be detected of their suited teaching method by using correspondence analysis. therefore, by looking at the mean value of teaching method scores, it is notable clear that they are well suited to intuitive–feeling teaching method and intellectual oriented. 272 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 260–277 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discussion every student has at least one of the learning styles they like, which makes them easy to understand the subjects. the learning styles known are auditory style, learning by listening, visual style is learning by using an image or visualization and kinesthetic style is learning by using movements. every style has their own preferences of teaching method, intuitive, feeling, thinking, and sensing. those four types of teaching methods merge into some combination, intuitive–feeling, intuitive–thinking, sensing– feeling, and sensing–thinking (smith, 2016; waks, 2006). the results of the study show that students with auditory learning style are well suited to intuitive–thinking teaching method. students who have an auditory learning style have a tendency to learn accuracy with teaching methods by using an intuitive-thinking approach and innovation-oriented. students who have innovation skills tend to have an open minded, they are ready to get all input, information and data by listening. furthermore, they will process them in their minds to find various novelty aspects they have learned. teachers must provide an accuracy in teaching methods by using an intuitive-thinking approach to stimulate the growth of innovation from their students who have an auditory learning style. students with visual learning style are well suited to sensing–feeling teaching method. students who have a visual learning style have a tendency to learn accuracy with teaching methods by using the sensing-feeling approach and people-oriented. they usually have a strong relationship with the environment. these kinds of students are inclusive of the learning environment around them. they are people who easily understands other people from different perspective. teachers must provide an accuracy in teaching methods by using the sensingfeeling approach to stimulate peopleoriented growth from students who have a visual learning style. students with kinesthetic learning style cannot be detected of their suited teaching method by using correspondence analysis. therefore, by looking at the mean value of teaching method scores, it is notable clear that they are well suited to intuitive–feeling teaching method and intellectual oriented. students who have a kinesthetic learning style have a tendency to learn accuracy with teaching methods that use the intuitive-feeling approach or those oriented towards the growth of a significant level of intellectuality. students who have skills are oriented toward improvement in terms of intellectuality must get the right teaching method from their educators. these franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 273 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kinds of students will use an up-to-date data and information to convey their views and arguments. they are systematic learner in the process, logical in thinking, and open-minded to any developments or changes. dynamics or movement is a good and natural world of learning for students who are oriented towards increasing intellect. this goal can be achieved when these students are educated by teachers who have teaching method skills who and an orientation towards improvement in terms of intellectuality. if both are applied, the learning objectives to get maximum results and quality can be achieved. thus, teachers must provide an accuracy in teaching methods that use an intuitive-feeling approach to stimulate intellectual oriented growth of their students who have a kinesthetic learning style. by knowing the pattern, it is expected that this finding leads senior high school teachers to prepare the right strategy to deliver their lessons to match with their students unique learning style preferences. by doing so, knowledge will be derived through some of proper teaching and learning process that in the end resulting optimal learning results. conclusion the auditory learning style is well suited to intuitive–thinking teaching method which is innovation oriented. students with this type have an interest in creating new ideas, independent, systematic-thinking, and perfectionist. thus, it is hoped that teachers can provide space and an appropriate learning method so fresh innovations can be produced. the visual learning style are well suited to sensing– feeling teaching method which is people oriented. people-oriented learning process built upon students who have a sensitive feeling, prefer to practice and personal involvement. thus, it is hoped that teachers can provide space and appropriate learning methods for the growth of their students in creating intrapersonal skills and relationships with other people. people oriented method is an ultimate goal of students who have a visual learning style. the suitable teaching method for kinesthetic learning style cannot be analyzed by using correspondence analysis, however, if it is looked from the mean score of teaching method, kinesthetic learning style suits to intuitive – feeling teaching method. the method which accommodates to open-minded attitude, commitment, self-expression, passionate, imaginary, and flexible. thus, it is hoped that educators can provide space and appropriate learning 274 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 260–277 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methods for the growth of their students in creating various novelties in creation, action, and achievement. this goal requires adequate knowledge and intellectual capacity of the learners. therefore, such students must have broad and complete access to develop skills in terms of their intellectuality. increasing knowledge or intellectuality is an essential goal of students who have a kinesthetic learning style. from the result of the study, it can be concluded that there is relationship between learning style and teaching method. the success in creating a maximum learning atmosphere is influenced by how teachers adapt an appropriate teaching method and learning style of each student. suggestion based on this study it is suggested that teachers should pay an attention and attempt to observe their student preferred learning style, it will be useful to deliver knowledge and lessons by using the right method matching to each student’s learning style. every teacher must equip themselves with the comprehension of various teaching methods whether oriented to innovation, people, and intellectual in order to accommodate various learning styles of students. with technological development in education, teachers can easily improve their teaching abilities according to the needs of students’ learning styles. learning technology can be very useful to foster an innovation, human resources and intellectuality of students who have auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learning style. by mastering various skills of learning methods, it is hoped that the learning process can take place well without any significant obstacle. thus, the purpose of learning in order to create good quality of students can be achieved. references alhamdani, d. 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(2017). kinesthetic learning style preferences: a survey of indonesian efl learners by gender. journal of english educators society, 2(1), 53-64. doi:10.21070/jees.v2i1.688. franky, & budiman, t., the correlation pattern of learning style and 277 teaching method of senior high school students in jakarta https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj waks, l. (2006). intuition in education: teaching and learning without thinking. in philosophy of education [d. vokey, ed]. retrieved online from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277178951_intuition_in_ed ucation_teaching_and_learning_without_thinking. wuisang, j. r. h., korompis, c., & lempas, j. d. (2019). analysis of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurship attitude students’ economic education department faculty of economic manado state university. asia pacific journal of management and education, 2(2), 1 16. a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 1; july 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia coding logical mechanism and stereotyping in gender cyber humors truly almendo pasaribu & a. effendi kadarisman sanata dharma univesity & state university of malang, indonesia tel +62 81903751177 +62 81331452486 email: tr.almendo@gmail.com effendi.kadarisman@gmail.com received: 25-11-2015 accepted: 14-07-2016 published: 31-07-2016 22 coding logical mechanism and stereotyping in gender cyber humors truly almendo pasaribu & a. effendi kadarisman tr.almendo@gmail.com; effendi.kadarisman@gmail.com sanata dharma university & state university of malang, indonesia abstract: this research aims to find out types of logical mechanism and ways of stereotyping in gender cyber humors. for this purpose, both researchers have collected 50 gender cyber humors and analyzed them, primarily using attardo’s (2011) general theory of verbal humor (gtvh) to explicate the logical mechanism or the inner structure of the humors. the findings show that there are 10 (ten) types of logical mechanism: two most dominant types (i.e., put-down humor and false analogy), four less dominant (i.e., lexical repetition, absurd neologism, absurd interpretation, and fallacious reasoning), and four least dominant (i.e., twisting figures of speech, prepositions, homonyms, and idioms). interestingly, there is some correlational tendency that the more dominant the types, the more complex their linguistic structures. as for gender stereotyping, both men and women are taken as targets of humor. men are ridiculed for being stupid, ugly, stubborn, immature, and addicted to drinking and gambling, whereas women are ridiculed for being bothersome, economically dependent, absorbed in home-making, and jealous. strangely enough, both men and women are made fun of for being insignificant and excessive money spenders. most stereotypes are in accord with traditional roles of men and women; only the last two sound non-traditional, probably owing to the success of recent feminist movements. key words: gender cyber humors, logical mechanism, gender stereotyping abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan menguak tipe-tipe mekanisme humor and tata-kerja stereotip dalam humor berbalut-gender. untuk tujuan ini, mailto:effendi.kadarisman@gmail.com pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 23 stereotyping in gender cyber humors kedua peneliti mengumpulkan 50 humor berbalut-gender dari situs-web and menganalisis seluruh humor tersebut menggunakan toeri umum humor verbal attardo (2011), terutama untuk mengungkap mekanisme atau struktur hakiki dari humor. temuan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mekanisme humor ada 10 (sepuluh) tipe: dua tipe paling dominan (yaitu humor-mengejek dan humor dengan analogi palsu), empat tipe kurang dominan (yaitu pengulangan leksikal, neologisme aneh, penafsiran aneh, dan penalaran yang menipu), dan empat tipe tak-dominan (yaitu memelintir gaya bahasa, preposisi, homonym, dan idiom). yang menarik, nampaknya ada kecenderungan korelasional: semakin dominan tipe humor, semakin kompleks struktur linguistiknya. sedangkan mengenai tata-kerja stereoptip, baik laki-laki maupun perempuan keduanya dijadikan target olok-olok humor. laki-laki diejek karena bodoh, burukrupa, keras-kepala, kekanak-kanakan, dan menjadi pecandu minuman dan judi; sementara perempuan diejek karena cerewet, bergantung ekonominya, cuma sibuk dengan urusan rumah tangga, dan pencemburu. anehnya, baik laki-laki maupun perempuan keduanya diledek karena berkepribadian dangkal dan berwatak boros. sebagian besar stereotip sesuai dengan peran tradisional laki-laki dan perempuan; hanya sifat dangkal dan boros yang bernuansa non-tradisional, kemungkinan besar sebagai akibat keberhasilan gerakan feminisme pada saat ini. kata kunci: humor berbalut-gender, mekanisme humor, stereoptip berbasis-gender introduction almost everyone agrees that humors are creatively produced and intended to be humorous. it is not only humorous, but also healthy. the health benefits of humor are well documented by the scientific and medical community (bennett, 2006). because of their virtues, we can find them almost everywhere in our daily lives, such as in media and social interactions. ironically, not every humor fascinates people; there are some humors which are considered to be more negative phenomena. in this case, it refers to those with crude ideas behind them and they should not be taken for granted in the academic world, e.g. ethnic jokes, political humors, gender humors, and many others. in the academic world, paramitasari (2007) and azis (2008) examined the ambiguities found in humors. the two researchers mainly focused on the incongruity aspect of the humor in the form of ambiguities which are responsible for creating comical effects. the incongruity theorists suggested 24 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 that amusement or humor is the result of the unexpected. koestler (1964) claimed that humor shows how creative the human minds are through the wittiness scattered in humors. the incongruities through language, gestures and pictures are indeed examples of the creative cognitive process, which is also claimed by other prominent thinkers of incongruity theories of humor such as schopenhauer and kant (monro, 1988). incongruity theories gave rise to a formal theory of humor called the general verbal theory of humor (gtvh), a term introduced by attardo (2001). like chomskyan generative grammar (see chomsky 1957, 1965), this theory also consists of layers that explain the content of humor. the layers are known as knowledge resources (kr); from the most abstract to the most concrete are script opposition, logical mechanism, situation, target, narrative strategy, and language. it is interesting to note that the targets in humors are the butts of the humors based on person or group stereotypes (attardo and raskin, 1991). in today’s usage, stereotypes most often denote unfavorable or hostile pictures toward other people based on their membership in another social or ethnic group. having a different perspective from the two researchers above, we argue that there are larger numbers of humors that do not violate linguistic features alone, such as ethnic humors and gender humors. plato and aristotle were originators of the theories of superiority many centuries ago. these theories, developed by hobbes and used in sociology by bergson, predominated for over two thousand years and explained laughter as the result of feelings of superiority over others or over our own former position (monro, 1988). these scholars claim that the sense of humor is positively related to general traits of aggression, hostility, or dominance. these theories accentuate the negative attitude of the producer and/or user of humor towards its target and the often alleged aggressive character of laughter. these superiority and inferiority elements touch upon the social aspect of the humor. another interesting relationship between humor and society has been observed by laineste (2008), a sociologist, who stated that humor tells a lot about its surrounding because humor gives us the knowledge about standardized images of the society. gender humors are humors involving gender matters that trigger people’s laughter. gender humors constitute one thought-provoking topic to investigate because it shows how creative human minds are in manipulating language, and at the same time it also tells a lot about the social aspect of the humor through stereotypical image. the link between humor and social domain was highlighted by schwars (2010) who argued that humor increased when the target of the joke was someone or a group of persons we do not pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 25 stereotyping in gender cyber humors like; in this case, humor served as a means of expressing social superiority. moreover, humor can be manipulated as a tool to reinforce or even transform stereotypical images. moranjak-bamburac (2006, p. 17) stated that ―stereotypes are simplified and generalized mental images or views which distort our concepts of reality.‖ she also added that due to humans’ cognitive capacity, stereotypes were resistant to change. gender stereotypes are images, usually negative ones, about social roles, identities, and representations of male and female. another very thought-provoking study of the gender traditional role is done by chavetz (1978). in her pioneering work in this area, she summarized masculine and feminine gender role stereotypes for seven human characteristics, based on her 1971 study of students’ attitudes. she found that her subjects of study described the concept of ―masculine‖ with such adjectives as athletic, breadwinner, sexually aggressive, unemotional, logical, dominating, etc. ―feminine‖ traits were described with such adjectives as weak, domestic, sexually passive, emotional, intuitive, dependent, etc.. londo (2006) also investigated that women’s magazines offered stereotypes of family and motherhood, which led women to believe that self-actualization was not possible without a family or children. through binary opposition, both types of gender-specific indexing serve as structures of power-relation (derrida, 1978). it is obvious, then, that in the concept of masculinity and femininity, the former one is more dominant in the binary opposition. worse, stereotypes consciously or unconsciously dictate how and by whom and when it is socially acceptable to display an emotion; so they influence how an individual performs (spencer, steele, and quinn, 1999). on the basis of the research background outlined above, the aims of the present research are twofold: first, to find out types of logical mechanism, and secondly, to figure out ways of stereotyping in gender cyber humors. research method this study investigates verbal data taken from a humor website, aha!jokes.com. this site has become recognized as a leader of jokes and humor on the world wide web by offering fresh jokes, text files, audio files, video clips, pictures, cartoons, and animations. google gives this site a high rate when the researchers surfed for ―gender jokes‖, indicating that this site is often visited or considered as one of the favorite humor websites. aha!jokes.com was first on-line in august 2001 and has been rapidly growing by updating its jokes ever since. the present research, using a descriptive qualitative design in the sense of patton (1990), latief (1999), and ary et. al. 26 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 (2002), collected the data using a purposive sampling technique; for the researchers intentionally selected 50 gender-related humors from the above website. we analyzed the humors to uncover their logical mechanism and linguistic manipulation in them using attardo’s (2001) general theory of verbal humor (gtvh). moreover, we also dissected the humors to expose how gender stereotyping operates in them, and eventually to assess how gender opposition portrays men and women in their social and familial roles, as seen from traditional and non-traditional perspectives. findings and discussion this section presents research findings resulting from data analysis under two sub-headings: (1) logical mechanism and targets of humors, and (2) stereotyping in gender humors. the first sub-section discusses types of logical mechanism of gender humors, focusing on three aspects: identifying the male or female targets, specifying the formal rules governing the mechanism, and explicating the linguistic features under manipulation. the second sub-section discusses gender stereotypes in gender humors, pointing out which stereotypes belong to which gender and why, and explaining the shifting tendency from the traditional male dominance to the non-traditional male-and-female equality. a. logical mechanism and targets of humors in analyzing the data, the researchers classify the selected 50 gender humors in terms of their logical mechanism, and relate each type of logical mechanism to the target of humor: man and/or woman. logical mechanism, according to attardo and raskin (1991), addresses how the various elements such as linguistic devices in the humorous exchange are conjoined to feed the need of laughter. as shown in table 1, 10 types of logical mechanism are presented in sequence, from the humor that involve exploiting smaller linguistic units to more complex ones. thus, linguistically speaking, type (1), twisting prepositions, is very simple; type (5), absurd neologism, is relatively complex; and type (10), put-down humor, is extremely complex. in terms of frequency, at the top are put-down humor (28%) and false analogy (24%); in the middle are word repetition (10%), absurd neologism, absurd interpretation, and fallacious reasoning, (10%) each; and at the bottom are twisting prepositions (4%), twisting homonymy, and twisting figurative language, (2%) each. notice that linguistic complexity does not prevent writing sophisticated humor. in fact, the tendency goes in the reverse order: pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 27 stereotyping in gender cyber humors the more complex linguistically, the more frequently the humors occur. this suggests that gender humor writers seem to prefer writing humors with greater linguistic complexity, and hence logically more challenging and comically more appealing. table 1: logical mechanism and targets of humors no. logical mechanism ∑ % man woman ∑ % ∑ % 1 twisting prepositions 2 4 2 4 2 twisting homonymy 1 2 1 2 3 twisting idiomatic expressions 1 2 1 2 4 twisting figurative language 3 6 3 6 5 absurd neologism 4 8 3 6 1 2 6 absurd interpretation 4 8 4 8 7 false analogy 12 24 5 10 7 14 8 fallacious reasoning 4 8 3 6 1 2 9 word repetition 5 10 2 4 3 6 10 insult or put-down humor 14 28 8 16 6 12 total 50 100 24 48 26 52 legends (for mathematical symbols used in this sention): = is / equals ^ = is not synonymous with » . . . ^ . . . = is not ... in the puch line ~ = does not have as for the targets of humor, both man and woman share almost the same destiny (48% : 52%). each type of gender equally serves as a butt or victim of the jokes. this may lead to a tentative conclusion that gender equality now prevails nicely in the english-speaking world; and this will be discussed more fully in the second sub-section. after identifying the general characteristics, below we are presenting detailed analyses, giving elaboration to each type of logical mechanism of gender humors (see table 1), starting with the linguistically simple and moving down to reach the linguistically complex. for each type of logical 28 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 mechanism, one or two illustrative examples are provided and analyzed thoroughly to reveal the incongruities, by exposing the semantic features belonging to twisted linguistic expressions, whenever necessary, and by making use of attardo’s (2001) general theory of verbal humor (gtvh) to uncover the witty play of logic behind the narrative strategy. 1. twisting prepositions some linguistic devices can be deliberately exploited to create a thrill of laughter; one of them is preposition. interestingly, most prepositions, like on, in, at, contain more than one entry in the dictionary. consequently, it is possible for a preposition to have more than one meaning if the context or the script opens a way for ambiguity. take a look at example 1: (1) one golfer tells another: ―hey, guess what! i got a set of golf clubs for my wife!‖ the other replies: ―great trade!‖ (datum 1) based on gtvh, the structure of humor (1) can be elaborated as in table 2. table 2: logical mechanism of humor (1) parameters structure of humor script opposition given/exchanged target woman narrative strategy short narrative language set-up: one golfer tells another, “hey, guess what! i got a set of gold clubs for my wife!” punch line: the other replies, “great trade!” in this case, the expression ―i got a set of golf clubs for my wife!‖ is constructed to give this image: a. i got something. b. that something is a set of golf clubs for (given to) my wife. as a result, the set-up is likely to be interpreted that a set of golf clubs is a gift presented to the wife by the husband. on the other hand, it is unlikely that the reader chooses another way to interpret the constructed set-up. pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 29 stereotyping in gender cyber humors the rest of the humor is purely a linguistic choice that creates a semantic obstacle for the reader. the given punch line ―great trade!‖, which is also compatible with the text, succeeds in twisting the whole expected meaning of the set-up. this reply becomes compatible after the reader realizes that the preposition ―for‖ makes a way for ambiguity. having come across with the twisted punch line, the reader has to look back and reconstruct a possible relation between the surface and deep levels (script opposition) of the sentence. only after arriving at the punch line is the reader aware that actually there are two thinkable alternative meanings given in this humor. to make it clearer, below is the formulation of the humor. if x is the ambiguous word, ml the expected meaning, and m2 the second interpretation, then the humor can be interpreted as: x for ml intended to be given/received by the wife m2 in exchange for the wife set-up: x = ml, x = m2 ml ^ m21 (verbal reading of each mathematical notation is given at the end of this article.) the set-up leads the reader to expect: x = m1 however, the spatial incongruity between the different meanings of the preposition ―for‖ is finally established by the use of the word ―trade‖. so, the punch line can be written as: x = m 2 » x ^ m 1 2 hence, having met this semantic obstacle inside the script opposition (the different possible meanings of the preposition ―for‖), the reader is forced to twist the image into something like this: a . i got something. b. that something is a set of golf (in exchange) for my wife. 30 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 semantically analyzed, wife [+animate, +human, +partner, -thing] cannot be bartered for golf clubs [-animate, -human, -partner, +thing]. some people find the remarks ―great‖ funnier because it pictures how very lucky the husband is by having successfully traded his wife for a set of golf clubs. it should be kept in mind that this element of superiority or depreciating ―the other‖ also accounts for the humorous effect. in fact, it plays an important role in the humor. if “the wife” is changed with “the husband”, it possibly creates different effects of laughter because stereotypically a “woman” is not into sports, especially golf. furthermore, the image of a woman as ―the insignificant one‖, or ―the other‖ is clearly apparent since a set of golf clubs—an object—is considered to be more valuable than the wife. possibly, the word “great” which is deliberately put in the humor arouses more laughter. thus, if men or even women are laughing at this humor, they laugh not only at the subtle incongruity but also, consciously or not, at the insignificant images assigned to a wife. 2. twisting partial homonymy pun is one phenomenon that shows how closely related humor and language are. there are some types of puns that are found in great literature, such as homonyms, homophones, and homographs (kadarisman, 2002). this humor below manipulates one type of pun, homonymy, to stimulate laughter. homonymy is a case where there are words that are identical in sound and spelling (liang, 2007). in general, homonym is a word that is spelled and pronounced in the same way has different meanings. although they have similar sounds and spellings, homonyms in everyday usage rarely create confusion because they are used in a certain context. however, due to their unique features, they can be exploited as an indicator of humor, like humor 2: (2) woman’s instruction: if he asks what sort of books you’re interested in, tell him checkbooks. (datum 3) the punch line creates a need to spatially bring together the word ―book‖ with ―checkbook‖. the spatial incongruity between book and checkbook is linked by the same spelling of the second syllable in checkbook and book and the same sound they have, /buk/. having the same spelling and sound, the different words are treated as a similar word in the surface of the humor. therefore, the punch line is twisted by telling that checkbook is a kind of book. pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 31 stereotyping in gender cyber humors furthermore, the social logic behind the humor also contributes to its creation. it is clearly seen that the humor above pokes fun at the woman’s expense. the humor gives the image that shows how women instruct other women to be materialistic and dependent on men in terms of economic support. it should be noticed how women are constructed to be dependent on men. this shows that male dominance is still maintained in earnings. as suggested by schwars (2010), humor served as an instrument of expressing power in particular social domain. in other words, this humor, to some extent, preserves the traditional social role of male as the money-maker and female as the money-spender. 3. twisting idiomatic expressions advanced english idioms defines idiom as a constructed group of words that has a special meaning that is different from the ordinary meaning of each individual word (lim, 2004). these multi-constructed words are combined into a semantic unit whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituents. in other words, if the meanings of the words constructing an idiom are separated, it will destroy the frozen meaning of the idiom. because an idiom has a non-productive syntactic structure, it is impossible to add, delete or modify the arrangement of words in fixed idioms. nevertheless, frozen idioms, when used in the production of humor, are deliberately treated in a different manner. an example is the following humor: (3) what are two reasons why women don’t mind their own business? 1) no mind. 2) no business. (datum 4) fixed expressions in idioms have their continuous echoing meaning throughout ages. however, in the punch line, the idiomatic expression is destined to unveil their initial figurative freshness in order to arouse the humorous effect. the humor exploits the idiomatic expression by separating it into each separate word. the disconnection between the meaning of the words in the idiomatic arrangement results in absurdity and incongruity, which produce surprise. the word ―mind‖ in the idiomatic expression functions as a verb which is equivalent to ―to attend‖, whereas the word ―business‖ functions as a metaphor to indicate ―affair‖. indeed, defining ―mind‖ [thinking capacity] and ―business‖ [work] individually is not expected, and triggers laughter. 32 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 exploiting linguistic devices may contribute additional thrill to the humorous effect. and yet, the humor also depends on the social implication of what the humor is really telling about. by picturing the inferiorities of women, the disparaging element should be credited for the laughter. some psychological observations confirm that items of disparaging humor tend to get the highest ratings for funniness (graesser et al. 1989: schwars, 2010). therefore, if there is no negative stereotypical image attaches to this humor, the humor may arouse less or even no laughter. the disparagement appears because the humor panders the stereotype of woman as having no brain power. this humor agrees with the old traditional myth that woman is biologically destined to be less intelligent than man. secondly, the woman is portrayed as having less economic power by describing her as someone with no business or no work. it is obvious that the humor successfully portrays the dominance and superiority of man by putting woman as the object of laughter. 4. twisting figurative language figurative language uses figures of speech to represent something in a connotative way. apart from its wide use in media and communication, figurative language is also exploited to be a prominent tool for humor. this study also finds that humor twists the meaning from connotative meaning to denotative meaning: (4) q: what do you do with a man who thinks he’s god’s gift? a: exchange him. (datum 5) the expression ―god’s gift‖ refers to an expression that is used in a different way from the normal meaning. the metaphor ―god’s gift‖ is a vehicle to transfer an image of an extremely admirable, valued, or talented person; and when the expression is used, it can directly generate laughter because it is usually used in the ironical situation to describe people who think that they are perfectly attractive and admirable (longman electronic dictionary, 2005). in other words, the expression ―god’s gift‖ is used to describe a person who brags or thinks that he/she is perfect, special, talented, etc. notice also that the noun gift serves as the base for the adjective gifted. however, it triggers laughter even more when the expression is twisted and treated in a denotative way. the expression god’s gift describing man in the set-up of the humor connotatively contains [+animate, +human, +male]. and yet, the punch line creates different set of semantic pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 33 stereotyping in gender cyber humors components: [-animate, -human]. therefore if x is the connotative meaning, ml the expected meaning, and m2 the other alternative meaning, the formulation of the logical mechanism of this humor can be also written as: x god’s gift ml an extremely admirable, valued, or talented person m2 an object which can be exchanged from the semantic analysis above, the first and second meanings are totally different from each other. in the set-up the meaning of god’s gift is closer to ml although it can be interpreted as m2. x = m1; x = m2 m 2 ^ m l x= ml3 the punch line succeeds in twisting the figurative language into the m2 via the word ―exchange‖. here the humor successfully twists the connotative meaning into denotative meaning: x = m2 x ^ ml4 making these two very different planes—man and gift—compatible, the humor succeeds in feeding some people the need for laughter. this humor is only intended to make fun of man who is stereotyped with some psychological trait, like bragging. besides giving the stereotype ―boastful‖ to man, this humor also considers man insignificant; he can be exchanged as an object. 5. absurd neologism and interpretation in morphology, this kind of humor undergoes what is called word formation, or the creation of a new word. one type of word formation is called neologism, which indicates a word or phrase newly invented or newly introduced into a language. generally, neologism is a word, term, or phrase which has been recently created to apply to new concepts or synthesize preexisting concepts, to make older terminology sound more contemporary. in most neologism, there is a logical relationship between the old term and the new concept, so that they are acceptable in the community. however, these selected humors use straightforward juxtaposition by interpreting the old term with a new, absurd, unacceptable concept. 34 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 (5) bar-be-que (bar*bi*q) n. you bought the groceries, washed the lettuce, chopped the tomatoes, diced the onions, marinated the meat and cleaned everything up, but, he ―made the dinner.‖ (datum 9) the form of this humor is constructed like an entry in a dictionary, complete with its pronunciation and part of speech. however, ―barbeque‖ in any english dictionary is obviously not defined that way. thus, the definition of this word which is far from the accepted truth creates laughter. this humor shows another representation of man and woman in the division of house labor. the woman does all the preparation to make a barbeque. and yet, the man, although having his hands free, is boastful about making the dinner. however, besides absurd neologism, some humors also exploit the meaning of an expression by giving it an absurd interpretation. there are also humors that involve false translation. it should be born in mind that this is not a real translation which renders messages from one language to another. yet, the humor below is deliberately ―translating‖ the expression incorrectly to create humorous outcome. (6) woman’s translation: do you love me? = i’m going to ask for something expensive. (datum 15) the humor portrayal, however, mirrors the outside social world in which the male dominance in economic power, specifically in the working field, remains the norm (wilis, 2002). accordingly, women are ridiculed for their dependence on their husband economically. once again, humors of this type work because they create an incongruent script opposition and succeed in disparaging others. 6. false analogy analogy is a comparison between two things that are similar in some way. encarta (2007) defines it as a form of logical inference, reasoning that if two things are taken to be alike in one way, they are alike in other ways. however, when two concepts, objects, or events are compared based on weak similarities and applied across the board, the comparison is called false analogy. according to daniel kies (online, 2012) false analogy is a comparison which is based on just a few similarities, while ignoring heaps of differences. interestingly, the more illogical the things compared, the more incongruent the script becomes, and the funnier it is. (7) what do men and beer bottles have in common? they are both empty from the neck up! (datum 20) pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 35 stereotyping in gender cyber humors given this riddle, both the humor teller and the reader are involved in a nonbona-fide situation. the set-up (see table 4.9.) “ what do men and beer bottles have in common?”, as grice (1975) puts it, is a non-bona-fide communication (violating maxims) because it compares men [+animate, +human] with bottles [-animate, -human]. given a non-bona-fide set-up, the reader is driven to find a non-bona-fide punch line too. however, inside this riddle, the incongruous comparison between bottles and men involves false analogy. because both men and beer bottles have necks, they are assumed to share another characteristic, that is, ―empty”. to make it more clear, if t1 (thing 1) refers to the object being compared, t2 refers to men, x is the similar characteristic between them, and y is t l ’ s characteristic, then the logical mechanism of the humor can also be written as: t1 bottles t2 men x a shared similar characteristic (neck) y ; t l ’ s characteristic (empty). the set-up: t 1 ^ t 2 tl =x,t2 =~x t 1 = y 5 the punch line: tl = y = t26 unlike the lexical ambiguity in humor (1), in which the preposition for contains two different meanings (x = m2 -> x^ ml)7, false analogy works when the two things overlap each other partly by ill-judging them (tl= y = t2). in humor (7), although both bottles and men are given the predicate ―empty‖, this adjective assigns different meanings to each subject. outside the humor, ―empty‖ is an adjective describing the condition of a noun as having nothing inside. when it is associated with ―bottle‖ [+thing], then it means denotatively: from the neck up, the bottle is empty. however, if it modifies ―man‖ [+human], then it creates a figurative effect that man (any man) is brainless. the incongruity, again, makes the reader burst into laughter. and yet, the incongruity alone does not constitute the humorous effect. the humor demonstrates that it also depends on the social implications given to the butt of the humor. although representing men as stupid contradicted the traits of masculinity some decades ago, now they metamorphose to be the butt of a bacillus of laughter too. it indicates that stereotyping is not absolute; it changes through time. 36 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 7. fallacious reasoning in any writing textbook, when writing, one needs to build a thesis statement, supported by strong arguments based on some logical explanation. according to daniel kies (online 2012), when writers employ logic in composition, the emphasis seems to be on determining whether the reasoning behind an argument is valid or invalid, and then using those determinations to support or reject a thesis. but, sometimes, people slip and create fallacy in reasoning. an example of false reasoning is when a person recieves bad luck three times on three successive wednesdays and concludes that wednesday is his unlucky day (soedjatmiko, 1988). if the premises are vague, incongruous or totally illogical, then they may result in absurdity; some, with stereotyping and insult, may create laughter. humorists can construct a humorous/false proposition to attract the readers without the need to provide good evidence or premises at all. the logic between premises and the inference may create amusement if it is exploited and results in illogicality like what is found in this humor: (8) a bum asks a man for $2. the man asked, ―will you buy booze?‖ the bum said, ―no.‖ the man asked, ―will you gamble it away?‖the bum said, ―no.‖ then the man asked, ―will you come home with me so my wife can see what happens to a man who doesn’t drink or gamble?‖ (datum 31) at first, before arriving at the punch line, the interpreter thought that the man asked the bum those questions because he didn’t want to give his money to the bum who would buy booze and gamble it away. although it turns out that the bum, whom the husband comes across, is a man who does not drink and gamble, the story violates the reader’s expectation by his final conclusion that involves false logic. the humor converts the condition of a specific situation to make a general conclusion; if x is y, then y is x: if the bum is a man who does not drink and gamble, every man who does not drink or gamble is a bum. in the punch line, the man generalized that a man (any man) who does not drink or gamble is (or looks like) a bum [man, good for nothing]. from the absurd conclusion, this humor pokes f u n at men’s addiction to boozing and gambling. all in all, the humor teller deliberately chooses not to supply the humor with logical reasoning. the humor just needs to employ some negative stereotypes to create a humorous effect. pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 37 stereotyping in gender cyber humors 8. word repetition there are humors that exploit word repetition to make the expressions unique and attractive. the repetition of words in these humors gives more sonorous sound to highlight the contrast between man and woman; because without the substance of repetition in the humors, they will be an ordinary sentence instead of a creative tool for laughter. through word repetition, the humor bellow indicates the superiority of man and the inferiority of woman. (9) a successful man is one who makes more money than his wife can spend. a successful woman is one who can find such a man. (datum 34) given this sentence, it is important to notice how the humor defines the word ―successful‖. the first sentence defines a successful man as a man who makes more money than his wife can spend. however, the second sentence gives a heartbreaking definition about a successful woman because the concept of ―successful‖ when attached to woman is wrongly exploited. the word ―successful‖, as defined by encarta dictionary 2007, means ―having achieved or gained much, especially wealth, fame, or power‖. so, it can be semantically written as [+human, +/-male, + wealth, +fame, +power]. from the semantic analysis, both man and woman can be successful. nevertheless, the humor turns the definition of this adjective the other way around. from the humor, the phrases ―successful man‖ and ―successful woman‖ can be semantically analyzed: successful man [+human, +male, +money] successful woman [+human, -male, +successful man] it is obvious that this sentence gives a wrong definition of being a successful woman. if this sentence is scrutinized, then, according to the humor, woman’s being successful depends on man’s success. again, the woman’s dependency in terms of economic power appears in this humor. the superiority and dominance of man over woman are the main factors that account for the humor. 9. insult humor or put-down humor having analyzed the humors above, it can be noticed that there are elements of incongruity and superiority in each of them. there is some wit in language play to insult a certain sexual group. yet, the researchers find that 38 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 there are some humors that are mainly, or mostly, constructed by sound insults. an insult is an expression, statement or behavior that is considered degrading. insults, which happen just around any corner, are produced intentionally or accidentally. intentional insults in gender humors are expressed due to underestimating intelligence or knowledge of the other. under this classification are gender humors that do not foreground the linguistic devices like the above humors. unlike the previously discussed humors which use various ways of playful logic and smart language mechanisms as vehicles to poke f u n at men’s or women’s inferiorities and deficiencies, the humors classified in this section put down the other party openly for their stereotypical images. (10) i date this girl for two years and then the nagging starts: ―i wanna know your name...‖ (datum 37) (11) q: why do men like smart women? a: opposites attract. (datum 50) compared with the previous humors, these humors contain less incongruity elements. humor (10) makes use of the stereotype that a girl (no specific girl mentioned) is always nagging. humor (11), with an economic and sarcastic reply, also belittles man’s intelligence. although there are few elements of language manipulation creating humorous effects, both humors have sound insults. looking back at the afore-mentioned theories, schopenhauer and kant (monro, 1988) stand for the incongruity theory, while hobbes and the others stick to the superiority theory. in light of the discussions on humors above, the exploitations of linguistic elements (listed in an increasing order of complexity in table 1) do matter. through this incongruity which is covered by various narrative styles, it can be seen how creative human minds are in producing and backtracking incongruity in humors. to recapitulate, each gender humor has its own logic. dissecting the humors by means of gtvh opens a way to see how logical mechanisms in gender humors operate; and exposing semantic features reveals how the reader’s expectation is given a sudden surprise by an incongruent text. despite all the incongruities that constitute gender humors, there is also one fundamental ingredient that triggers humors: the element of superiority. without the stereotypical images showing the inferior and the superior, the humorous effect would work less. the element of superiority can be traced by pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 39 stereotyping in gender cyber humors scrutinizing the targets of the humors: man and woman—a binary opposition put in endless rivalry for the sake of verbal play. 10. stereotyping in the selected gender humors in addition to uncovering the types of logical mechanism, the data analysis also yields gender stereotyping typical of gender humors. so, what are the sexist matters or the distorted images of the party being poked f u n a t ? as listed in table 3, the reader can take a close look at the distorted images of man and woman that count for the jocular effects. notice that all stereotypes have negative meanings. going from the top to the bottom, man and woman are equally insignificant (3%: 3%); woman is a lot more bothersome than man (16% : 2%); man is much more stupid than woman (18% : 4%); man is also more ugly than woman (6% : 2%); and both man and woman are equally uneconomical and attracted to gender-bias attitudes (1% : 1 %). then there are stereotypical negative images pertaining only to man: immature (2%), not understanding (4%), stubborn (2%), and addicted to drinking and gambling (2%). similarly, woman is also portrayed with typically female-negative stereotypes: being a homemaker (10%), economically dependent (12%), and jealous (4%). thus, as stocks for laughter, man and woman are assigned their respective disapproving traits: macho-negative stereotypes for man, and nagging-negative stereotypes for woman. while this negative stereotyping is necessary for creating a humor victim, the distorted images of both sexes are nevertheless in accord with findings on gender roles in earlier studies by chavetz (1978) and craig (1992). table 3: gender stereotypes in gender humors no. gender stereotypes ∑ % man woman ∑ % ∑ % 1 insignificant 6 12 3 6 3 6 2 bothersome 9 18 1 2 8 16 3 stupid 11 22 9 18 2 4 4 ugly 4 8 3 6 1 2 5 uneconomic 1 2 0.5 1 0.5 1 6 gender differences 1 2 0.5 1 0.5 1 7 immature 1 2 1 2 8 not understanding 2 4 2 4 9 stubborn 1 2 1 2 40 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 10 drinking and gambling addict 1 2 1 2 11 homemaker 5 10 5 10 12 economically dependent 6 12 6 12 13 jealous 2 4 2 4 total 50 100 22 44 28 56 some studies related to this issue have been conducted by anthropologists and psychologists. they came up with interesting findings that reflect the common standard of traditional humors. in her article ―gender and humor: an introduction‖, helga kotthoffs (2006: 12) states that: anthropologists such as gershon legman (1968), who have compiled large international collections of humors, have found that the sexually explicit humor plays an important culturetranscending role and that a large share of these humors are at the expense of women (also fine 1976). in the meantime, the women’s movement has produced changes in the domain of standard jokes. with this finding, women’s deficiencies were once the dominating factors that were responsible for laughter. in other words, women became the object of male laughter. moreover, ken willis (2002) in her ph.d dissertation states that blyth, a 1953 american humorist, considered women only fitted as men’s object of laughter because of their subordination. nevertheless, scrutinized diachronically, this study agrees with khotthoff’s statement (2006) that men’s deficiencies, as displayed in table 3, have also become common place. the shift from poking fun at women only to both men and women is a result of women’s revolutionary movement in the west, including english-speaking countries. going back to the earlier study by chavetz (1978), her findings about masculine and feminine traits can be put in binary opposition: masculine/feminine, athletic/weak, breadwinner/ domestic, sexually aggressive/sexually passive, unemotional/emotional, logical/intuitive, dominating/dependent, etc. derrida (1978) argued that in most binary oppositions there is power relationship between the binary since one of the binary is usually more dominant than the other. it is apparent that central authority or superiority is attributed to the first, masculine terms in the pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 41 stereotyping in gender cyber humors binary oppositions, implying that the second, feminine terms belong to the inferior or weak party. these traditional traits and images of men and women are now being compared with the portrayals of men and women within the selected humors to see whether or not the humors endorse the traditional role stereotypes. for this purpose, most contents of table 3 are re-presented in table 4 to compare between traditional and non-traditional stereotypes pertaining to both men and women. recall that in analyzing gender humors the targets are portrayed using negative stereotypes. referring to table 4, there are 3 traditional stereotypes: homemaker, economically dependent, and bothersome—all being typical characteristics of women. while the term ―homemaker‖ has been used lately to replace the older derogatory term ―housewife‖, it fails to elevate the social status of women. being a homemaker was originally intended to mean that a wife is a powerful figure in managing domestic affairs. table 4: stereotypes of man and woman in gender humors no. stereotype humor target man woman traditional ∑ % ∑ ∑ 1 homemaker 5 10 2 economically dependent 6 12 3 bothersome 1 2 8 16 non-traditional ∑ % ∑ ∑ 1 insignificant 3 6 3 6 2 stupid 9 18 2 4 3 ugly 3 6 1 2 however, the modifier ―home‖ in ―homemaker‖ is still much too close in meaning to the modifier ―house‖ in ―housework‖. so, a wife is fully in charge of doing all housework, as ridiculed in the following humor. (12) men’s translation: we share the housework. 42 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 ―i make the messes; she cleans them up.‖ humor (12) obviously puts men in the dominant position, and women in subordination. while in this humor men are presented as uncaring, thoughtless, and egoistic, women are presented as weak and helpless. both men and women are victims of the humor: the oppressors and the oppressed, with superiority assigned to men. further, since a homemaker has her power only within the confines of the homestead, outside this domain she becomes powerless. therefore, as homemakers, wives are ridiculed by gender humors as being dependent economically on their husbands. the dominance issues with regard to economic power come to the fore, as in the following humor: (13) a couple was having a discussion about family finances. finally the husband exploded, ―if it weren’t for my money, the house wouldn’t be here!‖ the wife replied, ―my dear, if it weren’t for your money i wouldn’t be here.‖ (datum 36) the wife in humor (13) reminds us of ―a successful woman‖ as defined by humor (9); she is one who can find a very rich man. women are targeted in gender humors because of the stereotypes suggesting that they are materialistic, shopaholic, having no business or penniless. ironically, this kind of dependency depicted in the humors comes not only from men’s mindset, but also from women’s mindset. the man thinks that the woman is only capable of spending his money. similarly, the woman thinks, and even instructs other women, to be dependent financially on the man (datum 3). it is not unusual that women are portrayed as consumerists (moranjakbamburac, 2006; londo, 2006). londo (2006) argued that magazines and other media give emphasis on women beauty, burdening them with the achievement of ideal beauty at any cost. in the humor, the power relationship portrayed is established through the binary opposites: moneyprovider vs. money-spender. the binary opposition of independency/dependency in terms of economic power suggests that traditional stereotypes of men and women nowadays are still firmly established. thus, the three traditional stereotypes presenting negative images of women (listed in table 4) come in one package. as a ―homemaker‖ (10%), the woman is ―economically dependent‖ (12%) on the man. if the man fails to provide what she needs, she becomes ―bothersome‖ (16%), nagging. pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 43 stereotyping in gender cyber humors notice, however, than men are also bothersome (2%), although much less than women. whereas the traditional stereotypes take only women as stocks of laughter, the non-traditional stereotypes mainly work the opposite way. men and women are equally ―insignificant‖ (6%), cheap creatures. the rise of this gender equality goes along with the ascending spirit of feminism. as noted in tong (1998), simone de beauvoir (1960) introduced the opposing terms ―the one‖ and ―the other‖ in her book the second sex. in her analysis, ―the one‖ refers to man, while ―the other‖ refers to woman; and ―the one‖ is more dominant than ―the other‖. the otherness used to be assigned to woman because she was considered having no power and hence insignificant. however, today a woman is no longer the second sex. there are extreme humors that portray how both man and woman are insignificant: a man prefers his dog to his wife, a man prefers a set of golf clubs to his wife, a man gets bored with a woman and wants to shoot her, a woman thinks that all men should be put on the moon, and a woman thinks about changing her man like changing gifts. interestingly, when it comes to ―ignorance‖, men are better targets. the degrading adjective ―stupid‖ is assigned to men (18%) a lot more frequently than to women (4%). (14) what do you call a man with an i.q. of 50? gifted! (datum 47) the irony is at work here, which requires a deeper psychological analysis. men are assumed to be rational, practical, aggressive, while women are assumed to be expressive, nurturing, and emotional (beynon 2002). chavetz (1978) also suggests that men are ―logical‖ creatures, while women are ―intuitive‖ creatures. these images again show how superior men are in terms of intelligence and power of reasoning. however, some feminists perceive this stereotype inside out. they say that men are actually more primitive creatures than women because men cannot escape from their primitive impulses, i.e. sex, hunger and pleasure (wilis, 2008). however, humors making fun of men’s stupidity are non-stereotypical. some decades ago, it was absurd to ridicule men’s stupidity, but now it becomes commonplace. it stands to reason to say that traditional stereotypes, just like cultural values in any society, are in flux. finally, the negative attribute ―ugly‖ is attached to both men and women. beauty has been shaped in the society through fairy tales. good 44 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 women are beautiful, and bad women are old or ugly. similarly, good men are also portrayed as handsome princes, and bad men as ugly ogres. the fairy tales reflect that physical appearance is considered valuable in the society. however, with the insulting adjective ―ugly‖, men (6%) get a bigger share than women (2%), as illustrated by the following example: (15) q: where is the best place in a book store to find a man who is handsome, a good lover and a stimulating partner? a: in the pages of a romance novel. (datum 46) the punchline in humor (15) ―in the pages of a romance novel‖ tells the reader that a handsome, romantic, and stimulating man does not exist in reality; he exists only in fiction. in the real world there are only men presenting themselves as ugly and unexciting bores. in sum, gender humors are funny through negative stereotyping. traditionally, only women were taken as the targets, for the female gender was perceived as weak, dependent, and bothersome. however, as the feminist movement in the western world has succeeded in gaining momentum, social changes have occurred accordingly. both sexes are now perceived more or less equally, either in a positive or negative way. in effect, both men and women are taken to be victims of gender humors. both sexes can be of little value, and men can be more ignorant and ugly than women. conclusion gender humors have a unique way of triggering laughter, not only by twisting the logical structure of the humorous text but also by depreciating either the male or female party. the overarching stereotypes in the surface of the humors have also been explored in this research. the literature mentions that some decades ago, the common standard of the humors laughed at women’s stereotyped deficiencies. however, owing to women movements in english-speaking countries, and in the western world in general, the roles and representations of women in the society keep changing; this phenomenon affects the shift in the common standard of the humors. from the findings and discussions in the previous section, gender humors poke f u n at men’s deficiencies too. as for the logical mechanism of the humors, it is much like the syntactic structure of a sentence. in generative grammar (chomsky, 1957, pasaribu, truly a. & kadarisman, a. e., coding logical mechanism and 45 stereotyping in gender cyber humors 1965), it is formally represented by the re-write rule [s  np vp], which reads ―every sentence (in english) consists of an np subject and a vp predicate‖. likewise, several incongruities of the humors, which the reader has passed through, are represented by formal notations following the model in attardo’s (2001) gtvh theory. this mathematical rigor is a serious attempt to explicate the incongruities characterizing gender humors. thus, as seen from the perspective of discourse analysis (see thornbury, 2005), gender humors are texts which are coherent in an eccentric way. going down to the deeper level, there are two main ships in the discussion of the philosophy of humor analyzed in this study. the crew members of the first ship are big thinkers, like hobbes, gruner, and jakobson (monro, 1988), who propose that superiority is an inseparable element of humor. furthermore, they suggest that people are laughing because of the superior feeling towards the inferiority of others. however, on the other side of the sea of humor is the ship with great philosophers like kant and schopenhauer, (monro, 1988), who consider incongruity and humor are like soul and matter. nevertheless, after dissecting all the selected gender humors, the researchers come in the middle of those two ships. we come with a perspective that incongruity and superiority elements actually work together as the ingredients constituting gender humors. on the basis of the research findings, the researchers suggest that the readers attempt to avoid sexist matters in humors and be more critical in using humors when communicating with others to avoid harm. for future researchers, a close look at gender humors in different languages, e.g. indonesian, javanese, sundanese, and other local languages, can be a challenging research project because, however slight, the way other cultures see gender is different from the way english-based speaking countries see it. besides, limited to uncovering major elements of gender humors and gender stereotypes, this study has not gone further to find out the effect of gender humors on the society. further investigation on this matter will probably lead to a novel contribution to the literature of gender and humor. references aha!jokes, retrieved september, 2015 from http://www.aha!jokes.com (2007). encarta electronic dictionary. 1993-2006 microsoft corporation. 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(2002). making sense of humour: some pragmatic and political aspects. retrieved february, 2008 from http://www.pragmaticshumour.net/making senseofhumour.htm 48 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 22-48 notes: the researchers are aware of the fact that not all readers are familiar with mathematical notations representing the logical structures of several gender humors. therefore, all the mathematical notations in the third section of the article, ―findings and discussion‖, are cited here in their order of presentation, provided with their verbal reading. 1x = ml, x = m2 ml ^ m2 x is m1. x is m2. m1 is not synonymous with m2 2 x = m 2 » x ^ m 1 x is m2. x is not m1 in the punch line. 3x = m1, x = m2 m 1 ^ m 2 x is m1, x is m2. m1 is not synonymous with m2. 4x = m2 » x ^ ml x is m2. x is not m1 in the punch line. 5 t 1 ^ t 2 tl = x, t2 = ~x t 1 = y t 2 = y t1 is not t2. t1 has x. t2 does not have x. t1 has y. t2 has y. 6tl = y = t2 t1 and t2 have y. t1 equals t2. 7x = m2 » x ^ ml x is m2. x is not m1 in the punch line. 2 -sep2016 pasaribu & kadarisman 2 -cover truly.pdf 2 -truly 0 -cover jul 2016 0 -p. i jul 2016 hal editor 0 -p. ii jul 2016 daftar isi p. i 1 -pp 1-21 sukarno celt 2016 2 -pp 22-48 pasaribu-kadarisman celt jul 2016 pp 17-44 3 -pp 49-66 prastikawati-wiyaka-sodiq celt jul 2016 4 -pp 67-90 yusuf-silviyanti-tauhidah celt jul 2016 5 -pp 91-117 jubhari-bazergan-mokoginta-sitoto-syarif-iswari celt jul 2016 pp.88-115 6 -pp 118-132 maru celt jul 2016 7 -pp 133-144 murniati-riyandari celt 2016 8 -pp 145 148 celt thanks to reviewers cover-belakang untitled take the most of the students' input and feedback to push a successful language teaching anton suratno1 abstract: as we have rece",l)' observed that there has been a crucial challge in most people s perception concert/ing approach to teaching. as nunan has recently mentioned that i1l current language teachi1lg developmen t, there has been a clear and observable gradual move from a top-down to getting more and more bottom-up approach to the pla""ing. implementation and evaluation of teaching and learning program. (nunan. 1996: 129). he is supported by gardner and miller .~·itl, their interest in learners' autonomy (gardller a1ld miller. 1996). also by hutchison ani1 waters in their esp learning-centred approach (hmchis01l and waters. j 993). there are some practical reasons why studellls' i1lput and eeaback are like(\' to contribute to the success of the l-t programs. this article aims to put forward all overview of the stude1lts' potential colllribution to the way to optimize the leaming and teachillg processes by way of considering the importance of their regular input and feedback that they give to help plan, monitor alld review or evaluate the tl programs. in other words, this paper will try to see a different perspective on achieving a good teac"ing program from the area beyond method of teaching. key words: students input. students feedback. language teaching common misconception concerning what makes an effective teaching when teachers are confronted with the question of what makes an effective teaching/1earning, most of them think methods are the answer. then, i. drs. anton suratno, ma. is a lecturer of the faculty of letters. soegijapranala catholic university. semarang 12 celt, volume i. number i. december 2001 : 11-18 when they are asked further about the method which is likely to bring about the most effective teaching outcomes they might hurriedly answer "communicative teaching method" simply because its popularity has long been believed as one of the most widely-accepted methods all over the world since the 1970's. the rest of them might answer differently by basing their arguments on every detail elements of methods such as what kind of approach the teacher has, or what kind of course design he is dealing with or which teaching procedure he is going through. debating on such topics might end up with an endless confusion and frustration as everybody may claim that his opinion is the most correct one while in fact there is no superior or inferior method of teaching. (scovel 1983, in legutke, 1991). one has its own advantages and weaknesses and is specific in itself de~ending on the circumstances or teaching context the method is deployed. 'each method is potentially to be a suitable and good 1 method depending on these circumstances, i.e. whether the course is held in a formal or informal settings, whether it is for children or adults, whether it is for smaller g oup or larger one, whether it is targeted to efuesl students or those who are learning their mother tongue." blum 1984, as quoted in richar(js (1990) cited that "method is not the key variable to teaching success". in particular. in the era of learnercentred ness (tudor, 1996). which was initially developed by nunan and other researchers in australia (nunan, 1996). richards funher stated that "methods cannot ensure good learning. only good teachers can" (richards. 1990), namely those who take the language learners "as the main reference point for decision-making with respect to both the content and the form of teaching~'. (tudor, 1996). his opinion gets its ground in particular when we refer to the most recent principle stated by, teacher practitioners, deponer et ai., which is popularly called "quantum teaching", a belief about interaction (between people) which can tum an energy into light. their main principle of making a good teaching is like this" bring their (the students') world to us and let's take our (the teachers') world to them" a good teaching is a condition in which a teacher manages to fully understand the learners in order for them to understand the teachers. thus, a successful teacher is the one who understands and believes that any potentials that the student possessed constitute a valuable asset which bring the success of the teaching. (deporter. 1999). a. suratno, take the most of the students' input and feedback 13 blum as quoted by richards (1990) further stated that a good teacher who is doing a good teaching is not characterized by any particular correct method but by: a pre-planned curriculum high expectations of students careful orientations of students to lessons clear and focused instruction close monitoring of progress re-teaching of points not understood class time used for learning smooth and efficient classroom routines instructional groups fit instructional needs high standards of classroom behaviour positive personal interaction between teachers and students rewards and incentives for excellence. (bloom as quoted by richards. 1990) the question that we have to answer now is how all the above can be achieved through our practical day-to-day teaching practices. if the key word to achieving such an objective is taking the most ofthe students' involvement in the lt process w...hich according to tudor, is achievab le through consultation and negotiation between teachers and students (tudor. 1996) , then we can argue that inviting as much students' regular input and feedback can provide first-hand infonnation which, i believe, helps create a good quality teaching. in the light of the above perspective, therefore, we should like to see three different components through the following section of the paper, i.e. first, some steps of instruction processes in which the students' feedback and input may be gathered; second, some demands or prerequisites to be met; and thirdly the result once the prerequisites are fulfilled. when the input may be gathered pre-teaching phase students' input may be gathered prior to the teaching processes. preteaching phase is one of the crucial phases during which some initial planning to instruction is taking place. it is the phase during which data are collected for the purpose of planning and developing materials. needs analysis is one ofthe most typical ways of this initial input taking from the learners, but for 14 celt, volume i. number i, december 200 i : 11·18 such a purpose, a teacher does not always need to deploy needs analysis questionnaire unless a teacher is starting a totally new course, as it will be lengthy for analyzing the result. to know students' strategies for learning. for instance. we can adopt this simple input questions like the following: no question types often some never times i do you do extra tasks besides attending class? 2 do )'ou try to analyze grammatical system? 3 doyou learn through watching tv or listening to a radio'! 4 do you switch to your mother tongue when stuck? 5 do you work in group'! 6 do you feel free to share ideas with your classmates'! 7 do you translate what you want to say or write? 8 do you translate to understand reading or listening'! 9 do you repeat phrases or expression after the tape, tv? 10 do you test your own progress? ii do you work cooperatively with friends? 12 do )'ou use imagery to help memorizing? 13 cany_ou read fast by scanning/skimming? l, 14 can you summarize a passage? i 15 do you try to use new vocabulary? 16 etc. teachers may take advantage from taking this kind of data so that the teaching materials given can finally minimize the discrepancies or the gap between the students' expectations and classroom reality. by that way, the teaching is more likely to cater for a greater number of students with various learning styles, level of intelligence. learning pace, background knowledge, topic of interests, etc. during teaching phase in addition to doing some small quizzes to measure students' learning progress, in this phase teachers can also do some informal feedback gathering whilst providing individual or small group counseling. some questions like the following are usable to monitor the progress of the teaching, such as: i can you really follow the lesson quite well? yes/no 2 do you find any difficult areas to follow? yes/no 3 if yes. in which area do you find it difficult? explain! a. suratno, take the most of the students' input and feedback 15 4 do you think the teaching progress match your learning pace? yesino 5 what changes do you eltpectto have. please describe? eltplain! through that way, teacher can, in fact, maintain a good communication with the students which in tum enhances their interrelationship and help create a democratic atmosphere. more importantly, once mismatch, shortcomings or deviation are identified, materials adjustment can be made much earlier so that a better quality teaching is more likely to take place and the whole progression of the teaching is closely identifiable and recordable . post-teaching phase input or feedback taken during the post-teaching phase constitutes a retrospection instrument. teachers can make use of it as general evaluation over the whole process of instruction in order to know how successful it was and it prov ides a means of precisely planning the future teaching program. i did you follow the lesson well? 2 did you enjoy the classroom activities? 3 did the teaching progress match your leaming pace? 4 do you get what you expected before the class wa~ begun? 5 what changes do you eltpectto have. please describe? the prerequisites which should be made available expecting a situation or atmosphere in which students can remain playing their optimum roles in determining the success of teaching is not a simple and an instant process. the following prerequisites need to be consistently made available and considered. persistent effort the process of the input taking should ideally be done consistently throughout the whole process of instruction, pre, during and post teaching. each phase is interconnected one another, as each has a common goal i.e. achieving the success of the instruction. the process is clear through the following figure. 16 celt, volume i, number i, december 2001 : 11-18 pre-teaching input process mid-teaching post-teaching ~ an input/feedback process model highlighting the students' role wright said that "what individuals contribute to the group amounts to a set of expectations about how others will act and what roles they will adopt. (wright. 1987). his opinion implies that the more the students are trusted to play more role. the more we can expect that they will contribute to the success of the instruction. giving them more opportun ities to provide input and feed-back can put them as the teachers' watchdog and whistleblower who can put the teachers back to their path when derailing. democratic atmosphere a democratic communication is hardly achievable unless a warm and close interpersonal relationship between teachers and students is present. the old style of teacher-student relationship which tended to be like a superior and subordinate in our feudalistic and paternalistic culture has certainly to be gradually terminated as it is prone to produce repression rather than creativity in the part of the students. the research made by goleman indicated that when the brain is working under intimidation and repression, the capacity of the nerves in the brain are diminishing and thus it tends to work improperly and think irrationally (golemman as quoted by deporter, 1999), hence, conducive atmosphere is a prerequisite to the students; active participation in the tl. a. suratno, take the most of the students' input and feedback 17 the outcomes the teachers can expect borrowing tomlinson's tenns (tomlinson, 1998) , the student's input gathering could be expected to: i help learners to feel at ease in tearning 2 help learners develop confidence in learning 3 facilitate learners' self-investment 4 help acquire the points being taught quoted from tomlinson, 1998: 8-11 input gathering can also motivate students to learn as well as improve every individual student' responsibility to learning. the higher the students' level of motivation can be maintained, the greater the opportunity for success in language learning can be expected. likewise, the more they take responsibility in learning , the higher their expectation for learning achievement. as legutke and thomas (1991) suggest. implicit and explicit contribution donated by the students will be meaningful in an organized learning situation. we refer here, to what the earners bring to the classroom. their prior knowledge. their experiences of the world in which they live, their experiences of and with the world of the target language and its culture. their social. cultural, and ethnic background and value systems; also their preferences with regard to other people. to themes. and ways of working; their knowledge of learning strategies and their expectations with regard to how learning should best be organized. their ani tudes towards the subject of the school, to the teacher. their willingness to communicate. their readiness to take risks. their openness; and ability to emphatize ..... (legutke and thomas. 1991) end words all the above discussion is not particularly an elaboration of a research result as the argumentation is simply viewed and made in the light of the most current trend in the most up-to-date language teaching development where instruction is increasingly built up through a bottom-up processing rather than the other way around. in spite of some possible weaknesses, as it lacks scientific proofs, the writer's day-to-day experience in adopting input and feedback taking practices has indicated an almost consistent productive and effective result in lifting up the quality of~. a decent and a well prepared research on the contribution of input and feedback to the success 18 celt, volume i, number i. december 2001 : 11-18 of the ti.. should ideally be made in order to be more convinced with the truth of above argumentation. bibliography deponer, bobbi et al. (1999) quantum teaching: mempra1ctijcjclln quantum teaching di kelas-kelas. boston: kaifa. gardner, david and miller, lindsay (1997) a study of tertiary level selfaccess facilities in hong kong. hong kong: david gardner &lindsey miller. hutchison, tom and waters, allan (1993) english for specific purposes: a learning centred approach. cambridge: cambridge university press. le&,utke, michael and thomas, howard (1991) process and experince in the language classroom. london: longman group uk limited. nunan, david (1996)a client-eentredapproach to teach erdevelopment in power pedagog)i &practice. oxford: oxford university press. richards,.j. ( 1990) the language teaching matrix. cambridge: cambridge university press. tomlinson, brian (1998) material development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. tudor, ian (1996) learner-centredness as language education. cambridge: cambridge university press. wright, tony. (1987) roles of teachers and learners. oxford: oxford university press. : ,'. logo: the analysis of english test in national examination appendix students’ writings text 1: toothache no original revision 1 tilda yesterday toothache. tilda got toothache yesterday. 2 her toothache because her ate sweets. she ate too much sweet food. 3 last night he could not sleep because of plain. last night she could not sleep because of pain. 4 her rarely toothache when her knows that her teeth chalities and wormy. her teeth were perforated and hollow. 5 let us brush our teeth and avold sugary foods. therefore, let us brush our teeth and avoid from sweet food. text 2: going home no original revision 1 yesterday i went to home by bus. yesterday i went to home by bus. 2 i traveling for my own enjoyment. i traveled for my own enjoyment. 3 i wake up early and i went to the bus station at 9:10 but bus was late. i woke up early and i went to the bus station at 9:10 but i was late. 4 by the time we arrived at my out hometown, it is raining heavily, i had gone out without at the station. by the time i arrived at my hometown, it was raining heavily, so i stopped at the station. 5 the day had passed plesantly and eventfull. the day passed pleasantly and eventfully. text 3: father no original revision 1 dad began to plan our lives to know that pregnant women, but once we were born he began to make revisions. dad began to plan our lives when our mother was pregnant. but once we were born he made revisions. 2 dad helped make our dreams come true even he can convince us to do things that are impossible, as it floats on the water after his release. he helps us to make our dreams come true. even he can convince us to do impossible things as if it floats on the water after he tries to release it. 3 father is everything for us, without our father could not do anything and service you will not be rewarded everything except by prayer. so, he is everything for us. without him, we cannot do anything. we will not give a reward to him for his service, except by prayer. text 4: bad habit no original revision 1 habitual of throuwing garbage in the plant must be early in their daily lives. bad habit, such as, of throwing garbage in the plant must be avoided early in our daily lives. 2 general public are still not aware of love environment. we are still not aware of keeping environment. 3 do  ot feel guilty nominally littering so that the environment do not feel guilty if one day our environment damages. 4 they regarded it as a slogan that does not need to be noticed bcomes dirty and unhealthy. we sometimes regard it as a slogan that does not need to be noticed and let it dirty and unhealthy. 5 when the rainy season comes will lead to flooding, remember that when the rainy season comes, it will bring us flood and mud. text 5: education no original revision 1 education is a conscious and deliberate effort to create an atmosphere of learning, which includes all the circles of sciences, education is a conscious and deliberate effort to create an atmosphere of learning. it is realized by the presence of all branches of sciences. 2 arranged alphabetically or by category of brief and concise, in order to develop appropriate religious spiritual potential, self-control, personality, intelligence, noble character and skills, that in doing all the people by way of learning , those sciences are arranged alphabetically in their brief and concise categories, in order to develop appropriate religious, spiritual potential, self-control, personality, intelligence, noble character and skills. 3 in order for a person to have a broad view ahead to reach a goal that is expected because education it self motivate ourselves to be better in all aspects of life this arrangement aims to help many people to have a broad view and to reach a goal they expect. education itself motivates us to be better in all aspects of our life. text 6: education in indonesia no original revision 1 people said that life in the twentieth century needed preparation. people said that life in the twentieth century needs preparation. 2 more than more parents sent their children to school and increasing number of children to attend school  government to build up new schools and educated more teachers. many parents sent their children to schools. the increase of the number of children to attend school pushes the government to build up new schools and educate more teachers. 3 the government also kept trying to improve the education system. the government also keep trying to improve the educational system. 4 the government had put forward the 9 years compulsory education at least attend 9 years primary education. they have put forward the 9 years compulsory education. 5 this gave a   good opportunity to all children in the century to get at least the certificate of the junior secondary school cause low standard economy. this gives a good opportunity to all children to get at least the certificate of the junior high school. text 7: fuel price hike no original revision 1 the increase in fuel prices cause consumer purchasing power will automatically down. the increase of fuel prices causes the power of the consumers to purchase it will be automatically down. 2 increase fuel prices resulting from the high price of basic commodities such as food will increase anyway. it results from the high price of basic commodities such as food. 3 so too large to transport, will definitely come ride. it is also related to the large area of transportation. 4 the trader was having trouble finding quality goods. the traders, finally, have trouble to find the qualified goods. 5 the increase greatly impact on people's daily lives. the increase greatly impacts on people's daily lives. text 8: sport no original revision 1 sport is an activity that can make us physically healthy. sport is an activity that can make us healthy physically. 2 sport needed by every man. it is needed by every man. or: we need it. 3 if was able to mantain physical fitness. it was able to maintain our physical fitness. 4 also can relieve boredom and stress. it can also relieve boredom and stress. 5 therefore wore our, so that healthy living. therefore, we should take it to make our healthy lives. text 9. reading no original revision 1 reading is very important activities. reading is a very important activity for us. 2 this activity needed diligence to understand about content of book. it needs our diligence to understand about the content of a book. 3 the times is needed at least two hours a day. to read it, we need at least two hours a day. 4 with reading we can find out new knowledge. it will help us to find out new knowledge. 5 therefore, lets beginning to reading from now.    therefore, let’s begin reading from now.    text 10. the importance of libraries no original revision 1 the library is a place that will benefit for us. library is a beneficial place for us. 2 the library as store there knowledge. it stores knowledge. 3 in wide variety of books that are beneficial to us. the knowledge is kept in various books. 4 books ranging from specialized knowledge to knowledge general. the books are arranged from special knowledge to general one. 5 so the conclusion library rewarding place for us,especially for students. so, it is important for the students to go there. text 11. pendidikan= the importance of education no indonesian english 1 pendidikan adalah suatu hal yang penting bagi kita. eucation is an important thing for us. revision: 2 ia dapat membantu kita mengetahui mana yang baik dan yang buruk. he can help us find out where the good and the bad. revision: 3 seorang yang di didik dalam oleh orang tuanya dengan baik,misalnya akan berperilaku di dalam masyarakat. a person who is on learners in by his parents well, for example, will behave in society. revision: 4 selain di dalam keluarga kita juga di didik dalam lingkungan sekolah. in addition in our family also learners in the school environment. revision: 5 oleh karena itu kita membutuhkan pendidikan. therefore, we need education. revision: text 12: sleep needs no original revision 1 children have needs sleep more than people adult. children need to sleep more than adult people. 2 case is because children still in its infancy which is actually requires a lot of energy to continue grow. this case happens when they are still baby who actually require a lot of energy to grow. 3 yet in general needs adult bed ranges between 7-9 hours each day. yet, in general, adult needs to take a rest 7-9 hours each day. 4 case is revealed in a health seminar in jakarta, attended by hundreds of listener. this case was revealed in a health seminar in jakarta, attended by hundred of listeners. 5 needs sleep varies greatly in each person because of the need for sleep is affected by the level of activity, age, physical condition, and psychological. the need to sleep varies greatly in each person because it is affected by the level of activity, age, physical, and psychological conditions. text 13: tanjung bastian= bastian cape no indonesian english 1 tanjung bastian adalah salah satu objek wisata yang berada di wini, kabupaten ttu. sebastian headland was one of the attractions that are in the district wini, ttu. revision: bastian cape is one of the attractive tourism objects located in wini district, north central timor regency. 2 pantai ini sudah banyak di kenal orang karena di kelilingi gunung batu tinggi. this beach has many known people because of high rock surrounded by mountains. revision: in addition, many people know it because of its high rock mountains. 3 dipantai ini kita juga dapat menyaksikan perlombaan pacuan kuda yang di ikuti oleh berbagai daerah di ntt. this beach we can also see the race horse racing which is followed by the various regions in the province. revision: around this cape, we can watch horse racing in a horse racing arena, followed by horses coming from some regions of east nusa tenggara province. 4 juga tersedia kolam renang,warung,dan tempat untuk bersantai. also available is a swimming pool, shop, and a place to relax. revision: swimming pool, shop, and a place to relax are available over there. 5 hamparan pasir yang luas dan deru ombak yang ganas sangat cocok untuk menenangkan hati dan pikiran kita. extensive sand and ferocious roar of the waves is very suitable to calm our hearts and minds. revision: long white sand beach and ferocious roar of the waves are very suitable to satisfy our heart and relax our mind. text 14: pentingnya kesehatan= importance of health no indonesian english 1 kesehatan merupakan bagian yang sangat penting dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. health is a very important part in everyday life. revision: health is a very important part of our everyday life. 2 kesehatan ada dua macam yaitu kesehatan jiwa dan kesehatan fisik. there are two kinds of mental health and physical health. revision: there are two kinds of health: mental and physical. 3 semua kegiatan kita akan berjalan lancar,suskes dan mencapai tujuan bila kita sehat. all the activities we would run smoothly, to successful and achieve a goal when we are healthy. revision: all of our activities will be run smoothly and successfully and achieve our goal when we are healthy. 4 apabila kita tidak sehat atau dalam keadaan sakit, kegiatan kita akan tertunda. if we not healthy or ill, our activities will be delayed. revision: if we are not healthy or ill, our activities will be delayed. 5 oleh karena itu, kita harus menjaga kesehatan kita agar apa yang kita lakukan dapat berjalan dengan baik. therefore, we must maintain our health so that what we do can be run properly. revision: therefore, we must maintain our health so that what we can run our activities properly. text 15: kunci keberhasilan = the key to success no indonesian english 1 sukses merupakan hal yang sangat diinginkan dia atau kita semua dalam hidup ini. success is highly desired by all us in this life. revision: we all need success. 2 kita akan sukses jika berdoa dan kerja keras (ora et labora ). we will be successful if prayer and hard work (ora et labora). revision: we will be successful if we always pray and work hard (ora et labora). 3 kerja keras membutuhkan pengorbanan untuk mencapai kebahagian. work requires sacrifice to achieve happiness. revision: hard work requires scarification to achieve happiness. 4 jangan berharap keinginan kita akan datang dengan sendirinya dalam hidup kita. don’t hope our wishes will come naturally into our selves. revision: don’t hope our wish will come directly into our lives. 5 maka bekerja keraslah dalam mencapai cita-cita. so hard work to achieve the ideals us. revision: so, work hard to achieve our ideals. text 16: cinta sejati= true love no indonesian english 1 perasaan merupakan rasa yang di miliki semua insan. feeling a sense share possessed all human. revision: feeling is a sense all people possess. 2 kita semua pernah mengalami jatuh cinta. we all have fallen in love. revision: we all have ever fallen in love. 3 cinta datang tanpa disadari dalam hati dan tak berwujud. love come unnoticed, in the heart and not appear. revision: love comes unconsciously in our heart and is invisible. 4 mampu diungkapkan melalui tingkah laku dan kenyamanan saat bersama dia. could disclosed with behavior and comfort while along him or her. revision: it can be expressed through our behavior and one feels comfortable while he is with her. 5 maka jagalah cinta yang tumbuh dalam hatimu dengan kesetiaan. so keep the love that grows in your heart with fidelity. revision: so keep it growing in our heart. text 17: daun kelor= moringa leaves no indonesian english 1 daun kelor adalah salah satu jenis tumbuhan yang daunnya kecil. moringa leaves are one type of plant whose leaves are small. revision: moringa is a type of plant which has small leaves. 2 ia dapat bermanfaat bagi kesehatan kita. it can be beneficial to our health. revision: it can be beneficial for our health. 3 misalnya, seorang ibu yang sedang mengandung bisa mengonsumsi daun kelor untuk mengurangi nyeri saat melahirkan. for example, a mother who is pregnant can consume moringa leaves to reduce pain during childbirth. revision: for example, a mother who is pregnant can consume its leaves to reduce pain during childbirth. 4 ia dapat menyembuhkan berbagai macam penyakit,seperti panas dalam,sariawan,dan asma. it can cure variety of diseases, such as heartburn, ulcers, and asthma. revision: it can cure various diseases, such as heartburn, ulcers, and asthma. 5 jadi tanamlah pohon kelor di sekitar lingkungan anda. so plant a moringa tree around your neighborhood. revision: so plant it around your house. text 18. persahabatan= friendship no indonesian english 1 persahabatan adalah sebuah kenangan. friendship is a distant memory. 2 namun demikian ia memiliki makna yang luar biasa. however, it has tremendous significance. 3 kita akan merasakan saat dimana kita menemukan seorang sahabat yang selain ada dalam kehidupan. we will feel the moment in which we find a companion who always plays his/her role in our life. 4 sahabat selalu menjadi penghibur ketika mengalami kesedihan. friend has always been an entertainer when we are experiencing grief. 5 maka bersahabatlah yang baik, sebab sahabat sejati  datang bukan karena suatu alasan. it is always good because a true friend does not come for a reason. text 19. banjir= flood no indonesian english 1 semalam rumah vitha kebanjiran, karena hujan deras mengguyur kampungnya. at night, vitha's house was flooded, because the rain flushed her village. 2 hujan turun mulai pukul tiga sore hingga pukul tujuh malam. the rains beginning at 03.00pm 07.00 pm. 3 rumah vitha yang letaknya dekat dengan kali digenangi air setinggi 2 meter. vitha's house is located near the river. slicked by water as high as 2 meters. 4 banyak warga terkejut dengan peristiwa itu. there are many astonished citizen with incident it. 5 mereka ramai-ramai membantu menyelamatkan harta benda milik vitha. they are multitude help to save object asset belong to vitha. text 20. drugs no original revision 1 drugs is one of the very dangerous for health. drug is one of the very dangerous medicines for health. 2 drugs has different effects on our ducing hearbeat, lebing even faster than normal person in many saces. it has different effects to reduce our heartbeat, even faster than normal person in many cases. 3 using drugs to experience the death because overdose. using overdoses of drug is a bad experience because it can bring some to death. 4 therefore avoid drugs from now. therefore, avoid it from now. text 21. ‘english’ no original revision 1 english has almost become an international language. english has become an international language. 2 except for chinese, more people speak it than any other language. many people speak it than any other languages such as chinese and spanish. 3 spanish is the official language of more countries in the world, but more countries have it as their official or unofficial second language. more than 70 percent of the world’s mail is written in it. it is primary language on the internet. spanish is the official language of more countries in the world, but it is their official or unofficial second language. in fact, more than 70 percent of the world’s mail is written in english. it is the primary language on the internet. 4 in international business, it is used more than any other languages, and it is the language of airline pilots and air traffic controllers all over the world. it is also used on the airline pilots and air traffic controllers all over the world. text 22: teacher no original revision 1 teacher is a person who provides education for student. teacher is a person who teaches and educates students. 2 the role of  is often formal and carried out at a school or other place of formal education. his/her role is often formal and it is carried out at a school or other places of formal education. 3 in many countries a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional qualification from a university. in many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional qualification from a university. 4 these professional qualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. this professional qualification may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. 5 teachers like other professionals, may have to continue their education after they qualify a process known as continuing professionals development. teachers, like other professionals, may have to continue their education after they qualify a process known as continuing professional development. text 23: sport no original revision 1 sport is an activity to train a person’s body. sport is an activity to train a person’s body. 2 not only physically but also spiritually. our body gets not only physically but also spiritually healthy. 3 healthy lifestyle should be socialized from small so that the future of our body to be healthy and not easily affected by the disease. healthy lifestyle should be socialized from small age so that our body will be healthy and not be easily affected by disease. 4 exercise is very beneficial to health. exercise is very beneficial for our health. 5 with exercise the body’s metabolism to be smooth, that the distribution and absorption of nutrients in the body to become more effective and efficient. and by exercising would inhibit the decrease in endurance. it can smoothen the body’s metabolism. as a result, the distribution and absorption of nutrients in our body becomes more effective and efficient. it will also strengthen the endurance of our body. text 24: kelimutu lake no original revision 1 mount kelimutu is a volcano lacated in flores island, nusa tenggara timur, indonesia. mount kelimutu is one of the active volcanos, located in ende, flores island, east nusa tenggara province, indonesia. 2 the volcano as three lakes on its crates. it has as three lakes on its crates. 3 the lakes is known as danau tiga warna because the lake has three different colours, red, blue, and white. it is known as danau tiga warna because it has three different colours: red, blue, and white. 4 the name kelimutu is derived from the word”keli” which means mountain and”mutu” which means boiled. its name is derived from the word ”keli” which means mountain and ”mutu” which means boiled. 5 the lake was discovered in 1915 and has become national nature conservation area since february 26, 1992. the lakes are 1.051.000 meter square side with 1.292 millions meter cubic water volume. it was discovered in 1915 and has become one of the national nature conservation areas since february 26, 1992. it is 1,051, 000 meters square side with 1.292 millions meter cubic water volume. text 25: cleanliness no original revision 1 cleanliness is one of the work to be done. cleanliness is one of our activities. 2 we will feel comfortable, if our environment clean and healthy. we will feel comfortable, if our environment is clean and healthy. 3 we should be  conscious to maintain our environment. we should be conscious to maintain it. 4 this conscious will help our environment be free of dirty. our conscious will help it free of dirty. 5 and the other negative impact such as fever. so keep our environment together. it will also be free of other negative impact such as fever. so keep it together. text 26. dry long no original revision 1 this year dry long enough. this year gets long dry season enough. 2 the absorb of trees in the forest as much as water absorbent. the absorption of trees in the forest is as much as water absorbent because many trees have been cut down. 3 have been cut down. 4 besides that , the irigation in the village is not smooth. besides that, the irrigation in the village is not smooth. 5 coupled with an increasingly expensive prices of and lack of knowledge of farmers in working on the farm, therefore, not surprising harvest in the village always fail the problem increases together with an increasingly expensive price and lack of knowledge of farmers in working the farm; therefore, it is not surprising that harvest in the village always fails. biodata drs. anselmus sahan. m.pd. was born in manggarai, flores, east nusa tenggara province, indonesia on 19 april 1965. he finished his elementary, junior and senior high schools in kabupaten regency. he graduated his strata one (s1) from english study program of widya mandira catholic university, kupang, in 1991 and got his master of education from school of english studies, semarang state university, in 2010. he has written and published his articles about (1) logical meaning realization of clause complexes in news stories about the gecko and the crocodile (signifie, unikal, 2010), (2) a study on positions and functions of wh-questions words in amanatun dailect of meto language (metathesis, universitas tidar, 2017), (3) the descriptive study on question words in amanatun dialect of meto language (eltlectura: jurnal pendidikan unilak, 2017), (4) analyses of interval range, divergent and convergent of english test items for senior high school (penulis kedua di international journal of english research 2019), (5) analyzing and describing the oral questionings used by the prospective english teacher in efl classroom (penulis kedua, international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 2019), rhetorical structure of the news story and implication for language teaching (2020), and a mastery study of the expository writing of the third year students of smp negeri naiola (2021). now he is an active lecturer of english study program, faculty of educational sciences, and the head of study center of science and humaniora of timor university, kefamenanu, east nusa tenggara province, indonesia. contact person: 085253547764; or email: anselsahan@gmail.com. issn: 1412-3320 english culture, language teaching & literature a journal of celtcelt accredited by dikti 040/p/2014 celt, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 celt a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature (celt) is published biannually in the months of july and december (issn: 1412-3320) presenting articles on culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics, and literature. contents include analysis, studies, application of theories, research reports, material development, and book reviews. celt was firstly published in december 2001. based on the decree from hasil akreditasi jurnal ilmiah, sk direktur penelitian dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat, direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi, no. 040/p/2014 dated on 18 february 2014, celt is nationally accredited until 2019. editor-in-chief ekawati marhaenny dukut business manager cecilia titiek murniati editors antonius suratno emilia ninik aydawati gerardus majella adhyanggono heny hartono website designer & administrator ridwan sanjaya cover designer oscar santoso correspondence: address: the editors, celt, faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university, henricus constance building, 4 th floor, jl. pawiyatan luhur iv/1, bendan dhuwur, semarang 50234, indonesia; email: celtjournal@gmail.com; celt.unika@yahoo.com; celt@unika.ac.id; website: http://www.journalcelt.com; http://journalcelt.blogspot.com; telephone: +62-24-8316142, 8441555 (hunting) ext. 1705, fax no.: +62-248445265 ________________________________________________________________________________________ celt is published by the faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university. rector: prof. dr. ir. yohanes budi widianarko, m.sc., vice rector for academic affairs: dr. ridwan sandjaja, s.e., s.kom, ms.iec.., vice rector for financial and administration affairs: ineke hantoro, s.t.p., m.sc., vice rector for students’ affairs: lita widyo hastuti,s.psi, msi, vice rector for cooperation and development affairs: dr. marcella elwina simandjuntak, s.h., cn, m.hum., dean: angelika riyandari, s.s., m.a., ph.d., vice dean for academic affairs: dra. cecilia titiek murniati, m.a., ph.d, vice dean of financial and administration affairs: drs. antonius suratno, m.a., ph.d., vice dean for student affairs: b. retang wohangara, s.s., m.hum. ________________________________________________________________________________________ contributions: contributions are welcome from anyone who is concerned with culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature. contributors should consult the current celt manuscript submission guidelines before submitting articles, which contains important information about the focus and format of articles (see back cover). cost per journal is rp 40.000 and is payable through bank bii kas unika soegijapranata, with a bank swift code: ibbkidja, bank acc. no.: 1-575-16246-4, bank acc. name: angelika riyandari dan antonius suratno. ________________________________________________________________________________________ printed by santosa print offset, yogyakarta published and copyright by soegijapranata catholic university press, semarang © 2014. mailto:celtunika@gmail.com mailto:celt.unika@yahoo.com mailto:celt@unika.ac.id http://journalcelt.blogspot.com/ celt issn: 1412-3320 ba journal of culture, english language teaching & literatureb heavenly tears – earthly loss: different ways of coping with life loss in tears in heaven, circus, and since i lost you akun ...............................................................................................................1 constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppet for international students yoseph bambang margono slamet .................................................................16 using popular culture's media of indonesian-english picturebooks as a way of reaching more vegetable consuming children ekawati marhaenny dukut, maya putri utami, adi nugroho, novita ika putri, and probo y. nugrahedi ................................................................................36 cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops nur utami sari’at kurniati ............................................................................48 analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers anna marietta da silva ...................................................................................63 teacher questioning in classroom interaction sarlita dewi matra ........................................................................................82 students' perspectives on the role of open access centre and language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills wuryani hartanto ......................................................................................112 celt, vol.14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops extent to which meaning can still be adequately conveyed across languages. for this to be feasible, meaning has to be understood not only in terms of what the source text contains, but also in terms of target audience and purpose of translation. in linguistic untranslatability, the functionally relevant features include some which are in fact formal features of the language of the source language text. if the target language has no formally corresponding feature, the text, or the item, is (relatively) untranslatable. what appears to be a quite different problem arises, however, when a situational feature, functionally relevant for the source text, is completely absent in the culture of target language. as culture has something to do with the concept, source language texts and items are more or less translatable rather than absolutely translatableoruntranslatable. an adaptation, then, is a procedure whereby the translator replaces a term with cultural connotations, where those connotations are restricted to readers of the original language text, with a term with corresponding cultural connotations that would be familiar to readers of the translated text. translating such culturally untranslatable items entails profound knowledge on both source and target cultures. most cases in this particular work are solved by keepingcultural terms in the source language text, with or without explanation. ecological, social, and religious culture terms undergo the process most frequently. key words: cultural untranslatability, target culture, source language text, unequivalence nur utami sari'at kurniati utamiutar@yahoo.com english department, pakuan university abstract: the notion of translatability is possibly done with the utami sk, nur, cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops 49 abstrak: penerjemahan dilakukan sepanjang pesan sebuah teks bisa disampaikan dalam bahasa lain dengan makna yang sama. proses ini dimungkinkan jika makna dipahami tidak hanya dalam teks bahasa sumber, melainkan juga dalam kaitannya dengan pembaca sasaran dan tujuan penerjemahan itu sendiri. kesulitan penerjemahan sangat berhubungan dengan sifat-sifat formal bahasa yang dipakai dalam teks sumber. jika bahasa sasaran tidak memiliki sifat-sifat yang sama, teks tersebut (relatif) tidak bisa diterjemahkan. masalah lainnya adalah jika ada sifat situasional dalam teks sumber yang sama sekali tidak terdapat dalam budaya bahasa sasaran. namun, karena budaya terkait dengan konsep, teks bahasa sumber sangat mungkin diterjemahkan dengan makna yang kurang lebih sama. oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan proses adaptasi. dalam proses ini penerjemah menggantikan istilah budaya yang hanya diketahui oleh pembaca teks bahasa sumber dengan istilah budaya yang serupa yang lebih dikenal oleh pembaca teks bahasa sasaran. menerjemahkan teks seperti ini memerlukan pengetahuan mendalam mengenai budaya sumber dan budaya sasaran. penerjemahan sebagian besar kasus dalam karya yang dianalisis dalam penelitian ini dilakukan dengan mempertahankan istilah budaya dalam teks bahassa sumber, dengan atau tanpa keterangan penjelas. istilah yang paling sering mengalami proses tersebut adalah entitas yang terkait dengan ekologi, sosial dan keagamaan. kata kunci: penerjemahan, istilah budaya, budaya sasaran, teks bahasa sumber, ketidaksetaraan rationale one of the ways of cross-cultural communication to be possible is through translation. it may be perceived as a means of transfering message in a language (source language) into that of another language (target language). mcguire (1980, p. 2) mentioned translation involves the transfer of ‘meaning’ contained in one set of language signs into another set of language signs through competent use of the dictionary and grammar; the process involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria as well. sang and zhang (2008) wrote that communication across languages and cultures is a markedly complex issue, and translation is more than just a careful linguistic transfer. it is a purposeful action designed to achieve the most effective result in the target group. translating from a text in a language 50 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 48-62 to that in another is, however, not that easy. sometime we face specific terms with no equivalence in the target language. translating from a text in a language to that in another is, however, not that easy. sometime we face specific terms with no equivalence in the target language. the notion of translatabilityand untranslatability is not a clear-cut incongruity. translation may be done with the extent to which meaning can still be adequately conveyed across languages. source language texts are more or less translatable rather than absolutely translatableoruntranslatable. what appears to be a quite different problem arises, however, when a situational feature, functionally relevant for the source language text, is completely absent in the culture of which the target language is a part (catford, 1965, p. 93). that is always the case, as no matter how good the translation, something always seems to be lost. nolan (2010, p. 57) mentioned people from different culture use the language with different words and expression which sometime are not perfectly translated into one another. here is the example: the language of dessert people have more words referring to what other people call sand and the language of the inuit people has many word for ice. hatim and munday (2004, p. 15) perceived translatability asa relative notion, and ithas to do with the extent to whichmeaning can still be adequately expressed across languages. this might be possible when meaning is understood in terms of such factors as communicative purpose, target audience and purpose of translation. this paper primarily concerns on the cultural terms in laskar pelangi, a work by andrea hirata (2008), from which the english version is published in 2009. the focus of this paper is to find out what kinds of cultural terms used and what strategies applied by the translator to cope with those terms. translatability and untranslatability dealing with untranslatable concepts, whether represented in words or phrases, is an avoidable problem when translating. catford (1965, p. 93) proposed two types of untranslatability, which he terms linguistic and cultural. on the linguistic level, untranslatability occurs when there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in the target language for a source language utami sk, nur, cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops 51 item. cultural untranslatability is due to the absence in the target language culture of a relevant situational feature forthe source langauge text. he quotes the example of the different concepts of the term bathroom in an english, finnish, or japanese contexts, where both the object and the use made of that object are not at all alike. but catford also claimed that more abstract lexical items such as the english term home or democracy cannot be described as untranslatable, and argues that the english phrases i’m going home can ‘readily be provided with translation equivalence in most languages’ whilst the term democracy is international. to serve as an example, the word home and house in english are different notion, but both possibly be translated as rumah in indonesian. a. cultural untranslatability culture is a more general tendency rather than individual personality and it changes over time (nida, 2001, p. 18-9) and is reflected by language (hatim and mason, 1989, p. 237). culture is a group-based notion. as a relative concept, something acceptable in one group is not necessarily a good and respectable in the other groups. newmark (1987, p. 94) defined culture as the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression. it includes objects, processes, institutions, customs, ideas peculiar to one group of people. as culture is related to a specific group of people and it is reflected in the language of the group, equivalence in languages is something relative consequently. baker (2001, pp. 21-26) presented some common types of nonequivalence at word level. those are culture-specific concept, lexicalization of the source language concept in the target language, the source language word which is semantically complex, the different distinctions in meaning between the source and target language, the lacks of a superordinate in the target language, the lacks of a specific term (hyponym) in the target language, differences in physical or interpersonal perspective, differences in expressive meaning, differences in form, differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms, and the use of loan words in the source text. getting layed out the meaning associated with social distinction, i would like to go over the reason why the idea of cultural untranslatability is essential. the actual main cause refers to nida (1964, p. 12) that the greatest interpretation does not feel like the translation. naturalness is really a crucial requirement (munday, 2001, p. 42). 52 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 48-62 certainly, a translation frequently needs an excellent interpretation which displays 'naturalness', even though description associated with 'quality' differs based on the interpretation environment or even objective and purpose (nord, 1997). the idea of cultural untranslatability is essential once the cultural distinction is excellent simply because, without having coping with this, translators cannot achieve 'naturalness' as well as express the actual source text's purpose. in order to demonstrate the significance associated with cultural untranslatability, i've attracted upon linguistic items which consist of several phrases in order to signify particular cultural specificity within the wide sense. there are 2 causes of this particular: 1) connections between social specificity as well as 2) converting the socio-cultural item (newmark, 1987, pp. 82-84). converting the socio-cultural item doesnot include the social distinction. in this paper, i'd like to go over below exactly what conditions a word is actually untranslatable, or even exactly what decides the actual event associated with cultural (un) translatability within the target culture. this is essential simply because, for example, the culturally incongruous interpretation can be utilized being suitable inside an interpretation in which the audience allows this. the actual ambiguity within the indisputable fact that source text messaging tend to be pretty much untranslatable (catford, 1965, p. 93). for this function, we presuppose that we now have a few problems associated with event associated with cultural untranslatability, as well as there is a determining element with regard to this kind of problems. b. the problems of unequivalence baker (2001) proposed the notion of unequivalence at various levels. at word level, culture-specific concept is the most common factor leading to untranslatability. the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. the concept may relate to religious belief and social customs. aspects which may appear as culture-specific conceptcover ecological culture, social culture, material culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (nida and taber, 1969). these words are examples in indonesian to utami sk, nur, cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops 53 represent those five aspects, which may not be easily found their equivalence in other languages: pancuran, siraman, kendi, and maghrib. some of those culture-specific concepts are not lexicalizedin the target language. the source language word may express a concept which is known in the target culture but simply not lexicalized. the word standar (indonesian) is preferable when translating english word standard which means ordinary. some cultures have words which are semantically complex. the word siraman means the ceremonial eventin a javanese (a traditional tribe in indonesia) wedding a bride has to get through the day before the wedding, taking place in her parent’s house, where she has to be bathed by seven people and closed with the dropping of kendi by the make-up artist. the different distinctions in meaning between the source and target language may cause another problem. indonesian people will find it difficult to translate english phrase going out in the rain unless the context is provided the detail. in indonesian, we use different words when people are going out in the rain without knowing it before and with the knowledge that it is raining. the first we use kehujanan and the second is hujan-hujanan. the lacks of a superordinate and the lacks of a specific term (hyponym) in the target languagealso make the translator hard to find the correct words. indonesian has padi, gabah, beras, and nasi but has no general term for them, while english uses rice. physical or interpersonal perspective may be considered important in one language than it is in another. indonesian has some word for english word bring: membawa, menjinjing, mencangklong, memanggul, menyunggi, menggendong, etc. differences in expressive meaning, differences in form, differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms are some other notions that cause problem in cultural translation. in indonesian, the phrase hujan lebat is heavy rainin english. indonesian people use lebat in the particular phrase (thick) to illustrate a heavy rain. the use of loan word in the source language text may pose another problem. loan word chic in english may lose its sense of sophistication in the target language. indonesian may have the word anggun or menawan, but it does not reflect the actual meaning of chic. 54 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 48-62 dealing with those cultural matters, a translator may have some strategies to use. the first strategy used by a translator is leaving the word in its original language and inserting an explanation (nolan, 2010, p. 57-58). others are using a more general word, more neutral word, cultural substitution, loan word with explanation, paraphasing, using unrelated word, omision, illustration (baker, 2001, pp. 26-42). findings and discussion a. about the novel in this paper, some examples are taken from indonesian best seller novel laskarpelangi (hirata 2008), translated into english by angie kilbane under the title the rainbow troops (published in 2009). this particular work was first published in 2005, yet in this paper, i refer to the 23rd printed edition. it has now been adapted into motion picture and musical drama. as a literary work, laskar pelangi is an oasis in indonesian literary time, which was flooded by thousands of chicklit back at the time. not only does it tell a story of a wonderful childhood, it also contains a unique, new way of telling a story. set on the indonesian island of belitong, it conveys a sad tale with laughter and lightheartedness. it tells of oppressed, marginalized people protesting in admirably good humor, without swearing, violence, divisive political movement, and anyone to take up their cause. the vicissitudes of growing up are depicted brilliantly. the reader will be touched by an absurd yet pure first love, and one can’t help but smile at the innocence of the children as they earnestly plan their futures. it also tackles serious issues, such as the right to education and corporate exploitation, while framing those sensitive issues within the tale of a beautiful childhood journey and friendship of ten country children. laskar pelangi (the rainbow troops), set on belitong island, indonesia, tells the story of a tight-knit group of hardship. fabulously rich in natural resources, belitong is also home to chronic poverty and educational discrimination. this amazing story tells a persistent young teacher and her tireless efforts to fight for her ten students’ right to an education. together, they take the reader on a journey through the beauty of childhood friendship, the inspiration of love, and the power of education. both the teacher and the students’ magnetic personalities and unflagging determination are sure to inspire. utami sk, nur, cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops 55 this inspirational novel is the first book in the rainbow troops quartet. sang pemimpi (the dreamer), edensor, and maryamah karpov are the other three books in the series. the beautiful story of rainbow troops was adapted for the big screen in 2008. it has found success not only in indonesia, but also worldwide, and received some awards, including: a showing at the berlin international film festival (panorama), 2009 golden butterfly award, 23rd international children & young adults film festival, iran, 2009 3rd place audience award, 11th udine far east international film, 2009 signis award, hong kong international film festival, 2009 best film, bandung film festival, 2009 best film, indonesian film festival, 2009 nomination for best film and best editor, asian film awards, 2009 musical drama, 2011 b. unequivalences in both works this paper presents data from both works (laskar pelangi and the rainbow troops) and categorizes them according to baker (2001) about unequivalence. to begin with, let us have a review on baker (2001) about unequivalence, especially in word-level. as mentioned earlier in this paper, there are five aspects which may appear as culture-specific concept. it covers ecological culture, social culture, material culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. observe the following examples. (1a) permainan kuno nan legendaris itu disebut tarak. (hirata, 2008, p. 168) (1b) herein lay the appeal of the ancient and legendary game of tarak. (kilbane, 2009, p. 132) the word tarak in sentence (1a) is the example of ecological culture term. in the game of tarak, which is played mostly in the belitong area, two rubber 56 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 48-62 fruits were stacked and then hit with the palm of the hand. whichever fruitdidn’t break was the winner. it was a game that opened the rainy season, a warm up for the far more exciting games to come when the rain flooded down from the sky. the translator keeps some more ecological words in the source language. there are words dealing with plants, which may not be found in the target language. those words are gayam tree, santigi tree, kupang tree, bintang tree, jengkol beans, rambutan seed, aren fruit, pinang hantu tree, medang tree and angsana tree to name a few. there are also some words about animals in the area: prigantil birds, pinang barik snakes, satam stone, manau snakes, and jalak kerbau birds. social culture words are found in the work and here are some examples. (2a) sembilan orang, baru sembilan orang pamanda guru, masih kurang satu. (hirata, 2008, p. 2) (2b) nine people, just nine people, pamanda guru, still short one. (kilbane, 2009, p. 2) the word pamanda is an example of social culture term. pamanda is an addressing form for a man in the area. it is used to someone of a close relative, meaning uncle. (3a) bau hangus yang kucium tadi ternyata adalah bau sandal cunghai, yakni sandal yang dibuat dari ban mobil, yang aus karena lintang terlalu jauh mengayuh sepeda. (hirata, 2008, p. 11) (3b) that burnt smell i noticed earlier was actually the smell of his cunghai sandals, made from car tires. (kilbane, 2009, p. 11) cunghai is a specific term for rubber sandals, which is usually used by people of suburban area in belitong. (4a) bagi lintang, tempat sekolah kami ini, adalah metropolitan yang harus ditempuh dengan sepeda sejak subuh. (hirata, 2008, p. 11) utami sk, nur, cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops 57 (4b) for lintang, the city district of our school was like a metropolitan city, and to get there he had to begin his bicycle journey at subuh, early morning prayer, around four o’clock a.m. (kilbane, 2009, p. 11-12) subuh is one of five compulsory prayers in islam, considered the first prayers and done early in the morning before sunrise. the exact time for subuh may vary from time to time, but no later than 04.40 in the morning. there are some other religious culture terms: maghrib, tasbih, kopiah, azan, zuhur, halal, and lebaran. (5a) lebih mudah menyerahkannya pada tauke pasar pagi untuk jadi tukang parut atau pada juragan pantai untuk menjadi kuli kopra agar dapat membantu ekonomi keluarga. (hirata, 2008, p. 2) (5b) it would have been much easier to send me to work as a helper for a chinese grocery stall owner at morning market, or to the coast to work as a coolie to help ease the family’s financial burdens. (kilbane, 2009, p. 2) in sentences (5b), the word me is choosen to replace the pronoun –nya in the indonesian version. the pronoun is a third person singular, but since the previous sentences are talking about the main character (me, first person point of view), it is a lot easier for readers to grab the meaning when the translator uses me instead of him. one difference between two language is the difference in form for some lexical categories. next is the use of loan words in the source text. see the following sentences. (6a) aichang, phok, kiaw, dan khaknai, seluruhnya adalah perangkat penambangan timah primitif yang sekarang dianggap temuan arkeologi, bukti bahwa nenek moyang mereka telah lama sekali berada di pulau belitong. (hirata, 2008, p. 35) (6b) their terms for these techniques, aichang, phok, kiaw, and khaknai, are still spoken by mayal tin prospectors to this day. kilbane, 2009, p. 41) 58 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 48-62 c. strategies employed by the translator as aforementioned, dealing with cultural untranslatability probably has to do with some strategies: translating by a more general words, more neutral/less expressive words, cultural substitution, loan word or loan word plus explanation, paraphrase using related words, paraphrasing unrelated words, omission, and illustration. look at the following strategies the translator employs. (7a) jumpai aku di acara sembahyang rebut. (hirata, 2008, p. 257) (7b) meet me at chiong ki su. (kilbane, 2009, p. 21) in sentence (7b), the translator uses chiong ki sufor sembahyang rebut, a more general and widely-known term. this strategy is also applied to the following. (8a) hari ini pak harfan mengenakan baju takwa yang dulu pasti berwarna hijau tapi kini warnanya pudar menjadi putih. (hirata, 2008, p. 21) (8b) on this first day, pak harfan wore a simple shirt that at some point must have been green, but was now white. (kilbane, 2009, p. 23) in (8b) the translator uses simple shirt to replace baju takwa, which is a more specific kind of shirt. baju takwa is a moslem shirt, usually with some embroidery on it and comes in many light colors. it might both short and long sleeved. (9a) n.a. sahara aulia fadillah binti k.a. muslim ramdhani fadillah, gadis kecil berkerudung itu, memang keras kepala luar biasa. (hirata, 2008, p. 14) (9b) sahara was extraordinary hard-headed. (kilbane, 2009, p. 15) in (9b), the translator omits some parts of the source text, leaving only the main word, sahara. next strategy is using loan word or loan word plus explanation, as shown in the following sentences, though there is not enough explanation for some words. utami sk, nur, cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops 59 (10) subhanallah, my goodness, lintang, praise allah’s holiness, praise allah’s holiness. (kilbane, 2009, p. 55) (11) i read books on the angkot, the public transportation minivan. (kilbane, 2009, p. 434) if i consider local language as a loan words, then the following sentences serve as examples of keeping loan words without explanation. (12a) kiak-kiak! a miauw memanggil tak sabar, dan bang sad tergopoh-gopoh menghampirinya. (hirata, 2008, p. 201) (12b) kiak-kiak! a miauw summoned his coolie, bang arsyad, telling him to come quickly. (kilbane, 2009, p. 164) the translator also uses illustration and explanation to give information for the reader, as in the following sentences. (13a) lalu persis di bawah matahari tadi tertera huruf-huruf arab gundul yang nanti setelah kelas dua, setelah aku pandai membaca huruf arab, aku tahu bahwa tulisan itu berbunyi amar makruf nahi munkar artinya menyuruh kepada yang makruf dan mencegah dari yang mungkar. itulah pedoman utama warga muhamadiyah. (hirata, 2008, p. 19) (13b) i knew the sentence read amar makruf nahi munkar, meaning do what is good and prevent what is evil – the primary principle of muhamadiyah, the second largest islamic organization in indonesia with more than 30 millions members. (kilbane, 2009, p. 18-19) d. naturalness this book is marvelously translated, however, it reads unnatural when it comes to the proper names. some song titles are translated instead of given the explanation on their contents. even the whole song is presented in english. look at the followings. (14) a kiong was singing berkibarlah benderaku – may my flag flutter – as if he were a drill sergeant . (kilbane, 2009, p. 112) 60 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 48-62 (15) after having been scolded by bu mus for always singing the song potong bebek angsa – chop the goose’s neck – this time i decided to progress a little with a new song: indonesia tetap merdeka, or indonesia forever free by c. simanjuntak. (kilbane, 2009, p. 113) the name of a shop, the name of a radio station, and a poem below also undergo the unnecessary translation process. (16) sinar harapan shop – ray of hope shop, the one and only place that sold chalk in east belitong, was very far away. (kilbane, 2009, p. 160) (17) lintang obtained knowledge from pak harfan’s book collection, and mahar had artistic insight – plus he knew about music because he hung out with the locat radio broadcasters from suara pengejawantahan (the voice of manifestation) am. (kilbane, 2009, p. 123) (18a) dengar anak muda, mana bisa kau hargai karya sastra bermutu, nanti jika buya menulis lagi buku si kancil anak nakal suka mencuri timun barulah buku itu cocok buatmu. (hirata, 2008, p. 76) (18b) may be if buya writes a book called the bad little boy who steals cucumbers, it would be more suitable for your literary tastes. kilbane, 2009, p. 63) concluding remarks translating a source text is aimed to get the message across in the target language. since meaning is contextual, some words which may seem to be untranslatable at first come to be something understandable with the little help from context. without having discovering as well as coping with the untranslatability, translators might neglect to express the actual naturalness as well as the actual source text's accurate purpose. with respect to the idea associated with correctness towards the socio-cultural framework, nevertheless, a few translations may certainly end up being inappropriate in the target culture. utami sk, nur, cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops 61 converting this kind of culturally untranslatable products involves adequate understanding of the actual lifestyle and culture. cultural translation and its attendants quandaries – knowing when to explain something and when to just leave it as it – should be the main concern. it entails profound knowledge on both source and target cultures. dealing with cultural untranslatability has to do with some strategies: translating by a more general words, more neutral/less expressive words, cultural substitution, loan word or loan word plus explanation, paraphrase using related words, paraphrasing unrelated words, omission, and illustration. most cases in this particular work are solved by keeping cultural terms in the source language text, with or without explanation. ecological, social, and religious culture terms undergo the process most frequently. references baker, m. (1992). in other words: a coursebook on translation. london and new york: routledge. catford, j.c. (1965). a linguistic theory of translation. london: oxford university press. hatim, b. and munday, j. (2004). translation: an advanced resource book. london: routledge. hatim, b. and mason, i. (1989). the translator as communicator. london: longman. hirata, a. (2008). laskar pelangi. yogyakarta: bentang pustaka. hirata, a. (2009). rainbow troops. (translated by angie kilbane). yogyakarta: bentang pustaka. mcguire, b. (1980). translation studies. london: methuen. munday, j. (2001). translation studies, london: routledge. newmark, p. (1987). a textbook of translation. new york: prentice hall. nida, e. (1964). toward a science of translating, with special reference to principles and procedures involved in bible translating. leiden: brill. 62 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 48-62 nida, e. (2001). contexts in translating. amsterdam: john benjamins. nida, e. and taber, c. (1969). theory and practice of translation. leiden: ej brill. nolan, j. (2010). interpretation, techniques and exercises. bristol: multilingual matters. nord, c. (1997). translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. manchester: st. jerome. sang, j. and zhang, g. (2008). communication across languages and cultures, a perspective of brand name translation from english to chinese. journal of asian pasific cmmunication. volume 18 (2), pp. 225246. ( 13 ) the description of student’s problems in writing skill 1irmawati, 2la aba 3enni akhmad 1irmawati@gmail.com 2laaba@iaingorontalo.ac.id 3enniakhmad@gmail.com english education department, tarbiyah and teacher training faculty, iain sultan amai gorontalo, indonesia abstract: the description of student’s problems in writing skill research objectives to find out students’ problems in writing skill and to find out what factors hinder students’ability in writing. this thesis uses a qualitative method. the data collection techniques are through observation, decumentation and interviews. finding research; the students’ problems in writing skill are text coherence, choice of vocabulary/grammar, content. spiling. student do not know how to make a sentence and also often make mistakes. besides being difficult because of the many things to learn in grammar, this skill also has a variety of formulas for constructing various types of sentences that must be remembered. on spelling, writing skill can be improved by frequently reading english book. factors that hinder students’ ability in writing are factor that students lack mastery of vocabulary and geammar. the factors that students are not interested in writing and environmental factors that dp not support students to use english. this happens because of the low motivation of teachersand students lack of supporting facilities such as magazines and reference books/stories in english suggestions are submitted: the teachers could help the students to practice the use of language in written form. this technique is helpful for the students to be more enthusiastic to write english. therefore, this technique is recommended to the english teachers to give the student more exercises of writing activity by trying to vary the teachers’ model in teaching and making the classroom as interesting as possible. so, the students will be more interesed in learning english especially in writing. keywords: students’ problems, writing skill. abstrak: pengaruh smartphone terhadap pemahaman membaca siswa tujuan penelitian untuk mengetahui kendala siswa dalam keterampiln menulis dan untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor apa yang menghambat kemampuan siswa dalam menulis skripsi ini menggunakan metode kualitatif. taknik pengumpulan data melalui observasi, dokumentasi dan wawancara. hasil penelitian; masalah siswa dalam keterampilan menulis adalah koherensi teks, pilihan kosa kata/tata bahasa, isi, ejaan. siswa tidak tahu cara membuat kalimat dan juga sering melakukan kesalahan. selain sulit karena banyk hal yang harus dipelajari dalam grammar, skill ini juga memiliki berbagai rumus untuk menyuun berbagai jenis kalimat yang harus diingat. pasa ejaan, keterampilan menulis dapat ditingkatkan dengan sering membaca buku bahasa inggris. faktor yng menghambat kemampuan siswa dalam menulis adalah faktor siswa kurang menguasai kosakata dan tata bahas. faktor siswa yang tidak tertarik menulis dan faktor lingkungan yang tidak mendukung siswa untuk menggunakan bahasa inggris. hal ini terjadi karena rendahnya motivasi guru dan siswa, kurangnya fasilitas penunjang seperti majalah dan buku referensi/cerita berbahasa inggris saran yang diajukan: guru dapat membantu siswa untuk mempraktekkan penggunan bahasa dalam bentuk tulisan. teknik ini sangat membantu siswa untuk lebih bersemangat dalam menulis bahasa inggris. oleh karena itu, teknik ini direkomendasikan kepada guru bahasa inggris untuk memberikan siswa lebih banyak latihan aktivitas menulis dengan mencoba mempariasikan model guru dalam mengajar dan membuat kelas semenarik mungkin. jadi, para siswa akan lebih tertarik untuk belajar bahasa inggris terutama dalam menulis kata kunci: masalah siswa, kemampuan menulis. ii introduction writing is a language skill that is most recently mastered after someone is skilled at listening (listening), speaking and reading. therefore, people generally think or think that writing is something that is very difficult to do. writing is a kind of effort to transfer spoken language into written language. language ability is an effort to express ideas, thoughts, and feelings in a properly written language. this means that by writing a language one can express his/her ideas, feelings, more freely and correctly.[footnoteref:1] [1: heaton heaton. john. brian . teaching esl writing. united states: 1997, p.141] writing activities can give birth to thoughts and feelings through writing. we can convey all what is in our mind or our feelings in the form of a writing. writing is one of the languages that must be learned by everyone including students such as other skills, speaking, reading and listening. writing is a form of thinking, because writing is changing the thoughts or ideas of the authors into written texts. in other words, what the writer wants to say to the reader can be written in written form. a writer must have knowledge, experience and insight, religion, the sundries of life and writing skills that are presented to the audience. thus, the reader can find the need for insight that can help smooth his life in a comfortable and easy-to-digest. someone who will write must have the ability to present an idea, sentence, structure and vocabulary. writing skills will not come automatically: students have to follow the exercises and practice writing. in other words, can be successful if they know how to use their ideas and now they are clear. so to formulate a good use of writing, students need to develop the confidence that will enable them to cope.[footnoteref:2] [2: sri wahyuni, error analysis of semester ii students in writing descriptive texts, journal volume vii number 2. july – december 2016 issn 2086 – 1397] writing skills can be acquired and developed through learning that includes both process and results. the development of writing skills is mastered through theoretical deepening and needs to be balanced with practice. in connection with some of the things that have been said, writing is a complex activity. complexity occurs in the use of various aspects to produce a piece of writing. these aspects begin to initiate ideas to be written, knowledge and experience about ideas and types of writing, pouring them into the right language order, presenting them in accordance with the characteristics of discourse and writing conventions. some of the difficulties of students in writing include lack of finding literacy, inability to organize essays, managing effective grammar such as developing paragraphs to writing techniques that are still lacking. this is due to the lack of reading culture as a form of literacy search and its results , errors occur in the preparation of scientific papers, including spelling errors, vocabulary, ineffective use of sentences, and inappropriate paragraphs . literature review definition of writing writing is the way to communicate with other people by using words. according to richard nordquis, writing is a system of graphic symbols that can be used to convey meaning. writing is the action of composing a text. while according to merriam webster, there are some definitions of writing. first, writing is the act or process of one who writes. second, writing is something written, such as; letters or characters that serve as visible signs of ideas, words, or symbols; a letter, note, or notice used to communicate or record; and written composition. third, writing is a style or form of essay. and fourth, writing is the occupation of a writer, especially the profession of authorship.[footnoteref:3] [3: nordquist, r. 2019. definitions, examples, and observations of writing] nunan in yuniati (2015) believes that writing is the act of creating ideas, think the way to express thoughts, and manage the concept into sentences or paragraphs to make them clear to a reader. gaith, also in yuniati (2015), said that writing is the process that passed by a writer to scour his ideas and thought and make their ideas are concrete. byrne in junaid (2012) states that writing is more than the prediction of the sounds. the symbols have arranged according to specifications in the convention. as a rule, however, the students do not write just one sentence or several the sentence as arranged in particular order and linked together in specific ways. widdowson, also in junaid (2012), states that writing is a communicative activity and carried out by one specific general principle in which underlines the use of language in communication.[footnoteref:4] [4: junaid. 2012. venn diagram method for students’ ability in writing at intensive english class of unismuh makassar. exposure journal. vol. 1. no. 2.] from all the descriptions above, it concluded that writing is the use of words, symbols to represent the speech sounds or language in text form and to express the thoughts and ideas of someone to be read by the other people. according to junaid g.j, there are five components of writing. the five elements are content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. 1) content is the topic development serviced by the writer. it is how the writerdelivers his thoughts about the topic in paragraphs. 2) the organization is how the writer makes his paragraph scoherent with eachother. 3) vocabulary is the use of diction in organizing the paragraph switch out making the ideas or topic is hazy. 4) language use refers to the use of the correct grammatical and syntactic patternon separating, combining, and grouping ideas in words, phrases, clauses, andsentences to bring out the logical relationship in paragraph writing. 5) mechanics refers to the use of graphic conventional of the language, i.e., the steps of arranging letters, word sentences, paragraphs by using knowledge ofthe structure, and some others related to one another. nurgiantoro in yuniati mentioned some components in scoring writing that is organization, content, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanic. 1) organization mean show the writer organizeshis idea. wethereach paragraph is organize well or not. the organization of the text is fluent in expressing, reveal clearly ideas, good organization, logic sequence and cohesive. 2) content refers to the development of the topic using supporting sentences. the excellent content had to fulfill the criteria such as full of information;substantive makes a clear thesis development and relevant to the problem. 3) language means the students use practical complex sentence construction and make only a few faults in the use of grammar. 4) vocabulary means if the students could choose the correct words as it is function and master informing words. 5) mechanic means a paragraph is a combination of some sentences which need proper spelling and punctuation. if the use of punctuation is not appropriate, the article will be unreadable. so the students should be mastered in writing a good paragraph.[footnoteref:5] [5: yuniati, d. 2015. the effectiveness of picture word inductive model (pwim) for teaching writing recount text] based on the description of the aspects or elements in writing above, itconcludes that there are some aspects or features in writing that are content or central idea, organization, language use or grammar, vocabulary or choice of words, and mechanic. 2.1.2 writing purpose writing is used by educated people for various purposes such as note-taking, recording, convincing, informing, and influencing. tarigan divides writing goals from inexperienced writers as follows:[footnoteref:6] [6: tarigan, henry thunder. writing as a language skill p. 24] 1. telling or teaching (informative discourse) a writer can disseminate information through his writings such as journalists in newspapers, tabloids, magazines or other print mass media. the writings on the print media often contain information about events or events, be it facts, data or events, including: opinions and views on facts, data and events so that readers gain new knowledge and understanding about various things. 2. convincing or pressing (persuasive discourse) through writing, a writer can influence the beliefs of his readers and hopes that the reader can determine his attitude, whether to agree or support what is stated. the author must be able to persuade and convince the reader by using a persuasive style of language. therefore, the persuasion function of an article will be able to produce if the author is able to present it in an attractive, familiar, friendly, and easy-to-digest language style. method 0. method and design of research 3.1.1 types of research the research design used is descriptive qualitative research. descriptive qualitative research is a research that intends to understand the phenomenon of what is experienced by the research subject, for example about behavior, perception, motivation and others holistically by means of description in the form of words and language in a special natural context. [footnoteref:7] in this study describe through primary data. [7: ] 3.1.2 research approach approach can be interpreted as an effort in research activities to establish relationships with the object under study.[footnoteref:8]the approach is an effort to achieve the targets that have been determined in the research objectives. suharsimi arikunto said that although the research problem is the same, sometimes researcher can choose one of two or more types of approaches that can be used in solving problems.[footnoteref:9] [8: hadari nawawi and martini hadari, research instruments in the social sector (cet.ii; yogyakarta: gajah mada university press, 1995), p. 66.] [9: suharsimi arikunto, research procedure: a practical approach (cet. xiv; jakarta: rineka cipta, 2010), p. 108.] the approach used in this research is as follows: a. sociological approach, which is the approach used to analyze student errors in writing skills that are in thestudents of mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, gorontalo regency from various social phenomena that are interrelated with this research. b. the phenomenological approach, which is an approach used to understand a fact, symptoms and events whose form can be observed and assessed through scientific glasses, this approach is used to objectively reveal facts, symptoms and events related to the research problem. 3.2 setting of research to obtain the data needed in this study, the research will be carried out on students who are in students of mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, gorontalo regency with the research subject of class vii totaling 22 students consisting of 12 female students and 10 male students. 3.3 subject of research in conducting this study the authors used data sources consisting of primary data and secondary data. an explanation of the data sources can be stated in the following description: 3.3.1 primary data sources primary data sources in this study are data sources obtained directly from informants in the field according to the problems discussed in this study. the informants in this study were students who were in students of mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, gorontalo. in this study, the total number of informants for students who were in students of mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, was 10 informants. and considering the number of informants with such a short research time and limited funding, as well as available personnel, in this study it is not possible for researcher to examine all informants, so that researcher remain in accordance with their objectives, so researcher need to take some of the existing informants with a view to reduce the object under study.[footnoteref:10] [10: ibid h. 109] result and discussion to obtain information and research results, researchers conducted research on an object of research, namely mts. nuruttaqwa limboto. in this research, the researcher focuses on the research on teachers and students and researcher to find out students' problems in writing skills and to find out what factors hinder students' ability in writing. data was collected by interviewing resource persons, namely the english teacher and six students in english learning activities[footnoteref:11]. the interview technique uses a question guide that has been prepared in advance, and it is possible that the interview can be developed independently of the question guide as long as there is still a close relationship with the problem to be studied to clarify the answers of the interviewees. as well as the teacher and student observation sheets in class activitie. [11: delfiani manan, salma laroko, moh alim yusuf, widya lakuma, alvian katili, fitriani moito. interview with class vii students at mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, interview. may 8, 2022 ] 4.2 discussion of research writing, like the other three language skills, is a developmental process. writing demands experience, time, opportunity, practice, special skills, and direct teaching to be a writer. writing demands ideas that are logically arranged, clearly expressed, and arranged in an attractive manner. writing is an activity to express thinking and feeling with other people. learning to write is done to help and encourage students to express language in written form, or components prepared by educators to produce behavioral changes in learning to write . agood writing will lead the readers understand the event and they can almost feelthe event in the work that they read. moreover, there are several elements whichare needed in composing good writing include vocabulary, content, grammar,styles and mechanics. when we write, we give our ideas and information to reader. in the discussion section, the research will explain what are the students' problems in writing skills in english learning. in this research, researchers found several problems in writing skills in english learning by using observation and interviews. in this research, researchers used observations and interview texts that were distributed and asked to students and used interview texts to educators to find out problems in writing skills in learning english. after conducting research, the researcher found several problems in learning english, especially in writing skills. students who can write in english well and correctly often have good english skills as well. writing as a productive skill is considered more difficult because the process involves thinking skills (thinking skills) and the rules are more stringent, namely grammar, spelling, coherence, cohesion, writing style, etc. it was also conveyed by students that: i like to speak english but i find it difficult to write english.[footnoteref:12] [12: delfiani manan. interview with class vii students at mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, interview. may 8, 2022] students also said that: my difficulty in writing english is that everything i write does not match the pronunciation.[footnoteref:13] [13: salma lakoro. interview with class vii students at mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, interview. may 8, 2022] from the problems obtained by the researchers from this research using observation and interview texts that were distributed and asked to students and teacer, the researchers found problems in the writing skills of students, namely that most students what they wrote did not match the way they read and pronounce it. the participation of students' motivation in learning english, especially writing skills, is very lacking. the students said : “my problem with writing skills is that i don’t know many vocabularies and when come to class, the teacher only give a book and told to take notes”[footnoteref:14] [14: moh alim yusuf. interview with class vii students at mts. nuruttaqwa limboto, interview. may 8, 2022 ] the problems that researchers get to teacher are lack of methods and strategies in learning english, especially in writing skills. so that when entering the class, the educator only gives an english printed book and students are only asked to write down what is in the english printed book. based in research, it is necessary for students to be taught well in mastering these aspects so that they can do everything well, for example in terms of writing what the teacher dictates. informants as english teachers provide information that: madrasah tsanawiyah private nuruttaqwa limboto is a kind of junior high school which is equivalent to a junior high school in general, but madrasah tsanawiyah is specifically for students who are muslim. private madrasah tsanawiyah nuruttaqwa limboto has an english teacher but the students' writing skills are still minimal, students also don't know how to make a sentence and also often make mistakes. in grammar, writing skill is one of the most avoided skills when studying english. besides being difficult because of the many things to learn in grammar, this skill also has a variety of formulas for constructing various types of sentences that must be remembered. on spelling, writing skills can be improved by frequently reading english books. so it can be seen that students' writing skill problems still often occur in learning english. students' writing skills are still minimal, students also do not know how to make a sentence and also often make mistakes. students' writing skills are not obtained by themselves, but through the teaching and learning process. 10 conclusion in this research, the researcher presents the following conclusions and suggestions based on the result of the research findings and discussions as explained in the chapter iv : 5.1.1 the students' problems in writing skills are text coherence, choice of vocabulary/grammar, content, spelling . students do not know how to make a sentence and also often make mistakes . besides being difficult because of the many things to learn in grammar, this skill also has a variety of formulas for constructing various types of sentences that must be remembered. on spelling, writing skills can be improved by frequently reading english books 5.1.2 factors that hinder students' ability in writing are factors that students lack mastery of vocabulary and grammar. the factors that students are not interested in writing and environmental factors that do not support students to use english . this happens because of the low motivation of teachers and students, lack of supporting facilities such as magazines and reference books / stories in english 5.2 implication to produce quality writing and also in learning english there are lots of media and methods that can be used or even developed so that english learning can be more interesting. 5.3 suggestions based on the findings and conclusions that have been put forward, the following suggestions are submitted: 1. the teachers could help the students to practice the use of language in written form. this technique is helpful for the students to be more enthusiastic to write english. therefore, this technique is recommended to the english teachers to give the student more exercises of writing activity by trying to vary the teachers' model in teaching and making the classroom as interesting as possible. so, the students will be more interested in learning english especially in writing to overcome the obstacles found in the management of english learning and their solutions. this requires the support of facilities and infrastructure such as learning media, reference books related to teaching materials, dictionaries and the use of language laboratories as media to support the learning process. acknowledgement this paper has been submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the attainment of the degree of sarjana pendidikan in english education department iain sultan amai gorontalo on january 2023. references burhan bungin, social research methodology (surabaya : airlangga university press, 2001 dance. listening as a language skill . bandung: space, 1986. david, e. 2019. what are the difficulties faced by students while writing an academic paper? (online). https://academicwritingpro.com/blog/what-are-the-difficulties-faced-by-students-while-writing-an-academic-paper. accessed 5th august 2019. hadari nawawi and martini hadari, research instruments in the social sector (cet. ii; yogyakarta: gajah mada university press, 1995). hartaji, damar a. (2012). motivating achievement in students studying with parents' choice majors . undergraduate thesis, faculty of psychology, gunadarma university. page 5 accessed on 6 august 2019 junaid. 2012. venn diagram method for students’ ability in writing at intensive english class of unismuh makassar. exposure journal. vol. 1. no. 2. mohammad siddik, fundamentals of writing and its application, malang: tunggal mandiri publishing. munirah, paragraph writing development, yogyakarta : deepbuplish cet. 1, 2015. nawangsasi, endah. " analysis of language errors of s1 management students in 2011stie aub surakarta". pro-bank journal of economics, business & banking . volume 1 number 1. year 2015. nordquist, r. 2019. definitions, examples, and observations of writing, (online). https://www.thoughtco.com/writing-definition-1692616. accessed 21st may 2019. sigit, poetry writing techniques “guidelines for writing poetry for students, students, teachers and lecturers”. yogyakarta: graha ilmu, 2013. sri wahyuni, error analysis of semester ii students in writing descriptive texts, journal volume vii number 2. july – december 2016 issn 2086 – 1397 sugiyono, qualitative, quantitative and r & d research methods (cet. xii; bandung: alfabeta, 2011 wijaya, aa & masriyah. analysis of student errors in solving story problems material system of two variable linear equations . mathedunesa . 2013 yuniati, d. 2015. the effectiveness of picture word inductive model (pwim) for teaching writing recount text politeness principles:their realisation in indonesian apologies wuryani hartanto i. absl7ylct : the politeness principles in the realm of pmgmdlics dte know to be univenal. yet, to what degree the universality of such principles applies to a particular language is worth revealing. this study has a two -folded purpose, i.e. to look at the realisation of the politeness principles in indonesian apologies and to demonstrtjle the patterns of this particular speech act according to the ccsarp coding scheme as proposed by blum kul,", & olshtain (1998). kqwom. : politeness principles, pmgmatics, indonesian apolo,ies introduci'ion gumperz in introduction of' politeness: some universals in language usage' ( brown & levinson, 1918) stated that politeness phenomena are basically universal. they are applicable to any society. however, he further continued that what counts as polite may differ from one group to another, 'from one situation to another or from one individual to another. similarly, frase ( 1985 ) as quoted by blum kulka & olshtain ( 1980 ) claimed that the strategies for realizing speech acts, for conveying politeness and mitigating the force of utterances, are essentially the same across languages and cultures, but that the appropriate use of any given strategy will nit be identical across different cultures. it is based on such assumptions that this study is conducted. its main goal is to find out to what extent the issue of universality in politeness principles suggested by brown & levinson ( 1918 ) applies to indonesian as reflected in the speech act apologies. in addition to that this study also i. dra. wuryani hartanto, ma. is a lecturer of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semarang ," " s1 cel~ y.6lume 2. number i. july 2002 : so 64 attempts to demonstrate the realisation patterns of the indonesian apologies trough the analysis of this speech act using the ccsarp coding scheme designed by blum kulka, olshtain et al. for there ccrrp project ( blum kulka & olshtain 1989). some important factors influencing the choice of strategy in making apologies in indonesian will also be touched upon this study. the relevance of speech acts to the issue of universality has been highlighted by blum & olistain et ai. through the undertaking of the ccsarp project which was based on their views that: speech acts operate by universal pragmatic principles and vary in conceptualization and verbalization across cultures and languages. their modes of performance carry heavy social implication and seem to be ruled by universal principles of cooperation and politeness ( blum kulka & olshtain. 1989 ) apologies as seen from the politeness principles point of view apologies are by definition face threatening acts ( brown & levinson, 1978) . by apologising the speaker recognizes the fact that;a violation of a social norm has been committed and admits to the fact that she is at least partially involved in its' cause. ( blum kulka & olshtain. 1984 ) . hence, apologies involve loss of face for the speaker and support for the hearer. empirical design of the study following brown & levinson's idea on politeness principles ( 1978). 3 factors determining the kind of politeness strategy used in communication are power ( p ), distance (d) and the absolute ranking of impositions ( r ). based on such factors, the following politeness principles are put forward : • negative politeness • positive politeness • bald on record • offrecord • not said each type of politeness consists of various strat~gies ( see brown & levinson, 1978 ). w. hartanto, politeness principles 52. according to blum kulka. house & kasper ( 1978 ), degrees of social distance and power between participants are among the most important factors determining variation in speech acts. hence, in the study, the role relationship between the interlocutors is shown by the social parameters 'dominance' and 'social distance'. the parameter 'dominance' is used to indicate the existence or absence of authority of one interlocutor over the other, whereas the parameter 'social distance' is used to show whether the interlocutor know each other or they have never met before. based on those parameters, the following role relationship constellation are derived : i. status unequals, non intimitaes ( + dominance, + social distance) = authority figures i subordinates. 2. status equals, non intimates. ( dominance, + social distance) = strangers 3. status equals, intimates ( dominance, social distance) = friends of near acquaintances. 4. status unequals, intimates ( + dominance, social distance) = parents i children the data in this study are grouped accoroing to the above role constellations and they are analysed based on : a. politeness principles ( brown & levinson, 1978 ) and b. the ccsarp ( the cross cultural speech act realisation project) coding scheme ( blum kulka & olshtain, 1989) data elicitation the data are elicited from a variety of social situations involving the speech act under investigation, i.e. apologies. they are obtained mainly by means of tape recording and field not taking. thus, au the data collected mentioned above, we recorded conversations occurring between authority figures and their subordinates, strangers, friends or near acquaintances, parent and their children. the ccsarp coding scheme on apologies according to blum kulka & olshtain, 1989), the linguistic realisation of the act of apologising can take one of following two basic forms or a combination of both: 53 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002 : so 64 i. iiiocutionary force indicating device ( ifid ) which is considered the most explicit realisation of apology. it consists of expressions of regret. such as : ( be ) sorry, apologize, regret, excuse, etc; the ifid serves as a signal of regret on the speaker's part for the violation that motivated the need to apologize and is therefore intended to placate the hearer. blum kulka et al. further stated that for each language there is a scale of conventionality of ifid realisations. in indonesian, the most common forms are : 'maaf' ( sorry) and 'sori sori' (sorry ) 2. another way to perform an apology ( with or without an ifid ) is 'to use an utterance which contains reference to one or more elements from a closed set of specified propositions the semantic content of which relates directly to the apology preconditions' ( blum kulka & olshtain, 1984 ). thus, in addition to ifid, there are 4 potential strategies constituting the apology speech act. they are as follows: a. an explanation or account of the cause which brought about the violation, b. an expression of the speaker's responsibility for the offence, c. an offer of repair, and d. a promise of forbearance. in the apology coding scheme, the above strategies are coded and sub categorised into: i. taking and responsibility this strategy is taken by speaker when she i he chooses to take on responsibility for the offence which creates the need to apologize. trosbory ( 1987 ) sub categorised this strategy into: a. implicit acknowledgment e.g. i can see your point; perhaps i shouldn't have done it. b. explicit acknowledgment e.g. i'll admit i forgot to do it c. expression of a lack of intent e.g. i didn't mean it d. expression of self deficiency e.g. i was confused. you know i'm bad at it. w. hartanto, politeness principles 54 e. expression of embarrassment e.g. i feel so bad about it f. explicit acceptance of the blame e.g. it was entirely my fault. you're right to blame me. 2. explanation or account of cause a. explicit: the bus was late b. implicit : traffic is always so heavy in the morning. 3. offer of repair a. repair : i'll pay for the damage b. compensation: you can borrow my dress instead 4. promise of forbearance e.g. this won't happen again the iliocutionary force of the apology can be intensified or downgraded by the following devices : intensificatiod a. an intensifying expression within the ifid e.g. i'm very sorry b. an expression of explicit concern for the hearer e.g. have you been waiting long ? e the use multiple strategies ( ± ifids and anyone or more of the four other strategies ). e.g. i'm terribly sorry for the damage. i'll pay for it. downgrading downgrading is an addition to the strategy used by the speaker to minimize the offence. the analysis of the indonesian apologies the grouping of the data also follows the four role relationship constellations. i.e. : i . + dominance, + social distance apologies performed by authority figures towards their subordinates. 2. dominance, + social distance apologies perfonned by strangers 55 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002 : so 64 3. dominance. social distance apologies perfonned by friends or near acquaintances 4. + dominance, social distance apologies perfonned by parents towards their children. t. apologies perfonned by authority figures towards their subordinates. a. ( in a staff meeting in a university. the head of the department. d. who was supposed to preside over the meeting came 5 minutes late. he made an apology d : maaf, teman-teman, saya agak terjambat karena ada 1 mahasiswa perwalian saya yang ingin bertemu untuk suatu masalah yang juga akan saya bicarakan dalam rapat ini. (sorry, friends. i came a bit late because one of my advisees wanted to see me for a very serious problem that i'm also going to discuss in this meeting) the politeness strategy used by d is a bald on record. coming a little iatf: to a meeting is not a serious offence in our cultue. yet, being the chainnan of a meeting. d was expected to come on time. therefore, his late coming is a breach of a social norm and an apology is required. regarding the ccsrp coding schame. the above apology can be described as follows: dimension category element a. alerters address 'ternan-ternan' term ( friend) b. ifid 'maaf' ( sorry ) c. explanation or explicit 'saya agak cause account of terlambat karena ada mahasiswa saya . yang inginbertemu untuk suatu masalah yang sangat serius. ( i am a bit late because one of my advisees wanted to see me for a very serious problem) w. hartanto, politeness principles 56 b. ( s, a's subordinate came to see a at his house. he didn't make an appointment before. a is out and s had to wait for about an hour ). a : sudah tunggu lama, pak s 1 mobil saya mogok di jalan. (have you been waiting long, mr. s ? my car broke down on the way home ) s : oh, tidak apa apa. pak. ( oh, it's all right, sir) a didn't explicitly apologise for his coming late, even though s was waiting for him and was waiting for him at his house. yet, he showed his concern for s by asking 'sudah tunggu lama. pak s l' ( have you been waiting long, mr. s 1 ). this utterance together with the next one, i.e. 'mobil saya mogok di jalan.' ( my car broke down on the way home) which serve as an explanation indicate that the strategy he used is an off record ( strategy 2: give association clues: brown & levinson, 1978 ) what he actually wanted to say is : 'i couldn't get home !-:oon because my car broke down. therefore, yol! have to wait long and i fell sorry or you'. regarding the ccsrp coding shame, the above apology can be coded as follows: dimension a. alerters b. ifid c. intensification d. explanation or account of cause 2. apologies perfonned by strangers category address tenn an expression of concern for the hearer explicit element 'pak s' ( mr. s ) 'sudah tunggu lama l' (have you been waiting long?) 'mobil saya mogok di jalan' (my car broke down on the way home). a ( p bought a new battery at a shop but when he tried it at home it didn't work. he went back to the shop and made a complaint to the shopkeeper. the shopkeeper, s, made an apology to p 51 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002 : 50 64 when she found out that there was something wrong with the battery. she decided to change it with-another one ). p : mbak, batrai yang baru saja saya beli tidak mau nyala. (miss. the battery i ~avejust bought didn't work. s : coba iihat ! ( let me have a look at it ! ) ( she tried it and finally she said; ..... ) oh. maaf pak, ada yang tidak beres dengan batrai ini. saya ganti saja dengan yang lain. ( oh. i am sorry sir, there is something wrong with this battery. i'll change it with another) the strategy used by the shopkeeper above is a bald on record and the analysis of the apology is as follows; dimension category element a. alerters address leon 'pak' ( sir) b. ifid 'maar (i am soory) c. explanation or explicit 'ada yang tidak account of bt:res dengan cause baterai ini' (there is something wrong with this battery ) d. offer of repair compensation 'saya ganti dengan yang lain' ( r ii change it with another) b ( in a shop. a wrongly took b's umbrella. they didn't know each other before. a is a teenage girl, and b is an elderly woman). a : maafkan saya, bu. saya salah ambil payung. saya kira payung ini kepunyaan saya soalnya mirip benar dengan kepunyaan saya. ( i am sorry, madam. i wrongly took your umbrella. i thought this umbrella was mine because it looks exactly like mine ). b : oh. tidak apa apa. ( well. that's all right) in performing her apology, a in the above situation used w. hartanto, politeness principles 58 on record strategy which is expressed through the use of an explicit tenn of apology 'maafkan saya, bu'. (i am sorry, madam ).she also gave a long explanation to b in order to mitigate her guilt. the fact that her umbrella looks exactly like b's is a mitigating circumstance which serves as an indirect apology. the analysis of her apology is as follows : dimension a. alerters b. ifid c. takingon responsibility d. explanation or account of cause category address tenn element 'bu' (madam) 'maafkan saya' (i am sorry) explicit 'saya sajah ambil acknowledgment payung' (i wrongly explicit took your umbrella) 'say~ kim payung ini kepunyaan saya soainya mirip benar . dengan kepunyaan saya' ( 1 thought this umbrella is mine because it looks exactly like mine ). 3. apologies performed by friends or near acquaintances a. ( n & 1 are close friend. n borrowed i's book and promised to return it soon but she kept forgetting to bring the book). n: i, aku lupa lagi bawa bukumu. besok pagi, ya. ( i, i forgot to bring your book again. i'll bring it tomorrow, ok?) i sungguh ya, jangan lupa lagi. ( be sure not to forget it again, ok ? ) the strategy chosen by n above is an off record ( give hints ). what she actually wanted to say is : 'i can't return your book now as i forgot to bring it.' her utterance of apology can be analysed as follows: s9 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002: so 64 dimension a. a1erters b. ifid c. thkingon responsibility category address term explicit acknowledgment d. offer of repair compensation element 'i' 'aku lupa bawa bukumu'(i forgot to bring your book) 'besok pagi. ya' (i'll bring it tomorrow, ok ? ) b. (y & c are acquaintances. c is much older than y. they have a formal relationship. y couldn't come to c's party last saturday so she apologized for it ). ' y : bu c, saya minta maaf karena tidak dapat datang hari sabtu yang tatu. anak saya sakit, bu. ( mrs. c, i'm sony that i couldn't come last saturday. my son was ill ). c : oh. tidak apa apa. bu. bagaimana anaknya sekarang ? ( well. that's all right. how's your son now 1 ) while the language used in the previous situation is very infonnaj, the one used by y above is quite fonnal. hence, the pattern of apology used here is also formal. a fonnal pattern of apology in indonesian is marked by the use of complete sentence, e.g. saya minta maaf lit. means ; • i beg or forgiveness saya mohon maaf' it is also nonnally perfonned by people having a fonnal relationship or in a fonnal setting or when a serious offence has occusred. the strategy used by y above is a bald on record and the apology it self can be coded as follows: dimension category element a. alreters address tenn 'bu c' ( mrs. c ) b. ifid 'saya minta maaf' (i am sony) c. explanation explicit 'anak saya sakit' or account of ( my son is ill ) cause w. hartanto, politeness principles 60 4. apologies perfonned by parents toward their children. (a) (m, a mother, accidentahy broke her 15 year old daughter's. ( k's), favourite vase ). m : k, . mami tidak sengaja menjatuhkan vas bungamu waktu menaruh majajah di meja. nanti mami belikan lagi kalau ke jakarta. ( k. mommy accidentally knocked over your vase while putting this magazine on the table. i'u buy you a new one when i go to jakarta ). in our culture, parents' making an explicit apology towards their children is not vel) common unless a serious offence has taken place. in the above example, m admitted that she broke her daughter's favorite vase and she felt sorry for what had happened. her regret is expressed through her words 'nanti mami belikan lagi kalau ke jakarta.' (i'll buy you a new on when i go to jakarta ). yet, she didn't think it necessary for her to use an explicit term of apology, such as 'maaf' ( sorry ). the expression of a lack of intent (trosborg, 1987). regarding the politeness principles, m's strategy is an off record ( strategy 1 : give hints ). wh!lt she actually wanted to say is : 'i broke your vase and i am sorry for that.' based on the ccsarp coding scheme, the analysis of her utterance is as fohows :. dimension a. alerters b. takingon responsibility c. explanation or account of cause d. offer of repair category address term an expression ofa lack of intent explicit repair element 'k' 'mami tidak sengaja menjatuhkan vas bungamu.' (mommy accidentally knocked over your vase). . waktu mau menarub majalah ini di meja' (while putting this magazine on the table) 'nanti mami belikan jagi kalau ke jakarta' 61 celt, volume 2, number i, july 2002: 50 · 64 from the analysis above, we can see that the apology in this example applies multiple strategies. as a cultural note, it is worth mentioning here that the self address tenn used by parents usually refers to their parental status. for example ' lbu or ,mami' ( mommy), 'bapak or papi' ( dad'ly ). thus, a mother or a father will not nonnally use the personal pronoun 'i' to address her self i him self when talking to her i his children. accordingly, the children will not use the pronoun ' anda or kamu' (you) to address their parents. they will always use the tenn 'lbu or mami' to address their mother and the tenn 'bapak or papi' to their father. (b) ( e, a seven year old boy, has been asking his father, f. to buy him a toy soldier like the one owned by his friend many times but his friend many times but his father keeps forgetting it ). e : mana tentara-tentaraannya, pi ? ( where is the toy soldier, dad ? ) f : aduh, papi lupa lagi. papi sibuk sekali tadi di kantor. besok hari minggu kita pergi sarna -~ ke toko mainan, ya ( oh, dear, daddy forgot it again. daddy was very busy at the office. next sunday we are going to a toy shop together, ok ? ) though admitting that he forgot to do what he promised to his son, the father in the above conversation didn't explicity say 'sorry' . he tried to compensate for the inconvenience he sauced by saying' besok hari minggu kita pergi sarna sarna ke toko mainan, ya' (next sunday we're going to a toy shop together, ok ? ). his utterance 'papi sibuk sekali tadi di kantor' ( daddy was very busy at the office) serves as an explanation or account of cause. with respect to the politeness principles, the strategy used here is called an off record ( strategy i : give hints ). what the father actually wanted to say is : 'i didn't buy the toy for you because i forgot to do so and i feel sony for this'. the following is the analysis of the utterance of apology above: dimension a. thkin on responsibility b. explanation or account of cause c. offer of repair w. hartanto, politeness principles q category explicit acknowledgment implicit element ' papi lupa lagi' ( daddy forgot it again ) 'papi sibuk sekali tadi di kantor' ( daddy was very busy at the office ) compensation 'besok hari mingo leila petgi sarna sarna ice took mainan. ya. ( next sunday we're going loa toy shop, ok ? ) the apology in the above example also applies multiple strategies. some comments on the results of the analysis of the indonesian apologies based on the analysis of the indonesian apologies presented above, the following conclwlions can be drawn : j. the politeness principles seem to be applicable to indonesian as can be seen from the realization pattern of the indonesian apologies. some strategies, however. are not commonly used by the indonesians. 2. the choice of politeness strategies in the perfoming apologies seems to influenced by following factors : a. power it seem that a powerful apologizer tends to use a less explicit' direct apology. situations j b. 4a and 4b serve as instances of this phenomenon. b. social distance i degree of familiarity. the closer the social distance between the interlocutors is, the less explicit i direct apology the apologizer uses. this can be seen in situations 3a, 48 and 4b. c. culture it seems that older people tend to be less explicit' direct in apologizing to younger ones. e.g. situations 4a and 4b. on the other hand. young people tend to be explicit in perfonning their apologies towards elderly people, e.g. situations 2b and 3b. 63 celt, volume 2, number i, july 2002 : 50 64 d. degree of offence the greater the degree of offence caused by the apologizer, the _ more direct strategy she i he uses, e.g. situations 2b and 3b. e. context i seuing in a formal context. people tend to use a more explicit i direct apology, such as shown in situation~ la and 3b f. individual from the result of the data analysis. there is no indication the gender plays an important role in the choice of strategy. further investigation on the relevance of this element and other individual factors to the choice of strategy in performing apologies is worth doing. concluding remarks as stated in the "introductions', the aims of this study -are firstly. to find out to what extent the issue of universality in politeness principles applies to indonesian as reflected in indonesian apologies. and secondly. to demonstrate the realization patterns of this speech act in indonesian trough the use of the ccsarf coding scheme. though the data used in this study are very limited in terms of number. the results of the data analysis show that the politenc!s principles to a certain extent are applicable to indonesian and the realisation patterns of the · indonesian apologies can be revealed through the use of the ccsarp coding scheme. in addition to that. this study provides some evidence that basic pragmatic features of speech acts are universal and that socio pragmatic strategies are indeed transferred from one language to another . . bibliography blum kulka. s., j. house &: o. kasper. cross cultural pragmatics; requests & apologies. new jersey: ablex publishing co., 1989. blum kulka. s., &: e. olshtain. request & apologies: a cross cultural study of speech act realisation patterns ( ccsarp). applied linguistics 5, 3., 1984. brown. p.&: s. levinson. 1978. politeness some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press, 1978. w. hartanto, politeness principles 64 scollon. r. & s.b.k scollon. face in interethnic communication in richards. j. & r. schmidt ( eds ). language and communication. london : longman. 1983. trosborg. a. apology strategies in natives / non natives journal of pragmatics, vol ii. 1987. wierzbicka. a. different cultures, different languages, different speech acts. journal of pragmatics. vol 9. 1985. wierzbicka. a. does lmrguage reflect culturr ? evidence/rom australian english. language in society. vol. is. 1986. politeness in principles.pdf logo: 4 the effect of learning approach and reading interest toward students’ narrative writing achievement noldy pelenkahu noldypelenkahu@ymail.com english department, state university of manado abstract: the aim of this research is to know the different kinds of instructional approaches (process skill and goals oriented) found in the process of learning narrative writing. the use of different instructional approaches gave different results on students’ achievement in narrative writing. students who have different reading interests also showed different achievement in narrative writing. these two variables have a relationship in implementing instructional approach and reading interest. it showed that the testing result of interaction between the variables of process skill and goals oriented instructional approaches to narrative writing achievement is possible. it can be concluded that the use of different instructional approach (process skill and goals oriented) give different final results. the same result is also done to students who have different reading interests as they will give different narrative writing achievements. key words: instructional approach, reading interest, narrative writing abstrak: tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui perbedaan pendekatan instruksional (keterampilan proses dan orientasi tujuan) dalam proses pembelajaran menulis narasi. penggunaan perbedaan pendekatan instruksional memberikan hasil yang berbeda pada prestasi siswa dalam menulis narasi. siswa yang memiliki minat baca yang berbeda juga menunjukkan prestasi perbedaan dalam menulis narasi. dua variabel ini memiliki hubungan dalam melaksanakan pendekatan pembelajaran dan minat baca. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa hasil pengujian interaksi antara variabel keterampilan proses dan tujuan pendekatan instruksional yang berorientasi pada naratif menulis prestasi dapat berhasil dengan baik. dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 177 students’ narrative writing achievement bahwa penggunaan perbedaan pendekatan pembelajaran (keterampilan proses dan orientasi tujuan) memberikan hasil akhir yang berbeda. hasil yang sama juga dilakukan kepada siswa yang memiliki minat membaca yang berbeda dan akan memberikan prestasi menulis narasi yang berbeda. kata kunci: pendekatan instruksional, minat baca, menulis narasi introduction the ability of someone to use english does not come by itself, but it comes from the process of studying the language. learning to get the ability of using english in oneself can be done by formal and non formal educational setting. cook (2007) argue that there are two kinds of goals students are expected to have in communicating english well. he uses the terms internal goals and external goals. the external goals relate to the students’ use of language outside the classroom, while the internal goals relate to the students’ mental development as individuals. students should be able to use the language not only in the classroom but also outside the class room that is in real life. there are four language skills that must be mastered by students who learn english, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. among the four language skills that are taught in school, writing is the hardest skill to learn. brown (2007) has found that the writers of the l2 do planning less accurately, fluently and less effectively in stating the objectives than those of l1. they also differ in the use of appropriate conventions of grammar and rhetoric and lexical variety. hyland (2003) has defined that the process approach puts major focus on the process of writing, such as how writers develop their ideas. he has explained that the students are given enough time to go through the writing process along with appropriate feedback from both their teachers and peers. onazawa (2010) defines that process approach is an approach to writing in which students focus the process. dealing with this, students are allowed to manage their own writing by giving them the opportunity to think like the way they wrote. guiding english language students formally and informally are needed because english is a strategic subject matter for studying other subjects. it is true because without having ability to use english language, one may not do thinking activities. it means that one cannot be able to think systematically, but he/she can communicate everything of what he/she is thinking to others. 178 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 with language one can express attitude and feelings. that is why, by the ability of having english, students can get knowledge to appreciate literature and art, and they can develop themselves continuosly. besides that, by having english language ability, one can form him/herself physically to become social and cultural mankind in order to participate in the nation development as a good citizen. according to the english instructional field in schools such as junior high school today, it can be known that teachers teach language knowledge and not to teach how language is used. these can be seen by observing teachers who, for instance in teaching speaking skills, only explain the conversation meaning in reading text and then invite students to read the text which contains the conversation. in this case, they do not drill students how to speak english perfectly, but only to drill students to sound what is written and not to develop their ability of thinking. it means that teachers did not give opportunity to them to think by him/her self of his/her ideas, what vocabulary and what sentences which becomes suitable to say with the topic discussion. from this case, it can be known also that english instructional in schools has problems which must be considered by english teachers. they must consider that students have the tendency to understand the concrete things and to look at someting as the one unity, integrated and manipulative. the one who can give his/her thinking or ideas of the variation of the words and correct usage of sentences would be considered students who are good in their writing skills. by writing, students will often get more varieties in using their vocabulary for various sentence types. it is true because effective writing skills can also upgrade students’ grammar skills that are needed in writing. it means that students who have a high interest in writing can directly or indirectly improve his/her ability to give their ideas across either in verbaly and in written form. it can be assumed, therefore that students having a high interest in writing, will have a higher achievement in their writing skill. that is why, it can be predict ed also that the higher is the student’s writing interest, the higher is the learning achievement, such is that in the writing skill achievement. in fact, it is needed by educational practitioners, especially teachers who must make conducive environments in order for their students to become involved physically and mentally in effective learning activities. an appropriate instructional approach is needed to support some learning objectives, because suitable instructional approaches will determine the students’ learning achievements. that is why, in this study, it tries to implement the instructional approaches, which are oriented to the needs of updating the educational palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 179 students’ narrative writing achievement development system in schools. the implemented instructional approach is the orientation of students’ difficulty learning level, whicht in this study is called the “process skill instructional approach”. this instructional approach is implemented by giving full attention to students’ levels of mental activity. the instructional approach oriented to students’ learning difficulty levels will make teachers have to implement their instructions through observation, comparison, clarification, and interpretation; in order to conclude, analyze, synthesize, communicate, and predict the students’ achievements. literature review a. narrative writing concept writing is a communication act which is done individually without any support of voice stress, rhythm, mimic, and verbal communication. the writer plays with words, sentences, and use of punctuation for stating, figuring, and recommending something to other people. the writer must choose the exact words and construct right and logic sentences systematically in order that the objective and meaning can be understood by the reader (hafferman, and lincoln, 1990, p. 37). nunan (1998, p. 36) states that the product approach to writing is an approach which focuses on the end result of writing activities. soonpaa (2007, p. 3) states that process approach emphasizes on the process of the students producing a piece of writing by using techniques such as brainstorming, exploring ideas, peer editing, and rewriting. in addition, onozawa (2010, p. 154) shares the idea that the process of writing is an approach to writing, where language learners focus on the process by which they produce their written products rather than on the product themselves. in the end, learners usually need to and are required to complete their products, i.e. the writing process itself. on the other hand, a student’s creativity is another factor to the result of a successful writing. writing itself is a process of thinking. cowley (2004, p. 141) says that thinking creatively is all about expressing ourselves in a unique and imaginative way. creativity, describes the process of bringing something new and that applying our creativity means being able to take unusual or innovative approaches to the common place or the ordinary. based on the above, it can be said that writing is an act that needs process which has a long enough process for guiding, and practicing by 180 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 teachers and students. writing is a systemic act for giving ideas, thinking, and experience to use the right words and construct clear sentences with the purpose of making cohesive paragraphs to be understood by readers. in the context of writing ability, writing is a skill of process development. to write needs experience, time, opportunity, practice, and special ability. besides that, to write needs ideas which are constructed logically, and expressed with a clear and systematic kind of thinking idea. writing skill does not come by itself. it needs intense practice individual learning because it needs some kind of systematic planning. the ability to write is not a talent, by means it is not brought by a bird, but that ability is only achieved by going through a process development of learning, practicing, and developing writing skills continuously. there have been many studies trying to find ways to help students in minimizing their difficulties to improve their writing achievement. however, most of the studies were carried out in the classroom in which writing was taught. it has been a quite common activity to teach the four skills of english as separate subjects. however, recent research shows the trend of integrating the four english skills (brown, 2007). the popularity of communicative language learning has promoted the importance of making integrative tasks (delaney, 2008). as teachers try to find ways to improve the efficacy and efficiency of their instructional programs and practice in teaching writitng, they may capitalize the integration of reading and writing instruction. many studies have revealed that reading and writing are connected and these two skills have positive correlation, (palmer, 2010). the research into reading writing connection has taken three basic approaches, i.e. rhetorical relations, shared knowledge, and procedural connections (shanahan, 2000). the rhetorical approach is based on the idea that reading and writing are communication activities and that readers and writers gain insights about how communication works by being both sender and receiver. the shared knowledge approach is one that has atracted the most research attention, i.e. of making an analysis of the shared knowledge and cognitive process between reading and writing. this approach is used by the majority of research in the reading writing connections (koons, 2008). according to fitzgeral (2000), both readers and writers rely on four common knowledge bases i.e. the domain or content knowledge, procedural knowledge, knowledge of specific features or components of written language, and meta knowledge. palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 181 students’ narrative writing achievement writing is one of the most important english skills to learn. byne (1997, p. 1) states that writing is the act of forming symbols, letters or combinations of letters, which relate to the sound when we speak, the making of marks on a flat surface of some kind, which are arranged accordingly to certain conventions to form works and words arranged in order to later on form sentences. furthermore, (richard, 1997, p. 100) states that good writing skills are essential to academic success and requirements for many occupations and professions. according to (harmer 1998, p. 73) there are four reasons for teaching writing to students of english as a foreign language, they are (1) the reinforcement of some students who acquire languages in a purely oral way, but also to those who benefit greatly from seeing the written down language, (2) the language development of the actual process of writing, which help learners to learn as they go long, (3) the learning style of writing appropiately for learners who take a longer time at picking up language just by looking and listening, (4) the writing as a skill, thus teaching writing is as important as speaking, listening and reading. the ability to write is very difficult than the other three language skills. listening and reading skills are categorized receptive skills because they receive messages, while they also actively interpret and analyze messages which are listened to or read by. speaking and writing skills are categorized under productive skills because they must actively produce the thinking of ideas and have them said either in verbal or writing language. students in writing class are expected to produce written text by demonstrating a command of standard written english such as using appropiate structure, accurate grammar, spelling and punctuation, appropiate use of vocabulary and good organization of ideas manifested in coherent paragraphs (hinkel, 2004, p. 19). speaking is an activitity of saying whatever becomes the thinking of someone in verbal form while directly making a face to face interaction with a listener. to speak needs phonology. to write is to say the thinking and ideas in the form of writing, so that needs orthography. to say words and sentences used in the form of writing needs a skill, which is higher than the ability of speaking. this is true because a writer must have good ability in language use in order the communication be effective (valette, 1999). to write is a process, so that, before one can do the acts of good writing, it needed the prior ability for doing the acts of writing. the prior ability to do the acts of writing in formal education starts from the elementary level. that is why learning to write in elementary level is differentiated in two stages: (1) early writing, and (2) continued writing. early writing is transffered to the first 182 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 and second class which is started with the practice of writing minimum words to practice to write grammatically correct word combinations, and to also make use of appropriate punctuation in various writing stages. this writing instruction is given integratively with reading instruction. this is found true, because to write is a symbol system (phoneme symbols) and these symbols pronounced as alphabets have been long used until this modern century. the continued writing is given after the early writing had been mastered fluently. this prior knowledge of writing such as the alphabet, writing system, and grammatical mastery must be given to students in systematic steps. narrative writing is a form of development process or writer’s ability to state ideas which will be stated to a reader, so the reader can understand the writer’s messages. the form of composition development undergofour kinds, they are (1) narration, (2) description, (3) exposition, and (4) argumentation. these forms of development or stating composition have the objectives and characteristics of what becomes the main ideas of the writer. for instance, if the writer wants to tell about an accident or experience, it will of course, be different from a writer who wants to inform about a product. in this study, narrative writing is chosen with a study sample of their development, whichare interesting to factual story, especially the story written in english. narrative writing is a story that tells about accidents constructed chronologicaly. it is a story based on the chronological order of an accident. there are two kinds of narrative writing they are (1) factual narration and (2) fictive narration. factual narration is a story which is told chronologically with factual incidents. fictive narration is a story told by the writer, which consists of mankind experience which is considered carefully. narrative writing is also a composition development or writing which has chronological incidents and problems. the implementation of the narrative writing strategy havehelped students to improve their narratives since the strategy especially helped them to use their imagination to create longer sentences for their composition. it was easy for them to write occurences of their story in writing as the story dealt with their factual life experiences. this is in accordance with (campbell, 2009) who reveals that story–retelling is a powerful tool to get students to write because it provides opportunities to identify important details and dialogues needed as story elements. butcher (2006) states that stories can change a student’s perspective. there are often implicit moral teachings in stories. b. the reading interest interest will also exist to those who is doing some kind of learning. if a student has an interest to the subject matter which he/she learned (e.g. the palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 183 students’ narrative writing achievement writing lesson), this student will have a strong tendency to be more attentive in their lessons. so, it can be said that interest can affect the writing achievement of students. interest can also help develop students’ better concentration. this means that everyone who has interest would not be easily disturbed in implementing an activity such as reading or writing. if one has an interest to read, he/she will not be inclined to speak in a reading or writing classroom. reading, according to some experts, is defined as the ability of an individual to recognize a visual form, and associating the form with the sound and/or meaning, and understanding and interpreting its meaning. urquhart says that reading is a process of decoding written symbols, working from smaller units (invidual letters) to larger ones (word, clauses, and sentences) (1998, p. 22). there is an interactive process between a reader and text which leads to a certain reading fluency (alyousef, 2005, p. 144) and the making of meanings from print and visual information (moreillon, 2007, p.10). grellet states that reading involves a variety of skills, such as follows: (1) recognizing the script of language; (2) understanding explicitly stated information; (3) understanding information when not explicitly stated; (4) understanding the communicative value of sentences and utterances; and (5) understanding relations within the sentences (1998, p. 43). based on the readings above, it can be understood that the interest or motive of one’s psyche’s aspect which makes someone has the tendency for preference, happiness, high attention, positive respond to an object or act has a close relationship with what becomes the point of reading interest. reading is one act which is not interested by just anyone. the factors affecting one’s interest or motive in reading can be determined by the kinds of material choosen in reading. nevertheless, if a partiular reading material is interesting for a student, he/she will continuously have a good attitude in his/ her reading (gillet, and temple, 1994). c. instructional approach instructional approach is an alternative method, strategy, and technique in teaching and learning in order the instructional objective can be maximally achieved. instructional approach in language instruction is a set of axiomatic assumptions of the nature of language. meanwhile, method is the whole planning of language instructional material that is presented systematically and based on an an alternate approach (richards and rodgers, 1986). in this case, an approach is axiomatic and method is procedural, whereas, technique is implementary. this means that what is happening in a classroom for achieving specific objectives and techniques must be relevant with method, and cannot 184 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 be in contradiction with approach. in other words, technique becomes the description from method, and method is the description from an approach. d. instructional skill process approach instructional skill process approach is student skill for manage achievement get from teaching and learning process which giving wide opportunities to students for observing, categorizing, predicting, interpreting, implementing, planning a study, and communicating their achievement. the objective of process skill approach is to develop student creativities in learning. so, they are active to develop and implement abilities. process skill approach consists of several skills such as observing, making clarifying, measuring, communicating, making conclusions, predicting, and connecting space with time (abruscato, 1995). process skill approach is very important in helping students in learning in order that he/she can get the success of facing all of life aspects, because of this skill practice is in stages with the focus starting from observing, clarifying, predicting, measuring, communicating, concluding, controlling, interpreting data, and finding a model (the last is an important act in process skill). the process of writing consists of (1) pre-writing where students must concentratewell to find and share ideas, and read literature from experience; (2) writing an early draft, i.e. the start of writng by choosing topics, and writing in persuasive form with interesting models to work with; (3) making revisions such as correcting, reading again, adding and lessening information, reading and writing again); and (4) editing, which includesrevision for punctuation, grammar correcting, publishing, reading in front of colleagues, writing books, making cover designs, and so on (eisele, 1991). e. goal oriented instructional approach goal oriented instructional approach is based on the thinking that in every teaching and learning activity, things must be thought or determined first by its objectives in order to be achieved. by paying attention to the objectives which have been stated, it is hoped that whatever method will be applied, or whatever instructional technique will be applied will answer the objectives of the instruction. the implementation of this approach is always correlated to learning mastery. it means that teaching and learning process is assumed successful if at least 85% of students can master 75% of the instructional material given by a teacher. determination of this achievement is based on the formative tests palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 185 students’ narrative writing achievement given. so, in this case, whatever approach, method, or technique applied is not to be a problem, with the condition that the instructional objectives stated can be achieved. based on these facts, it can be said that the learning model oriented to a student ability which is measured based on the time needed by students meet the needs of the mastery of the lessons. this means that smart students would need less time than not smart students (slavin, 1991). so, to achieve the objective stated, a teacher must prepare enough time for students until they achieve 85% of students’ mastery and 75% can achieve the instructional objective stated. these ways can also be affected by students who use their time well, which are in accordance with the level of instructional material difficulty, in addition to the students’ ability to catch the instructional material in the form of verbal communication. in instructional constructivism, where a teacher implements the teaching and learning process by using the right instruction and technique of questioning ability is based on three conditions: (1) receiving the given condition, (2) the readyness to learn, and (3) do the activities prepared. receiving a condition and readyness to learn are implemented when a teacher can make students focustheir attention to a topic or problem to be discussed in class. activity is implemented by way of giving opportunity to students in order that they can find by themselves kinds of problem solving activities, in order to predict and do tasks responsibly (borich, 1996). based on the above concepts, in this study, the approach to be implemented is the goal oriented approach which is modified between the goal, mastery learning, and constructivism approach which is constructed with the following steps: (1) writing instruction is implemented or oriented on the instructional objective which had been formulated, and is followed by the instructional material that is suitable with that instructional objective; (2) students do tasks, which are suitable with the instruction and time allotment given by the teacher with the condition thatguidance is given to students who till does not understand about the instruction material given; (3) the result of students’ tasks will be evaluate by two evaluators by using an evaluation standard which is stated and will be the guide for the writing achievement; and (4) whatever the number of result recived will be accounted for. in this case, students must achieve 85% of the targeted objectives of the learning mastery. in other word, whether individually or in groups, the students must show their work at their best with the responsibility of obtaining the targeted objectives of the learning materials given by their teachers. 186 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 methodology a. research participant, method and design this study’s participant is one junior high school in minahasa regency, which agreed to be researched on for the periods of april – june 2014. this study uses an experiment method with two independent variables and one dependent variable. the variables experimented in this study is instructional approach. that is why, experimental method is chosen because it may show the effect of the implementation by controlling several things which maybe controlled. this is because, there are things which cannot be controlled such as some factors like the school environment, teacher experience of teaching and learning process, student background, parent education, the environment of students’ living, and so on. the research design of this study is 2 x 2 factorial design, wherethe design is alternated in order to see the effect of the core factors as dependent variables. rodgers (2009), in his definition about methodology, reminds teachers that teaching strategies and activities may only be appropriate for a particular teaching/learning situation. this means that different teaching/learning situatiosn may require different teaching strategies, activities and approaches although it is possible that certain methods may be appropriate for learners of different types. b. research instrument this study uses an instrument in order to get data about how far the instructional approach and reading interest toward student narrative writing achievement are. based on the variables on this study, there are three data which must be collected they are (1) narrative writing achievement, (2) the high and low interest of of reading, and (3) instructional approach experiment. as instruments of this study are (1) narrative writing test, (2) reading interest test, and (3) questionnaire for the teaching and learning process. c. research hypothesis the result of this study is analyzed with a two-way analysis of variance. the significant differences of the two way analysis of variance will interpret and determine the conclusion of what variable is more effective than the other independent variables. the four hypothesis to be evaluated in this study are: 1. student narrative writing’s achievement of those who are learning with the process skill of instructional approach is better than the narrative writing achievement of students who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach. in this situation the statistical hypothesis is: palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 187 students’ narrative writing achievement ho : µa1 = µa2 h1 : µa1b1 + µa1b2 ≥ µa2b1 + µa2b2 2. student narrative writing’s achievement of those studentswhohave a high reading interest of learning have a high goal oriented instructional approach when compared with students’ narrative writing achievement who have a high reading interest of learning with a process skill of instructional approach. in this situation the statistical hypothesis is: ho : µa1b1 ≥ µa2b2 h1 : µa1b1 ≤ µa2b2 3. student narrative writing’s achievement of those who have less reading interest and of learning with an instructional process skill approach hase a higher achievement than those who have less reading interest nad of learning with a goal oriented instructional approach. in this situation the statistical hypothesis is: ho : µa1b2 ≥ µa2b2 h1 : µa1b2≤ µa2b2 4. there is an interaction between the instructional approach and reading interest towards a student narrative writing achievement. in this situation the statistical hypothesis is: ho : axb= 0 h1 : axb ≠ 0 findings data description of narrative writing achievement consists of the data from students (1) who are learning with a process skill instructional approach (a1); (2) who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach (a2); (3) who have high reading interest (b1); (4) who have less reading interest (b2); (5) who are learning with process skill instructional approach and who have a high reading interest (a1b1); (6) who are learning with an instructional process skill and have less reading interest (a1b2); (7) who are learning with a goal oriented 188 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 instructional approach and have a high reading interest (a2b1); and (8) who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach and have less reading interest (a2b2). the descriptions of narrative writing achievement of the eight groups are described in table 4.1. table 4.1. narrative writing achievement description data source n variance min score max score mean ( x ) modus (mo) median (me) st.dev (s) sum a1 30 37,775 27 50 38,533 38 38 6,146 1156 a2 30 21,375 16 30 24,733 26 26 4,623 742 b1 30 38,254 135 153 14,523 143 153 6,184 4357 b2 30 58,800 101 125 114,40 115 103 7,668 3432 a1b1 15 15,495 27 38 34,066 36 38 3,936 511 a1b2 15 23,352 16 30 22,066 21 26 4,832 331 a2b1 15 15,400 24 37 29,600 28 26 3,924 444 a2b2 15 5,686 22 30 27,400 28 28 2,384 411 a1: group score of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional process skill approach. a2: group score of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach. b1: group score of student narrative writing’s achievement who have high reading interest b2: group score of student narrative writing’s achievement who have less reading interest. a1b1: group score of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional process skill approach and have high reading interest. a1b2: group score of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional process skill approach and have less reading interest. a2b1: group score of student narrative writing’s who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach and have high reading interest. a2b2: group score of student narrative writing’s who are learning with a goas oriented instructional approach and have less reading interest. palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 189 students’ narrative writing achievement group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional skill process approach (a1) the group of students with narrative writing achievements who are learning with an instructional process skill approach has a test instrument of 40 items, which has a theoretical score scale of 1 to 40. in this group, the score of group of students of narrative writing achievements are those learning with an instructional process skill approach with the highest score of 38 and the lowest score of 27. the mean score is 34.066 with a deviation standard of 3.936, the mode score of 38, and the median score of 36. the frequency distribution score of the group these students are described in table 4.2. table 4.2. frequency distribution list data of the group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional process skill approach (a1) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequency (%) 1 26.5 – 28.5 3 10.71 2 28.5 – 30.5 4 14.28 3 30.5 – 32.5 8 28.57 4 32.5 – 34.5 7 25.00 5 34.5 – 36.5 5 17.86 6 36.5 – 38.5 3 10.71 sum 30 100.00 data description of this table shows that there are 7 students or 24.99% whose score is under the interval class of a mean score of 15 students or 53.57%, which is in the class interval of the mean score and 8 students or 28.57% who got the score above the class interval of the mean score. the data description shows that there are three categories, they are: the score above 1 and 2 of the interval class, which is categorized low; the score on the interval class of 3 and 4, which is categorized as being on average; and the score on the interval class of 5 and 6, which is categorized high. so then as a result, there are 7 students or 24.99% of them who are in the low score categorization; 15 students or 53.57% are in the average score categorization; and there are 8 students or 28.57% on the high score categorization. 190 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 group of student narrative writing’s achievement data who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach (a2) the group of student narrative writing’s achievement data who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach (a2) got the highest score of 30 and the lowest score of 16. the mean score is 24.733 with a standard deviation score of 4.623, the mode score is 26, and median score is 26. the frequency distribution data of this group is described in table 4.3. data description in this table shows that there are 5 students or 17.85% of them who got a score under the class interval which consists of a mean score of 9 students or 38.57% which is in the class interval of the mean score, and 7 students or 25.00% got above the class interval of the mean score. the data description therefore shows three categories, they are: the score on the class interval of 1 and 2 is categorized as low, the score on the class interval of 2 and 3 is categorized as on average, and the score on the class interval of 4, 5 and 6 is categorized high. so then, there are 3 students or 10.71% who are on the category which got a low score, 14 students or 57.30% in the category of average score, and 13 students or 46.43% is in the category of a high score. table 4.3. the list of frequency distribution of a group of student narrative writing’s achievement data who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach (a2) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequency (%) 1 15.5 – 21.5 3 10.71 2 21.5 – 22.5 5 17.86 3 22.5 – 24.5 9 38.57 4 24.5 – 26.5 7 25.00 5 26.5 – 28.5 4 14.29 6 28.5 – 30.5 2 7.14 sum 30 100.00 group of students who are learning with an instructional process skill approach who have a high reading interest (b1) in this group of students, the narrative writing achievement of those who are learning with an instructional process skill approach have the highest score of 153 and the lowest score ofs 135. the mean score is 14.523 with a standard deviation score of 6.184, the mode score ofs 15.30, and the median score of 14.523. the frequency distribution data of this group of students is described in table 4.4.: palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 191 students’ narrative writing achievement table 4.4 the list of frequency distribution of a group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional process skill approach with a high reading interest (b1) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequency (%) 1 134.5 – 143.5 3 10.71 2 143.5 – 145.5 5 17.89 3 145.5 – 147.5 5 17.89 4 147.5 – 149.5 8 27.43 5 149.5 – 151.5 6 21.43 6 151.5 – 153.5 3 10.71 sum 30 100.00 data description in this table shows that there are 8 students or 28.60% whose score is under the class interval of the mean score; 13 students or 46.13% got a score on the class interval of the mean score; and 9 students or 32.14% got a score above the class interval. so that, the data description shows there are three categories, they are: the score in the class interval of 1 and 2 are in the low score categorization, the score in the class interval of 3 and 4 are in the average categorization, and the score in the class interval of 5 and 6 is in the high score categorization. so then, there are 8 students or 28.60% that are categorized under the low score, 13 students or 46.13% are categorized under the average score, and 9 students or 32.14% are categorized under the high score. group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach with a less reading interest (b2) in this group, the result of the group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach with less reading interest (b2) have the highest score of 125 and the lowest score of 101. the mean score is 11.440, with a standard deviation score of 7.668, mode score of 10.300, and median score of 11.500. the frequency distribution data of this group is described in table 4.5. data description in this table shows that there are 7 students or 25.00% who got a score under a class interval of the mean score; 14 students or 48.86% of them is in the class interval of the mean score; and 9 students or 32.15% got a score above the class interval of the mean score. the data description thus shows that there are three student categories, they are: the score in the class interval of 1 and 2 are categorized s low, the score in the class 192 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 interval of 3 and 4 are categorized as on average, and the score in the class interval of 5 and 6 are categorized as high. so then, there are 7 students or 25.00% which are categorized under a low score, 14 students or 48.86% are categorized under an average score, and 9 students or 32.15% is categorized under a high score. table 4.5. data frequency distribution list of a group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach with less reading interest (b2) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequency (%) 1 110.5 – 112.5 3 10.71 2 112.5 – 115.5 4 14.29 3 115.5 –118.5 8 27.43 4 118.5 – 121.5 6 21.43 5 121.5 – 124.5 5 17.86 6 124.5 – 127.5 4 14.29 sum 30 100.00 data group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional skill process approach and who have a high reading interest (a1b1) in this group, the score of the narrative writing achievement of students who are learning with an instructional skill process approach and have a high reading interest (a1b1) got the highest score of 38 and the lowest score of 27. the mean score is 34.006 with a standard deviation score of 3.963, mode score of 38, and median score of 36. the data frequency distribution result of this group of students can be seen in table 4.6. data description in this table shows that there are 3 students or 20.00% got a score under the class interval of the mean score; 7 students or 46.66% got a score in the class interval of the mean score; and 5 students or 33.33% got a score above the class interval of the mean score. so then it means the data description shows that there are three categories, they are: a score in the class interval of 1 is categorized low, a score in the class interval of 2 and 3 are categorized average, and a score in the class interval of 4 is categorized high. so then, there are 3 students or 20.00%, which is categorized as having low scores, 7 students or 46.66% is categorized average, and there are 5 students or 33.33%, which is categorized high palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 193 students’ narrative writing achievement table 4.6. data frequency distribution group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional skill process approach and have a high reading interest (a1b1) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequency (%) 1 26.5 – 29.5 2 13.33 2 29.5 – 32.5 4 26.66 3 32.5 35.5 6 40.00 4 35.5 – 38.5 3 20.00 sum 15 100.00 group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional skill process approach who have less reading interest (a1b2) in this group, the narrative writing achievement of students who are learning with an instructional skill process approach and have a less reading interest (a1b2) has the highest score of 30 and the lowest score of 16. the mean score is 22.066 with a standard deviation score of 4.832, mode of 26, and median score of 21. the data frequency distribution group of these students are described in table 4.7. table 4.7. data frequency distribution of a group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional skill process approach and have less reading interest (a1b2) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequency (%) 1 15.5 – 18.5 2 13.33 2 18.5 – 22.5 4 26.66 3 22.5 – 27.5 6 40.00 4 27.5 – 30.5 3 20.00 sum 15 100.00 data description in this table shows that there are 2 students or 13.33% who got a score under the class interval of the mean score; 10 students or 46.66% are in the class interval of the mean score; and 3 students or 20.00% who got a score in the class interval of the mean score. thus, the data description shows that there are three categories, they are: the score of the class interval of 1 and 2 which are categorized as low, the score of the class interval of 3 which is categorized as average, and the score of the class interval of 4 which is categorized as high. there are also 2 students or 13.33% whoo are 194 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 categorized under those who got less score, and 10 students or 46.66% who are categorized having average score, and there 3 students or 20.00% who are categorized under high score. group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach and have a high reading interest (a2b1) in this group, the highest score is 37 and the lowest score is 24. the mean score is 29.600 with a standard deviation score of 3.924, mode of 26, and median of 28. the data frequency distribution of this student group is described in table 4.8. data description in this table shows that there are 2 students or 13.33% who got a score under the class interval of the mean score; 9 students or 60.00% who got an average class intervalof the mean score; and 4 students or 26.66% who got a high class interval of the mean score. the data description thus shows that there are three categories, they are: the score of class interval of 1 which is categorized as less, the score of the class interval of 2 and 3 which are categorized as average, and the score of the class interval of 4 which is categorized as high. there are also 2 students with 13.33% who got less score, 9 students or 60.00% who got average score, and 4 students or 20.00% who got high score. table 4.8. data frequency distribution group of the student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach and have a high reading interest (a2b1) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequency (%) 1 23.5 – 27.5 2 13.33 2 27.5 – 33.5 3 20.00 3 33.5 – 35.5 6 40.00 4 34.5 – 37.5 4 26.66 sum 15 100.00 group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach and have less reading interest (a2b2) in this group, the highest score is 30 and the lowest score is 22. the mean score is 27.400 with a standard deviation score of 2.384, mode of 28 and median of 28. data frequency distribution these students are described in table 4.9. palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 195 students’ narrative writing achievement table 4.9. data frequency distribution of the group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach and have a less reading interest (a2b2) no class interval absolute frequency relative frequnecy (%) 1 21.5 – 22.5 2 13.33 2 22.5 – 24.5 2 13.33 3 24.5 – 26.5 6 40.00 4 26.5 – 28.5 3 20.00 5 28.5 – 30.5 2 13.33 sum 15 100.00 data description in this table shows that there are 4 students or 26.66% who are in the class interval class of the mean score; 6 students or 40.00% got in the class interval of the mean score; and there are 5 students or 33.33% who got above the class interval of the mean score. thus, the data description shows that there are three categories, they are: the core of the class interval of 1 and 2 is categorized as less, those in the score of 2 and 3 are categorized s average, and those of score 4 is categorized as high. so then, there are 4 students or 26.66% who are categorized as having less score, 6 students or 40.00% is categorized as having an average score, and 5 students or 33.33% is categorized having a high score. based on the norm score of the group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach and have less reading interest (a2b2) tends to have a high score from the mean score. this can be seen from the mode score of 28 and median score of 28 which is relatively the same from the mean score. analysis of the testing criteria that uses the variance analysis (anava) of path analysis of data normality testing and data homogenity testing gives the following results like shown in table 4.10. table 4.10. data description result of the student narrative writing’s achievement of variance homogenity testing score on two experimental groups (a1 and a2) the groups x 2 count x 2 t( αααα=0,01) x2t(αααα=0,05) conclusion a1 a2 12.933 19.000 37.566 27.688 31.410 22.362 homogent from this table it can be known that the variance of the homogenity testing result got x 2 c = 19.00 and 12.933, and x 2 t = 37.566 and 31.410. if it is compared, soothe x 2 c is less than x 2 t, so that h0 is recieved. this means that 196 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 there is no variance differences between the two experimental groups, of those who are learning with an instructional skill process approach with the group of students who are learning with a goal oriented instructional approach. from this it can be concluded that the data of the two experimental groups is homogent. the variance homogenity testing from the attribute categories of the groups in this study was done through the stages used from part (a) above. the groups are a group of student narrative writing’s achievement who are learning with an instructional skill process approach who have a high reading interest and less reading interest. the description of variance homogenity testing can be seen table 4.11. table 4.11. data description of variance homogenity testing result score of student narrative writing’s achievement on two subject attribute categories of groups b1 and b2 group x2c x 2 t( α=0,01) x2t(α=0,05) conclusion b1 b2 4.800 15.733 27.688 33.409 22.362 27.587 homogent from this table it can be seen that the variance homogenity testing result of x 2 c = 4.800 and 15.733, in addition x 2 t = 22.362 and 27.587. if it is compared, then x 2 c is less than x 2 t, so h0 is recieved. this meant that there is no difference variance between the two attribute categories groups of the student group who has a high reading interest (b1) and the student group who has less reading interest (b2). it can be concluded then that the two experimental data are homogent. based on the anava testing result toward significant interaction between instructional approach and reading interest toward narrative writing achievement, it is shown that there is an interaction between the two variables toward narrative writing achievement. this is proven through the continued testing of tuckey (t-testing). in order to know the significant interaction between the two variables of this study, it must be understood that the sample/subject size (n) of each group is the same. this analysis is used to investigate an absolute mean score difference from two groups which compares a critical score (table score). this was done in two subject groups: a students group who has a high reading interest and who is learning with an instructional skill process approach and goall oriented instructional approach. the other student group is the one who has less reading interest and who is learning with an instructional skill process approach and goal oriented instructional approach. palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 197 students’ narrative writing achievement the result of the tuckey testing for the student group who has a high reading interest shows that by using an instructional skill process approach there is a better effecti of the narrative writing achievement when compared with using a goal oriented instructional approach. so then, factually the result of qc = 96.45 > qt = 3.09 with a significance of α = 0,05. beside that, it was seen that on the mean score result from a1b1group ( x = 2013,57) t iis higher than group a2b1( x = 2068,57). this data means that the hypothesis is recieved or is significant iin its testing. the tuckey testing analysis result for the students group who has less reading interest showed that the use of the instructional skill process approach gives a better effect to the narrative writing achievement rather than the goal oriented instructional approach. so then, it was factually stated that qt = 16.29 >qt = 3,09 (α =0,05). beside that, it can be seen from the narrative writing achievement’s mean score of groups a2b2 ( x = 1999.93) is higher than from the group a1b2 ( x = 2090.79). this data means that the hypothesis is recieved or significantly tested. this points to the result that the instructional skill process approach is better than the goal oriented instructional approach in increasing student narrative writing’s achievement. the instructional approach of the student narrative writing achievement is the activities done by a teacher in making conducive teaching and learning in order to achieve the instructional objectives. the instructional approach becomes the way of sharing messages or information to students through various instructional approaches such as the instructional media of pictures, ohp, radio, television, lcd, or media images that are suitable with the messages and objectives to be achieved. the instructional skill process approach has characteristics and specific strenghts in improving student narrative writing’s achievement, so it can give different effects toward student learning results. the strengths of this instructional approach is making students better in understanding and remembering material substances which is rolling and can be implemented in the whole class instructional materials because they were attended or involved directly by students who want to learn. the students care given possibilities for initiatives and creativities to work together to be active in doing their learning. this means that they are given opportunities to be the centre of their learning activities. additionally the approach becomes a way for helping students to develop their cognitive process. with this condition, they are able to make and form their learning conception by themselves. that is why, the approach can function as a bridge between students’ prior knowledge with the new learnt knowledge. in other words, it can help students’ schemata in analyzing and accomodating messages recieved in preparing or motivating themselves to learn 198 celt, volume 14, number 2, december 2014, pp. 176-201 narrative writing which needed mostly for doing a qualified learning process. the motivation developed by students in learning by using the instructional skill process approach is the ability to learn a high integration of a number of learning intruments. they learn not only to be the expert of narrative writing but also to use it for working profesionally. meanwhile the strength of the goal oriented instructional approach is the students’ improvement of remembering instructional materials taught because in the instructional process, the main system is the drilling activity of acquiring the goals of the objective. conclusion from the finding of this study, it can be concluded that the use of the differentinstructional approach of skill process and goal oriented, have given a difference in the final result. the same condition has been done to students who have a different reading interest to result in a different kind of narrative writing achievement. the two variables of this research data have a close relationship in implementing the instructional approach and reading interest such as shown in the testing result of interaction between the research variables of the skill process and goal oriented instructional approaches of student narrative writing’s achievement. in doing the instructional process, teachers need to implement the instructional approach and make different creativities which will affect the student narrative writing’s achievement. this research has found that the use of an instructional skill process approach can give better results than the goal oriented instructional approach. to teachers of writing subject matter, this research shows that in order to choose and state an instructional approach, the skill process is firstly needed to state the students’ creativity, so that good teachers can help makie ann increase in the student narrative writing’s achievement. by using the instructional skill process approach, a teacher can give the best learning experiences to students in order to make them understand the various concepts and learning process done not only by practicing what was the teacher centered instruction but to a student center instruction. for this reason, there is a need for a high participation of students because the use of the instructional skill process approach can effectively achieveing the results of student narrative writing. palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 199 students’ narrative writing achievement references abu r, r. 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(2007). the practice of english language teaching. edinburgh gate: pearson education ltd. hefferman, j. a. w. & lincoln, j. e. (1990). writing: a college handbook. new york: norton and company. hinkel, e. (2004). teaching academic esl, writing: practical technigues in vocabulary and grammar. new jersey: lawrence earlbaum associates, inc. hyland, k. (2003). writing and teaching writing. in.j. c. richards (ed), second language writing. cambridge: cambridge university press. koons, h.h. (2008). the reading writing connection unpublished doctoral dissetation. chapel hill: university of north carolina. marsen, s. (2003). profesional writing. new york, ny: palgrave macmillan. onazowa, c. (2010) a study of process writing approach. ny: oxford univrsity press. moreillon, j. (2007). collaborative strategies for teaching reading comprehension, usa: american library association. palmer, m.l. (2010) the relationship between reading fluency, writing fluency, and reading comprehension in suburban third grade students. unpublished doctoral diseration. san diego: san diego state university and the university of san diego. richards, j. c. (1997). the language teaching matrix. cambridge: cambridge university press. rodgers, t.s. (2009). the methodology of foreign language teaching: methods, approaches, principles. in karlfried knapp & barbara seidlhofer (eds). handbook of foreign language communicationand learning. berlin: mouton de gruyter. soonpaa, n. (2007). product vs process approach to teaching legal writing. a paper presented at conference on the pedagogy of legal writing for academic in africa. texas tech university school of law texas. sudjana. (1992). metode statistika. bandung, tarsiton . palenkahu, n., the effect of learning approach and reading interest towards 201 students’ narrative writing achievement urgurhart, s. & w. cyril (1998). reading in a second language process, product, and practice. london: longman. a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia promoting students’ motivation in learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project 1tryanti r. abdulrahman and 2noni basalama 1english education study program, faculty of education and teacher training, universitas islam as-syafiyah, jakarta, indonesia 2english education department, faculty of education, universitas negeri gorontalo, indonesia email: 1tryanti.ar@gmail.com, 2nonibasalama@gmail.com received: 08-03-2016 accepted: 30-08-2018 published: 31-07-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj promoting students’ motivation in learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project 1tryanti r. abdulrahman and 2noni basalama 1tryanti.ar@gmail.com, 2nonibasalama@gmail.com 1english education study program, faculty of education and teacher training, universitas islam as-syafiíyah, jakarta, indonesia 2english education department, faculty of education, universitas negeri gorontalo, gorontalo, indonesia abstract: the main objective of this study was to motivate efl (english foreign language) students in learning english vocabulary by using collaborative video project. this study followed a case study methodology to describe how video project experience can engage students to learn english and provide them an opportunity to participate in tasks as well as enrich their vocabularies. twenty-five efl students in the vocabulary building course (vbc) participated in this study. this study used three phases for evaluations: the pre-production phase, production phase and post production phase. data were collected from classroom observations, the video project process and document analyses. a summary of the findings related to the video theme and narrative analysis of students’ videos are presented in this paper. data analysis showed that students responded differently to their video project assignments and produced different types of collaborative videos with the help of a camcorder and computer application. then, a survey was conducted to collect feedback from participants to learn their opinions and attitudes regarding the use of collaborative video project, students’ learning and motivation. participants in this study expressed positive attitudes and opinions toward their video-project experiences. this study demonstrates that video project can be a great tool for promoting students’ motivation and participation in learning english, enriching their vocabulary and can be an effective and powerful tool to create fun, interactive, and collaborative learning environments. 108 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: learning motivation, students, video project, vocabulary abstrak: tujuan utama penelitian ini adalah untuk memotivasi pembelajar efl dalam belajar vocabulary bahasa inggris melalui proyek video kolaboratif. penelitian yang merupakan studi kasus ini menggambarkan bagaimana mahasiswa terlibat dalam pembelajaran dan proyek video ini juga memberikan kesempatan pada mereka untuk berpartisipasi dalam tugas sekaligus meningkatkan vocabulary mereka. partisipan penelitian ini berjumlah 25 mahasiswa yang belajar bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing. penelitian ini mencakup tiga tahapan yaitu: tahap pra produksi, tahap produksi dan tahap paska produksi. data dikumpulkan dari hasil observasi kelas, proses pembuatan video dan analisis dokumen. ringkasan hasil penelitian terkait dengan tema videodan analisis naratif dari video yang dibuat oleh mahasiswa. hasil analisis data menunjukkan bahwa siswa memberikan respon yang berbeda terhadap tugas proyek video mereka dan menghasilkan jenis video yang berbeda dengan bantuan kamera dan aplikasi computer. selanjutnya, survey juga dilakukan untuk mengetahui sikap dan opini mahasiswa terhadap pemberlakuan proyek video kolaboratif, proses belajar mereka dan motivasi. partisipan penelitian ini menunjukkan opini dan sikap positif terhadap pengalaman mereka dalam melakukan proyek video ini. penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa proyek video merupakan alat yang baik untuk meningkatkan motivasi dan partisipasi mahasiswa dalam belajar bahasa inggris, memperkaya vocabulary, dan bisa menjadi alat yang efektif dan berdaya guna untuk menciptakan suasana pembelajaran yang menyenangkan, interaktif an kolaboratif. kata kunci: motivasi belajar, mahasiswa, proyek video, kosa kata introduction encouraging efl students to learn english can be somewhat challenging for teachers especially when students have no specific target to achieve and felt no need to learn it. in indonesia, although english is considered as one of the compulsory subjects in elementary up to university level, students do not seem to see the importance of using english subject outside of the classroom. this is reflected in their motivation for learning english, which has a serious obstacle of not mastering the english vocabulary. this yielded many indonesian efl learners to lack the motivation for studying english. abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 109 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this is on the contrary with the views of some experts, who believe that high motivation is vital to learning english language motivation is “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus the favorable attitudes toward learning the language (gardner, 1985). in support of this, csizér & dörnyei (2005) emphasize that motivation can be generated, maintained, and terminated depending on learners’ varied l2 learning experiences. this is why, dörnyei believes that studying the effect of particular instructional method, media, and strategy for enhancement efl students’ motivation is worth studying (2001). in line with the issue of boosting students’ motivation in learning english, most teaching methodology has begun to shift from teacher centered to student centered. this leads to a situation in which a teacher must provide a convenient environment to make students actively participate in the learning process. for this reason, many teachers utilize technology in their classrooms in order to attract and engage students in learning as well as provide students with the exposure of various learning resources. recent studies have proven that the use of technology, such as videos in the classroom setting provides support for students’ thinking process, stimulates their motivation, builds selfesteem and prepares them for the future (chen, belkada & okamoto, 2004; hubbard & levy, 2006; son, 2008). specifically, in efl teaching, the video has been popularly used as a media to support students’ learning. in terms of acceptance, outcomes and learning motivation, for today’s digital culture, data suggest that video and computer applications significantly improve english proficiency and are effective tools for enhancing language learning and motivation (prasad, rao, & dollah, 2012; bates 2015). in the area of vocabulary, xin and rieth (2001) also noted that vocabulary learning without visual effects can be characterized as boring. along with the use of video in the efl classroom, a video project by students is regarded a multidimensional method that has been used by language educators to facilitate the teaching and learning processes. carney and foss (2008) stated that the production approach helps students create work in an innovative, stimulating way and leads to room for fun. they also claimed that using a video-production project could support students to better express their understanding of the course, have better memory of what was learned and be the media of becoming collaborative beings. meanwhile, according to meeks and ilyasoya (2010), students can be challenged intellectually when they work on a project while equipped with technology tools. 110 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reviewing the literature above that described the importance of technology in the classroom, it is obvious that video is a highly significant part of teaching and learning in esl/efl. this is because, it is understood that students will gain advantages from their understanding of the broad knowledge of words, phrases and expressions learned from watching the videos. although research on the use of video in vocabulary instruction is prevalent, the availability of research and resources on video production by students in vocabulary learning is very rare. only a few research has reported how a video project can improve students’ motivation, they are from dodson (2000), helden-brand (2003) and the english language learning, including fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary from the research results by carkin (2004), and hardison & son-chaeng (2005). it is unfortunate that not all teachers take full advantage of utilizing video projects when teaching vocabulary. some teachers complain that too much time is needed to integrate videos into classroom settings. in most english majors at the university level in indonesia, vocabulary building is offered as an integrated course or a compulsory two-credit course. the teachers, however, lack attractive teaching strategies to teach this course. for almost a decade, vocabulary teaching at universities, is either taught as its own course or taught integrated in skill courses. most teachers have favored a teacher-centered approach and frequently used the grammar-translation method, which does not sufficiently motivate students to learn vocabulary. hence, the quality of teaching and learning vocabulary is insufficient. in reality, students are in fact, not able to comprehend either simple or complex reading tests after studying english for several years, because they lack the confidence and experience in using appropriate vocabularies to communicate with foreigners. analyzing the situation above, there is a clear case for exploring the use of video project among efl students, who are taking courses in vocabulary. today, the prevalence of internet access, computer applications and software demands critical media literacy skills from students. therefore, there is a great need to introduce students to video projects that can develop their vocabulary and media literacy skills to meet today’s challenges. this video project is assumed to help prepare students to acquire the 21st-century skills that is needed to learn, study, work, function, and interact with other people in the modern digital society (prasad,rao & dollah, 2012; triling & fadel, 2009, p.176). this study attempts to answer the following two research questions: abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 111 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1. can collaborative video project motivate students to learn english vocabulary? 2. what are students’ perceptions on the use of collaborative video project that motivates them in learning vocabulary as well as enhance their vocabulary learning? literature review a. vocabulary vocabulary is an important aspect to master in english language learning. it is a basic foundation to construct a word into a good sequence of sentence so one can express ideas and communicate effectively in both oral and written form. this is in line with several scholars who have defined that vocabulary is a core component of language proficiency which provides the basis for how well learners can communicate with others (khoii and sharififar, 2013; jackson and amvela, 2000; linse, 2005). richard & renandya (2002) also stated that “vocabulary is a core component of language proficiency and it provides much of the basis for how well learners speak, listen, read, and write” (p. 25). in most english major at the university level in indonesia, vocabulary building is taught as one course and teachers are reported to have suffered from attractive teaching strategies to teach this course. for almost one decade, vocabulary teaching at the university favors teacher-centered and grammar translation methods which do not motivate students enough to learn it. hence, the quality of the teaching and learning vocabulary is far from being satisfactory. in reality, not only do students have difficulty in comprehending reading texts, they lack confidence and experience in expressing their vocabulary to communicate with foreigners. b. vocabulary video and video project video is one of the popular multimedia tools to be used in language classrooms because it helps to display content, deepen comprehension, and enhance lexical and grammatical learning (gorjian, 2014). as a form of multimedia, video conveys information through two simultaneous sensory channels: aural and visual. it often uses multiple presentation modes, such as verbal and pictorial representations in the case of on-screen print and closedcaptioning (mayer, 2001). because of this, video can give a strong positive 112 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj effect on both the motivation and affective learning of students of english, since it can make the connection of visual clues, to the memory process, and the recall of new knowledge (sydorenko, 2010; karakas and saricoban, 2012). the work of kearney and campbell (2010) and kearney and shick (2006) show the benefits of using videos to produce authentic learning opportunities for students. they say that the video encourages academic rigor when viewed from an advocacy, research based perspective. nowadays, numerous vocabulary videos are produced by professional people or companies to illustrate the meaning of words and phrases. several research on the use of video in classroom instruction have shown that videos enhance students’ english skills for both individual and group collaboration (e.g. bull & bell, 2010; kearney & schuck, 2006; shewbridge & berge, 2004). along with the use of video in efl classroom, video making by students becomes a multidimensional way that has been practiced by language educators to facilitate teaching and learning process. carney & foss (2008) state that production approach helps students create work in an innovative, fun, and stimulating way. the authors go on to say that using video production project could support students to express their understanding of the course better as students cab become creative, and remember more of what they have learned because technology-enabled project learning with videos produces meaningful classroom instructions. according to meeks & ilyasoya (2010), students are allowed to be intelectually challeged if they work in a project, which isequipped with technology tools. this confirms sentlowitz’s (2009) research, which finds that students obtain problem-solving skills and enhance their analysis when they work individually or in a group to find, process, and synthesize information from video projects. reviewing the scholarly reports above, it is obviously seen that the video is a highly significant part of teaching and learning in esl/efl because students obtain advantages from broadly knowledge of words, phrases and expression. despite the fact that research on the use of video in vocabulary instruction widely exist, research and resource availability of video production by students in vocabulary learning is still a very rare instance. only a few research report is found on how a video project can enhance students’ english language learning, which includes the fluency of vocabulary use in pronunciation and speaking skills (carkin 2004; hardison & son-chaeng 2005) thus, increasing student’s motivation in learning efl (dodson 2000; helden-brand 2003). abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 113 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj unfortunately, many teachers do not take full advantage of video projects when teaching vocabulary. some teachers complain that it takes too much time to integrate videos in their classroom materials. this condition is odd, when cruse (n.d.) finds that half of frequent video project user’s new vocabulary. in other words, combining an audio and visual media like video should be encouraged more to teachers an effective multimedia in the teaching and learning process of efl. c. motivation many experts have investigated motivation for decades and most of the studies have defined that motivation is the power that makes someone to act or not to act something (guay et al, 2010; broussard & garrison, 2004). in the field of language teaching, the effect of learning motivation has been researched by many scholars. according to gardner (1985) motivation is “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus the favorable attitudes toward learning the language.” (p. 10). this fundamental theory has been extended by many linguists and language experts recently in a form of l2 models of motivation (dorney, 2005). it is believed that motivation in language learning can be generated, maintained, and terminated depending on students’ learning experiences. there are many factors that can influence students’ learning motivation for both external and internal motivations. this may consist of environmental factors, teachers, methods, media and others. although change in the language aptitude or verbal intelligence of students is little (christophel & gorham, 1995; kim, 2005), there is a possibility that a student, who has low motivation at first, will later show high motivation in language learning. because of this, the change of motivation in language learning is worth studying. according to dorney (2001) it is important to study the effect of a particular instructional method for the enhancement of l2 motivation. therefore, this particular study employed a case study framework to reveal a more in depth analysis of students’ motivation as well as to address the research question informed above. methodology a. type of research this project draw inspiration from the “teach learn” work entitled “engaging students in video production and movie project” that is supported 114 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj by sony (2009) and makes use of its central ideas and procedures. the unique element of this project is the adjustment of technical support based on sources’ availability and students’ basic video skills. additionally, this project also incorporated the cisco video solution for education (greenber & zanetis, 2012). the various perspectives discussed in the cisco video solution for education were useful in directing the project both theoretically and procedurally. in this study, a qualitative case study approach was applied to explore the use of collaborative video project to engage students in learning english vocabulary. by using this approach, an in-depth analysis of data from a number of sources was performed to provide a rich and holistic description as well as a picture of the particular group case (merriem, 1998). b. research subjects this project was carried out in a vocabulary building course, in the english department, of fkip universitas islam as-syafi’iyah, east jakartaindonesia. twenty-five students who enrolled in the vocabulary building course participated in this research. the selection of students was done purposively due to the researcher’s time and availability. for this project, students were divided into groups, and each group was given tasks to making a video about english vocabulary and used their creativity to produce the video. five groups of students created short (5-7 minutes) vocabulary videos focusing on explaining some english vocabulary, with each video incorporating planning, shooting, capturing, editing, exporting and uploading the video to youtube and edmodo. capture screen samples of their videos are shown in appendix 1. c. research procedure the project was conducted in three sequential phases: the preproduction phase, production phase and research phase. 1. pre-production phase before working on their project, students were shown a sample of vocabulary video produced by the teacher and several vocabulary videos from youtube and vocabulary learning websites as follows: a. the teacher’s room: use vocabulary box https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_h48pxupvoc b. school vocabulary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o6nqqraen90 abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 115 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. basic vocabulary practice https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zaclpv4l2po d. vocab revision game https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pke1tjhm7cw e. teaching vocabulary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mehmdppqlpu the teacher then provided them with a brief introduction to windows movie maker software by showing and explaining the process of editing the video. pre-production is a critical process that ensures success in production. basic decisions of the production approach were provided, and planning was initiated. in this phase, students brainstormed their ideas through group discussion. a worksheet for collaborative video project was also provided to guide students in brainstorming the central ideas of the project, including specific features that they would use in their video, such as animation, drawings, songs, photographs, powerpoint, demonstration, talking head or a combination of all of the above, as well as the structure of the video. this worksheet was submitted to the teacher one week after the project assignment. 2. production phase during the production phase, each group of three or five students produced one video, around five to seven minutes long, on the topic of english vocabulary such as describing people, things in the house, kitchen equipment’s, friendship, english words used in social media and other interesting topics. the production stage consisted of two parts: video filming and editing. several practical elements, such as time management and a checklist of basic equipment for filming (newly charged batteries, external handheld microphone, tripod, etc.), were prepared to ensure smooth preparation and organization during the video production process. in addition, the teacher was available and could be reached during and after class to discuss questions, problems and collaborative solutions regarding the content of the video and its production. these practical steps were taken in this study and greatly complemented students’ own efforts. 3. post production phase the research phase was conducted after the production phase. this phase was aimed at learning about students’ perceptions of the use of 116 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj collaborative video project in learning vocabulary. the post production phase consisted of: a) survey questionnaires: a survey was conducted to collect feedback from 25 students to assess their opinions and attitudes toward the use of collaborative video project in the english vocabulary classroom. descriptive data from the survey was analyzed using frequency counts. responses from students (both direct response and through openended questions) are quoted verbatim. b) interviews: the interviews were conducted to understand students’ views on collaborative video project, with a particular emphasis on issues related to learning motivation and participation in learning vocabulary. c) observation: the use of multiple data-gathering methods ensured collection of views from students, which were then validated through observation during the video project and interviews after the project. d. data analysis data analysis was performed by using percentages and explanations. in this paper a table is used to present the survey results regarding student’s perceptions about collaborative video project derived from their practice during the project. result and discussion this paper reports the results of a project that is aimed at motivating efl students to learn english vocabulary by creating vocabulary videos. this project involves planning, designing, creating and uploading a short vocabulary video online which provides students with the opportunity to show their videos and to communicate with broader audiences than they have access to in their classrooms. this paper directs attention to the production abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 117 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj phase, which presents the summary of findings related to the production theme and narrative analysis of the videos. a. summary of collaborative video-project the students’ approach to video project was imaginative in both content and presentation. the group decided on the specific focus of their projects and developed propositions as shown: table 1: video production works group topic idea type of video production group 1 describing people presenting 15 academic vocabularies including explanation of morpheme and word formation using animated pictures that act out the word. group 2 adjective words teach and demonstrate 12 academic vocabularies demonstration by using puppet, pictures and conversation group 3 adjectives present 12 academic words (adjectives) in daily life combination of pictures, animation, videos and stop motion group 4 work world presents 10 academic words including explanation of morpheme and word formation conversation (acting), and pictures group 5 kitchen stuff and cooking presents 12 intermediate vocabularies demonstration by using pictures and video game animation from the table above, it can be seen that students were able to produce ten to twelve words and phrases within five to seven minutes. interestingly, each video had a different topic, features and creativity. in the video, students showed intermediate to advanced words and phrases and explained them in different ways. in the worksheet given by the teacher in early stage of this project, all of the groups stated that windows movie maker would be used for this project since they had little experience in creating videos. surprisingly, the findings show that students used applications including wondershare video editor, cyber link power director, adobe after effects, movavi, adobe premiere cs6, corel video studio and windows movie maker during editing and production, 118 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj even though the teacher had only introduced windows movie maker. to be noted, all of those software had english-only menu so students always refer to the dictionary to understand the menu. the quality of the videos also reflected that students used various type of cameras in filming, such as slr cameras, pocket cameras and mobile-phone cameras. the following is a discussion of the result of the survey questionnaire: table 2: students’ perception on collaborative video project no emerging themes opinions of students students’ motivation sa (%) a (%) n (%) d (%) sd (%) 1 i feel i would learn more vocabulary by making videos 24 68 8 0 0 2 i enjoyed group discussion about videos preparation with my group member 36 56 8 0 0 3 i thought creating the videos is an enjoyable and great of valuable classroom time 20 56 24 4 0 4 i enjoyed watching the videos prepared by my classmates 48 44 8 0 0 5 i feel motivated to learn english through the video project 80 20 0 0 0 6 i plan to learn english word as much as possible 90 10 0 0 0 student learning 7 i feel that i would have gained more knowledge from completing a research paper project rather than doing the video project 0 0 8 52 40 8 i feel that the video project helped me to better acquire academic vocabularies 24 60 12 4 0 9 working on video production could have assist me to improve my vocabulary 24 72 4 0 0 10 i felt like i could learn something by viewing and reviewing the videos prepared by my classmates 20 64 16 0 0 11 the teacher should continue to assign the video project 28 60 12 0 0 collaboration 12 this project gives me chance to be creative 65 20 15 0 0 13 i like adding animation, colors, pictures and other features in the video 60 20 20 0 0 abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 119 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj no emerging themes opinions of students 14 i enjoy creating a story board for this project 90 10 0 0 0 15 i found many creativity from my classmates’ video project 75 20 5 0 0 strongly agree (sa), agree (a), neutral (n), disagree (d), strongly disagree (sd) data revealed that majority of the participants enjoy learning vocabulary through video project. additionally, a majority of students enjoyed the group discussions about preparing their videos and watched videos prepared by other groups. of the students responding to question number 4, which responded that they enjoyed watching the videos prepared by their classmates, indicated that students were engaged in teamwork and experimenting with competition, which enhanced their cognitive development. regarding students’ learning, the survey data noted that most students felt that they would have gained more knowledge from completing a research paper rather than completing the video project. in terms of motivation, participants admitted that they felt motivated to learning not only vocabulary but also an overall english language after doing this collaborative project. they also would learn english as much as possible in the future since they already have the motivation to learn it through this project. furthermore, data also showed the highest percentage of positive agreement in regards to vocabulary acquisition through collaborative video project. it is also obvious that most participants agreed that the video project can be regularly applied in the efl classroom in the future. moreover, most participants felt that collaborative video project provide them opportunity to be creative and enjoyed their classmates’ creativity shown in the videos. in addition to the survey data above, this research also utilized interview data to reinforce the findings of the survey. data from the interviews showed that the video project provides students with a chance to express themselves in an enjoyable situation that they may not be able to experience outside of the classroom. the findings also showed that some students felt more independent as learners, less threatened by teachers’ presence and enjoyed the opportunity to work collaboratively. the team-working culture made students happy because of the exchange of experiences and views in the group that they were working with. a couple of students contended that the video project was an effective way for them to participate in the course while enriching their vocabulary and language skills such as listening, speaking, and writing. from a personal perspective, they believed that the video production improved their confidence, developed their creativity, and encouraged them to share their 120 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ideas, views, opinions and experiences. some students stated: “i enjoyed project the video because this task was carried with others and was fun”. another opinion of a student in group 1 was that: “i liked this project because i feel that the video project helped me to learn several advanced vocabulary words from my friends and my group video”. “this project really boosted our creativity from project the video and also improved my vocabulary and speaking skill.” “being brave to speak english is hard for me, but because of this project, i am able to speak english in front of people and the camera.” the benefits of utilizing video production projects in a set of courses extended further than improving language and self-confidence. during the first time that this project was introduced, students were unenthusiastic because they had no video project or editing skills. consequently, when the first stage of the video-project process was started, students felt that they faced large obstacles in how the project should be started. a student in group 4 stated, “i did enjoy the video even though i had to face obstacles related to the availability of equipment in the early stage of this process. then, i tried to learn some basic video editing from youtube tutorials. i was satisfied that i was able to produce a video with my team.” another obstacle stated by the students was the difficulty in motivating their group members to finish the project. “i did enjoy doing the video project. although sometimes it could be considered a waste of time when someone tried to encourage the rest of the group members and their response was ‘we are not in the mood.’” “i found it was difficult to learn to use editing software or applications from videos. i spent a lot of time searching and learning it from a friend. i sometimes had conflicts with my team if someone stood against our idea.” similar to those statements, students clearly stated that when encouraged to collaborate on the video project, they often faced conflicts with group members, as well as discovered new strengths and talents within themselves abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 121 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj while coping with new concepts and technical skills. in spite of this difficulty, by the time the production process had finished, students clearly demonstrated positive attitudes in their statements, such as: “i liked this assignment because i developed new knowledge, new words and learned how to create videos with a variety of applications, such as adobe premiere, that we used in our project.” “i think it is important to work on a project like this. i learned a lot about video maker and dubbing for video projects. this really adds to my knowledge, both from sharing with my friends and exploring online resources.” the above students’ opinions confirm the findings of perez, peters, clarebout, and desmet (2014), who claim that the process of digital video production and, most importantly, the process of reflection allowed students to find their own pathways in learning while still engaging with the key curriculum goals. this was certainly the case with these students; in fact, this was the first time in the history of this class that students had completed video editing outside of class without assistance. additionally, a student in group 3 showed evidence of problem-solving skills, which allowed him to excel at this task. for instance, uploading and integrating appropriate music to the rrw software was initially a challenge for him; however, he displayed his increasing autonomy by searching the manual and even visiting a friend who had mastered video editing for advice. similarly, another student in group 4 also showed proof of critical thinking in his observations of the project: “i learned how a short video is made and how important it is to think about what the creator wants to say to persuade people.” likewise, another student from group 5 highlighted the positive results of the video project. for instance, he mentioned that it was “a fantastic experience to make our own video. i thought it was difficult to make a video that was smoother and natural, but in fact, i enjoyed editing: for example, i enjoyed selecting music and putting effects in the video.” this feeling of students supports the findings from tyner’s study (2003) that when digital equipment is used for hands-on production, students can 122 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj apply skills, such as critical analysis, critical thinking, synthesizing, and evaluating knowledge and attitudes. therefore, through the video project experience, students can build their own understanding through hands-on experience that boosts the growth of critical thinking skills and uses reliable tasks of inquiry, thought and problem solving. using collaborative video project seems to be very promising for engaging students in learning vocabulary, particularly english intermediate vocabulary, as done in this study. however, it is necessary to design these types of projects for the purpose of engaging and motivating students in the targeted activities so that they will benefit from them; otherwise, these projects will be more of a gimmick than a tool to help students learn. the next section explains in depth the research findings related to the research question addressed in this study. b. summary of the observations on students’ video project process and their creativity a significant outcome of the project is the various collaborative videos for english vocabulary created by students. the findings of this study revealed that the students were motivated to learn because they were engaged in teamwork and were able to experiment with the equipment, which enhanced their cognitive development. from the observations of the video project process, it can be assumed that planning or preparing for the project was very important. in the pre-production phase, students must deal with certain issues such as agreement and disagreement, compromising different opinion, and problem solving as they are demanded to work collaboratively with their peers. though student preparation was crucial to success, there were also many practical things that a teacher could do to ensure smooth preparation and organization during the video-production process. the importance of respecting other’s time when working with cameras, audio recorders and computers must be strictly impressed upon the students. they learned about time management and the job description of each person in the group. while learning 10-15 words vocabulary that were shown in the video, it is acknowledged that students have learned many vocabularies naturally while making the video. it was observed during the pre-production stage that, on the one hand, that a majority of students showed interest in planning the video topic and features, and building the action sequences. on the other hand, they also had many arguments and disagreements over finalizing the ideas regarding features abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 123 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and action sequences. additionally, students who showed low levels of interest at the phase of topic discussion became more interested when the video was brought in. the coverage of each video clearly showed the different levels of knowledge among the groups. this means that students with different language abilities and different abilities proficiencies regarding filing and editing videos required different approaches to video work. from this observation, it was clearly seen that students who were familiar with technology (youtube videos, movie maker software and computer applications) contributed more collaborative ideas for developing the story. they also responded differently during video production. for example, groups 2 and 3 had more interesting and interactive videos because their videos contained significant content in terms of clarity, vocabulary, and presentation. the students in these groups had more knowledge and skills in media literacy and ability to work with various movie maker applications. it is interesting to acknowledge that the well-chosen background music by these groups enhanced their videos. in a different approach, group 1 used a hand puppet to speak and also used short sentences while varying the pitch, volume and pace. it was interesting to see students taking on a role or voice to explore new ideas and create tension, curiosity, and excitement. it was observed that students used the puppet to impart knowledge by repeating something or repeating it incorrectly so the conversation with the puppet could lead to an explanation of the words. in their video, the hand puppet helped to authentically represent english. unlike groups 1, 2 and 3, group 4 showed several scenes of a short conversation. the process of choosing the best scene was time-consuming since they used several scenarios. ultimately, the video included very interesting scenes with different settings in which students had to learn how to state their opinions, support them, and refute others by using intermediate vocabulary words. at times, the conversation in the movie went well, and it appeared that the students forgot that they were speaking in a foreign language. lastly, group 5 utilized a unique combination of pictures, video games, and their own video. the other common element observed during production was that three groups that showed interest in acting and excitement about being in front of the camera. it was perceived that students found it difficult to film action sequences from multiple angles (as in the case of group 4); however, they realized its potential during editing when different shots and scenes were 124 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj combined. fascinatingly, students in group 3 acted out the words and sang the words and phrases with different rhythms. two groups used conversational settings before introducing the words or phrases to be explained, while others used pictures and captions with colorful text in powerpoint slides to show vocabulary. another sample of creativity in the video included showing a picture of a family talking together that one person had captioned with a conversation between them that ended with a person saying the word “donate”. several groups made collaborative use of the text to drive their videos. all of the groups had colorful moving text and text effects. in terms of the modes of narration or the narrative style of the productions, all of the groups had an opening and closing segment in their videos. this correlated with niestyto et al.’s study (2003), in which students seemed to prefer ‘open’ productions to ‘closed’ ones. in postproduction, it was generally observed across all of the groups that boys were more interested in editing than the girls in their groups. it was also observed that the majority of the students were passionate about music and brought in their own selection of songs to accompany the visuals. c. creativity in video project and learning motivation this section elaborates on creativity in video project and how the results of students’ perceptions of the project relate to their learning interest and motivation, as proposed by the first research question. regarding learning motivation, researchers have verified that motivation is also generally recognized as very important in the challenge of learning a foreign language. this indicates the degree of involvement in learning and degree of mental effort one puts into learning (means, jonassen, & dwyer, 2004). several studies revealed that if a teacher teaches students interesting and important topics, they will be more motivated to learn (greenberg, & zanetis, 2012). students in this project admitted that they were interested in learning actively so they can more easily receive what is being taught. they were not afraid to make mistakes in speaking because the group members and teacher always helped and reinforced them in speaking. this indicates that students have control over their thoughts, actions and preferences in the learning process, which implies that the teacher has created motivational learning settings. similarly, students feel empowered and have a sense of belonging when they are given the chance to create a video as an assignment. this develops students’ motivation toward learning english and also contributes to abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 125 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the development of additional skills (such as acting, filming and editing videos), creativity, innovation, leadership, social interaction and team work. based on the interview data, students returned again and again to the features that they found most motivating; for example, the video content, such as images, video and audio, made the application more practical, challenging and fun than conventional learning tools, a finding that is in line with the study of berns et al. (2016) in which students agreed that the interactive nature of video motivated them in learning and brought learning to life. when students have intrinsic motivation, they are more likely to engage in learning activity, accomplish their task and learn the lesson because they see value in the learning experience (anderman & bandura, 2012). it was observed from this study that learning english vocabulary through the video project can increase interest by shifting the lesson into a powerful communication style during the explanation of important things. in working with each group, the teacher gained valuable insight into students’ efforts to speak english during their discussions. most students were highly motivated and determined to take full advantage of the class to improve their english. students who felt a lack of vocabulary and inferior in expressing themselves orally wanted to improve their speaking skill. once students experience active student-oriented learning, such as this video project, they are automatically motivated to improve their learning and achievement. since students who participated in this study were categorized as efl young learners, who easily become bored and have difficulty paying attention to the lesson over a long time, video production can offer an attractive way for them to learn english. students confirmed that they were more comfortable and enjoyed learning english vocabulary through this video production project, as noted by cook (2001): “high motivation is one factor that causes successful learning; in reverse, successful learning causes high motivation” (p.118). the findings of this study reveal the essential point of motivation as seen from the comments above. witnessing students’ collaborative video project, their progress in learning involvement and vocabulary enrichment confirmed my interest in promoting learning culture using technology as it is important to build students’ motivation for learning english. it is exciting to acknowledge the creativity and validity of these activities in the spirit of their engagement and participatory values. in addition, students confessed that the videos were fun to watch and that the assignment increased not only their motivation to learn vocabulary but also their creativity. the data showed that the videos were engaging and 126 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj humorous, and unexpectedly, students had completed the project in only four weeks. another point is that each group showed different creativity. in line with this finding, niestyto et al. (2003) argues that the quality and style of student media productions or videos depends on the specific contexts in which they are made and on the persons or groups involved. in terms of the quality of the videos, the student videos will circulate as ‘video low’ (little technical expertise, considered more authentic) as defined by fiske (1990) rather than as ‘video high’ (highly produced, mass distributed). however, findings about creativity use in videos showed that the video project gave students the choice of how best to express a given idea through captions, pictures, slides, videos, and animation. by utilizing applications in editing and production to manipulate the way that information is presented, students were capable of producing professional-looking videos with some limitations. henceforth, they reportedly spent more time on discussing the ideas of their video presentation and designing and editing the videos, so they gained more knowledge of the production process. this confirms previous studies that found that collaborative video projects performed collaboratively with technology can enrich students’ knowledge and experience and their peers’ reactions toward their work, as well as offer greater awareness of the needs and perspectives of the audience (carney & foss, 2008; hasegawa, koshino, & ban 2015). in other words, the authenticity of the production and sincerity of the experience represented in students’ videos will attract the audience’s attention. this study included a few students who had little or even no video editing experience and knowledge of media literacy. therefore, they spent a large amount of time discussing the issue of filming and editing with friends who are good at filming and editing. this gave them valuable opportunities to use their spoken english (producing numerous vocabulary words from their memories based on the conversation) with classmates who speak the same native language as they do. this confirms second-language motivational selfsystem theories that suggest that possible attitudes can be underpinned by what students might wish to become and what they are afraid to become. students feel comfortable when they see their performance in the video as someone who is fluent in english. they are also motivated to study harder because learning in an enjoyable situation will help them to further develop their patterns of thought. obtaining those skills can enhance students’ confidence and competence. hence, they will voluntarily engage with and successfully complete complex english-language tasks. abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 127 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj however, it is worth noting that some students are not tech-savvy and may not be interested in video project, so they may feel intimidated. therefore, teachers must give them direction by demonstrating how to create videos and recommending a list of software or applications that can be used so students do not have to spend a lot of time experimenting with them, which may be a deterrent. technical support is essential to reduce students’ frustration, especially for those who have no media skills. empirically, the results of this study add new knowledge to researchers’ understanding of vocabulary learning and will initiate research about the correlation between video production and vocabulary acquisition. the interview results revealed that students primarily believed in the importance of vocabulary learning for tests. they were confident in their competence in vocabulary learning, but they expressed less interest in it. d. vocabulary learning and enhancement through collaborative video project currently, video technology allows students to work on their own video productions, which has direct implications for use in the classroom, as students feel the need to learn with technology in a context in which the establishment of content, media, and language knowledge becomes more meaningful (dal, 2012). this study discusses how video project can enhance students’ english vocabulary within the framework of task-based language learning. furthermore, four principles for effective vocabulary instruction according to blachowicz and fisher (2000) are used to analyze the video project. first, students had the opportunity to actively involve themselves in word learning, as academic vocabulary development does not come about only through listening activity but also beyond it, such as in discussion and interaction. through group discussion in this project, students had opportunities to clarify their thinking and extend each other’s knowledge. the video-production activity provided opportunities to interact with their group and encouraged them to provide each other with new information, which reinforces comprehension strategies used by proficient students. this enjoyable development task extended student learning beyond passive experiences. this project required active learning and peer interaction, which allowed students to grasp words from both the inside and outside, project academic vocabulary a part of their daily discourse. thus, the acquisition of english words (vocabulary) were not only from the assignment but also the 128 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj words they used during the process of making video. in addition, this project also allowed a written approach to build student academic vocabulary. as demonstrated by group 4 and group 1, students involved themselves in writing their story before they presented it on their video, so they had more opportunity to use academic vocabulary in their writing. the findings reveal that the opportunity to retell their experiences reinforces the use of new vocabulary both from the process of making videos and assigned vocabulary for video, then the concepts. second, during pre-production, students made personal connections with the definitions of the words they were going to show in the video. in this part, not all students were able to connect a word’s meaning to something familiar to themselves since english is a foreign language for them. however, students were able to remember and use the words more readily by visualizing it. this personal connection is implied by students’ ideas in video design and word visualization, which were mentioned in group discussion. our results found that students developed specific vocabulary as they created stories and acted them out in front of the video camera. this activity led them to store the information and process it in his/her own thoughts. by project personal connections, students also experienced visual perception as they became involved in actively analyzing pictures or illustrations. defining words, including specific nouns, verbs, or adjectives, is also a process of learning by doing. the activity of finding adjectives and then converting them to illustrations, actions, drawings and watching their friends guess the words can be fun and a great way to acquire vocabulary. this activity provided a rich foundation for using vocabulary words in real-life, meaningful situations. this also reconfirmed a previous study by dalton and grisham (2011) that the creation and analysis of images can promote students’ thinking about the meaning and hierarchal relationships among words. third, working on this project immersed students in vocabulary learning as they dug deeply for information about the words. a current study in the field of cognitive theory has proven that students compile information that they receive by means of experience. according to durkin (1989), information that is obtained through the senses is compiled in the form of schema, which is “an organized network of concepts embodying some aspect of knowledge” (p. 441). students acknowledged that they learned and then used the words or phrases that they obtained while working on this project. hence, students were able to memorize and use those words or phrases not only in the process of discussing their video project and during video performance but also later abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 129 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in writing and daily conversation. it was observed that students developed their english vocabulary knowledge in various ways. fourth, as the pre-production phase demanded that students brainstorm and submit a preliminary production draft, students put forth extra effort to choose the best design for their video. the 12 words that were shown in the videos were taken from various resources. the findings reveal that students ensured that the chosen words were defined correctly by looking at different resources that explained the words and definitions. this indicates that students consolidated meaning through multiple information resources. as words were selected to be shown in the video, students created knowledge maps that showed relationships between and among words. one of the ways students consolidate their knowledge of academic vocabulary is to use specific words in constructed sentences (fisher and frey, 2008). in this project, students constructed sentences from words that were chosen, a practice fearn and farnan (2001) call a “given word sentence” (p. 87). the project let students expand their sentences and enabled them to use the academic vocabulary and mechanics that are necessary to express the information. engaging students in the vocabulary learning process through video production has shown to provide the opportunity for students to learn words and expressions in a systematic way. for example, when the word “pugnacious” (which means “aggressive”) appear in a video, it should be accompanied with audio or visual cues of anger or aggression. in fact, some of the students’ videos used humor, emotion, and dramatization to help the audience remember the word and its meaning more easily. the entire process of video project and creativity can lead to discussions and a platform for sharing ideas, even if it is outside of the classroom. as a student-centered project-based activity, the video project exercise has familiarized students with skills, such as writing, directing, and speaking. this activity has stimulated their interest in learning language that required them to have interactions, which involved problem solving and higher-order thinking. this confirms sentlowitz’s (2009) finding that problem-solving skills and analytical ability of students are developed when they work individually and in groups to find, process, and synthesize information. the data collected through questionnaires and interviews has also provided an understanding of this project that can help students to acquire vocabulary and enrich their academic vocabulary. this confirms carkin’s 130 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj study (2004) that a video project can enhance students’ motivation to learn english including certain skills; vocabulary and pronunciation. thus, the research question regarding whether collaborative video project can motivate students in learning english and can be a powerful tool for a teacher to make students’ usage of the english language visible in the classroom, is therefore confirmed. conclusion the finding of this study has offered a new data collection instrument in the research on a video project of vocabulary learning classroom observation. although currently there have been no reports available in the literature on classroom observation in this type of study, the observation of this research demonstrated that students’ vocabulary video ideas are related to their learning interest and experience. this indicated the importance of students’ background knowledge in producing a vocabulary video project. there are many advantages offered by a video project in the efl classroom. this project yielded valuable insights into efl teaching practices that integrated collaborative video production into the curriculum. the video project provided efl learners with meaningful learning, enjoyment and benefits that emphasize fun and effective communication rather than perfection. with clear guidelines, tutorials, materials and instruction, students were able to work efficiently to complete the task and demonstrated their ability and skills, both in english language and digital literacy. as a pedagogical benefit, it is clearly seen that the collaborative video project has boosted efl students’ creativity for language learning purposes. the video project is significantly valuable for students to enhance their vocabulary acquisition and creativity, as it allowed students to share their learning experience as well as to promote a sense of belonging and transform learning values freely. in addition, the video project has enabled students to think collaboratively and critically, as well as to voice their ideas, concerns and possible solutions about the issues concerning them. in fact, numerous frameworks are available for assisting students in acquiring vocabulary and enhancing their learning interest and motivation, as well as in augmenting their video project skills and collaborative video project, as reported in this paper. yet, as this project includes classroom management issues, as further research, this study could serve as a model for undisciplined classrooms because even passive students will find a way to engage, thereby expanding abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 131 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj their learning. thus, it is suggested to develop follow up research by using a larger number of samples with using mixed methods to gain more conclusive results. acknowledgement parts of this paper have been presented at the teflin international conference in makassar, 12-14th july 2018. references ali z., mukundan j., baki r., & mohd ayub a.f. 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(2001). video-assisted vocabulary instruction for elementary school students with learning disabilities. information technology in childhood education annual, 1. https://www.learntechlib.org/ primary/p/8503/. appendix: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=q9gdu_jn8vw&feature=youtu.be https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=szaemkau91o https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=q9gdu_jn8vw&feature=youtu.be&fbclid=iwar3nrml11yj46gixem3zzox6vpcw0e48nu_li63ze3kicm5hozx1gpap_24 https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=szaemkau91o&fbclid=iwar3ohwq7uwyaojd8qosbztfecwxk-mtz1khsdoytazfqdx_vzwcmo9xt1xk 136 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 107 137 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=acgqz8-uoqe https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=uylnviipowi https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=acgqz8-uoqe&fbclid=iwar1snwttmkxrdfpnqgxx5glg0xo_gdgxzpr2gipss-vlvdqgdh0xdya3pry https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=uylnviipowi&fbclid=iwar0jtfcwfixxm88icyatgoponl-v6_ghj6xoljysgdpadpplnlx6ndknz08 abdulrahman, t.r. & basalama, n., promoting students’ motivation in 137 learning english vocabulary through a collaborative video project https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ab6twuj6tlq https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=5iqnkecwxus https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ukjtyrwcfjs https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ab6twuj6tlq&fbclid=iwar19dvbva52tcfmhquulc9o0qtgm7rvm_cgpo2xlwrfqx0k3xammsyhyqlg https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=5iqnkecwxus&fbclid=iwar1-i8e7wanwbmjoc8co_guijapcahnhutt-4irgobqdsl-ok_-syjdizf4 https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ukjtyrwcfjs&fbclid=iwar1uqevqazjnotuszcfsagjkxe0vb72xnkl_ruher4jjrtv417sgpxyx4wq ngajeng yard, residential wong kalang, harmony with nature (desa lumansari, kecamatan gemuh, kabupaten kendal – jawa tengah) prabani setio hastorahmanto, heristama anugerah putra architecture, faculty of engineering, darma cendika catholic university-surabaya stefanprabani@ukdc.ac.id abstrak pekarangan ngajeng merupakan area terbuka dibagian depan hunian wong kalang. pekarangan ngajeng merupakan lahan yang berada dalam satu pekarangan. terbentuknya pekarangan ngajeng didasarkan pada tradisi yang dilakukan oleh kelompok wong kalang. wong kalang merupakan sub etnis jawa, banyak orang yang tidak tahu tentang kehidupannya. dalam jurnal ini, secara khusus akan membahas pekarangan ngajeng pada hunian wong kalang yang erat kaitannya dengan aktivitas tradisi wong kalang. penelitian dilakukan pada hunian wong kalang di dukuh lumbu, desa lumansari kabupaten kendal terkait dengan orientasi bangunan yang akan dihubungkan dengan tradisi. pekarangan ngajeng merupakan tempat aktivitas dengan berbagai fungsi, yaitu: (1) fungsi sosial; (2) fungsi pertanian; (3) fungsi tradisi. aktivitas yang dilakukan pada pekarangan ngajeng merupakan uri-uri (melestarikan) warisan leluhur. penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan pendekatan etnografi. etnografi menekankan pengamatan suatu kelompok etnis terhadap aktivitas tradisi atau budaya. deskripsi kegiatan tradisi dijelaskan secara runtut mulai dari waktu, kegiatan, domain, subjek dan objek hingga kategori temuan. kategori aktivitas yang dilakukan memberikan makna bagi wong kalang. selanjutnya adalah menemukan sistem kepercayaan melalui pendekatan ontologi, penjelasan, prediksi, aksiologi, praksiologi dan epistemologi. pada tahap ini dijelaskan tujuan adanya pekarangan ngajeng bagi wong kalang. hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa orientasi hunian wong kalang ke arah utara atau selatan memiliki makna bagi kehidupan. makna tersebut terkait harmoni dengan alam. harmoni tersebut berhubungan dengan mata pencaharian. jalan lingkungan membentang dari arah timur ke barat searah dengan lintasan matahari, terkait dengan aktivitas tradisi tandur (tanam) dan panen. sedangkan pada tradisi obong merupakan jalan menuju nirwana untuk mencapai kesempurnaan. kata kunci: tradisi obong, kosmologi kalang, harmoni dengan alam abstract ngajeng yard is an open area in front of wong kalang's residence. ngajeng yard is land that is in one yard. the formation of the ngajeng yard is based on the tradition carried out by the wong kalang group. wong kalang is a sub-ethnic of java, many people do not know about his life. in this journal, we will specifically discuss the ngajeng yard in the wong kalang residence which is closely related to the traditional activities of wong kalang. the research was conducted on the residence of wong kalang in lumbu hamlet, lumansari village kendal regency related to the orientation of the building which will be associated with tradition. ngajeng yard is a place of activity with various functions, namely: (1) social functions; (2) agricultural function; (3) the function of tradition. activities carried out in the ngajeng yard are uri-uri (preserving) ancestral heritage. this study uses a qualitative method with an ethnographic approach. ethnography emphasizes the observation of an ethnic group towards traditional or cultural activities. the description of traditional activities is explained in a coherent manner starting from the time, activity, domain, subject and object to the category of findings. the categories of activities carried out give meaning to wong kalang. next is to find a belief system through the approach of ontology, explanation, prediction, axiology, praxeology and epistemology. at this stage, the purpose of the ngajeng yard is explained for wong kalang. the results of the study found that the orientation of wong kalang's residence to the north or south has meaning for life. the meaning is related to harmony with nature. the harmony is related to livelihood. the environmental road stretches from east to west in the direction of the sun's trajectory, associated with traditional tandur (planting) and harvesting activities. meanwhile, in the obong tradition, it is the path to nirvana to achieve perfection. keywords: obong tradition, kalang cosmology, harmony with nature introduction cosmology in traditional settings is often associated with rituals performed by the community (muhammad masruri, 2013). cosmology is the force of nature that gives life to traditional life. people's beliefs have a rationale for being oriented in a certain direction in the universe. cosmological implementation will be seen in the traditional order of life related to the decision to carry out an activity. activities carried out with the power of cosmology have hope for the life order of traditional societies. traditional settlement patterns generally have a certain orientation towards nature. this orientation is passed down by ancestors to the next generation. orientation with nature a strength that has been felt from traditional experience. the universe was studied by the ancestors to find conformity with activity. the process of finding conformity with nature becomes traditional knowledge that cannot be separated from traditional activities. traditional knowledge that connects activities with nature, occurs in the traditional residence of wong kalang in kendal regency, central java. the settlement is known as the village of kalang. kalang is a tradition. this is known by the surrounding community about kalang. however, there is a traditional order of life inherited by the ancestors of kalang. wong kalang is one of the javanese sub-ethnics who carry out traditions according to their ancestral heritage. the ancestors of wong kalang are ancestors who carry out the kalang tradition. in the kalang tradition, activities are carried out to maintain harmony with nature and respect ancestors. ancestral heritage that has a context with nature can be seen in the pattern of residential space, traditional residential orientation, division of space, function of space and how to construct traditional buildings. planning for the settlement of kalang village begins with the preparation of land that is used for main roads, environmental roads, housing, agricultural land, graves (graves). while knowledge about residential planning is inherited how to build a dwelling, limasap dwelling, residential spatial planning, space functions and division of yard land (prabani, sugiono soetomo, 2020). the heirs of the kalang tradition are the true descendants of kalang (the name for the kalang people who still carry out their ancestral traditions). traditions are carried out individually, in families and in groups. this tradition can only be done in the village of kalang. kalang village is the name for a residential area founded by kalang's ancestors and still carrying out the kalang tradition. the tradition is carried out following the dino petungan in the javanese calendar (counting days according to the javanese calendar). in addition, there are also traditions that are incidental based on dino geblak or dino sedo (day of death) of family members. as a true kalang, carrying out traditions is an obligation for those who still live in kalang village. the tradition that is carried out regularly is the ewuh tradition, the sadran tradition (pemerintah desa lumansari, 2016). the kalang tradition was passed down in the village of kalang. kalang village, which was built by the ancestors, is the beginning of the formation of the kalang settlement that currently exists. kalang village which is seen currently has a residential orientation towards north and south. this residential orientation was also found in the same era as the era of the hindu mataram kingdom, islamic mataram, to the ngayogyakarta hadiningrat palace (junianto, 2012). kalang village has the main village road that runs north and south, while the neighborhood road crosses east and west. the yard as a residence is located on the north and south sides of the neighborhood road. the division of the yard in kalang village is divided into three zones, namely 1) ngajeng yard (front yard); 2) omah limasap (limasap's house); 3) wingking yard (back yard). omah limasap has a building orientation towards the north or towards the south. ngajeng yard is an open space at the very front, located adjacent to the neighborhood road. overall, the yard or residential land is used as a place to carry out traditions. the arrangement of the kalang settlement is not something that just happens, but has been planned by the kalang ancestors. ngajeng's yard does not have a massive boundary that distinguishes land ownership. this becomes something interesting when wong kalang carry out the tradition. if viewed from the traditional activities related to the use of the ngajeng yard, it can be divided into three, namely: 1) social activities, these activities are related to activities related to the community between residents. this social activity will involve some of the neighbor's ngajeng yards; 2) tradition activities, are activities that are periodically and incidentally carried out by wong kalang involving the neighbor's ngajeng yard. these traditions include: the obong tradition, the son-in-law tradition, the salametan tradition; 3) agricultural tradition, is an activity carried out by wong kalang related to livelihood as a farmer. wong kalang carries out the tradition of tandur (planting) and harvesting (agricultural products). wong kalang's proximity to his ethnicity the life of wong kalang is known to have existed since the 8th century which is written in the harinjing inscription (804 ad) (hari lelono, 1989). the life of wong kalang is recorded in history during the reigns of the hindu mataram kingdom (732 ad), the majapahit kingdom (1292 ad), the islamic mataram kingdom (17 ad). in the islamic mataram kingdom with king sultan agung, wong kalang was transferred to the fairy kingdom area to prepare food barns. the distribution of the javanese-kalang sub-ethnic was detected in several areas, including: tegal gendu (kota gede) yogyakarta, petahan and ambal in kebumen, pekalongan, semarang, madiun, tulungagung, surabaya, and in the banyuwangi area (warto, 2001). the life of the wong kalang in some areas still exists, such as in bojonegoro regency, east java and also in kendal regency, central java, which still has the wong kalang community (muslichin, 2011a). kalang is one of the javanese sub-ethnics (abdul, 2015), this shows that kalang is not javanese but is in the javanese ethnic environment. the existence of kalang is different because the tradition carried out is an ancestral heritage. a tradition that is different from the javanese ethnicity. the existence of the wong kalang (wong is human) in java is spread over a wide area, sporadically living in the forests of java. the existence of wong kalang is detected living in the forests of java and often appears in crowded places such as markets and other colossal events (pontjosoetirto, 1971). become a marginal group who live in groups at the center of the fairy kingdom/government. their existence was recorded by the dutch government (warto, 2001). the data collection is related to tax exemption and the obligation to work for the dutch authorities. proximity to javanese ethnicity is a form of togetherness that lives in one area. this closeness gives rise to the perception that wong kalang is javanese, but they are actually different. the closeness of wong kalang with javanese ethnicity absorbed a lot of javanese culture as a form of adjustment. at present, it is difficult to distinguish the kalang people from the javanese people. physical differences cannot be the main reason for calling wong kalang. only with the implementation of tradition will the identity of wong kalang emerge. likewise, the kalang village area is a limited customary area (h. prabani setio, 2020). the group leader is administratively invisible, but the traditional leader will appear as the heir to the tradition handed down by the ancestors. this revelation was passed down from generation to generation by female kalang shamans as guardians of tradition ( et al prabani setio., 2019). as guardians of tradition, kalang shamans also guard the boundaries of kalang village while carrying out traditions. the boundaries of the kalang village are important to know the kalang customary area. wong kalang harmony with nature traditional society in everyday life is always oriented to the universe. knowledge of the universe is learned through experience and studying the cycles of nature. this closeness to nature results in a harmonious life with nature. the realization of the harmony of life with nature can be seen in the pattern of settlements, life activities, traditional and cultural activities. the harmony of life with nature is local wisdom that becomes knowledge to preserve nature (poespowardojo, 1986). the process of harmony with nature is a form of local wisdom, this can be seen from various equipment and housing. everything will be reflected in knowledge, ideas, customary norms, cultural values and traditional activities that are in harmony with nature (suhartini, 2009). self-awareness of nature is unique because it sets new guidelines for how knowledge and truth can be attained. awareness in traditional knowledge as a means and religiosity to behave (zulhelmi, 2019); (afifi hasbunallah, 2018). the order of knowledge, known as cosmology, is essentially the knowledge of how humans behave towards the universe and manage it. excessive management leads to imbalance. while wise management will provide benefits. the goal to be achieved is balance. balance is the expectation between utilization, management and conservation (maridi, 2015). humans are faced with a cosmological perspective in time and will systematically affect their lives to be able to feel and enjoy nature. in the cosmological order, philosophy is distinguished on the basis of its grouping, namely: (1) the basis of the belief that the world is "plural" or "singular" (pluralism or monoism); (2) the position of humans in this world as "subjects" or "objects" (subjectivity or objectivity); (3) human essence and substance in this world and human essence and substance in other worlds; (4) synthetic approach (anton bakker, 1995). the debate that is still carried out by scientists about cosmology, but in traditional knowledge has treated nature as it should. in the traditional order of life, nature is the teacher, and nature is a symptom that can be directly understood. this understanding will undoubtedly provide a wise attitude towards nature. thus, local wisdom is able to provide an understanding of how to respond to nature for the sake of sustainability. furthermore, traditional cosmology can be synergized with nature conservation practices (dickson adom, 2018). the tradition of kalang in harmony with nature kalang is a tradition, we heard that statement when we searched for kalang village in the kendal district. however, not many people know about the village of kalang. kalang village is not exposed because only a few hamlets are kalang villages, thus none of them implicitly have territorial boundaries. kalang village is included in the kelurahan/village administrative area according to the administrative division of the village administration. in one area of kalang village, not all of the residents are wong kalang, only a few families are true kalang. (wong kalang who still inherits the kalang tradition). in fact, it is said to be kalang village because the village was originally founded by wong kalang and in the development of the village's formation it carried out the kalang tradition. in subsequent developments there was a mixed marriage between wong kalang and non kalang so that their descendants did not carry out the kalang tradition. in addition, there are also those who migrate to leave the village of kalang so that the kalang tradition is released. the kalang tradition can only be carried out by wong kalang in the village of kalang. this exclusive principle has resulted in the fading of the kalang tradition. the village of kalang which is being built by wong kalang is not closed to other people who will live in the village. wong kalang's openness to other residents is a form of tolerance with fellow humans who have different traditions. thus, kalang village is a traditional boundary that can carry out the kalang tradition based on the ancestor who formed the village with tradition. the kalang tradition that is widely known by some residents around the village of kalang is the ewuh tradition and the obong tradition. the ewuh tradition is a tradition that is carried out periodically following the javanese calendar. while the obong tradition is a tradition that is carried out incidentally because there is grief (grief) due to the death of a relative of wong kalang. these two traditions are still carried out by wong kalang in kalang village. the tradition recognized by residents around kalang village is the obong tradition. the obong tradition is a tradition carried out by wong kalang on pitung dino sedho (seven days dead) and mendak setunggal sedho (a year died) relatives of wong kalang. the implementation of the obong tradition can be carried out if in his life the relative is still carrying out the ewuh tradition, then the relative who is tasih sugeng (still living) is obliged to carry out the obong tradition for the deceased relative. the implementation of the obong tradition is carried out in the village of kalang and is led by a dukun sonteng (a female shaman who is the leader of the kalang tradition). the obong pitung dino tradition is a tradition of burning personal belongings of deceased relatives. while the obong mendak setunggal tradition is a tradition of burning mantenan (wooden dolls) and various items that are still left behind during the obong pitung dino tradition. in the implementation of the obong tradition, the residential orientation of wong kalang becomes the guideline for the direction of the tradition. north – south orientation of the residence of wong kalang and the neighborhood road that stretches east – west. the path is the path to nirvana as a place for the soul to attain perfection after death. the east direction is a symbol of early life (birth), between east and west is real life, while the west direction is life in nirvana towards perfection. in the obong tradition carried out by wong kalang, the east-west orientation can be seen in the ritual of chanting the mantra (prayer) performed by the sonteng shaman. sonteng shaman's sitting position leads to a western orientation which indicates the direction to nirvana. likewise, during the obong ritual, burning omah-omahan (miniature house) in which there is a mantenan (wooden doll) a symbol of the human body. the orientation of the omah-omahan also leads to the west. in the residence of wong kalang, which is oriented towards north – south, the environmental road will be seen as an unobstructed path to nirvana. the straight path is the path that makes it easy to reach nirvana. figure 1: kalang village, hamlet lumbu, lumansari village source: prabani 2022 figure 2: analisys solid and void at desa kalang source: prabani 2022 research methods with ethnographic approach ethnography is used as a research approach because it has a research stage that allows following ethnic activities (groad linda, 2002). these activities are traditional activities carried out by ethnic or cultural activities. through ethnography, the explanation of the domain in the kalang sub-ethnic will be used as a basis for understanding its meaning (atik, 2010). through an ethnographic approach by following the wong kalang tradition in the ngajeng yard, it is carried out in several stages. research stages: (1) conducting a mini tour within the scope of kalang village. aims to find problems that occur in relation to nature; (2) find the problem. the gap between expectations and reality in the arrangement of settlements is the concern of researchers. the ngajeng yard in several houses has changed its function. however, the tradition of tandur (planting) and harvesting (agricultural products) is still carried out in the ngajeng yard; (3) learning from problems, problems arise when the yard of ngajeng is limited so they have to move to another place; (4) assign informants. questions arise and who to ask?; (5) following the activities of wong kalang. asking is part of the research, but the ethnographic approach provides opportunities to be active in local traditions; (6) find the domain. there are areas that are only specific to the wong kalang tradition in the ngajeng yard, so a specific understanding and definition is needed; (7) analyze the semantic domain relationship. the found domains are related to activities or traditions so that semantic relationship analysis is needed; (8) making structural questions; (9) make taxonomic analysis; (10) asking contrasting questions. domains sometimes need to be distinguished by different activities to better understand their definitions and meanings; (11) find a cultural theme. all activities participated in by the kalang ethnic found cultural meanings and themes (naidoo, 2012). at the end of the conclusion, the meaning of the ngajeng yard will be sought. as a place to carry out traditions that have been carried out for generations, the ngajeng yard has a meaning for wong kalang. the meaning of the ngajeng yard will be carried out through a belief system approach following the concepts of ontology, explanation, prediction, axiology, praxeology, epistemology (clément vidal, 2014). discussion the activities carried out by wong kalang in the ngajeng yard show a tradition. this tradition is an ancestral heritage that continues to be preserved to this day. the traditions carried out in the ngajeng yard can be categorized into: (1) time, indicating when the activity was carried out; (2) types of activities, showing the activities carried out; (3) subject, wong kalang as perpetrator; (4) objects, objects used and what to do; 5) purpose, the activity has a clear purpose in relation to the order of life; 6) benefits, these activities have benefits that can be felt by the entire village of kalang and outside the village. the categories of questions that became the basis for determining the harmony between cosmology and traditional activities found clear answers about the reasons for the ngajeng yard. the ngajeng yard in kalang village specifically has several differences from the ngajeng yard in the current settlement. the specifications that are still being maintained are: 1) location, specifically the location of the ngajeng yard is on the north and south sides of the transverse environmental road (east west); 2) yard without a boundary fence, ngajeng yard is not found to have a yard fence border on either the right and left sides, as well as the front side bordering the neighborhood road. 3) without trees, in ngajeng's yard there are no large and shady trees; 4) development of the limasap house towards the back, in the kalang tradition, if the number of family members increases, then the development of the house is focused towards the back. in the order of life of wong kalang about the harmony of nature with humans, the point is that humans are able to live in harmony with nature. humans are capable of being wise. wisdom requires a noble attitude and a noble attitude in utilizing the universe as a gift for human life (sukman, 2014). man has a spirit, mind and heart which are at the highest level of his spiritual structure. a soul that has a kind and appreciative nature. mind / reason is the human ability to think about the good for life. the heart is a feeling of empathy for the natural environment. changes continue to occur along with the increasing level of community knowledge, this can be seen from several changes in the function of the yard that are different from tradition. this change is due to changes in community activities, which are not entirely farmers. even so, wong kalang, who is still engaged in agriculture, can still see the presence of uri-uri (preserving) ancestral heritage in the ngajeng yard. uri-uri in carrying out traditions sometimes hinder and conflict with other activities. the ancestral uri-uri tradition is more about respecting the ancestors, but in practice they only pass on the tradition. furthermore, it does not give meaning to the tradition (sri rejeki, nindyo soewarno, sudaryono, 2010). wong kalang as a javanese sub-ethnic carries out traditional activities inherited from kalang's ancestors (muslichin, 2011b). the ancestral heritage is a life value system that is closely related to nature through a way of life. kalang's ancestral life is agrarian, inheriting the orientation of the building which is interpreted as harmony with nature. this harmony is carried out as a form of utilizing nature for the continuation of life. the phrase kalang is a tradition, a manifestation of the order of life of wong kalang who lives in tradition (muslichin, 2011a). traditions that are in harmony with nature and are nature-oriented. residential orientation towards north or south is a pattern formed following the agrarian life of wong kalang. the spatial pattern is formed from a massive residential arrangement. the open space of the ngajeng yard will form a linear space pattern. the open space pattern is formed from two yards facing each other (janson, 2014). the ngajeng yard which is made into a common yard and the facilities of the kalang village. the kalang village facility is used as a connecting road between residential blocks. while the ngajeng yard as a public facility functions as a traditional activity. traditional activities in the ngajeng yard are related to the agrarian life of wong kalang. the traditional activities carried out in the ngajeng yard are in a spiritual (thankful) and religious (belief) context. gratitude is shown in activities related to agrarian life (farming). as a farmer, the tradition of tandur (planting) and harvesting (agricultural products). tandur tradition, people sow seeds in beds (where to sow seeds). growing shoots need water and sunlight. the ngajeng yard, which is formed in a linear east-west pattern, is open and has no boundaries so that it is constantly exposed to the sun. likewise, during harvesting activities, agricultural products in the form of grains are dried in the ngajeng yard continuously from morning to evening exposed to the hot sun. in contextual agricultural theology, it is agricultural activity that maintains the sustainability of the universe. there needs to be an altruistic attitude, namely placing the interests of others including the universe as an action orientation (panjaitan, 2020). altrius actions are reflected in listening and following nature's sounds and preserving them. tandur and harvest traditions are activities that are in harmony with nature. being in harmony with nature is the spirit for wong kalang to be optimistic about the goodness of nature for life. tandur and harvesting traditions are seen in activities that are formed continuously and are carried out regularly. the pattern of activities carried out simultaneously has a structured pattern and clear benefits. the ngajeng yard that stretches from east to west provides benefits for wong kalang. path of the sun throughout the day that provides light and heat. this was used by wong kalang as a form of natural gift to the agrarian system of life that was adopted. the agrarian system of life showed a religious attitude towards the prince (the ruler of nature). as an explanation of the harmony of nature in the wong kalang settlement, in detail referring to the belief system approach (clément vidal, 2008); (clément vidal, 2014), it can be explained as the following philosophical concepts: 1) ontology concept: a. the ngajeng yard in kalang village is an ancestral relic that is still preserved. its existence has a relationship between nature and traditional activities; b. traditional activities carried out in the ngajeng yard are tandur (sowing agricultural products) and harvesting (drying agricultural products); c. the ngajeng yard is in front of limasap's house. this residence is oriented towards the north or south, so that the ngajeng yard in the row of dwellings will stretch in an east-west direction; 2) concept explanation: a. the current ngajeng yard is a relic of wong kalang's ancestors. ancestors are the founders of kalang village. wong kalang is an agrarian society. ancestor kalang planned a universe-oriented settlement. the kalang settlement consists of a residence and a yard. the yard is used as a nursery for seedlings during the dry season and drying the harvested seeds; 3) prediction concept: a. the natural environment today is generally still the same as the life of the ancestors of wong kalang. agriculture as the main livelihood. the number of occupancy and population is increasing. some houses change function following changes in the activities of the homeowners; b. the orientation of the building is planned according to the environment. activities affect nature conservation. local wisdom that pays attention to the natural environment as the basis for the formation of settlements; c. keeping agriculture sustainable requires understanding and self-awareness. activities that damage residential buildings need to be avoided. wong kalang has the idea of ​​preserving nature and preserving ancestral heritage; 4) the concept of axiology: a. maintain and maintain order in the existing kalang village. ancestral thoughts about the kalang settlement structure need to be explained to future generations who are vulnerable to change; b. global reality tends not to understand the thinking of ancestors. tendency to change and adapt to current desires and activities. technology oriented thus leaving the traditional; c. utilization of natural resources for life and nature conservation; 5. concepts of praxeology: a. ancestor kalang had noble thoughts about the gifts of nature; b. cosmology is the thought of using nature, valuing and preserving it; c. nature gives a good gift to human life; d. harmonious relationship between humans and nature will be achieved in a balanced way. from the concept of clement vidal's belief system, it can be seen that the ngajeng yard of wong kalang's residence has a harmonious meaning with nature. this harmony can still be felt today by the next generation who inherits agrarian activities. conclusion the tradition carried out by wong kalang in the ngajeng yard is oriented to the universe. nature's gift to be grateful for. the settlement orientation shows a structured and planned form over a long period of time. not only meaningful but also valuable as local wisdom oriented to nature. contextually, settlement orientation is based on the cosmology of the eight cardinal directions. the cosmology has meaning for life and death. the orientation of the ngajeng yard for agricultural activities can be seen as follows: (1) tradition, showing repeated and massive activities during the tandur and harvest periods; (2) livelihood, carried out by wong kalang by farming is an ancestral heritage; (3) benefits, carrying out farming traditions during tandur and harvesting in the ngajeng yard by utilizing heat and sunlight. while the activities of the obong tradition show the order of natural harmony in birth, real life and perfection. thus the forces of nature do not conflict with human activities, but human activities must be in harmony with the universe. full awareness of the universe is a manifestation of: (1) intellect, wong kalang's thinking shows closeness to nature and the implementation of the order of life in harmony with nature; (2) heart, is the feeling to achieve harmony and balance between the gifts of nature and their utilization; (3) spirit, has goodness to do good for the universe. references: abdul, k. 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indonesia abstract: one significant difference characterizing the 2013 curriculum from the former ones is the use of alternative assessment to measure the students’ expected learning outcomes. the old-fashioned modes of assessments, such as multiple choice exams, or completion exams are regarded insufficient to capture the language skills of the students. students' demonstration of the mastery of various domains of learning objectives has not necessarily equated with a demonstration of their capacities in real-world settings. ideally, what is tested should mirror what really is required outside the classroom. so far, reading mastery is always tested through traditional mode of assessment like multiple choice (mc). the new curriculum recommends a different perspective of assessment which is called alternative assessment. however, the shift from the traditional assessments to alternative assessments seems to aquire some constraints on the parts of the teachers. many teachers are not familiar with the new concepts and practices within the emerging paradigm. it is due to the absence of a clear guideline for doing such assessments. the goal of this paper is to propose a theoretically grounded method to conduct alternative assessments which are developed from a pair of competence standards listed in the english syllabus for senior high schools. key words: alternative assessment, reading, english learning abstrak: salah satu yang membedakan kurikulum 2013 dengan kurikulum sebelumnya adalah adanya penggunaan penilaian mailto:alex_wiyaka@yahoo.com mailto:zfanyprasti@gmail.com mailto:jafarsodiq.pgri@yahoo.com 50 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 otentik untuk mengukur hasil belajar siswa. jenis penilaian lama seperti tes pilihan ganda, atau tes melengkapi dianggap kurang mampu menunjukan kemampuan berbahasa siswa yang sesungguhnya. kemampuan siswa dalam menunjukan kemmapuan belajar berbahasanya tidak sama dengan apa yang terjadi dalam dunia nyata. idealnya, apa yang diuji harus mencerminkan apa yang sebenarnya diperlukan di luar kelas. sejauh ini, kemampuan membaca selalu diuji melalui jenis penilaian lama/tradisional seperti pilihan ganda (mc). sekarang ini kurikulum baru merekomendasikan perspektif yang berbeda dari penilaian yang disebut penilaian alternatif. namun, pergeseran dari penilaian tradisional untuk penilaian otentik/alternatif tampaknya memunculkan beberapa kendala pada bagian-bagian dari guru. banyak guru yang tidak cukup paham dengan konsep dan praktek nyata dari penilaian otentik/alternatif. hal ini terjadi karena tidak adanya pedoman yang jelas untuk melakukan penilaian tersebut. tujuan dari makalah ini adalah untuk mengusulkan landasan teoritis terkait dengan penilaian alternatif yang didasarkan pada standar kompetensi yang tercantum dalam silabus bahasa inggris untuk sekolah menengah atas. kata kunci: penilaian alternatif, membaca, pembelajaran bahasa inggris introduction the indonesian government has released a new curriculum, the 2013 curriculum, which is directed to achieve more holistic learning outcomes in that of knowledge, skills and attitude toward the value of the education process in schooling. the previous curriculum was reported to have focused only on the knowledge attainment. the current global challenge, facing the asean economic community, for example, requires competencies which comprise a balance between soft and hard skills, covering knowledge, skills and attitudes. life-long skills of creative thinking, problem solving, summarizing, synthesizing, and reflecting are needed in order to compete among other nations in the near future. this becomes a strong reason for the government introduces the new curriculum, despite the fact that teachers are still confused in the implementation (helena, 2014). wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 51 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices the new curriculum is characterized by its holistic perspective on learners, i.e. each individual learner as a whole person, by providing assistance to every individual to develop his/her knowledge, skills and attitudes (hamid, 2014). the curriculum shift has indeed brought about some changes, ranging from the competences, learning materials, teaching approach and methods, and assessments. in regard to the assessments, there is a shift from traditional testing techniques to alternative assessments. traditional tests, such as multiple-choice, fill-in-the-gaps, matching, etc., can not capture complex learning outcomes. the need to utilize assessment instruments beyond paper-and-pen tests is also supported by genesee and hamayan (1994) who state: ...tests can be useful for collecting information about student achievement under certain restricted conditions, but they are not particularly useful for collecting information about students' attitudes, motivation, interests, and learning strategies (p.229) at the newly released 2013 curriculum, there exists the term of alternative assessments which has quickly becomes more popular among educators. at the moment, the term has long been coined in education research and development (see hancock, 1990, herman, j.l and arschbacter and winters, 1992). though there is no single definition on what alternative assessment really is, there are some other names which usually refer the same type such as alternative assessment, continuous assments, direct assessment, and dynamic assessmentss (tsagari, 2004). however, it is simply agreed that alternative assessment is another form of assessments, meaning that it becomes alternative to the existing assessments (traditional assessments) that offer different strategies. this paper is intended to give teachers clear examples of doing alternative assessments in english class, particulalrly when reading becomes the highlight prioirity of teaching english as a foreign language like in indonesia. english teachers in some schools that implement the 2013 curriculum find difficulties in doing the alternative assessment due to the absence of simple guidelines for carrying out the alternative assessments in the classroom. overview of alternative assessment as mentioned ealier, the shift from traditional assessments to alternative assessments is due to the difference of competencies of the present curriculum and that of the previous one. the traditional tests can no 52 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 longer be appropriate to clarify all the skills required by the new curriculum. barootchi&keshvarz in tsagari (2004) acknowledge the need for alternative assessment because the rich, descriptive information about learning result and, more importantly, about the learning process of learning and the ongoing measurement of student growth needed for formative evaluation and for planning instructional strategies cannot be gathered byconventional testing methods. this is not to say that conventional tests are to be grounded. conventional tests which are product-oriented are not to be excluded from the classroom because they are still needed as useful tools to measure the knowledge of attainment. however, they are to be supplemented by some other types of assessments which are called alternative assessments. alternative assessment is a blanket term that covers any number of alternatives to standardized tests. while the traditional paper-and-pencil tests may be effective to assess some of the skills (such as listening and reading), they are not sufficient to assess the productive skills of speaking and writing. the nature of proficiency-oriented language learning calls for a variety of assessment options reflecting the numerous instructional strategies used in the classroom. there are some definitions of alternative assessments. among others is from hamayan (1995) who sees alternative assessment as “procedures and techniques which can be used within the context of instruction and can be easily incorporated into the daily activities of the school or classroom” (p. 213). according to him alternative assessment is a part of the regular instruction the teacher can do in the sense that it does not require specific settings in the classroom. another definition of alternative assessment comes from alderson and banerjee (2001) who state the following: alternative assessment’ is usually taken to mean assessment procedures which are less formal than traditional testing, which are gathered over a period of time rather than being taken at one point in time, which are usually formative rather than summative in function, are often low-stakes in terms of consequences, and are claimed to have beneficial washback effects (p. 228). based on the above citation, alternative assessment is a non standardized type of assessments which is focused on the process rather than product of learning. with alternative assessment, products and processes are equally valued. this is in line with the latest curriculum which suggests that wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 53 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices assessment be given at the whole process of learning, not only at the end of the term. it is used to monitor the students’ progress rather than students’ achievement. borrowing marshall’s terminology (2007), alternative assessment is assessment for learning while conventional assessment is assessment of learning. a similar opinion is given by hancock (1994) who says that alternative assessment is an ongoing process involving the student and teacher in making judgments about the student's progress in language using nonconventional strategies. meanwhile, kohonen (1997) makes the point that alternative assessment, ….emphasises the communicative meaningfulness of evaluation and the commitment to measure that which we value in education. it uses such forms of assessment that reflect student learning, achievement, motivation and attitudes on instructionally-relevant classroom activities... its results can be used to improve instruction, based on the knowledge of learner progress (p. 13). a more detailed elaboration of alternative assessment is given by aschbacher (1991) who enumerates some common characteristics of alternative assessments. he points out that alternative assessments: 1. require problem solving and higher level thinking; 2. involve tasks that are worthwhile as instructional activities; 3. focus on processes as well as products; 4. encourage public disclosure of standards and criteria; and 5. use real-world contexts or simulations. a somewhat different set of characteristics were further proposed by herman, aschbacher, & winters (1992, p.6), who state that alternative assessments: 1. require students to perform, create, produce, or do something; 2. tap into higher level thinking and problem-solving skills; 3. approximate real-world applications; 4. use tasks that represent meaningful instructional activities; 5. ensure that people, not machines, do the scoring, using human judgment; and call upon teachers to perform new instructional and assessment roles. 54 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 considering all the benefits of alternative assessment, it is on the right track when the 2013 curriculum recommendeds the use of alternative assessments rather than the traditional ones. the problem might be that conducting alternative assessment needs extra time from the teacher as has been admitted by seaman (2005) that alternative assessment is time-consuming in foreign language program. further, he reminds teachers not to adopt too many forms of alternative assessments at once. teachers can find the best mix for each particular situation. assessments on reading reading skill is one of the four skills that should be mastered by the students. among the other skills, in indonesian context, reading has been emphasized to be acquired by the learners for at least two resons. first, reading skill is regarded important since it level of literacy usually measured. in some international assessments like pisa, timms and pirlls reading becomes the dominant part of the tests. even, people’s literacy level is commonly indicated by their reading ability. secondly, within only three to four periods a week in senior high school for example, it is not sufficient to attain all the language skills in the classroom. the logical choice is to highlight one or two skills to be focused in learning, and reading becomes the most visible one with the assumption that senior high school graduates will be studying higher education where english is a prerequisite to read textbooks in universities are commonly written in english. unluckily, traditional assessments like multiple choice and short answer are mostly used as modes of assessment in reading. these assessments are unable to serve to provide adequate assessment of the students’ reading skill. in multiple choice, for example, students cannot demonstrate what they have understood what they have read because they are to pick from one of four or five choices. what language skill do students perform when they are required torecoqnize a correct answer? multiple choice tests can not capture what the students are able to do in terms of language use. basically, there are some samples of competencies the students can perform dealing with reading skills. these competencies should be measured with alternative assessments in regards to reading. some alternative assessments existing in reading are writing sample, retelling, reader’s response journals, dialog journal, graphic organizer, content area log, wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 55 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices and many others. the rest of this guideline will cover the example or the prototype of using alternative assessment in reading activities. any assessment must refer to the required competences listed in the syllabus. in the present curriculum of sma, the required competences of the learning outcomes are formulated in terms of kompetensi inti (core competence) and kompetensi dasar (basic competence). however, there is no clear-cut distinction of the language skills in the syllabus. the students learning outcomes are subdivided into four domains: spiritual attitudes, social attitudes, knowledge and skills. in english curriculums for senior high schools, such a division has caused confusion among teachers and practitioners in that the formulation of competencies does not correspond to the existing framework (helena, 2014). in the syllabus, reading and listening are categorized into “knowledge competence” while speaking and writing are “skills competence”. this, of course, contradicts the terms of “language competence” and “language skills” in english language learning literature. however, in this paper we will not problematize the different angle of seeing the competence-skills relation because the curriculum has been stipulated by the government. what we can do is just to evaluate reading, either as knowledge or as a skill by using assessment types other than standardized tests. forms of assessments the first step to take when constructing a test, according to brown (2004), is taking a careful look at everything that we think our students should "know" or be able to "do". in other words, we have to look at the objectives of tests. this can be done by analysing the standard competences listed in the curriculum. based on the the present curriculum, the objectives of the test must correspond to the formulation of the basic competences. for our purpose of providing an example of doing alternative assessment, we will use a pair of the basic competences in english class for grade 10 of senior high school. the “pairness” here refers to the the knowledge-skills relation where competence coded 3 is knowledge and that coded 4 refers to skills. the basic competence below is taken from english syllabus grade 10 for senior high schools from which the three proposed forms of alternative assessment will be made. 56 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 table 1: formulation of basic competence 3.10 analyzing the social function, text structure, and language features of simple narrative text of legends, according to the contexts of usage. (knowledge) 4.10 responding to simple spoken and written narrative texts in the form of simple legends. (skills) (english syllbus for grade 10) based on basic competences above, it can be seen that there are two learning outcomes the students have to achieve which consist of knowledge and skill. however, for teachers, it is not easy to interpret the meaning of the phrase “responding to spoken and written narrative texts”. most teachers are still confused when faced with how to respond this context, belongs to a skill. the problem arises on how to measure “responding” since there is little explanation on the types of assessment in the syllabus. to meet that purpose, the authors of these guidelines offer three assessment methods which are supposed to match the needs for measuring the required competences exemplified above. the followings are three of seven alternative assessments to teach reading (including the steps to apply and the scoring rubric): a. writing sample there is a close relation between reading and writing. calfee and miller (2005) even claim if writing assessments can measure two distinct, highly related, abilities: (1) reading comprehension and (2) transforming comprehension into composition. the first ability is commonly measured with conventional tests such as multiple choice and short answer types. the second ability requires productive use of language, and it seems to be best measured with alternative assessments. in this example, reading skill is measured through writing tasks. writing sample is an example of assessment which emphasizes reading skill. in this test, students focus on rearranging the text they have read. then the students can use their own creativity to paraphrase the given text. the result of applying this assessment will be successful if the students have a new text which is different from each other. in this case, there is no copying from wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 57 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices others’. this form of assessment is best applied for narrative texts. here are the steps in applying writing sample assessment (for narrative text): 1. students read a narrative text comprehensively. 2. students outline the text with the following format: outline of … (the title of the story) a. orientation in what paragraph… time place characters b. evaluation in what paragraph… (then, tell the evaluation in a complete sentence) c. complication in what paragraph… (then, tell the complication in a complete sentence) d. resolution in what paragraph… (then, tell the resolution in a complete sentence—more than one sentence is possible) e. re-orientation if there is any, in what paragraph… (then, tell the re-orientation in a complete sentence) 3. students summarize the text by using their own words. the students are required to make a summary of the story by using their own words. in order to score the students writing, a clear and operational rubric is needed. the following is an example of writing sample rubric the teacher can use. 58 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 tabel 2: scoring rubric for writing sampel 4 (excellent) 3 (good) 2 (average) 1 (needs improving) the written response is complete. it indicates a very good understanding of the story and its problem, and provides accurate, relevant details, information, and supportive reasoning. the response is partial and indicates a fairly good understanding of the story. although the information selected includes mostly accurate details and ideas, some may be irrelevant or unrelated to the story’s problem. the response is fragmentary and indicates only minimal understanding of the story’s problem. it includes mainly random details and irrelevant information. there is little or no response. inaccurate and irrelevant details and ideas indicate a serious misunderstandin g of the story. b. retelling retelling is responding to text that is based on post-reading or postlistening in which the reader recalls a story in order to understand it more fully. retelling is the ability to read or listen to a story, then summarize it in paraphrased forms. unlike answering specific questions after reading, retelling requires reprocessing large segments of text, thinking about the sequence of ideas/events and their importance. thus, retelling is a powerful technique for checking the students’ understanding and is a proper strategy to teach reading comprehension. in retelling, students build on their knowledge of retelling to recall information. learning to retell a story thoughtfully is critical to learning to write a story and to build comprehension. the retelling strategy can come in the form of oral presentation or a written form. the main construct of retelling is: 1. to repeat what has been comprehended 2. to reconstruct or paraphrase a story 3. to organize (sequence of ideas/events) text information in order to provide a personal interpretation of it. wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 59 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices the followings are some advantages of implementing retelling for both teacher and students: for students: 1. encourages readers to focus on the meaning of the text 2. reinforces elements of the story like characters, story structure, setting, and plot. 3. enhances communication and oral language development. 4. help students to focus on their understanding of what they read, see, or hear and challenge then to communicate what they have learned to others. 5. provides an opportunity to share what has been read. 6. provides practice in reviewing the story or body of information and retelling it in a sequence for teachers: 1. demonstrates what the student understands and remembers about the story. 2. indicates what the student knows about the story’s structure and literal language. 3. portrays the student’s vocabulary and oral or written language development. 4. determines the degree of understanding a student had of a text. this assessment is best applied for narrative texts. the followings are some steps of implementing retelling technique : 1. students read a selected narrative text in a given time. the better way to have students read is by providing various texts or stories at one occasion. this will make the class not monotonous because students read different stories. in addition, this will avoid students cheating from the others. 2. students retell the text. retelling the story can be done in spoken or written form. however, to avoid repeating activitity as what happens in writing sample, the retelling is done in spoken form. the following are the points to consider when retelling is done in spoken mode. 60 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 1. the students use their own words 2. they order the events sequentially from beginning to the end 3. they write setting details in the retell (when setting is clear in the story) 4. the students can name the characters’ characterization 5. they can name character feelings in every event taking place in the story (for instance: how the characters feel while facing and resolving the problem in the story) 6. they name why the characters do the things they do in the story. to evaluate the students’ retelling the following rubric can be applied: tabel 3: scoring rubric for retelling technique 4 3 2 1 names big events or orders the retell by meaning or summarizes the gist of the story names big events or orders the retell by meaning or summarizes the gist of the story has a few of the big events, but only a partial recounting of them or may retell only the beginning or ending of the story. clear misunderstanding of text or retells only an isolated portion of the text (talks only one or two sentences from the story. or makes up a story or repeat what the teacher said in the text introduction names character feelings names why the characters do the thing they do in the story names character feelings names why the characters do the thing they do in the story does not talk about character feelings uses setting details in the retell (when setting is clear in the story) wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 61 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices c. reader’s response journal a readers’ response journal, also well-known as a reading response journal, according to fountas & pinnell (2001), is a place that students can write about their reading. the journal allows students to record their thoughts so that they can review and reflect on them. another definition describes it as a journal where students respond to any reading by writing summaries of what they have read or personal reactions to what they have read (manning, 1999). this implies that reading response journals are considered proper for teaching both reading and writing. manning (1999) goes on to explain that the purpose for such a journal offers the teacher a way to see the amount of meaning of a text that the reader has constructed. it has also been stated that the purpose for a reader's journal is to write about, and respond to, reading the information given (rief, 2003). this assessment is best applied for narrative texts and analytical exposition texts. below are the steps for implementing reader’s response journals: 1. first, a few days or a week prior to the classroom meeting, students are assigned to read some suggested stories or books. it will be better if the teacher provides a list of titles to be read within the whole semester or term. various titles and language levels will be most needed since students have different interest as well as language competence. graded assessments are better applied at this activity. 2. while reading, the students are asked to answer the following guiding questions: table 4: suggested guiding questions for narrative text for analytical exposition texts 1. how did the reading make you feel? why? 2. do you like the story? give your reasons! 3. which part of the story do you like? write it down! 4. write about something that surprised you or that you found interesting! 1. how did the reading make you feel? why? 2. where is the writer’s position? does the writer agree with the topic? 3. where is your position? do you agree with the topic exposed by the writer? or do you disagree? 4. what arguments are exposed by 62 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 5. describe the setting – when and where the story takes place. 6. who is your favorite character? give an example from the story to tell why. 7. if you were a character in this book, who would you be? why? 8. describe the similarities and differences between the main character and you! 9. describe the major conflict. what side are you on? 10. would you recommend the text to another reader? 11. write about an important lesson that can be learned in the story. 12. list some new words you found in the text. 13. list three questions you have about what you read. 14. what are some things you don’t understand in what you’re reading? 15. if you could change what you’re reading, how would you change it? 16. pretend you get to create the music soundtrack for what you’ve been reading. what five songs would you include? write an explanation for each song: why would you include it, how does the song connect to events. the writer? 5. write about something that surprised you or that you found interesting! 6. would you recommend the text to another reader? 7. what are some things you don’t understand in what you’re reading? 8. list some new words you found in the text. 9. list three questions you have about what you read. 3. the works are submitted to the teacher. 4. after being evaluated by the teacher, the works are then given back to the students. the teacher points out 10 works to be exposed in the wall magazine (each class is supposed to have their own wall magazine), while the other students should save their works. this is wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 63 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices done for several times so that each student has their own journal containing their own works. to evaluate the students’ journal, the rubric below can be used. table 5: quality of writing rubric outstanding 4 proficient 3 progressing 2 emerging 1 quality of writing -you always attempt deeper thinking in your responses -you make connectiond, ask questions, make inferences, synthesize about the text -you do not simply summarize the story -you provide good examples to explain your thinking. -you usually attempt deeper thinking in your responses -you make connections, ask questions, draw conclusions, make inferences about the text in some of your entries. -you do some summarizing -you provide some examples to explain your thinking -sometimes you attempt deeper thiking in your responses -you summarize the story -you write simple ideas that show only surface understanding of the story -your notebook has minimal responses and those present show only basic understanding of the story -you do not sustain books or reading long enough to show comprehension strategies. quality of entries -you always write in your notebook everyday that is assigned. -you log your reading everyday. -you usually write your notebook on assigned days. -you usually log your reading daily -you often write in your notebook at school -your log only some of your reading -you seldom write in your notebook. -you log little or no reading in your log 64 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 neatness of entries -your noteboook looks like you trully treasure yoour ideas and thought about reading. -others can easily read your entries -your notebook and entries are usually neat, clean and carefully written -others can usually read your entries -some of the entries in your notebook are neat and carefully written it’s dificult for others to read your entries -you paid little attention to details or neatness -it is very difficult or impossible to read your entries book choice -you write the book titles on your entries -you mostly write the book titles on your entries -you mostly choose to read jrb -you sometimes write the book titles on your entries you have been reading similar books -you don’t always choose to read jrb -you read the same of the book -you choose books that are not just right for you reading focus you read 100% of the time you read 9099% of the time -you read 8089% of the time -you read less than 80% of the time http://shorette2015-2016.blogspot.co.id/2015_09_01_archive.html conclusion assessment is an essential part of the learning process that calls for serious attention from the teachers and practitioners. whatever good the curriculum had been designed with in mind, it will be nothing when there is no valid and reliable assessments as tools for evidence measure of success of curriculum implementation. the alternative assessments as proposed in this paper, is seen to embody a different concept of assessment which theoretically beneficial to be applied in the reading class. however, further empirical work needs to be done to examine alternative assessment practices in the real situations. for example, we need to compare the similar learning outcomes measured with two different testing types, alternative assessment and standardised testing. we need to to know how the aspects of alternative assessment are actually accomplished in the classroom, how the students perception on the use of wiyaka, prastikawati, e.f., & sodiq, j., alternative assessments for 65 reading in senior high schools: a guide for classroom practices alternative assessment, and how these kinds of assessment improve the learning achievement. the call for increased use of alternative assessments means that language teachers will have a wider range of evidence to judge whether students are becoming competent, purposeful language users. it also means that language programs will become more responsive to the differing learning styles of students and value diversity there in. finally, language programs that focus on alternative assessment are likely to instill in students’ lifelong skills related to critical thinking that build a basis for future learning, and enable them to evaluate what they learn both in and outside of the language class. references alderson, j. c. & banerjee, j. (2001). language testing and assessment (part 1). language teaching, 34 (4), 213-236. aschbacher, p. r. (1991). performance assessment: state activity, interest and concerns. applied measurement in education 4, (4), 275-288. calfee, r.c., miller, r.g., & associates (2004). alternative reading–writing assessments for middle and secondary schoo. analytical report of the spring 2003 delaware student testing program writing assessment. riverside: university of california, riverside, graduate school of education. fountas, i. c., pinnell, g.s. (2001). guiding readers and writers grades 3-6. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. genesee, f. & hamayan, e. (1994). classroom-based assessment. in educating second language children (eds.) f. genesee cambridge: cambridge university press, 212-239. hamayan, e. v. (1995). approaches to alternative assessment. annual review of applied linguistics, 15, 212-226. hamid, f. a. (2014). curriculum change: what does it mean to indonesian tefl? recent issues in english language education. association of teaching english as foreign language in indonesia (teflin). helena, i.r.a. (2014). the 2013 english curriculum: the paradigm, interpretation and implementation. recent issues in english language education. association of teaching english as foreign language in indonesia (teflin). herman, j. l., aschbacher, p. r. & winters, l. (1992). a practical guide to alternative assessment. alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development 66 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 49-66 kohonen, v. (1997). alternative assessment as an integration of language learning, teaching, evaluation and the teacher’s professional growth. in current developments and alternatives in language assessment: proceedings of ltrc 1996, eds. a., huhta. manning, m. (1999). too many journals.teaching pre k-8, 30 (2), 89-91. tsagari, d. (2005). is there life beyond language testing? an introduction to alternative language assessment. crile working papers no. 58 (2004). 3 -sep2016 rev wiyaka-prastikawati-sodiq process of transitivity in agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology (a systemic functional study) 1nova asyri aryanti, 2humaira restu maulidia, 3mayang pramudhita 1 nova.asyri@gmail.com; 2 hrmaulidia@gmail.com 3 1,2,3institut teknologi pendidikan auliya-itpa bandung abstract: this research is entitled “process of transitivity in agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology.” the research aims to describe the process of transitivity found in agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology and to find out what types of processes are mostly found in agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology?. this is the final result of descriptive research. the data of the research was found out in agoda’s official instagram account. the result of the research found that types of processes that appeared in the data were material process, mental process, behavioral, relational, and verbal processes. material process is mostly found from the data. keywords: process, transitivity, sfl abstrak: penelitian ini berjudul “process of transitivity in agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology”. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan proses transitivity apa saja yang ditemukan dalam caption pada aplikasi agoda yang berhubungan dengan terminologi penginapan dan untuk mengetahui jenis proses apa saja yang paling banyak ditemukan pada caption agoda terkait terminologi penginapan. penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskritif kualitatif. data penelitian ini didapatkan dari akun instagram resmi agoda. dari hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa jenis proses yang muncul dalam data adalah proses material, proses mental, proses perilaku, proses relasional, dan proses verbal. proses material adalah yang paling banyak ditemukan dari data. kata kunci: process, transitivity, sfl introduction this paper seeks to demonstrate that systemic functional linguistics (sfl) can be used to be a theoretical framework for the aim of analyzing text. (halliday et al., 2014) introduced systemic functional grammar is a model of analysis. transitivity is part of functional linguistics that will be the approach in this paper. transitivity can be the tool for analyzing text. (bloor & bloor, 2004) affirm that “when people use language, their language acts produce – construct meaning”. (wood & kroger, 2000) claim that language is taken to be not simply a tool for description and a medium of communication but as a social practice, a way of doing things. (fairclough, 2013) states that using language is the most common form of social behavior and we depend on the language in our public and private interaction, determining our relationships with other individuals and the social institutions we inhabit. a language is interpreted as a system of meanings, accompanied by forms through which the meanings can be realized and answer the question (halliday et al., 2014). there have been several studies related to transitivity in systemic functional grammar. first, the research conducted by (sihura, 2019) in the study entitled “transitivity process in frozen movie: a study of systemic functional grammar.” the conclusion of the study found that there were nine clauses as existential processes in the frozen movie. the dominant process found in frozen movies was material.  another study related to the transitivity process was conducted by (apendi & mulyani, 2020) in their study of the analysis transitivity process of the descriptive text. the result of the study found that the material process is the dominant process found in the text.  with this idea, this paper will examine the process of transitivity in agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology. cited from wikipedia, agoda is an online travel agency and metasearch engine for hotels, vacation rentals, flights, and airport transfers. michael kenny and robert rosenstein found it in 2003. agoda has both a web application and an official account of instagram. transitivity has been used to analyze the language of speakers and writers. it examines the structure of sentences that are represented by processes, the participants involved in these processes, and the circumstances in which processes and participants are involved. this paper uses transitivity to reveal the language structure to discover the relation between meanings and wordings that accounts for the organization of linguistic features in agoda’s captions. literature review a. grammar grammar describes a theory language. how language is arranged together, and how language works. we need a theory of language to help us understand how texts work. further, it can help learners how to produce texts both in written and spoken in various forms for various purposes. (gerot & wignell, 1994) state that there are a number of grammars that have been taught in schools in the western world.  1. traditional grammar traditional grammar describes the grammar of standard english. in this stage, students are taught parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and prepositions), subject-verb agreements (time flies like an arrow-not time fly like an arrow). furthermore, traditional grammar is concerned with rules for producing correct sentences.  2. formal grammar formal grammar aims to describe the structure of individual sentences. in this stage, grammars perceive language as individual rules of sentence structures.  3. functional grammar according to (sujatna, 2013) states that some linguists call functional grammar (fg) systemic functional approach (sa), systemic linguistics (sl), or functional semantic approach (fsa). functional grammar is a ‘system of making meaning’. grammar is semantic or meaning, and functional aims to describe how the language is used (halliday et al., 2014).   the table below describes clearly the analysis of the differences among the three grammars. those are traditional grammar, formal grammar, and functional grammar.  ammar, and functional grammar. k . penelitian ini didapatkang berhubungan dengan terminologi ing owned by someone (yours). table 1: the differences analysis among three grammars no. grammars descriptions examples 1. traditional and formal grammar primary concern (how is the sentence be structured) unit of analysis is sentence language level of concern is syntax. view language as a set of rules for making sentence construction. time flies like an arrow noun verb prepositional phrase 2. systemic functional grammar primary concern: (how are the meanings of text described) unit of analysis is whole texts language level of concern is semantics. view language as a place for meaning making. time flies like an arrow from the example above, the participant or doer is represented by a noun. the processes or doing by the verb, and the circumstances by prepositional phrases.  in systemic functional grammar (sfg), clauses can be represented by three different meanings; clause as message or theme and rheme, the clause as representation or transitivity, and clause as exchange or mood and residue. the focus theory used in this research is clause as representation or transitivity which covered processes, participants, and circumstances.  according to (sujatna, 2013), process is represented by a verb or verbal group. it is the main part of the clause. it happened when participants or doers were involved in those processes. it can be people or things, or circumstances, such as adverbial of place, time, or manner (deterding et al., 2001). meanwhile, the participant is represented by noun groups or pronouns. halliday in (deterding et al., 2001) states that processes consist of six types. those are material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral, and existential processes. further, (gerot & wignell, 1994) add one more process. it is a meteorological process. there are two main parts of processes. non-relational processes are processes of doing. it consists of material processes, mental processes, and behavioral processes, and verbal processes. moreover, relational processes are processes of having and being. it covered existential processes and meteorological processes. those processes will be explained in the following points below. 1. material processes            (gerot & wignell, 1994) state that “material processes are processes of material doing.” in this stage, a clause in material processes has done or process and doer or participant, as can be seen in the following examples below.  table 2: the examples of material processes she sang actor material my mom made a cake actor material goal ary repaired the camera actor material goal from the table above, the participant in material processes is called an actor. the material processes are represented by a verb. it expresses physically to do something. furthermore, when the processes may be done to is called the goal.  2. mental processes mental processes are processes of sensing, such as thinking, perceiving, or feeling. the participant in mental processes is called senser or experience. meanwhile, experiences are named phenomenon (sujatna, 2013). the following table below is the examples of mental processes.  table 3: the examples of mental processes ary didn’t see aulia experiencer mental phenomenon zayn likes new bag senser mental phenomenon ary understood senser mental from the table above, the participant or doer of the subject of mental processes is experiencer or senser, and phenomenon. further, the words that represent emotional reactions are mental.  3. relational processes relational processes are the process of having and being. there are two types of relational processes. those are attribution and identification. (sujatna, 2013) adds that attribution is a quality of something. moreover, identification identifies something. the participant in attribution is carrier and attribute. a carrier-covered thing or person. the following table is examples of verbal processes.  table 4: the example of relational processes my father is a lawyer. carrier attributive: intensive attribute my wallet is on the table. carrier attributive: circumstantial attribute this toys are yours. carrier attributive: possesive attribute from the table above, the first example is an attributive relational process because the carrier represents an attribute of a lawyer. besides, the second example describes that the attributive is circumstantial because the carrier is being located at a place (on the table). furthermore, from example number three, the attribute is possessive because the carrier is owned by someone (yours). 4. verbal processes verbal processes are processes of saying. the participants in verbal processes are sayer, recipient, or quoted. further (bloor & bloor, 2004) in (sujatna, 2013) adds that a sayer is a person who produces the conversation. the following table is the analysis of verbal processes. table 5: the example of verbal processes he said something sayer verbal verbiage he told us something sayer verbal recipient verbiage he blamed his friends sayer verbal target based on the example above, the participants in verbal processes are target and verbiage. (sujatna, 2013) adds that the target is someone or something whom the speaker says about. on the other hand, the verbiage is a semantic role of what the speaker was said. 5. existential processes existential processes describe processes of existence. it is represented by to be, exist, or arise. the subject of the clause is called existent and followed by circumstances (gerot & wignell, 1994), as can be seen in the following examples below. table 6. the example of existential process there’s a bloom flower in the garden existential existent circumstance: place there ‘s your wallet attrib:circ attributive carrier there’s even a book about functional grammar existential existent circumstance: place 6. behavioural processes according to (gerot & wignell, 1994) state that behavioural processes are processes of psychological and physiological processes. for example, dreaming, breathing, smiling, snoring, looking, listening. the participant in behavioural processes is called behaver. the following table is an example of behavioural processes. table 7. the example of behavioral processes she snores loudly. behaver behavioural circumstance: manner she coughed behaver behavioural she smiling behaver behavioural from the table above, the subject of the first clause is behaver, the process is followed by circumstance manner. on the other hand, in the second and third points, the clauses have not circumstances.  7. meteorological processes            in this stage, (gerot & wignell, 1994) add one more process intransitivity. it is a meteorological process. the ‘it” represents a subject in a clause. for example, it is cold, it is autumn, it is 7 o’clock.  b. agoda application agoda is an application for finding and booking flights or accommodation in the world. cited from wikipedia, agoda is an online travel agency and metasearch engine for hotels, vacation rentals, flights, and airport transfers. michael kenny and robert rosenstein found it in 2003. agoda has both a web application and an official account of instagram. method a. participants the participants of this study were 10 agoda’s captions related to lodging terminology were found out in agoda’s official instagram account. every caption consists of two or three processes that have been analyzed and classified based on the types of the processes. b. research design in analyzing the data, this study used a qualitative method as the framework. according to (gerring, 2017) qualitative methods can be utilized in some research approaches in many disciplines that have their original theory including anthropology, sociology, philosophy, social psychology, and linguistics. (gerring, 2017) affirms that qualitative work is expressed natural language, employs small samples, and its work often focused on particular individuals, events, and contexts, lending itself to an idiographic style of analysis.  c. data collection and data analysis procedure (attride-stirling, 2001) as cited in (akinyode & khan, 2018) divided the qualitative analysis into three main stages that consist of reduction of the text; the exploration of the text, and the integration of the exploration. however, it should be noted that in qualitative method, there are varieties of ways in analyzing the data can be conducted and not limited to this three common-three stage process (attride-stirling, 2001), (braun, v., & clarke, 2006) as cited in (akinyode & khan, 2018). this study used several steps in analyzing the data: 1. choosing the research problem this study made the formulation of research questions and chose the materials that would be analyzed 2. collecting the data; this study chose 10 of agoda’s captions related to lodging terminology 3. analyzing the data;  this study analyzed the data by classifying the processes found in agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology by using transitivity’s theory and found out the types of processes mostly found in the data. 4. conclusion;  concluding analyzing the data.  result and discussions from data collection found that there are ten agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology. each data will be analyzed in the following description. in the first data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “enjoy a slice of tranquil respite at this hillside apartment in da lat, vietnam. get the best of both worlds with this stylish retreat nestled by the hill just two minutes away from the bustling city center. get the front-row views of the spectacular sunrise, sunset, and fog waves from the comfort of your own terrace. wake up in this sanctuary of your dreams for a perfect getaway”. the following table below is an analysis of processes in transitivity. table 8. analysis data 1 enjoy a slice of tranquil respite at this hillside apartment in da lat, vietnam. process: mental circumstance get the best of both worlds with this stylish retreat nestled by the hill just two minutes away from the bustling city center. process: material circumstance process: material participant circumstance get the front-row views of the spectacular sunrise, sunset, and fog waves from the comfort of your own terrace. wake up in this sanctuary of your dreams for a perfect getaway. process: material circumstance process: material circumstance in the second data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “the sky’s the limit when it comes to luxury at the tokyo edition, on the top floors of the 38-story tokyo world gate tower in toranomon. here, modern japanese design meets unobstructed skyline views. don’t leave without saying “hi” to tokyo tower”. which will be analyzed in the following table. table 9. analysis data 2 the sky ’s the limit when it. participant pocess: relational circumstance participant comes the limit to luxury at the tokyo edition, on the top floors of the 38-story tokyo world gate tower in toranomon. process: material circumstance here, modern japanese design meets unobstructed skyline views. circumstance participant process: material circumstance don’t leave without saying “hi” to tokyo tower. process: material process: verbal circumstance in the third data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “what’s better than slipping into a hot springs bath after a long hike? slipping into your own private onsen, steeped in dramatic alpine views. takulan hot spring resort in nantou, central taiwan, makes a strong case for an off-the-grid hot-spring staycation” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 10. analysis data 3 what ‘s better than slipping into a hot springs bath after a long hike? circumstance process: relational circumstance process: material circumstance slipping into your own private onsen, steeped in dramatic alpine views. process: material circumstance process: material circumstance takulan hot spring resort in nantou, central taiwan, makes participant circumstance process: material a strong case for an off-the-grid hot-spring staycation. circumstance in the fourth data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “situated along one of the oldest sections of penang’s city centre, homey comfy lodge is one of the many properties within the unesco world’s heritage’s collection of pre-war buildings. a home away from home, the lodge is a 2-story marriage of heritage and modern comfort. with over 4 bedrooms, this quaint lodge is perfect for a family staycation. have fun picking a favourite room, and reconnect with loved ones at this cozy place” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 11. analysis data 4 situated along one of the oldest sections of penang’s city centre, homey comfy lodge is one of the many properties within the unesco world’s heritage’s collection of pre-war buildings. process: material circumstance participant process: relational circumstance a home away from home, the lodge is a 2-story marriage of heritage and modern comfort. participant process: relational circumstance with over 4 bedrooms, this quaint lodge is perfect for a family staycation. circumstance participant process: relational circumstance have fun picking a favourite room, reconnect with loved ones at this cozy place. circumstance process: material circumstance process: material circumstance in the fifth data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “for old-town bangkok vibes, the buzzy talat noi neighborhood is tough to beat, with its cool cafes, bars, galleries, and converted-shophouse stays.” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 12. analysis data 5 for old-town bangkok vibes, the buzzy talat noi neighborhood is tough to beat, circumstance participant process: relational circumstance with its cool cafes, bars, galleries, and converted-shophouse stays. participant process: material in the sixth data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “it’s hard to tell where baba nest ends and the andaman sea begins, but spend a weekend at sri panwa and you’ll have time to figure it out. nutapiwich discovered this immersive sunset situation during a recent stay at the resort, perched on the far southeastern tip of phuket.” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 13. analysis data 6 it ’s hard where participant process: relational circumstance baba nest ends and the andaman sea begins, participant process: material participant process: material but spend a weekend at sri panwa and you process: material circumstance participant ’ll have time to figure it out. process: mental circumstance process: mental circumstance nutapiwich discovered this immersive sunset situation during a recent participant process: material circumstance participant stay at the resort, perched on the far southeastern tip of phuket. process: material circumstance process: material circumstance in the seventh data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “nutapiwich has found it the ultimate tree house for grown-ups. tree house villas, tucked away into a green hillside of koh yao noi, is an adults-only escape with heavenly views of thailand’s phang nga bay. just a 30-minute speedboat ride from phuket, koh yao noi is a little hidden paradise, where the only thing spoiled is you. ” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 14. analysis data 7 nutapiwich has found the ultimate tree house for grown-ups. participant process: material circumstance tree house villas, tucked away into a green hillside of koh yao noi, participant process: material circumstance is an adults-only escape with heavenly views of thailand’s phang nga bay. just a 30-minute speedboat ride from phuket, koh yao noi process: relational circumstance circumstance participant is a little hidden paradise, where the only thing spoiled is you. process: relational circumstance circumstsnce process: relational participant in the eight data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “with a beautiful pine tree forest enveloping modern minimalist architecture, the terracota resort could be the hideaway of your dreams. a stylish oasis of tranquility with panoramic glass panels, this staycay is perfect for your golden hour on instagram shot. watch the sun rays dancing off the tuyen lam lake as you sip a glass of wine. ” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 15. analysis data 8 with a beautiful pine tree forest enveloping modern minimalist architecture, the terracota resort could be the hideaway of your dreams. circumstance participant process: relational circumstance a stylish oasis of tranquility with panoramic glass panels, this staycay is perfect for your golden hour on instagram shot. circumstance participant process: relational circumstance watch the sun rays dancing off the tuyen lam lake as you sip a glass of wine. process: material circumstance participant process: material circumstance in the ninth data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “singapore is a dream staycation nation, with a wide array of luxury boutique hotels, private villas, and vibrant neighborhoods to check into. check out our mini guide for top spots you and you loved ones can’t get out and get away to.” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 16. analysis data 9 singapore is a dream staycation nation, with a wide array of luxury boutique hotels, private villas, and vibrant neighborhoods to check into. participant process: relational circumstance circumstance circumstance check out our mini guide for top spots you and you loved ones can’t get out and get away to. process: material circumstance participants process: behavioral in the tenth data, the caption in agoda related to lodging terminology is “mix blissful relaxation with thrilling adventures during your next staycation. boutique hotels like the fcc angkor by avani offer the best both worlds, providing elegant accommodations adorned with modern-day pampering comforts like a saltwater pool, private gym and indulgent spa, all while being a mere 15-minute drive from the awe-inspiring historical wonder of angkor wat. it’s the perfect way to catch your breath after a day filled with breathless sights.” which will be analyzed in the following data below. table 17. analysis data 10 mix blissful relaxation with thrilling adventures during your next staycation. boutique hotels like fcc angkor by avani process: materials circumctance participants offer the best both worlds, providing elegant accommodations adorned with modern-day pampering comforts like a saltwater pool, process: material circumstance process: material circumstance all while being a mere 15-minute drive from the awe-inspiring historical wonder of angkor wat. circumstance it ‘s the perfect way to catch participant process: relational circumstance process: material your breath a day filled with breathless sights. circumstance circumstance process: material participant conclusion from the data analysis in results and discussions, the transitivity analysis of the agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology reveals that two major processes reappear in the captions. the most frequently processed appear are material, relational and verbal processes. the material processes show the action of the participants. the relational processes entail the being and having from the participants. furthermore, the mental processes represent the sensing, feeling, or perceiving of the participants. while behavioral and verbal processes only appear once. behavioral represents the psychological behavior from the participants and verbal represents the process of saying from the participants. the data analysis also showed that there were 31 of material processes which appeared from agoda’s caption related to lodging terminology in instagram. those are “get", “leave”, “meets”, “nestled”, “wake up”, “comes”, “spend”, “found”, and “sip”. two mental processes found in the caption. those are “enjoy”, and “have”. one behavioural processes, 14 relational processes. those are to be “is”. the last is one verbal processes. it is “saying”. references akinyode, b. f., & khan, t. h. 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(2000). doing discourse analysis. sage publications. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 2; december 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia relationship between gender, subject preference and learning styles suprihadi & atik rokhayani english education department, teacher training and education faculty, muria kudus university, kudus, indonesia ph: +62 8562758418 +62 85640065312 email: suprihadi@umk.ac.id atik.rokhayani@umk.ac.id received: 04-08-2016 accepted: 23-02-2017 published: 28-02-2017 relationship between gender, subject preference and learning styles suprihadi and atik rokhayani suprihadi@umk.ac.id; atik.rokhayani@umk.ac.id english education department, teacher training and education faculty, muria kudus university, kudus, indonesia abstract: understanding the learning styles of the students is very crucial in implementing student-centered learning (scl). the objectives of this research are to describe: 1) the general learning styles profile of the students of english education department, muria kudus university; 2) the dependency relationship between learning styles dimensions and gender, and 3) the dependency relationship between subject preference and learning styles dimensions. the participants of this research were 208 students from different semesters as the samples, while the instrument is the indonesian translation of solomon-felder index of learning styles questionnaire. the result of the analysis reveals that: 1) the general learning style profile of the students is balanced; 2) at α .05, there is no significant relationship between the probability of the students of having certain learning styles dimensions and gender; 3) at α .05, the subject preference of the students who are sensing–intuitive and visual – verbal depends on their learning style dimensions, while that of those who are active – reflective and sequential – global does not. key words: learning styles, gender, subject preference, studentcentered learning (scl) abstrak: memahami gaya belajar mahasiswa sangat penting dalam pembelajaran berbasis mahasiswa (scl). tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mendekripsikan: 1) profil umum gaya belajar mahasiswa program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris universitas muria kudus; 2) hubungan sebab akibat antara dimensi-dimensi gaya belajar dengan jenis kelamin, dan 3) hubungan sebab akibat antara dimensi-dimensi suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 243 preference and learning styles gaya belajar dengan mata kuliah kesukaan. subjek penelitian ini adalah 208 mahasiswa dari semester yang berbeda sebagai sampel, sementara instrumen yang digunakan adalah terjemahan dalam bahasa indonesia dari index of learning styles questionnaire karya solomon dan felder. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa: 1) profil gaya belajar mahasiswa pbi umk) adalah seimbang; 2) pada α .05, tidak ada hubungan yang signifikan antara dimensi-dimensi gaya belajar dengan jenis kelamin; 3) pada α .05, kesukaan mahasiswa yang sensing – intuitive dan visual – verbal terhadap mata kuliah tertentu tergantung pada dimensi-dimensi gaya belajar mereka, sementara mereka yang active – reflective dan sequential – global tidak. kata kunci: gaya belajar, jenis kelamin, mata kuliah kesukaan, pembelajaran berbasis mahasiswa (scl) introduction understanding the learning styles of the students is very important when the curriculum implemented is competency-based. this is because in competency-based curriculum learning materials and learning processes are designed and oriented to the achievements of the intended competencies and that on the interest of the students (departemen pendidikan nasional, 2005). by understanding the learning styles of the students, it is hoped that teachers can give the best facilitation and motivation to promote their learning. the information about the learning styles of the students will make it easier for the teacher to guide the students to use the best possible way of learning. the importance of understanding the learning styles of the students is supported by the facts that 1) there is a relationship between learning styles and sex variable (reid, 1987, p. 1), and 2) there is a relationship between learning styles and students’ learning, such as influencing the ways different students learn grammar (oxford & lee, 2007, p. 124). that is why undertaking a research on the learning styles of the students of english education department (eed) in muria kudus university (mku) to describe their general learning styles profile, the dependency relationship between learning styles dimensions and gender, and the dependency relationship between learning styles dimensions and subject preference 244 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 becomes very important so as to support the implementation of competency-based curriculum in eed mku, in which the learning approach must be student-centered. literature review a. defining learning styles the term learning styles are defined differently by different writers and scholars, but mostly refer to a signal of individual differences (abidin, rezaee, abdullah, & singh, 2011). felder and henriques (1995) describe learning styles as the ways in which an individual characteristically acquires, retains, and retrieves information. meanwhile, cohen (1998) defines learning styles simply as general approaches to learning. the summer institute of linguistics international (sil international) (1999) proposes a more detailed definition of learning styles as the unique collection of individual skills and preferences that affect how a person perceives, gathers, and processes information. learning styles affect how a person acts in a group, learns, participates in activities, relates to others, solves problems, teaches, and works (sil international, 1999). b. learning styles classification different classifications of learning styles exist in literature, each of which is with its theoretical bases and are rooted to different disciplines. montemayor, apiaten, mendoza, & perey (2009) notice that experts classify learning styles as visual learners, auditory learners, kinesthetic learners, and tactile learners. meanwhile, reid (1987) classifies learning style preferences into six elements, i.e. visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, group learning, and individual learning. felder and silverman (1988) proposed a learning-style model, consisting of 4 dimensions: 1) sensory – intuitive; 2) visual – auditory; 3) inductive – deductive; and 4) sequential – global. in 1991, solomon and felder of north carolina university created the initial version, called index of learning style (ils), based on felder and silverman’s model of dimensions of learning and teaching styles (felder& spurlin, 2005). they made two significant changes in the model: dropping the inductive/deductive dimensions and changing the visual/auditory category to visual/ verbal. this change was then reinforced by felder himself in june 2002 with his preface attached to the original article suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 245 preference and learning styles (2002). hence, the model which is currently available and known as index of learning style (ils) and is used as the instrument of this research assesses preferences on four dimensions of learning styles: 1) sensing-intuitive; 2) visual-verbal; 3) active-reflective, and 4) sequential-global. the characteristics of learners within each dimension of the learning styles model proposed by felder &solomon (2012) can be described as follows: 1. active and reflective learners active learners a. tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it--discussing or applying it or explaining it to others b. respond to a problem: “let’s try it out’. c. prefer doing group work d. very hard not to do anything physical while having lectures other than taking notes reflective learners a. prefer to think about it quietly first b. respond to a problem by saying: "let's think it through first" c. prefer working alone d. hard not to do anything physical while having lectures other than taking notes 2. sensing and intuitive learners sensing learners a. tend to like learning facts 246 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 b. like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and surprises c. tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory) work d. tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors e. don't like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world intuitive learners a. don't like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world b. often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships c. like innovation and dislike repetition d. may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations. e. tend to work faster and to be more innovative than sensors f. don't like "plug-and-chug" courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations 3. visual and verbal learners visual learners a. remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations b. learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally verbal learners a. get more out of words--written and spoken explanations b. learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 247 preference and learning styles 4. sequential and global learners sequential learners a. tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one b. tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions global learners a. tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it” b. may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it c. the role of learning styles in learning process and performance learning styles is one of the variables that influence how students learn (reid, 1987; benson, 2001). in a study which examined the different learning strategies by college students in a hypermedia assisted language learning setting for whom english was a second language, liu & reed (1994) concluded that different learning style groups employed different learning strategies in accomplishing the same task. meanwhile, sriachanyachon (2012) revealed two important findings related with learning style: 1) there were positive relationships among students’ english background knowledge, learning styles, and motivation at 0.05; and 2) a greater variety of learning styles and more motivation to learn english were found with students with higher english background knowledge. investigating the effects of cognitive learning style on first-year academic performance in 19 university courses using a sample of 4,546 students over a 4-year period from 1993 to 1997, drysdale, ross & schulz (2001) revealed that academic performance based on learning style was http://www.tandfonline.com/action/dosearch?action=runsearch&type=advanced&result=true&prevsearch=%2bauthorsfield%3a%28drysdale%2c+maureen+t.+b.%29 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/dosearch?action=runsearch&type=advanced&result=true&prevsearch=%2bauthorsfield%3a%28ross%2c+jonathan+l.%29 http://www.tandfonline.com/action/dosearch?action=runsearch&type=advanced&result=true&prevsearch=%2bauthorsfield%3a%28schulz%2c+robert+a.%29 248 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 found to be significant (p < 0.05) in 11 of the 19 courses. two important results of the research on perceptual learning styles by using the learning styles survey (lss) conducted by abidin, et al. (2011) are: 1) there is a significant relationship between overall academic achievement and learning styles, 2) the high moderate and low achievers have a similar preference pattern of learning in all learning styles. d. learning styles, gender, and subject preference it is undeniable that men and women are basically different in many aspects, both physically and mentally. gender is also a variable which is believed to have a relationship with learning style preferences (reid, 1987) and one that affects learning process as well as learning performance. wardhaugh (1992) also states that women and men may have different paralinguistic systems and move and gesture differently. furthermore, trudgill (1985) says that males’ and females’ speeches are not only different; and females’ are also better than males’. vasyura (2008) points out that male are more confident in communicative activity. in addition, o'brien (1991) revealed distinctive differences in cognitive styles between males and females as well as systematic differences associated with major area of study, level of academic achievement, and educational level. if sex variable has a relationship with learning process and learning outcome, it is very possible that it also has a relationship with learning styles. another issue, which is also interesting, is the relationship between learning style preferences and the subjects, the students are mostly like this because the characteristics of learners within each learning style are different (felder & solomon). when learning activities match our learning style preferences, we will find them satisfying and motivational, but if they do not, we are less likely to persevere (sil international, 1999). hence, it is very logical to think that an individual with certain learning styles will naturally tend to prefer certain subjects. a student with very strong verbal learning style, for instance, is assumed to prefer speaking more than writing. this is supported by the fact that learning styles influence the ways different students learn grammar (oxford and lee, 2007) and the students’ listening behaviour (macaro, et.al., 2007). the information about the learning styles of the students will make it easier for the teacher to facilitate the students in the learning process. methods suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 249 preference and learning styles a. research design this research uses mixed-method, because it mixes or combines qualitative and quantitative research methods (johnson & onwuegbuzie, 2004). the method is used to identify and describe the learning styles of the students of eed mku. the variables of this research are learning styles dimensions, gender, and subject preference. the learning styles dimensions of the students refer to solomon-felderlearning style model. the gender and the subject preference of the students are identified from the answer sheets (see appendix). b. data collection the subjects of this research are the students of eed mku. the number of the respondents is 208, comprising students of different semesters. the respondents were randomly selected from each semester by using simple random sampling techniques. to identify the learning styles of the students, we use a self-scoring web-based instrument called solomonfelder index of learning styles questionnaire, which has been translated into indonesian under the permission of richard m. felder (2013). this learning style inventory is a 44-question instrument to assess preferences on the four dimensions of the solomon-felder model, i.e. sensingintuitive, visual-verbal, active-reflective, and sequential-global. to ease the process of identification and due to the limitation of the computer and the internet access, we gave the students the indonesian written version of the questionnaire first. the students had to answer the 44 questions in a separate answer sheet, in which they also had to give the data about their gender and subject preference. after that, we entered the students’ answers into the questionnaires on the site which provides the questionnaire and immediately got the results (see appendix). c. data analysis and interpretation analysis of the responses of the students to the questionnaire was done as follows. first, the responses were automatically analyzed by the program of the site as soon as the responses from the respondents were submitted online. the submission was done by the researchers. 250 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 the results of the first step were scores of each respondent for each learning styles dimensions, which were put in scales. score 1 – 3 on the scale indicates that the individual is well balanced on the two dimensions of that scale, score 5 – 7 indicates a moderate preference for one dimension of the scale, and score 9 – 11 indicates a very strong preference for one dimension of the scale (see appendix). the next step in the data analysis was sorting the learning styles (dimension and category) based on gender and subject preference variables. afterwards, the researchers conducted a chi-square test of independence to test the dependency relationship between learning styles dimensions and gender and subject preference variables at α .05 in the proper degree of freedom (df). findings and discussion from the index of learning styles questionnaire that has been distributed to the respondents, the result is described as follows. a. general learning styles profile the general learning styles profile of the students of eed mku is illustrated in table 1. comparing balanced, moderate, and very strong categories, we can see from table 1 that the most dominant learning style of the students of eed umk in the four dimensions is balanced. the average for this category is ( 4 15.7152.4921.5750.62  ) = 60.10% knowing the students’ learning style will help us plan for learning tasks such as language learning. the importance of students’ understanding their own learning styles is supported by nelson et.al. (1993) who found that students who completed learning style inventories at the beginning of the course achieved better at the end, and those students who were participating in learning style workshops persisted in the universities in larger percentages than those who did not participate in the workshops. therefore, knowing the fact that balanced is the most dominant category for all learning styles dimensions of the students of eed mku, it will actually make both the students and the lecturers easier to facilitate the students’ learning. this is because balanced category of learning styles is desirable (felder & solomon, 2012). suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 251 preference and learning styles students who are balanced can perceive, organize, process, and understand information in both dimensions of the learning styles more easily than those who are moderate, let alone very strong in one dimension. for example, a balanced verbal – visual student can perceive, organize, process, and understand information transmitted either verbally or visually or both visually and verbally with the same possibility of being successful. in this way the lecturers can choose to deliver the information, i.e. the learning material, either visually or verbally. in other words, devising alternative instructional situations to accommodate the variations in learning styles that may exist in a classroom will be better (reid, 1987). table 1 general learning styles profile of the students of eed umk for the four learning styles dimensions learning styles dimensions category f % 1. active reflective balanced 130 62.50 moderate active 48 23.08 moderate reflective 20 9.62 very strong active 9 4.33 very strong reflective 1 0.48 total 208 100 2. sensing intuitive balanced 119 57.21 moderate sensing 63 30.29 moderate intuitive 3 1.44 very strong sensing 21 10.10 very strong intuitive 2 0.96 total 208 100 3. visual verbal balanced 103 49.52 moderate visual 65 31.25 moderate verbal 1 0.48 very strong visual 39 18.75 very strong verbal 0 0.00 total 208 100 4. sequential global balanced 148 71.15 moderate sequential 36 17.31 moderate global 17 8.17 252 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 very strong sequential 7 3.37 very strong global 0 0.00 total 208 100 in accordance with the implementation of student-centered learning (scl), understanding the learning styles of the students becomes more crucial. it will make it easier for the teacher to guide the students to use the best possible method of inquiry and discovery. for the students themselves, understanding their own learning styles will make them easier to utilize their preferred learning styles and to take deliberate advantage of those preferences (reid, 1987). the fact that the students of eed mku are not dominated by moderate and very strong categories of learning styles dimensions is also an advantage for eed mku. with regards to the numbers and percentages, it is found that the department should give more attention to 30.41% of the students who are moderate and 9.50% of those who are very strong in one dimension. in addition, between the two categories, students with a very strong preference for one dimension need more attention than the former ones. this is because they may have real difficulty learning in an environment which does not support that preference (reid, 1987; felder &spurlin, 2005; sil international, 1999). from table 1 we can see that 4.33% of the students are in the very strong active category. if this fact is held as a hypothesis, the teacher should create a learning environment which gives a chance to the students to be active and to work in groups. the same consideration should also be applied to 10.10% of the students who are very strong sensing and 18.75% who are very strong visual. sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world, while visual learners remember best what they see such as pictures, diagrams, and films (felder &solomon, 2012; felder & spurlin, 2005). language instruction that involves a great deal of repetitive drill and memorization of vocabulary and grammar is good for sensors, while showing photographs, drawings, and sketches to reinforce presentation of vocabulary words is appropriate for visual learners (felder & henriques, 1995). b. relationship between learning styles dimensions and gender suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 253 preference and learning styles the number of the subjects of this research is 208, comprising of 69 males and 139 females. table 2 presents the learning styles of the students of eed mku based on gender variable. table 2 shows us that for the four dimensions, balanced category for both males and females is the most dominant category. comparing between males and females, we can see that the percentage of males who are balanced (60.51%) is a little bit higher than that of females (59.89%). furthermore, for moderate and very strong categories the percentages are relatively the same for both males and females: 30.43% and 30.40% for moderate and 9.06% and 9.71% for very strong. table 2 the learning styles profile of the students of eed umk based on gender variable categ ory learning styles dimension total active reflective sensing – intuitive visual verbal sequential global f % f % f % f % f % male balan ced 4 4 63. 77 4 4 63. 77 3 0 43. 48 4 9 71. 01 1 6 7 60. 51 mode rate 2 2 31. 88 1 8 26. 09 2 4 34. 78 2 0 28. 99 8 4 30. 43 very stron g 3 4.3 5 7 10. 14 1 5 21. 74 0 0.0 0 2 5 9.0 6 total 6 9 100 .00 6 9 100 .00 6 9 100 .00 6 9 100 .00 2 7 6 100 .00 femal e balan ced 8 6 61. 87 7 5 53. 96 7 3 52. 52 9 9 71. 22 3 3 3 59. 89 mode rate 4 6 33. 09 4 8 34. 53 4 2 30. 22 3 3 23. 74 1 6 9 30. 40 254 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 very stron g 7 5.0 4 1 6 11. 51 2 4 17. 27 7 5.0 4 5 4 9.7 1 total 1 3 9 100 1 3 9 100 1 3 9 100 1 3 9 100 5 5 6 100 from table 2 we then analyze the dependency relationship between gender variable and learning styles dimension. more specifically, the analysis is done to answer the question “is each learning styles dimension affected by gender?” the gender variable consists of 2 categories (male and female), while the learning styles dimension consists of 5 categories (balanced, moderate for the 1st dimension, moderate for the 2nd dimension, very strong for the 1st dimension, very strong for the 2nd dimension). to do this, we did chi-square test of independence in the level of significance (α) .05 and degree of freedom (df) (c – 1)(r – 1) = (2 – 1)(5 – 1) = 4. the result of the analysis is summarized in table 3. table 3 below indicates that at α = .05 and df = 4, all the x2s do not fall in the critical region, because they are smaller than the x2(critical). in other words, we conclude that there is no significant dependency relationship between gender and learning styles dimensions: the probability of the students of having certain learning styles dimension is independent on the gender of the students. the fact that there is no significant relationship between learning styles and gender is also an advantage for eed mku, although it is not the same as that of reid (1987). this will make it easier for both students and lecturers to arrange the learning processes because, in terms of learning styles, they do not have to pay much attention to gender variable. table 3 summary of the result of chi-square test of independence between gender and learning styles dimensions at x2 .05; df = 4 = 9.488 independent variable dependent variable x2 (obtained) conclusion gender active reflective 5.579 not suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 255 preference and learning styles dimension significant at α .05; df = 4 gender sensing – intuitive dimension 9.148 not significant at α .05; df = 4 gender visual verbal dimension 8.432 not significant at α .05; df = 4 gender sequential – global dimension 8.292 not significant at α .05; df = 4 c. relationship between learning styles dimensions and subject preference the learning style profile of the students of eed umk based on subject preference is presented in table 4. the subject preference is categorized into 6: 1) listening, 2) speaking, 3) reading, 4) writing, 5) none, and 6) others. as it has been described before, the learning styles are classified into 4-scale dimensions, each of which is classified into 5 categories. from table 4 we can see that balanced is still the most dominant category for all learning styles dimensions. among the balanced categories, however, sequential – global dimension is the highest (70.67%), followed by active – reflective (62.50%), sensing intuitive (57.21%), and the lowest visual – verbal (49.52%). table 4 the learning styles profile of the students of eed umk based on subject preference learning styles dimensio ns category subject preference total 1 2 3 4 5 6 f f f f f f f % active reflective balanced 1 3 4 8 2 7 1 5 1 2 1 5 1 3 0 62. 5 moderate active 8 1 5 1 2 8 3 2 4 8 23. 08 moderate reflective 5 5 4 2 2 4 2 2 10. 58 very strong active 0 4 0 3 0 0 7 3.3 7 very strong reflective 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.4 8 256 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 2 6 7 2 4 4 2 8 1 7 2 1 2 0 8 100 sensing – intuitive balanced 1 5 4 4 2 3 1 2 9 1 6 1 1 9 57. 21 moderate sensing 1 1 1 9 1 4 1 1 6 3 6 4 30. 77 moderate intuitive 0 1 2 0 0 0 3 1.4 4 very strong sensing 0 8 5 4 0 2 1 9 9.1 3 very strong intuitive 0 0 0 1 2 0 3 1.4 4 2 6 7 2 4 4 2 8 1 7 2 1 2 0 8 100 visual – verbal balanced 1 0 3 7 2 6 1 4 6 1 0 1 0 3 49. 52 moderate visual 9 2 0 1 3 8 1 1 6 6 7 32. 21 moderate verbal 7 1 0 0 0 0 8 3.8 5 very strong visual 0 1 4 5 6 0 5 3 0 14. 42 very strong verbal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 7 2 4 4 2 8 1 7 2 1 2 0 8 100 sequentia l – global balanced 1 7 5 3 3 1 2 0 1 0 1 6 1 4 7 70. 67 moderate sequential 8 1 1 1 1 7 4 1 4 2 20. 19 moderate global 1 7 2 1 3 4 1 8 8.6 5 very strong sequent. 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0.4 8 very strong global 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 7 2 4 4 2 8 1 7 2 1 2 0 8 100 table 4 also indicates that for the learning styles dimensions which are dominated by balanced category, the very strong categories are minimal. for example, for sequential – global dimension in which the balanced category covers 70.67%, the very strong category covers only 0.48% (0.48% for very strong sequential and 0% for very strong global). this also happens in active – reflective dimension, for which the very strong category covers only 3.85%. the next step is analyzing the relationship between the learning styles dimension of the students of eed umk and their subject preference. this is done to investigate if there is a significant dependency relationship between subject preference and learning styles dimensions or to answer the question: “is subject preference affected by learning styles dimensions of the students?” to calculate the value of x2 (obtained) the degree of freedom (df) is (6 – 1)(5 – 1) = 20 at α .05. the result of the test is presented in table 5. table 5 suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 257 preference and learning styles summary of the result of chi-square test of independence between subject preference and learning styles dimension at x2 .05; df = 20 = 31.410 independent variable dependent variable x2 (obtai ned) conclusion active reflective dimension subject preference 22.62 not significant at α .05; df = 20 sensing intuitive dimension subject preference 32.081 significant at α .05; df = 20 visual verbal dimension subject preference 59.905 significant at α .05; df = 20 sequential global dimension subject preference 14.867 not significant at α .05; df = 20 from table 5 we can see that at α .05; df = 20, only 2 learning styles dimensions which have significant dependency relationship with subject preference, i.e. sensing – intuitive and visual – verbal, while the other two, active – reflective and sequential – global, do not. in other words, based on these sample data, the probability of the students of having certain subject preference is not wholly dependent on felder and silverman’s learning styles dimensions; only for sensing – intuitive and visual – verbal dimensions subject preference depends on. for these 2 learning style dimensions we can say that the students’ subject preference depends on their learning styles dimensions. chi square test cannot tell us whether the students whose subject preference is listening, for example, are more likely to be balanced, visual, or verbal. to figure out how subject preference is affecting learning styles preference, we can calculate the percentages within each column. from table 4 we can see that the frequency for balanced category is 10 or 258 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 38.46%, visual is 9 or 34.61%, and verbal is 0 or 0%. comparing between visual and verbal dimensions, we can see that: 1) students whose subject preference is listening are more likely to be visual learners; and 2) the number of the students who are visual is greater than that of verbal in all subject preference. now that not all learning style dimensions have significant relationship with subject preference, both students and lecturers should pay attention to this phenomenon. this is because all students must take all of the subjects that have been included in the curriculum. thus, students experience the learning styles of sensing – intuitive and visual – where verbal have less freedom than those whose learning styles are active – reflective and sequential – and global, because active – reflective and sequential,as well as global dimensions have no significant relationship with subject preference, while sensing – intuitive and visual – verbal do. conclusions the conclusions which we can draw from the result of the analysis are that the general learning style profile of the students of eed mku is balanced. in the level of significance (α) .05 and degree of freedom (df) 4, there is no significant relationship between gender and learning styles dimensions: the probability of the students of having certain learning styles dimension is independent on the gender of the students. in the level of significance (α) .05 and degree of freedom 20, the probability of the students of eed mku of having certain subject preference is not wholly dependent on their learning style dimensions: meanwhile, the subject preference of the students of eed mku who are sensing – intuitive and visual – verbal depend on their learning styles dimensions, while that of those who are active – reflective and sequential – global do not. although the general profile of the learning styles category is balanced, it is suggested that each student understands his/her learning styles to know if he/she has an extreme learning style, i.e. very strong in certain dimension. by understanding his/her own learning styles he/she has reached one point of self-understanding, which is very important in scl. this can be done quite easily by accessing sources which provide learning styles inventory, such as one which is used in this research, i.e. suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 259 preference and learning styles index of learning styles questionnaire from http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/ learning styles/ilsweb. html. because the general profile of the learning styles of the students of eed umk is balanced (60.10%) and there is no significant relationship between gender variable and learning styles variable, lecturers may choose various learning strategies. this prefered category of learning styles coresponds with various teaching styles. it is also suggested to the lecturers to ask the students to inform their learning styles at the beginning of a course. thus, it is recommended that further researchers use larger and more equal number of samples between males and females as in this research, where the number of female samples is greater than that of males. the fact that only 2 dimensions of learning styles (sensing – intuitive and visual – verbal) which have a significant relationship with subject preference leads us to suggest that the next researchers investigate those who have extreme dimensions of learning styles, i.e. those whose learning styles category is very strong in one dimension, in relation with their subject preference. references abidin, mohamad jafre zainol, rezaee, abas ali, abdullah, helan nor, and singh, kiranjit kaur balbir. 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(2009). learning styles of high and low academic achieving freshman teacher education students: an application of the dunn and dunn’s learning style model. university of the cordilleras, baguio city, philippines, 01(4), 58 – 71. nelson, b., dunn, r., griggs., primavera, l., fitzpatrick, m., bacilious, z., and miller, r. (1993). effects of learning styles intervention in college students’ retention and achievement. journal of college student development. 34, 364-369. o'brien, terrance p. (1991). relationships among selected characteristics of college students and cognitive style preferences. college student journal, 25 (1), abstract. retrieved january 25, 2013 from http://psycnet.apa. org/psycinfo/1991-22794-001. reid, joy m. (1987). the learning styles of esl students. tesol quarterly, 21 (1), 87 – 111. solomon, barbara. a and felder, richard m. index of learning styles questionnaire. retrieved december 21, 2012 from: http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/ learningstyles/ilsweb.html. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0747563294900388 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0747563294900388 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0747563294900388 262 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 sriachanyachon, napaporn. (2012). the relationship of learning styles, learning motivation and academic success in efl learning context. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 3 (3), 211-216. summer institute of linguistics (sil) international. (1999). what is a learning style? retrieved december 21, 2012 from: http://www.sil.org/sil. trudgill, peter. (1985). sociolinguistics: an introduction to language and society. london: edward arnold. vasyura, svetlana a. (2008). psychology of male and female communicative activity. russia: udmurt state university. wardhaugh, ronald. (1992). an introduction to sociolinguistics. new york: blackwell. appendix 1: indonesian version of solomon-felder index of learning styles questionnaire (translated into indonesia under the permission of richard m. felder) and an example of an answer sheet index of learning styles questionnaire barbara a. soloman first-year college north carolina state university raleigh, north carolina 27695 richard m. felder department of chemical engineering north carolina state university raleigh, nc 27695-7905 kerjakan di lembar jawab yang disediakan dengan menyilang pilihan anda. suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 263 preference and learning styles untuk masing-masing dari 44 pertanyaan berikut, pilih "a" atau "b" untuk menunjukkan jawaban anda. pilih hanya satu jawaban untuk setiap pertanyaan. bila pilihan "a" dan "b" anda anggap sesuai dengan kondisi anda, pilihlah yang paling sering terjadi/sesuai dengan diri anda. when you are finished selecting 1. saya memahami sesuatu dengan lebih baik setelah saya … (a) mencobanya. (b) memikirkannya secara mendalam. 2. saya akan lebih suka dianggap sebagai orang yang … (a) realistis. (b) inovatif. 3. ketika saya memikirkan apa yang saya lakukan kemarin, yang muncul dalam benak saya cenderung berupa … (a) gambar/gambaran. (b) kata-kata. 4. dalam memahami sesuatu, saya cenderung … (a) mengerti detailnya tetapi mungkin bingung dengan bentuknya secara keseluruhan. (b) mengerti bentuknya secara keseluruhan tetapi bingung dengan detailnya. 5. sedang mempelajari sesuatu yang baru membantu saya untuk … (a) membicarakannya. (b) memikikirkannya. 6. bila saya menjadi guru, saya akan lebih suka mengajar mata pelajaran yang … (a) berkaitan dengan fakta-fakta dan situasi kehidupan nyata. (b) berkaitan dengan ide-ide dan teori. 7. saya lebih suka mendapatkan informasi baru dalam bentuk … (a) gambar, diagram, grafik, atau peta. (b) tertulis atau informasi verbal. 8. dalam memahami sesuatu, sekali saya memahami … (a) seluruh bagian-bagiannya, saya akan memahami bentuk utuhnya. (b) bentuk utuhnya, saya tahu bagaimana bagian-bagiannya disatukan. 9. dalam belajar kelompok mengerjakan materi yang sulit, saya lebih suka … 264 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 (a) langsung terlibat dan menyumbangkan ide. (b) duduk di belakang dan mendengarkan dahulu. 10. saya lebih mudah mempelajari… (a) hal-hal yang nyata/fakta-fakta. (b) konsep-konsep/teori. 11. dalam buku yang berisi banyak gambar dan diagram, saya cenderung … (a) melihat gambar dan diagramnya dengan teliti. (b) fokus pada teks tertulisnya. 12. ketika menyelesaikan soal-soal matematika, ... (a) saya biasanya mengerjakannya langkah demi langkah untuk mendapatkan hasilnya. (b) saya sering melihat hasilnya dulu, tapi kemudian berusaha keras mengetahui langkah-lankahnya. 13. dalam klas yang saya ikuti, … (a) saya biasanya kenal dengan kebanyakan mahasiswa. (b) saya jarang kenal dengan kebanyakan mahasiswa. 14. dalam mebaca bacaan non-fiksi, saya menyukai sesuatu yang … (a) mengajarkan fakta baru atau menunjukkan cara mengerjakan sesuatu. (b) memberi ide baru untuk dipikirkan 15. saya menyukai guru yang … (a) menggunakan banyak diagram di papan tulis. (b) banyak menerangkan dengan kata-kata. 16. ketika menganalisis sebuah cerita atau novel, … (a) saya memikirkan kejadian-kjadiannya dan mencoba merangkainya untuk mengetahui temanya. (b) saya hanya tahu temanya ketika selesai membaca dan kemudian harus kembali membacanya untuk menemukan kejadian-kejadian yang membangun tema tersebut. 17. ketika mulai mengerjakan pr, saya lebih suka … (a) langsung/segera mengerjakannya. (b) berupaya memahami sungguh-sungguh permasalahannya lebih dahulu. 18. saya lebih menyukai … (a) kepastian. (b) teori. suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 265 preference and learning styles 19. saya paling mudah mengingat sesuatu yang … (a) saya lihat. (b) saya dengar. 20. menurut saya, penting bagi seorang instruktur untuk … (a) merancang materi dalam langkah-langkah yang jelas, tahap demi tahap. (b) memberi saya gambaran utuhnya dan mengaitkan materi tersebut dengan mata pelajaran/kuliah lain. 21. saya lebih menyukai belajar … (a) dalam kelompok belajar. (b) sendiri. 22. saya lebih suka dianggap … (a) teliti dengan detail-detail pekerjaan saya. (b) kreatif dalam mengerjakan pekerjaan saya. 23. ketika mendapat petunjuk menuju suatu tempat yang baru, saya lebih suka … (a) peta. (b) petujuk tertulis. 24. dalam mempelajari sesuatu, saya … (a) belajar dengan kecepatan biasa saja. bila saya bekerja keras, saya akan "gets it." (b) mempelajarinya langsung dengan cepat, kemudian akan mengalami kebingungan terlebih dahulu dan tiba-tiba segala sesuatunya “clicks” (beres). 25. bila menghadapi pekerjaan, saya lebih suka terlebih dahulu… (a) mencoba mengerjakan. (b) memikirkan bagaimana cara mengerjakannya. 26. ketia membaca untuk kesenangan (reading for enjoyment), saya menyukai penulis yang … (a) mengatakan dengan lugas dan jelas apa maksud mereka. (b) mengatakan segala sesuatunya dengan cara yang kreatif dan menarik. 27. ketika melihat diagram atau sketsa di kelas, yang paling saya ingat adalah ... (a) gambarnya. (b) apa yang dikatakan guru tentang gambar itu. 266 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 28. dalam memahami suatu informasi, saya cenderung … (a) fokus pada detailnya dan tidak mendapatkan gambaran umumnya. (b) mencoba memahami gambaran umumnya sebelum memahami detailnya. 29. saya lebih mudah mengingat … (a) sesuatu yang telah saya kerjakan. (b) sesuatu yang telah banyak/lama saya pikirkan. 30. ketika harus melaksanakan tugas, saya lebih suka … (a) menggunakan satu cara yang sudah ada. (b) mencari cara-cara baru. 31. bila seseorang menunjukkan data kepada saya, saya lebih menyukainya dalam bentuk ... (a) diagram atau grafik. (b) teks tentang ringkasan hasilnya. 32. dalam menyusun makalah, saya lebih senang… (a) mengerjakan (di pikiran atau ditulis) bagian awalnya kemudian bagian-bagian selanjutnya secara runtut. (b) mengerjakan (di pikiran atau ditulis) bagian yang berbeda-beda dan kemudian mengurutkannya. 33. bila harus mengerjakan tugas kelompok, saya ingin terlebih dahulu … (a) mengadakan "group brainstorming" dimana setiap anggota menyumbangkan ide masing-masing. (b) melakukan “brainstorming” secara individu kemudian berkumpul untuk membandingkan/membahas ide yang muncul. 34. menurut saya, adalah sebuah penghormatan baginya bila saya menyebut dia sebagai orang yang … (a) penuh perasaan (sensible). (b) penuh imaginasi (imaginative). 35. bila bertemu orang di sebuah pesta, yang lebih saya ingat adalah ... (a) penampilan mereka/ seperti apa mereka. (b) apa yang mereka katakan tentang diri mereka sendiri. 36. bila mempelajari sesuatu yang baru, saya lebih suka … (a) tetap fokus pada hal tersebut, belajar sebanyak mungkin tentang hal tersebut. (b) berupaya menghubungkan hal tersebut dengan hal-hal yang terkait. suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 267 preference and learning styles 37. saya lebih suka dianggap sebagai orang yang… (a) mudah bergaul (outgoing). (b) pendiam/tidak banyak bicara (reserved). 38. saya lebih menyukai mata pelajaran/kuliah yang menekankan pada … (a) materi yang kongkret (fakta, data). (b) materi yang abstrak (konsep, teori). 39. untuk hiburan, saya lebih memilih … (a) nonton acara televisi. (b) membaca buku. 40. beberapa dosen memulai perkuliahan dengan menunjukkan garis besar (outline) materi yang akan disajikan. outline seperti itu … (a) sedikit membantu saya. (b) sangat membantu saya. 41. mengerjakan pr secara kelompok dimana nilainya sama untuk anggota adalah … (a) menarik untuk saya. (b) tidak menarik untuk saya. 42. bila melakukan hitung-hitungan yang panjang, saya … (a) cenderung mengulang semua langkah dan mengecek kembali pekerjaan saya dengan teiliti. (b) mengecek kembali pekerjaan saya adalah sesuatu yang melelahkan dan saya harus memaksa diri saya untuk melakukannya. 43. saya cenderung dapat membayangkan tempat yang pernah saya kunjungi dengan ... (a) mudah dan dengan cukup akurat. (b) susah payah dan tanpa banyak detail. 44. dalam menyelesaikan permasalahan dalam kelompok, saya cenderung … (a) memikirkan langkah-langkahnya selama dalam proses penyelesaian masalah tersebut (sambil jalan). (b) memikirkan berbagai kemungkinan penyelesaian masalah tersebut secara luas. this is the end of the questionnaire. thank you very much. 268 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 suprihadi & rokhayani, a., relationship between gender, subject 269 preference and learning styles appendix 2: the result of analysis by the system no state university learning styles results results for: indah fatmawati/201032171 act x ref 11 9 7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 <---> sen x int 11 9 7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 <---> vis x vrb 11 9 7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 <---> seq x glo 11 9 7 5 3 1 1 3 5 7 9 11 <--->  if your score on a scale is 1-3, you are fairly well balanced on the two dimensions of that scale.  if your score on a scale is 5-7, you have a moderate preference for one dimension of the scale and will learn more easily in a teaching environment which favors that dimension.  if your score on a scale is 9-11, you have a very strong preference for one dimension of the scale. you may have real difficulty learning in an environment which does not support that preference. 270 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 242-270 we suggest you print this page, so that when you look at the explanations of the different scales you will have a record of your individual preferences. for explanations of the scales and the implications of your preferences, click on learning style descriptions. for more information about learning styles or to take the test again, click on learning style page. http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ilsdir/styles.htm http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ilspage.html 6 583 layout 2 publish suprihadi. atik clean constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for international students yosep bambang margono slamet yosepbbmargono@gmail.com english department, akademi bahasa asing 17, semarang abstract: this paper is a course design on indonesian shadow puppet to promote indonesian culture to international students as a way of building a cultural bridge to create global citizens. in today‘s world, it is of paramount importance for every individual from diverse cultural, linguistic, and ethnic backgrounds to understand each other and work together. creating this course is to introduce and promote an aspect indonesian culture so that international students are more interested in and knowledgeable of indonesian people and culture in general. even though students only learn an aspect of indonesian culture it is expected that they will be able to explore indonesian culture in a broad sense. key words: indonesian culture, cultural bridge, global citizens abstrak: paper ini merupakan rancangan mata kuliah tentang wayang kulit indonesia untuk mempromosikan kebudayaan indonesia kepada mahasiswa internasional sebagai upaya untuk membangun jembatan budaya untuk menciptakan warganegara dunia. dewasa ini sangat penting bagi kita semua untuk saling memahami dan bekerja sama, sekalipun kita memiliki latar belakang budaya, bahasa, dan etnis yang berbeda. merancang mata kuliah ini berarti memperkenalkan dan mempromosikan satu aspek dari kebudayaan indonesia sehingga mahasiswa internasional lebih tertarik pada dan lebih memahami manusia dan kebudayaan indonesia secara umum. meskipun hanya mempelajari satu aspek dari kebudayaan indonesia, diharapkan mahasiswa internasional bisa mengeksplorasi kebudayaan indonesia dalam arti luas dari mata kuliah ini. kata kunci: kebudayaan indonesia, jembatan budaya, warganegara dunia mailto:yosepbbmargono@gmail.com slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 17 international students introduction i was a student at the university of iowa and wanted to promote indonesian culture to american and international students. the chance to do that came when the university offered me to teach the indonesian language in 2006. this is a great experience because i met enthusiastic students from different countries like usa, india, and korea. it is during the tutorial times that students and i talked about indonesian people and culture, including wayang kulit or shadow puppets; and our talks were mostly in the indonesian language. it is from my tutoring experiences that i learn that among tens of thousands of students in the university, there are some students who are really interested in indonesia. for them, learning indonesian language is just the beginning of knowing more about indonesia. on reflection, i have been thinking about the possibility for having other means of promoting indonesian culture. i want indonesia to become not only a kind of imagined community (anderson, 1991) for american and international students, but a real one; and one of the ways to make indonesia real for them is through a course other than on indonesian language. however, the course should not only be academic in which students only read scholarly readings or theories, but one that also offers actual experience about one aspect of indonesia. thinking about this, i came to a decision that a course on indonesian shadow puppets is a good choice. in this course, students will not only learn about indonesian shadow puppets from scholarly readings, but will also have the chance to see and play with real puppets, recognize major characters, and watch videos of shadow puppet performances. in other words, this course is a combination between theory and entertainment. teaching about indonesian shadow puppets to american and international students will be a very difficult job. on the other hand, giving out real puppets to students and watching videos on shadow puppet performances will be more experiential than academic. therefore, i decided to choose to combine both academic and experiential approaches. this way, students will have sufficient academic information on indonesian shadow puppets (and indonesian people and culture in general) and at the same time they have real experience with indonesian shadow puppets. 18 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 why i constructed the course the way i did as a course for upper undergraduate and graduate level, it is the combination of mini lectures and discussion. traditionally, the shadow puppet stories are based on the ramayana and mahabharata epics. but nowadays, many puppeteers write their own plays. traditionally, the dalang (puppeteer) performed shadow puppet plays based on the formal scripts written by raden ngabehi ranggawarsita, the official author of surakarta kingdom, in central java, who lived between 1802 and 1874. it was said that there were about 177 lakon (plays) written and compiled by raden ngabehi ranggawarsita (pustaka raja purwa, n.d.). this kind of performance lasted for about nine hours (brandon, 1970). in contrast, today‘s performances may not use the old scripts and can last only in one hour to one and a half hour (sears, 1989). to attract young people, some young puppeteers created new characters such as batman and superman (cohen, 2007). wayang kulit or shadow puppets have been changing to adapt to the new era but the basic elements remain. in class, students will want to read various texts about indonesian shadow puppets and watch many short videos on shadow puppet performances. every week, they have to write a one page response to readings and or videos and have discussion in class. it is important for me as the instructor that i listen to every student‘s ideas and views because it is their ideas and views that are important. i will serve mostly as a facilitator and will speak up when necessary. but of course i will explain the background of every reading and video to give them ideas for discussion. in addition, students will also write a six-to-nine page midterm paper on the topics that have been discussed in class. for the final exam, they will write a twelve-tofifteen-page paper. in addition to the final paper, they will make an oral presentation to the class. i expect them to do extensive research on a single shadow puppet character for their final paper. in addition to scholarly readings, i encourage students to use a video or videos for their final projects. by constructing the course in this way, i expect that students will have in-depth knowledge about the cultural, political, and aesthetic aspects of indonesian shadow puppets. my teaching philosophy my teaching philosophy draws on cushner and brennan‘s (2007) ideas who emphasize the importance of teachers as educator in preparing their slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 19 international students students to become global citizens. to become global citizens means that they need to develop intercultural relations to be able to work together with people from around the globe. according to them, people around the globe are now striving to work together and whoever works together needs to ―develop an understanding of and sensitivity to the views of others as well as a sense of connectedness that taps into common values and goals‖ (pp. 1-2). it is in this spirit that i created this course. in creating this course, the major idea is, according to cushner and brennan, to build a bridge to global competence. indeed, without a cultural bridge, global competence will be difficult to achieve. fadiman (1998) gives an example of how american culture and hmong culture collide in the case of a hmong child who suffers from epilepsy. from the american doctors‘ perspective, hmong people are ignorant of the modern medicine and on the other hand, from the hmong perspective, american doctors are ignorant of their understanding of health and wellness. i believe that cultural understanding can be achieved if we are not ignorant of other cultures and if we are willing to learn about other cultures. in today‘s world, interactions among people from different cultures are unavoidable and thus learning about other cultures is a must. it is in this realm that we need to have global competence, starting from a willingness to learn about other cultures. in this course, instead of teaching students about broad concepts of culture or in this case, the broad concepts of indonesian culture, i teach indonesian culture through shadow puppets, one aspect of indonesian culture. shadow puppets are a good start to attract students‘ interest in indonesian culture. one may wonder how teaching shadow puppets can become a bridge to global competence. my argument is that if students are interested in shadow puppets, they will explore more information about them. they can learn more about shadow puppets and education, and shadow puppets as a traditional art, or shadow puppets in global context and many more aspects of shadow puppets. in exploring more about shadow puppets, they will definitely understand more about indonesian culture. in the end, their knowledge about indonesia will make it easier for them to communicate with indonesian people. thus, the big idea starts from small ones. further, because shadow puppets do not only belong to indonesia but also belong to other southeast asian countries, students who are interested in them can explore shadow puppets in other countries, too. in this way, i want to give students new possibilities to explore. by exploring new possibilities offered by shadow puppets, students can expand 20 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 their vision of the world. at the same time, they can develop their identities, from not knowing or knowing a little bit about other cultures to knowing much more about them. thus, by teaching shadow puppets to international students, i position myself as a teacher who takes part actively in intercultural dialogues among american and international students. i believe that classrooms and learning can be a strong bridge to global competence and teachers have a pivotal role in building these bridges. the topics and their sequence javanese shadow puppets reflect the javanese lives or javanese ways of life. the life cycle, from birth to death, is often described in a shadow puppet performance (keeler, 1992). therefore, creating a course on javanese shadow puppets is, to some extent, like creating a course on javanese ways of life. for instance, traditionally a javanese should (or even must) know where he places himself in his society. this social order is reflected in shadow puppet performances (anderson, 1996). on the other hand, lay persons and people in power may have different understanding about the same story because they have different perspectives and interests. these kinds of aspects of life created challenges for me in choosing topics: how do i choose which one is important to present and discuss? however, i attempted to cover a broad perspective that is sufficient for a beginning course in javanese shadow puppets. i chose basic, general topics so that interested students can develop their interest on their own later on after taking this course. i categorize the week-to-week topics into three: first, shadow puppet stories (week 4, 5, and 8); second, shadow puppet performances (week 6, 7, 11, and 12); and third, shadow puppets and social and cultural issues (week 3, 9, 10, and 14). the course starts with the introduction in week 1. i lay out the fact that shadow puppets are common across southeast asian countries. it is important to discuss the cultural setting in this region to understand how shadow puppets in many countries are related and how they are different. however, the focus will be on javanese shadow puppets. in this week i will also give out puppets to students so that they have real experiences of seeing, holding, or even playing javanese shadow puppet characters, both from the ramayana and mahabharata. in week 2, we move on to the topic ―indonesian shadow puppets.‖ i will show to students that there are more than one shadow puppets in indonesia. in addition to javanese shadow puppets, there are also balinese slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 21 international students shadow puppets and sundanese rod puppets (wayang golek). i will also explain to students that indonesian shadow puppets in this course refer to javanese shadow puppets only. the reason for this is because i am a javanese. it should be born in mind, however, that this has nothing to do with a feeling of superiority. i just do not know sundanese and balinese language and shadow puppets, thus it is difficult for me to understand sundanese and balinese shadow puppets as well as my understanding of javanese shadow puppets. in week 3, the topic we discuss is ―shadow puppets, novel, and film: the case of the year of living dangerously.‖ this is a novel by koch (1983 [1979]). the film version of the novel has the same title. my goal in discussing this topic in this week is to engage students to shadow puppets. the setting of the novel is jakarta in 1965, when indonesia was under soekarno, the first president of indonesia. in this novel, koch not only tells us about political conflicts in indonesia at the time but also cultural backgrounds of indonesia in general and java in particular. we will discuss how koch uses shadow puppets to describe the political conflicts. in addition, he also gives us description about some major characters in the mahabharata. above all, the novel and the film are in english, therefore it will be relatively easy to attract american and international students‘ interest in shadow puppets. the discussion of shadow puppet characters are important because students need to know first what the characters look like. from their appearances, we can expect what kind of characters each puppet reveals (long, 1982), whether they belong to the ramayana or mahabharata. i allocate week 4 and 5 for this discussion. the discussion of major characters will be very helpful in understanding shadow puppet stories. what i mean by shadow puppet stories (topic in weeks 4, 5, and 8) may be different from the original stories of the ramayana and mahabharata (because shadow puppet stories are about the characters, i also include the topics in week 4 and 5 into shadow puppet stories). traditionally, there were fixed scripts of shadow puppet performances. these fixed scripts are what i call stories; meanwhile brandon (1970) call them ―plays‖ or lakon in javanese. however, in modern times, many more puppeteers wrote shadow puppet stories to be performed and their scripts are somewhat loose or even very loose. therefore the stories may be different from the ramayana and mahabharata even though almost all stories are based on the two epics. 22 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 for the topic of shadow puppet performances, in particular we discuss the components of shadow puppet performances such as the dalang (puppeteer), the waranggana (singers), the niyaga (musicians), the kelir (screen), the blencong (lamp) and other components in week 6. this is important to give students an overview of the performance. in week 7, in particular we will discuss the role of clown servants which appear in both the ramayana and mahabharata stories. it is in these scenes that the puppeteer speaks out his messages to the audience through jokes among the clowns. in week 12, we will discuss the traditional performance and in week 13 modern performance. the discussion of this topic will include the structure of the performance and the differences between them. the third category, shadow puppets and social and cultural issues, examines the relations between shadow puppets and javanese culture in general. in week 3, as i have mentioned above, we will discuss shadow puppets and the year of living dangerously. in week 9 we will discuss shadow puppets and education. through the dialogues between characters, the puppeteer educates the audience in many aspects of lives, ranging from mystical, ethical, aesthetical, social to political education (hadisoeseno, 1955). specific messages are usually spoken out during the clown servant scenes. in week 10, we discuss the relations between shadow puppet performances and javanes ritual celebrations. the celebration of life cycles, such as birth, circumcision, and wedding are usually accompanied by shadow puppet performances; even death is celebrated with a shadow puppet performance (keeler, 1992). we will also discuss shadow puppet performances in other rites such as independence day and village ritual celebrations. in week 11, the topic is shadow puppet and propaganda. the discussion will include how the new order regime (1966-1998) manipulated shadow puppet performances to maintain power. soeharto took over the power from soekarno in 1966 after the rebellion of the indonesian communist party (pki) failed to take over the power in indonesia. as soon as soeharto was in power, he banned the pki and punished those who involved in the rebellion. for more than thirty years in power, soeharto did everything to maintain his power, including using shadow puppet performances as a means of propaganda. the role of clown servants, especially semar, is very crucial in this case. even soeharto once identified himself as semar, a clown servant who is actually a god (pausacker, 2004). slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 23 international students the readings brandon‘s (1970) on thrones of gold: three javanese shadow plays, keeler‘s (1987) javanese shadow plays, javanese selves, and also keeler‘s (1992) javanese shadow puppets would be important readings for the course. the book by brandon is a classic in javanese shadow puppets. he translated three plays (or lakon in javanese) from javanese into english. he also discussed the dramatic structure of the shadow puppet performance and other key components of the performance. reading this book, non-javanese and nonindonesian readers will be able to enjoy three complete javanese shadow plays. meanwhile, the two books by keeler are anthropological studies of javanese shadow puppets. keeler analyzes aspects of javanese society and culture through the shadow puppets. the three books are seminal works on javanese shadow puppets. another book by brandon (1967) i use for this course is theatre in southeast asia. this book is important in the discussion of the cultural setting of shadow puppets across southeast asian countries. in particular, i use this book for the discussion of the history of javanese shadow puppets which received their influence(s) from hindu, buddhist, islamic, and also western traditions. however, i do not require students to read the three books in their entirety but only chapters or parts that are really related to the topics. because the ramayana and the mahabharata are the basis of javanese shadow puppet stories, i use the two books as requirements. i chose the ramayana version by r.k. narayan (2000) and the mahabharata version also by r.k. narayan (2006) for at least two reasons: (1) the version is the most concise i have found so far, and (2) the version is written in modern english so it will be an easy read. by reading the shortened version of the epics, students will be able to understand the basic stories. after reading these two books, if they are interested in understanding more about the epics, they can read other versions. for the additional reading materials of the stories, i chose valmiki‘s (1988) the concise ramayana and william buck‘s (1973) mahabharata. other books that i chose are clara van groenendael‘s (1985) the dalang behind the wayang: the role of the surakarta and the yogyakarta dalang in indonesian-javanese society; hadisoeseno‘s (1955) wayang and education; koch‘s (1995) the year of living dangerously (a novel); long‘s (1982) javanese shadow theatre: movement and characterization in ngayogyakarta wayang kulit; and blackham‘s shadow puppets. of these books, it is only hadisoeseno‘s that i want students to read in its entirety. this is a very short book of only 24 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 eighteen pages and exclusively discusses the relation between wayang and education. he discusses how shadow puppets can be used to teach the mystical, ethical, aesthetical, social and political education. from clara van groenendael‘s, i want students to read ―appendix ii‖ only, ―structure of a wayang play in the surakarta tradition.‖ i need to emphasize here that there are two traditions in shadow puppet plays, i.e. surakarta and yogyakarta. both are kingdoms in central java and in many respects, each of them differs slightly, including in shadow puppet performances. reading this part of the book, together with long‘s (1982), keeler‘s (1992) and brandon‘s (1970), students can make comparisons between the structure of shadow puppet performances in surakarta and yogyakarta. meanwhile, chapter i of long‘s book is important for introducing indonesian shadow puppets— together with a chapter from keeler, and blackham. however, a chapter from blackham is more comprehensive. there is no single book that discusses one topic only. some of the books i chose can be used for the discussion of many topics, such as keeler (1992) and brandon (1970). in contrast, i chose certain parts of some books for discussing certain topics. i designed the course syllabus in such a way so that students will be able to know quickly what books to read for certain topics in certain weeks or which chapter or part of a book to read for certain topics in a certain week. koch‘s (1995) the year of living dangerously is also an important book in this course. the setting of the novel is set in jakarta (indonesia) in 1965, when indonesia was under soekarno, the first president. reading this novel, students will gain important social and cultural background information about indonesia. koch discusses the political conflicts in indonesia between the military and the indonesian communist party (pki) which he describes as constant conflicts like the ones between the pandawa and kurawa. in indonesian shadow puppets, the constant conflicts between the pandawa and kurawa are solved in the ultimate war, baratayuda, in which all of one hundred kurawa brothers die. koch constructed the novel like the dramatic structure of a shadow puppet performance: part one (pathet nem), part two (pathet sanga), and part three (pathet manyura) (brandon, 1970). koch also discusses some major shadow puppet characters in this novel. reading this novel (along with watching its film version with the same title, released in 1982 starring mel gibson and sigourney weaver), students will be introduced to shadow puppets in some ways. therefore, i devote one session to discussing this novel. slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 25 international students in addition to the books, i also use journal articles written by many scholars interested in indonesian shadow puppets. all required articles, except one, are written by foreign scholars who not only know well about shadow puppet stories but who also have watched shadow puppet performances many times. sears (1989), mrazek (1999; 2000) and cohen (2007) tell us that they watch hundreds of shadow puppet performances during their stay in java. there is no doubt that their knowledge and understanding about shadow puppets are ‗valid.‘ even cohen himself is a puppeteer. reading the articles, american and international students will gain ―first hand‖ information about shadow puppets from the foreigner‘s point of view. i chose most articles by foreign scholars because i want to introduce students to those scholars who really love shadow puppets (to some degree, i could say that they love shadow puppets more than common javanese do). by choosing their writings, as a javanese i want to appreciate what they have done to disseminate shadow puppets in particular and javanese culture in general to the international public. no doubt that from the scholarly perspective, what they have done deserves more than just an appreciation. their writings are valuable sources of javanese shadow puppets and culture. campbell (1994) and habel (2007) are helpful in understanding how koch uses puppets as an important element in his novel. reading these two articles will allow students to more easily understand the novel because they provide important information about social and cultural background. the additional reading for this topic is macbean (1984). while campbell and habel discuss the novel, macbean discusses the film. these pieces will be useful for students to compare the novel and the film. brown (2004), gives emphasis to what hadisoeseno (1955) analyzes in his book that shadow puppet can be used as a way to teach ethics or moral values. in particular she suggests that teachers of kindergarten through second grade use a short version of shadow puppet stories to teach character education traits. shadow puppets which are particularly indonesian can be used to teach character education traits in american schools. this article will give very valuable information for those who want to become teachers. for the topic of ―shadow puppet and javanese rites,‖ i chose two pieces by hatley, ―wayang and ludruk: polarities in java‖ (1971) as the additional reading and ―national ritual, neighborhood performance: celebrating tujuhbelasan‖ (1982) as the required reading. the first article has a broad scope, discussing the relation between shadow puppets and many 26 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 aspects of indonesian lives, including the traditional religious rituals. the second focuses on how shadow puppet performances are used ―to mark the new, largely secular rituals of indonesian life—state occasions, such as independence day, as well as local community events, such as the anniversary of the badminton club, youth group, etc‖ (p. 56). these two pieces, together with a chapter from keeler (1992) show the importance of shadow puppet performances in ritual celebration in indonesian culture. basuki (2006), buruma (1984), and clark (2001) are required pieces for the discussion of ―shadow puppets and propaganda.‖ for the additional reading, i chose pausacker (1984). in particular basuki focuses on how the new order regime under soeharto (1966-1998) manipulated shadow puppets to promote soeharto as semar, a wise, god-like character. he also analyzes the parallel between feudalism in shadow puppets and feudalism in the new order regime. likewise, buruma analyzes the similar theme in his short piece. he emphasizes how shadow puppets are identical with javanese lives and therefore are easy to use as a political propaganda. clark (2001) analyzes indonesian literature during the new order regime. he found that many writers rewrote the ramayana stories in their novels, short stories and plays and poetry. the writings are a kind of critique of the regime. soeharto, the president for more than thirty years, were seen by many indonesian artists as a king like in shadow puppet stories. he repressed critical performing artists and writers. together with basuki and buruma, clark will provide good ideas and resources for the class discussion. the additional reading for this topic is pausacker (2004). she analyzes how the new order regime manipulates shadow puppet to strengthen its power by creating an image that the president (soeharto) functioned as the servant for his people (just like punakawan or clown servants to their master). he liked to be portrayed as semar. pausacker also discusses how indonesian presidents after soeharto, habibie and abdurachman wahid, were portrayed as gareng and bagong (both are semar‘s sons). for the topic of ―modern performance: the changing nature of shadow puppet performance,‖ sears (1989) is a good read. she discusses the development of shadow puppet performances from traditional to modern. this article is important in looking at how shadow puppet performances have been changing from traditional to modern. in the discussion of the modern performance, sears focuses on padat (compressed) performances which could only last for about one to one and a half hour. in this article we gain much information about what factors cause the changes. the additional reading is margono-slamet (2003) in which he focuses on the cultural slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 27 international students debates around the shadow puppet performances between the traditionalists and modernists. for the discussion of ―shadow puppets in global context: new directions and techniques,‖ the required reading is cohen (2007). his article lays out how shadow puppets develop from an indonesian traditional performing art to a modern performing art which spreads globally. a puppeteer himself, he has a pivotal role in spreading shadow puppet theatre internationally (indonesian performance, n.d.). reading this, students will have much information about the place of indonesian shadow puppets in international communities. the additional readings for this topic are mrazek (1999, 2000). these two pieces are very informative in terms of the contemporary shadow puppet performances. mrazek discusses many issues such as how modern western music comes to shadow puppet performances, how audience and the puppeteers communicate directly and freely in a performance, and how the puppeteers have more freedom in addressing social issues in their performances. two other additional readings are de bruin and brakel-papenyzen‘s (1992) ―the death of karna: two sides of a story‖ and poplawska‘s (2004) ―‘wayang wahyu‘ as an example of christian forms of shadow theatre.‖ de bruin and brakel-papenyzen compare two stories of the death of karna, one is a tamil story and the other is a javanese. they analyze whether one influences the other. i chose this article for the topic of ―some shadow puppet stories.‖ meanwhile, i chose poplawska (2004) for the topic of ―shadow puppets and education.‖ she focuses on how the indonesian catholics create a new kind of shadow puppet, wayang wahyu, to attract new believers. the characters and stories in wayang wahyu are taken from the bible stories. together with hadisoeseno (1955) this article will give students important information about the relation between shadow puppet and education, including religious education. the videos i attempted to balance between the videos of the ramayana and mahabharata stories and between the traditional and the modern performances and decided to choose short videos (the longest video, ―indonesia: the ultimate in diversity,‖ lasts for about eleven minutes), except the film version of the year of living dangerously, which i will play completely in class. this way, the videos will not take too much time of the 28 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 class. some videos will be played in the beginning of the class. students can watch them first at any time because i provide the links of all videos. the additional videos and the videos to consider for the final paper will not be played in class. all videos, except the film, are extracts from performances of certain plays, or lakon. for non-javanese, this makes it difficult to tell the differences; unless the language is in english. i do a lot of research to find videos in english. i am lucky because i find some videos in english, including performances by cohen. for the videos in javanese, i need to explain them to students (whenever possible i will provide some translations) so that students can make the most of them. conclusion there are two levels of potential outcomes for students in this course. at the basic level, my expectation is that students will have general understanding of the major topics such as shadow puppet characters and stories, shadow puppet performances, and shadow puppets and social and cultural issues. regarding the shadow puppet characters, i expect that at the end of the course students understand the major characters from both the ramayana and mahabharata and their role in the stories. in particular, i expect them to know at least one character very well. i also expect them to know some stories of shadow puppets, both from the ramayana and mahabharata. in regard of shadow puppet performances, i expect that students will know the key components of the performance and the differences between traditional and contemporary performances. in terms of shadow puppets and social and cultural issues, i expect that students know how shadow puppets play significant roles in ritual celebrations, education, propaganda, and also know the place of shadow puppets in global context. at the deeper level, i expect that students will have broader visions and perspectives about other cultures. in this course, my expectation is that through shadow puppets, students will know better about indonesian cultural values. for those who later want to work in educational field or become teachers especially, i expect that they can use shadow puppets as a way to teach their students about other cultures. in essence, as i have mentioned above, i expect that this course— through the readings, videos, assignments, and discussions—can help students become global citizens by understanding other cultures. as an slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 29 international students expectation, this may sound too big; but this course can become a good start to achieve the goal because by offering materials in another culture, this course also offers new possibilities that students can explore. references anderson, b.r. o‘g. (1991). imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. london: verso. anderson, b.r. o‘g. (1996). mythology and the tolerance of the javanese. ithaca: cornell modern indonesia project, southeast asia program, cornell university. basuki, r. (2006). panakawan‘s discourse of power in javanese shadow puppet during the new order regime: from traditional perspective to new historicism. kata, 8(1), pp. 68-88. blackham, o. (1979). shadow puppets. london: barrie and rockliff. brandon, j.r. (1967). theatre in southeast asia. cambridge, mass.: harvard university press. brandon, j.r. (1970). on thrones of gold; three javanese shadow plays. cambridge: harvard university press. brown, s. (2004). building character through shadow puppetry. art education, 57(6), pp. 47-52. buck, w. (1973). mahabharata. berkeley: university of california press. buruma, i. (1984, august 9). political propaganda and the power of the puppets. far eastern economic review, pp. 35-36. campbell, f. (1994). silver screen, shadow play: the tradition of wayang kulit in the year of living dangerously. the journal of popular culture, 28 (1), pp. 163-169. cohen, m.i. (2007). contemporary wayang in global context. asian theatre journal, 24(2), pp. 338-369. 30 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 clara van groenendael, v.m. (1985). the dalang behind the wayang: the role of the surakarta and the yogyakarta dalang in indonesian-javanese society. dordrecht, the netherlands: foris. clark, m. (2001). shadow boxing: indonesian writers and the ramayana in the new order. indonesia, 72, pp. 159-187. cushner, k. & brennan, s. (2007). the value of learning to teach in another culture. in k. cushner and s. brennan (eds.), intercultural student teaching: a bridge to global competence. lanham, md.: rowman & little field education, pp. 1-11 de bruin, h.m. and brakel-papenyzen, c. (1992). the death of karna: two sides of a story. asian theatre journal, 9 (1), pp. 38-70. fadiman, a. (1998). the spirit catches you and you fall down: a hmong child, her american doctors, and the collision of two cultures. new york: farrar, straus, and giroux. habel, c. (2007). shadow on screen: the wayang kulit in the year of living dangerously. journal of the association for the study of australian literature, 7, pp. 46-58. hadisoeseno. (1955). wayang and education. djakarta: ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia. hatley, b. (1971). wayang and ludruk: polarities in java. the drama review, 15 (2), pp. 88-101. hatley, b. (1982). national ritual, neighborhood performance: celebrating tujuh belasan. indonesia, 34, pp. 55-64. holland, d., lachicotte, w., skinner, d., cain, c. (2003). identity and agency in cultural worlds. cambridge: harvard university press. indonesian performance. (n.d.). retrieved on february 23, 2011 from http: //indonesian performance.blogspot.com/ iyer, a. (2001). introduction: performing arts of indonesia: tradition, continuity, change and the transition to the west. contemporary theatre review, 11 (1), pp. 1-8. http://indonesianperformance.blogspot.com/ http://indonesianperformance.blogspot.com/ slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 31 international students keeler, w. (1987). javanese shadow plays, javanese selves. princeton, nj: princeton university press. keeler, w. (1992). javanese shadow puppets. new york: oxford university press. koch, c. j. (1995). the year of living dangerously. new york: penguin books. long, r. (1982). javanese shadow theatre: movement and characterization in ngayogyakarta wayang kulit. ann arbor, michigan: umi research press. macbean, j. r. (1984). watching the third world watchers: the visual, the verbal, the personal and the political in "under fire" and "the year of living dangerously.‖ film quarterly, 37(3), pp. 1-13. margono slamet, y. b. (2003). contemporary wayang kulit performance: a crisis in javanese culture? culture, english language teaching & literature, 3(2), pp. 144-158. mrazek, j. (1999). javanese wayang kulit in the times of comedy: clown scenes, innovation, and the performance‘s being the present world. part one. indonesia, 68, pp. 38-128. mrazek, j. (2000). javanese wayang kulit in the times of comedy: clown scenes, innovation, and the performance‘s being the present world. part two. indonesia, 69, pp. 107-172. narayan, r. k. (2000). the mahabharata: a shortened modern prose version of the indian epic. chicago: the university of chicago press. narayan r. k. (2006). the ramayana: a shortened modern prose version of the indian epics. new york: the penguin group, inc. orr, i. c. (1974). puppet theatre in asia. asian folklore studies, 33 (1), pp. 6984. pausacker, h. (2004). presidents as punakawan: portrayal of national leaders as clownservants in central javanese wayang. journal of southeast asian studies, 35 (2), pp. 213-233. poplawska, m. (2004). ―wayang wahyu‖ as an example of christian forms of shadow theatre. asian theatre journal, 21 (2), pp. 194-202. 32 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 pustaka raja purwa. (n.d.). in wikipedia. the free encyclopedia. retrieved on february 23, 2011, from http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/pustaka_ raja _purwa sears, l. l. (1989). aesthetic displacement in javanese shadow theatre: three contemporary performance styles. tdr, 33(3), pp. 122-140. the university of iowa (n.d.). the department of asian and slavic languages and literatures. retrieved on february 20, 2011 from http://www .uiowa.edu/~asll/. the university of iowa. (n.d.). south asian studies program. retrieved on february 20, 2011 from (http://international.uiowa.edu/centers/ sasp/). valmiki. (1988). the concise ramayana. albany: state university of new york press. wright, lorna. (1994). indonesia: myth and reality in the land of the shadow puppet. international studies of management & organization, 24 (1/2), pp. 35-60. the videos ―anoman‘s victory‖ by matthew isaac cohen, http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=4dbb5g-9b9a ―antareja rangsang‖ (―antareja rebels‖) by ki hadi sugito, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vjgxc249rzq&feature=related balinese puppets (video: ―balinese shadow puppet part i,‖ http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=7xztn3h1wny) ―brontoyuda jayabinangun‖ (―the baratayuda war‖), http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=bmeskwievqs cambodian shadow puppet play, ―sbek thom, khmer shadow theatre,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jkwlpluow4g ―cangikan wayang kulit ki joko edan, gogon & diqin‖ (―cangikan by the crazy joko, gogon & diqin‖) http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=yivcrsvwcia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jkwlpluow4g http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yivcrsvwcia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yivcrsvwcia slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 33 international students ―clowns from a wayang performance,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= 1uwznrzakcq&feature=related ―empat wayang ki enthus & thukul arwana‖ (―ki enthus‘s four puppets & thukul arwana‖), http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-cnzgr4k1cc &feature=related ―goro-goro‖ (―clown servant scene‖), http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= g7xion7v5wy ―indonesia: the ultimate in diversity‖, http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=tpdf7mh36mm indonesian shadow puppet play, ―wayang kulit: shadow theatre in java part 1,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dypiao5wn6s&feature= related ―indonesian shadow puppet show,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6fvx poru2bw&nr=1 javanese puppets (video: ―javanese shadow puppets: wayang kulit jawa, mahabharata scene,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rs9lr0km l9c&playnext=1&list=pl57fd32d28ec50317&index=56 ―ki enthus goro-goro dalang edan,‖ (―goro-goro by ki enthus, the crazy puppeteer) http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=qaqwnt2u5-y ―ki enthus topeng monyet & thukul arwana‖ (‖mask of ape by ki enthus & thukul arwana‖), http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsewchdm wqo&feature=related ―ki purbo asmoro, brubuh alengka‖ (―the fall of alengka),‖ http://www. youtube.com/ watch?v=ljp4lu_ao8c&feature=related ―mahabharata scene: arjuna slays a giant,‖ http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=of7viim9wwc malaysian shadow puppet play, ―wayang kulit saupi,‖ http://www .youtube.com/ watch?v=km1du_obkp8&feature=related ―pada sebuah ranjang by sujiwo tejo‖ (―in bed by sujiwo tejo‖) http://www.you tube.com/watch?v=c3axfkypg2o ―ramayana shadow puppet,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=reriyz4q seq&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1uwznrzakcq&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1uwznrzakcq&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dypiao5wn6s&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6fvxporu2bw&nr=1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6fvxporu2bw&nr=1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qaqwnt2u5-y http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=of7viim9wwc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=of7viim9wwc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c3axfkypg2o 34 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 16-35 ―sarpakenaka‖ (from the abuction of sinta) by matthew isaac cohen, http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=lxc7ze00yli ―slamet gundono dan komunitas wayang suket, 1‖ (―slamet gundono and the community of grass puppets, 1‖) http://www.youtube.com /watch?v=zu6t1jqu-wi ―some demons from a wayang performance,‖ http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=pbkfwo951_w&feature=related sundanese puppets (video: ―wayang golek, puppeteers of west java part i,‖ http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=1_0om5q18aa) thai shadow puppet play, ―university of michigan – thai night 2008: shadow puppet,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vi7iqkm zj-o ―the fall of alengka‖ by matthew isaac cohen, http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=qx6nb6orcha ―the magical lake‖ by matthew isaac cohen, http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=jvuvuilitdg&nr=1 ―the tournament‖ by matthew isaac cohen, http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=-sh8zszxeg4 the year of living dangerously. (1982). director p. weir; screenplay by c. j. koch, p. weir, d. williamson. mgm/united artists. ―wayang kulit bu harni (mrs. harni) – man vs. horse, man vs. bike,‖http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=paxxt7isvkc&playnext= 1& list=pl8dfb9f6024499 a77 ―wayang kulit ‗goro-goro‘ ki anom suroto‖ (―clown servant scene‖ by ki anom suroto)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fixmpm__ lak ―wayang kulit goro-goro ki anom suroto‖ (―clown scene by ki anom suroto‖), http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=gorogoro +ki+anom+suroto&aq=0 (note to the videos: there are eleven parts of this video. to watch them all, just click the videos one after another). ―wayang performance of ciptoning,‖ http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=sithcowbp_0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxc7ze00yli http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbkfwo951_w&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbkfwo951_w&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1_0om5q18aa http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vi7iqkmzj-o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qx6nb6orcha http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qx6nb6orcha http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvuvuilitdg&nr=1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvuvuilitdg&nr=1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-sh8zszxeg4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-sh8zszxeg4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=paxxt7isvkc&playnext=1&list=pl8dfb9f6024499 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=paxxt7isvkc&playnext=1&list=pl8dfb9f6024499 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fixmpm__lak http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sithcowbp_0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sithcowbp_0 slamet, y.b.m., constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppets for 35 international students ―wayang kulit: purbo asmoro (profile in english),‖ http://www. youtube.com/watch? v=brt6a7lcz1c&nr=1 ―wayang kulit: shadow theatre in java. part 2,‖http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=c9 oa0g6tcoc&feature=related ―wayang kulit: shadow theatre in java. part 3,‖ http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=--r0mytjdlc&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9oa0g6tcoc&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9oa0g6tcoc&feature=related subur wardoyo i. abstlyjct : iii ihis article iranslalion is 1101 only colljined 10 ihe linguisl. but also 10 all slralegies ihat represenl a language 10 anolher /at.guage. the way james fellimore cooper twltlaled ihe indiol. language to english in the novel the laslo/the mohicoljs shows a representatioll 0/ elhnic harassment njallipulatioll a/language. cooper's tf'alls/atioll build up lhe suggestioll that indians coli only communicate only lilce children. the indians are portrayed to only communicate by playing wi,h iheir voice. music. geslure. and using the ihinl-person pronoun 10 exchatjge/or tl.e first-person or secondperson pronoun. this harassment is correlated with ihe policy 0/ indian removal allhal era. k9wotdl : policy a/indian removal. sounds ill place o/words. arts 0/ gesture. savogism. language representation and imperialism how james fenimore cooper represented native american languages in the lasl 0/ the mohicans may seem to be only a question of translation technique. but, in fact. it bears on an important theme of american history and an important aspect of literary criticism. eric cheyfitz deals with this issue in the poetics 0/ imperialism. when he writes that "translation was, i. subur wardoyo. ph.d. is a lecturer of semarang state university. he was invited by the american studies association of korea to present his paper modes 0/ assimilalion in amy tan:r joy luck club at seoul national university (oct. 2000). he got a fulbright research grant for his research on chinese american intermarriage in amy tan:r and maxine hong kingston:r female characters a'nd in new york city:r real life chinese women (200t). 13 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002: 1224 ai\fl1till is, the central act of european colonization and imperialism in the !lmetj:as" (104). by "translation," as his book makes clear, cheyfitz means kot just interlingual translation in the strict sense. but all the strategies of representation by which one language is dealt with in another: adaptations and rewritings, ethnographic accounts, grammars, and literary dramatizations. cooper's portrait of native american languages is in this sense an act of translation, and participates in that "central act of ... colonization and imperialism." dealing with language difference does not simply mean dealing with linguistic diversity; it also means dealing with the local political and intellectual contexts in which differences of language are given meaning and intensity. in cooper's case, the intellectual context is the repertory of european american ideas about native american cultures in general and about native american languages in particular; the political context is the policy of indian removal. european american ideas about native american cultures were during cooper's time dominated by the idea of savagism. that idea consisted of several propositions: that europeans were civilized; that native americans were not were "savages"; thar savagism was an early stage of human progress, and that civilization was a more advanced one; that savagism must therefore inevitably lead to civilization, and inevitably be supplanted by it; and that, in lucy maddox's pointed summary, "there were only two options for the indians: to become civilized, or to become extinct" (24). european americans who favored civilization disagreed with european americans who favored extinction; european americans who thought the clearest marker of civilization was christianity disagreed with european americans who thought it was agriculture; european americans who, like cooper, sometimes portrayed native americans as noble savages differed from european americans like francis parkman, who thought they were all degraded humans. but almost all european americans in that era believed that civilization and extinction were the only two possible futures, and virtually no european americans could let themselves see that indians were civilized already, equally but differently. now for most european americans. native american languages were a further proof of native american savagism; as maddox writes, white observers consistently concluded that because of the limitations of his or her language. the most complex intellectual maneuver any indian {of s. wardoyo, translation as imperialism 14 whatever language group) could manage was the construction of a simple· metaphor, or occasionally an analogy, the indian could not speculate about things that have no visible form, not comprehend notional ideas. (24) if we read cooper in this context, what we find is a writer who can do what the novelist francis scott fitzgerald says artists must do, namely, maintain two contradictory ideas without going crazy. on the one hand, in most of the novel, cooper's dominant representation of native american languages dramatizes the idea of savagism and gives implicit support to the policy oflndian removal. on the other hand, in two significant scenes toward the end, the novel dramatizes the contradictory idea. the two scenes centering on uncus's final battle and his funeral raise the question whether the language of native americans really represent savagism and truncated linguistic performance. language representation and savagism cooper's dominant representation of native american languages might be defined by saying that he represents them as something other than, and less than, european languages. consider, to begin with, a much-quoted passage in which the huron villain magua is talking with the british officer duncan heyward. magua wants to know what has become of the mohican warrior uncas, also called le cerf agile. "'le cerf agile' is not here?" "i know not whom you callihe 'nimble deer .... said duncan, gladly profiting by any excuse to create delay. "uncas," returned magua. pronouncing the delaware name with even greater difficulty than he spoke his english words. '''bounding elk' is what the white man says when he calls to the young mohican." "here is some confusion in names between us, ie renard," said duncan, hoping to provoke a discussion. "daim is the french for deer, and cerf for slag; 61an is the true term, when one would speak of an elk." "yes," muttered the indian, in his native tongue; "the pale faces are prattling women! they have two words for each thing. while a red skin will make the sound of his voice speak for him." then changing his language, he continued, adhering to the imperfect nomen clature of his provincial instructers. "the deer is swift, but weak; the elk is swift. but strong; and the son of 'ie serpent' is 'ie cerf agile.' has he leaped the river to the woods?" (91) 15 celt, volume 2, number i, july 2002: 12· 24 magua accurately states uncas's epithets in french and english. buncan argues that the english and french epithets for uncas do not mean the same thing, and attributes the disparity to a "confusion." magua objects not to duncan's pedantry but to the nature of white languages; white languages, he says, "have two words for each thing. it . we might at this point expect magua to celebrate native american languages for having only one word for each thing. if he did so, we might read his argument as an attack on what tocqueville was to call the "unsettled condition" of words in a democracy (ii :67). but in fact magua does something diffelllnt; he makes native american languages non-linguistic. he draws a contrast, that is, not between two names and one, but between names and sounds: "a red skin will make the sound o/his voice speak for him." by this he implies that a native speaker can do all the ordinary work of language by sound alone, without the distinctions of words. the conventional idiom "red skin" for native american intensifies the sheer physicality of this idea of native communication: the skin stands in place of the being as the sound in place of the words. how fitting, then, that the one actual native word spoken by cooper's native characters is "never-fai ling" exclamation "hugh '" (262), which seems, from the variety of circumstances in which it is use'd, to be able to mean almost anything. how fitting also that in several moving scenes cooper portrays native american language as a mode of music. it is impossible to describe the music of their language [i.e., of the conversation between chingachgook and uncas], while thus engaged in laughter and endearments, in such a way as to render it intelligible to those whose ears have never listened to its melody. the compass of their voices, particularly that of the youth, was wonderful; extending from the deepest bass, to tones that were even feminine in softness. the eyes of the father followed the plastic and ingenious movements of the son with open delight, and never failed to smile in reply to the other's contagious, but low laughter. (200) we know from this passage that father and son are "engaged in laughter and endearments," that "the compass of their voices" is wide, that the father watches the son, that the father smiles in reply to the son's laughter. but what on earth are they saying? cooper suggests that this question does not matter; he emphasizes the melody of the conversation in such a way as to suggest that the language in which it is conducted has no words. s. wardoyo, translation as imperialism 16 cooper reduces native american language to voice, to exclamation, and to music; more systematically and more importantly, he reduces it to gesture. consider a passage from chapter xix, where the hero hawk-eye and his two mohican companions, chingachgook and his son uncas, are holding a debate. the debate is conducted in delaware cooper consistently calls uncas and chingachgook "mohicans," but calls their language "delaware" and its subject is whether the three men and their party should continue their journey by land or by water. hawk-eye prefers water, the others land. at the beginning of the debate, hawk-eye is losing because, cooper tells us, "he rather affected the cold and artificial manner, which characterizes all classes of anglo-americans, when unexcited" (199). to win the debate, he has to change his manner. he becomes more animated, adopts "all the arts of native eloquence" (199), and persuades his companions to follow his advice. now european american admiration for "native eloquence" is nothing new; thomas jefferson, for example, had challenged "the whole orations of demosthenes and cicero ... to produce a single passage. superior to the speech of logan. a mingo chier' (carr 56). but what jefferson admired was logan's power .over words. in cooper. on the other hand, "'the ans of native eloquence" tum out to be the arts of gesture. the debate is conducted in delaware, which heyward does not know; but "the language of the mohicans," cooper writes, "was accompanied by gestures so direct and natural, that heyward had but little difficulty in following the thread of their argument" (198-99). hawk-eye, on the other hand, is "obscure" (199); that is, he does not make many gestures, so heyward cannot fully understand him. when he adopts the arts of native eloquence. though. his meaning become miraculously clear: elevating an arm. he pointed out the track of the sun. repeating the gesture for everyday that was necessary to accomplish their object. then he delineated a long and painful path. amid rocks and water courses. the age and weakness of the slumbering and unconscious munro. were indicated by signs too palpable to be mistaken. duncan perceived that even his own powers were spoken lightly of, as the scout extended his palm, and mentioned him by the appellation of the "open hand;" a name his liberality had purchased of all the friendly tribes. then came the representation of the light and graceful movements of a canoe, set in forcible contrast to the tottering steps of one enfeebled and tired. he concluded by pointing to the scalp of the oneida. and apparently urging the. necessity of their departing speedily, and in a 17 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002: 1224 manner that should leave no trail. the mohicans listened gravely, and with countenances that reflected the sentiments of the speaker. (199) this may sound somewhat absurd. it is absurd to accuse native am~rican speakers of accompanying speech with gesture cooper writes in another place of "those significant gestures with which an indian always illustrates his eloquence" (106) and implying that european american ~"peakers do not. everybody knows well that all speech is often accompanied by 'gesture. americans, native americans, indonesians, or any other people for that mailer share the tendency of using gestures to accentuate their speech or make themselves better understood. we have so far been considering what might be called the novel's theory of native american languages, that is, what the narrator and the characters say about them. but we need also to consider the novel's practice. studies of the representation of language, in cooper and other authors, often ignore practice in favor of theory; this sometimes leads to absurdity, as when david simpson speaks of "the appeal of the highly specific native languages for' a writer like cooper" (219), but does not consider that, in cooper's dramatization of these languages, such specificity is nowhere to be found. cooper's pratt ice consists of three kinds of quoted speech: first was the speech that was spoken in a native american language; second that was spoken by native americans in an english that was supposed to be affected by their native language; and the third that was spoken in "foreigner talk," the mode of speech used by native speakers of english when they try, in speaking with a native american, to adapt their english to the presumptive character of native american languages. most of the traits of this corpus are conventional; we see them not only in cooper but also in his novelist contemporaries, in his novelist descendants, and in twentieth-century films and comic books. native american speech by these conventions is relatively simple in syntax, it consists mostly of independent declarative clauses and questions. hypotaxis is less common than parataxis. the most common rhetorical figures are those of repetition and parallelism. diction is concrete. abstract and technical terms are rare. metaphors are abundant, and most of them refer to nature; "the indian," as cooper tells us in the introduction he added to the novel in s. wardoyo, translation as imperialism 18 1831, "draws his metaphors from the clouds, the seasons, the birds. the beasts. and the vegetable world" (5). these traits allow two readings. in one reading, they distinguish a natural and poetic language from languages seen as decadent and artificial. thus hugh blair. whose lectures on rhetoric "were the single most popular work of literary criticism in the states from the time of their publication until the mid-nineteenth century" (carr 64), writes that. the character of the american and indian languages [is] bold, picturesque. and metaphorical; full of strong allusions to sensible qualities, and to such objects as struck them most in their wild and solitary life. an indian chief makes an harangue to his tribe. in a style full of stronger metaphors than a european would use in an epic poem. (carr 63) all these traits. as noted. are conventional. what is less conventional in cooper's native american speech is the suppression of the first and second grammatical persons. that is. a tendency to put personal names and epithets and third-person pronouns where we would expect firsrand second-person pronouns and possessive adjectives. and a coo-esponding tendency to put third-person verbs where we would expect first~ and second-person ones. thus uncas in his opening utterance says: . "uncal' is here!" said another voice [le., uncas's voice), in the same soft. gulluraltones, ncar [hawk-eye'sj elbow; "who speaks to uncas'!" (33) over the course of the novel we see this trait a lot. not only in the representation of native american speech but also in the representation of native american speaking english and french. and sometimes in the representation of european americans speaking english and french foreigner talk to native americans. consider and exemplary conversation between magua, also called ie renard subtil, and duncan heyward. at first. heyward makes ordinary use of the first and second persons, while magua restricts himself to the third. (they are talking about hawk-eye whom duncan. and his party have recently encountered in the woods. magua wants to know whether hawk-eye is alone.) "alone!" hesitatingly answered heyward, 10 whom deception was too new to be assumed without embarrassment. "oh! not alone, surely, magua, for ),ou know that we are with him." 19 celt, volume 2. number 1. july 2002: 1224 ''then ie renard subtit will go," returned the runner, coolly raising his iiule wallet from the place where it had lain at his feet;" and the pale faces will see none but/heir own colour." "oo! whom call you ie renard?" "'tis the name his canada fathers have given to magua." returned the runner with an air that manifested his pride at the distinction. "night is the same as day to ie subtil. when munro waits for him." (41; emphasis added) but then heyward gets used to native american discourse. and begins to im~tate magua in this respect, though inconsistently; "and what tlccount willie renard give the chief of william henry concerning his daughter'l will be he dare to tell the hot-blooded scotsmm that his children are len without a guide. though magua promised to be one'!" "though the gray head has a loud voice. and a long arm,le renard will not hear him or fill him in the woods." (41-42; emphasis added) and the conversation concludes with a beautifully economical dramatization of the distinction: "what say you. renard?" "le subtil says it is good." (42; emphasis added) . now in cooper. this avoidance of the first and second person is not associated with other flawed constructions; and, as noted. it occurs even when the characters are said to be speaking native american languages. as in the utterance of uncas quoted above. so it cannot be read as simply reflecting an imperfect knowledge of english. though surely the association with imperfectly spoken english and with children's language patterns ha.; some effect on how we respond to the trait; that is, we cannot help feeling that it reflects a cenain childishness. it is just like a little girl saying "mama, atik [instead of 'saya'] mau pipis." what probably has more effect. though, is the specific character of the pronouns that magua is not using. every student of language has learned that firstand second-person pronouns differ radically from third-person ones. third-person pronouns are references to nouns. firstand secondperson pronouns are markers of position in discourse. "i," for example. refers not to a particular entity but to the person who happens to be speaking or writing at the moment at which the word is used; "you" refers to the person that "i" happens to be addressing. s. wardoyo, translation as imperialism 20 it would be very interesting to compare magua's avoidance of the first person pronoun with the people in our own lives who talk like magua. mostly they are celebrities, who seem fixed in public positions and almost incapable of becoming private subjects. "cajon presiden yang paling baik iya kiai haji abdurachman wahid [ instead of 'saya' 1," gus our told tv reporters way back in 1999, after attending a meeting with amien rais and his 'poros tengah.' when gus our referred to himself as "ki~i haji abdurachman wahid," he was referring to an object, an abstract, public character, an accumulation of visible history from which character emerges, and as such it left us to wonder what his private and subjective self was actually saying. similarly michael jordan might say "michael jordan will be playing to win today," but what would he have been feeling if he had started his sentence with "1"1 but we know that our celebrities have private selves; we know that this is one of their modes of speech, and not their only mode. we do not know this about cooper's native americans. given all the other ways in which the speech of native americans is truncated, tltere is no reason to presume that they have both a private and a public mode of speech; more generally, there is no reason to presume that cooper's native americans add to their "distinctive individuality in the community" the variable and fluid identity that arises from the "contingent situation of speaking," and which is a necessary component of a complex identity. they are forever trapped in poses of public majesty. interpreting cooper's the last of the mohicans means seeing the complexity of cooper's representation of native american languages. he associates them with vocal sound, with music, and with intricate yet universally comprehensible gesture; he makes them vigorous in diction, uncluttered in syntax, rich in metaphor, idiosyncratic in grammar. and full of public majesty. but assessing cooper also means seeing how this usual representation accords with the idea of savagism and the policy of indian removal. cooper makes native american languages fascinating; but he also makes them something less than european languages and their speakers less than adult members of a complex culture. the text contradicts savagism toward the end of the novel. though. in two scenes centered on the doomed uncas;cooper brilliantly contradicts himself; he represents native 21 celt, volume 2, number i, july·2002: 1224 american languages as verbally complex, culturally specific, and resistant to translation. the first of them is the account of uncas's "war-song." the chant he makes and performs to prepare himself for what will be his final battle: if it were possible to translate the comprehensive and melodious language in which he spoke, the ode might read something like the following: manillo! manilla! manilla! thou art great thou art good thou art wise manillo! manitto! thou art just! in the heavens, in the clouds, oh! i sec! mally spots many dark many red in the heavens, oh! i sec! many clouds. in the woods, in the air. oh! i hear! the whoop, the long yell. and the cry in the woods. ohll hearl the loud whoop! manitto! manitto! manilla! i am weak thou art strong i am slow manillo! manilla! give me aid. (319) this contradicts everything we have so far seen throughout the novel. to begin with. cooper calls native american language not only "melodious" but also "comprehensive"; it ha.lo not only sound and music but also sense. probably the principal sense of "comprehensive" is "containing much in small compass, compendious"; but present also is "characterized by mental comprehension ... that grasps or understands (a thing) fully" (oed). and. appropriately enough. a comprehensive language cannot communicate without being comprehended. elsewhere in the novel, cooper would have written that "though the words were unknown to the listeners, nothing could have been clearer than the martial spirit and valiant nobility of the speaker"; but here that topos is not in force, and translation is both necessary and difficult. s. wardoyo, translation as imperialism 12 cooper's "translation" suggests a surprising vision. without being great poetry, it is at least unfamiliar poetry; the lines of unrhymed anapests, the repetition of the divinity's name, the recurring numerical structures (the first two lines of each quatrain are composed of three sense-units, the third of two, the fourth of one), the complex syntax of the second quatrain all suggest what cooper elsewhere seems to deny: that native american language has complex, artificial, and unfamiliar structures and requires complex, artful, and unfamiliar translations. the makers of such poems are not identical to white makers of poems; they are not undeveloped versions of such makers; they are adult, artful, social. and different. the other scene to be considered here is unca. .. 's funeral. some young delaware women sing a dirge for him; hawk-eye, heyward. and colonel munro sit and listen. the scout. to whom alone, of all the white men, the words were inlelligible. suffered himself to be a lillie aroused from his medilalive poslure. and bent his face aside. to caach their meaning. as the girls proceeded. but when they spoke of the fulure prospects ofeom and uncas. he shook his head. like one who knew the emll" of their simple creed. and resuming his reclining altitude, he maintained it until the ,:cremony •.. was finished. happily for the selfcommand of both heyward and munro. they knew nol the meaning of the wild sounds they heard. (344) here if anywhere one would think that meaning might be expressed by gesture and communicated across language barriers. but here cooper emphasizes just the reverse. the words are "intelligible" only to hawk-eye; and even hawk-eye has to "bend his face aside, to catch their meaning." on what may be the only occasion in the novel when cooper dramatizes the difficulty of understanding a native american utterance. here, moreover the word "wild" is changing meaning. "wild" is of course a stock adjective for dealing with native american culture; ordinarily; it means the opposite of "ordered in a civilized way." but here, in the sentc;nce where the sounds of the dirge are called "wild," the only hearers are heyward and munro: and that suggests that "wild" has come to mean something more like "incomprehensible." moreover, "wild" here has become a tenn relative to the beholder; heyward and munro find the sounds "wild" not because of any quality intrinsic to them. but simply because they do not know the language in which they are being spoken. in this sense, "wild" has lost its eurocentric political charge. every sound is potentially wild, in that for 23 celt, volume 2, number i, july 2002: 1224 every sound there is someone who does not understand it; and every sound can cease to be wild the moment the hearer learns how to understand it. wild" in this sense is an epitome of cultural relativism. then colonel munro asks hawk-eye to do some translating for him; he wants to tell the delaware women that in the world to come, all may ass~mble around god's throne "without distinction of sex, or rank, or colour" (347). but hawk-eye declines: to tell them this, " he said, '"would be to tell them that the snows come not in the winter, or that the sun shines fiercest when the trees are stripped of their leaves i" then turning to the women, he made such a communication of the other's gratitude, as he deemed most suited to the capacities of his listeners. (347) cooper thus hightjights the task of translation, and that even by itself is impon&nt. as eric cheyfitz notes, "our imperialism historically has functioned (and continues to function) by substituting for the difficult politics of translation another politics of translation that represses these difficulties" (poetics xvi). cooper is doing just the opposite. but why does cooper make hawk-eye translate so badly? cof;>per's language is loose enough that we cannot tell, from hawk-eye's reinark, whether he is refusing to translate colonel munro's message because he himself does not think that it is true, or because the delaware women will not. but the following sentence bljues for the second alternative; otherwise cooper might have written, "he made such a communication •.. as he deemed most suited to the facts." what hawk-eye is saying, then, is something like this: ''they won't believe what you're saying; so i'll tell them something they will believe."' and the problem with what hawk-eye is saying is that it keeps translation from being what it sometimes historically has been, namely, a way of bringing something new into the culture of the target language. if hawk-eye is right in his assessment of the delaware women's "capacities" and from cooper's text we cannot know that then his translation has the effect of keeping everyone's prejudices intact. a faithful translation, which we can imagine vividly simply by seeing what hawk-eye refuses to do, would shake things up; it would be something new, just as an imagined translation of uncas's song is something new in cooper's novel. s. wardoyo, translation as imperialism 24 language representation anfd the interpretation ofanovel to sum up, we need to pay more attention to how authors represent, or refuse to represent, the multilingual and multidialectal world. we need, that is, to ask how authors choose to represent characters speaking other languages than english, and thinking in languages other than english; to what extent authors value a precise rendering of their characters' dialects and idiolects, how they try to attain what they value, what specific modifications of standard orthography they introduce; what relation authors set up between the speech of narrators and the speech of characters, and how they distinguish or mingle them; what relative value authors give to the competing claims of intelligibility for readers and fidelity to characters, and indeed what these claims are founded on; how authors make questions of language thematic, and what other themes these questions are put in relation to; and finally, of course. how all these matters are ordered into a significant pattern, and integrated, or not integrated, into the larger pattern of the author's work. • bmliography allen, dennis w. "'by all the truth of signs': james fenimore cooper's the last of the mohicans." studies in american fiction 9.2,159-79,1981. carr, helen. inventing the american primitive: politics. gender and the representation of native american literary traditions, /789-1936. new york: new york up. 1996. cheytitz, eric. the poetics of imperialism: tradition and colonization from the tempest to tarzan. new york: oxford up, 1991. cooper, james fenimore. the last of the mohicans. new york: penguin. 1986. maddox, lucy. removals: nineteenth-century american literature and the politics of indian affairs. new york: oxford up. 1991. simpson, david. the politics.o/ american english, 1776-1850. new york: oxford up. 1986. translation as imperialism.pdf logo: logo: logo: my proposal skripsi 2021 ‘’improving students speaking’s ability through triple p method for students of tour guide technique class.” feriyanto adolof semester 6 (2018) english research methodology chapter 1 introduction 1.1 basic consideration the ability to use language verbally (speaking), both maternal and target language, is a habitation activity. this can be seen from the facts found in everyday life. someone is using maternal language well not through the learning process process but not only through the process of acquistition and habituation.this means that is automatically unwritingly a person to obtain exposure from the language user environment and based on the exposure they get used for the use of language they obtain (acquire). by some target language skills, speaking skills are important skills because in everyday life someone spends more time to speak (oral communication/spoken) than writing communication. in addtition, someone who is able to express his ideas in spoken language well by itself the person is also able to express their ideas in writing. one of the learning models, especially speaking skills that can provide many opportunities to students to use the language is the triple p. harmer (2004) introducing a triple p learning model in order to increase language learning abilty to produce target languages. this triple p method is an audio-lingualism method which is enhanced by harmer (2004). i’m interest to research about this because i want to find out the effectiveness of triple p method towards student speaking’s abilty in tour gude technique class. sample of this research used are students which would be a sample for being used that i have to know whether this method is effective or not. 1.2 problem identification in tour guide technique class indicated by the improvement of students’ creativity on teaching learning process their ability to express their own ideas, and their ability to interact or communicate with their friends. but in reality, the impelementation of speaking learning today are learnes having enthusiasm that is not optimal to use target language in both daily communicationwith friends, lecturers / teachers and with their environment. even some of the learners were reluctant to speak english even though they were told by their teachers/lecturers. one of the model presented by hamer (2004) is a triple p method to increase the creativity of learners using the target language (uk). for this problem that need to be answered scientifically through this class’s action research is “ is triple p method effective to improve students speaking’s ability for students of tour guide technique class, 6 th semester of english department iain sultan amai gorontalo to express their ideas, or to interact their communication skill in english?” 1.3 scope of research i used teaching and learning. because i will be research about triple p method towards students speaking’s ability in tour guide technique class which is it related to teaching and learning. 1.4 research question is the triple p method effective towards student’s speaking ability? 1.5 research objective the aim of this research is to find out the effectiveness of triple p method towards student’s speaking skill 1.6 significance of research (theoritical and practical) the result of this study is hoped to be contributed to improve the quality of english learning, espescially speaking skills. and also can be useful to improve student’s creativity to interact or communicate to support learning process in tour guide technique class. 1.7 definition of terms chapter ii theoretical review 2.1 theoritical description 1. triple p method 1.1.description according to hamer (2004) this triple p method / model is a modification pf the audiolingualism method, where this model is not focusing on repetition of the language relase context, but harmer (2004) focuses on production in the form of the use of target languages according to context, language learners (students) use. besides that learning can also respond to lecturer’s questions using words, prases, or sentences taught. in other words, it can be said that this triple p method is similar to the classsic audiolingual method, but for the triple p method , repetition of words or a more meaningful words and based on context. in the end the learner, using the new words or orders learned, will be able to arrange these words into a sentence in speaking and all refers to production activities. the implementation of this triple p method refers to the three main stages, namely the presentation, practice, and production. 1.2.procedure in teaching and learning 2. speaking skill 2.1.the nature of speaking mackey (2007: 13) defines speaking as oral expression that involves not only the use of right patterns of rhythm and intonation but also that of right words order to convey the right meaning. chaney (1998: 13) argues that speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts. tupan (1995: 14) also says that language is first spoken. it means that speaking is the basic competence and the most important skill of language. in addition, harmer (2007) states that speaking is a skill which becomes the important part of daily life that it is the way for people to create social relationship as human being. from the definitions above, it can be concluded that speaking is the most important skill of language which is about expressing ideas, opinions, or feelings to others by using words or sounds of articulation in order to inform, to persuade, and to entertain. 2.2.method in teaching speaking 2.3.indicator of speaking skill 2.2 previous research 2.3 conceptual framework 2.4 hypotesis of research chapter iii method of research 3.1 method and design of research in this research, i will use quantitative method for my research proposal because i wanted to find out the effectiveness of triple p method toward students speaking ability of tour guide technique class. the design of research is an experimental design which is used pre-experiment for the specific study. 3.2 population and sample the population in this research are students of english department who takes tour guide technique class. there are 8 students who are taught of tour guide technique class and researcher will be used total sampling 3.3 variable of research the effectiveness using triple p method towards student’s speaking skill at college student of tour guide technique class 3.4 instrument of research 3.5 validity and reliability 3.6 technic of collecting data technique of collecting data for this research will use 2 kinds of collecting data by questionnaire and test. quistionnaire will be used by applying those three kinds of triple p method such as presentation, practice, and production to measure the effectiveness of triple p mehod toward student speaking ability. 3.7 technic of analyzing data chapter iv 4.1 finding of research 4.2 discussion of research 4.3 research limitation chapter v conclussion and suggestion 5.1 conclussion 5.2 implication 5.3 suggestion bibiliography criticisms toward javanese culture in pramoedya ananta toer's buml manusla: an analysis on the dominant culture of the prlyayl yohanes hartadi i abstract: it is not an exaggeration ifwe say java-with its people and its culture-dominates almost all aspects of the republic of indon esia. many javanese things are used and imitated by people other than javanese. pramoedya ananta toer. as a javanese writer. sees the javanese culture from another angle. he is able to notice the inappropriate javanese concepts and prac.tices. bumi manusia is a novel that reveals pramoedya's criticisms toward javanese culture .. keywords: javanese. culture. priyayi, mysticism introduction 'and he said, verily, i say unto you, no prophet is accepted in his own country.'2these are jesus' words which he said when he was in the synagogue to read the talmud. the writer found that to certain extent an author is similar to a prophet. first, an (good) author should and will always bring revelation and enlightenment (aufklarung) to his readers. in composing a literary work, he cannot escape from reality, from civilization. borrowing pramoedya's words, reality which is found in the sphere of private and in the sphere of public is the 'upstream fact.' by grasping and analyzing the spirit of the streams coming down, the author alters it into 'downstream fact' which is i yohanes hartadi, ss. is a lecturer of the faculty of letters of soegijapranata catholic university. semarang this verse is taken from the new testament. king james version published by the gideons international. chapter 4 verse 24 46 celt, volume i, number i, december2001 : 45-62 even not contained by historical fact. so be a literary work a thesis, a baby who commenced his own growth. he is just similar to new inventions in any field which bring the society a one-step progress.) in this discussion we do not approach the works merely from the author and the text, the manner in which a text apparently points to this figure who is outside and precedes it as michel foucault suggested.4we explore the novels within the cultural frame. on the second place, an author in many cases is rejected by the society in which he lives. the rejection does not come by itself; rather, it is caused by the network of power under which every subject in the society subordinates. let us look back to d.h. lawrence the british novelist. his 'upstream fact' and 'downstream fact' are translations for 'kenyataan hulu' and 'kenyataan hilir'. according to alex geoffrey bardsley, historically, hulu and hilir carried similar connotations 10 g before industrialization as forest products from back-country regions were transported to riverine and coastal entrepots for trade overseas (see alexander geoffrey bardsley, 1996. a political subject: changing consciousness in pramoedya allallla toer's bumi manusia and anak semua bangsa. a thesis. faculty of graduate school of cornell university. p. 12). the tenns also me~n that to move 'upstream' is to retreat to the hitherland, to become isolated and backward, to leave the progressive society of the trading ports. it is exemplified with javanese literature which is dominated by wayallg drama, oral as well as written. that tells of the mahabharata and the ramayana-the javanese versions and their chewed-over wads, that continue to depend on the authority of hindu culture. this dominant literature, without anyone being aware of it, glorifies the satda class or caste, while the classes or castes under it have no role whatsoever. the satria caste's mainjob is to kill its opponents. see: pramoedya ananta toer. 1995. literature. censorship and the state: to what extent is a novel dangerous? trans.alex g. bardsley. an esay to be delivered on september 4, i 995,in manila. published by suara independen, no.04i1, september 1995. , michel foucault, the prominent postmodemist, set aside a socio-historical analysis of the author as an individual and the numerous questions that deserve altention: how the author was individualized in a culture such as ours; the status we have given the author, for instance, when we began our research into authenticity and attribution; the system of valorization in which he was included; or the moment when the stories of heroes gave way to an author's biography; the conditions that fostered the fonnulation of the fundamental critical category of 'the man and his work.' read: michel foucault. 1991. what is an author in rethinking popularculrure. university of califomia press. 1991. p. 447 y. hartadi, criticisms toward javanese culture 47 novel, lady chatterley s lover, was banned for the alleged cause of obscenity. in russia, boris pasternak, the author of doctor zhivago was not allowed to receive the nobel prize for literature in 1958 by the soviet regime because the novel criticizes the regime and the revolution. in indonesia, the rejection of authors is even harsher. different from other countries, the subjects of this polemic consist of three groups: right authors, left authors and the state. right authors are those signing the cultural manifesto.50n the opposite, left authors were those who were affiliated to lekra a mass organization which was close to indonesian communist party. some of them were putu oka sukanta, sitor situmorang and pramoedya ananta toer.6 pramoedya was detained for 14 years, 11 of them in buru island, a penal camp in the maluku archipelago, some 850 miles east of java. jonathan rosen (1999) called this island 'south seas gulag."what is not fair with the imprisonment was that there was no prior charge nor trial. until the present time, under the rule of the fifth president megawati soekarnoputri, the banning of his book is not yet abolished. it is ironical since pramoedya's books are obligatory readers for university and high school s manifes kebudayaan was conceh·ed as an anti-thesis for the movement and activities of lekra (lembaga kebudayaan rakyatllnstitute of people's culture) artists who were affiliated to pki (indonesian communist party). the cultural manifesto stated that culture was a struggle to improve the living condition of human being. the artists who signed the document further declared tbat tbey did not prioritized one cultural sector upon the other. all cultural sectors struggle altogether for the sake of culture based on its destiny. then, what made it different was the ideology. while the lekra artists uplifted nasakom (nationalism, religion and communism) and manipol (political manifesto), the other group uplifted pancasila consistently. some of the right artists were h.b. jassin , taufiq ismail, d.s. moeljanto and bur rasuanto. a putu oka sukanta was jailed because of his affiliation to the mass organization. he revealed his terrible moment in jail into a novel merajut harkat (kniuing human dignity) yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar and jendela budaya. 1999. about the violence sponsored by the state in dealing (abolishing) with people who were alleged to have been the members of pki and its onderbow post '1965 affair' see: budiawan. 2000. tortured bod)~ betrayed heart. state violence in an indonesia novel by all ex-political prisoner of the '1965 affair' in renal. salatiga: yayasan percik. p. 34. sitor situmorang was also jailed by new order regime because they. as he said. wanted to know what was in his brain. he was released from prison in 1978. read: kompas daily. 30 july 200 i. p. 12. 48 celt, volume i. number i, december 200 i : 45-62 students in the neighboring moslem country malaysia. despite the banning. the publication of his books is going on along with the spirit of refonnation. because of the long ideology engineering sponsored by the new order regime. pramoedya's name becomes a sort of tokoh haram or forbidden figure. an anti-vip perhaps, who, though silenced, is the focus of noisy controversy.iihe himself in keeping with the irresolution of his country's political present seems to be regarded as a literary lion, a national treasure and an enemy of the state.'} in this discussion, the writer will not glorify the author nor condemn the toppled new order regime. the aim of this article is to explore the first novel of the buru quartet, bum; manusia. the buro quartet itself consists of four novels: bumi manusia, allak semua bangsa, jejak langkah and rumah kaca. the buru quartet is probably pramoedya's best known later work.i01t is one of those sprawling literary mansions, built of exotic materials, that display the mysteries of a foreign culture while magically containing 7 gulag was a russian abbreviation which meant the main administration of camps. under the gulag prison, all subjects did forced labour. they were assigned to eavy •. unskilled labour-cutting timber. building roads. minirjg coal. dredging for gold, and other similarly burdensome tasks. see merle fainsod. 1974. how russia is ruled. harvard: harvard university press. prarnoedya told what the buru prisoners felt in nyanyi suny; seorang bisu or the english version the mute's soliloquy. the memoir mostly consist of his letters wrote to his children but were never sent in a letter to her daughter he wrote about the ship that took him into exile on buru and of the lines of a negro spiritual that haunted him and gave him comfort during the journey. changing keys abruptly, he shares with her his diet of "gutter rats, the moldy outgrowth on papaya trees and banana plants. and leeches, skewered on palm-leaf prior to eating." he describes how one of the most educated prisoners went about eating a lizard. breaking oft the toe pads and swallowing it whole, adding, admiringly. from the description it not an exaggeration if rossen names buru island some kind of gulag. review on the mute's soliloquy can be read in jonathan rossen. 1999. south seas gulag. an indonesian writer recalls his years on the penal island of bum new york: the new york nmes company. may 16. 1999. neville and blackburn uses the same tenn 'gulag' island of buru in loreen neville and james blackburn. pramoedya: a litmus test o/'reformasi. in roving insight. september-october 1999. beth hughes calls buru island equatorial gulag in beth hughes. 1999. child of all nations. in the san fransisco examiner. sunday, may 16, 1999. y. bartadi, criticisms toward javanese culture 49 rooms that seem designed with you in mind" 1 initially, the buru quartet was composed and told orally to his fellow prisoners in buru. it was written there when he was granted permission to write. then it was published after jesuits brought the copies. the resulting novels cemented pramoedya's reputation as a storyteller, and indonesia as a language capable of contributing to the international canon. these are the books to read to understand indonesia. the buru quartet is a wonderful. stay-up-iate, four volume read peopled by a huge cast of characters riding a plot as complex and twisted as modernday indonesian polilics. '2bumi manusia portrays the course of life of a young man who was born of and reared in an aristocrat family. raden mas mingke. '3 minke' s father is a bupati (regent) in the regency of b. teeuw (1996: 231) writes that a member of such an aristocratic family will be granted privileges provided that he adapt hemself to the double demand of the system. firstly. he conducted under the norms of aristocratic culture and secondly, he subjected colonial's will who made use of javanese aristocratic class to retain their power and integrity with minimum physical force. '4in latin this kind of right is termed forum privilegiatum." however, minke decides to choose the other way. the one with sad and bitter experience. he protests r.nd fights for his nation. besides, minke's life is inse arable from romance. romantic a alex g. bardsley. pramoedya: autodidact and tokoh haranl p.l. on line: hllp:1 iwww.radix.netl-bardsley/auto.ans 9 jonathan. op.cit. p. i . 10 alex. g. bardsley. pramoedya: autodidact and tokoh haram. p.l. on line: hup:llwww.mdjx.netl-bardsley/auto.ans ii jonathan rossen. ope cit. 12 beth huges. 1992. child of all nations. indonesia s greatest writer tours the world with new memoir. special to the examiner. sunday. may 16. 1999. p.2 ., a. teeuw. calls minke a putra pri)'a)'i or anak priya)'i tinggi. read: prof. dr. a. teeuw. 1996. citra manusia indonesia dalam karya sastra pramoedya ananta toer. jakarta: pt. dunia pustaka jaya. pp. 230-231. 14 a. teeuw. ope cit. p. 231 ., when he was about to be kidnapped by police agent to be carried to the regent orb .• minke refused to follow the order by saying," i have forum privilegiatum." forum privilegiatum is a forum of equality to europeans before the court for the native aristocrats (bangsawan) downward to raden mas or the equal and the regent's children and gmndchildren. it can be found in pramoedya ananta toer. 2000 bum; manusia. jakarta: hasta mitm. p. 125 50 celt, volume i, number i, december 2001 : 45·62 story starts with the introduction of character annelies. they fall in love since then. this aspect makes the novel enjoyable both as a 'serious' and popular novels. 16 related to the protagonist's minke, identity as a member of javanese aristocrat family the writer is going to explore the narratives of both novel to find out the depiction of the author's on javanese culture. then, the author's criticisms toward the culture will be unearthed from the ground of narratives. notes on javanese culture prior to the elaboration on the javanese culture, it is important that the writer limit the discussion on culture. what the writer would like to discuss here is the culture of central java and east java, while west java is excluded because of the rather far distinction and the setting of the story. java with an area of 132,000 sq. km is populated by more than 128 millions people. java island is the densest of all other islands which are spread along the archipelago. with its vast human resources, java becomes the powerhouse and dictator of indonesia. 17 most javanese work on farm or they work as labour fann. on the low land they cultivate rice while on the high land they plant palawija such as com, peanut, and mung bean. javanese people have raised their standard of living which can be seen from their houses, especially in the village. those who twenty years dwelt a bamboo (gedeg) house or wooden house now they dwell a permanent house. i~ a. teeuw. op. cit. p. 233 11 petertumer. 1999. java. melbourne: lonely planet publications. p. ii. turner's opinion is probably true if we see it from the political economy. most of the natural resources from sumatra, kalimantan, sulawesi and irian jaya used to be carried to java. as a result, a gap and resentment is created because the budget allotment for the development flowed to the provinces in java island. with the enactment of regional autonomy the government of the provinces outside java will receive more portion than that carried to the central government. the superiority of java is also seen rrom the presidency. the republic of indonesia has been led by five presidents rour of whom are javanese: sukamo, soeharto, abdurrahman wahid and the newly appointed president megawati sukamoputri. y. hartadi, criticisms toward javanese culture 51 the javanese people is divided into two social classes: wong cijik (common people) who are mostly fanners, small merchants and those living in cities with low income, and priyayi class which consists of government or private officers and intellectuals. besides, there is the third class which still has exclusively high prestige namely ndara.lk'fhe last group will nor be discussed here since they have similar lifestyle to priyayi. the priyayi do not do blue collar job. they used to be very respected and some of them still try to raise their prestige and social status by getting married to a ndara family or priyayi family. the word priyayi derives from para yayi that means the younger siblings of the king. whether it is factual or not, the etymology is difficult to prove since the term priyayi is not found in the texts which were written before the 191h century. 19 there are many studies and papers which discuss priyayi. according to van niel, priyayi as a social group around 1900 was an elite group namely, anyone who somewhat possessed higher status than the common people, so ewhat organized and guided th e people. administrators, government officer.; and those who had good education and position were priyayi. elite was not exclusively the descendants of the past kings. it is possible that they came from successful adventurers so that they could run a political power over some parts of java and played the role of priyayi to the people. the titles which indicated self-pride such as raden or raden mas was a title associated to a certain government administration but not associated to the royal family. however, it seems van niel's definition is only effective in the gupememen region, the region which was directly included in the colonial government administration environment. he did not consider "eifelijkheidsbeginsel" (the principle of descent) in the policy of colonial government office. the principle of descent became one of the conditions for a person to be appointed government officer. 20 palmier said that priyay; is the children of bupali. he distinguishes priyayi into priyayi luhur and priyayi kecil. there is a vague limitation between the two priyayis. priyay; [uhur is the genuine priyayi which can be 1m franz magnis-suseno. 1999 elika jawa. jakarta: penerbit pt. gramedia pustaka utama. p 12. i' sartono kartodirjo. el. al. 1987 perkembangan peradaban pri)'ayi. yogyakana: gadjah mada university press. p. 3 20 ibid. pp. 4-5. sl celt. volume i. number i. december 2001 : 45-62 seen from the position of the father. the family descendant of the mother and the family descendant of the wife. priyayi kecil is priyayi due to his position in the government administration. the other differences can be seen from their homes. dressing style, and lifestyle.21 heather sutherland does not consider the family descent as a matter. he concerns with priyayi as a social group which monopolized the positions in the inland government administration so that the government can be termed as priyayi-government. toward common people priyayi became the heir of traditional authority which was feudal. l2savitri scherer certainly states that priyoyi is the officers of dutch colonial government. because of the development of western education in pace with the increasing colonial need at the end of 19th century, and the beginning of20th century, priyayi is divided into two groups. first. bureaucrat priyayi, namely priyayi which hold the positions of pangrehpraja (civil service) and continue the tradition of the older priyayi. second. professional priyayi, namely priyayi who hold the government positions which require special knowledge and skill.23 priyayi has their own spiritual life. compared with wong cilik who observed islam in nearly all aspects of life. the former live their life in the javanese traditions before the coming of islam. this practice of spiritualism is called k ejawen. many of them are the follower s of paguyuban (associations), those who search for the fulfillment of human life through the practice of asceticism, meditation, and misticism.l4 kejawen or javanism is not a religious category. it refers to and ethic and lifestyle inspired by javanese thought. lavanism is suitably practiced by the old keraton (palace) elite or elite who are government-and-their descendants oriented-called priyayi.1sthe practice of lavanism-also called kebatinan-is an effort to communicate with highest reality; as a branch of knowledge it studies hl;lman being's space in the world and universe. it is based on the belief in the true 21 ibid. p. 7 u ibid p. 8 2' ibid. p. 8 24 franz magnis-suseno. op. cit. p.13. however. the term kejawen should not be confused with kejawen for geographical meaning. kejawen covers yogyakarta and surakarta which are the benchmarks of javanese culture. they are rich of artistic heritage and refinement of keraton (royal palace). 2s niels mulder.2001 mistisisme lawa.ldeologi di indonesia. yogyakarta: penerbit lkis . pp. 4-s y. hartadi, criticisms toward javanese culture s3 oneness of all existence.26 in many cases, under the guidance of a guru, selfenlightenment is sought through typically priyayi pursuits of self-denial, restraint, humility, and meditation.27 other factor which distinguish priyayi and wong cilik is the language they use. traditional javanese society is hierarchical, and great importance is placed on politeness, humility and deference to superiors.2"the hierarchy is also shown in javanese. we can find the reason to this by tracing back the history of java. from the period of panembahan senapati onward, pajang was under the authority of mataram. because of the dimming power, rulers desired to exhibit their glory, greatness and superiority, not only to their subjects but also to their conquered regents. for this purpose, it was necessary to create and develop a social distance between the ruler and his subjects. a good means to create this social distance was through the creation and cultivation of royal culture and art, ant this included the introduction and development of different levels of speech.2~ey are krama. madya and ngoko30• in its deve lopment, javanese speech levels have more practical functions. o. moedjanto (1993:pp.69-72) writes four functi ons of the javanese speech level. first, one of them is organizing the rules of social relationship. in thi s case, the level functions as a norm of social relationship. lfi ibid p.40 27 peter turner. op.cit. p. 64 2. ibid p. 405. 2\1 g. moedjanto. 1993. the concept of power in javanese culture. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. p. 75 . . 10 ibid.pp. 55-56. supomo pudjosudarmo. as quoted in this book. divided krama into mudha·krama (young krama), krama"tara (middle krama), and wredha· lerama (old krama); madya into madya·krama (high·madya), madyantara (middle madya) and madya-ngoko (low madya); and ngoko into basa-alll),a (high "goko), antya-basa (middle ngoko) and ngoka-iugu (low ngoko or simple ngoko).the ngoleo level is used by a person speaking to another: who is of younger age; who is seen as younger from the point of view offamily relationship: whose rank of nobility is lower; who is known intimately by the speaker; and who becomes the speaker's opponent or enemy. the krama level is used basically in the opposite of the use the "goko. the simpler division of javanese is mentioned by purbacaraka: krama and "goko. while according to purwadarminta javanese is divided into three level: krama, madyo which is divided further into modyakrama and madya-"goko and ngoleo. the example for use read: ibid. pp. 57-58. 54 celt, volume 1. number i. december 200 1 : 45-62 thus. one has to speak in a certain way to others; one is not allowed to speak in any way one likes. second, closely related to this is its function as an unggah-ungguh (a nonn of politeness). this may have begun among subordinates who were so anxious to show their politeness. on the other hand. this polite manner also came to be expected by their superior. third, javanese speech levels also function as a medium to express both honour and intimacy, in accordance with the meaning of the two basic levels.ll when we talk about priyayi society, we should also talk about the position of woman because most of the definitions of priyayi as we read before rely on the position of man in his job. in general, priyayi society has a patriarchal system which poses the dominant role of man whereas woman only plays trivial role. it is a fact that in a patriarchal society man is dominant in many aspects of life such as bio-social, politic, socia-cultural and religion. in a household environment. man is the head of the family who possesses authority to make a decision, make a living; his position determines the family status, descendant. and leads the relatives. the role of woman is normally create education for the children and all household management. it is not surprising when woman's role is more bound to the family and household environment so that there is a tenn used by husbands "kanca wingking" (friend at the ack).32female children are also educated to do their job as a wife as well as family mother. at the age of pre-emancipation. they used to live in a "cage" within the family environment.33 analysis considering the year of the process of writing and publication, bum; manusia is a postmodemist work. we have discussed previously the foucauldian theory on literature which lets the reader view a literary work as an independent entity. the debates about the nature and status of narrative representation in historical discourse coincide and are inextricably intertwined with challenges offered by historiographic metafiction. yet we have seen that postmodem fiction is typically denounced as dehistoricised. if not ahistorical. especially by marxist critics.)4 ,. ibid.pp. 69-72 )2 sartono kartodirjo. op. cit. p. 192 h ibid. p. 192 )4 linda hutcheon. 1999. telling stories: fiction and history. in modernism! postmodernism. london: longman. 1999. p. 238. y. hartadi, criticisms toward javanese cullure ss teeuw (1997: 230) says that the buru quanel, which was published in t 980s, had been planned by the author long before. when pramoedya was getting more aware that "the people must know their history", especially since 1956, he started to do a broad historical research on the age of the beginning of indonesian nationalism. in the research he found tirto adhi soerjo, nationalist of the first generation, which did not catch attention in the national historiography. this character inspired pramoedya to write the historical tetralogy romance.3swe may say that postmodernist discourse on literature is still arguable since theorists have their own arguments on how a work should be studied. let us depart from the argument and below is the discussion on the main point, criticisms toward javanese culture in bumi man usia. the tradition of priyayi-kawula minke is the speaker in bumi manusia. as a javanese wi th western education, minke becomes conscious of the surrounding condition. he is becoming more critical with the system and even with his own culture, javanese in which he was brought up. when minke had visited annelies and nyai ontosoroh in wonokromo for the first time, a female servant served them. minke was surprised by her attitude to her mistresses. a female servant serves chocolate milk and biscuits. and she does not crawl just like with native master. even she glances at me as if she showed me her surprise feeling. this is not found with native master: she has to keep her chin down and down. what a beautiful world will be without crawling in front of others. (p. 20) this incident stimulates minke's modem thought to be critical. he dares compare his own culture and the western culture. more than that he judges which attitude is better. on other occasion minke not only witnesses other person crawling before priyayi but he himself crawls. minke is summoned by the bupati of b. in pendopo, he comes to see the unknown regent. as a student of h.b.s. minke feels humiliated to crawl and to do all courtesy. ~~ a. teuuw. op. c;i. p. 230 s6 celt, volume i, number i, december 200 1 : 45-62 so i'm to be brought before the bupat; of b. god! on what account? and i, an h.b.s. student, must i crawl before him and raise a sembah?)6at each period of every sentence i utter. for someone i do not know at all? while walking towards the hall, already lit by four lamps. i felt like i would cry. what use is studying the arts and sciences of europe, of socializing with europeans. if in the end must still crawl. slithering like a snail. and make obeisance to some petty king who is probably illiterate on top of it. god!. god! to face a bupati is the same as preparing to take humiliation without being allowed to defend oneselr' ... (pp. 130-131) minke is really annoyed by what he has to do. he tells himself that he swears in more than three languages while crawling 10 metres distance. nevertheless, minke's anger subsides when he finds out that the bupati of b. is in fact his own father. he regrets his indifferent action of not replying his father' s and his mother' s letters. he surrenders under his father's whip. although he feels humiliated and tortured by his father 's words, he keeps his obeisance by saying nothing. however, he makes a resistance by calling h~s father :bloo~ of.jav~nese kings. 'the terr is ~rue in its meanin~, because his father is a kmg an his regency but at once mmke also shows his fathet's traditional mind vised-vis his modem rationality. in fac t. a bupati places higher position than a resident assistant does due to his knowledge on place, birth, his influence on people, his income in the form of currency, and his :i/> sembah is a gesture used by javanese and other ethnic in indonesia to show obeisance. h this english version is borrowed from alex. geoffrey bardsley. 1996. a political subject: changing consciousness in pramoedya anallla toer's bumi manusia and anak semua bangsa. a thesis. faculty of the graduate school of cornell university. p. 2s.minke calls the bupali petty king because he rules only a region not a real kingdom. the dutch made it their policy in java to proceed with as little interference as possible. the status of the bupati was deliberately maintained in order that they could become the central administrative tool through which the dutch extracted profits. they reasoned that the volkshoofd (traditional chief) would be able to maintain authority far more effectively than could be expected through any structural changes to the system. when the activities of the v.o.c. (the dutch east india company) was taken over by the dutch government in 1800, the general policy toward the regents was maintained. in maintaining their authority, the regents would remain loyal to the dutch government while the populace would remain loyal to the regenl read: john m. brownlee. op. cit. p.4. y. hartadl, criticisms toward javanese culture 57 akin lifestyle. whenever a european takes a trip, several officials go along, sufficient to give some infonnation in the inspection trip-while bupat; is followed by hundred of people. a european lives as common people, yet a bupat; lives as a king.)s still in the same house, minke meets his brother who reads his diary stealthily. minke catches him reading it and he snatches it from his brother's hand instantly. once again traditional mind is against modem rationality. minke is offended by his brother's action of minding other's business and his brother feels offended with the way he snatches the book. their way of thinking do not make a compromise here. to release his disappointment, his brother says that minke is not a javanese anymore. you are not a javanese anymore" what's my being a javanese for if my rights are to be violated? don't you know that such note is very private? haven't your teacher taught you ethics and personal rights? (p. i 39) minke's mother thinks in the same way as his brother. she says that he is not a javanese anymore, he has turned into a brown dutch. the priciple of kawula-gusti is al<;o effective in a javanese aristocratic family. the older should be respected regardless of his mistake. this is what minke doos not do anymore. his mother says that this is a sign proving that minke is not a javanese anymore. that is a sign you are not javanese anymore, does not notice who more deserved honour is, who has higher authority" (p. 141) the use of javanese on other occasion, minke's mother comes to wonokromo to celebrate her son's wedding to annelies, nyai ontosoroh's daughter. the night before the wedding, minke meets his mother asks him where his tembang (metres) which can be sung in the night she is longing for him are. minke answers that he cannot write javanese. minke is considered 'not yet javanese' because he writes in dutch while his ancestors, the kings of java, wrote in javanese. his mother suggests that minke write in javanese. if you are still javanese, you will always be able to write javanese" your ancestors, the kings of java, all wrote in javanese. are you ashamed of being a javanese? are you ashamed of being not a dutch? (bum; manllsia p. 347) )i multatuli. 1991. max havelaar. jakarta: pcnerbit djambatan. 58 celt, volume i. number i. december 200 i : 45-62 bumi manusia does not give the answer to minke's reason why he does not use javanese as medium to convey his thought and opinions. the answerto this is given in the next novel of the quartet, anak semua bangsa. 3~ javanese spiritualism minke's mother-in-law, nyai ontosoroh, used to be the daughter of a priyayi family. his father, sastrotomo, was a secretary of sugar factory. villagers paid him a respect as he was the only one literate. he was not yet satisfied with the job although the job was quite high for the native (inlander). he wanted to get the post of cashier in the factory. for that reason he worked more and more diligently, yet his rank was not lifted. he worked hard for more than ten years. he had taken any way he could, including going to the duku" (shrink), saying spells, memutih fasting, and fasted every monday and thursday . .co so were taken any way: visiting the shrink, saying spells. nrenllilih fasting, fastin g every monday and thursday. it di dn't work out" (bum; mal/usia p. 81) ~9 the same criticism comes from his fellow dutch journalist. kommer. who questions him whether he is already fair to write to dutch-speaking readers while he owes them nothing at all. from that moment, minke starts thinking about writing in other language than dutch. he chooses malay to learn. "i am about to learn to write malay. 1 answer. nevertheless, it cannot be mastered in a day" (p. 206) jean marais, a fellow french painter, throws similar criticism to minke. minke once said that he was an admirer of french revolution. jean marais sees an ambivalence in minke's attitude. on one hand, he admits that he follows the spirit and motto of french revolution. on the other hand. he enjoys his aristocratic privileges. marais makes an example: minke is offended when a peasant talks to him in i/goko. the french painter says that minke still cannot free himself from the ease that he gets from his ancestors. minke is cunning. minke does not deny this. he admits that marais is right. 1 have to admit that 1 cannot free myself from the ease of heritage. listening someone talking "goko to me, 1 feel that my rights are confiscated. on the contrary, listening someone talking krama to me, i feel being selected human being, dwells on top, god in human body and the ease of the heritage comforts me. (anak semua bal/gsa p. 207) ~ memulih fasting is a javanese spiritual practice in which a person eats only rice. y. hartadi, criticisms toward javanese culture s9 because everything does not work, saslrotomo let his daughter, sanikem, to be mr. big's (mr. hennan mellema) concubine in the exchange with the position. in fact saslrotomo got the position. indeed, mysticisms practices such as tirakat did not work. as the solution to the problem is not the point, it will not be discussed here. pramoedya tried to say his extreme criticisms toward the practice of javanese spiritualism through the character of sastrotomo pramoedya frankly says that such practices are useless, bring no avail. there is nothing wrong with the actual people of java, but spare us the 'javanese-ism.' there is a romaticizing of javanese mysticism. let's be rational instead.41 pramoedya's weakness in giving the criticizm is that he does not try to give an explanation why the mysticism is of no use. according to mulder (2001 :43-44), such practice as sastrotomo 's is a practice of tapa and meditation which can be used to achieve goals entirely worldly and magical which may harm others, certainly it is led by egoistic motive, or pamrih.42 ratuadil when peopk practice mysticism on its path and observe their r~ligion diligently, there will be a harmony between people and the world materially and morally. javanese people always long for this condition . human being and the cosmic structure are inter-related, they try to create a union and equilibrium. mulder (200] :24) names this condition as golden age, when just kings rule and their people live in prosperity. nevertheless. when the ruling elite. are led by their worldly passion. there will come injustice. and disorder. poverty and hardship. this age is called zaman edan (mad age). when the condition comes, javanese people long for the coming of ratu adil or just king who will restore the harmony. recently. this such messianic hope is associated to semar. the javanese guiding spirit, who is the patron of pandawa in mahabharata epic.43 pramoedya does not oppose the idea of ratu adil in javanese mysticism. he only criticizes the way people hope the coming of him (or her). 41 terry me.carthy. 1998. novel cause. time asia. april 20. 1998 vo1.j51. no. 15p.3 42 niels mulder. ibid. p. 44 43 ibid. p. 24 60 celt, volume i, number i, december 200 i : 45-62 gamelan sings more about a country which longs for the coming of a messiahlonging, not searching and not giving birth to. papa more said: ifin the next ears a javanese is still the same, without a change, it is a sign that this nation still does not have its messiah. (bumi manusia, p. 214) laksono (1990:53) exemplifies panger an (prince) diponegoro as a ratu adil when he led his people to fight against the dutch during what is called java war (1825-1830).~ [n seeing the practice of javanese mysticism, pramoedya highlights the real action rather than doing irrational ritual and belief. it is not necessary for javanese people to long for a messiah. the most important thing is give binh to or search for him. how can it be realized? it can be done by learning modem thought and release oneself from superstition. mysticism should not be deleted from javanese society, rather is should be accompanied by real action to realize the hope. conclusion culture is a preciou heritage that should be kept and then again passed on to the next generation. however. people should be more aware of the confining aspect of the culture which bring abojt no progress for humanity. as age advances, hopefully the condition of humanity gets improved. it can be realized when people are more critical to their culture and customs which so far are taken for granted. to share the progressive and critical ideas, a medium is needed. pramoedya, as an author, provides the medium: novel bumi manusia. through this two novel. pramoedya try to evaluate. and re-evaluate the condition of human being as he sees it. 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bardsley. an essay written to be delivered on september 4, 1999 in manila on request of ramon magsaysay award foundation. -----1992. maaf alas nama pengalaman. in progreso no. 2, 1992 turner. peter. 1999. java. melbourne: lonely planets publication. logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 2; december 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia exploring students’ perception and ict use in indonesian high schools antonius suratno & emilia ninik aydawati english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia ph: +62 82136580717 +62 87832426180 email: antono.dito@gmail.com emilianinik@gmail.com received: 10-11-2016 accepted: 23-02-2017 published: 28-02-2017 exploring students’ perception and ict use in indonesian high schools antonius suratno and emilia ninik aydawati antono.dito@gmail.com; emilianinik@gmail.com english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijaparanata catholic university, semarang, indonesia abstract: the recent spread of technological innovation along with the sophistication of the ict gadgets have shapped and transformed the realm of learning and teaching including in that of english language. alongside, ict has become more and more inextricable part of human businesses and put a higher level of demand for technological literacy in the part of english learners in order for them to be convident in the digital era membership and participation. this study surveyed 400 high school students as regards: (a) their ict gadgets perceived ownership; (b) their dayto-day outside and in-school use and; (c) their activities using ict gadgets for english learning. findings from the descriptive analyses of the mixed-method study, disclose the positive perception about the gadget ownership. interestingly, the current study also discovers that there has been a mismatch between the positively perceived ownership of the ict gadgets and the real day-to-day use as facilitative media for learning, in particular as a useful aids for english language learning. focusing on the result discussion, issues with regard to discrepancies in the provision of infrastructures and the lack of the support system by school institutions emerge from the fgd analysis highlighting the importance for all decision makers, school institutions, and teachers to consciously start doing something about it. by highlighting the pivotal role of the technology, the researcher suggested a real action for responding to the call for a change in both policy makers and institutonal levels to start integrating the technology into the school curricula. key words: ict, ict-based learning activities, integration, media for learning, support system, language learning 178 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 abstrak: inovasi teknologi terkini dengan kecanggihan perangkatnya telah membentuk dan mengubah dunia pengajaran dan pembelajaran termasuk dalam belajar bahasa inggris. bersamaan dengan itu, ict semakin tidak terpisahkan dengan urusan manusia dan memberikan tuntutan yang kian tinggi terhadap literasi teknologi pada para pembelajar bahasa inggris agar mereka semakin percaya diri dalam keikutsertaannya di era digital. penelitian ini mensurvei 400 siswa sekolah menegah mengenai: (a) pandangan mereka tentang kepemilikan perangkat tik; (b) pengunaanya di dalam dan di luar lingkungan sekolah dan; (c) aktivitas mereka mengunakan perangkat tik untuk belajar bahasa inggris. temuan dari analisis diskriptif menggunakan metode campuran ini menunjukkan bahwa responden berpandangan positif. menariknya, penelitian ini juga menemukan bahwa terdapat ketidaksesuaian antara pandangan positif dengan penggunaan perangkat tik sebagai media belajar khususnya dalam membantu belajar bahasa inggris. memperhatikan hasil analisis, persoalan bekenaan dengan keberadaan infrastruktur dan sistem pendukung yang masih kurang baik terungkap melalui diskusi terfokus (fgd) sehingga memberikan implikasi pada pentingnya para pemangku kebijakan, institusin sekolah, dan para guru untuk segera mengambil langkah memperbaiki kebijakan dan memulai mengintegrasikan tik ke dalam kurikulum pengajarn bahasa inggris. kata kunci: ict, aktivitas berbasis tik, integrasi, media belajar, sistem pendukung, belajar bahasa introduction since the last two decades, the ever advancing information and communication technology has played a prominant role in all aspects of human businesses. there is no denial that every sector of people’s day-to-day life has been facilitated by the capabilities that the technology has offered. as a result, every country invests substantial amount of money to catch up with the most recent technologies. in the name of conpetitiveness in the global and regional free market environments, countries down to smaller individual establishments allocate enormous amount of budgets and resources for technological investment. despite being rather late in its adoption of technology, education as one of the human businesses, slowly join investing efforts and fundings in the provision of ict for quality of learning and teaching. for some, such an effort is genuinely motivated by the need to let the students and teachers explore the optimal learning and teaching, whilst for suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 179 in indonesian high school others, this maybe only to keep up with the most basic requirement for technological literacy as set by the national standard of curriculum which likely remains lacking visions of ict use and implementational guidelines. in a relatively short span of time, ict has evolved in an unprecedented speed. for the case of indonesia, from year to year the internet users have multiplied significantly. based on the data in 2014 the internet users in indonesia was 83.7 million people (ministery of communication and information, 2014) and the number has leaped to more than 50 % in 2016 reaching a new record of 130 million in 2016 (kompas.com, monday, 24 oktober 2016). in addition, in the national policy, ict has been viewed to be a key to improving efficiency process and to reaching competitiveness and that in the educational policy, it is realized that students are confronted by the rapid change. therefore, schools have to be able to produce competitive human resources ready for competing in the global encounter and to do so, it is believed that ict inclusion into school curriculum is the answer. as we know that almost all electronic gadgets now provide choices of application programmes, such as the internet, audio-video, games, smart facilities, and a lot more has revolved since the early 1980s (see warschauer and heale, 1998). what is more, the sophistication of hardwares and sofwares has made it a lot easier to use for various day-to-day uses including for that of learning activities. although most technological gadgets were not primarily designed and manufactured for language learning, there is a growing optimism that they are potentially useable for learning assistance, not to mention for learning language. scholars have also attempted to study the effect of ict on students’ learning by asking why and how multi-media enhanced help options are presented and what effect it has on learning (rüschoff, 1993). despite the lack of evidence of the conslusive effect of technology on quality of learning and teaching and although various research has shown that the increased use or availability of icts in the classroom does not necessarily result in learning and tranform it into a guaranteed success, ict must now be regarded as an accepted and proven addition to the existing set of learning media. a large number of tools for a wide variety of applications (viz. internet, computer, mobile phone and audio-video) have been developed over the past decade, and both standard hardware and software have unprecedentedly become available not only to the privileged few but also to the common members of society for various purposes of learning. all that has been a general consent is that the use 180 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 of technology to facilitate learning is accepted to be of value across educational institutions, such as high school levels. in this very recent era, ict has a lot to offer as manifest in the multitude of resources available to access both off and online readily exploitable for teaching and learning purposes, and previous research such as rüschoff |(1993), indicates that multi-media provide more options for learning and they can affect the results of learning. there are also highlights of acknowledgement that ict, in the ever advancing multi-media facilities, has been viewed as an inseparable part of humans’ life and has been widely acknowleged to be facilitative and mediating for learning, in particular where it has greater potentials for quality of learning. given the evidence, technological advancement can be driven to gear up and expedite educational change and reform in educational system, in particular where learning-teaching in the most parts of this nation is still very much conservative and lack of innovation resulted from disparities of qualities and inequal resource distribution. despite the growing number of users, in the context global and regional competitiveness, indonesia is currently behind some other countries, even among the closest neighbouring countries in south east asian region. there should be reasons why substantial amount of potential that ict has for learning alongside the ubiquitous availability of technological gadgets does not necessarily result in optimal learning results. attempt, therefore, must be made to start doing something about it and one of which is by surveying the users of the ict gadgets for educational purposes. among the relevant subjects to be surveyed are students of high schools as regards the ict gadgets ownership. issues that may be addreassed are, among other things, how learners or students perceive the use of the technology for the assistance of learning; whether they have used it in positive and productive ways for learning purposes; also if they have taken advantage of it for use of language learning. therefore, the purpose of this study is to understand how technology is perceived and for what language learning-related activities the ict have so far been used inside and outside classroom contexts, as well as if it has been exploited for english language learning. suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 181 in indonesian high school literature review a. perception and belief in learning overall, perception may be defined as a process of perceiving something as a result of a reaction to a stimulus on an individual person after having used his or her sensory to react to it and the result of which is an interpretation or identification of the perceived objects. (cf. robbins, 2003, p. 160). perception links the external stimuli with the preceived objects based on each individual person experience that produces a unique meaning of the perceived objects. based on that, he or she can create meanings out of them. (walgito, 1991, p. 11). this is in line with branca (in walgito, 1991, p. 54) that perception serves as a process of organizing and interpreting stimulus in order to create a new meaning of the perceived objects. from the available references, perception is closely liked to beliefs since something is only considered right when it is perceived right as well (benson & lor, 1999). beliefs that learning will be successful can be garnered from the past experiences, education, cultural backgrounds, as well as own true personality. unfortunately, such a linkage is not easily established due to its dynamic and situational natures. also, the exact relation between perception or beliefs and the success of learning is hard to establish. yet, there has been a common agreement that they are indirectly connectable to each other, in particular in their positive impact on strategies of learning (ellis, 2008). b. why ict people have generally agreed that ict has a capacity to allow access to information in faster, more efficient, and effective ways. the wealth of resources available which are accessible through different gadgets of ict increases the learners’ opportunities to discover the world. besides, research indicates that human perceptions about technologies determine their attitudes towards them (aviram&tami, 2004). discovery and problem solving which characterize the act of good learning are very compatible with the above nature of ict. learning process, therefore, may well be optimized should it be properly directed by people competent of using ict. through it, students may be guided to discover learning topics and solutions to problems (brush, glazewski and hew, 2008). based on previous study (castro sánchez and alemán 2011), students are now generally more viable to access the quality 182 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 data critically and to use relevant information for use of learning selectively, meaning that given a conducive learning environment, students must be able to perform a lot faster. the plentiful and rich resources for learning coming with the ict gadgets offer almost limitless options for learning. teachers of these days are the parties indulged with rich resources readily exploitable for teaching provided that they invested time and effort to search and to apply them into use. at the same time, each individual learner surely has to be the side who should jointly contribute to determining the success of learning. to succeed in exploiting the ict gadgets for learning, teachers play their directing, guiding and orchestrating roles, while students should be persons of discipline with positive choice and a sense of achievement. by being so, the activities using ict gadgets will be of a meaningful engagement, as a responsible use of ict may add up to a sense of creativity in searching for relevant, meaningful, and positive data or information for teaching and learning. due to its’ resourcefulness, ict, to a certain extent, is like a jack of all trades, through which approaches to learning may manifest in such modes as: a. drill, where students can do repeated quizzes or exercises for certain language skills. b. simulation, in which students can pretend to perform a certain role following a real life model observable v ia computer screen or self-recording facilities. body language, facila expressions, and accuracy of pronunciation may be benefited from using this mode. c. games, which are available off and on line , may serve as a means for students to train both mental and physical endurance following a certain instruction to do sport, socio drama, and social duties. d. online learning tutor ial or e-learning resources, a modular learning model which is much adopted by open access and distance learning. in this mode, computer provides suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 183 in indonesian high school informations pertaining to a certain topic of learning subjects readily accesible to be understood or to be re sponded to. e. test/quizz, by which studen ts can independently and ideosyncratically do self-assessment on a certain aspect of language skills. surprisingly, more and more number s of of websites these days made different quizzes available for free access to students. even, some types of of tests have been equipped with answer keys and instant feedback of test outcomes. f. online discussion forums. for those passionately participating in an online discussion, they are easily connectable to other people on a large number of lists of discussions on a wide range of subject areas. g. consultant and information source. with the greater and more powerful capacity of servers, computer technology is currently capable of providing gargantuan data basis readily traceable by the internet users. through google, students can now make limitless queries that can instantly find unimaginable answers. h. information swap. again the connectivity of the world -wide webs making computers all over the world connectable wire or wirelessly. the web connections allow the users t o exchange information (mostly free of charge ). i. online gigantic library. unlike people in the past when access to information was so much confined by space and time, people of the digital age are indulged by hands-on sources of information called the internet which grows bigger every second with new update of information . last but not least, communication in education in this current era can be made through different modes such as via telephone, computer, internet, email, and many new coming social media, making contact and interaction between teachers and students a lot easier. even in passing through academic information from and to, teachers and students can take advantage of the cyber space.liu (2012) found that social network sites can provide students 184 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 opportunities to be more independent in their study. interaction can be virtually done synchronously or asynchronously through the internet. fortunately, language learning, particularly english is one of the best facilitated subjects, in a sense that it has been much benefited from the english as an international lingua franca for people of any nation and walk of life. at the same time, computer application programmes are mostly written in english which is certainly facilitative to english learning. what is more, all four skills of language (speaking, reading, writing dan listening) exersises have been much written on the net which allow all the users to access and use for free practices. the key to success of using ict for language learning lies on three qualities that each learner and teacher has to have, i,e autonomy, capability, and creativity (lowther et al., 2008). autonomous in taking control of their own learning or teaching; being capable of using necessary gadgets for appropriate purposes; and is able to create every possible opportunity to learn a new thing. all the three characteristics are necesities to develop good quality teaching and learning with ict. c. ict and learning amidst the revolutionary progress and innovation of ict, the use of media technology in foreign language teaching and learning has constantly evolved in a relatively slow pace. despite more and more gadget availability, sporadic efforts by teachers to try to make use of the technology such as audio, video, and computers as a part of teaching activities remain noticeably insufficient. even, when technology has developed a lot faster in the last decades and a lot of technological gadgets are getting more affordable to almost everyone, questions remain hanging over the usability for learning assistance. although these gadgets are not particularly designed for learning purposes, they contain authentic materials usable for learning, such as learning language. even when gadgets are used for games or for communication they, as a matter of fact, can potentially be useable for learning. as cited by chen (2011) research conducted by chapelle, 2001; egbert, chao, & hanson-smith, 2007; salaberry, 2001; zhao, 2003) has shown that the use of technology can broaden the horizons for learning an l2, and also has an impact on the nature of both the acquisition process and the object of study. the use of technology helps learners to expose themselves to english, a language which has been learnt and used by more and more suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 185 in indonesian high school speakers. according to david graddol (in shyamlee, 2012), digital technologies provide avenues to improving certain skills such as writing, writing and reading, despite posing challenges such as plagiarism and unfair use. yet still, the potentials remain outweighting the risks so long as their actual wealth is optimally explored. as a showcase, a previous pilot study involving 112 university students in semarang, conducted by suratno, et al. (2013) suggests that all the students of a faculty of letters, of a private university in semarang, indonesia, have made it gadgets part of their day-to-day life activities. as indicated by the responses of the questionnaire, smart phones have been the most frequently and laptops as their second most frequently-used gadgets. they all enjoy using the technological gadgets and they admit that their vocabulary expands as a result of using them. in addition, learning through the facilities offered by the internet, as they admit, is both interesting and engaging. what remains to be answered is how they perceive about the existing technological gadgets they currently can get access to and what kinds of activities they have taken their advantages for, as well as whether they are generally facilitative to learning, especially for english language learning. in addition to the elaborated potentials, technology offers with it both visual and audial comfort and indulgence to its users. the more the newcoming technology comes with novelties, the broader the chances to explore and to exploit for the improved qualities. both teachers and learners have a lot more opportunities to invest time for innovative learning and teaching. this certainly provides challenges for anyone committed to technolgical use, as it requires them to keep doing whatever is necessary to constantly investigate and find the answer to the questions as to how to make the most of the technological gadgets for optimal teaching and learning. truly genuine endeavour has to be done through research which is expected to provide inputs to the world of education, particularly that of the english language, so that all the persons in charge of the policy making positions are conviced that indeed ict gadgets will persistently evolve to be richer facilities for learning which will be capable of changing and shapping a more rosy facet of education. 186 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 methods of data collection and analysis in this research, the researcher views the research object partly as being separate and independent of the investigator, as first of all it attempts to know how research respondents in this survey perceive the reality of the ict gadgets. yet, at the same time the data to be collected involve respondents’ opinions about their hands-on experience on the use of the gadgets. given such natures, the researchers considers that a mixed-method should be the appropriate approach to undertanding the phenomena being investigated. this way, this endeavour is expected to be capable of answering the research questions. the primary rationale supporting the use of mixed method is the amalgamation of both quantitative and qualitative data into a single end of continuum (creswell, 2009:840). to be more precise, researcher aims to embed the secondary data (qualitative data) to the primary data (quantitative). the second reason is that such an amalgamation allows the researcher to triangulate the research findings (rossman & wilson, 1994; creswell, 2003). triangulation (patton, 2001) refers to an attempt to look for research consistency which is, in this particular research, also intended to delve deeper into the very nature of the data so that both can be functionally complementary to each other in minimizing the pitfalls of a mere reliance on a single method (creswell, 2003). a. population and sample the total research subjects of 400 students from 4 public and 4 private schools were selected randomly to fill out the survey questionnaire consisting of various statements relevant to the respondents’ perceptual beliefs about ict, statements specifically designed to know the extent ict has been used in day-to-day life activities of the students both inside and outside classroom, as well as descriptive statements pertaining to language learning-related activities. whilst schools and participants were intentionally balanced between public and private to maintain non-bias portrayal of the phenomena, sex, in this research, was not particularly considerd as a significantly determining aspect in the data collection and analysis. upon completion of the survey, an fgd (focus groups discussion) was held involving five to 10 students per school institution to gather the information concerning their real experiences with ict gadgets ownership. suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 187 in indonesian high school b. data collection to obtain the data, researcher administered a survey questionnaire to the selected respondents. the instrument for this study was purposively designed close-ended in nature rather than open-ended, given that the purpose is to provide a descriptive quantitative analysis. for each of the statements in the instrument, participants were requested to choose answers based on likert scale of strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree for garnering information on the perception about the ict gadgets, whilst for the rests of the questionnaire, to establish frequency, rarely, sometimes, often, and very often were available options to choose from. the analyzed tapescripts of the fgd was then taken as supporting data. c. data analysis data were analyzed descriptively using spss statistical software to determine the mode, mean and the sd (standard deviations) as the statistical parameters of the analysis needed to generalize the findings. specifically for determining the respondents’ perception, the lower the mode suggests the less positive their perception and vice versa. similarly for the rest of the questionnaire, the lower the mean suggests the less important the item of the questionnaire, or suggests the less frequent use of the ict gadgets for particular activities as defined in the wordings of the questionnaire and vice versa. whilst, standard deviation is a statistical measure to determine the breadth the data dispersion are distributed. data from the fgd was analyzed topically to establish the consistency of the survey questions. d. establishing validity and reliability prior to data analysis, research instrument was piloted to 20 high school students to establish the validity and the reliability (the consistency of the instrument) of the questionnaire needed to determine the efficacy of the instrument (creswell, 2003), so that the results of which were expected to improve the wording, the scales, and the format of the questionnaire, in addition to establishing content validity. in the post-piloting stage, instrument of the research was revised for readiness of administration. 188 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 data analysis and discussion a. quantitative analysis the validity of the pre-data collection was conducted to test the 62 items of questionnaire by comparing the counted r value and r table. the r table of (.05) is 0.359. this means 95% items of questionnaire were valid. as for two (2) invalid items, revision has been made by simplifying the wording of the questionnaire. the reliability test indicates that r table at (.05) is 0.359, while the value of alpha is 0.957, meaning that the standard of consistency of the instrument is very well met. b. perception from the graph below, 71.5 % respondents chose 3, meaning that they perceived that technological gadgets indeed are useful for the day-to-day life, and 21.3% respondent perceived them very positively. there are only 7% respondents have negative perception. table 1 the mean of respondent’ perception statistics transformed data n valid 400 missing 0 mean 3,1325 mode 3,00 std. deviation ,56190 having been transformed, the statistical data show that the mean of the perception of the respondents is relatively high which is higher than 3.1 suggesting that all respondents perceive the ict gadgets positively. suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 189 in indonesian high school table 2 the valid percent of the respondent’ perception mean transformed data frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid 1,00 6 1,5 1,5 1,5 2,00 22 5,5 5,5 7,0 3,00 285 71,3 71,3 78,3 4,00 87 21,8 21,8 100,0 total 400 100,0 100,0 the mean as indicated in the previous table is further described by the valid percent of the data distribution where majority, i.e. 71.3 and 21.3 percents of the respondents subsequently perceive positively and very positively. there is only 7 percent of them who has negative perception. the above data detribution is more visible through te presentation of the graph below. figure 1 graph of perception 190 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 as detailed in the methodology chapter, this survey instrument managed to gather information about sex (male-female) and school status (public and private). this provides necessary information as regards how perception of the respondents is different as it is cross-tabulated across the two groups. the statistical crosstabulation produces the general overview of the differences. table 3 crosstabulation based on sex transformed data * sex crosstabulation count sex total males females transform1 1,00 2 4 6 2,00 14 8 22 3,00 127 158 285 4,00 37 50 87 total 180 220 400 the above graph further shows the differences of perception between males and females. however, the differences of data distribution does not in itself clarify the actual perceptual difference because the number of respondents were not equally distributed between the sex. so, it means that males and females tend to perceive similarly given the proportion of the number of the respondents. the graph below illustrates the tendency between the crosstabulated data of the sex of the respondents. suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 191 in indonesian high school figure 2 crosstabulation based on sex 0 50 100 150 200 males females 1 2 3 4 table 4 crostabulation based on public and private schools publicprivate total public private transform1 1,00 1 5 6 2,00 9 13 22 3,00 113 172 285 4,00 26 61 87 total 149 251 400 192 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 figure 3 crosstabulation based on school status 0 50 100 150 200 public private 1 2 3 4 just like the previous crosstabulated data, the respondents from both public and private schools also shows similar tendency in a sense that they have similar pattern. it is evident from the graph that despite the inequal number, participants from both institutions have similar perception. c. the general use of gadgets as can be seen in the table below, among the most frequent use of the ict gadgets are for on line chatting and social media activites, checking the dictionary and encyclopedia, and searching the internet for practical information and learning-related information search, exploring and using softwares, and watching and downloading activities. table 5 the modus value of the outside-school use statistics suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 193 in indonesian high school three activities which have less portion of time allocation are reading and eamailing, on line gaming, participating in on line discussion forum. how they, overall suggest that ict gadgets have been used for various positive activities despite variation of frequencies. d. specific school-related use of ict gadgets the table below presents the data of the students’ use of ict gadgets for activities realated to day-to-day school activities. table 3 indicates that the use of ict is predominantly for leisure instead of academic. this is vindicated by predominant modus of 2 of the respondents’ reponses. conclusion that can be drawn from this section is that there has not enough attempt made at both an individual or institutional level to optimize the wealth of the educational technological gadgets. the fact that substandard infrastructure for ict provision as well as the insufficient effort to sytematically exploit the gadgets for a well-planned and well-organized fashion might also be a reason why students have not used or rarely used them for academic activities. activites such as communicating via email with the teachers, the rare participation on on line learning, the less frequent collecting and saving necessary information for learning purposes confirm the above claim. table 6 value of modus of academic use statistics 194 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 e. ict gadgets for learning english the mean value is 2.5 within the standard deviation of 0.75, meaning that respondents have their gadgets but have yet to use them for activities relevant to learning english purposes. this, at the same time, indicates that despite the availability of the gadgets, the use for learning english remains average or insufficiently taken to its optimum advantage. table 7 mean value of the gadgets use for learning english suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 195 in indonesian high school the opportunities that the ict gadets offer for improving english language skills such as reading, writing, listening, grammar quizzes, vocabulary expansion have not frequently and purposively taken. f. discrepancies from the qualitative data analysis, it is noticeable that respondents know how beneficial the ict gadgets is for their day-to-day life. this excerpt illustrates it. k: do you think ict gadgets are useful for you? d: ooo certainly. very beneficial. yes, supposing you don’t have dictionary with you, or you are lazy to bring hard copy books, you just need to search the need you will find what you want. there are plenty you can explore in the net. you can find references easily, journal or whatever you want. for the useability of ict gadgets for learning english, the fgd participantss clearly indicate that they know that there a lot to get exploitable from the ict gadgets. these are their responses. k: what can you amagine the ict gadgets can do to help you learn and improve your english. what do you think you can benefit from it? w: a lot, such as looking up a disctionary, also there are a lot of applications useable for improving our english. d: for our english learning purposes, we can watch video on you tube, as there are a lot spoken in english. that way we can learn speaking and listening. we can read articles written in english, so we can expand our vocabulary. k: very very useful and helpful. from the last part of the fgd, we notice that there has been inconsistency of participants’ direct responses and the responses of survey questions where the statistical mean of the ict gadgets use for learning english were relatively low all over, contrast with their aknowledgement about its importance for english learning assistance. thus there has been discrepancies between the knowledge about the use and the actual practice of 196 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 day-to-day use. they tend to infrequently use the gadgets for consciously learning english script of fgd suggests that the answer to fgd questions was consistent with the survey result in that ict gadgets are most popularly used for social media activities, gaming, communicating, whilest less so for systematic use of learning. if there is any effort to use for learning purposes, it tends to be done sporadically by individual learner which vary from person to person. this means that the optimal use of the ict gadgets for learning, especially for learning english, is not yet achieved. this opens up an opportunity to use it for optimum use should school institution or even higher level of authority, such as policy makers in the national or reginal levels, begin to systematically do make an effort to produce a comprehensive plan to take ict more seriously by making policies of integration into curriculum complete with clear gudelines and detail of implementation. from there, a conclusion can be drawn that despite their effort to use ict gadgets fpr learning english, the systematic and regular use for learning has not taken place. this might be because demand and stimulus to do so coming students’ external parties such as institution, teachers, and conducive academic environment has not yet been in existent. another discrepancy disclosed from the fgd was that infrastructural aspects of ict both in the provision of gadgets and the quality of the internet connection was realized to be far from sufficient and presentable. some participants even expressed their griefance about how access to the internet which is supposedly open to all turns out to be exclusively accessible only to limited few people even with passwords made known to only prevellege few. what is more, when they are lucky to get access, the quality of connection is extremely poor and under-standard. it means that the surveyed school institutions, for one or another reason, have been unaware of possibly ignored the prevalent mismatched policies in their respective establisments. fgd also unleases findings that very few respondents either together in group or individually have taken the advantages of the ict gadgets for learning english. some said they only began to learn english only when their english teacher asked to do so. from there we can say that there is still conspicuously a wide gap between the advancement of ict and the the supposedly functional use of it for learning. for one, the reason for that is the poor standard quality of technological insfrastructures, and for another is the non-existence of necessary sub-system to support learning to happen. in other suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 197 in indonesian high school words, a systematic effort and willingness to exploit technological-based materials and to get them integrated into english language teaching and learning is still very low. it is not the students who do not know and want to maximize for learning but instead learning enviroments which are not conducive to their learning. an important contribution that this research has made, among other things, is that the final destination of the ict gadgets for optimal use of learning will eventually very much depend on the creation of precondition for learning both in terms of infrastructure and sub-system. in order for decent learning to take place, it demands that each individual school institution provide minimum infrustructure needed to support learning and the real creation of the sub-systems in the form of compatible policies supporting the integration of ict gadgets into school curricula, which means that decision makers in the local, regional, and national levels are the ones to start with to be followed by the strategy for ict trainings and classroom implementation. conclusions the research respondents, irrespective of the sex and school status, perceived the ict gadgets positively as vindicated by the survey and fgd results and that the respondents have generally used the ict gadgets for activities of necessity such as on line chats, reading news, using disctionaries and encyclopedia, searching for information, downloading and watching videos, and the most populair one is using it for social media activities. in spite of being in the generally underfacilitated school environments, students have individually made use of the ict gadgets positively. respondents have exploited them, however erratically, for such a wide range of purposes including to support learning. unfortunately as indicated by the moderatly low accumulative mean scores and the results of fgd which managed to discover the generally poor sub-standard quality of ict infrastructure and the non existence of supporting sub-sytems at schools, therefore, we can conclude that the prime reasons respondents have not taken advantage of the ict gadgets to specially use for improving and learning english, such as reading, writing, listening, grammar quizzes, vocabulary expansion is not the lack of knowledge about the potential contribution the ict can make for learning english but rather the prevalent institutional policy mismatch. to cope with it, a real action by both policy makers and institutonal levels to start changing policies on ict integration into the school curricula is barely unpostponable. 198 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 177-200 suggestions the analysis reveals that ict gadgets bring with them the substantial potentials should they be optimized for learning through systematic and purposeful activities properly designed by school learning-related activities. the problem, therefore, lies on the extent to which the school policy makers, or school curriculum designers would consider integrating the ict into the school curricula through explicit, structured and measurable classroom activities. with that in mind the researchers would suggest that anyone concerns with the strategic importance of ict to take it seriously for the best possible advantage of the future activities of learning and teaching. in order for convincing that the suggestion this research has made gains stronger basis, another research investigating the extent each individual institution has started integrating ict into teaching and learning english has to be done. so, an observation and interview with the school principals and english teacher would be of meaningful research instruments. references avram, r., & tami, d. (2004). the impact of ict on education: the three opposed paradigms, the lacking discourse. retrieved july 14, 2007, from http://www.informatik.uniremen.de/~mueller/kr004/ressources/ict_im pact.pdf. benson, p. & lor, w. (1999). conceptions of language and language learning. system, 27, 459–72. brush, t., glazewski, k. d. & hew, k. f., (2008). development of an instrument to measure preservice teachers’ technology skills, technology beliefs, and technology barriers. computers in the schools, 25, 112-125. castro sánchez, j. j. & alemán, e. c., 2011. teachers’ opinion survey on the use of ict tools to support attendance-based teaching. journal computers and education, 56, 911-915. chen, c.l.a. (2011). extended implications of technology in learning. columbia university working papers in tesol & applied linguistics, 11 (2), 27-29. suratno, a. & aydawati, e.n., exploring students’ perception and ict use 199 in indonesian high school creswell, j. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications computer-enhanced language learning (pp. 1–13). alexandria, va: tesol. creswell, j.w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. (3rd ed.). los angeles, ca: sage.d.shyamlee, s. (2012). use of technology in english language teaching and learning: an analysis. 33. creswell, j.w. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage. ellis, r. (2008). learner beliefs and language learning. asia tefl journal, 10 (4): conference proceedings. kompas.com (2016) pengguna internet di indonesia capai 132 juta. saturday, 29oktober2016. http://tekno.kompas.com/read/2016/10/24/15064727/ 2016.pengguna. internet.di.indonesia.capai.132.juta. liu, y. 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(1998). computers and language learning: an overview. language teaching, 31, 57-71. doi:10.1017/s0261444 800012970. the hunger games: representing the new image of american popular heroes aidatul chusna and lynda susana w.a.f. aidatul.chusna@gmail.com; lyndafatmawaty@gmail.com english literature, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university, indonesia abstract: this research is aimed at revealing the new image of american popular heroes as depicted in the novel adaptation film of the hunger games which is created as a trilogy, which consists of two more novels: catching fire and mockingjay. this film is one of the most phenomenal films in 2013-2104, which grossed out up to $407,999,255. this research used textual approach, which focused on the text as the object, that is the hunger games film. the result shows that the hunger games essentially brings the issue of slavery back into scrutiny. however, the creation of the heroin in the film is granted as the reconstruction of popular heroes in america. she is an inspiring female hero which is exemplified as the appreciation of women’s values. yet, the heroin is broadly defined with the qualities of rouge heroes as the characteristics are the representation of the belief and values associated with freedom to wash away the oppression restore the rights of the minority. in addition to the issue of slavery , the symbols of new hope and new spirit are implicitly emerged in the story. this attempt was proficiently done by the heroin, which was eventually created as the new image of the american heroes. key words: slavery, new image, american popular heroes, popular culture abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui imej baru tentang pahlawan di amerika seperti yang tergambar dalam film popular yang diadaptasi dari novel yang berjudul the hunger games, yang merupakan trilogi yaitu catching fire dan mockingjay. film ini merupakan film yang sangat fenomenal di tahun 2013 -2014, yang chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 119 image of american popular heroes meraup keuntungan hingga 407,999,255 dolar. penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan tekstual, dengan memfokuskan pada teks sebagai obyek penelitiannya, yaitu film the hunger games. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa film ini kental sekali menggambarkan isu tentang perbudakan. tetapi, penciptaan pahlawan perempuan dalam film ini menunjukkan adanya rekonstruksi terhadap pop hero amerika. tokoh utama dalam film ini merupakan kebangkitan semangat dari munculnya pahlawan perempuan sebagai bentuk apreasiasi terhadap nilai perempuan. disisi lain, heroin dalam film ini dapat dikategorikan sebagai rouge heroes karena ciri-ciri dan karakternya merepresentasikan nilai dan norma yang berkaitan dengan kebebasan untuk menghapus opresi terhadap kaum minoritas. selain isu tersebut, isu tentang harapan dan semangat baru juga melekat erat dalam cerita film ini. hal ini tentunya ada pada heroin (pahlawan perempuan) yang merupakan perwujudan imej baru pahlawan di amerika. kata kunci: perbudakan, imej baru, pop hero amerika, pop culture introduction this paper is aimed at discussing the new representation of popular hero in america as depicted in the film the hunger games. the existence of heroes seem not only very influential in the success of a film but far more in shaping behaviour and good attitude in life. therefore, heroes are possibly represented as ideal human icon as part of a culture. the discussion of superheroes is important in order to understand american popular culture. in american popular culture, heroes bring the idea of equality in achieving any goals for whoever come and live in america. this suggests that heroes promote the idea of equaility, justice and freedom in america. the research is dealing with film analysis as the object is a film. film analysis has gained its popularity in literature research as a film has become one of the most effective media to shape a new culture. in their book about popular culture, nachbar & lause (1992, p. 6) stated that “the need and desire of the producers of popular culture to reflect audience’s beliefs and values are in order to ensure that their product will be accepted by the masses, and the uncertainty involved in defining the precise nature of this zeitgeist deals with any particular time”. zeitgeist is a german terminology which refers to the spirit of an era that relates the major beliefs and values of a culture during a specific period of time. this spirit definitely brings its own trend as reflected 120 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 118-133 by certain generation’s taste. therefore, the condition of zeitgeist keeps continuing whenever producers discover a successful formula 1 . heroes in cinema suspiciously transformed the story into very beneficial access for the producer. so far, super heroes come with different models as produced by movie makers with flawless transformation. this means that the representation of superheroes is changing based on the society’s beliefs and values in a certain period and is affected by its social context. for example, the icon of 1980’s hero is represented by rambo, then change into new form of superheroes in 1990’s such as x-man. american heroes are believed to reveal modesty which possibly involved them in everyday activities or events, yet arise from commonplace of origins. by the time, super heroes transform their existence into various forms with imaginative and array superpower equipments. american heroes are varied. they can be a leader such as george washington and abraham lincoln. they also can be a celebrity like elvis presley, jack kerouac, and madonna. however, the hero can also be imaginative characters such as superman, spiderman, or batman. this condition highlights one thing that american popular heroes are not only someone up in the sky with his/her super power but also someone who live near us with the common qualities as ordinary human being (nachbar & lausse, 1992, p. 315). therefore, instead of common figures and background they share similarity features like their specialty and capabilities since these heroes come up as the pride for the american community and culture. the story about a hero fighting against villains is a big hit in american film industries. a film about superman, for example, the ‘super alien’ who stands up against the attack from his villains lex luthor and general zod has been reproduced in 2013 with the title man of steel that grossed out $291,021,565 (imdb.com). similarly, the story of the amazing spiderman has become one of the most successful films in 2012, followed by its sequels and prequels. and we never forget, at the same year, the conflict between batman and his eternal enemy, the joker in the dark knight rises, becomes “a billion dollar baby” (thehollywoodreporter.com). the success of the super hero movies, however, also includes the hunger games, a novel-adaptation movie, 1 formula is shortly defined as a set of ingredients which seems to reflect audience’s desires. it is a structure of narrative or dramatic conventions employed in a great number of individual works (cawelty, 1976, p. 5) chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 121 image of american popular heroes because it has gained $152,535,747 in its opening week and $407,999,255 total gross in us (imdb.com). this research is about a new image of hero that deals with the transformation of the 21 st era. as hunger games deals with slavery, people are paying attention to this problem without considering the global issues of the new form of heroin in cinema. the researcher believes that the reconstruction of the hero in this film results in an absolutely new form of hero in popular culture. thus, this research is essential to discuss. it is important to reveal the new form of heroin in famous movie as many people do not realize that those heroes are magically created with the purpose of reconstructing the old heroes and promoting new ideology to the world. former research which was done by gary engle suggested that superman as the great american hero is truly mythic. he says, “superman, who is depicted as uncompromised alien, is an immigrant. he comes from different planet which gives him super powers such as his strength, high mobility, and x-ray vision” (cited in nachbar & lause, 1992, pp. 333-334). all of these super powers are similar with the comic books that basically depict ethnic characteristics in which it protects and preserves the vitality of the foster community in which he lives in the similar way that immigrant ethnicity has sustained american culture linguistically, artistically, economically, politically, and spiritually. it was perceived similarly as the value of those american immigrant. research method this research is a descriptive qualitative research, which applies textual approach by elaborating the theory of popular culture to analyze the object. the data of this research are sentences and actions from the film of the hunger games. the data are analysed by using content analysis method. this method seeks to analyse data within specific context in view of the meanings attribute to them (krippendorf, 1989, p. 403). the first step is choosing the object or text of this research that is the film entitled the hunger games. the next step is qualifying the data by watching the movie. then, the researchers did data sorting by focusing on the heroin’s words and actions which reflect the ideas of the new image of american popular hero. further, the cultural theory about american hero phenomenon in popular culture is applied to analyze and to correlate the heroin and american culture that can be seen from the film. since the hero of the hunger games is a woman, the theories and approaches which concern about women issues are also needed. thus, feminist criticism 122 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 118-133 theory is applied to support the analysis. the qualities of the heroin in the hunger games film are then categorized and are described as the form of a new image of american hero. literature review a. feminist criticism arising in early twentieth century, feminist criticism theory concerns on women’s experience and language and it examines the way literary works and reinforce or undermines any cultural productions of women oppression in any fields. elaine showalter (cited in newton, 1988, p. 268) divides feminist criticism into two categories: feminist critique and gynocritics. the first category is concerned with women as readers, women as the consumers of male produced literature, and with the significance of sexual code in a given text. the subjects of feminist critique include “the image and stereotype of women in literature, the omissions and misconceptions about woman in criticism, and the fissure in male constructed literary history…. also with the exploitation and manipulation of female audience, especially in popular culture and film, and with the analysis of woman-as-sign in semiotic systems” (newton, 1988, p. 268). meanwhile, gynocritics, a french-adapted term la gynocritique, is concerned with woman as writer, which means focusing on literature written by women. it includes female creativity, female language, the trajectory of female literary career, literary history and the studies of particular writers and works (newton, 1988, p. 268). above all, as tyson said ”the goal of feminist criticism is to increase our awareness of women’s past and present experiences and to promote our appreciation of women’s value in the world” (cited in newton, 1988, p.119). b. american heroes the creation of superheroes chiefly demonstrated their particular abilities and characteristics, yet it has great implication on viewers. nachbar & lause stated that the popular american heroes are men and women, which are basically aimed at proposing the belief that anybody is capable to achieve similar goals (1992, p. 315). as a consequence, the status of being the most important person in america is possible for anyone who was born in america. chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 123 image of american popular heroes this is aimed to emphasize the belief that everyone is equal as s/he has the same right and opportunity to retrieve and achieve the best on her/his efforts. in american hero films, familiar conflicts are also embedded in the heroes created from america such as the conflict of individual freedom versus democracy. it can be identified that american heroes are not represented as aristocrats, but they demonstrate modesty which was revealed from common place of origins and, are engaged in everyday activities and events. this idea is indeed an attempt to represent the members of the culture and furthermore, the ideals of that culture. further, nachbar & lause stated that the characteristics of heroes embody a set of beliefs and values that their society and cultural embrace (1992, p. 316). yet, heroes have certain common characteristics which according to nachbar & lause is broadly categorized into two, they are citizen heroes and rouge heroes (1992, p. 316) which are explained as follows: (1) citizen heroes this kind of hero is typically both men and women who embody myths associated with the mainstream american, the traditional values of the community and the nation. these heroes must be the defenders of the community and they must put their gifts and qualities to work so that the culture is preserved and the society is prosperous. the examples of citizen heroes are george washington and abraham lincoln, who are gifted with military and political strategiesst that put them in eternal memory of the legends (nachbar & lause, 1992, p.317). (2) rouge heroes rouge heroes are the heroes who are the representatives of the beliefs and values associated with individual freedom, with the need to challenge the mainstream when its powerful currents threaten to wash away minority rightsis in the favour of the majority rules. rouge heroes do live fast, die young, and sometimes leave a beautiful corpse. further, they act out of the fundamental american fantasy of absolute personal freedom in a land of infinite frontiers, endless roads and limits set only by themselves. they often represent subgroups of a certain culture which feel similarly alienated from a larger community (nachbar & lause, 1992, p. 320). from both of the definitions of the heroes above, it can be highlighted that citizen heroes preserve the culture represented by people as emblems, in 124 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 118-133 which it is the way how we see ourselves and how we want others to see us. meanwhile, rogue heroes are closer to the regular icons of symbolism of people that is generated by our strong feelings about them. in other words, citizen heroes make life and culture possible but rogue heroes make it exciting and fun (nachbar & lause, 1992, p. 321). findings the hunger games is a movie adapted from a novel with the same title written by suzanne collin. it is a novel which presents the miserable life of district 12 who has to waive to the authority of panem, the new country that rules with totalitarian law. it is resonant with the contemporary society that we live in today. we are devastated by the effect of climate change and war. floods, earthquakes, and cyclones happen daily in different parts of this planet. the merapi eruption in late october and early november 2010 is a case in point. more than 200 people were killed during the eruption and 400,000 residents were evacuated from the affected area (edition.cnn.com). moreover, war, poverty, famine, and crimes also show the apocalyptic condition of the world today. district 12 of panem exemplifies the helpless society controlled by the wealthy people. it is the poorest district in panem. compared to those in the capitol, people in district 12 live miserably; it’s so hard to find food in this area that many are starved to death. a palpable contrast is shown in the film: the dim atmosphere, wretched houses, and faint faces of the district 12 people, in contrast with the colourful scenery, luxurious lifestyle, and smiling faces of the capitol society. the film expresses the juxtaposition of the two classes through its setting as well as its storyline. the hero of the hunger games, as this paper mainly discusses, is presented as the leader of the helpless people of district 12. she is katniss everdeen, a young woman who is once the breadwinner and protector of her grief-stricken mother and her sister, due to the death of their father. she voluntarily takes her sister’s place in an annual deadly game held by the wealthy, controlling capitol. known as the hunger game, the game is a punishment for the rebellion of the districts against the capitol. every year, each district has to send male and female tributes to take part in the game. these tributes have to compete each other and fight to death to be the lone victor of the game. throughout her fights and rebellion in this gladiatorial game, katniss everdeen turns to be a hero and inspires her people and those from other districts to fight against the tyranny of the capitol. she becomes a chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 125 image of american popular heroes new image of american popular heroism as she displays certain qualities that american people welcome and expect in this era. below are three prominent qualities issued by the figure of katniss everdeen. a. the representation of individual freedom american people highly praise individual freedom as the core of democratic value. it is guaranteed in the declaration of independence, “that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights,that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” (jefferson in hollinger & capper, 2001, p. 134). the shared belief of individual freedom as the essential characteristic of free government binds americans who come from diverse groups and countries (usa.usem bassy.de/etexts/gov/peoplerights.pdf). a political scientist, ralph bunche observes how people believe in the glorification of american value that every man in the street, white, black, red and yellow, knows that this is the “land of free”, the “land of opportunity”, the “cradle of liberty”, the “home of democracy”, that the american flag symbolizes the “equality of all men” and guarantees to us all” the protection of life, liberty and property,” freedom of speech, freedom of religion and racial tolerance. (myrdall in hollinger & capper, 2001, p. 250) however, the reality speaks differently. many people in america cannot enjoy their freedom. many are marginalized regarding social and economic status, race, gender and religion. the practice of slavery describes how black people are marginalized and restrained due to their skin colour. another example is women suffrage in america. america denied women’s right to vote until the ratification of amendment 19, which provides full voting rights for women nationally. the movie centres on katniss everdeen, the heroine, who strives to survive and triumphs in a bloody arena. the figure of the female hero presented in this film provides a new alternative of what people define as a popular hero. as nachbar & lause have mentioned, the characteristics of heroes embody a set of beliefs and values that their society and culture embrace (1992, p. 314). however, each hero may represent and crystallize different aspects of cultural mentality. moreover, each also has different interpretations on the competing values of ‘democratic’ and individual freedoms manifested in his/her actions. 126 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 118-133 katniss everdeen is viewed as the representation of a rebellious teenager against the authority which controls her poor society. her disobedience to the rules of the game is obvious. she is the concrete image of a person who highly praises the individual freedom and refuses the rules set by the authority which imprisons her life. it reminds us of the inspiring act conducted by a major american writer, henry david thoreau, who refused to pay the poll tax. his noncompliance to the government is due to his belief that the money raised is used by the government to support slavery and american expansion in mexico. he believes that “the government is best which governs least; it means that government has to respect individual right and freedom of its citizen” (hollinger & capper, 2001, p. 404). katniss everdeen’s determination to disobey and challenge the rules of the deadly games shows the character of rogue hero who wants to defend her right to live free. she also represents a hero of the minority group, district 12, against the oppressive authority and domination of the capitol society. in either science fiction or fantasy genres, popular heroes are usually described as a gifted person such as superman with his super power and ability to fly, hulk with his power due to a chemical accidents, the ‘fantastic four’ heroes who gain their superpower after the gamma radiation, and captain america who becomes superhuman after taking super-soldier serum, and in this case, katniss everdeen as a gifted archer. all these kinds of powers are used to defend their community. in addition, they possess certain qualities that the culture values highly. although he is an alien, superman shows his integrity and loyalty to the society in this earth. similarly, katniss everdeen shows her loyalty and integrity to her partner in the games, which is against what the game’s producer’s will. being the winner of the deadly game, katniss everdeen also shows her strong will and hard work to achieve the goal. she doesn’t partake in manipulation, betrayal or other wrongdoings to gain her victory. american history has noted a quality possessed by benjamin franklin known as american dream. it is a belief that people can aspire to material success if they follow a set of behaviour rules, set forth by the eighteenth century’s benjamin franklin (trask in piper, 1970, p. 213). in the autobiography of benjamin franklin, he noted thirteen virtues which serve as a code and an expression of life, they are: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquillity, chastity, and humility. by conducting these virtues in one’s habit, as franklin believes, he would achieve happiness in life and goals. chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 127 image of american popular heroes unfortunately, this is no longer considered important in american’s life as materialism has overpowered them. allen ginsberg is concerned that america is “gone mad with materialism… prepared to battle the world in defence of a false image of its authority. not the wild and beautiful america of the comrades of whitman… where the spiritual independence of each individual was an america” (cited in lee, 2010, p. 9). the title of the film refers to a competition to survive and be the winner of a vicious game. beginning as the reminder and punishment of the treason, the hunger games is held annually as merely entertainment for the wealthy society in the capitol. this deadly game is broadcasted because the audience, the affluent society of the capitol, likes this program. the irony of the game is that it forces the players, or the candidates of each district, to kill each other and survive in this tv program. various threats and terrors are created to increase the tense of the game. the spectators are thrilled at watching the tributes battle each other to survive and claim victory. the conflicts and tense happened in the game add the popularity and success of the program. the more popular the game, the more sponsor it gets. in the end, money matters. the movie of the hunger games shows the irony of american capitalism. the district people represent the hopeless and oppressed society under the power and domination of the wealthy society; that is the capitol. by breaking the rule of the game, katniss everdeen symbolizes the rebellion of the poor people from capitalism. b. the representation of ideal woman the reason of constructing a heroin is apparently aimed to refresh the audiences’ perception that men and women are equal. from decades, most of hollywood movies tend to create men as the super heroes such as batman, superman, robocop, spiderman, etc. yet, the existences of women super heroes are rarely chosen by the producer. thus, the figure of a heroin in this film is strictly affectionate to the audiences that women are as men. the creativity to illustrate the heroin in this film is a kind of appreciation to open the world’s mind that there is a great influence of women that can be explored and may appear beyond expectation. as seen in the hunger games, this is obviously a new reconstruction of superheroes to legitimate the value of women on their very own power. the figure of katniss everdeen also brings new atmosphere for the women audience. played by jennifer lawrence, the hero of the film provides the ideal image of woman in this century. beautiful, well-shaped body, and 128 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 118-133 feminine look do not only belong to a princess, but a female superhero is also attributed with such appearance. katniss everdeen is not only admired for being a skillful archer, but also adored due to her physical appearance and fashion. the outfit that she wears in the parade to increase her popularity for the game makes her the most favourite amongst all of the candidates. her beautiful appearance positively gives more quality to different images of an american popular hero. the figure of katniss everdeen challenges feminists’ belief that femininity signifies ‘the otherness’ which put woman inferior to man. feminists believe that women’s quest for femininity and beauty is made as a problem and becomes the major cause of women oppression. this antifeminine has lasted since the first feminist movements in the late eighteenth century to those in the late twentieth century (genz & brabon, 2009, p. 23). apart from her stand out appearance, katniss everdeen is an icon for strong and powerful woman who is able to stand on her own feet and makes her own choices in life. in her youth, she proves to be independent, financially and emotionally. she becomes the backbone of her family and becomes the protector of her sister. her decision to replace her sister to be the tribute of district 12 for the hunger games shows her emotional independence. in today’s era, woman is urged to make her own decision and to make choices in her life. moreover, she shows her leadership which a superhero possesses. the leadership and independence that katniss everdeen exhibits in the story of the hunger games are the manifestation of postfeminist view that woman is an active subject who is capable and responsible with her own life. it calls for woman’s autonomy which gives freedom to choose her own path of life. it breaks the notion that woman is passive and dependent on man. c. the revival of american hope generally speaking, the concept of ‘hope’ is defined verily. in the old and new testament, hope is understood primarily as “reliance and trust in god to complete god's plan for humanity” (peters, 1993, p. 2). it means searching for god’s protection, trusting fully in god to fulfill promises of blessing, and waiting patiently on god to accomplish this. thus, people can and should hope, since god fulfills all promises. meanwhile, descartes, in passions of soul, states that “hope is aroused when a desire for either the acquisition of a good or the removal of an evil is accompanied by the probability that this can be accomplished” (cited in peters, 1993, p. 4). great philosophers such as philo, saint augustine, aquinas, and martin luther laid a great emphasis on the value of religious hope. chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 129 image of american popular heroes american history noted that hope has become the character of the people since the coming of the europeans to north america. america, according to johnson, is known as a “new world; it attracts people from around world come to get better life” (1997, p. 13). he continues to note that christopher columbus has argued that men crossed the atlantic not only to search for gold, but also to transform the world for the better. he further says that these adventurous and idealist young people seek for a new world, since europe was too small for making their dream come true (johnson, 1997, p.13). america is considered as a ‘promised land’, a title which refers to a biblical episode of exodus from egypt to the promised land. america as a promised land is named by john winthrop, who came and led puritans to america, to build a new community as a redemptive act from the wicked old world. winthrop dreamt on building an ideal society which could become an example for others, as stated in his sermon before his puritan fellow: “we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us” (johnson, 1997, p. 31). until today, america becomes the land of hope for people worldwide. hopes and dreams mold the optimism of the american people. the myth of the american dream proves the optimistic mood of american people. the autobiography of benjamin franklin reflects the philosophy of hope or of optimism. lemay (2009, p. 21) sees the autobiography as the formulation of american dream, as it demonstrates that “man does have choice in the new world, that man can create himself”. franklin’s autobiography does not only shows the popular belief of american dream, that is the rise of rags to riches, but it also signifies the rise from impotence to importance, from dependence to independence, and from helplessness to power. moreover, it also shows that the american dream is a dream of possibility a hope for a better world, a new world, free from the ills of the old. however, there are some times when americans lose their optimistic mood. the economic crisis in the 1930s which is known as the american great depression portrays the time when americans lived in despair. the wall street crash in 1928 caused many people to lose their jobs and become unemployed. today, america is also experiencing another economic crisis. according to millbank, the 2014 nbc-wall street journal poll shows fully 76 percent of respondents expressed their lack of confidence that the future generation will have better life. it was the lowest number ever measured in a survey which indicates americans’ uncertainty and pessimism. not only is pessimism found in an economic realm, but also found in broader aspects. 130 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 118-133 fred yang, a democratic pollster, calls that pessimism is universal; it goes beyond wealth, gender, race, region, age, and ideology. this steep decline of american optimism has shown since the late1990s and early 2000s. (milbank, 2014) despite americans’ pessimism, barack obama brought forward the issue of hope in 2004 democratic national convention. before the iowa caucusses, barack obama stated that “hope is the bedrock of this nation; the belief that our destiny will not be written for us, but by us; by all those men and women who are not content to settle for the world as it is; who have courage to remake the world as it should be” (jorge, et.al, 96). obama’s theme of hope becomes viral in america, and it evokes the people to build hope for better future. in the discussion of batman movies, christopher nolan argues that a superhero is a symbol of hope, that ‘people aspire to do something better’ (forbes.com). katniss everdeen, a high spirited young woman from a desolate society, emerges as a symbol of rebellion against tyranny. she becomes the symbol of hope for the minority group. the hunger games reflects the hope that every american can achieve his/ her dream. hope that katniss has given to the district people is what scare the enemy the most. katniss also proves what bruce ‘batman’ wayne says in the end of the dark night rises that ‘a hero can be anyone’. to sum up, an excerpt from henry-wordsworth langfellow’s poem entitled ‘the psalm of life’ below may tell us that we must always stand and fight to make our life note-worthy. in the world's broad field of battle in the bivouac of life be not like dumb driven cattle! be a hero in the strife! (cited in wiersbe, 1997, p.154) conclusion the success of the hunger games shows the shifting interest of people in viewing a new figure of heroes in american films. previously, a hero is a man with superpowers fighting against villains who become threats of the society. the figures of superman, batman, and spiderman among others are very famous and familiar worldwide. these figures reflect the superiority of man over woman. however, the hunger games gives a new alternative of hero which reflects the existence and equality of woman in society. katniss everdeen, the chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 131 image of american popular heroes heroine of the film, represents an ideal woman in this era, due to the qualities that she exhibits throughout the story. played by jennifer lawrence, katniss everdeen displays a skilful, independent, and beautiful young woman who is able to achieve her goal. moreover, katniss everdeen calls for individual freedom which is considered as the highest value of american democracy. she also represents the revival of hope, which american people are losing and need most today. the combination of these qualities is presented in the hunger games as a new figure of a popular hero. references castle, g. 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(2001). resistence to civil government (1849). in hollinger, david a. charles capper (eds.). the american intellectual tradition. vol. i: 1630-1865, pp. 403–416. oxford: oup. chusna, a. & susana w.a.f., l. the hunger games: representing the new 133 image of american popular heroes trask, d. f. (1970). the end of the american dream. in h.d. piper (ed.). fitzferald’s the great gatsby: the novel, the critics, the background. ny: charles scribner’s sons. tyson, l. (2006). critical theory today. new york: routledge. wiersbe, w. w. (1997). be heroic. colorado springs: david c. cook. cover-december celt 15 vol 2 index rev 2 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 2; december 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia figuring the context of ctl under the 2013 curiculum chairina nasir1, ika apriani fata1, bukhari daud1, & nia isniati2 1english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia 2freelance english teacher at banda aceh, indonesia ph: +62 8116833336 email: rina_naseer@yahoo.com ika.unsiyah@gmail.com bukharidaud@yahoo.com nia.isniati@gmail.com received: 26-01-2016 accepted: 23-02-2017 published: 28-02-2017 figuring the context of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under the 2013 curriculum chairina nasir1, ika apriani fata1, bukhari daud1, and nia isniati2 rina_naseer@yahoo.com; ika.unsyiah@gmail.com; bukhari daud@yahoo.com; nia.isniati@gmail.com 1english education, faculty of teacher training and education, syiah kuala university, banda aceh, indonesia 2freelance english teacher at banda aceh, indonesia abstract: the 2013 curriculum states that the purpose of teaching english for junior high school is to develop students’ communicative competence. in line with this expectation, several learning characteristics have been defined i.e. learning from model, observing, questioning, gathering information, associating, and communicating. therefore, the teaching approaches that are used by the teacher in teaching english must suit the criteria to promote students' communicative competence. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) seems to be compatible as an approach since it has the the characteristics of constructivism, questioning, inquiry, learning community, modelling, reflection, and authentic assessment, which are similar to the learning characteristics mentioned above, which are similar to the learning characteristics mentioned above. , which are similar to the learning characteristics mentioned above. therefore, a qualitative research concerning the issue was conducted to see how ctl approach is implemented under the 2013 curriculum in teaching reading comprehension. from the result of observation, questionnaire, and interview as the instruments, it was found that ctl was implemented properly from phase to phase and is applicable to be implemented under the curriculum. also, it promotes active and enjoyable learning, facilitates the students to comprehend the material and helps them to implement the knowledge in real life. the. the teacher had implemented all of the procedures of ctl under the 150 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 149-162 instruction of the 2013 curriculum. thus, applying the ctl ctl approach in the process of teaching for the 2013 curriculum for the 2013 curriculum is recommended since it gives satisfactory benefits for students. key words: ctl, teaching reading comprehension, teaching reading comprehension, the 2013 curriculum. abstrak: kurikulum 2013 mengamanahkan bahwa siswa tingkat sekolah menengah pertama wajib mengembangkan kompetensi komunikatif. sejalan dengan tujuan pendidikan tersebut, berbagai macam teknik pembelajaran dikembangkan seperti learning from model, observing, questioning, gathering information, associating, and communicating. oleh karena itu, dalam proses belajar mengajar, seorang guru bahasa inggris, contohnya, wajib menyesuaikan teknik belajar untuk mencapai tujuan kompetensi komunikatif tersebut. pembelajaran kontekstual diasumsikan dapat mengaplikasikan konsep konstruktivisme (constructivism), bertanya (questioning), menemukan (inquiri), masyarakat belajar (learning community), permodelan (modeling), refleksi (reflection) dan penilaian yang sebenarnya (authentic assessment). penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa penerapan pembelajaran kontekstual dengan kurikulum 2013. metode penelitian ini adalah kualitatif. hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan berdasarkan observasi, kuesioner dan wawancara bahwa pembelajaran kontekstual (ctl) pada kurikulum 2013 diimplementasikan secara bertahap sesuai dengan prosedurnya. di tambah pula, pendekatan kontekstual berhasil membuat siswa aktif dan menikmati suasana belajar serta dapat merelasikan dengan kehidupan sehari-hari. dengan demikian, direkomendasikan penggunaan pendekatan kontestual dalam pengajaran membaca dalam bahasa inggris dengan kurikulum 2013. kata kunci: pembelajaran kontestual (ctl), pengajaran membaca dalam bahasa inggris, kurikulum 2013. research background the purpose of teaching english in indonesia under the 2013 curriculum is to develop students’ communicative competency in english both oral and written language. the communicative competence includes linguistic competence, actional competence, socio-cultural competence, and strategic competence. according to celce-murcia, dôrnyei & thurrel (1995) nasir, c., fata, i.a., daud, b., & isniati, n., figuring the context of 151 contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under the 2013 curriculum learners with linguistic competence are able to master the pronunciation and spelling rules. they are also keen on the rules of word forms, rules of standard sentences, rules of vocabulary, and rules of meaning. actional competence that that takes place in in language is used to communicate people’s actions. in speaking, people can request service, give praise, ask for information, and so forth. while in writing, people also commit acts of language, such as writing the context of the scene, told a number of events, and leave a comment. language users with socio-cultural competence understand the context of using the language. they are also capable of using expressions and act acceptably in various context of communication. strategic competence refers to the mastery of using the language that includes knowing how to start, stop, maintain, repair, and redirect communications. in other words, this competence demonstrates the the ability to solve problems that arise in the communication process in various ways so that the communication is running smoothly. according to richard and rodgers (2007) communicative competencies includes: (1) knowing how to use the language for any purposes, (2) knowing the variety use of language based on the background of interlocutor, (3) knowing and understanding the various kind of texts (narrative, interview, conversation, etc.), (4) knowing how to keep conversation going on by using communication strategy though with limited knowledge of language understanding. these competencies are aligned with the purpose of learning language in the 2013 curriculum (kemendikbud, 2014). to realize those expectations, the 2013 curriculum (kemendikbud, 2014) adopts the teaching principles, such as: (a) making real communication as the focus of language learning, (b) giving opportunity to the learners to experiment and try out all of the competences they have, (c) mistakes are counted as a process of learning, (d) giving chance to the learners to expand their fluency and accuracy, (e) relating all language skills all together as happen in real life, (f) and facilitating the learners to find the rule of the language by themselves. all of those principles are encompassed in four language skills namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. one of the skills mostly included in examination is reading since by means of reading, students’ understanding of the target language can be predicted and accumulated. grabe and stoller (2002) as cited in tindale (2003) define reading as the skill that might draw meaning from the pointed page and interpret the 152 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 149-162 information contextually. it means that by means of reading the students do not only obtain the knowledge and experience but also comprehend the meaning of the whole sentences by understanding every element in reading such as syllable, pronunciation, punctuation, and how to get the information. thus, they can infer what the reading text is about. mikulecky and jeffries (1996) convey that reading becomes important since reading enlarges vocabulary and help to bring about the essential foundation in learning and seeking information and knowledge in real life situation. students' reading comprehension of a text can be reflected on their ability to answer comprehension questions of the text. the students' ability in mastering reading comprehension does not only depend on their knowledge in reading technique, but also the approach used by the teacher in teaching reading process. it indicates that the approach applied by the teacher in teaching has a great impact on students’ motivation and achievement in learning. one of the approaches which can be applied by teachers in increasing students’ reading comprehension is ctl (contextual teaching and learning). it is an approach emphasizing on the learning process which is related to the real experience of the students. since the principles of ctl mainly focus on learning through associating the materials with the real life experiences in the process of learning involving questioning, inquiry, modeling, learning community technique, etc., they are closely related to the characteristics of the 2013 curriculum employing the principles, such as questioning, gathering information (closely related to inquiry), associating, learning through model, etc. hence the students can internalize the meaning of the subject they learn through the experiences they ever have. the effectiveness of ctl approach in teaching reading has been proven through several researches. one of them is an experimental research conducted by haryati (2012) to 23 first grade students of al irsyad satya islamic school padalarang, bandung, west java, which leads to the result that ctl approach is effective to improve the students’ reading comprehension. another research regarding the implementation of ctl approach was carried out by muhlison (2011) towards the second-grade students of mts at-thosari kalirejo, ungaran timur. in this research, it was found that ctl approach succeeds in developing reading comprehension. from both studies, it can be interpreted that ctl is one of the approaches which can bring students to be more aware of the meaning of what they read which increases their comprehension. however, there is a question that nasir, c., fata, i.a., daud, b., & isniati, n., figuring the context of 153 contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under the 2013 curriculum might emerge in accordance with the implementation of the ctl approach under the curriculum i.e. are teachers able to implement the ctl approach properly and adjust it to the procedure of the 2013 curriculum. this issue encourages the writer to do a further study on how the ctl approach is implemented in the classroom under the instruction of the 2013 curriculum. to date, there has been no research to figure out ctl approach under 2013 curriculum at any junior high school in aceh, therefore this study would fill in this gap. research problem this research promotes the research question: how is ctl approach implemented in teaching reading comprehension under the 2013 curriculum. review of literature a. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) the concept of ctl was firstly introduced by john dewey (1900) through his research based on his belief that students will learn something well if what they learn is related to events happened in their environment or something they have been experienced. according to bern and erickson (2001), ctl is one of the the conception of teaching and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world situations that motivates students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires. this definition implies that ctl is an approach which relates the learning process to the students’ daily lives experiences and it helps to encourage them in acquiring the skills/subject taught since it brings the students to connect their knowledge to the real life situation. therefore, it is also called as contextual approach. this notion is in line with johnson’s idea (2002) stating that the aim of ctl approach is to assist students in realizing the meaning of the materials they are learning by connecting them to the context of their daily lives. ctl consists of seven main components which are also labeled as the principles of the method. those components are clarified by department of national education (2003) as follows: 154 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 149-162 1. constructivism. knowledge is not merely facts, concepts, or rules which can be accepted or memorized that simply, but it needs to be connected to real life experiences, hence, the knowledge can be constructed and understood. that is why learning process must be formed as construction knowledge, not as receiving process. 2. questioning. it is a strategy to check students’ background knowledge, encourage students’ response, guide and focus their attention on the material, and assess students’ aptitude in thinking. 3. inquiry. a process of searching and finding the knowledge/understanding through systematic thinking. thus, through the process, students can build their creativity. 4. learning community. this concept emphasizes that the result of learning must be obtained from working with others like pair or group sharing. 5. modeling. a concept to display/present a symbol or role model as a sample for students in the process of learning. 6. reflection. it is a form of feedback given by the teacher at the end of the meeting toward the activities or knowledge. 7. authentic assessment. a process of collecting all data regarding students’ learning development to identify their progress. this assessment is based on the real work of students (skills and attitude) evaluated during or after learning process. these seven components are important because they ensure language learners involve actively in the teaching and learning process. by participating, learners can relate what they already know with the new knowledge that helps create meaning and understanding of the language. b. reading comprehension reading comprehension cannot be separated from reading skill since without comprehending what is being read, message/information conveyed can never be extracted. pang, angaluki & michael (2000) describe comprehension as the process coming from connecting meaning of the words or phrases in the text read. they further clarify that reading comprehension is an active process that depends not only on comprehension but also on understanding the vocabulary, seeing the relationship between words and concepts, organizing ideas, and evaluating in making judgments. in order to understand the text given, the reader must be able to identify words rapidly, know the meaning almost all of the words and be able to nasir, c., fata, i.a., daud, b., & isniati, n., figuring the context of 155 contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under the 2013 curriculum combine units of meaning into a coherent message. in short, reading comprehension is readers' ability to incorporate the meaning of all words and phrases in a text read, understand the ideas, and make a conclusion from all of the ideas to be interpreted as the whole message informed by the writers. consequently, reading comprehension becomes a standard of successful readers. c. the 2013 curriculum the 2013 curriculum is the curriculum that is that is introduced officially by the government in 2013 as a substitute of ktsp/kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan (school-based curriculum). fata and nasir (2014) stated that based on their understanding of the 2013 curriculum document published by the ministry of education (2013), the curriculum development objective is to achieve competence formulated from the graduates’ standard of competencies (standard kompetensi lulusan/skl). in other words, the learning and curriculum outcomes are measured from the achievement of competence. previously in ktsp, the national standard; standard kompetensi lulusan/skl (graduates standard competence) is translated into standard kompetensi (sk) and kompetensi standard (kd), meanwhile in 2013 curriculum, the graduates’ standard competence is applied into kompentensi inti or core competence and kompetensi dasar or basic competence. beside the change in graduates' standard of competencies, the core competence stands into four integrated groups namely religious attitudes, social attitudes, knowledge and knowledge implementation. those four groups of core competences should be applied in every school subjects as one; it is -called thematic integrative approach. the religious and social attitudes (the first and the second competences) are taught indirectly while teaching the third and fourth competences as these competences shape students’ character building. another important characteristic of the curriculum is the scientific approach that is applied for all majoring classes (science and math, social science and language major) in which observing, questioning, experimenting, associating and communicating involved. in learning language, the curriculum follows the principle of communicative approach emphasizing in providing students with real or natural situations (activities in learning) which encourage and lead them to be able to use the target language communicatively. this principle stresses students to learn in the situation offering authenticity, 156 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 149-162 interaction, student-centered, task-based activity, and real communication (brown, 2007 cited in the manual book of the 2013 curriculum). research method the study used is qualitative in nature by investigating the implementation of ctl in the reading comprehension subject under the 2013 curriculum. the data were gathered through observation, questionnaire and interview. this research was carried out at public junior high school (smpn) 18 junior high school in banda aceh of the second-grade students. discussion a. the observation result of the teacher’s activity in pre-activities, the teacher firstly opened the class by greeting the students and checking the attendance list. in order to construct students’ mind regarding the topic they were going to learn, the teacher asked the students if they have ever seen any announcement in their daily life and what kinds of announcement they have ever read. this session was intended in order in order to connect the topic with the students’ the students’ background knowledge from real life experience; hence the students could absorb the the information given by the teacher by the teacher easily. in ctl, this activity is called constructivism. the questioning activity was done by asking some questions to encourage students’ responses such as what is the text about, what is the announcement about, to whom is the announcement intended and also what is what is the meaning of some new words. these pre-activities took about 10 minutes. after passing this session, the teacher started to write an announcement on the whiteboard and the material he thought thought appropriate to the students. these students seemed interested since they showed excitement. these students seemed interested since they showed excitement about the the learning activity. activity. after showing the example of an announcement text, the teacher asked the students to find the main gist of the text as well as the detail information (inquiry). then he instructed the students to find the unknown vocabulary in context by giving them guidance and model on how to do it (modeling). nasir, c., fata, i.a., daud, b., & isniati, n., figuring the context of 157 contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under the 2013 curriculum fortunately, even if he did not instruct them them to work in a community, the students did work with their nearest partner. this could be counted as learning community. when the activities were finished, the teacher started to assess the students personally by asking the meaning of words and several comprehension questions. also, the teacher used a strategy of getting a fast score that made the students very enthusiastic in it. the core-activities took about 60 minutes. after finishing the teaching activity, authentic assessment was done by asking students to find and read another kind of announcement in post-activities work which took about 10 minutes. b. the observation result of the students’ activity based on the observation sheet, students showed how they showed how they paid attention to the teacher's explanation regarding the topic they were going to learn and has has observed well well the sample shown on the whiteboard as the media. when the teacher constructed their mind and asked the questions about the material displayed, the students actively participated in answering the questions. since the teacher knew how to attract the students' attention, they became really motivated in the learning process. in the core activities when the teacher wrote down an example of an announcement on the whiteboard, the students copied the text on their notebooks. then they tried to find the general ideas and the details information of the announcement text as the teacher asked. afterward, the students began to analyze the vocabulary and find the meaning in context as guided or the model given by the teacher. after taking some times in these activities, the teacher started asking questions in regard to the announcement text and the students tried to answer the questions such as how to pronounce the certain words, the meaning of the words, and other comprehension questions. in the post activities, the students made a self-evaluation as instructed by the teacher. for instance, the students responded to the teacher’s questions such as: how many new words did you get from the text you just read, was there any difficulty you found during the learning process, etc. after that, the students listened to the feedback given by the teacher and wrote down the homework assigned. c. result of questionnaire the questionnaire distributed to the students consists of two parts, namely learning process and comprehension part. each part respectively 158 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 149-162 comprises of six and five statements in which the statements represent all of the activities proposed by the teacher to deliver the material and to help the students in understanding it. furthermore, for each statement, there are three options for the students to choose whether they agree, less agree, or disagree and the reason for their choices. all of their answers were based on their experience during the teaching and learning process. the result of the questionnaire is described as follows. d. learning process for the first part of the questionnaire, the learning process consists of six statements. first, it is shown that 78.3% agree that the learning process became more interesting and enjoyable by using ctl in reading comprehension subject. second, 70% of the students agree that the use of media/realia applied motivated them in observation process as expected in the 2013 curriculum. third, 100% students totally agreed that the learning process became more active in discussing, asking, and giving opinion when the ctl approach was implemented. fourth and fifth, equally, 91.3% of the students think that reading material given by the teacher was interesting and the activities were also motivating and encouraging in the learning process. sixth in the last statement on providing assessment toward the students’ effort in earning 100% points. e. comprehension for the comprehension part of the questionnaire, 60.9% students agreed that the process of learning helped them in understanding the reading material including all aspects of reading. additionally, 87% of them concurred that the learning process/activities proposed by the teacher assisted them to see the link of what they learned in their daily life. the 87.3% of the students admitted that the activities in the learning process facilitated them in applying the knowledge they earned in their real life. in terms of the assessment given by the teacher, most of the students or 91.3% agreed that it helped them to comprehend the materials better. there were also 95.7 % of them, who also concurred that the assignment assigned by the teacher assisted them in comprehending the materials taught. the clear outlook of all of the questionnaire’s result above (in percent) is depicted in the following table. nasir, c., fata, i.a., daud, b., & isniati, n., figuring the context of 159 contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under the 2013 curriculum table 1 the result of students’ questionnaire no statement % total students disagree less agree agree a. learning process 1 learning process is more interesting and enjoyable 4.3% 17.4% 78.3 % 23 2 media/realia shown by the teacher motivate you in the observation phase 30% 70% 3 learning process becomes more active (in discussing, asking and giving opinion) 100% 4 reading material given by the teacher is interesting 8.7% 91.3 % 5 activities offered by the teacher are enjoyable and motivate in the learning process 8 .7% 91.3 % 6 the teacher gives assessment during the learning 100% b. comprehension 7 the learning process help you in understanding the reading text including all aspects 39.1 % 60.9 % 23 8 the learning process help you to see the link between what you have learnt and the real situation in your daily life 13 % 87 % 9 the learning process help you to apply the knowledge you earned in your real life 21.7 % 78.3 % 10 the assessment given by the teacher during the process of learning help you to understand the material better 8.7 % 91.3 % 11 the assignment given by the teacher also help you to understand the material 4.3 % 95.7 % total percent 0.4% 13.8% 85.8 % 160 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 149-162 f. result of interview in reference to the appropriateness of the ctl approach to be applied under the 2013 curriculum, the teacher agreed that the ctl approach is suitable and relevant since the curriculum stresses students to learn in context and all elements of ctl are encompassed in the instruction of the curriculum. besides, the curriculum emphasizes on applying strategies which can promote students' activeness in communicating and they can apply what they learned in real life situation. additionally, the teacher noticed that the students were more involved and excited about learning. the teacher also acknowledged that the students' activeness and comprehension depend closely on the way of the teacher in using proper strategy, creating a better atmosphere and mutual communication. in terms of the students' learning result, the teacher admitted that the students gained better as their comprehension and could answer the questions posed correctly. conclusion to conclude of what has been found during the investigation, it is better to restate the aim of this study. that is, to discover how ctl approach is implemented in teaching reading comprehension at this school in banda aceh under the instructions of the 2013 curriculum. based on the result of the three kinds of the data collected (observation, questionnaire, and interview), it can be summarized that the teacher has s implemented all procedures of the ctl approach in reading comprehension of functional text as suggested by department of national education started from constructing students’ mind and background knowledge (constructivism), then asking several questions to encourage students’ response (questioning), instructing to find the main gist, details, and words meaning (inquiry), giving model in finding words meaning in context (modeling), learning community was done by students’ initiative. students also provided feedback of what they learned (reflection), and authentic assessment is done in the process and after learning. nasir, c., fata, i.a., daud, b., & isniati, n., figuring the context of 161 contextual teaching and learning (ctl) under the 2013 curriculum references berns, r.g., & erickson, p. m. (2001). contextual teaching and learning: preparing students for the new economy. the highlighted zone research @work. 2(5).1-8. brown., h.d. (2007). principles of language learning and teaching. new york: pearson education inc. celce-murcia, m., dôrnyei, z., & thurrel., s. (1995). communicative competence: a pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. applied linguistics, 6 (2), 5-35. department of national education. (2003). pendekatan kontekstual (contextual teaching and learning-ctl). jakarta: depdiknas. dewey, j. (1900). the school and society. chicago, il: university of chicago press. fata, i.a., & nasir, c. (2014). current issues of 2013 curriculum in indonesia. banda aceh. unpublished. grabe., w. & stoller., f.l. (2002). teaching and researching reading. london: pearson education longman. haryati, n. (2012). teaching reading using contextual teaching and learning approach in the first grade of al irsyad satya islamic school padalarang bandung jawa barat. bandung: stkip siliwangi bandung. johnson, e.b. (2002). contextual teaching and learning: what it is and why it is here to stay. london: routledge falmer. kemendikbud. (2014). kurikulum 2013. jakarta: depdiknas. mikulecky, s. b. & jeffries, l. (1996). more reading power: reading for pleasure, comprehension skills, thinking skills, reading faster. boston: addisonwesley publishing company, inc. muhlison. (2011). the effectiveness of contextual teaching and learning to teach reading comprehension (an experimental study at the eighth grade students of mts at-thosari kalirejo ungaran timur) in academic year 2010/2011. thesis: faculty of tarbiyah state institute for islamic studies walisongo semarang. 162 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 149-162 pang, s. e., angaluki, m.e. & michael, l. k. (2000). teaching reading. chicago: iae education practice series. richards., j. c. & rogers, t.s. (2007). approaches and methods in language teaching.second edition. cambridge: cambridge university press. tindale., j. (2003). teaching reading. sydney: national centre for english language teaching and research. untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill for tenth grade vocational high school students iin kusumawati department of language and literature education, graduate program, universitas negeri surabaya email: iinkusumawati1990@gmail.com received: 2-6-2016 accepted: 21-2-2017 published: 10-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1iin kusumawati 1iinkusumawati1990@yahoo.com 1department of language and literature education, graduate program, universitas negeri surabaya abstract: project-based learning (pbl) is one of strategies which english teachers use in teaching oral activities. the activities which can be implemented in pbl are discussion, conversation, presentation (individual or group), role-play, and others. it also can be an aid in studying and teaching. based on previous research, using pbl technique can improve students’ speaking ability for second graders of smpn 1 kawedanan, magetan by permatasari (2013). because of that, the researcher implements the teaching of speaking using pbl at smk dian indonesia, sidoarjo. the descriptive qualitative is used as a design of this research. the subject of the research is 20 first-grade students of nursery class, from the academic year 2015/2016. there are three instruments used to collect the data. first is the documentation of related lesson plan and syllabus, second is the observation of field-notes, third is a questionnaire for the students. pbl in teaching speaking is found helpful to regulate students’ ideas and stimulates the group presenter to extend the statement using their own words. pbl was interesting for them, because the researcher gives occasion for them to choose their own topics. they found themselves interested, happy, joyful, and comfortable during the implementation of the pbl because the process of teaching and learning is designed appropriately with the students’ ideas. to gain an effective teaching speaking using pbl, students needed to be active in making collaborative discussions, and giving feedbacks to each other, so that they can build social relationship. the pbl activities have made students build knowledge and think critically. key words: project-based learning (pbl), speaking skill, sidoarjo abstrak: pembelajaran berbasis proyek (pbp) adalah salah satu strategi yang digunakan guru bahasa inggris dalam mengajar kegiatan oral. kegiatan yang dapat diimplementasikan dalam the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pembelajaran berbasis proyek adalah diskusi, percakapan, presentasi (individu atau kelompok), bermain peran, dan lain-lain. hal ini juga dapat membantu dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran. berdasarkan penelitian yang dilakukan sebelumnya, menggunakan teknik pembelajaran berbasis proyek untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa-siswa kelas ii smpn 1 kawedanan, magetan yang dilakukan oleh permatasari (2013). karena itu, peneliti bermaksud untuk melaksanakan pengajaran berbicara menggunakan pbp di smk dian indonesia, sidoarjo. peneliti memilih deskriptif kualitatif sebagai desain penelitian ini. subjek penelitian adalah siswa kelas satu jurusan keperawatan, di tahun akademik 2015/2016 dengan jumlah siswa: 20 siswa. ada tiga instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data. pertama adalah dokumentasi terkait dengan rencana pelajaran dan silabus, kedua adalah observasi catatan lapangan, ketiga adalah kuesioner yang ditujukan kepada siswa. menggunakan pbp dalam mengajar berbicara sangat membantu untuk mengeksplor ide-ide siswa dan merangsang presenter kelompok untuk memperpanjang pernyataan menggunakan kata-kata sendiri. itu menarik bagi mereka, karena peneliti memberikan kesempatan bagi mereka untuk memilih topik sendiri. mereka merasa tertarik, senang, menikmati, dan nyaman selama pelaksanaan pbp karena pengajaran proses belajar dirancang sesuai ide siswa. untuk memperoleh pengajaran berbicara yang efektif, siswa harus aktif dalam semua kegiatan selama pelaksanaan pbp. melalui pbp, siswa telah belajar untuk berkolaborasi, berdiskusi, dan memberikan koreksi atau pendapat satu sama lain sehingga mereka dapat membangun hubungan sosial yang baik. kegiatan dalam pbp telah membuat mereka membangun pengetahuan sendiri dan berpikir kritis. kata kunci: pembelajaran berbasis proyek, kemampuan berbicara, sidoarjo. introduction according to the national standards in indonesia (depdiknas, 2004), oral communication competence or speaking skill is the goal of english learning in senior vocational schools. speaking skill is considered as an initial skill that leads learners to develop the other communication competences (listening, reading and writing). this is in line with the saying that speaking is the skill that needs to be improved by foreign english learner to increase their communication. however, it is assumed that developing speaking skill to foreign english learners in indonesia is not easy because 378 lt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 377 – 392 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of the status of english as a foreign language which is not used in national or social life (broughton, 2003). the use of english for speaking is not simple because the speakers, in this case, the students should master several important elements of english, such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. according to richards & renandya, there are four components of speaking skill concerned with accent, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehensive (2002, p. 223). but most of the students, in fact, still feel confused on the rules of those elements like: vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and fluency. some of the students are afraid to be active in speaking, for example, they get confused when the teacher asks them to pronounce some words in english and they do not response well. besides, they also have difficulty in translating many words into english since they do not have enough vocabulary. the use of project-based learning (pbl) is considered as an appropriate strategy to help the students to improve their speaking skill. project-based learning is an individual or group activity that goes on over a period of time, resulting in a product, presentation, or performance as quoted in iaepedia. pbl is defined as “instructional approach that contextualizes learning by presenting learners with problems to solve or products to develop” (moss & van duzer, 1998, p.1). pbl is different from traditional instruction in which it emphasizes learning through studentcentred, interdisciplinary, and integrated activities in real world situations (poonpon, 2011). more importantly, pbl is both process and product oriented (stoller, 1997). krajcik, blumfeld, marx, bass, fredricks & soloway (1998) stated that “pbl has (a) a positive effect on student’s content knowledge and the development of skills such as collaboration, critical thinking, and problem solving; (b) benefits students by increasing their motivation and engagement; and (c) is challenging for teachers to implement, leading to the conclusion that teachers need support in order to plan and enact project-based learning effectively while students need support including help setting up and directing initial inquiry, organizing their time to complete tasks, and integrating technology into projects in meaningful ways”. in view of this, pbl as one of the methods recommended to be used refers to a method allowing “students to design, plan, and carry out an extended project that produces a publicly exhibited output such as a product, publication, or presentation” (patton, 2012, p. 13). kusumastuti, i., the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill 379 for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review speaking can be considered as a process where meaning is created, exchanged and understood in a particular context. its form and meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. this is in line with brown (2007) who states that speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information. in addition, brown & yule (1983) believed that man language learners regard speaking skills as the criteria for knowing a language. according to richard and renandya, there are four components of speaking skill; they are grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency (richards & renandya, 2002, p.223). pbl is an innovative approach to learning that teaches a large number of strategies critical for success in their project. students drive their own learning through examination, as well as work collaboratively to research and create projects that reflect their knowledge (geier at al. 2008). pbl is not a supplementary activity to support learning. it is the basis of the curriculum. most projects include reading, writing, and mathematics by nature. many inquiries are science-based or originate from current social problems. the outcome of pbl is greater understanding of a topic, deeper learning, higher-level reading, and increased motivation to learn. pbl is a key strategy for creating independent thinkers and learners. children solve real-world problems by designing their own inquiries, planning their learning, organizing their research, and implementing a multitude of learning strategies. students improve under this child driven, motivating approach to learning and gain valuable skills that will build a strong foundation for their future in our global economy (bell, 2010). the following general stages can be used for successful project implementation. they represent a practical guide for the sequencing of project activities for teachers who want to implement projects in their classrooms (kriwas, 1999). stage 1: speculation stage 2: designing the project activities stage 3: conducting the project activities stage 4: evaluation 380 lt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 377 – 392 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj most cognitive, emotional and psychomotor aims of project work were achieved by the majority of students. more specifically, in relation to language skills, most learners’ willingness to participate in learning activities increased. they were more eager to experiment with new language, since they were less concerned with “sounding silly” (lightbown and spada, 1999, p. 31). at the end of the school term, most students showed an improvement in all four language skills. their speaking and listening skills, in particular, had the greatest improvement. this was particularly important, since it is not uncommon for students to have good knowledge of the linguistic system of the target language, but little listening comprehension and speaking skills, because they are not provided with opportunities to participate in real and authentic communication activities. this study is designed to implement of pbl to teach speaking that has been applied by the english teacher. it is expected to solve the classroom problem in teaching and learning of speaking at tenth grade students. the classroom action research (car) design is chosen to know the process of teaching and learning of speaking which is focused on language components (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency) and students’ response in learning speaking by using pbl. according to cohen et al. (2007, p. 297) action research is a powerful tool for change and improvement at the local level. besides, nunan (1992, pp. 19-20) states that action research can be done repeatedly for several weeks by a teacher by planning and implementing appropriate method to students based on their needs and interest in order to increase students’ speaking skill in the process of learning. furthermore, koshy (2005, p. 9) states that action research as a constructive enquiry is carried out by a teacher to analyze the way of his or her practice and reform it through planning, acting, evaluating, and refining. it is a continuous learning process in which the teacher learns from the experiences to get better understanding of his or her own practice. the researcher employed classroom action research which was done to implement of project-based learning method to teach speaking. classroom action research consists of cycles which converge toward better situational understanding and improve action implementation. the cycles are based in evaluative practice that alternates between action and critical reflection. each cycle consists of three stages: (1) planning, (2) acting and observing, and (3) reflecting. method kusumastuti, i., the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill 381 for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this study is carried out at the tenth grade of vocational high school nursery in sidoarjo. this is chosen as the field of the study to know the process of teaching and learning of speaking which is focused on language components (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency) and students’ response in learning speaking. because of this, applying of pbl method is used as the result of this study. the subjects of this study are among the twenty students in class x of smk nursery of dian indonesia, sidoarjo. according to susanto (2008, p. 6), subject is the person (people) and the number of people you study, why those people and so on. it is done to describe the implementation of project-based learning to teach speaking based on the lesson plan revised. the class consist of 8 male and 12 female students. the procedure of implementing pbl in the teaching of speaking can be seen in the following table. table 1: the pbl procedure in teaching speaking stage explanation speculation the teacher and students had discussion to choose interesting topic. interesting topic aimed to create conductive learning process. designing the project activities the teacher made formation of groups and assigning of roles. the teacher ordered students to find sources of information. the teacher organized activities that took place in order to make the learning conducive. for instance, teacher activity:  dividing the students into some groups by using computer and lcd for informing the list of groups and the leader of each group  asking the students to sit in their group  asking the group leader to take worksheet 1 and hand in it to the member 382 lt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 377 – 392 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in order to get the data to make report of research there are some technique to collect the data method done by the research in this study. they are observation, documentation, and questionnaire. observation is conducted to observe the process of project-based learning in teaching speaking skill. the aim of documentation to find some aspects, those are about syllabus, lesson plan, material, media, assessment, the process of teaching and learning which is focused on language components (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency) in the implementation of projectbased learning and also how the vocational high school students’ responses in learning speaking by using pbl. questionnaires are made to know students’ response during implementation of pbl in teaching speaking. results and discussions in relation to the use of pbl activity, there were six meetings in teaching descriptive speaking sequences of event. each of three meetings was included in the stages of project-based learning processes. they were speculation, designing the project activities, conducting the project activities and evaluation. the first and fourth meetings were included in speculation and designing the project activities stages, the second and fifth meetings were regarded as conducting the project activities stages, and the third and sixth meetings were referred as evaluation stages. student activity:  taking a look at their name and group in the slide  sitting in their group  receiving worksheet 1 from their group leader conducting the project activities each group implements the activities designed in the previous stage. students gather information, process and categorize it. the students discuss their problem cooperatively. the teacher controlled the process discussion. evaluation the teacher evaluated the students‟ progress through self students‟ performances. the teacher ordered them to record their performance individually and save it in cd (compact disk). kusumastuti, i., the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill 383 for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this step is the phase to implement the strategy in speaking based on the revised lesson plan which has been designed in the planning stage. in this research, the implementation of action into the classroom was brought out by the researcher; a learning scenario that suits the planned action should be made. the researcher elaborates what to learn and the objective. beside that, the process of students’ discussion was contolled by the researcher in order to students could achieve the objective in applying pbl. in the core activity, the students’ project was finished to achieve the instructional objectives. all students’ activities were observed by the researcher. observation sheet was used by the researcher to find the data. beside that, camera digital also was used by the researcher to record the students’ activities during implementing project-based learning. in the last activity, the students’ final products have been evaluated by the researcher to measure the students’ knowledge and understanding. vocabulary errors fcused when the students had a mistake in the word choices in implementing project-based learning. it happened because the students had limited vocabularies, so they could not determine the proper words that they wanted to express. this case for the first cycle that the students’ project. in this project, each student was able to report what had they discussed in group. however, in the final project, the students are able to report the result of discussion orally and individually. group (1) : two days ago, the clock had been showed 5 a.m. andi got up and then he prayed shubuh. after that, he cleaned up his bed. andi took a bath and change the clothes. after that, he had breakfast in order not to starved. next, he prepared his bicycle. then he asked permission to his parents to rode with his friends. he started to rode his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together. and he rode with happily. group (2): yesterday, dani woke up at 5 a.m. then, he opened the window. after that, he cleaned his bed. he wore a clothes and shoes. he spent a time to bike at that day. before cycling, he listen music to the radio. next, he took her bicycle in garage. he also checked her bicycle and repaired it if there was problem. he biked on the road around her house. he drove her bicycle slowly and carefully. he really happy. group (3): last week, yuan get up at 4 a.m. after that, he wash his face and read a book. then, he take a bath and pray shubuh. he also accompany his mother to buying vegetables in the market. then, he prepare to going to school. he study at school at 06.45 a.m. until 01.30 p.m. he come back to home at 02.00 384 lt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 377 – 392 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj p.m. then, he watch movies on television. he sweep the yard in the evening. after that, he read holy qur’an and then he has dinner with his family. at 09.00 p.m. he go to bed. group (4) : last sunday, i wake up in the morning at 5 o’clock. then, i cleaned up my bed and took a bath. next, i changed the clothes and had breakfast. after that, i used shoes. before going to the town square sidoarjo i prepared my bicycle. then, i asked permisson to my parents to join car free day overthere. i am so happy when i rode my bicycle on the way. finally, i arrived in the town square sidoarjo. as shown in the example above (1, 2, 3, 4), the word of ‘time’ was the incorrect word. it should be ‘clock’. ‘time’ is a noun describing a point of time as measured in hours and minutes past midnight or noon. ‘clock’ is a noun describing a mechanical or electrical device for measuring time, indicating hours, minutes, and sometimes seconds, typically by hands on a round dial or by displayed figures. the word ‘bike’ and ‘drove’ was the incorrect word. it should be ‘ride’. ‘bike’ is a noun describing a bicycle or motorcycle. it should produce the correct vocabulary be ‘ride’-verb means ride a bicycle or motorcycle. ‘used’ is a verb describing the action of take, hold, or deploy (something) as a means of accomplishing a purpose or achieving a result; employ. it should produce the correct vocabulary ‘wore’ as a noun that describes having on one's body or a part of one's body as clothing, decoration, protection, or for some other purpose. in cycle 1, the students need to learn english pronunciation as well as to speak clearly. before the students learn english pronunciation, the teacher should teach the sounds of english letters, stress, and intonation. the sounds of english relate to pronunciation. by definition, the learning of pronunciation refers to the act of putting articulated sound together in table 2: the pbl implementation in teaching speaking no. errors corrections 1. clock (noun) time (noun) 2. bike (noun) drove (verb) ride (verb) ride (verb) 3. 4. used (verb) wore (verb) kusumastuti, i., the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill 385 for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj proper combination with proper stress to correctly from word. many studies have been made to persuade the students because most of us spend a considerable life engaged in oral communication especially pronunciation. speech errors in pronunciation is focused when the students had a mistake on pronouncing a word in implementing pbl. it happened because the students had recognized and produced the correct elocution, so they could not determine the accurate pronunciation that they wanted to express. the data could be seen as follows: beni: two days ago, the clock had been showed 5 a.m. andi got up and then he prayed shubuh. after that, he cleaned up his bed. andi took a bath and change the clothes. after that, he had breakfast in order not to starved. next, he prepared his bicycle. then he asked permission to his parents to rode with his friends. he started to rode his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together. and he rode with happily. maya: yesterday, dani woke up at 5 a.m. then, he opened the window. after that, he cleaned his bed. he wore a clothes and shoes. he spent a time to bike at that day. before cycling, he listen music to the radio. next, he took her bicycle in garage. he also checked her bicycle and repaired it if there was problem. he biked on the road around her house. he drove her bicycle slowly and carefully. he really happy. a mistake in pronouncing the word is also found in the use of the word ‘got up’, ‘prayed’, and ‘cleaned’ (1, 2). he pronounced the word ‘got up’ like the indonesian language /got up/. he should pronounce the word ‘got up’ with the correct pronunciation /ɡɒt/ /ʌp/. he also pronounced the word ‘prayed’ with the pronunciation /praid/. he should pronounce it with the correct pronunciation /preɪ (d)/. lastly, he pronounced the word ‘cleaned’ with the pronunciation /klined/. he should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /kliːn (d)/. a mistake in pronouncing the word is also found in the use of the word ‘yesterday’, ‘woke up’, ‘wore’, ‘shoes’, and ‘listen’. she pronounced the word ‘yesterday’ like the original form written /yesterday/. she should have pronounced the correct pronunciation /ˈjɛstədeɪ/. she also pronounced the word ‘woke up’, ‘wore’, and ‘shoes’ with the pronunciation /wəʊk/ /ʌp/, /wɔː/, and /ʃuː/. lastly, she pronounced the word ‘listen’ with the pronunciation /listen/. she should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /ˈlɪs (ə) n/. here are other examples: 386 lt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 377 – 392 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fahmi: last week, yuan get up at 4 a.m. after that, he wash his face and read a book. then, he take a bath and pray shubuh. he also accompany his mother to buying vegetables in the market. then, he prepare to going to school. he study at school at 06.45 a.m. until 01.30 p.m. he come back to home at 02.00 p.m. then, he watch movies on television. he sweep the yard in the evening. after that, he read holy qur’an and then he has dinner with his family. at 09.00 p.m. he go to bed. intan: last sunday, i wake up in the morning at 5 o’clock. then, i cleaned up my bed and took a bath. next, i changed the clothes and had breakfast. after that, i used shoes. before going to the town square sidoarjo i prepared my bicycle. then, i asked permisson to my parents to join car free day overthere. i am so happy when i rode my bicycle on the way. finally, i arrived in the town square sidoarjo. a mistake in pronouncing the word is also found in the use of the word ‘week’, ‘wash’, ‘school’, ‘buy’, ‘studied’, and ‘came’ (3, 4). he pronounced the word ‘week’ with the pronunciation /wek/. he should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation of /wiːk/. he also pronounced the word ‘wash’ with the ponunciation /was/. he should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /ˌwɒʃt. moreover, he pronounced the word ‘school’ with the pronunciation /skol/. he should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /skuːl/. besides that, he pronounced the word ‘buy’ with the pronunciation /bui/. he should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /bʌɪ/. lastly, he pronounced the word ‘came’ with the pronunciation /cam/. he should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /keɪm/. a mistake in pronouncing the word is also found in the use of the word ‘sunday’, ‘bath’, ‘before’, and ‘square’. she pronounced the word ‘sunday’ as indonesian pronunciation /sundai/. she should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /ˈsʌndeɪ/. she also pronounced the word ‘bath’ like the original form written /bath/. she should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /bɑːθ/. beside that she pronounced the word ‘before’also like the original form written /befor/. she should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /bɪˈfɔː/. lastly, she pronounced the word ‘square’ with the pronunciation /skuar/. she should have pronounced it with the correct pronunciation /skwɛː/. the grammar of a language is a description of the ways in which the language uses patterns of structure to convey the meaning. having a good kusumastuti, i., the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill 387 for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj grammar system of a language, students are helpful in delivering their ideas, messages, and feelings either to the listeners or readers. language without grammar would be disorganized and causes some communicative problems, like grammatical errors in writing. hence, learners need to know the grammatical system of language they can communicate with others in order to transfer the message properly. in teaching learning process, the students faced many problems when they are asked to speak in english because english is not as means of their daily communication. in cycle 1, sometimes the students made many grammatical errors when they produced the english language. here are some examples: beni: two days ago, the clock had been showed 5 a.m. andi get up and then he pray shubuh. after that, he cleaned up his bed. andi take a bath and change the clothes. after that, he had breakfast in order not to starved. next, he prepared his bicycle. then he asked permission to his parents to rode with his friends. he started to rode his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together. and he rode with happily. maya: yesterday, dani woke up at 5 a.m. then, he opened the window. after that, he cleaned his bed. he wore a clothes and shoes. he spend a time to bike at that day. before cycling, he listen music to the radio. next, he took her bicycle in garage. he also checked her bicycle and repaired it if there was problem. he biked on the road around her house. he drove her bicycle slowly and carefully. he really happy. fahmi: last week, yuan get up at 4 a.m. after that, he wash his face and read a book. then, he take a bath and pray shubuh. he also accompany his mother to buying vegetables in the market. then, he prepare to going to school. he study at school at 06.45 a.m. until 01.30 p.m. he come back to home at 02.00 p.m. then, he watched movies on television. he sweep the yard in the evening. after that, he read holy qur’an and then he has dinner with his family. at 09.00 p.m. he go to bed. no. errors corrections 1. andi get up and then he pray shubuh. andi got up and then he prayed shubuh. 2. after that, he had breakfast in order not to starved. after that, he had breakfast in order not to starve. maya and fahmi’s errors and corrections table 3: 388 lt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 377 – 392 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3. then he asked permission to his parents to rode with his friends. then he asked permission to his parents to ride with his friends. 4. he started to rode his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together. he started to ride his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together. 5. he spend a time to bike at that day. he spent a time to bike at that day. 6. next, he took her bicycle in garage. next, he took his bicycle in garage. 7. after that, he wash his face and read a book. after that, he washed his face and read a book. 8. then, he take a bath and pray shubuh. then, he took a bath and prayed shubuh. 9. he come back to home at 02.00 p.m. he came back to home at 02.00 p.m. 10. he go to bed. he went to bed. an arrangement of grammatical errors is found in the utterances (1). the utterances of ‘andi get up and then he pray shubuh’, ‘after that, he had breakfast in order not to starved’, ‘then he asked permission to his parents to rode with his friends’, and ‘he started to rode his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together’., should be corrected as ‘andi got up and then he prayed shubuh’, ‘after that, he had breakfast in order not to starve’, ‘then he asked permission to his parents to ride with his friends’, ‘he started to ride his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together’. in the sentence of ‘andi get up and then he pray shubuh’ he should have used v2 because in the previous sentence there is the word two days ago which explain the time in the past. he should have also changed the word ‘get up’ and ‘pray’ with the correct word ‘got up’ and ‘prayed’. in the sentences ‘after that, he had breakfast in order not to starved’, ‘then he asked permission to his parents to rode with his friends’, and ‘he started to rode his bicycle and soon picked all his friends to rode together’, use to infinitive should be used. in the word ‘to starved’ and ‘to rode’ he should use to +v1. so, the correct form should be ‘to starve’, and ‘to ride’. an arrangement of grammatical errors is also found in the utterances (2) ‘he spend a time to bike at that day’. he should have used v2 in the word for ‘spend’ because the sentence explains the time in the past. thus, the correct form should be ´he spent a time to bike at that day’. ‘next, he took kusumastuti, i., the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill 389 for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj her bicycle in garage’. he should have used the possessive noun in the word of ‘he took her bicycle’. the correct form should have been ‘he took his bicycle’ because the subject of that sentence ‘he’. an arrangement of grammatical errors is also found in the utterances (3) ‘then, he take a bath and pray shubuh’, ‘he come back to home at 02.00 p.m.’, and ‘he go to bed’, where the correct form of the utterances (3) should be ‘then, he took a bath and prayed shubuh’, ‘he came back to home at 02.00 p.m.’, and ‘he went to bed’. it should use v2 because he explains the time in the past. conclusion based on the findings, it can be inferred that the pbl process were included into four stages. they were speculation, designing the project activities, conducting the project activities, and evaluation. in speculation stage, the researcher leads the process of discussing and gives occasion for the students to choose an interesting topic. the second stage is in designing the project activities; the researcher divides the students into some groups. the students are asked to sit in their group by the researcher. then, the group leader is called by the researcher to take worksheet and read the instruction given. in the next stage is conducting the project activities. the researcher gives the students opportunity to identify what are they see in the worksheet. after that, the students are ordered to make an outline and asking question about the materials which is not clear. the researcher also motivates students to finish their project well and punctuality even guides students to conclude the result of their project orally. the last stage is evaluation. here, the researcher observes students’ activities during the implementation of the process and make final product. the researcher sees that the students have discussion cooperatively and enthusiastically. however, the researcher still finds the students’ difficulties in pronouncing the word and nervous when they explore their ideas orally. in implementing pbl the researcher had problem. it was caused by the time and the students’ characteristic. time is limited, so the researcher cannot control students maximally. students had less attention to the lesson. the researcher overcame the problem by creating engagement activity. interesting activity is used by the researcher. in the pbl classroom the researcher has created a meaningful and joyful learning because students will learn better in that condition. 390 lt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 377 – 392 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the implementations of pbl have some effect to the students’ achievement. the effect of the implementation of project-based learning in the class is that students achieve better due to the project-based learning. the students’ engagement increases because of the implementation of pbl. they were motivated and interested to get involved in the activities. students were become more excited about the project given. they perform better in task, project and performance. it can be seen from the students score. from the result of the observation above, the researcher gives the solution of offering some suggestion to the teaching and learning process for teaching speaking, by giving motivation. motivation gives the spirit of students to do their task, and to make them study hard, and enjoy their lesson. motivation is very strongly related to the achievement in language learning. it will be easy for conducting the lesson in the class and make a progress, if the students have had motivation. learners' motivation makes teaching and learning immeasurably easier and more pleasant, as well as more productive. thus, the researcher is always aware about selecting the speaking topics, because good or bad topics can influence the students' willingness for participating in the class activities. a good topic will make learners relate their ideas with their experience and knowledge. lastly, about the allocated time, this research has found that time should be handled well, in order not to waste too much useless class time, thus, can make more productive results in the teaching and learning process. references bell, s. (2010). project-based learning for the 21st century: skills for the future. new york: danbury ct. broughton, geoffrey, christopher brumfit, roger flavell, peter hill, a. p. (2003). teaching english as a foreign language second edition. new york: the taylor & francis e-library. brown g. & yule. (1983). teaching spoken language. cambridge: cambridge university press. brown, h. d. (2007). principles of language learning and teaching. (fifth edit). usa: longman. depdiknas. (2004). pedoman merancang sumber belajar. jakarta: depdiknas. geier, r., p. c. blumenfeld, r. w. marx, j. s. krajcik, e. soloway, & j. c.-c. (2008). standardized test outcomes for students engaged in inquiry-based kusumastuti, i., the implementation of project-based learning’s speaking skill 391 for tenth grade vocational high school students https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj curricula in the context of urban reform. journal of research in science teaching, 45(8), 922–939. krajcik, j.s., blumfeld, p. c., marx, r. w., bass, k. m., fredricks, j., & soloway, e. (1998). inquiry in project-based science classrooms: initial attempts by middle school students. the journal of the learning sciences., 7, 313–350. kriwas, s. (1999). environmental education, a hand book for educators. athens: ministry of education. lightbown, p. & spada, n. (1999). how languages are learned (2nd ed.). oxford: oxford university press. moss, d., & van duzer, c. (1998). project-based learning for adult english learners. eric. digest. (online). patton, a. (2012). work that matters: the teacher’s guide to project-based learning. the paul hamlyn foundation. poonpon, k. (2011). enhancing english skill through project based learning. retrieved from www.elta.og.my/et/2011/1_10_kornwipa 2011.pdf. accessed december 21, 2012 richards, j. c. & renandya, w. a. (2002). methodology in language teaching. in an anthology of current practice. cambridge university. stoller, f. (1997). project work: a means to promote language content. retrieved december 13, 2006, from http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no4/p2.htm susanto. 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�'���������*����������l����������� ���������p�����*��������)������ ���������5�#��� �@d��2�+������'��,�� 386>0 � *�������& �h�)�������� �+055i,�.�1���'�����������%��� �����0���������������� c-�+i,��86�2d � *�������! �� �& �+0520, �����8����������&�4���� �l����� ��e������'���052d� ����e�����eqq### ������� �� ��q����q�����q����6������ ���"� &������� ��h����������* � +055@, �1���'������.�:���������������"����� �� l������e�.�$��������� �5��������������������0���������-e�+2,��260> � <����� � � � � +0550, � !� ����������� ���� l������������ '��#���� 1���'������ a��#������ ���� .�������� l������� &����������e� ��� .���������� &�������� � �0������������������30�+d,��32d63d@ � ��������� * �� 4������ ] �� h� ?��'��� � +0522, � %��� &���������� ��� -����� a��#�������%�"������l�������$������������ �����)������0�������� +��������h>�+2,��0@67d � -��������a ��h� 4�������� 4 �l � +28>i, ����� ����-���� �������� �������� �������������?������������� �5�������5� ������;��� ������11�+2,��@@6 >2 � w���������� a � +0553, � *�#��� &������ 1������ $���������� ��������e� $���������1���'���������� ���&0�5���� ����ce�+2,��30k@5 � proposal penelitian mandiri issn: 1412-3320 english culture, language teaching & literature a journal of celtcelt accredited by dikti 040/p/2014 celt, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 celt a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature a journal of culture, english language teaching and literature (celt) is published biannually in the months of july and december (issn: 1412-3320) presenting articles on culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics, and literature. contents include analysis, studies, application of theories, research reports, material development, and book reviews. celt was firstly published in december 2001. based on the decree from hasil akreditasi jurnal ilmiah, sk direktur penelitian dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat, direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi, no. 040/p/2014 dated on 18 february 2014, celt is nationally accredited until 2019. editor-in-chief ekawati marhaenny dukut business manager cecilia titiek murniati editors antonius suratno emilia ninik aydawati gerardus majella adhyanggono heny hartono website designer & administrator ridwan sanjaya cover designer oscar santoso correspondence: address: the editors, celt, faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university, henricus constance building, 4 th floor, jl. pawiyatan luhur iv/1, bendan dhuwur, semarang 50234, indonesia; email: celtjournal@gmail.com; celt.unika@yahoo.com; celt@unika.ac.id; website: http://www.journalcelt.com; http://journalcelt.blogspot.com; telephone: +62-24-8316142, 8441555 (hunting) ext. 1705, fax no.: +62-248445265 ________________________________________________________________________________________ celt is published by the faculty of language & arts, soegijapranata catholic university. rector: prof. dr. ir. yohanes budi widianarko, m.sc., vice rector for academic affairs: dr. ridwan sandjaja, s.e., s.kom, ms.iec.., vice rector for financial and administration affairs: ineke hantoro, s.t.p., m.sc., vice rector for students’ affairs: lita widyo hastuti,s.psi, msi, vice rector for cooperation and development affairs: dr. marcella elwina simandjuntak, s.h., cn, m.hum., dean: angelika riyandari, s.s., m.a., ph.d., vice dean for academic affairs: dra. cecilia titiek murniati, m.a., ph.d, vice dean of financial and administration affairs: drs. antonius suratno, m.a., ph.d., vice dean for student affairs: b. retang wohangara, s.s., m.hum. ________________________________________________________________________________________ contributions: contributions are welcome from anyone who is concerned with culture, english language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature. contributors should consult the current celt manuscript submission guidelines before submitting articles, which contains important information about the focus and format of articles (see back cover). cost per journal is rp 40.000 and is payable through bank bii kas unika soegijapranata, with a bank swift code: ibbkidja, bank acc. no.: 1-575-16246-4, bank acc. name: angelika riyandari dan antonius suratno. ________________________________________________________________________________________ printed by santosa print offset, yogyakarta published and copyright by soegijapranata catholic university press, semarang © 2014. mailto:celtunika@gmail.com mailto:celt.unika@yahoo.com mailto:celt@unika.ac.id http://journalcelt.blogspot.com/ heavenly tears – earthly loss: different ways of coping with life loss in tears in heaven, circus, and since i lost you akun ...............................................................................................................1 constructing a course on indonesian shadow puppet for international students yoseph bambang margono slamet .................................................................16 using popular culture's media of indonesian-english picturebooks as a way of reaching more vegetable consuming children ekawati marhaenny dukut, maya putri utami, adi nugroho, novita ika putri, and probo y. nugrahedi ................................................................................36 cultural untranslatability: a study on the rainbow troops nur utami s.k. ..............................................................................................48 analyzing complaints by indonesian efl speakers anna marietta da silva ...................................................................................63 teacher questioning in classroom interaction sarlita dewi matra ........................................................................................82 students' perspectives on the role of open access centre and language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills wuryani hartanto ......................................................................................112 celt, vol.14, no.1, pp. 1-128, semarang, july 2014 b ba journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills wuryani hartanto wuryanihartanto@gmail.com english department, faculty of letters, soegijaprapanata catholic university, semarang abstract : this study aims at revealing the perception of the 2010, 2011 and 2012 academic year studentsof the faculty of letters on two supporting units at the faculty, namely open access centre (oac) and language laboratory (ll) in enhancing their english language skills. the results show that the average students consider both oac and ll useful in developing their english language competence. on the whole, they are satisfied with the existence of these two media except for a few things which need improving, such as facilities and instruments. key words: perception, oac, ll abstrak: penelitian ini bertujuan mengungkapkan persepsimahasiswa fakultas sastra angkatan 2010, 2011, dan 2012 terhadap 2 unit penunjang yang ada di fakultas sastra yaitu open access centre (oac) dan language laboratory (ll) dalam membantu meningkatkan kemampuan berbahasa inggris mereka. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa rata2 mahasiswa menganggap oac maupun ll sebagai media yang membantu perkembangan kecakapan bahasa inggris mereka. secara umum mereka juga puas dengan keberadaan dua unit penunjang ini. namun ada juga hal hal yang menurut mereka perlu diperbaiki, misalnya fasilitas dan peralatan yang ada. kata kunci: persepsi, oac, ll hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 113 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills introduction the advancement of technology has a great impact on the education realm including language learning. a wide variety of modern tools are used as supporting elements in the teaching learning processs of a language. language lab,call (computer assisted language learning ), sall (self access language learning) are some instances of this (benson, 2001). he further says “in principal self access, self instruction , and distance learning foster autonomy by providing learners with opportunities to direct their own learning” it is obvious that there is a strong connection between the use of the afore-mentioned modern tools with autonomous learning which is defined as a mode of learning which requires the learners to study independently of direct contact with teachers (littlejohn, 1997). in the past two decades, it has been noted that there is a tendency of self instruction and distance learning in language learning. such a style automatically relies on technology-based approaches. being a language school, in this case an english department, the faculty of letters,soegijapranata catholic university employed modern facilities such as language lab and sall. the use of such facilities has twofolded purposes. firstly, they are meant for improving the students’ skills in learning english. secondly, they serve as assisting tools in self language learning or the so-called autonomous language learning. keeping the above issues in mind, the research questions were formulated as follows: 1. what are language lab and oac (open access center) used at the faculty of letters unika soegijapranata? 2. what are the students’ perception on the use of these two facilities (ll and oac) in developing their english language skill? literary review a. independent learning independent learning or is also often called autonomous learning has undergone an explosion of interest since two decades ago. in an attempt to encourage out of class learning, many language institutions have established 114 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 language resource centres where learners are encouraged to work independently. such centres are known to be self access language learning (sall). following cotterall and reinders (1995 ), sall can be defined as: a place consisting of a number of resources (in the form of materials, activities, and support) which is designed to accomodate learners of different levels, styles, goals and interests. it aims to develop learner autonomy among its users. still according to them, self accesss language learning is the learning that takes place in a self access centre. sall has the potential to promote learner autonomy in a number of ways. firstly, it provides facilities which allow learners to pursue their own goals and interests while accomodating individual differences in learning style, level and pace of learning. secondly, the resources have the potenmtial to raise learners’ awareness of the learning process by highlighting aspects of the management of learning, such as goal settting and monitoring progress. thirdly, sall can act as a bridge between the teacher – directed learning situation, where the language is studied and practised, and the real world, where the target language is used as a means of communication. finally, sall can promote the learning autonomy of learners who prefer or obliged to learn without a teacher, by supporting their learning in the absence of an organised language course ( gardner and miller, 1999). many previous studies of sall have investigated different types of learner preparation and support (esch,1994), material design and evaluation(gardner and miller,1994), methods of monitoring learner progress ( martyn,1994), the role of technology (morrison,1996) etcetera but so far no study on the perception of learners at a certain place on the role of sall has been conducted. thus, it will certainly be interesting as well as beneficial to investigate such a topic. b. perception following crystal (1992), perception or attitudes are the feelings people have about their own language variety or the language varieties of others. it is believed that perception influences language learning in a number of ways. hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 115 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills stern (1983) has investigated a number of different kinds of perception that are considered relevant to second language learning. he classifies these kinds of perception into three types: 1. perception towards the community and people who speak the same language. 2. perception towards learning the language concerned. 3. perception towards languages and language learning in general. perception is a central part of human individuality, it may encompass effective, behavioural and cognitive responses. perception can be said as a final thougt of someone about something c. language skills it is a universal concept that the study of language consists of four basic skills. they are listening, speaking, reading and writing skills (harmer, 2001). listening should be the first skill introduced to the students as in listening class students are exposed to the spoken target language before they are expected to be able to produce or speak the language. the second skill that should be taught to the student is speaking. as a matter of fact, listening and speaking are inseparable skills as in real communication it is those skills that are mostly involved. reading and writing skills come after the previous two skills. harmer further states that there are four things that students need to do with the target language. they are: be exposed to it, understand its meaning, understand its form, and pratices it. methods the type of this research is descriptive as it aims at revealing the perception of a certain group of students on the existence of two supporting units provided by the faculty of letters. they are open access centre (oac) and language laboratory (ll). the quantitative analysis is used to find out to what extent the respondents consider both of them useful and whether or not they are helpful in developing their english skills 116 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 a. respondents the respondents in this research were 2010,2011 and 2012 students of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. there were 86 students who became the respondents of this study. they consisted of: 1. 20 students from 2010 academic year 2. 24 students from 2011 academic year 3. 42 students from 2012 academic year the method used by the researcher in selecting the respondents is that of sample equals to population (vredenbregt, 1984) as all students of the above academic year were involved as research participants. b. research instruments the research instruments used in this study are as follows: (1) questionnaire questionnaire is research instrument consisting of a list of written questions about a particular problem (vredenbergt,1984). there are 2 kinds of questionnaire. they are the closedended and the open-ended types. the open-ended type gives a chance to the respondents to answer the questions based on their own situations while the closed-ended type consists of questions whose answers are already provided, so that the respondents should only choose the answers from the list. the choice of questions, is usually arranged, based on the likert-scale. before the questionnaire isadministered, a piloting stage is conducted. it is a kind of try out in which a number of students are asked to fill it out forthe purpose of finding out some unclarity about it. the questionnaire is then corrected and improved before being administered to the real respondents. (2) interviews vredenbregt (1984) defines an interview as an interaction and communication process to find out something about life and human behaviour. in this process, several variables play a very important role as they hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 117 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills might influence or even determine the results of the interviews. such variables are as follows: a. the interviewer b. the respondents c. the list of questions or the interview guide being used. d. the rapporteur of the interviewer and the interviewee in this research, the interviews were made with 15 students who represented students of the three academic years, 2010,2011, and 2012. the results of the interviews were then used to cross check the results of the questionnaire as well as to complete the data obtained from it. data analysis method the method of data analysis used in this research is quantitative method,i.e. descriptive statistics which was employed to synthesize the observed condition and modified it into some information. in this study, the data obtained from the questionnaire were analyzed using spss (statistical package for social science )and then the results were presented in tables. they were inthe form of mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum scores. to cross check and complete the data obtained from the questionnaire, the researcher made use of the results of the interviews. findings and discussion a. data collection as has been mentioned previously, the data collection method in this research covers the following: 1. administration of questionnaire 2. interviews the research participants were faculty of letters students from 3 academic years. they were 2010,2011, and 2012. there were 20 respondents from 2010, 24 respondents from 2011 and 42 respondents from 2012. therefore, in total there were 86 respondents for the questionnaire. 118 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 b. questionnaire the questionnaire for both oac and ll were designed in order to find out the students’ perception on those 2 supporting units. it consists of 26 questions formulated based on the theory of interest or perception discussed earlier in this article. c. interviews the interviews were made with 15 students from the 3 different academic years. in those interviews,16 guided questions were asked to the students and the results were used to crosscheck the results of the questionnaires and complete the obtained data. the interviews were done in an informal and relaxing way, so as to put the interviewees at ease. in such atmosphere, they were expected to answer the questions the best they could. d. questionnaire results the following is the presentation of the questionnaire results followed by the interpretation of each. table 1: questionnaire results no information min. max. mean standard deviation 1 general perception on oac and ll 2,00 5,00 3,5581 ,71298 2 the importance of oac and ll in developing students'english skill 2,00 5,00 3,9302 ,71605 3 the importance of oac and ll in developing students'english knowledge 2,00 5,00 3,6977 ,72062 from the first item above, it can be concluded that in general the respondents have positive perception on oac and language laboratory. it is proven by the mean score 3,5581. the minimum score is 2 which means that some respondents state both media are not helpful enough. however, the maximum score is 5 meaning some respondents agree that both media are very useful. since the standard deviation is below 1,00, it can also be hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 119 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills interpreted that their answers do not vary greatly. as can be seen from the second item, both media are regarded important in developing students’ english skills. it is based on the mean score of 3,9302 for this variable. on one side, the maximum score 5 means that both of them are very important in developing students’ english language skills. on the other side, the minimum score 2 means that they are not important. nonetheless, the standard deviation is 0,71605. so, this suggests that the dispersion among the answers is not large. the importance of both media in developing students’ english knowledge is reflected through the mean score 3,6977 for the third variable. the minimum score 2 shows that there are some students who disagree on the importance of both media in developing their english knowledge. the maximum score 5, however, shows that other students agree upon the importance of both media in developing their english knowledge. the standard deviation below 1 indicates that there is not much variation among the answers of the respondents. table 2: questionnaire results (continued) no information min. max. mean standard deviation 4 perception on oac and ll's facilities 1,00 5,00 3,4884 ,79327 5 satisfaction with oac and ll's facilities 2,00 5,00 3,3837 ,78469 6 oac and ll's facilities used by students 2,00 5,00 3,2558 ,75438 the fourth variable in the table above indicates that the students generally have good perception on oac and ll as shown by the mean score 3,4884. the minimum score 1, however, shows that some students have unfavourable perception on oac and ll’s facilities. nevertheless, the standard deviation is below 1 meaning the students’ answers do not vary greatly. the fifth variable in the table above implies that students on the average are satisfied with the facilities in both media. meanwhile, the 120 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 maximum score 5 shows that there are some students who are already satisfied with the facilities in both media. the standard deviation is 0,78469 indicating a small dispersion of answers. a further investigation in students frequency in using facilities in both media show that they very often use them as indicated by the maximum score 5 regardless of the fact that some seldom use them as shown by the minimum score 2. the standard deviation is 0,75438 showing a small variety of answers. table 3: questionnaire results (continued) no information min. max. mean standard deviation 7 opinion about oac and ll as a place toimprove listening skill 1,00 5,00 3,7674 ,79223 8 perception on oac and ll's comfortabillity 2,00 5,00 3,6977 ,72062 9 opinion about oac and ll as placesto practise listening 1,00 5,00 2,5116 1,05990 10 students' purposes in visiting oac and ll 2,00 5,00 4,0116 ,83306 11 opinion about ll used notonly for listening classes 2,00 5,00 3,8140 ,80457 12 opinion about the need of schedulefor students' to practise listening 1,00 5,00 3,8488 ,83338 13 opinion about the needs of materialsprovided for students' to practise at ll 1,00 5,00 3,7209 ,80661 hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 121 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills 14 satisfaction with services at oac and ll 1,00 5,00 3,4070 ,75736 15 opinion about the helpfulness ofthe people in charge of oac and ll 1,00 5,00 3,5116 ,66411 16 opinion about the well informednessof the people in charge of oac and ll 1,00 5,00 3,4070 ,65759 17 opinion about the availability ofoac and ll's materials 1,00 5,00 3,3721 ,63332 18 opinion about the relevance ofoac and ll's materials with their needs 1,00 5,00 3,4302 ,69521 19 opinion about the comfortability of oac and ll’ rooms 1,00 5,00 3,5814 ,74305 20 opinion about the sophisticatednessof equipment in oac and ll 2,00 5,00 3,1860 ,64190 21 opinion about theequipment in oac and ll in general 2,00 5,00 3,2442 ,71843 22 preferences to spend time at oac and ll 1,00 5,00 2,8488 ,84738 23 preferences to use equipment at oac and ll 1,00 5,00 3,3023 ,76803 122 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 refering to the above results, it can be interpreted that students agree both media being researched are proper places to improve their english language skills. the mean score 3,7674 serve as evidence in this case. eventhough there is a big discrepancy between the minimum and maximum scores, namely 1 and 5, the standard deviation is below 1 meaning there is not a great variety of answers. students also seem to have good perception about oac and language lab’s comfortability. this can be seen by the mean score 3,6977. however, the minimum score 2 means that there are students who have unfavourable perception on the comfortability of both media. yet, the maximum score for this variable is 5, which means some other students have very good perception on the comfortability of both. the standard deviation 0,72062 shows that the dispersion among the answers is not large. the result of the questionnaire also shows that students do not quite agree with the statement saying oac and ll are good places to practise listening. this is based on the mean score 2,5116 out of the maximum score 5. the minimum score is 1 which means that some students disagree that both media aregood places to practise listening. however, the maximum score is 5. it means there are students who agree that both oac and llare very good places to practise listening. however, the standard deviation for this particular variable is above 1 meaning that the students’ answers have a large dispersion. based on variable 10, there is an indication that students sometimes visit oac and ll for purposes other than learning. we can conclude it from the mean score 4,0116. the minimum score is2 meaning there are students who visit these places for other purposes, whilethe maximum score is 5 which means there are students who visit both media for learning purposes only. for this item, the standard deviation is 0,83306 meaning the students’ answers do not vary much. as can be seen from variable 11 above, students agree with the opinion that ll should be used not only for listening class. this is because the mean score is 3,8140. the minimum score is 2. it means there are students who disagree with the notion that language lab should be used only for listening classes. however, the maximum score is 5 meaning there are other students who agree that language lab should not only be used for listening classes. the standard deviation is 80457 meaning there is not much variation on the answers. from variable 12 above, it can be concluded that students agree the schedule for them to practise listening has to be provided. it is shown by hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 123 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills the score of the mean 3,8488. the minimum score 1 means that there are students who think the schedule for them to practise listening is not necessary. however, the maximum scoreis 5 meaning there are other students who think that it is essential to have a schedule for them to practise listening. the standard deviation is 0,83338 meaning there is not much variation in the students’ answers. the next variable in the above list indicatesstudents’ agreement to the supply of materials for them to practise at language lab. this is shown by the mean score of this variable which is 3,7209. the minimum score is 1 meaning there are students who think that they donot have to be provided with materials. on the other side, the maximum score is 5 meaning there are students who think that materials must be provided for students to practise at language lab. the standard deviation below 1, means that the answers do not vary much. variable 14shows that students are generally satisfied with the service at both oac and ll. this can be seen through the mean score 3,4070 out of the maximum 5. the minimum score 1 means that there are students who are not satisfied with the services at both places. however, the maximum score 5 means that other students are satisfied with the services there. the standard deviation 0,75736 means that the students’ answers do not vary much. from the data above, the students feel that the people in charge of both oac and llare generally helpful. the mean score 3,5116 is the proof. however,the minimum score is 1 which means that some students think the people in charge of both places are not helpful. the maximum score 5 shows that there are students who think that theyare helpful. the standard deviation 0,66411 means the students’ answers do not vary greatly. further result in the table above shows that the respondents feel the people in charge of oac and llare well informed enough. it is shown by the score of the mean 3,4070. the minimum score 1, however, means there are students who think the people in charge of ll and oacare not well informed. however, the maximum score 5 means there are students who think they arevery well informed. the standard deviation 0,65759 means that there is a small dispersion among students’ answers. variable 17 above proves that the respondents have a positive perception about the availability of oac and ll’s materials. it is proven by 124 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 the mean score 3,3721. the minimum score is 1 which means that students think negatively about the availability of language lab materials.the maximum score is 5 meaning some other students think positively about the availabilityof materials in both media. the standard deviation below 1 means there is not much variation in the students’ answers. variable 18describes the respondents’ opinion about whether or not the materials in both oac and llare relevant enough with their needs. based on the respondents’ answers, the materials have been relevant enough as the mean score is 3,4302. there are respondents that feel the materials in both media have already been relevant. it is shown by the maximum score 5. nevertheless, the minimum score is 1. it means other respondents think that the materials in language lab are not relevant with what they need. the standard deviation is below 1 meaning that the variation among the answers is not much. the above result also indicates that in general the respondents feel comfortable with both oac and language lab rooms. it is proven by this the average score of 3,5814. there are respondents who feel very comfortable with the 2 roomsas shown by the maximum score 5. however, the minimum score 1 means that there are respondents who do not feel comfortable at all with both media’s rooms. the lows standard deviation means that the dispersion among the answers is small. from variable 20, it can be concluded that in general the respondents feel that the equipment in both oac and llare sophisticated. this can be seen by the mean score 3,1860 out of 5. the maximum and minimum scores respectively are 5 and 2. the respondents’ answers do not vary much as the standard deviation is far below 1. based on table 21 above, it can be interpreted that the respondents generally have good opinions about the equipment in both oac and ll as the mean score is 3,2442. the minimum score is 2 which means that there are respondents who think that the equipment in both media in general are bad,while the maximum score is 5 meaning that other respondents think the equipment in both places in general are very good. the score of the standard deviation that is below 1 shows that there is only a little variation of the respondents’ answers. from variable 22 above, it can be seen that the respondents prefer not to spend the time at both oac and ll frequently. this is shown by the hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 125 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills mean score 2,8488 out of 5. the minimum score is 1which reflects that some respondents do not often want to spend their time at both places. however, some other respondents are the opposite. they really want to spend their time there a lot. this is shown by the maximum score 5. the standard deviation that is below 1 shows that the answers of the respondents do not vary greatly. this next variable depicts that the respondents prefer to use the equipment at language lab. it is shown by the mean score 3,3023 of the maximum 5. the minimum score 1 means some respondents prefer not to use equipment at language lab. we can see that the maximum score 5 means some other respondents prefer to use equipment at language lab. the answers of the respondents do not vary a lot. it can be seen from the standard deviation which is below 1, namely 0,76803. table 4: questionnaire results (continued) no information min. max. mean standard deviation 24 the needs of oac and ll to improve its facilities 2,00 5,00 4,0000 ,84017 25 the needs of oac and ll to improve its services 2,00 5,00 3,9419 ,80227 26 the needs of oac and ll to improve its materials 2,00 5,00 3,9651 ,83240 the respondents feel that there is a very high need of both oac and ll to improve their facilities. it can be seen from the means score 4,0000. the minimum score 2 means some respondents do not perceive that it is necessary for both media to improve their facilities. however, other respondents deem that it is crucial for both of them to improve their facilities. this is shown by the maximum score 5. the standard deviation that is below 1 means that the answers of the respondents do not vary 126 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 greatly. it can also be concluded that both media need to improve their services. it is proven by the mean score3,9419. the minimum score is 2 meaning some respondents do not think that the services at both places need to be improved. meanwhile, the maximum score 5 means some other respondents believe that their services need improving. the standard deviation 0,80227 indicates that the dispersion among the respondents’ answers is small. the last variable in thetable above indicates that the respondents on the average feel the need of bothmedia to improve their materials. it can be seen from the mean score 3,9651 out of the maximum 5. from the minimum score 2, it can be concluded that there are some respondents that feel the materials in both places do not need to be improved. however, the maximum score 5 means that there are some other respondents who want the materialsthere to be improved. the score of the standard deviation that is below 1,00 shows that the answers of the respondents do not vary greatly. e. interview results the results of the interview on oac show that 2010 and 2011 students frequently go to oac between and after classes. they usually go there to do their assignments and to find information related to their lessons or assignments. they find that oac is very useful for them and most of them are satisfied with the existence of oac. they are also happy with the oac assistant whom they find helpful. however, they suggest that oac needs to be expanded, so that there will be more room for them. they also complain about the old carpets that need changing, the computers that do not work well and the collection of books especially novels that need updating. the 2012 students seem to be unfamiliar or reluctant to make use of the oac facilities partly because they do not know what is in it, how useful it is for them and why they should spend their time there. as for ll, the average students express their favourable perception in relation to the usefulness of ll in developing their listening skill. they also appreciate the facilities, equipment, materials and services at ll. some suggestions that they make concern with the broken headsets, too warm air conditioners and some of the squeaking chairs. hartanto, w., students’ perspectives on the role of open access centre and 127 language laboratory as supporting units in developing english language skills conclusion based on the above findings, the following conclusion can be drawn that in general, students consider oac a useful place for them to do assignments, find information related to their study, do other purposes and even to kill the time. surprisingly, they do not really think that oac is a good place for them to practise their english. yet, they find oac an apppropriate place to develop their english knowledge. students on the average also claim oac’s materials to be relevent to their needs, regardless of the fact that they are satisfied with the existence of oac in general, they think oac still needs to improve its facilities, materials, equipment and services. in comparison with oac, ll seems to be considered far useful in terms of developing students’ english skill particularly listening. students tend to agree that the facilities, equipment, materials and services provided at ll are relevant to their needs. they even feel the needs of ll not only as a medium for their listening classes but also as a place for them to practise their listening skill. therefore, they suggest that there should be a free time for them to have an individual practice outside listening classes. they also suggest that there should be separate, guided materials provided for them in their individual practices. with regard to the students’ comments on oac, a few things need to be done. they are among others: a. the use and function of oac needs to be socialized to students particularly first year students. b. more tasks or assignments given to the students need to involve the use of oac. c. oac needs to be enlarged and better facilitated in terms of equipment, materials, and services. for ll as a supporting unit at the faculty of letters, there are a few things that should be done in order to improve its function and use. they are as follows : a. students should be given extra time to practise their listening skill at ll. b. there should be a tutor to supervise students while doing their extra listening practices. c. some guided, extra materials should be provided for students in their free practices. 128 celt, volume 14, number 1, july 2014, pp. 112-128 d. some facilities and equipment at ll, such as headsets, air conditioners and chairs should be fixed or even renewed. references benson, p. (2001), teaching and researching autonomy in language learning, essex: pearson education limited. cotterall.s and reinders. h. (2001), fortress or bridge? learners’ perceptions and practice in self access language learning.tesolanz 8, pp. 23-38. gardner, d. and miller, l. (eds.). (1994). direction in self-access language learning. hong kong : hong kong university press. hammer, j. (2001).how to teach english. essex : longman. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 22 no.1; june 2022 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . between the documentary voices and the storytelling methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries g. m. adhyanggono english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university (scu), semarang, indonesia email: adhy@unika.ac.id received: 10-11-2021 accepted: 11-05-2022 published: 30-06-2022 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj between the documentary voices and the storytelling methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries g. m. adhyanggono email: adhy@unika.ac.id english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university (scu), semarang, indonesia abstract: this article examines the correlation between the voices of documentary films and the storytelling methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries as the objects of analysis. they are mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: biografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995), ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017), bapak komik indonesia: biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019), melawan lupa: polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020). the documentary voice suggests the perspective, argument, or position of the filmmakers expressed in their works. as to the scope of storytelling includes elements of documentary narrative style, modes and power of documentary storytelling, modes of documentary presentation, and montage editing. with these two aspects – the voices and the storytelling methods – the audience has better access to gain insights from the documentaries. the analysis is carried out by making use of the filmic close reading and note-taking method through cinematic observation and interpretation. the finding suggests that the voices of the films are ideationally and aesthetically articulated through their storytelling methods. the documentary voices and their storytelling methods play a crucial part in helping the films build their credibility in line with the evidence employed. keywords: documentary voice, storytelling, biographical documentary, credibility abstrak: artikel ini mengkaji korelasi antara suara film dokumenter dan metode penceritaan empat film dokumenter biografi indonesia sebagai objek analisis. mereka adalah mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 149 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj biografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995), ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017), bapak komik indonesia: biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019), melawan lupa: polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020). suara dokumenter menunjukkan perspektif, argumen, atau posisi pembuat film yang diekspresikan dalam karya mereka. adapun ruang lingkup penceritaan meliputi unsur gaya naratif dokumenter, mode dan kekuatan penceritaan dokumenter, mode penyajian dokumenter, dan penyuntingan montase. dengan dua aspek ini – suara dan metode penceritaan – penonton memiliki akses yang lebih baik untuk mendapatkan wawasan dari film dokumenter. analisis dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode membaca dekat filmis dan mencatat melalui observasi dan interpretasi sinematik. temuan ini menunjukkan bahwa suara film diartikulasikan secara idealis dan estetis melalui metode penceritaannya. suara dokumenter dan metode penceritaannya memainkan peran penting dalam membantu film membangun kredibilitasnya sejalan dengan bukti yang digunakan. kata kunci: sudut pandang/suara film, penceritaan, dokumenter biografi, kredibilitas introduction a biographical documentary is a sub-genre of documentary film. it exposes a subject‘s life wholly or partly that is framed within the documentary voice. it usually features a person's life being significant in a particular or reputable field (freeman & smith, 2019; nichols, 2017). this neither concerns the humble origin nor the distinguished one of the subjects being filmed. what matters most in a biographical documentary is its voice about the person. such a concern is crucially related to how the subject of the film is narrated (corner, 2002). the documentary voice relates to the filmmaker‘s opinion, perspective, or argument regarding the subject matter, from a particular viewpoint. this argument indicates the filmmakers‘ position towards the subject matter (nichols, 2017). the storytelling method in this article deals with the ways the filmmaker organizes and presents factual events and information to the audience in particular forms (bernard, 2007; bordwell & thompson, 2013; nichols, 2017). the use of factual events and information is inseparable in documentary filmmaking. john grierson, the british pioneer of documentary filmmaking, first proposed the concept of documentary film in the 1930s. he called it ―the creative treatment of actuality [factual event and information]‖ 150 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (mclane, 2012, p. 6). by employing factual events and information, a sense of credibility or reliability in a documentary film‘s sources is achieved (nichols, 2016; platinga, 2015). with the above framing in mind, the article, thus, provides an examination of four indonesian biographical documentaries. they are mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: biografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995), ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017), bapak komik indonesia: biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019), melawan lupa: polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020). the writer uses the words ―documentary film, film, and documentary‖ interchangeably in this article for the sake of practicality and avoiding boredom. the four documentaries are selected on the basis of their films‘ subjects delineating the past prominence figures in indonesia. the first documentary unravels the life of pramoedya ananta toer. he is a preeminent postindonesian independence prose writer, novelist, and short story writer (pletcher, 2023). the second film represents the fundamental contribution of ki hadjar dewantara or r.m. soewardi soerjaningrat to the newly independent indonesia. he is a pre-indonesian independence journalist, politician, educator, and the founder of taman siswa educational movement (wiryopranoto et al., 2017). the third documentary features the legacy of r.a. kosasih. he is the first comic creator of indonesian superheroine, sri asih (lent, 2014). the last film describes the stoic principles and life of hoegeng iman santoso. he is regarded the most straightforward and dedicated chief of the indonesian police force ever (santoso et al., 2009). with these great figures be the films‘ subjects, it is worthy to examine the way the documentaries represent them to the audience. the urgency to assess the voices of the films and their storytelling methods resides in the notion that biographical documentaries with such exceptional figures are expected to portray them fitly to their fame. by ―fitly‖ here suggests that the documentary voices and their storytelling methods can make the films ideationally and aesthetically credible. aspect of credibility in a documentary film production is linked to the use of accurate evidence (bordwell & thompson, 2013; nichols, 2016; platinga, 2015). the use of evidence is essential as it helps raise the stake of the documentary‘s subject matter (bernard, 2007). this evidence could be obtained through various sources, such as stock footages, photographs, testimonies, and interviews with witnesses (ellis, 2012; nichols, 2017; platinga, 2015). yet, evidence is not everything in a documentary film. the ways the filmmakers present or tell the evidence adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 151 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj through a suitable storytelling methods to the audience even matter most (bernard, 2007; corner, 2002; nichols, 2016). about this, the writer perceives that the four biographical documentaries ideationally and aesthetically exhibit the coherence of their documentary voices and storytelling methods, which can further enhance the credibility of the films. literature review some theoretical frameworks are employed in examining the relevance of the documentary voices and their storytelling methods. they are the elements of documentary narrative style (önen, 2021), the narrative or nonnarrative forms of documentary storytelling (bordwell & thompson, 2013), the narrative power of documentary storytelling (bernard, 2007), the modes of documentary presentation (nichols, 2017), dan the montage classification (eisenstein, 1977). these frameworks are applied because they provide parameters by which the relevance of the documentary voices and their storytelling methods can be described and examined. about the elements of documentary narrative style, ufuk önen, (2021), a film producer, sound designer and educator at bilkent university, ankara, turkey, highlights six crucial elements. they are the storytelling following a subject of the film; the way film is narrated; the presence of a narrator on or off screen; the involvement of the filmmaker with the subject; the presence or absence of the filmmaker on the screen; and the documentary voice (önen, 2021). as to the forms of documentary storytelling, david bordwell and kristin thompson (2013), the leading scholars of film studies, mention that a documentary film may adopt narrative and non-narrative forms of storytelling. should a documentary follows a narrative form, then the priciples of chronology and cause-and-effect work. a documentary may also apply a nonnarrative form in its storytelling. this formal patterning is about the way the filmmaker conveys the subject matter of the film. the subject matter can be presented based on categorized information (the categorical form) or based on a particular argument of the filmmakers about the subject matter (the rhetorical form). with this type of form, the audience is expected to be persuaded, convinced, and then taking a particular action out of it (bordwell & thompson, 2013). 152 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj regarding the narrative power of documentary storytelling, sheila curran bernard (2007), an emmy and peabody award-winning filmmaker, writer, and educator, underscores two essential qualities. they are the stake of the story, and the degree of accurate (high-medium-low) facts employed in a documentary (bernard, 2007). the accurate facts in this case do not necessarily mean journalistic-like accuracy. what does it mean? it means that the filmmakers creatively have a certain freedom to manipulate the factual evidence of events or any-given social histories to be a cinematic work. the effect is that viewers internalize any given-evidence or information in the film, and experience the story for themselves as if they were there (bernard, 2007). these are the tools that enable a documentary film give the audience emotional engagement and a sense of participation. about the modes of documentary presentation, bill nichols ( 2017), a prominent american film critic and scholar, proposes six modes of documentary representation. they are expository, poetic, observational, participatory, reflexive, and performative modes. modes relate to how the filmmaker represents actualities through specific cinematic qualities used to construct a documentary film. the specific cinematic qualities here deal with arrangement of sounds and images in a specific way using particular aesthetic and rhetorical techniques (nichols, 2017). an expository documentary is a documentary characterized by an exposition, an explanatory technique where the film represents fragments of actualities or historical world in a more rhetorical or narratorial frame than an aesthetic or poetic one. this expository mode advances an argument or proposes a perspective (nichols, 2017). a poetic documentary gives weight more on associations and patterns of actualities or historical world rather than displays of factual knowledge and a rhetorical persuasion. in a poetic documentary, the expressive quality of the film is what matters most, and it is expressed through mood and tone of any raw materials (people, events and objects) intended to be shown in the film (nichols, 2017). an observational documentary is a film featured by a close observation of the social actors or any subjects undergoing their lives. the viewers of this documentary know everything of the subjects from camera as if it were not present there (nichols, 2017). a participatory documentary exhibits an interaction between the filmmaker and the social actor or the subject. this type of film displays how the filmmaker takes part in events or activities happening before the camera (nichols, 2017). a reflexive documentary shows the absence of the filmmaker on the screen, and yet the filmmaker solemnly speaks about the historical adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 153 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj world and addresses the issues and problems of representing it. therefore, this type of film provides a reflective mode on the subject matter as well as the complexities in delivering it to the viewers (nichols, 2017). a performative documentary explores the expressive qualities of the filmmaker in an engagement with the subject matter. in performing the engagement, the filmmaker addresses the viewers explicitly and actively (nichols, 2017). the last theoretical framework to apply is the montage classification. they are metric, rhythmic, tonal, over-tonal, and intellectual/ideological montages (eisenstein, 1977). montage is a synonym for film editing. in filmmaking, editing is crucial in production and post-production. it implies not only the work of a film editor in the post-production but also the decisions and technical choices made during the production. the decisions and technical choices meant here concern ―a sense of which setups, shots, and sequences are included and in what order‖ (kuhn & westwell, 2012, p. 269). therefore, interaction between editing technique, mise-en-scene, narrative design, and the film‘s theme is the primary focus in montage. editing technique is critical as it is especially governed by the considerations of continuity between shots, scenes, and sequences (kuhn & westwell, 2012). metric montage is a film editing whose technique is done by joining the pieces (shots and scenes) based on a measurement of musical beat. the beat can simple, such as the primitive methods (3/4, 2/4, 1/4, etc.), or compound ones, such as the complicated irregularity (16/17, 22/57, etc.). in this metric montage, the content of the frame is relegated to the absolute length of the piece that are applied repetitively in the designated pieces. the effect of this montage is to create an aesthetic tension, suspense, or drama (eisenstein, 1977). unlike metric montage, rhythmic montage gives equal consideration to the content of the frame. technically, rhythmic montage is similar to the metric one but the former also promotes the significance of the content of shots and scenes. the effect of rhythmic montage is that greater continuity of the contents of the pieces is maintained (eisenstein, 1977). as for tonal montage, this type of film editing focuses on maintaining the emotional tone of the pieces. it suggests that joining or placing two visual and aural contents of the pieces together should be able to express emotions desired to achieve. a director, for instance, cannot simply cut the pieces based on the visual image or tempo of the music without considering the emotions that can be drawn from placing. thus, tonal montage is applied to create different emotional effects on the audience (eisenstein, 1977). 154 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj over-tonal montage is the furthest development of tonal montage. technically, it is similar to tonal montage but the technique is applied to the larger piece (sequence) and the structure of the film corresponding to the overall theme (eisenstein, 1977). about intellectual/ideological montage, eisenstein properly defines it as ―montage not of generally physiological overtonal sounds, but of sounds and overtones of an intellectual sort: i.e., conflictjuxtaposition of accompanying intellectual affects‖ (eisenstein, 1977, p. 82). intellectual montage allows audience to infer meaning and emotions about the correlations between shots and scenes. the effect of this type of montage sometimes create surprise and disrupt audience‘s expectation (eisenstein, 1977). method the writer applies a filmic close reading and note-taking method to collect the data from the examined films. the method is conducted through observation. in film studies, observation technique is inevitable. a film is an audio-visual work meaning that audience sees the visual images and hears or listens to sound and music or scoring at the same time. about this, bernard f. dick, a professor of communications and english at fairleigh dickinson university, maintains that: in a movie, however, the conflict is audiovisual: it is heard and seen rather than written and read. a movie "embodies time-space relationships." while a written narrative can suggest that two events are occurring at the same time and in different places, a movie can do more than suggest: it can show them occurring (dick, 1998, p. 4). a close reading method in film studies is a method of observing (not only watching, but also listening, and thinking) a film to develop audience‘s critical thought of the film (lewis, 2014). note-taking is also important in analyzing the film because the activity ―help us record our observations either during or immediately following the screening, while our impressions are still vivid. if something strikes us write it down‖ (lewis, 2014, p.285). to carry out this observation, the writer selects some shots and scenes in the examined documentary films, and then proceed it with the analysis. the method to analyze the shots and scenes is through interpretation. making meanings through interpretation is a valid and proper practice in film criticism (bordwell, 1991; lewis, 2014; rosenbaum, 1995). adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 155 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the documentary voice and the storytelling method of mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: biografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995) mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: briografi pramoedya ananta toer was produced by lontar foundation and directed by srikaton in 1995. the duration of the documentary is 29:19 minutes. the film exclusively portrays the life of pramoedya ananta toer, his principles of life and his struggle against any forms of oppression he encountered in the past, be that of political, economy, cultural, nor societal ones, against oneself and others. this confirms a portrayal of pram, his nick name, as a true paradox man in his life. many people adore and yet, at the same time, many others condemn him. such a quality – paradox – is what becomes his power, and he truly realized it and sticked to it to the end. his short stories and novels, such as tjerita dari blora (1952; ―tales of blora‖), bumi manusia (1980; ―this earth of mankind‖), anak semua bangsa (1980; ―child of all nations‖), and rumah kaca (1985; ―house of glass‖), prove to have enchanted many people in indonesia and abroad (kemendikbud, 2016; pletcher, 2023). as a biographical or portrait documentary, the work of srikaton is structured into 13 segments. a segment is equivalent to a sequence in a fiction film (bordwell & thompson, 2013). segment 1 introduces blora, the birthplace of pramoedya ananta toer (pram), and his residence at utan kayu, east jakarta, to the audience. segment 2 unfolds pram and his involvement at lekra (a cultural wing organization of the indonesian communist party). segment 3 defines pram as a true individualist. segment 4 describes pram as an avant-garde author. segment 5 reveals the spiritual relationship of pram and his works, a father-child like one. segment 6 recounts the oppressions, exiles, and imprisonments of pram. segment 7 revisits pram‘s early carrier as an author. segment 8 traces back pram‘s inferior complex. segment 9 conveys pram‘s attempt of committing suicide. segment 10 illustrates pram and his freedom. segment 11 shows the significant meaning of a mother to pram. segment 12 uncovers the strength and determination of pram. the last one, segment 13, presents the imaginary message of pram‘s mother. as regards the documentary voice or the filmmaker‘s voice (önen, 2021), mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: briografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995) articulates an idea that pram is a complex individualist. he has undergone psychological, sociocultural, and political hardships in a long period of his life. this is evident in a scene of segment three wherein the camera shoots pram from behind and slowly pans to the left. the frame shows 156 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pram who is reading and smoking in his working room at night as indicated below. figure 1. pram, a complex individualist (srikaton, 1995, 04:14) while the scene displays this visual, pram‘s internal voice explains that he is an individualist, unable to be directed by others and unwilling to direct others. he is determined to his stands and unwilling to trade off his principles. his internal voice further mentions that he is rebellious to anything in his life as he considers that things go against him, oppress him. the camera zooms slowly zooms in pram‘s portrait figure as his internal voice expresses his self-identity as a true pram, ―pram is pram, and not others‖ (srikaton, 1995, 04:29). pram does not even care when people allege that he is a communist. to better express the idea of pram‘s individualistic disposition, the storytelling method of srikaton‘s biographical documentary employs a number of techniques. firstly, the camera follows the subject in the film (önen, 2021). secondly, the narration is done by the omniscient point of view (pov) the third-person pov and first-person pov (önen, 2021). the omniscient pov is conducted by the voice-over (vo). the third-person pov is a social actress dressed in blue kebaya, acting as pram‘s mother who follows and watches pram‘s life. the first-person pov is pram himself who recounts his life. the most dominant pov in the film is the first-person pov followed by the omniscient and the least dominant is the third-person pov. thirdly, both the third-and first-person povs are on screen (önen, 2021) as shown below. adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 157 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 2. third person pov narrator, the woman in blue kebaya, (srikaton, 1995, 01:49) figure 3. first person pov narrator, pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995, 11:03) the next technique to use is the presence of the filmmakers on screen (önen, 2021). it is represented by the social actress herself in the film. the employment of the social actress on screen gives a sense that it is designed. therefore, audience is aware that it is a film, and the presence of the filmmakers on screen is embodied by the social actress. nevertheless, the social actress does not interact with the film subjects (önen, 2021), pramoedya and other social actors involved on screen. they seem to be unaware of the presence of the social actress in blue kebaya, which gives an impression that they live in two different worlds, but they are closely connected. beside the techniques mentioned above, the storytelling method of mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: briografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995) is delivered in a non-narrative form (bordwell & thompson, 2013). the nonnarrative form employed is the rhetorical form, and the type of the rhetorical form is the argument from source. the film‘s argument relies on the reliable source of information. the reliable source of information is obtained from the firsthand accounts of the subject (bordwell & thompson, 2013). in this portrait documentary, the viewers get the firsthand accounts from pramoedya himself in the form of testimonies of his life. the argument of pram in this film is clear in that he claims himself to be an individualistic and rebellious person, as well as an avant-garde author (srikaton, 1995, 03:53). with this non-narrative form of the documentary storytelling method, srikaton‘s portrait documentary, therefore, does not have a particular narrative element at stake. this is the case since the presence of something at stake in telling a story only applies when the form of the storytelling is in a 158 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj narrative form (bernard, 2007). the narrative form of the storytelling involves the existence of definitive protagonist and antagonist (or antagonistic force) as well as a narrative plot and structure, such as exposition, moments of conflicts, climax, and resolution, to make the story more dramatic and compelling (bernard, 2007; bordwell & thompson, 2013). however, it does not mean that the portrait documentary has no powerful element to tell that can alure the audience. the powerful element of the film lies in the rhetoric itself, the claim of pram, which may evoke neither agreement nor disagreement of the audience. another parameter to examine the power of the documentary storytelling is through the employment of accurate facts (bernard, 2007). mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: briografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995) employs a high degree of accurate facts. the subject matter of the film itself is about pram and his disposition in life, both as an individual and a novelist. it is achieved through the testimonies of pram as the firsthand reliable source as well as through other visuals and narratorial sources from pram‘s old photographs, factual objects and event. the following shots show how stock photo, factual object and event are incorporated in the film. figure 4. pram’s old photograph as a detainee at buru island (srikaton, 1995, 08:32) figure 5. pram’s old house in blora (srikaton, 1995, 13:10) figure 6. the launching of pram’s novel, arus balik (srikaton, 1995, 22:24) from the mode of documentary presentation (nichols, 2017), srikaton‘s biographical documentary combines expository and observational modes. as was explained previously, an explanatory method about a subject matter delivered in a rhetorical or narratorial frame is the heart of an expository documentary. as for an observational documentary, a close observation of the social actors or the film subjects undergoing their daily activities matters most (nichols, 2017). srikaton‘s work demonstrates these features in all segments. when the camera captures the activities of pram as if unnoticed, so that the audience feels present in the moments, then the observational mode is adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 159 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj applied. on the other hand, when the camera captures the explanation of pram or the commentaries of the social actress narrator, thus, the expository mode is used. this pattern goes along the way to the end of the film. in terms of the montage technique (film editing) that supports the storytelling of srikaton‘s portrait documentary, the tonal and over-tonal montage are the most powerful ones. the former keeps the tone of two shot or scenes connected emotionally and thematically with the purpose of reinforcing the emotion or psychological meaning of the film. the latter does further by incorporating the qualities of similar speed (metric montage), logically continued objects captured (rhythmic montage), and similar emotion (tonal montage) in the shots or scenes (eisenstein, 1977). mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: briografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995) displays the use of tonal montage, for example, in these three different shots of segment 6 (six) as shown below. figure 7. newspaper clipping of pram’s “dark” past (srikaton, 1995, 06:31) figure 8. the social actress narrator and the knife (srikaton, 1995, 06:35) figure 9. the sleeping pram and the sickle (srikaton, 1995, 07:10) figure 7 captures the old newspaper clipping of the accusation of pram‘s ―dark‖ past, which tells his stout defense against the critics and political opponents of president soekarno. figure 8 shows the social actress narrator who is cleaning a knife with oil giving the impression of maintaining the sharpness of the knife. figure 9 demonstrates pram who is sleeping in his bedroom in the background, while the camera also captures a sickle in the foreground. they are all linked by the idea political and psychological insecurity and threats that pram has to encounter and live with. the newspaper heading, the knife, and the sickle reinforce such a dangerous state. as these shots appear consecutively, the internal voice of the social actress narrates that a past experience of pram when he was working for president sukarno and condemned by the army (then new order regime) and its supporters as being pro-sukarno and communist party. pram was cornered 160 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and attacked by his ideological opponents causing him to lose everything. then, the new order regime detained and exiled pram to buru island without a fair trial. the over-tonal montage of the film can be observed, for instance, in segment 9. in this segment, three juxtaposed shots that appear one after the other in the same duration, and of three different objects are visualized along with the threatening sound effect as indicated below. figure 10. pram acts in trance (srikaton, 1995, 20:00) figure 11. the social actress narrator in a meditationlike expression (srikaton, 1995, 06:35) figure 12. the tranced pram and the superimposed bright image of sun (srikaton, 1995, 20:04) figure 10 captures pram speaking of an extraordinary event during his meditation in prison. in pram‘s meditative vision, he saw a tiger emerged from the wall of the prison approaching him and was about to devour him. pram then spoke to the tiger that if the beast wanted to devour him, he let it happen as he was not in fear anymore. then, the shot is followed by pram‘s act of trance. subsequently, figure 11 appears featuring the social actress narrator in an extreme close-up shot. the shot gives the impression that the narrator intends to imagine what pram experienced in his meditative vision. following is figure 12, which shows a superimposed shot of pram in trance and a bright light resembling the image of sun. these shots are in the same duration (metric montage). they consecutively appear in a cause-effect relation (rhythmic montage). they are also thematically and emotionally linked by the idea of metaphysical experience of pram as he was in a precarious and hazardous situation (tonal montage). he basically questioned his inner-self and life to god. furthermore, as the film shows these shots, the menacing sound effect is audible to the audience, which completes the over-tonality of srikaton‘s portrait documentary. adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 161 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj from the examination above, the documentary voice and the storytelling method of mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: biografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995) can be inferred to be coherent. the employment of a number of techniques in the storytelling method of the film fitly represent pram‘s complex nature, the individualistic disposition. they are capable of portraying what kind of man pram is; what values he upholds; and how he lives with such disposition and values. srikaton‘s work can therefore be considered highly credible with such qualities coherently expressed. by idea, the film articulates pram‘s nature and maintains the filmmaker‘s voice distinctively. equally, the storytelling method of the film aesthetically supports and further enhances the documentary voice. the documentary voice and the storytelling method of ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan was produced by the directorate of history of the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia in cooperation with ilmu giri pictures in 2017. nasruddin anshroriy is the director of the film. the duration of the documentary is 52:32 minutes. this documentary film focuses on the meritorious deeds of suwardi soerjaningrat aka ki hadjar dewantara to the independence of indonesia as well as the birth of the modern and nationalistic educational system in the country. by structure, this work of anshroriy is arranged into 9 segments. segment 1 discloses the noble birth origin of ki hadjar dewantara. segment 2 portrays the life struggle of ki hadjar dewantara in the dutch colonial times. segment 3 highlights his struggle for a political independence of indonesia. segment 4 focuses on delineating ki hadjar dewantara and the rise of indigenous journalism as his vehicle for a political struggle. segment 5 pictures the pivotal role ki hadjar dewantara in the center of political turbulence for the indonesian independence. segment 6 portrays ki hadjar‘s vision of a nationalistic educational system for all indonesians. segment 7 represents his struggle in the field of culture. segment 8 describes the merits of ki hadjar dewantara to the development of indonesian fine arts. the last segment captures the bestowal of honorary titles upon ki hadjar dewantara and his departure. 162 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the documentary voice articulates a notion that the significant merits of ki hadjar dewantara in the fields of politic, education, and culture in pre-and around independence times of indonesia are undeniable. throughout the film, these merits are well described and find their confirmation at the concluding segment where the bestowal of several titles, a national hero, preindependent hero, and the founding father of education in indonesia accordingly. the film shows the hero stars and the honorary badge. furthermore, his birthday on may 2 has been celebrated as the education day in indonesia since 1959. figure 13. the hero stars and the honorary badge of ki hadjar dewantara (anshoriy, 2017, 43:11) to further emphasize the undisputed grand merits of ki hadjar dewantara, the film employs a number of techniques in its storytelling method. first, ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) shows that the camera does not follow the subject (önen, 2021). second, it uses omniscient, third-person and first-person points of view (povs) to tell the exposition. the omniscient pov is via a female voice-over. the third-person pov is through testimonials of the witnesses or authorities in the film (önen, 2021). as for the first-person pov, the film presents ki hadjar himself in his testimonial. the most dominant pov narrator is the omniscient one followed by the third-person, and the least dominant one is the first-person pov. the appearance of the third-person and first-person povs on screen (önen, 2021) can be seen below. adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 163 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 14. third-person pov narrator, ki hadjar’s granddaughter, nyi ganawati (anshoriy, 2017, 03:22) figure 15. first-person pov narrator of ki hadjar dewantara, from the national archives (anshoriy, 2017, 10:01) this biographical documentary does not indicate any involvement of the filmmakers with the film subjects (ki hadjar dewantara and other social actors/actresses on screen). therefore, consequently, the audience does not see the filmmakers on screen either (önen, 2021). besides the aforementioned techniques, the storytelling of the film is delivered in a non-narrative form documentary, a rhetorical one (bordwell & thompson, 2013). the type of the rhetorical form is that of the argument from source. in this biographical documentary, the viewers obtain the accounts from not only the talking heads aka testimonials of reliable witnesses and authorities, but also from the accounts of ki hadjar dewantara himself. he gives testimonies on what he had been through in the past. in this film, ki hadjar tells the audience the background and reasoning of the establishment of indische partij, his struggles to support indonesian independence, and his devotion to develop education and cultures in the country. all what he did came out of his patriotic and nationalistic views to bring indonesia to an independence from the dutch colonialization. since this biographical documentary employs a non-narrative form, therefore no particular narrative element at stake occurs (bernard, 2007). the power of ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) lies in its explicit usage of accurate facts. the historical facts that the film shows are highly demonstrated. the theme of the film concerns the undeniable significant merits of ki hadjar dewantara. this is achieved by means of the testimonials of ki hadjar dewantara himself and other reliable social actors/actresses, the manuscripts of ki hadjar‘s articles in the past, the old photographs and footages of ki hadjar dewantara‘s past activities, as well as the honorary titles conferred on him by the indonesian government. the shots below represent how those elements are incorporated in the film. 164 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 16. the testimony of ki hadjar dewantara (anshoriy, 2017, 13:21) figure 17. the testimony of ki hadjar’s granddaughter, nyi ganawati (anshoriy, 2017, 03:22) figure 18. the manuscript of ki hadjar’s article in de expres (anshoriy, 2017, 12:16) figure 19. an old photograph of ki hadjar’s activity in indishe partij (anshoriy, 2017, 11:05) figure 20. a footage of ki hadjar delivering a speech at the congress of taman siswa in 1956 (anshoriy, 2017, 20:50) figure 21. the hero stars and the honorary badge of ki hadjar dewantara (anshoriy, 2017, 43:11) in terms of the mode of documentary presentation (nichols, 2017), anshroriy‘s biographical documentary serves as an expository one. it vividly describes the film subject, ki hadjar dewantara, in an explanatory way. the film systematically following ki hadjar‘s timeline. the documentary shows his birth origin, his involvement in the political struggle for independence, his journalistic works, the banishment to the netherlands, his return to indonesia to establish taman siswa school, the joining of the first presidential cabinet, and his departure. moving to the montages applied in the film (eisenstein, 1977), tonal and rhythmical montages seem to be dominant. ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) shows the use of tonal montage in the following shot for instance. adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 165 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 22. the tonal montage in use, juxtaposing the shared belief in cultural and educational strategies of rabindranath tagore’s shantiniketan in india and those of ki hadjar dewantara’s taman siswa in indonesia (anshoriy, 2017, 21:34) the shot above demonstrates the juxtaposed footages of students of tagore‘s shantiniketan and those of taman siswa dancing. these footages give the impression of parallelism. tagore and ki hadjar were close to each other; they were both compatriots struggling for the independence of their countries. both of them also dropped their noble titles, sir rabindranath tagore, and r.m. soewardi soerjaningrat. they did this to be close and mingle with their respective countrymen. the rhythmical montage of the film can be seen in most of the segments, for instance, in segment 6 where ki hadjar dewantara proposed his visions of nationalistic education for all indonesians. figure 23. rhythmical montage of shot featuring the painting of ki hadjar dewantara on the right, and an old photograph of an indigenous classroom on the left (anshoriy, 2017, 25:54) figure 24. rhythmical montage of shot displaying an old photograph of an elitist dutch colonial classroom (anshoriy, 2017, 26:04) figure 25. rhythmical montage of shot representing an old picture of the students in the dutch educational system receiving a congratulatory remark, “good luck” [weltevreden] (anshoriy, 2017, 26:14) 166 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figures 23, 24, and 25 demonstrate that the camera captures three different images in sequential order with the same tempo for about 10 seconds each shot accompanied by the repeated scoring (musical illustration of the visual). the voice-over (vo) narrator states that ki hadjar began to think of the flaws of the colonial educational system applied in indonesia. he thought that such a colonialist education was elitist, discriminating, and oriented towards the interest of the colonial regime. as the vo says this, the film shows a number of old pictures exhibiting the educational gap conditions of those elites and the common people as shown in the three figures above. the examination of the documentary voice and the storytelling method of ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) indicates that they are all related in an organized and reasonable way. such a relevant organization and reasoning fitly expresses the undeniable grand merits of ki hadjar dewantara intended to be communicated. the documentary voice and the storytelling method bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019) bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih was produced by faculty of communication science of budi luhur university, jakarta, in 2019. ahdan mohammad was the director as well as the producer in chief. this biographical documentary takes 20:57 minutes for its duration. as clearly expressed from the title of the film, this documentary exclusively depicts the life of raden ahmad kosasih as a comic artist and how he deserves to be called the father of indonesian comic artist. this work of ahdan is organized into 9 segments. segment 1 is the opening credits. it consists of a pre-credit sequence and the main title ―bapak komik indonesia‖. the pre-credit sequence is in the form of exhibiting the 1930‘s comic on a newspaper entitled put on created by kho wan gie. following is the comic of r.a. kosasih entitled sri asih appears on screen. the latter is the first indonesian comic superhero. the function of this segment is to introduce the idea that although there had been an indonesian comic created by kho wan gie in the 1930s, kosasih‘s sri asih, which was created in 1954, is the first superhero comic genre in indonesia. segment 2 gives an overview of comic artist and the development of comic in indonesia. segment 3 provides a delineation and illustration of the background of r.a. kosasih and his first encounter with comic. segment 4 depicts r.a. kosasih and his adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 167 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj love to arts at his teenage. segment 5 provides the testimonials of yudhowati ambiyana and tatang anjaya on r.a. kosasih‘s sri asih. segment 6 presents the testimonial of henry ismono on the popularity of r.a. kosasih‘s works in the 1950s comic industry in indonesia. segment 7 discloses the testimonials of tatang anjaya and yudhowati ambiyana on their expectations for young indonesian comic artists in the future. segment 8 highlights the popular comic books of r.a. kosasih. this segment functions as a concluding part of the subject matter of the film. segment 9 is the end credits of the film. with regard to the filmmaker‘s voice (önen, 2021), bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019) communicates an idea that r.a. kosasih is a true father of indonesian comic for he has created the first indonesian superhero comic in indonesian style, sri asih, and that all of his comic works also gained popularity for more than a decade. this is vividly indicated in several scenes throughout the film. they are in segment 1, 2, 5, 6, and 8. as a case in point, segment 8 shows the most popular works of r.a. kosasih as represented below. figure 26. sri asih, 1954 (ahdan, 2019, 18:46) figure 27. ramayana, 1954-1955 (ahdan, 2019, 18:53) figure 28. mahabharata, 1955 (ahdan, 2019, 19:05) figure 29. siti gahara, 1960 (ahdan, 2019, 19:10) figure 30. the intertitles informing hundreds of works of r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019, 19:18) 168 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj first, it exhibits the serial of sri asih on the episode of membasmi kumpulan srigala hitam in 1954, the first indonesian superhero comic. then, it is continuous with the serial of ramayana on the episode of pernikahan dengan putri mantili, an indian epic-based comic, from 1954-1955. following is mahabharata, a serial comic of pandawa lima stories, in 1955. after that is siti gahara, a 1001 night-tale-based comic in 1960. it is the second superhero comic created by kosasih. then, the scene displays the intertitles reading “dan lebih dari 100 judul komik ciptaan ra. kosasih”. the figures above all confirm the popularity and proliferation of kosasih‘s comic works. to achieve this idea, the filmmakers seem to have built their storytelling method through some techniques. referring to the narrative elements of onen (2021), the camera, in the first place, does not follow the subject of the film. secondly, bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019) is narrated through the omniscient, third-and first-person pov narrators. the omniscient pov narrator comes in the form of voice-over. the third-person pov narrator appears via the testimonials of the witnesses and authorities. as for the first-person pov narrator goes through testimonial of r.a. kosasih himself. the most dominant pov narrator is the third-person narrator one. the omniscient comes the second; and the first-person pov is the least dominant. next, both the third-and first-person povs are on screen (önen, 2021) as indicated below. figure 31. third person pov narrator, yudhowati ambiyana, the daughter of r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019, 02:18) figure 32. first person pov narrator, r.a. kosasih, , taken from tvri stock footage (ahdan, 2019, 07:33) compared to the that of ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) which does not indicate any involvement of the filmmakers with the film subject on screen, bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019) pays less attention on this part. the viewers can sense the filmmakers‘ involvement in the film as their voices are still audible in low voice when they adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 169 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj did the interviews with yudhowati ambiyana and tatang anjaya in some scenes. this indicates a kind of hesitation in the part of the filmmakers whether or not they really want to be on screen or off screen. additionally, the filmmakers employ the non-narrative form of storytelling method in this film. the non-narrative form used is the rhetorical one (bordwell & thompson, 2013). this goes in accordance with the documentary or the filmmakers‘ voice of the film wherein r.a. kosasih deserves to be bestowed the father of indonesian comic artist. it is what they intend to prove and convince the audience to believe it. as this film takes the non-narrative form, the narrative element at stake is zero (bernard, 2007). the employment of testimonials from reliable individuals, the existing evidentiary works of kosasih as well as the stock footage and his old photographs make the accuracy on presenting facts in this film is linearly proportioned. the subject matter or the theme of the film deals with the honor bestowed to r.a. kosasih to the development of comic in indonesia. therefore, the film initially presents a comparison between kho wan gie‘s put on (1930) and r.a. kosasih‘s sri asih (1954) in segment 1. then, the film brings the testimonial of kosasih‘s daughter to forth to further confirm the claim in segment 5. still in segment 5, the audience can find the legitimacy of the fact from the testimonial of son of the publishing house of sri asih, melodie. further, in segment 6, the film provides the testimonial of the expert and collector to give a fair perspective from an unrelated party. afterwards, in segment 8, the audience observes how works of kosasih are organized in such a way to provide a final evidentiary touch that supports the claim r.a. kosasih is truly a father of indonesian comic artist. the following shots demonstrate how the organization of those elements effectively work. figure 33. kho wan gie’s put on in segment 1 (ahdan, 2019, 00:32) figure 34. r.a. kosasih’s sri asih in segment 1 (ahdan, 2019, 00:40) figure 35. the testimonial of yudhowati ambiyana, the daughter of r.a. kosasih in segment 5 (ahdan, 2019, 13:03) 170 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 36. the testimonial of tatang anjaya of melodie publishing house in segment 5 (ahdan, 2019, 13:15) figure 37. the testimonial of henry ismono, an expert and collector of comic in segment 6 (ahdan, 2019, 15:50) figure 38. the intertitles informing hundreds of works of r.a. kosasih in segment 8 (ahdan, 2019, 19:18) referring to the documentary mode (nichols, 2017), ahdan‘s biographical documentary expresses an expository one. this fact shares a common feature as the other three films discussed previously. by film title, bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih explicitly suggests the idea of explaining who the father of indonesian comic is. similar to that of ki hadjar dewantara, the film follows systematical explanation of kosasih‘s timeline. the film inductively explains how from the love of seeing and reading comic strip to creating hundreds of comic books with his indonesian style, kosasih deserves to be honored the father of indonesian comic. as to the montages used in the film (eisenstein, 1977), ahdan‘s film also shares similarity to those of ki hadjar dewantara. the dominant montages applied are tonal and rhythmical montages. the filmmakers make use of tonal montage in the following shot as an example. figure 39. the tonal montage in use, juxtaposing r.a. kosasih’s sri asih (1954) and william warston’s wonder woman (1941) (ahdan, 2019, 14:58) adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 171 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the juxtaposed images of sri asih and wonder woman above clearly express a parallelism edited in a single shot. it is common to have juxtaposed images of contradictory representation in their respective shots that can illustrate an irony. yet, when two images are combined in a single shot, an idea of strong parallelism or contrast could either be the choice (eisenstein, 1977). in this case, ahdan‘s film seems to articulate parallelism. sri asih is inspired by wonder woman. the audience could observe the rhythmical montage of the film in many segments. the most obvious one is in segment 8, the exhibition of r.a. kosasih‘s popular comic books, as represented figures 26-30. the shots in these figures demonstrate different images run in sequential order with exact tempo of each shot for about 8 seconds. additionally, the scoring (musical illustration of the visual) of all these shots is played on repeatedly with its award winning-like music. such an audio-visual organization expresses the idea of appreciation, honor, and gratitude for producing such phenomenal comic works. this idea is even more materialized in the film as the commemorative and dedication shots following the above popular comic books scene appear on screen. figure 40. the commemorative shot of r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019, 19:26) figure 41. the dedication shot to r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019, 19:33) hence, the examination of the documentary voice and the storytelling method of bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019) suggests that they are connected in an organized and efficient way. therefore, the voice and the storytelling of the film effectively illustrate the appreciation and profundity to the idea that r.a. kosasih deserves to be the father of indonesian comic. 172 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the documentary voice and the storytelling method melawan lupa polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020) melawan lupa polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020) was produced by mas‘ad taharani as an episode of a serial documentary program called melawan lupa at metro tv station. metro tv is a major private tv station in indonesia. the episode itself was produced in 2020. although it is an episode of a tv program, by nature, it is still considered a biographical documentary. this film by taharani runs for 28:05 minutes. the title of the film clearly suggests that the audience is going to be introduced with a police officer named hoegeng. yet, he is not an ordinary police officer. he was a former chief of the indonesian police from 1967 to 1971 and is famous for being straightforward to anyone and non-compromising to crimes. the structure of this biographical documentary consists of 8 segments. segment 1 is the opening credits. interestingly, this segment is still divided into three parts. they are montage, pre-credit sequence, and the main title polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng. segment 2 provides a jocular context of the three only trusted entities of the indonesian police proposed by the former president abdur rahman wahid (gus dur). they are the sleeping policeman (speed bump), the police statue, and hoegeng. segment 3 illustrates the personal background of hoegeng iman santoso. segment 4 depicts the beginning of the legendary principle of general hoegeng. segment 5 portrays the career of general hoegeng in jakarta, the capital city of indonesia. segment 6 recounts the different policies of general hoegeng against the corrupted policies of the new order regime. segment 7 delineates the life of hoegeng after his resignation from the indonesian police. segment 8 is the end credits of the film. concerning the documentary voice of the film (önen, 2021), melawan lupa polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020) expresses an idea that the tale of hoegeng‘s straightforwardness and non-compromising to crimes is legendary and he can be a perfect role model for all members of the indonesian police. the film indicates that such a principle seems to have been the result of a proper nurturing in his family as well as good education and environment he received. the film shows these qualities in segments 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. as an example, segments 6 and 7 demonstrate how hoegeng‘s straightforwardness and non-compromising to crimes are sincerely and firmly upheld. the following scenes of segments 6 and 7 represent this description. adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 173 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 42. a scene of robby cahyadi being arrested on the case of smuggling luxurious cars from abroad in segment 6 (taharani, 2020, 13:50) figure 43. a scene of hoegeng being summoned by president soeharto to resign from his post as chief of the indonesian police in segment 7 (taharani, 2020, 15:07) figure 42 represents the portrayal of a scene where robby cahyadi was arrested and brought to court. the vo narrator mentions that the accusation involving robby was the luxurious cars smuggling from 1968 to 1971. general hoegeng and his team captured robby and his elder brother. the police put them in jail at the jakarta police headquarter. yet, in few hours robby and his brother were released due the intervention of the powerful officials of the new order regime. further, the vo also narrates that general hoegeng immediately intended to report the case to president soeharto in his private residence. yet, hoegeng was shocked and then declined the idea to meet president soeharto after watching robby going out of soeharto‘s residence. figure 43 shows a scene in segment 7 where hoegeng was summoned by president soeharto. the vo mentions that soeharto asked him to resign from his post as chief of the indonesian police for there was no place for him in indonesia so long as the activities of soeharto‘s business cronies were ‗disturbed‘. further, president soeharto offered him to be the ambassador in belgium, but hogeng rejected the idea. he argued that he was not trained to be a diplomat, but a police officer. general hoegeng then officially resigned from his post at the age of 49 in october 2, 1971. the two scenes above strongly indicate the unbent principle of hoegeng. to better portray the film subject above, some storytelling techniques were adopted in melawan lupa polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020). in terms of the narrative elements, the most of camera shots do not follow the film subject. yet, only a few shots capture how the camera follows hoegeng as the film subject. the audience can find them from the stock footages employed in the film. then, the film makes use of the omniscient 174 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and the third-person pov narrators. the former is carried out through the voice-over while the latter is via the testimonials of the witnesses and authorities as seen in figure 44 below. figure 44. one of the third-person pov narrators, aditya hoegeng, in his testimonials (taharani, 2020, 13:50) figure 45. a scene of hoegeng instructing people on the street to stay away from crimes, the only audible voice of hoegeng in the film (taharani, 2020, 09:38) although there is no first-person pov narrator employed in this film, the audience can still observe the stock footage of general hoegeng in the form of an interview by a foreign reporter. however, the audience cannot hear what they were discussing as their voices were muted. the only voice of hoegeng that the audience can hear is when he got off the car and instructed people on the street to stay away from crimes in figure 45, where he just occupied his post as chief of the indonesian police in jakarta. the most dominant pov narrator in this film is obviously the omniscient. similar to those of ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) and bapak komik indonesiabiografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019), this biographical documentary of taharani does not show the involvement of the filmmakers with the film subject on screen either. the non-narrative form of storytelling method appears to be the technique in melawan lupa polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020). additionally, it is a rhetorical one (bordwell & thompson, 2013). the reason behind the employment of such a method is comprehensible as the documentary voice emphasizes hoegeng‘s straightforwardness and noncompromising to crimes that are highlighted. regarding what is at stake in a film (bernard, 2007), there is no narrative element at stake shown in this film. the adoption of testimonials from the family members of hoegeng, in this case, are the testimonials of adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 175 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj meriyati hoegeng (wife) and aditya hoegeng (son). moreover, the testimonials from the experts, the stock footages of hoegeng‘s activities, and the old photographs of hoegeng significantly help ensure the accuracy of the fact revealed. with these all, the documentary voice is therefore powerfully and effectively expressed. to achieve this goal, the filmmakers make use of a precredit sequence in the opening segment. this part features the combination of photograph montage and stock footage of hoegeng prior to the main title appearing on screen as seen in figures 46, 47, and 48. then, come the part of the vo, the old photographs, the testimonials, and the stock footages that are interwoven in most of the segments to the end. figure 46. the old photograph of hoegeng in dissolve transition of photograph montage (taharani, 2020, 00:16) figure 47. the stock footage of hoegeng (taharani, 2020, 00:19) figure 48. the film’s main title (taharani, 2020, 00:26) as for the documentary mode (nichols, 2017), this portrait documentary also shares a common feature of the previous films that are examined. melawan lupa polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020) is an expository documentary. with the main argument to prove and describe how straightforward and non-compromising hoegeng is, the film follows the logic of the argument as well as the historical facts that hoegeng experienced. in terms of the montages applied to the film (eisenstein, 1977), tonal and rhythmical montages are the most dominant ones. this fact resembles those of ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017) and bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019). tonal montage can be observed in the following interconnected scenes as an example. 176 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 49. the gentle side of hoegeng to common people, stock footage (taharani, 2020, 12:49) figure 50. hoegeng’s fond of singing hawaiian songs with his band, stock footage (taharani, 2020, 12:51) figure 51. hoegeng’s skills in playing guitar and ukulele (taharani, 2020, 13:03) three different scenes above are closely related to each other bound by the same idea. they show and confirm the gentle and artistic qualities of general hoegeng to people regardless their social statuses. this example of tonal montage in the film also expresses his capacity to hear aspirations of the people as well as to respect people. yet, to criminals, hoegeng‘s straightforwardness and non-compromising attitudes are legendary. as for the rhythmical montage, the opening segment of the film clearly demonstrates the same tempo and scoring (musical illustration of the visuals). this can be seen in figures 46 to 48 above. these shots appear in steady rhythm for both the visuals and the scoring. thus, the analysis of the documentary voice and the storytelling method of melawan lupa polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020) indicates one thing. they are all effectively arranged to portray the disposition and principles of general hoegeng as intended by the filmmakers. the fact that it is an episode of a documentary tv program does not necessarily alter the nature of the film as a portrait documentary. conclusion the four films share some cinematic storytelling techniques in common while maintaining their list of distinctiveness, which are not the focus of this article. their similar techniques go as follows. first, all films employ omniscient and three-person pov narrators. second, all of them do not show their filmmakers directly involved with the film subjects on screen. third, they all deliver their storytelling way in a non-narrative form with rhetorical type. consequently, none of the examined films have something at stake adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 177 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj narratively. fourth, they incorporate evidentiary facts in their presentation. fifth, the four films analyzed uses the expository mode in communicating their voices. sixth, the tonal montage is applied to them to interweave the logic of the shots and scenes. with these all in mind, it can then be concluded that the biographical documentaries examined, mendengar si bisu bernyanyi: biografi pramoedya ananta toer (srikaton, 1995), ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan (anshoriy, 2017), bapak komik indonesia: biografi r.a. kosasih (ahdan, 2019), melawan lupa: polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng (taharani, 2020), are ideationally and aesthetically proper to portray such exceptional figures they have. by ―proper‖ here, the sense of being fit and credible operates in these films. further, it suggests that their documentary voices and storytelling methods enable the films to represent their film subjects reasonably, factually and convincingly, within their respective contexts. references ahdan, m. (2019). bapak komik indonesia-biografi r.a. kosasih. universitas budi luhur. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b6j5rs3nb4e&t=637s anshoriy, n. (2017). ki hadjar dewantara: mata air kebangsaan. direktorat sejarah kebudayaan kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opucnk_70gm bernard, s. c. (2007). documentary storytelling: making stronger and more dramatic nonfiction films. focal. bordwell, d. (1991). making meaning: inference and rhetoric in the interpretation of cinema. harvard university press. bordwell, d., & thompson, k. (2013). 2013. film art: an introduction (10th ed.). mcgraw-hill. corner, j. (2002). biography within the documentary frame: a note. framework: the journal of cinema and media, 43(1), 95–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41552316 dick, b. f. (1998). anatomy of film. st. martin‘s press, inc. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26388-2 178 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 148 – 179 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj eisenstein, s. (1977). methods of montage. in j. leda (ed.), film form: essays in film theory (pp. 72–83). harcourt brace jovanovich inc. ellis, j. (2012). documentary : witness and self-revelation. routledge taylor and francis group. http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415574198/ freeman, t. s., & smith, d. l. (2019). „movies that exist merely to tell entertaining lies‟?: biography on film bt biography and history in film (t. s. freeman & d. l. smith (eds.); pp. 1–42). springer international publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89408-9_1 kemendikbud, b. p. dan p. b. (2016). pramoedya ananta toer (1925—2006). in ensiklopedia sastra indonesia (p. n.p.). badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa kementerian pendidikan, kebudayaan, riset, dan teknologi republik indonesia sumber: http://ensiklopedia.kemdikbud.go.id/sastra/artikel/pramoedya_ananta _toer | ensiklopedia sastra indonesia badan pengembangan dan p. http://ensiklopedia.kemdikbud.go.id/sastra/artikel/pramoedya_ananta _toer %7c ensiklopedia sastra indonesia badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa, kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia kuhn, a., & westwell, g. (2012). oxford dictionary of film studies. oxford university press. lent, j. a. (2014). cartooning in indonesia: an overview. in j. a. lent (ed.), southeast asian cartoon art history, trends and problems. mcfarland & company, inc. http://www.mcfarlandpub.com/ lewis, j. (2014). essential cinema: an introduction to film analysis. wadsworth cengage learning. mclane, b. a. (2012). a new history of documentary film (2nd ed.). continuum international publishing group. nichols, b. (2016). speaking truths with film : evidence, ethics, politics in documentary. 153–165. https://books.google.com/books?id=57rjcwaaqbaj&dq=documentar y+ethics+nichols&source=gbs_navlinks_s adhyanggono, g. m., between the documentary voices and the storytelling 179 methods of four indonesian biographical documentaries https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v23i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj nichols, b. (2017). introduction to documentary, third edition. indiana university press. önen, u. (2021). the voice as a narrative element in documentary films. resonance, 2(1), 6–18. https://doi.org/10.1525/res.2021.2.1.6 platinga, c. (2015). ―i‘ll believe it when i trust the source‖: documentary images and visual evidence. in b. winston (ed.), the documentary film book. palgrave macmillan on behalf of the british film institute. pletcher, k. (2023). pramoedya ananta toer. encyclopaedia britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/biography/pramoedya-ananta-toer rosenbaum, j. (1995). placing movies: the practice of film criticism. santoso, a., sutrisno, e., sirait, h., & hasibuan, i. (2009). hoegeng: oase menyejukkan di tengah perilaku koruptif para pemimpin bangsa. pt. bentang pustaka. http://www.mizan.com srikaton. (1995). mendengar si bisu bernyanyi-biografi pramoedya ananta toer. lontar foundation. https://sea.lib.niu.edu/islandora/object/seaimages%3ayl-pg-004pramoedya-mfe taharani, m. (2020). melawan lupa – polisi jujur itu bernama hoegeng. metrotv-melawan lupa. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vl_rxw0eyck wiryopranoto, s., herlina, m. s., p. d. n., marihandono, p. d. d., tangkilisan, d. y. b., nasional, & kebangkitan, t. m. (2017). ki hajar dewantara ”pemikiran dan perjuangannya” (p. d. d. marihandono (ed.)). museum kebangkitan nasional direktorat jenderal kebudayaan kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 1hidayati utami and 2ashadi 1,2,english language study program, graduate school program, yogyakarta state university, indonesia email: 1hidayati.utami40@gmail.com, 2ashadi@uny.ac.id received: 19-02-2017 accepted: 10-10-2017 published: 27-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 1hidayati utami and 2ashadi 1hidayati.utami40@gmail.com, 2ashadi@uny.ac.id 1,2,english language study program, graduate school program, yogyakarta state university, indonesia abstract: this study aimed to describe the use of direct instruction in english learning for gifted students. this research applied a case study approach. the participants of this study were an english teacher and five students of a special junior high school for gifted students of grades 7 and 8 in the acceleration program. the data were collected through in-depth interview, focused-group interview, observation, and document analysis. the data were qualitatively analyzed through transcribing, data condensing, data displaying through a matrix, and conclusion drawing. the result showed that the teacher used the teaching strategies for direct instruction which were supported by some appropriate teaching aids. the impact of the strategies on the students were the students were actively involved in the teachinglearning process although they still encountered some difficulties in their english learning process. however, the teacher needed to employ other strategies which could meet the other needs of the gifted students in the teaching-learning process. key words: teaching english as a foreign language, direct instruction, gifted students abstrak: tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan penggunaan instruksi eksplisit dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris untuk siswa cerdas istimewa. penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan studi kasus. partisipan dalam penelitian ini adalah seorang guru bahasa inggris dan lima orang siswa dari kelas 7 dan 8 di smp khusus untuk siswa cerdas istimewa dalam program akselerasi. teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah wawancara mendalam, wawancara kelompok terarah, observasi, dan analisis dokumen. data yang diperoleh dianalisis menggunakan teknik analisis 334 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 333 – 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj kualitatif melalui proses transkripsi, reduksi data, penyajian data dalam bentuk matriks, dan penarikan kesimpulan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa guru bahasa inggris di sekolah khusus ini menggunakan strategi-strategi pengajaran instruksi eksplisit yang didukung oleh alat bantu mengajar yang sesuai. penerapan strategi ini mampu mengikutsertakan siswa secara aktif dalam proses belajarmengajar walaupun mereka tetap menghadapi beberapa kesulitan dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris. meskipun demikian, penggunaan strategi pengajaran lainnya dibutuhkan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan siswa cerdas istimewa lainnya dalam proses belajar-mengajar. kata kunci: media, pembelajaran bahasa asing, gambar, menulis, pandangan guru, keyakinan. kata kunci: pengajaran bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing, instruksi eksplisit, siswa cerdas istimewa introduction in indonesia, gifted people have not got the appropriate education. there still the lack schools which provide the appropriate teaching-learning activities for them. previously, there was the acceleration in some schools as the program for gifted students. however, according to dikpora yogyakarta province (eri-k, 2014), this program was banned recently in 2015 in order to avoid the discrimination between the average student and the high ability student. this situation is opposite to undangundang no 20 bab iv pasal 5 ayat 4 (2003, p.5) which states that “warga negara yang memiliki potensi kecerdasan dan bakat istimewa berhak memperoleh pendidikan khusus.” this regulation notes that the students with giftedness need to get a special education. some problems occur in the gifted students’ learning process due to the inappropriate treatment in the classroom. for example, according to a parent of a gifted student, his son got some complaints from his teacher in a regular school because of his behavior in the teaching-learning process. the principal of a special school argues that this situation is caused by the general treatment in a regular classroom which causes boredom to the gifted. additionally, he informed that people with giftedness from wealthy families in indonesia can go abroad to get the appropriate education, but it cannot happen to the students from low-income families. consequently, many gifted people in indonesia cannot develop their high potential due to the inappropriate guidance. utami, h., & ashadi. direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 335 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in order to solve the problems of the gifted education, there is a special junior high school for gifted students in cianjur, west java, which provides some facilities for the gifted students from low-income families to develop their potential. in conducting the teaching-learning process, this school provides the acceleration by compacting the learning materials based on the national curriculum, school-based curriculum. on the other hand, teachers in this school have an adequate knowledge regarding the gifted because the essential requirement to be a teacher in this school is understanding the gifted. besides, the teachers often involve drawing activity into the learning task because most of the students in this school have the high ability in art especially drawing and interest in the visual media. the teaching learning process is also allowed to be conducted everywhere in this school, so the students do not always have to only sit on their chairs in the classroom. however, the english teacher in this special junior high school still employs the teaching strategies for direct instruction which are also employed to teach in a regular classroom. this fact is interesting because the students of this school are still able to get a good score in the english subject but lack a little confidence to perform it. due to this issue, this study aims to investigate the teacher’s treatment through the strategies for direct instruction employed by the english teacher and the impact on the gifted students’ english learning process. this study is expected to inform the audience about the teachinglearning activities which can be applied to teach the gifted students. literature review a. the nature of gifted learners gifted students are a part of students with special needs with some special characteristics. their special characteristics are different from the average people such as their high ability, high creativity, and high task commitment (renzulli, 2011). they have an intelligence quotient (iq) score at least 129 (santrock, 2011). as people with high intelligence, the gifted can understand the learning materials more rapidly than the average students (fonseca, 2011). besides, they are good autonomous learners. they are able to learn more independently than the average students (ormrod, 2003). additionally, winner (1997) argued that gifted people also have the other three special characteristics. the first is precocity. their precocity is identified by their ability to deal with the works which are used to being mastered by the older one (woolfolk, 2007). they are able to understand the more complex 336 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 333 – 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj material more rapidly than the average people (fonseca, 2011). they are also marching their own drum which causes them to have some differences in their learning process (winner, 1997). they usually tend to use their own point of view to interpret the learning input and understand it rapidly (fonseca, 2011). on the other hand, the gifted has a passion for mastering some particular abilities due to their high internal motivation (winner, 1997). they have the ability in some particular areas such as in leadership and performing arts with higher level (tunnicliffe, 2010). those characteristics distinguish them from non-gifted students. as stated previously, gifted students have the high intelligence which is shown by their iq score, and it probably affects their foreign language learning. besides the iq score, actually, there are eight kinds of intelligences introduced by gardner (2006) as the multiple intelligences which can also be a consideration to measure their intelligence. they are linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence. the intelligences have some contributions to the language learning. for example, the logical-mathematical intelligence has a contribution to the process of acquiring semantics and pragmatics for the second language learners (gardner, 1993). besides, the bodily-kinesthetic is related to the learning process of the language phonology (brown, 2000). on the other hand, people with musical intelligence have the good capability of acquiring and producing the intonation of the second language (brown, 2000). additionally, in using the language as a means of communication, the interpersonal intelligence has a contribution to it (brown, 2000). in other words, the high intelligence probably has a positive role in the gifted students’ language learning. although the gifted students are well known as learners with high ability, they still encounter some problems in their learning process. some gifted students are misjudged because they attain the low achievement in their learning process due to boredom issue from the unchallenging teachinglearning activities (fonseca, 2011). besides, the unchallenging activities in the classroom also cause them to lack a little motivation to learn (clinkenbeard, 2012). in fact, motivation is important to lead the students’ attention and affects their learning process (schunk, 2012). on the other hand, they are afraid of making mistakes. they believe that making mistakes is a part of the inability (fonseca, 2011). as a result, those high ability students need the appropriate guidance in order to solve their problems in their learning process. utami, h., & ashadi. direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 337 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj it is clear that gifted learners are those who have the high ability in some particular areas which are supported by the creativity and task commitment. as high ability learners, they have some superior characteristics which give them the advantages in their learning process such as their precocity, their passion to master, and their different way of learning. besides, their high intelligence might give them some benefits in the teaching-learning process of their foreign language. on the other hand, they still encounter some problems in their learning and need some help to solve them. b. direct instruction in teaching using direct instruction, there are some strategies that can be employed in the classroom. lecturing is one of the strategies used in direct instruction. in lecturing, the teacher transfers the knowledge to the students through explaining the learning materials orally (moore, 2012). in order to conduct an effective lecturing, the teacher can utilize some technologies as the teaching aids such as films, photograph, and interactive media to get the students’ attention (moore, 2012). besides, the teacher needs to ensure that he/ she presents the explanation clearly and enthusiastically (muijs & reyn, 2011). muijs & reyn (2011) also suggest that the teacher needs to provide some practicing sessions before going on to the next step in order to help the students to mastery the learning materials and to avoid boredom. modeling is another way to explain the learning materials in direct instruction. the teacher can apply it through visual and verbal cues or demonstration to show the way the students can do their task (dell’olio & donk, 2007). this strategy is suitable for providing the explanations regarding the learning materials to the learners with visual learning style (muijs & reyn, 2011). in conducting this strategy, the teacher should pay attention to some important aspects that need to occur such as the students’ attention, students’ retention, students’ production, and students’ motivation (borich, 2007). in applying the direct instruction, the teacher also provides questioning in the teaching-learning process. the question and answer activity is able to build the interaction between the students and the teachers (moore, 2012). moreover, the questioning has an important role in teaching process because the teacher can stimulate the students to think, and the teacher can get the information about the students’ progress in learning (killen, 2009). furthermore, moore (2012) highlights that the questioning has an impact on the students’ self-esteem and students’ involvement in the teaching-learning process, but it depends on what the questions are, how the questions deliver, 338 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 333 – 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and how the students respond to the questions. the questions which contain the real-life issues can challenge the high ability students in their learning process (vantassel-baska, 2014). giving some prompts also a part of direct instruction. the aim of the probing is to help the teacher to get the clearer information regarding the students’ comprehension because the students’ initial response to the teacher’s initial questions might not clear enough (killen, 2009). in this strategy, the teacher can use some supplementary instructional stimuli that can stimulate the students to respond correctly regarding the learning materials (borich, 2007). furthermore, borich (2007) categorizes the prompts into spoken prompts (cues, reminders, or instruction), gestural prompts (modeling or demonstrating), physical prompts (handwriting, cutting out shapes, and tying shoelaces), least-to-most intrusive prompting (integrating the verbal and physical prompts), and full-class prompting (dialog). it can be concluded that through direct instruction, the teacher becomes the main sources in the teaching-learning process (moore, 2012). the teacher explicitly delivers the learning materials to the students. although the teacher becomes the center of the class, the teacher also still builds the interactive atmosphere in the classroom through the questioning. the strategies are suitable for providing the new topic, introducing a unit, and creating a frame of reference (moore, 2012). c. previous studies there are many studies which inform about the gifted students education. regarding the efl learning, according to vu & vu (2102), the gifted students in vietnam found that a special program called teaching english as a foreign language major (team) is useful for their future study and career. on the other hand, a study was undertaken by gollif (2008) regarding the appropriate teaching strategies for the gifted which established that the clustering, multiple intelligences, habits of mind, multicultural approaches, and dixon-hegelian strategy make the students engage with the learning process because of the challenging tasks provided by applying the strategies. the data provided some appropriate practices from the strategies regarding the challenging tasks for the gifted students with the teacher as a guide. moreover, the dixon-hegelian method can provide the tasks that focus on the critical thinking of the gifted students (dixon et al., 2004). additionally, mann (2006) found that it is important to provide the teaching learning activities for the gifted which are suitable for their strength area. utami, h., & ashadi. direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 339 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology because the aim of this study was to investigate the implementation of the direct instruction strategy for gifted students, a case study approach was applied. through the case study approach, the phenomenon was deeply investigated and within its real-world context (yin, 2014). the data were collected from a special junior high school for gifted students in cianjur, west java. the participants were an english teacher and 5 students of grades 7 and 8 of this special school. the students were those who had passed the elementary level of this special school. they entered the school by passing some tests conducted by the professional psychologists to identify their giftedness. on the other hand, the english teacher had the experience in teaching the gifted for about six years in this school. for the last six years, the teacher had the intensive interaction with the gifted students because they stayed in the boarding school. the activities of both the teacher and the students in the classroom gave the information about how the direct instruction was employed in the efl class. the principal and the school counselor were also participated to give more information about the students and the learning process. the data were collected in the academic year 2016/2017 in the acceleration program of this special school. there were three techniques of data collection conducted in this study. they were observation, interview (focused-group interview and in-depth interview), and documentary study. the observation was held in seven meetings in the english class of this special junior high school. the in-depth interview was conducted with the english teacher, principal, and school counselor, and the focused-group interview was conducted with the gifted students. the collected documents in this study included the students’ works, the students’ report books, and the lesson plan. in the process of collecting the data, the researcher used some protocols as the instruments to conduct the observation, interview and documentary study. the interview and the observation were recorded to help the researcher to analyze the data. the data were analyzed as suggested by miles, huberman, & saldana (2014) for qualitative data analysis. the first step of analyzing the data was transcribing all of the data into transcripts because some data were in the form of video and sound recording. the next step was condensing the data by coding process, developing themes, and categorizing them. after the data were appropriately condensed, they were displayed in a matrix as seen in table 1. the last step was interpreted them with the literature guidance to draw a conclusion. the trustworthiness was gained from triangulation. the 340 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 333 – 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj triangulation of the data can strengthen the construct validity of this study (yin, 2014). the data were collected from several different types of sources in order to get the valid data. first, the data were obtained from the interview. the interview was conducted with different sources, the english teacher, the gifted students, the principal, and the school counselor. the next technique was observation. to triangulate the data, the observation was held in seven meetings in order to get saturated data. the last was the document analysis. there were three types of documents were analyzed in this study, the students’ work, the students’ report book, and the lesson plan. on the other hand, the use of protocols for each instrument which had been validated from an expert in evaluation and research in education of elt was used to obtain the reliability of this study. results in this section, the results regarding the direct instruction in the gifted class are discussed. the data were obtained from the interview, observation and document analysis. the data are presented in the following table. table 1: the use of strategies for direct instruction in teaching english for gifted students no. teaching strategies the implementation the students’ responses 1. lecturing explaining the learning materials through lecturing explaining the learning materials from an electronic book. paying attention to the teacher’s explanation doing another activity while listening to the teacher’s explanation answering the teacher’s questions regarding the delivered topic. 2. supplementary instructional stimuli giving clue using body language mentioning the synonym of the word understanding the meaning of the new vocabulary still asking about the vocabulary utami, h., & ashadi. direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 341 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj based on the data above, in teaching the gifted students, the english teacher actually still involved the activities which were also used in a regular classroom. based on the observation, the teacher still delivered the learning materials and explained them to the students through the lecturing. the principal argued, “sometimes lecturing is more effective to teach gifted students”. in the lecturing, the teacher was explaining the learning materials to the students orally. the lecturing was conducted in english, but sometimes it was delivered 3. modeling modeling how to describe a thing asking the students to produce their own description involving in the teacher’s demonstration through comment laughing and closing mouth before producing their own description in front of the class lack of confidence needing teacher’s help 4. questioning conversation between teacher and student giving some questions regarding the students’ task and learning materials asking the students to answer some questions orally answering the teacher’s correctly but sometimes incorrectly 5. visual teaching aids and learning task showing some videos whether it is related to the learning material or not showing some videos from a cell phone. using some pictures from the electronic book asking the students to draw directly paying attention to the video understanding the learning materials some still paying attention to another activity complaining their work due to some mistakes applying the learning materials 342 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 333 – 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in bahasa indonesia if it was necessary. regarding the lecturing, the students were doing the other activities such as playing, writing randomly, or drawing while the teacher was delivering the learning materials because of the boredom issue, yet they paid their attention to the teacher’s explanation. the students admitted that they still did another activity in order to avoid boredom while listening to the teacher’s explanation. in order to conquer this issue, the teacher used some teaching aids to take the students’ attention. it is relevant to moore’s explanation (2012) about the use of the teaching aids to conduct an effective lecturing. when the teacher explained the learning materials, the teacher inserted some videos or images related to the learning materials. in an interview section, the teacher informed that the students were interested in the visual and audiovisual media such as the images and videos. because all of the students in this school were interested in the visual media, they fully paid their attention to the learning materials in the video without doing another activity. in other words, the effective lecturing which is supported by the appropriate teaching aids is able to decrease the boredom issue encountered by the students. besides utilizing the visual teaching aids such as the videos and images, the evidence showed that the teacher also sometimes asked the students to draw as their learning task because they had the high ability on it. this activity makes the students more engage with the teaching-learning process. mann (2006) found that providing the teaching learning process which was suitable for the students’ strength area was important. in this process, the students are able to apply the learning materials that they have learned into a creative way. their creative works regarding the learning materials are usually displayed in their classroom. they liked this kind of task. it was revealed in an interview with the students that they liked when the learning task contained the drawing activity, and the results were displayed in a particular spot at school. furthermore, some students showed their perfectionism when they made a mistake in this task. they complained their mistake although it was not a fatal mistake. it hinders the students in finishing their task because they stop doing the task and become over thinking about their mistake in the task. for them, making mistakes is represented the inability (fonseca, 2011). the teacher usually tried to calm down the students who faced this problem and ensured them that they still could trick the mistakes and finish the task with good result. on the other hand, the teacher also gave some questions to the students after explaining the learning materials. the questions were about the learning materials which had been explained by the teacher such as from a text or a utami, h., & ashadi. direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 343 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dialog. the aim of the teacher’s questions to the students is similar to killen’s argument (2009) about the questioning which can be used to measure the students’ progress in their learning process. the teacher also sometimes asked about the students’ daily activity which could represent the learning materials. in response to the teacher’s questions, the students answered the teacher’s questions whether their answer was correct or incorrect. through the questioning activity, it is seen that the teacher tries to interact with the students using english, so the students are used to with the english language. the question and answer activity is suitable for building the interaction between the students and the teachers (moore, 2012). besides, the teacher has a perspective that in learning a foreign language, interaction between the teacher and the students in the teaching-learning process is an essential part. the english teacher argued, “…asking and answering, the conversation between the teacher and student should work”. unfortunately, there lack the real-life issue in the questioning activity. according to van tassel-baska (2014), giving some questions regarding the real-life problems can provide a challenging learning experience for the gifted students. it means that the teacher needs to ask not only the questions in which the students can easily find the answer in the text given, but also the questions about the texts which are related to the real-life issue. the questions asked by the teacher do not stimulate the thinking skills of the students as a critical thinker. in order to promote the students’ critical thinking skills, the teacher can try to ask the students to discuss the thesis and antithesis of the text (dixon et al, 2004). the topic which is related to their future goals also needs to be inserted. it is related to their positive expectation toward their english learning for their future study and career (vu & vu, 2012). they expect that english might be useful for their future life (okan and ispinar, 2009). actually, the other topics that are related to the other communities can also be inserted to challenge them in doing the task related to the text (goliff, 2008). according to the observation, the teacher also did a modeling to deliver the learning materials. he did the modeling when he attempted to ask the students to perform their english ability in some particular materials in front of the classroom. when the teacher demonstrated what the students needed to do in their performance, some students were participated by giving some comments on the teacher’s demonstration. when the students give some comments to what the teacher models, it means that they pay attention to what the teacher does. a meaningful modeling is when the students pay attention to the teacher’s modeling (borich, 2007). however, the students still lack a little confidence in performing their ability although the teacher has shown what they need to do in their performance. based on the observation, when the 344 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 333 – 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj students were in front of the classroom, they did not directly perform their task. some students laughed smoothly and closed their mouth or face. they even needed the teacher’s guidance to start their performance. although the gifted students are well known as the students with high ability, lack of confidence is a common problem which is encountered by them. they even can violently behave to their friends due to their confidence problem (gross, 2004). nevertheless, according to the teacher’s explanation and the document analysis, the students are able to gain a good score in the english test more than the standard score. unfortunately, their ability cannot be shown, especially in speaking, due to their confidence problem. as stated previously, the gifted students are known as a good autonomous learner and a high intelligent student. in fact, the evidence showed that the students also encountered the difficulty in their english learning, for example, english vocabulary. when the teacher asked them about a text or dialog, there were some vocabularies which were new for the students. in this activity, the teacher gave some supplementary instructional stimuli to help the students to understand the meaning of the vocabularies. the supplementary instructional stimuli are useful to stimulate the students to respond correctly regarding the learning materials (borich, 2007). in this study, the teacher gave some prompts such as mentioning the synonym of the words, gesturing, and asking the students to pay attention to the previous or the next sentences. in response to the stimuli, sometimes the students were able to understand the words and correctly mention the appropriate meaning, but sometimes they still asked about the vocabulary that they did not understand. generally, the students look enjoying the learning process with the english teacher. when the students were asked about their feeling towards the learning process in an interview section, they explained their positive feeling, but it still depended on their mood. qs, a student, answered “i like it” when she was asked about the learning process. “if the mood is good”, added her friend, st. it showed that the gifted learners’ responses towards the teaching strategies also depended on their mood in learning. in response to this issue, the teachers need to provide the various, exciting, and challenging activities in order to foster the gifted students to retain their language learning (okan & ispinar, 2009). utami, h., & ashadi. direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 345 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conclusion the study showed that through the interaction between the teacher and the students in the direct instruction strategy, the students were actively involved in the teaching-learning process. this situation is suitable for the gifted students who cannot only sit nicely and pay attention to the teacher’s explanation in the classroom. besides, the use of the teaching aids which were suitable for the students’ strength as a visual learner made the students more engage with the teaching-learning process. however, the students still encountered the boredom issue in a particular learning situation when the teacher employed the strategies. the teacher needs to insert more real-world issues into the learning materials in order to give more challenging learning experience. the teacher also needs to employ other strategies and adds more various topics related to the students’ interest for their future goals in order to promote the students’ thinking skill. furthermore, for the future research, investigating the students’ process of acquiring a foreign language beyond the classroom is needed because the gifted students are also well known as the autonomous learner. references borich, g. d. (2007). effective teaching methods: research-based practice. upper saddle river: pearson. brown, h. d. (2000). principles of language learning and teaching. new york: longman. clinkenbeard, p. r. (2012). motivation and gifted students: implications of theory and research. psychology in the schools, vol. 49(7), 622-630. doi: 10.1002/pits.21628 dell’olio, j. m. & donk, t. (2007). models of teaching. thousand oaks: sage publication. dixon, f. a., prater, k. a., vine, h. m., wark, m. j., williams, t., hanchon, t., & shobe, c. (2004). teaching to their thinking: a strategy to meet the critical thinking needs of gifted students. journal for education of the gifted, 28(1), 56-76. eri-k. 2014. mulai tahun ajaran 2015/2016 kemendikbud hapus program akselerasi [starting in the 2015/2016 academic year, the ministry of 346 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 333 – 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj education and culture will remove the acceleration program]. retrieved from http://www.pendidikandiy.go.id/dinas_v4/?view=v_berita &id_sub=3365 january 25, 2017. fonseca, c. (2011). emotional intensity in gifted students: helping kids cope with explosive feelings. waco: prufrock press inc. gardner, h. (1993). frames of mind. new york: basic books. gardner, h. (2006). multiple intelligences: new horizons. new york: basic books. goliff, e. l. (2008). appropriate strategies for gifted students attending title i school (thesis, walden university, college of education, washington). gross, m. u. m. (2004). exceptionally gifted children. new york: routledge falmer. killen, r. (2009). effective teaching strategies: lessons from research and practice. south melbourne: cengage learning. mann, r. l. (2006). effective teaching strategies for gifted/ learning-disabled students with spatial strength. the journal of secondary gifted education, 17(2), 112-121. miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldana, j. (2014). qualitative data analysis. california: sage. muijs, d. & reyn, d. (2011). effective teaching: evidence and practice. london: sage. moore, k. d. (2012). effective instructional strategies. thousand oaks sage. okan, z. & ispinar, d. (2009). gifted students’ perceptions of learning english as a foreign language. educational research and review, 4(4), 117126. ormrod, j. e. (2003). educational psychology developing learners. upper saddle river: pearson. presiden republik indonesia. (2003). undang-undang ri nomor 20 tahun 2003 bab iv pasal 5 ayat 4, tentang hak dan kewajiban warga negara, orang tua, masyarakat, dan pemerintah [law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003, chapter iv article 5 paragraph 4, concerning the rights utami, h., & ashadi. direct efl instruction for gifted students: a case study 347 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and obligations of citizens, parents, the community, and the government]. renzulli, j. s. (2011). what makes giftedness. kappan magazine, 92(8). pp. 8188. santrock, j. w. (2011). educational psychology. new york: mc.graw-hill. schunk, d. h. (2012). learning theories: an educational perspective. boston: pearson. tunnicliffe, c. (2010). teaching able, gifted, and talented children. london: sage. vantassel-baska, j. (2014). artful inquiry: the questions in working with the gifted. gifted child today, 37(1), 48-50. doi: 10.1177/1076217513509 621. vu, p. & vu, l. (2012). teaching english as a foreign language major to gifted students. the southeast asian journal of english language studies, 18(2), 57-66. winner, e. (1997). gifted children: myths and realities. new york: basic books. woolfolk, a. (2007). educational psychology. boston: pearson. yin, r. k. (2014). case study research design and methods. los angeles: sage. 10.pdf (p.1) 0010 dec2018.pdf (p.2-16) chapter i: introduction a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 2; december 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge in reconstructing listening text hesthi herusatoto english department, english literature study program, school of foreign languages (stba) lia, yogyakarta, indonesia ph: +62 8122773378 email: hesty_h3@yahoo.com received: 04-12-2016 accepted: 23-02-2017 published: 28-02-2017 using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge in reconstructing listening texts hesthi herusatoto hesty_h3@yahoo.com english department, english literature study program, school of foreign languages lia, yogyakarta, indonesia abstract: this paper reports the findings of the implementation of full dictation and partial dictation in improving the awareness of using grammar knowledge in reconstructing listening texts among the efl students at stba (school of foreign languages) lia yogyakarta. three groups participated in the study, i.e. two experimental groups (group a and b) and a control group (group c). a pre-test on listening to lectures was administered to the three groups. over 9 sessions, group c did the listening exercises in their textbook using dicto-comp technique, while in addition to the listening exercises which applied dicto-comp, the students in group a was given full dictation exercises and group b received partial dictation exercises. a post-test was given to the three groups after the ninth session. in addition to the post-test, a 5-point likert-scale questionnaire assessing the students’ responses to the dictation exercises was given to the experimental groups. results of paired-samples tests indicated that there was a significant difference between each group’s preand post-test. the mean gain score of group b was higher than group a showing that group b had better improvement in the post-test. furthermore, group b had better grammar points in their posttest compared to group a. group c also increased their scores but they still got their teacher’s assistance to point out their grammatical mistakes in their notes. this suggests that the dictations given to the experimental groups improved the students’ awareness in applying their grammar knowledge to reproduce a listening text they heard key words: full dictation, partial dictation, dicto-comp, listening skills, grammar knowledge 218 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 abstrak: artikel ini melaporkan penggunaan dikte penuh dan dikte sebagian untuk meningkatkan kesadaran mahasiswa yang belajar bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa asing di stba (sekolah tinggi bahasa asing) lia yogyakarta dalam menggunakan ilmu tata bahasa pada saat menulis kembali teks menyimak. dalam penelitian ini ada tiga kelompok responden, yaitu dua kelompok eksperimen (grup a dan b) dan satu kelompok kontrol (group c). pre-test menyimak monolog diberikan pada ketiga kelompok tersebut. selama 9 pertemuan, grup c mendapatkan latihan menyimak yang tersedia di buku teks mereka dan mengerjakannya dengan teknik dicto-comp. mahasiswa di grup a mendapatkan tambahan latihan dengan dikte penuh sedangkan grup b latihan dengan dikte sebagian di samping latihan dengan dicto-comp. posttest diberikan kepada tiga grup itu setelah pertemuan ke-9. kelompok eksperimen juga mendapat kuesioner berskala likert 5 poin untuk mengukur pendapat mereka terhadap latihan dikte yang mereka dapat. hasil dari pair-samples test menunjukkan bahwa ada perbedaan yang siknifikan antara nilai predan posttest masing-masing grup. perbedaan nilai predan post-test grup b lebih tinggi dibandingkan grup a. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan grup b meningkat lebih baik pada post-test. selain itu, nilai poin tata bahasa grup b pada post-test lebih bagus dibandingkan grup a. nilai grup c juga meningkat namun mereka masih menerima bantuan dari dosen mereka yang menunjukkan kesalahan-kesalahan tata bahasa pada tulisan mereka. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa dikte yang diberikan kepada kelompok eksperimen meningkatkan kesadaran mahasiswa dalam menggunakan tata bahasa untuk menulis kembali teks menyimak yang mereka dengar. kata kunci: dikte penuh, dikte sebagian, dicto-comp, keahlian menyimak, ilmu tata bahasa introduction listening which, according to underwood (1989, p.1), is “the activity of paying attention to and trying to get meaning from something that we hear” is regarded as a receptive or passive skill in language learning. this makes this language skill often neglected in second language learning since teachers and herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 219 in reconstructing listening texts students mostly focus on the productive skills, speaking and writing. marzban and abdollahi (2013) believe that “listening is not a passive process, … but rather a complex process, in which the listener constructs meaning using both his/her linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge” (p.238). thus, teachers need to give attention to the teaching technique to help students develop their listening comprehension skills and to use their linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge in comprehending and reconstructing the listening text they heard. in reconstructing a listening text, a common problem that efl students might face is writing words they heard with correct spelling and grammar. in listening to monologue classes at stba (school of foreign languages) lia yogyakarta such common problem is always found as students tend not to proofread what they have written when reconstructing a listening text and answering listening comprehension questions. they depend on their teacher for reminding them about errors in spelling and grammar. this makes the teacher concerned as students might think that accurate spelling and grammar is not necessary when reconstructing a listening text. in fact, when reconstructing a listening text or answering listening comprehension questions, knowledge about grammar is necessary to proofread students’ work. this study applied dictations to help students improve their noticing skill when reconstructing a listening text. dictation which can be used in listening and writing practices is “a technique where the learners receive some spoken input, hold this in their memory for a short time, and then write what they heard” (nation, 1991, p.12). this technique is believed to help learners “focus on phraseand clause-level construction” (p.12). various types of dictation such as partial dictation, full dictation, and elicited imitation can be used in language learning. the traditional technique used in the listening to monologue classes is dicto-comp. dicto-comp which is derived from “dictation and composition” is regarded by nation (1991, p.14) as “an experience technique”. it is a type of dictation exercise in which students take notes the key words and ideas in a listening text while listening. using the key words and ideas students then rewrite the text. this dictation exercise can develop students’ listening and note-taking skills. this study investigated the use of other types of dictation in addition to the dicto-comp in the listening to monologue class. two types of dictation, i.e. full and partial dictations are implemented in this study to see their effects on students’ awareness in applying their grammar knowledge in rewriting an english lecture. thus, the purposes of this study was to find out whether those two types of dictation independently prompted students to use 220 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 their grammar knowledge in reconstructing a lecture in english and to examine the students’ responses on the dictations given in terms of their effectiveness to improve word spelling, to use proper words in context, and to use grammar knowledge to proofread students’ work. the study was an experimental one with a three-group design: two experimental groups and one control group. it used a pre-test and a post-test to get the data. the participants were students at the department of english and literature at stba lia yogyakarta who took listening to monologue class. the questions addressed in this study were as follows: 1. is there any significant difference between the preand post-test scores of each group? 2. does the use of full and partial dictations improve the students’ awareness of applying their grammar knowledge in reconstructing a listening text? 3. what are the students’ responses on the dictation exercises they receive in terms of their effectiveness to develop word spelling, to use proper words in context, and to use grammar knowledge to proofread students’ written texts? research question 1 tests the following hypothesis: 1. ho: there is no significant difference between the preand post-test scores of the group given full dictation, of the group given partial dictation, and of the control group. 2. ha: there is a significant difference between the preand post-test scores of the group given full dictation, of the group given partial dictation, and of the control group. the hypothesis is tested by using the paired-samples test to compare the means of the preand post-tests of each group. some studies have looked at the effects of dictation on students’ listening comprehension and found that the students improved their listening comprehension skills after practicing by using dictation. a study conducted by kondo (2005) examined the effectiveness of news dictation practice in listening on 55 efl japanese students learning english at the department of herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 221 in reconstructing listening texts english and literature at waseda university. the study revealed that the students showed improvement in the scores of their homework which was given after the treatment using dictation. a study done by marzban and abdollahi (2013) that used partial dictation for listening practice in iranian intermediate efl class reported similar findings in that the mean scores of the experimental group surpassed the control group. they found that partial dictation helped “learners focus on the language form of phrase and clause level constructions as well as the one at lexis level” (p.243). that dictation practice has positive effects on students’ listening ability is also shown in kuo’s findings (2010) in a study with 31 taiwanese engineering students enrolled in a freshman english intermediate-level course. she supplied the students with partial dictation to an english teaching radio program. she found that the partial dictation effectively improve the listening comprehension of the students. the questionnaires she distributed to the students showed that the students agreed with the idea that the dictation helped their listening and improve their comprehension. tang (2012) in a study conducted to 85 chinese studying at guilin university of technology examining the use of dictation to facilitate students memorizing english vocabulary also revealed that the dictation given to the students was an effective strategy which could develop the students’ vocabulary and learning outcomes. in addition, habibi, nemati, and habibi (2012) conducted a study with 80 efl students at islamic azad university, sanandaj branch to examine the role of listening comprehension in dictation and if the listening instructions can improve dictation. their findings suggest that dictation indeed developed listening skills which was shown by the experimental group which performed better in dictation. the findings mentioned above show that dictation appears to be effective in helping students develop their listening comprehension skills. this study examined full and partial dictations which were used as additional exercises to dicto-comp practice in order to see the effects of those two types dictation on the awareness of the indonesian students in applying their english grammar knowledge to reconstruct a listening text in english. 222 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 literature review a. definition of dictation dictation is “a technique where the learners receive some spoken input, hold this in their memory for a short time, and then write what they heard” (nation, 1991, p.12). nation claims that dictation involves “listening input” and “written output” as learners need to use their listening skill to process what they hear and to use their writing skill to produce what they heard in written form. its focus is on accuracy (1991, p.12). in its traditional form, dictation is defined as a technique for teaching in which “a text is either read by the teacher or played on a cassette tape once straight through while the students just listen and try to understand. the text is broken down into a number of short sections with a pause between each section. during that pause the students have to write down what they have heard” (norris, 1993, p.72). dictation is a technique used not only for teaching a foreign language. it is also used to test foreign languages. richards and schmidt in longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics defines dictation as “a technique used in both language teaching and language testing in which a passage is read aloud to students or test takers, with pauses during which they must try to write down what they have heard as accurately as possible” (2002, p.157). b. language skills and areas developed through dictation conducting dictation as part of classroom activities, according to a resource package entitled using dictation to develop pupil’s listening and writing skills, can develop some language skills and promote language learning. it develops students’ phonics skills, listening skills, note-taking skills, writing skills as well as motivates students to become autonomous learners. in addition, it promotes assessment for learning (2011, p.6). the resource package using dictation to develop pupil’s listening and writing skills (2011) also denotes that phonics skills are enhanced through dictation activities which involve spelling and pronouncing words. students listen to words or phrases to understand letter-sound relationships. it is also pointed out that listening skills developed through dictation can include skills in “discriminating sounds, stress and intonation, identifying key words, identifying main ideas, and understanding the connection between ideas” herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 223 in reconstructing listening texts (2011, p.8). furthermore, note-taking skills are applied when students note down the key words of a listening text and writing skills are enhanced when students rewrite the text using their knowledge of language. to motivate students become autonomous learners, using dictation to develop pupil’s listening and writing skills (2011) mentions that dictation can be used as an extended activity. after listening to a text under a specific topic or theme, teacher can ask students to find words that relate to the topic/theme (p.10). regarding assessment for learning, teacher can encourage students to proofread their notes after dictation activities. teacher might provide constructive feedback to students’ notes by drawing students’ attention to make use of context to check the correct vocabulary. also, teacher may ask students to apply their grammar knowledge to check verb forms and to apply their phonic skills to check spelling (p.11). nation (1991) views dictation as having “listening input and written input” (p.12). thus, doing dictation activity fosters listening skill as “learners receive some spoken input” and develops writing skill as “learners write what they heard.” he states that the learners’ writing “is affected by their skill at listening.” morris (1983) considers dictation “a means of encouraging correct spelling in any piece of written work” as well as “a means of reinforcing structure and vocabulary” (p.125). she believes that dictation is “a most useful tool in listening training” so that teachers might use it as one of their teaching techniques in class. likewise, frodesen (2001) agrees that dictation enhances students’ grammar, vocabulary, and writing. it is indeed an “effective way to familiarize students with the ways in which grammar and vocabulary interact in common collocations as well as to address errors in writing that may result in part from mismatches between learners’ aural perception of english forms and standard english grammar and spelling” (p.243). norris (1993) who investigated japanese university and college false beginners of english found that the implementation of creative dictation exercises (dialogue dictation race, numbers dictation, pronunciation relay, building with rods, and picture dictation) in the students’ english classes motivated the students “by providing practice in several areas (e.g. accuracy, fluency, self-correction, negotiation of meaning, etc) while combining the speaking, listening, writing, and reading skills” (pp.78-79). norris further 224 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 quoted davis and rinvolucri’s statement saying that “dictation of any kind provides a nice blend of listening, writing, and checking through reading.” (p.79). alkire (2002) pointed out that dictation helps the development of “all four language skills in an integrative way.” it also “develops short-term memory”, provides students with “practice in correct forms of speech”, in note-taking, and in “comprehending and transcribing clear english prose.” in addition, it raises students and teacher’s awareness of “the students’ comprehension errors –phonological, grammatical, or both”, as well as spelling errors. he agrees with finocchiaro (1969) who mentions that “[dictation] ensures attentive listening; it trains pupils to distinguish sounds; it helps fix concepts of punctuation; it enables pupils to learn to transfer oral sounds to written symbols; it helps to develop aural comprehension; and it assists in self-evaluation.” (alkire, 2002). similarly, kondo (2005) and kazazoglu (2013) on their studies which implemented dictation agree that dictation used in class not only can enhance students’ listening comprehension skill but also can encourage students to apply their knowledge of grammar. kiany and shiramiry’s study (2002) also proved that frequent dictation given to sixty iranian elementary efl students improved the students’ listening comprehension. c. dictation types there are four types of dictation, according to sawyer and silver (1961 in alkire 2002). the first is phonemic item dictation which focuses on “the individual sounds of a language.” the second is the extended form of the first type dictation, i.e. phonemic text dictation. here, a text is phonetically transcribed by students. the third is orthographic item dictation, in which students transcribe “individual words in isolation” presented by teacher. the last is orthographic text dictation which requires students to “transcribe a unified passage”. in habibi et al. (2012, p.3208-3209), dictation is classified into five groups, namely standard dictation, partial dictation, elicited imitation, dictocomp, and dictation with competing noise. standard dictation is when teacher dictates a text and students write what they hear as accurately as possible. this type of dictation is called simple dictation by takeuchi (1997), and in this research is called full dictation. partial dictation or which is called clued dictation by takeuchi (1997) is when teacher reads a text and students complete the gaps in the incomplete form of the text they receive while herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 225 in reconstructing listening texts listening.. elicited imitation is a type of dictation in which students listen and imitate the text dictated by teacher. in dicto-comp, students listen to a text dictated to them, try to get the ideas of the text, and then rewrite the text. dictation with competing noise is similar, except students listen to a text with an extra noise in the background. d. dictation activities there are various dictation activities that language teachers can use in their class. below are dictation activities that help develop students’ phonics skills, grammar and vocabulary knowledge, and note-taking and writing skills as mention in using dictation to develop pupil’s listening and writing skills resource package. to develop phonics skills, the dictation activity is called phonics dictation. students learn “letter-sound relationship” and use their knowledge of listening, spelling, and writing (pp.38-40). the exercises given can be in the form of fill-in gaps in which students complete the gaps in a sentence with the target letter sounds. for example, the target letter sounds of ‘f’ and ‘v’ in the sentence ‘the kids have some _un in the _an’ ; and the letter sounds of ‘ai’ and ‘a’ in the sentence ‘she take c_re of her h__r tenderly.’ to enhance the knowledge of grammar and vocabulary, picture dictation, theme-based dictation, and ‘bad cold’ dictation activities can be used. in picture dictation, students are asked to listen to the audio or teacher and draw or complete a picture based on what they hear (p.49). for instance, teacher gives a picture of an empty bedroom and students are asked to draw the locations of some items in the bedroom based on the text they hear. such exercise allows students to learn vocabulary of things in bedroom and language items of prepositions of place. this kind of picture dictation is also called art and dictation (alsadat and hassankiadeh, 2013, p.132). in themebased dictation, students are encouraged to learn autonomously and develop their vocabulary with different themes (pp.43-48). teacher can ask students to listen to a talk describing some people’s personalities. students list down each person personality and decide what type of job is the most suitable for them. an extended activity can be given to the students in which they are asked to list down their own personalities and decide a job that is good for them. a ‘bad cold’ dictation exercise is a fill-in gap exercise that requires the teacher to sneeze or cough at certain point to leave out some of the words in a listening text (p.54). students listen to the teacher and try to find out the appropriate words when the teacher sneezes or coughs. similarly, gaps and 226 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 dictations exercise also requires students to fill in gaps (alsadat and hassankiadeh, 2013, p.132). teacher does not sneeze or cough, but puts students in two groups facing each other. teacher then asks each of them to shout a dictation text to his/her partner who will write the text. concerning note-taking and writing skills, teacher can give students such dictation activities as dicto-comp/dictogloss, keywords dictation, music dictation, running dictation (p.56). dicto-comp/dictogloss requires students to understand the main ideas of a listening text they hear and to take note the keywords of the text. using the keywords, students then discuss the ideas in groups and rewrite the text (p.62). keyword dictation encourages students to work more creatively. students hear only keywords or phrases of a listening text and using the keywords they are asked to write a new text (p.72). teacher can provide the outline of the text to help students organize the text. in music dictation, students complete the missing words or phrases of a song (p.57). the repeated sentence structures in the song might help students find keywords and learn the language structures of the sentences used. running dictation is good for kinesthetic type of learners. students work in pairs; a runner reads a phrase or sentence placed on the wall and a writer writes the phrase or sentence read by the runner (p.58). pictures or texts can also be used for this kind of dictation. dictation exercise that combines translation and dictation is called trans-dictation which was introduced by farhady and khany (1997 in alsadat and hassankiadeh (2013, p.131). in this kind of dictation, students first listen to a text dictated by their teacher. the second time of listening the text, the students translate the text in their native language. finally, students read their translation and write the dictation. farhady and khany claim that such dictation activity is “a highly valid and reliable measure of language proficiency” (alsadat and hassankiadeh, 2013, p.131). methods a. participants the participants of this study were 37 efl students taking the listening for monologues class at stba-lia yogyakarta. the listening to monologues class aims at training the students how to listen to talks/lectures and take notes effectively, and to develop students’ listening strategies in understanding herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 227 in reconstructing listening texts and taking notes of various talks/lectures. dicto-comp is usually used by the teacher in the class as it can develop students’ listening and note-taking skills. this study took the running classes (a, b, and c) at stba lia yogyakarta in the even semester in 2015. group a and b were the experimental groups, and group c was the control group. since several students in those three groups did not take either the preor post-test administered to get the data of this research, only 17 out of 24 students in group a was used to get the data. as for group b, 9 out of 16 students were used to get the data and for group c, 11 out of 13 students. group a received full dictation exercises and group b received partial dictation exercises during the treatment period in addition to the dicto-comp listening exercises provided in their class textbook lecture ready 1 by sarosy and sherak (2007). group c only received dicto-comp listening exercises in the textbook lecture ready 1. when using dicto-comp, the students noted down key words and ideas while listening to a listening text/a lecture, and then reconstructed the text/lecture using the key words and ideas. the teacher would then ask the students to proofread their own notes before discussing the lecture with their friends. in group c, the teacher would remind the students to notice their spelling and grammar in their notes or would point out their grammatical mistakes. b. instruments each group had 11 sessions in class. a pre-test which measured the students’ basic listening competence in understanding short lectures in english and which found out the homogeneity among the three groups was given in the first session of the class. a post-test which was the same as the pretest was administered to the three groups in the last session of the class to assess the students’ achievement. the test was designed based on the objective of the listening to monologues class which was to develop students’ listening strategies in understanding and taking notes of various talks/lectures effectively. in the test, the students listened to two short lectures. the first lecture (part 1 of the test) had 9 items in which the students were asked to get six main points about the lecture and to answer three questions based on the lecture. the second lecture (part 2) had 3 items which required the students to take notes and rewrite three main points of the lecture in three sentences. to score the test the following rules were applied: 228 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 1. every correct idea/answer with no grammatical or spelling errors in part 1 of the test was scored one point, while that of part 2 was given two points. thus, the total point of part 1 and 2 was 15 (9 points for part 1 and 6 points for part 2). 2. spelling errors and comprehension errors which include phonological and grammatical mistakes in each item of part 1 would make the students lose half (0.5) point even though they wrote a correct idea or answer, while that of part 2 would make students lose one point. thus, when students wrote correct ideas/answers to all items of the test but with spelling and grammatical mistakes in all those items they would lose 7.5 points. alkire (2002) notes that teacher needs to notice comprehension errors and spelling errors to assess students’ transcriptions. comprehension errors refer to phonological mistakes such as the spelling of the word poor as pure, sign as saint, and grammatical mistakes such as writing she has two sisters as she have two sister, she’ll start working next week as she’s start working next week. spelling errors would be like writing exercise as excersise, schedule as scedule, and volunteer as voulenteer. 3. incorrect ideas or answers and difficult words to read were given no points. at the end of the treatment period, all students (40 students) in group a and b, including those who did not take the preor posttest but received the treatments, were given a questionnaire. the questionnaire used a 5-point likert-scale to find out the students’ comments for the dictation exercises they received in their class. it measured the effectiveness of the dictation exercises in developing the students’ awareness of spelling words, in helping the students use correct vocabulary in context, and in developing their awareness of using grammar. c. procedure the treatments were given over 9 meetings to the experimental groups. in each meeting before students did listening exercises in their class module which required them to apply dicto-comp, the students in group a were given a full dictation exercise, while group b received a partial dictation exercise. the dictation was sentence level dictation. each consisted of five sentences herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 229 in reconstructing listening texts delivered by a native speaker of english which were played on an mp3 player in a computer by the teacher who was also the researcher. a room speaker was used for the students to listen to the sentences. each sentence was played three times so that the students could re-check their writing. the sentences chosen for the dictation exercises were those that elicited the students to be aware of typical grammatical errors they made in writing english sentences such as omissions of the –s ending in plural nouns, the –s ending in the third person singular verbs, and the –ed ending in the regular past participles. as group a received full dictations, they did not get any clues given by the teacher. group b, on the other hand, was given one word as a clue of each sentence. the word was the first word or the subject of each sentence. it was aimed to help the students aware of the number of the subject of a sentence which then might help them notice the form of the verb following it. the dictation exercise was then discussed together with the teacher. students swapped their dictation sheet with other student to check against the original sentences displayed by the teacher on the whiteboard. students circled any errors produced on the sheet. the dictation sheets were then collected by the teacher to be examined and were returned to the students in the next meeting. students were expected to notice any errors they made when they received their dictation sheets before they had another dictation exercise in the next meeting. d. data analysis a paired-samples test was conducted to compare the means of each group’s pre and post-test in order to investigate the significant difference of those two tests in each group. h0 is rejected when the p-value is lower than 0.05 which indicates that there was a significant difference between the pre and post-tests of each group. the mean gain scores of the three groups were then compared to find out which group improved better on the post-test. to get the answer of research question 2, a descriptive analysis of the grammar points in the post-tests of the three groups was carried out. the results of the experimental groups were further examined to see the improvement of each group’s awareness of using their knowledge of grammar in reproducing a listening text. frequency in percentage was used to indicate the improvement of the students’ awareness in applying their grammar knowledge in reproducing a listening text. 230 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 to analyze the likert-scale responses in the questionnaire, the frequency distribution of each experimental group’s answers was presented. it was then interpreted to examine the comments of students in group a and b for the dictation exercises they received. findings a. paired-samples tests the paired-samples test is to compare the means of each group’s pre and post-test in order to see the significant difference of those two tests in each group. table 1 shows the paired-samples descriptive statistics and table 2 displays the paired-samples test of group a, b, and c. table 1 paired-samples statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean group a pair 1 pretest 6.76 17 3.118 .756 posttest 8.06 17 2.200 .534 group b pair 1 pretest 5.39 9 3.229 1.076 posttest 7.56 9 2.877 .959 group c pair 1 pretest 8.32 11 2.601 .784 posttest 10.36 11 3.163 .954 the mean score of pre-test of group a was 6.76 and that of the post-test was 8.06. the gain score was 1.3 suggesting that group a improved their performance on the post-test. the standard deviation of the post-test decreased from 3.118 to 2.200 indicating that the students’ post-test scores were closer to the expected value. group b’s mean of the post-test (7.56) was higher than that of the pre-test (5.39). the gain score was 2.17 which was higher compared to that of group a. just as group a, the standard deviation of the post-test (2.877) was also lower than that of the pre-test (3.229). as for group c, the mean of post-test and pre-test was 10.36 and 8.32 respectively. the gain score of the post-test was 2.04. group c also shows better performance on the post-test. the post-test standard deviation (3.163), however, was higher than the pre-test (2.601) showing that the post-test scores herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 231 in reconstructing listening texts were further from the mean compared to the pre-test scores. table 2 illustrates the results of the groups’ pairedsampled test. table 2 paired-samples test paired differences t df sig. (2tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper group a pair 1 pretest– posttest 1.294 2.158 .523 -2.404 -.184 2.472 16 .025 group b pair 1 pretest– posttest 2.167 1.854 .618 -3.592 -.742 3.506 8 .008 group c pair 1 pretest– posttest 2.045 2.252 .679 -3.559 -.532 3.012 10 .013 the paired-samples test on the preand post-test of group a shows that the p-value was 0.025 which was less than 0.05. it confirmed that group a statistically improved on the post test. the p-value of group b was 0.008 which was lower than 0.05. it indicates that there was a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test scores of the students who were given partial dictations. in addition, the calculation for group c indicates the pvalue of 0.013 which was smaller than 0.05. in other words, group c also shows a significant difference in their scores on preand post-tests. b. analysis of grammar points a descriptive analysis of the grammar points in the post-tests of the experimental groups was carried out to examine the improvement of each group’s awareness of using their knowledge of grammar in reproducing a listening text. the difference in scores between the preand post-test of each student in group a is described in table 3. the table includes the grammar points the students got in their preand post-tests. 232 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 table 3 preand post-test scores group a group b group c ss pretest gr. points posttest gr. points pretest gr. points posttest gr. points pretest gr. points posttest gr. points 1 9 2.5 10.5 3.5 1 0.5 6 0.5 12.5 6 14.5 7 2 13 5.5 11.5 4 7 3 11 4 4 0 8 2.5 3 6 1.5 8 2 9.5 3.5 8.5 3.5 8.5 3.5 6 1 4 3 0 4 0.5 1 0 3.5 1 6 1.5 8.5 2.5 5 2.5 0 7 1.5 4 0 5 0.5 9 3 11 5 6 3 0.5 4.5 0 4.5 0 5 0.5 7.5 3 13.5 6 7 8.5 3 10 4.5 6.5 1 8.5 3 8.5 2.5 11.5 4.5 8 10 3 11 3.5 5 0.5 8.5 3 6.5 1.5 9 3.5 9 3 1 6 1 10 3.5 12 4.5 12 4.5 14 6.5 10 9.5 3 8 2.5 6.5 1 5.5 1.5 11 7 1 10 3 10.5 2.5 12.5 4.5 12 7.5 2 7.5 2 13 8 3 9 5 14 8 1 8.5 2.5 15 4 1 9 4 16 3.5 0.5 6.5 1.5 17 9.5 3 6 1.5 note: ss = student, gr. = grammar most of the students (82%) in group a performed better on the posttest. their gain score of the post-test were between 0.5 and 5. their grammar points increased between 0.5 and 3 points. only one student (student 15) shows a great change on the post-test. his score raised 5 points in which his grammar points increased by 3 points. however, three students (student 2, 10 and 17) in the group decreased by 1.5, 1.5, and 3.5 points respectively on the post-test scores. it can be seen that the three students’ grammar points also decreased. student 9 had better score in his post-test, but his grammar points remained the same indicating that his post-score increased due to the points he got for his correct ideas/answers not because of an increase in the grammar points. just like group a, 89% of the students in group b got better scores on the post-test. the gain score from the pre-test to post-test was also between 0.5 and 5. regarding the grammar points, they increased between 0.5 and 2.5 points. student 1 had a great change as her score increased by 5 points. yet, her grammar points stayed the same. one student (student 3) decreased by 1 herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 233 in reconstructing listening texts point on his post-test score, but his grammar points stayed the same. three students (student 4, 5, and 6) who did not get any grammar point in their pretest gained points in the post-test even though they only got 0.5 to 1 point. thus, none of the students in this group decreased their points of grammar. in group c, out of 11 students, 90% raised their post-test scores between 2 and 6 points. concerning grammar points, it can be seen that they increased by 0.5 to 3 points. student 6 improved a lot in his post test. his grammar increased by 3 points. on the other hand, two students (student 3 and student 10) decreased their scores by 2.5 and 1 points respectively. only student 3 who decreased his grammar points from 3.5 to 1. c. questionnaire the results of questionnaire given after the treatments to all respondents in group a and b were described in table 4. the three statements in the questionnaire which were to assess students’ responses towards the dictation exercises given in their class applied a 5-point scale where 1 indicates not effective at all, 2 not too effective, 3 okay (somewhat ineffective or somewhat effective), 4 effective, and 5 very effective. the frequency of group a and b’s answers was put in percentage. table 4 group a & b’s percentage of questionnaire survey statement effectiveness (5-point scale) not effective at all not too effective okay effective very effective 1. i think the dictation exercises are…to develop awareness of spelling words correctly. group a 5% group a 5% group a 15% group a 35% group a 40% group b group b 15% group b 10% group b 40% group b 25% 10% 2. i think the dictation exercises are…to help group a 5% group a 5% group a 15% group a 50% group a 25% 234 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 me use the correct vocabulary in context. group b 5% group b 5% group b 25% group b 45% group b 20% 3. i think the dictation exercises are…to develop awareness of using grammar knowledge to proofread what i wrote. group a 0% group a 10% group a 10% group a 60% group a 20% group b group b 5% group b 15% group b 50% group b 30% 0% the questionnaire results demonstrate that as many as 35% of the students in group a thought that dictation exercises are effective to develop their awareness of spelling words correctly and 40% of them considered it very effective. only 5% viewed the dictation exercises as not effective at all and not too effective to develop their spelling skill. as for the second statement of the questionnaire which assessed how effective are the dictation exercises to help the students use correct vocabulary in context, 50% of the students considered it effective and 25% very effective. the response to the third statement of the questionnaire concerning the effectiveness of dictation exercises to develop students’ awareness of using grammar knowledge to proofread their writing indicated that a majority of the students (60%) thought the dictation exercises effective and 20% very effective. none of the students considered it ‘not effective at all’. the answers of students in group b did not show much difference from those of group a. regarding the effectiveness of dictation to develop spelling skill, 40% of the students considered it effective and 25% of them very effective. students’ responses to the second statement of the questionnaire indicated that 45% of the students perceived dictation exercises as effective in making them use proper vocabulary in context and 20% very effective. about half of the students (50%) believed that dictation was effective to make them aware of applying knowledge of grammar in their work, and 30% thought that it was very effective. herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 235 in reconstructing listening texts discussion as indicated in the results of the paired-samples tests, every group in this research performed better in the post-test. in other words, the students in the experimental groups and control group showed statistically significant improvement in reconstructing ideas of english lectures they heard. when the post-test answer sheets were examined, it was found that students tended to write more compared to when they had the pre-test. it seems that in the pretest they still had difficulty to get the main points of the short lectures given in the test so that some of the students left their answer sheets blank without any answer written. it was found that student 2 and student 17 in group a decreased by 1.5 and 3.5 points respectively on their post-test scores (table 3). the decrease in student 2 score was caused by his incomplete answers in part 3 of the test which required the students to rewrite a lecture in three sentences, while that in student 1 was due to her incorrect answers in part 2 of the test which asked students to give answers to three questions based on a lecture. student 3 in group b (table 5.10) also decreased 1 point on his posttest score that is in his total scores in part 3 of the test because of his sentences that were not relevant to the lecture. as for the control group (group c), there were student 3 and student 10 who decreased their post-test scores by 2.5 and 1 points respectively (table 3). student 3 had more grammatical mistakes that is in the use of the –s in plural noun and more incomplete answers in part 3, while student 10 had all wrong answers in part 3 of the test even though gained more scores in part 2. those two students, however, still made mistakes in the use of the –s in third person singular in part 1 of both the preand post-tests. in addition, student 6 who left some items blank in the pre-test could get more points for grammar and ideas in the post-test. this indicated that the dicto-comp exercises given to all groups as the main listening exercises in the classes helped them to enforce their listening comprehension and note-taking skills in which they tried to get the main ideas and key words of the listening text and to reproduce the text in written form. it is in line with nation’s view (1991) that dicto-comp makes “learners have to remember the ideas in a text…and express them in the words of the original or in their own words (13-14).” furthermore, when the paired-samples descriptive statistics which show the means of the preand post-tests of those three groups are compared, group b who had additional exercises with partial dictation had the highest mean gain score (2.17). group a’s mean gain score was 1.3, while group c’s was 2.04. it suggests that group b showed better improvement in the post-test 236 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 than group a that was given full dictation exercises and group c that only had dicto-comp exercises. to confirm that the dictations exercises given to group a and b improved the students’ awareness of using their knowledge of grammar in their written language, group a and b’s grammar points on the post-tests and their answer sheets were examined further to see the difference in the grammar points between the two groups. it was found that 65% of the students in group a improved their grammar points on the post-test, 12% had the same grammar points as on the pre-test, and 23% decreased their points of grammar (table 3). those who decreased their grammar points still produced grammatical mistakes in their writing such as in the use of the morpheme –s in third person singular and the –s plural (e.g. she has two step sisters). in group b, as many as 78% of the students increased their grammar points on the post-test, 22% had the same points as on the pre-test, and none of them showed a decrease in their grammar points (table 3). even though both groups showed improvement in grammar points, it can be observed that group b had better performance in grammar than group a. the teacher in group a and b did not remind the students to check their grammar when they proofread their written version of the text they heard. the dictation exercises made them aware of using their grammar knowledge to self-correct and self-edit their own work. on the other hand, group c still received reminder and pointers from their teacher to proofread what they wrote, i.e. to always check especially the morpheme –s in third person singular, the –s in plural nouns and the spelling of the words they wrote. this made as many as 91% of the students in group c increased their grammar points on the posttest (table 3). this finding supports morris (1983) who claims that dictation exercises can foster students’ accuracy in listening and writing as they provide students with listening comprehension skills and train them to recognize not only incorrect spelling but also inconsistencies in grammar. similarly, hoare and tanner (2008) note that dictation exercises at sentence level or longer motivate noticing, accuracy, rereading as well as “enforce listening-writing transfer skills” (p.763). nation (1991) also believes that sentence level dictation gives students focus on the accuracy of constructing phrases and clauses. furthermore, students in group b demonstrated less grammatical errors in their post-test, especially in producing sentences with the –s plural noun and with simple present tense. this suggests that they became better aware of applying their grammar knowledge in rewriting the listening text they heard. this confirms alkire (2002) who points out that dictation increases herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 237 in reconstructing listening texts students’ awareness of spelling errors as well as comprehension errors which includes phonological and grammatical errors. also, it supports kondo’s study (2005) who found that dictation as a listening exercise indeed encouraged students to utilize their knowledge of grammar. the questionnaire results also support the statistical findings and the grammar points descriptive analysis of this study as a majority of the students in the experimental groups perceived the dictation exercises as effective to make them aware of spelling words properly, of utilizing vocabulary based on context, and of applying their grammar knowledge to proofread their work. none of the students in both groups considered the dictation exercises ineffective at all to raise their awareness of grammar in rewriting a text. using dictation as listening exercises has been recommended by some elt experts (nation, 1991; morris, 1983; alkire, 2002). dictation is useful not only to develop listening skills, but also to help develop writing skill. considering the positive effects seen in group a and b, dictation is considered a beneficial exercise in a language classroom. it provides practice in many language aspects and can aid the development of the four language skills when used in an integrative way. conclusion the dictation exercises provided to the experimental groups in this research in addition to the dicto-comp implemented in the classes proved to encourage the students to apply their grammar knowledge to check their writing during and after dictation. analysis of the data of the preand posttests through paired-samples tests found that both experimental groups performed better in the post-test, and so did the control group. yet, the group who had exercises with partial dictation showed higher gain score. moreover, the group who received partial dictation exercises made better improvement in their grammar accuracy than the group who had full dictation exercises. the control group also improved their grammar points but they received their teacher’s help to point out their grammatical mistakes and spelling errors. the results thus indicate those two types of dictations contributed to the students’ consciousness-raising of grammar knowledge. the dictation exercises facilitated the development of self-correcting habit which was not seen in the control group who still needed some language input from the teacher to proofread their work. the result of questionnaire concerning the effectiveness 238 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 of the dictation exercises reported in this research also reveals that the students in the experimental groups viewed the dictation exercises they had as effectively enhancing their spelling, the use of proper words in context, and the use of grammar knowledge to proofread students’ works. dictation is recommended to be used in efl classes. it can be implemented not only to develop listening comprehension skills, but also to develop autonomy in learning as it provides learners with opportunities to perform their ability in various language skills and language aspects. references alkire, s. (2002). dictation as a language learning device. the internet tesl journal, viii (3). retrieved october 6, 2015 from http://itestj.org/ techniques/alkire-dictation.html alsadat, m. & hassankiadeh, g.. (2013). active and passive dictation. international journal of evaluation and research in education, 2 (3), 129134. retrieved october 7, 2015 from http://download.portalgaruda.org/article. php?article=6078&val=159 frodesen, j. (2001). grammar in writing. teaching english as a second or foreign language. 3rd edition. marianne celce-murcia. pp. 233-248. boston: heinle & heinle, thomson learning, inc. habibi, p., azadeh, n., & habibi, s. (2012). the role of listening comprehension in dictation. indian journal of science and technology, 5 (8), 3208-3210. retrieved april 10, 2015 from www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/download/30542/26467 hoare, p. & tanner, p. (2008). the benefits of dictation for university writing students and teachers. pac7 at jalt2008 conference proceedings. pp. 758-764. retrieved october 7, 2015 from http://jalt-publications.org/ recentpdf/proceedings/2008/e160.pdf kiany, g. r. & shiramiry, e. (2002). the effect of frequent dictation on the listening comprehension ability of elementary efl learners. tesl canada journal, 20 (1), 57-63. retrieved october 7, 2015 from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej659412.pdf kondo, y. (2005). factor of listening comprehension evaluated by dictation. proceedings of the 8th conference of pan-pacific association of applied herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 239 in reconstructing listening texts linguistics. pp. 223-228. retrieved april 10, 2015 from http://www. paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/paal8/pdf/pdf021.pdf kuo, y. (2010). using partial dictation of an english teaching radio program to enhance efl learners’ listening comprehension.” asian efl journal, 47, 4-29. retrieved april 10, 2015 from http://asian-efljournal.com/pta/october-2010-kuo.pdf marzban, a. & abdollahi, m. (2013). the effect of partial dictation on the listening comprehension ability of iranian intermediate efl learners. international research journal of applied and basic sciences. 5(2), 238-244. retrieved april 10, 2015 from http://www.irjabs.com/files_site/paperlist/r1428_1309141 60025.pdf morris, susan. (1983). dictationa technique in need of reappraisal. elt journal, 1(2), 121-126. retrieved october 7, 2015 from http://203.72.145.166/ elt/ files/37-2-2.pdf nation, paul. (1991). dictation, dicto-comp, and related techniques. english teaching forum. 29 (4), 12-14. retrieved october 7, 2015 from http://www.victoria. ac.nz/lals/about/staff/publications/paul-nation/ 1991-dictation.pdf norris, robert w. (1993). using creative dictation to manage, motivate, and activate large groups of false beginners. fukuoka women’s junior college studies, 45, 71-82. retrieved october 7, 2015 from http://www2.gol.com/ users/norris/articles/dict.html richards, j.c. and schmidt, r. (2002). longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. 3rd edition. london: pearson education. sarosy, peg and sherak, kathy. (2007). lecture ready 1. oxford: oxford university press. takeuchi, osamu. (1997). dictation: is it really effective for language teaching? audio-visual education, 20, 55-63. retrieved april 10, 2015 from http://www2.ipcku.kansai-u.ac.jp/~takeuchi/papers/av20. html tang, qu. (2012). the effectiveness of dictation method in college english vocabulary teaching. theory and practice in language studies. 2 (7), 14721476. retrieved april 10, 2015 from http://ojs.academy 240 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 217-241 publisher.com/index.php/ tpls/article/viewfile/tpls020714721476/5061 underwood, mary. (1989). teaching listening. london: longman. using dictation to develop pupil’s listening and writing skills (2011). a resource package. english language education section, curriculum development institute, the education bureau, the hong kong special administrative region. retrieved october 6, 2015 from https://cd.edb.gov.hk/eng/dict/ appendix 1 pre-test and post-test your name: ___________________ st. no.: ______________________ class: ________________________ ia. listen to a short lecture and complete the notes below. cinderella is about____________________________________________ harry potter is about__________________________________________ write 4 similarities of the two stories: 1. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 2. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 3. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 4. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ib. based on the lecture and your notes, answer the questions below. 1. how many relatives do cinderella and harry potter have? _______________________________________________________ 2. what wish that characters in both fairy tales have? _______________________________________________________ 3. what is the miracle in both stories? _______________________________________________________ herusatoto, h., using dictation to promote the use of grammar knowledge 241 in reconstructing listening texts ii. listen to a short lecture and write three (3) sentences about the information in the lecture. 1) _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 2) _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 3) _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ appendix 2 questionnaire this questionnaire is to find out your responses towards the dictation exercises you did in class. your answers will not affect your course grade. all responses will remain anonymous. please respond to all questions. thank you for your cooperation. respond to the questions below by circling the answer that represents your opinion. 1. i think the dictation exercises are……….to develop awareness of spelling words correctly. 1 2 3 4 5 not effective at all not too effective okay effective very effective 2. i think the dictation exercises are………..to help me use the correct vocabulary in context. 1 2 3 4 5 not effective at all not too effective okay effective very effective 3. i think the dictation exercises are……………..to develop awareness of using grammar knowledge to proofread what i wrote. 1 2 3 4 5 not effective at all not too effective okay effective very effective note: okay = somewhat ineffective, somewhat effective a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 21 no.2; december 2021 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia . do teacher questions function as assessment for learning? hieronimus canggung darong and erna mena niman universitas katolik indonesia santu paulus, ruteng, indonesia email: hieronimusdarong@gmail.com, ernaniman79@gmail.com received: 02-06-2021 accepted: 14-12-2021 published: 30-12-2021 293 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj do teacher questions function as assessment for learning? hieronimus canggung darong and erna mena niman hieronimusdarong@gmail.com, ernaniman79@gmail.com universitas katolik indonesia santu paulus, ruteng, indonesia abstract: this study wants to challenge the robust idea of previous findings revealing that employing a particular question type would necessarily functions as assessment for learning (afl). besides, this study extends previous research focusing on typology and examines the syntactical forms of questioning in its practice. to gather data, six indonesian english teachers were observed and audiorecorded, thus, transcribed and analysed following the principle of conversation analysis (ca). except referential type functioning as a teaching technique and a discourse marker choice to discursively extend the classroom talk, the result of analysis corroborates previous studies in that they provide diagnostic information from which a better further action was taken place as highlighted in the afl. yet, this might occur as questioning types are syntactically constructed following classroom discourse moves. thus, the examination of questionings functioning as assessment for learning (afl), aside from types, the syntactical form and classroom discourse moves are important to cope with. key words: assessment for learning; question type; syntactical form abstrak: studi ini ingin menantang gagasan kuat dari temuan sebelumnya yang mengungkapkan bahwa menggunakan jenis pertanyaan tertentu tentu akan berfungsi sebagai assessment for learning (afl). selain itu, penelitian ini memperluas penelitian sebelumnya yang berfokus pada tipologi dan mengkaji bentuk sintaksis pertanyaan dalam praktiknya. untuk mengumpulkan data, enam guru bahasa inggris indonesia diamati dan direkam, kemudian ditranskripsi dan dianalisis mengikuti prinsip analisis percakapan (ca). kecuali tipe referensial yang berfungsi sebagai teknik pengajaran dan pilihan penanda wacana untuk memperluas pembicaraan kelas secara diskursif, mailto:hieronimusdarong@gmail.com 294 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hasil analisis menguatkan penelitian sebelumnya dalam hal mereka memberikan informasi diagnostik dari mana tindakan lebih lanjut yang lebih baik dilakukan seperti yang disorot dalam afl. namun, ini mungkin terjadi karena jenis pertanyaan dibangun secara sintaksis mengikuti gerakan wacana kelas. oleh karena itu, pemeriksaan soal yang berfungsi sebagai assessment for learning (afl), selain jenisnya, bentuk sintaksis dan gerakan wacana kelas juga penting untuk diatasi. kata kunci; penilaian untuk pembelajaran; tipe pertanyaan; bentuk sintaksis introduction questioning and assessment for learning (afl) are inseparably related. following the pattern of irf/e as claimed by (ganapathy, ai, tan, & phan, 2020; laeli & setiawan, 2019; lee, mak, & burns, 2015; nassaji, 2016), teacher questioning is widely acknowledged as crucial technique in classroom discourse and is used evaluate the specific learning goals (black & wiliam, 2009; gattullo, 2000; jiang, 2014; milawati, 2017; widiastuti & saukah, 2017). focusing on feedback activity, teachers utilize questions to make their students more active resulting from meaning negotiation process both through explicit and implicit. besides, it might be functioned to stimulate learners thinking and serves to be a guide and a scaffold following the information exchange of irf/e in the interactions (chappell, 2014; eckerth, 2009; palma, 2014; saito & hanzawa, 2016; tofade, elsner, & haines, 2013). taken togerher, regardless to discursively influence the extent of students‟ learning and the shape of classroom talk, questioning types are of crucial to provide diagnostic information and elicit students' learning. as such, the employment of questions is meaningful to know the current level of students‟ knowledge. in practice, afl is implemented in some stages that potentially used in teaching learning process namely eliciting, interpreting, and using the information about the students‟ learning (black, 2015; black & wiliam, 2009). this is corroborated by (brookhart, moss, & long, 2010; clark, 2010; ekembe, 2014; gotwals & birmingham, 2015; ketabi, 2014; f. van der kleij, vermeulen, inholland, schildkamp, & eggen, 2015) saying that there are three main process of the assessment for learning namely; establishing where the learners are in their learning through meaning negotiation process (initiation), establishing where they are going in which the teacher collect information about students‟ learning (from students response) and darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 295 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj establishing what to be done to get the students‟ achievement (evaluation/feedback). to conduct each stages, teacher should utilize questions to check students‟ thinking and inquire their understanding and guide future better instruction. following irf/e pattern, there has been a considerable amount of research devoted to questioning in the field of classroom interaction (barnett & francis, 2012; boyd, 2015; durrleman & franck, 2016; gilson, little, ruegg, & bruce-davis, 2014a; harvey & light, 2015; hill, 2016; hu & duan, 2018a; kao, carkin, & hsu, 2011; kawalkar & vijapurkar, 2013; sarandi, 2016; smart & marshall, 2013; sujariati, rahman, & mahmud, 2016; taboada, bianco, & bowerman, 2012; virgin, 2015; waring, reddington, yu, & clemente, 2018; wright, 2016). the studies found that the employment of question was mainly concerned with the relation of questioning types to subject content, thinking level, and language classroom discourse moves. along this line of findings, other studies emphasized the responses resulting from questioning practice (babaii, parsazadeh, & moradi, 2018; farrell & mom, 2015; maphosa & wadesango, 2017; reinke & herman, 2016; robitaille & lauderdale, 2015; rolin-ianziti & ord, 2016; salerno & kibler, 2015; tavakoli & davoudi, 2016; tofade et al., 2013; vaish, 2013; wang, 2020; white, 2010). the studies have revealed that wait-time strategies and questioning types were very influential to elicit student responses. in this respect, the initiation, response, and feedback (irf) are the three-part sequence in which types of question and wait-time strategy are of beneifit to invite student responses. by and large, stressing on questioning typology, considerable amount of studies have been carried out regarding the questioning practice in the context of classroom discourse highlighting questioning as a teaching technique, a discourse marker of irf/e classroom interaction and strategy used for afl. despite the long-standing interest and prolific writing, more research studies on the employment of teacher questioning are still needed. questioning type is insufficient to be examined. one issue this set of papers appears is whether the construction of teacher questions syntactically functions as afl. against this backdrop, this study is an attempt to challenge the robust idea of previous findings revealing that employing a particular question type would necessarily functions as afl as it provides diagnostic information and promote students' learning. besides, this study extends previous research that 296 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj focused on questioning type and examines its syntactical forms in the context of assessment for learning (afl) in classroom interactions. the findings of this study provide comprehensive and in-depth information about questioning which functions to assess teaching-learning process and assist teachers to realign their instructions. literature review assessment for learning (afl) nowadays, the term „assessment for learning‟ which is synonymously termed as formative assessment (bennett, 2011; clark, 2010; schildkamp, kleij, heitink, kippers, & veldkamp, 2020) has become increasingly familiar to the researchers and been of powerful intervention to promote student learning achievement (birenbaum et al., 2015; box, skoog, & dabbs, jennifer, 2015; brookhart et al., 2010; heritage, 2020; herman, osmundson, dai, ringstaff, & timms, 2015b; mccallum, milner, mccallum, & milner, 2020; swaffield, 2011; d. j. walker, topping, & rodrigues, 2008). different from assessment of learning (aol) focusing on measurement, judgment, and report of students‟ progress summatively and assessment as learning (aal) emphasizing students‟ to critically evaluate their own learning, make adjustments and identify the next steps, assessment for learning (afl) concerns with diagnostics information, by which a teacher can determine his/her next step in advancing student learning (black, 2015; black & wiliam, 2009; black & wiliam, 2018; earl, 2013). furthermore, it is a requisite element in teaching learning process and a part of educational practices involving students, teachers and peers through discussion, tasks, and activities. as such, it should be employed in such a way that it might enhance students learning achievement (birenbaum et al., 2015; gebril, 2017; herman et al., 2015b). briefly, it has been acknowledged as a type of assessment employed by the teacher involving students and peers in order to procure an understanding of knowledge and skills and to guide a further better instruction. to be an effective activity, afl is implemented in some stages that potentially used in teaching learning process. they are; establishing where the learners are in their learning, establishing where they are going in which the teacher collect information about students‟ learning and establishing what to be done to get the students‟ achievement (clark, 2010; ekembe, 2014; darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 297 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj gotwals & birmingham, 2015; ketabi, 2014; swaffield, 2011). as such, the stages definitely involve teacher, and students, and peers in meaning negotiation process of their interactions. to add on, strategies purposed by black and wiliam (2009) comprising clarifying and sharing learning intentions and criteria for success, employing classroom discussion and assignment for the sake providing feedback and activating students both as instructional resources and the real agent of their own learning should be taken into account (brookhart et al., 2010; van der kleij, vermeulen, schildkamp, & eggen, 2015). however, in its implementation, prior studies have revealed something difficult and challenging. these are due to the fact that to assess the effectiveness, such assessment type, in fact, covers both an afl itself and a summative element (black, 2015; dawson et al., 2018). while highlighting the challenges, the main principles of afl are placing students and teacher‟s integration, learning goals, evidences, feedback as an entity and subsequently are utilizing them for the next instructional goals. in the meantime, aside from pedagogical aspect, learning instruction, students learning engagement, and the subject discipline (bennett, 2011; ekberg, danby, davidson, & thorpe, 2016; zhou, dawson, tai, & bearman, 2020) and afl protocol consisting of its dimensions and self-reflection/peer-observation tools were firmly and crucially elements to consider its effectiveness (black & wiliam, 2018; wylie & lyon, 2020). this is a prickly issue to cover and needs to reorient in that the effectiveness of it can be properly examined. along this line of consideration, an approach to examining the technical quality of observation protocols focused on classroom afl practices and used to provide feedback for teachers to the improvement of interventions and practice was examined. in this respect, the process of constructing a validity argument for an observation protocol is challenging due to the recurrent and lengthy process (lyon, oláh, & brenneman, 2020). despite the lengthy, there is need to employ such protocol in question for the sake of its effectiveness examination. thus, in an attempt to implement assessment for learning (afl), previous studies have set up the prescriptive inquires which, probably, have served as a guide to precise and refine afl real practice. these inquires, taken together, constitute the so-called effectiveness of assessment for learning (afl). yet, with regard to the challenges mentioned above, there is a need to examine the afl strategies employed by teacher, from which the challenges in 298 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj question, might be enlightened. one of strategies which can be deeply examined is questioning practice in classroom interaction. afl and questioning questioning is the most frequent type of teacher talks employed in classroom interactions (farrell & mom, 2015) and is mostly affect learner outcomes (maphosa & wadesango, 2017). stressing on questioning types, a wide range of studies have found that questioning is the most fundamental technique used by teachers to stimulate student thinking, involvement, and language production (barnett & francis, 2012; chappell, 2014; engin, 2013; gilson, little, ruegg, & bruce-davis, 2014b; hill, 2016; kao et al., 2011; mcneil, 2012; ngoc, pham, & hamid, 2013; rido, 2017; robitaille & lauderdale, 2015; salerno & kibler, 2015; sunggingwati & nguyen, 2013; taboada et al., 2012; tofade et al., 2013; walsh & hodge, 2018). through the use of effective questioning strategy involving types choice, students are helped to expand their knowledge and evolve thinking skills. aside from an interactive teaching technique, teacher question is the most frequent choice to discursively ease students' participation and learning in the classroom (barbieri, 2015; cancino, 2015; ekembe, 2014; hosoda, 2015; hu & duan, 2018; kapellidi, 2013; lam, 2018; j. lee & kim, 2016; manzel, 2016; palma, 2014; sarandi, 2016; solem, 2016; stivers, 2018). in this context, as the most powerful discourse move choice, teacher questions should not only deal with the types but also with the functions following the context where they might appear (boyd, 2015; darong et al., 2020). owing to questioning employs the so-called context-based functions, it is not only regarded as a teaching technique but also as a linguistic performance displayed in classroom discourse. of greater importance is the contribution of the questioning in assessment for learning (afl) in the stage of eliciting, interpreting, and using the information about students‟ learning. in each stages, questioning along with the typesdisplay, referential, clarification, and request as purposed by boyd (2015) are necessarily employed to check students thinking and trigger them toward better instructional. in this regard, through questioning teachers get information about the current stage of student knowledge and decides to take better action of his/her further instruction regarding student needs (black & wiliam, 2009; gattullo, 2000; jiang, 2014; may, 2011; milawati, 2017; pianta, 2016; widiastuti & saukah, 2017). to add on, in afl practice, through questioning, teacher can adjust, modify the instruction to meet darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 299 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj student learning goals. the adjustment and modification can be intentionally done in a meaning negotiation process or a feedback activity (eckerth, 2009; palma, 2014), from which teacher can gather information to potentially attain the leaning goals (box et al., 2015; carless, 2011; clark, 2010; deeley, fischbacher-smith, karadzhov, & koristashevskaya, 2019; gan, 2010; hargreaves, 2005; lee et al., 2015; matthews, 2019; mcclean & hourigan, 2015; morley, bettles, & derham, 2019; walker, salines, abdillahi, mason, & molesworth, 2019) in this respect, teacher questions serve a guidance to both teacher and students to reflect their current stages in teaching-learning and subsequently are able to have a better further action as expected in afl. through questions, the afl might be carried out in such a way that teacher, students, and peers have diagnostic information to decide a better further instruction (huang & hu, 2016; lam, 2016; lee, 2011; obeiah & bataineh, 2016). along this line of statement, strategy, context of learners, instruction methodology, interaction types such as teacher-student and student-student are vital elements in afl. those aspects, through questioning, are of benefit to have diagnostic information, change, and adapt teachers‟ instruction regarding students‟ needs (choi & li, 2012; ganapathy et al., 2020; nassaji, 2016; park, 2018; sarandi, 2016; sritrakarn, 2018). afl highlights the involvement of teacher, students and peers which is mirrored in questioning of feedback activity. consequently, teacher questions should be critical in that they can develop students‟ understanding, invite student responses representing their thinking. in addition, teacher follow-up actions should be purposeful mediation of students‟ learning goals (black & wiliam, 2018; hill, 2016; jiang, 2014). yet, to have an effective questioning, there is a need for students to interpret received massage and proceed or respond it (cooke, 2013; cowie & moreland, 2015; halbach, 2015; jr & stout, 2014; ozuem & lancaster, 2015; richards, conway, roskvist, & harvey, 2013; winstone & boud, 2020). in this regard, student roles might be of benefit toward the successfulness of questioning in feedback activity. as such, there is a need for students to reflect their own talks reflecting on the given response. utilizing the roles of the agents in question is of benefit to seek, interpret, and responds to information from discussion and or meaning negotiation that enhances ongoing learning. briefly, (earl, 2013) recommended that questioning should be employed in such a way that the teachers should provide diagnostic information to boost students‟ learning and should adapt their teaching to encounter students‟ needs as highlighted in 300 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj afl. taken together, questioning serves a principal role to meet both learning aims and classroom expectations in afl. by and large, the function of teacher questioning highlighted from the previous studies draws into three issues namely as a diagnostic, instructional and discourse tool of classroom discourse. as such, teacher questions serve serves more functions (multi-functions) which cannot be revealed in the context of immediate response but also in the whole discourse moves occurring in interactions including assessment process. regardless of the second and third, this article emphasized the former that is how teacher questions are utilized as afl in classroom interactions. in this point, questioning analysis should not only be carried out in terms the types but also the syntactic form as it is of benefit and helpful to meet the learning goals. in a brief, to reveal questioning as an assessment tool, there is a need to uncover the entire process of questioning, particularly, the syntactic form in question. method six efl teachers teaching at universitas negeri malangindonesia were chosen purposefully as the subjects. the selection was justified for the work in hand strives to enquire how the course of interaction is processed in oral expression. they were assumed to have ample knowledge and performance about the english language since they have been exposing to it for more than five years. in order to have a broader insight into teachers‟ questions in classroom interactions, the researcher mainly relied on the observation data. aside from an audiorecorder, a guide of classroom observation and field note of types, syntactical forms, and students‟ verbal responses and teacher instructions were used. the observation was not to compare; it is rather to have comprehensive data about teacher questions functioning as afl during the interactions. in effect, it is clear that the presence of the researcher is likely to distort the nature scene of the classroom atmosphere. as such, the researcher tried to work to the feeling of uneasiness that could rise among classroom participants. to observe and record, the permission was asked to attend the session without bringing the camera to avoid student from being shock, panic and uncomfortable. darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 301 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj data analysis relied on the principles of conversation analysis (ca). the observed classes were transcribed following the convention of jefferson 1984 (hosoda, 2015) following the ire/f interactions pattern. the transcripts were labelled by some symbols (appendix) the transcriptions were carefully coded and analysed. regarding the types, all questions were coded and categorized into the display, referential, clarification, and request (boyd, 2015). the researcher looked closely at types of questions to discern which type is frequently used in the lessons along with the responses. since the existing coding schemes looked unsuitable for student responses in this current study, the writer developed his own comprising response and no response. in the meantime, the syntactic forms (yes/no, w-h, declarative/final raise, how/what) about as well as the functional role of the teacher questions were noted. they were necessarily analysed to know, whether or not, the form corresponds to the function as afl. with respect to validity and attainable preconception and viewpoint built-in in this study, triangulation was carried out by comparing the observation data with reflective analysis of field notes and recording. they were carefully compared and crosschecked in verification process to be drawn into the final analysis. results and discussion results in this section, the results of analysis comprising questioning types and the syntactical forms are presented. data display and a concise interpretation are also presented. both would be of benefit for the discussion section. questioning types in order to address the first objective of this article that is to challenge the robust idea of previous findings revealing that employing a particular question type would necessarily provide diagnostic information and promote students' learning., the data were sorted and categorized into display, referential, clarification, and request questions. the following table (table 1) is the distribution of teacher question types which was varied for each teachers during their interactions with the students. 302 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 1 (attached) although all the teachers‟ questions made up more than half of their utterances, there were marked differences in frequencies of types for each teachers. furthermore, looking at the data in table 1, display or closed question type dominated in interactions. in the meantime, referential question came at the second position and respectively followed by clarification and request. when students struggled to comprehend the topic being discussed, display question dominated and contributed more than referential question. it was frequently used to check students understanding of the topic being discussed. meanwhile, referential-open question which has a lower percentage than display question was used by the teacher to provoke students' high thinking level. when students required to elaborate their idea beyond the text, it occurred timely and was being a trigger to enlarge the talk. besides, the clarification type appeared differently among the six participants under the contribution made by the students and the teachers' questions functioning as requests were varied in terms of perlocutionary acts they want to have. along the line of the appearance of questioning types in table 1, the responses given by students, in terms of number, were different following the nature questioning types and discourse moves of classroom interactions. more importantly, observation and field notes have shown that the employment of questioning types and the given response assisted teachers to realign their future instruction during the lesson. questioning syntactic form with respect to the second objective that is the syntactical forms of questioning in the context of assessment for learning (afl) practice, the identification of questioning forms namely yes/no question, w-h question, declarative with final raise, how/what about, and tag question was carried out (table 2). darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 303 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 2 syntactic forms of questions no t f t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 tn1-6 1 n % n % n % n % n % n % d y/n 68 24 3 4 25 20 8 32 37 33 25 30 166 w-h 155 54 25 37 58 47 10 40 50 45 41 49 339 d/fp 52 18 40 59 33 26 7 28 23 21 16 19 171 h/w about 11 4 9 7 1 1 2 2 23 tn 286 100 68 100 125 100 25 100 111 100 84 100 699 2 r y/n 19 76 19 39 18 34 3 19 6 40 65 w-h 6 24 20 41 28 54 2 100 4 25 4 27 64 d/fp 9 18 6 12 9 56 3 20 27 h/w about 1 2 2 13 3 tn 25 100 49 100 52 100 2 100 16 100 15 100 159 3 c y/n 2 20 6 14 1 17 12 52 5 26 49 w-h 1 10 1 2 2 d/fp 9 100 7 70 36 84 5 83 11 48 3 37 71 h/w about tn 9 100 10 100 43 100 6 100 23 100 8 100 122 4 req y/n 2 40 3 60 13 81 3 60 4 67 7 86 32 w-h 1 20 1 20 2 d/fp 2 40 1 20 2 13 2 40 2 33 1 14 10 h/w about 1 6 tn 5 100 5 100 16 100 5 100 6 100 8 100 44 1.024 note: t: type; d: display; r: referential; c: clarification; r: request f: form; y/n: yes/no question, w-h: w-h question; d/fp: declarative with final raise phrase; h/w about: how/what about question; tq: tag question; t1: teacher 1, t2: teacher 2; t3: teacher 3; t4: teacher 4; t5: teacher 5; t6: teacher 6; n: total number per form; tn: total number of form per question type; tn1-6: total number for all the teachers. with regard to the data in table 2, the syntactical form of teacher questions differently appeared. the w-h syntactical forms were used for purposes of checking students‟ knowledge and of enlarging or extending the classroom discourse exchanges. meanwhile, the use of yes/no questions and declarative with final raise were justified by the fact that the students could not give response towards w-h and how/what about syntactical forms. in this regard, aside from checking students‟ knowledge, both served a function to 304 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj realign teachers instruction for the sake of student responses following the proposition of w-h questions raised in advance. discussion table 1 confirmed that the most question type employed by the teachers was display question. although they knew the answers, this questioning type was raised to require the students to demonstrate their knowledge on a subject matter. yet, following grice‟s principle of co-operation in conversation, posing display question in real interactions might violate the maxim of quality. the addresser of a question in a real social life context seeks for new and unknown information from the addressee who is expected to provide a true and sincere answer. therefore, asking a display question could be regarded insincere and might not receive the desired response from the addressee (grice, 1989). in terms of their appearance, pro and contra have come up in existing studies. previous research studies have confirmed that display question was used to check students' understanding and their knowledge on the subject matter. this question type could facilitate or stimulate limited students' responses and not necessarily represent students‟ understanding and deeper thinking. unlikely, referential-open question was posed to seek certain information and students' opinion about something. this question type might invite longer students' responses and provoke deeper thinking level than the previous one (engin, 2013; farrell & ives, 2015; hill, 2016; kao et al., 2011; ngoc et al., 2013; tavakoli & davoudi, 2016; wright, 2016). in contrast, display question is a central resource whereby language teachers and students set up their lessons and produce language pedagogy based on the learning goals (hu & duan, 2018a; mcneil, 2012; walsh & hodge, 2018). besides, the employment of such type requires students to provide longer response and to think deeply and critically following classroom discourse moves. in this respect, they would invite such students‟ response and deeper thinking as they have certain criteria of the difficulty of discourse and syntactical complexity level. in this context, the complexity of questioning might determine students' verbal response both cognitively and discursively (durrleman & franck, 2016; ozuem & lancaster, 2015; stivers, 2018). although it has been widely documented in various studies that display question normally elicited short, simple, and low-level answers and violated the maxim of quality (engin, 2013; farrell & ives, 2015; grice, 1989; hill, darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 305 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2016; kao et al., 2011; tavakoli & davoudi, 2016; wright, 2016), this current study confirmed something different. the employement of display question with its syntactical forms of w-h, yes-no, declarative with final raise and how/what about syntactical forms (table 2) discursively shaped the classroom talk, and successfully promoted learning. its employment could elicite more response and deeper thinking. in spite of the fact that there was a need for teachers to change into yes-no question and declarative with final raise (except t2 and t 4), as the students found difficulty to respond w-h question, student responses were elicited as shown in the following extract (taken from t1‟s interaction). extract 1 t : why do you use have? s1 : ( ) t : do you know why? s1 : following the formula. there must be to be “have” following the subject. t : ok. do you think you answer my question? s : yes i am. t : what is the formula? can you tell me the formula? s1 : ( ) s2 : s+ has/have + v+o/adverb. t : what is the verb form? s2 : ( ) t : should we put past participle there? s2 : yes, we should use past participle. the formula is s+has/have+ v-3+ o/adverb t : yes, it is a must. right↑ i was thinking you should add past participle there↓ i am wondering if you have put that one. let’s open the book page thirteen. looking at the extract, the teacher emphasized the formula of a present perfect tense. the teacher raised display questions with the construction of wh syntactical form such as “why do you use have?” what is the formula?” what is the verb form?” using such w-h question form was not surprising in that the classroom is the most important setting for using w-h questions and teachers utilize them to expand learners' knowledge, and actively engage students in classroom sessions (celce & larsen, 1999). however, as seen in the extract, student response was silent ( ). to cope with such condition, the teacher changed into yes/no question “do you know why”, “can you tell me?” and “should we put past participle there?” in feedback or meaning 306 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj negotiation process. in this respect, this findings echoed the previous studies confirming that students‟ response and deeper thinking represented by stating the formula of present perfect tense could be facilitated as teacher questions meet certain criteria of the difficulty of discourse and syntactical complexity of questioning (durrleman & franck, 2016; hill, 2016; harvey & light, 2015; ozuem & lancaster, 2015; stivers, 2018). regarding the assessment for learning (afl), display question constituted a significant role. the employement of such question type was of benefit to provide evidence to modify and choose better strategy of learning instruction. the employment of display question along with its syntactical forms could assist teachers to realign their instructional strategy resulting from students‟ responses in meaning negotiation process as seen in the extract i. the teacher got an evidence that the student still did not know the subject matter (tense) that was being discussed from which, an option of learning instruction strategy chosen by the teacher (required the students to have a look at page thirteen). in this context, the extract indicates that the employment of display question, following the irf pattern, was of benefit toward the provision of diagnostic information for a further instruction to meet students‟ needs. the teachers employed the types to elicit, interpret and use the information about students‟ learning as purposed by black & wiliam, (2009). thus, the teachers employed display questions to confirm and check students‟ understanding and guide their better future instruction. saying it differently, regardless of the conflicting findings, the use of display questions with its syntactical forms was a means of afl. such questioning type was posed following the talk sequences namely initiation, response, and feedback/evaluation to evaluate students' knowledge or to review, to summarize and to assess the achievement of instructional goals or objectives (eliciting) of which more responses (interpreting) provided for better further instruction (using evidence). then, this study corroborated previous studies revealing that question can be used as afl in terms of finding the gap between the current state of students‟ knowledge and their target learning (andersson & palm, 2018; carless, 2011; gotwals & birmingham, 2015; herman, osmundson, dai, ringstaff, & timms, 2015; hu & duan, 2018b; f. m. van der kleij et al., 2015; william, 2015), determining and modifying learning activities and subsequently choose a better strategy to improve students‟ learning achievement (gattullo, 2000; jiang, 2014b; milawati, 2017; widiastuti & saukah, 2017). darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 307 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj different from display question, referential question appearing as the second most frequent type was mostly constructed by yes-no question forms, then followed by w-h forms, declarative with final raise and how/what about forms (table 2). the appearance of referential question during the interactions was teacher‟s effort to elaborate on the topic and lengthen the talk by weaving external information into learning instruction. the following extract, taken from teacher‟s 4 interactions delineates the effort in question. extract 2 s1 : so recently i read ↑..a book. a novel, it is a novel from oscar wilde. t : oscar wilde? s1 : yes. t : what is it? s1 : picture of glorian way. t : glorian way? s1 : yes t : ok. what is it? s1 : the novel is very interesting to me. the story is about love and faith t : wow..what a great story. have you ever experienced like that? i mean experience like the characters presented in the novel? can you? s1 : no, i don’t have. yet, my best friend used to have it t : pity him. how about you? what is your experience? s2 : ( ) the extract highlights the use of referential question with the construction of yes/no, how about and w-h syntactical forms such as “have you ever experienced like that?” and “ how about you?”,” what is it?” and “what is your experience?” in this respect, instead of checking students‟ knowledge and providing diagnostic information, the employment of referential question along with its form indicates teacher‟s effort to lengthen the conversation. this finding mirrors the previous studies noting that referential questions were posed to extend the talk and develop students‟ interest in classroom discourse moves rather than to check learning and provide diagnostic information for further instruction (gilson et al.,; kawalkar & vijapurkar, 2013; lam, 2018; maphosa & wadesango, 2017; rolin-ianziti & ord, 2016; smart & marshall, 2013; çakır & cengiz, 2016; jiang, 2014; pendidikan & dianti, 2015; wright, 2016). besides, in spite of inviting longer responses and higher-order thinking in that the students were facilitated to have an effort of knowledge actualization toward the questioning proposition, they were used as a teaching technique and not as assessment tool. moreover, 308 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there was no follow-up actions provided to facilitate learning goals that meet student needs. thus, referential question type along with its syntactical forms did not met the principle of afl. to add on, the employment of referential questioning type in this study was in contrast with the last stage of afl practice purposed by black & wiliam (2009) and gotwals & birmingham (2015) that is using the information about students‟ learning. in this regard, teacher questions could function as afl in that they are used to find the gap between the current stage of students‟ knowledge and target learning besides, teacher question might be able to assist, both teacher and students, to be more actively engaged with their assessment and learning. it, in fact, was posed only for classroom discourse moves, rather than to check learning and provide diagnostic information for a better instruction. in brief, the employment of referential question with its syntactical forms in this study was divergently encountered with the learning target and run into teaching technique and a discourse choice marker of classroom talk, instead of as afl. with regard to clarification type, table 2 confirmed that it was syntactically constructed in declarative with final raise and successively followed by yes-no question and w-h question forms. bringing them to the context of afl, the employment of such syntactical forms mirrors the strategies proposed by black & wiliam (2009) of afl practice; 1) clarifying and sharing learning intentions 2) activating students as the owner of learning. the former, in which the teachers clarified students' responses, was seeking to bring about an explanation or redefinition of the preceding contribution. as shown in exract 1 (“do you think you answer my question?” and “should we put past participle there?”) and extract 2 (“ oscard wilde?‟ and glorian way?‟). the appearance was as a logical consequence of preceding utterances and its forms was to relate direction or students‟ behaviour (boyd, 2015). although clarification type invited short responses, the employment was of benefit to check students understanding from which new instruction was taken place. to add on, clarification type was mostly contingent to previous response and displayed students' knowledge. the syntactical forms, declarative with final raise and yes-no question, were used likely to ensure whether students‟ responses have already represented their thinking or not. in spite of the fact that w-h question form was only posed by two teachers (t2 employing 1 or for about 10% of 10 questions and t3 who posed 1 (2%) of 43 questions), the function was beneficial for providing diagnostic information for a further darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 309 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj instruction stage. meanwhile, the absence of this form in some teachers' classes and other syntactical forms (how/what about and tag form) was due to the discourse move during the discussions. along this line of argument, the second strategy is that activating students as the owner of learning. in this context, teacher provided feedback that moved learners forward as found in the extract i (why do you use have? do you know why?). as such, the employment of the clarification could make students actively involved in learning process by means of meaning negotiation in feedback activities. following the sequences of communicative acts performed by both teachers and students, this study corroborates previous findings showing that teachers utilized clarification check questions to put their students actively resulting in the meaning negotiation process (ellis, 2009; palma, 2014; wright, 2016). in this regard, the feedback activity, then, can be regarded as a process of providing diagnostic information (choi & li, 2012; cooke, 2013; cowie & moreland, 2015; joughin, boud, dawson, & tai, 2020; lee, 2011; park, 2018; sarandi, 2016) to attain learning goals as what afl wants to cover. similarly, request type was mostly constructed by yes-no question form and followed by declarative with a final raise and w-h questioning forms. the employment of such syntactic forms was to elicit students‟ responses as shown in extract i (“can you tell me?”) and extract 2 („can you?”). in this regard, the response of yes-no question form established where the learners are in their learning. furthermore, an analytical analysis on the transcripts confirmed that the forms in question were contingent to previous student responses. both teacher and students negotiate their learning target, objectives, and standard for success. they were posed in feedback activity and were regarded as followup questions to facilitate learning. in other words, request questions were intended to have the students to perform an act. this corroborates previous studies saying that request referred to a preparatory condition such as willingness, ability or possibility to perform the act ( darong, 2020; tajeddin & pezeshki, 2014; yazdanfar & bonyadi, 2016). in this regard, the students were requested to perform acts resulting from the illocutionary act of the teacher's questions. yet, the performed action was used as the evidence to establish what need to be done to get the students achievement as highlighted in afl. its employment clarified and shared learning intentions and provided feedback to activate students as the owner of learning (clark, 2010; gotwals & birmingham, 2015; hargreaves, 2005; ketabi, 2014; wiliam, 2017). in brief, request type along with its syntactical forms was a teacher strategy and met the afl practice. 310 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj to a great extent, the question type found in this study were beneficial to promote students‟ learning. this corroborates previous findings saying that question types (except referential type) are necessarily posed to check students thinking and trigger them toward better learning achievement. teachers got information about the current stage of student knowledge and decided to take better action of their further instruction to meet student needs (p. black & wiliam, 2018; gattullo, 2000; heritage, 2020; may, 2011; milawati, 2017; pianta, 2016; widiastuti & saukah, 2017). meanwhile, referential question was posed to develop students‟ interest rather than to check learning. besides, the employment of such questioning type was to enlarge the talk. as such, referential question functioned as teaching technique and a discourse choice moves and not as afl. however, the findings in this study are expected to give better understanding on questioning employment functioning as assessment for learning (afl). in this context, types are insufficient. the syntactical form of questioning is another aspect to deal with. more importantly, both did not occur independently. they were absolutely connected in sequence and were associated with context (context-based) and commodity exchange of classroom discourse. consequently, teachers‟ interactional awareness along with their pedagogical and assessment knowledge in questioning is of benefit for the practice of assessment for learning (afl) (boyd, 2015; ghafarpour, 2016; hu & duan, 2018; lee, 2016). thus, the an effective examination of questionings functioning as assessment for learning (afl), aside from types, the syntactical form and classroom discourse moves are important to cope with. conclusion teacher questions were beneficial to organize the structure, manage the turn-taking and the topic of discourse. aside from those, through questioning, teachers can do assessment for learning (afl) to modify learning activities and to choose a better strategy for the sake of students‟ learning achievement. therefore, teacher questions should develop students‟ understanding, elicit responses representing their thinking so as the follow-up actions should be meaningful interventions which move learners towards their learning goals. more importantly, to develop questioning as an assessment for learning (afl) tool in classroom interactions, there is a need to go beyond the darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 311 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj standard irf. aside from the types, the syntactical forms following discourse moves are of great importance to invite students‟ responses, to involve them actively and to extend the talks, from which teachers gain evidence to set up further stage instruction. briefly, regardless of the types, there should be a better look on questioning syntactical forms and discourse moves occurring in classroom interactions. references andersson, c., & palm, t. 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(2020). how conceptualising respect can inform feedback pedagogies. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 46(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2020.1733490 darong, h.c. & niman, e.m., do teacher questions function as assessment 325 for learning? https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj appendix transcription convention code meaning t teacher s student (response) . period, end of a sentence ? question . . short time pause () nonlinguistic sounds, e.g. laughing ↑ rising intonation ↓ falling intonation () comments by transcriber ( ( ) ) problematic hearing that transcriber is not certain about adapted from jefferson (hosoda, 2015) 326 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 21, number 2, december 2021, pp. 293 – 326 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v21i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj tabel 1: distribution of types of questions no t t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 total r & nr n % r nr n % r nr n % r np n % r nr n % r nr n % r nr tn % r nr 1 d 286 88 280 6 68 51 64 4 125 53 122 3 25 66 25 0 111 71 103 8 84 73 79 5 699 70 673 26 2 r 25 8 18 7 49 37 32 3 52 22 47 5 2 5 2 0 16 10 9 7 15 13 8 7 159 16 116 43 3 c 9 3 7 2 10 8 4 6 43 18 39 4 6 16 6 0 23 15 21 2 8 7 7 1 99 10 84 15 4 req 5 1 4 1 5 4 4 1 16 7 14 2 5 13 5 0 6 4 6 0 8 7 6 2 45 4 39 16 tq/% 325 100 132 100 236 100 38 100 156 100 115 100 1.002 100 912 100 note: tq: total question per teacher; t: type; d: display; r: referential; c: clarification; req: request; t1: teacher 1, t2: teacher 2; t3: teacher 3; t4: teacher 4;t5: teacher 5; t6: teacher 6; r: response; nr: no response; n: total number per type; n: total number per type for each teacher; tn: total number per question type for all the teacher a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 1; july 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia looking into efl students’ type of feedbacks on peer correction activities yunisrina qismullah yusuf, tengku maya silviyanti, and rita tauhidah department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia tel +62 82272620820 email: yunisrina@gmail.com tgk_maya@yahoo.com rita.ahgx@gmail.com received: 10-12-2015 accepted: 14-07-2016 published: 31-07-2016 67 looking into efl students’ type of feedbacks on peer correction activities yunisrina qismullah yusuf, tengku maya silviyanti and rita tauhidah yunisrina.q.yusuf@unsyiah.ac.id,tgk_maya@yahoo.com, rita.ahgx@gmail.com department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of syiah kuala, banda aceh, indonesia abstract: this research studies the types of feedbacks made by english as a foreign language (efl) students in a writing class. the aim of this research is to understand the needs of the students on peer correction activities in teaching writing. a number of 25 student essays were collected and analysed. the data were categorized into two types of feedbacks: responding and correcting. the results revealed that a number of 61 responding feedbacks were found in the types of support, sharing knowledge, negotiation, appreciation and criticism. meanwhile, 142 correcting feedbacks were found in the types of coded, uncoded, a combination of coded and uncoded and direct answer. the type most used in responding feedback was support, which indicates that it is an important pursuit in these students‟ learning to drive each other into improving their writing skills with confidence. whilst the least used was criticism, and this indicates that it was not considerably favoured to be given in the peer correction feedbacks since they restrain encouragement and cause social anxiety. the type most used in correcting feedbacks was a combination of coded and uncoded. this signifies that to provide both mark and symbol on an error can avoid confusion between the student corrector and the student writer. the least used was direct answer, which signified that it was only done by students who had high english proficiency and confidence to provide the correct answer directly on the errors. these findings suggest that students need and prefer to be given much support by their teachers in providing feedbacks towards their writing errors to reinforce their writing proficiency and confidence. 68 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 key words: efl students, feedbacks, writing abstrak: penelitian ini adalah tentang jenis feedback (umpan balik) yang dilakukan oleh siswa bahasa inggris pada kelas writing. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kebutuhan siswa terhadap aktifitas koreksi antar siswa. sejumlah 25 essai siswa diperiksa dan di analisa. data yang di dapat di kelompokan menjadi dua kategori feedback yaitu: responding (tanggapan) and correcting (perbaikan). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada 61 feedback yang diberikan siswa termasuk kedalam kategori responding feedback. rincian feedback ini terdiri dari support (dukungan), sharing knowledge (membagi pengetahuan), negotiation (negosiasi makna), appreciation (penghargaan), dan critism (kritik). sedangkan untuk kategori correcting feedback, ada 142 feedback yang diidentifikasi. feedback untuk jenis ini adalah coded (ditandai/diberi kode), uncoded (tidak ditandai/diberi kode), gabungan antara coded dan uncoded, dan direct answer (jawaban langsung). dalam responding feedback, tipe umpan balik yang paling banyak digunakan siswa adalah support. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sangat penting memberikan dukungan terhadap siswa di kelas untuk meningkatkan kemampuan menulis mereka. sedangkan tipe yang paling sedikit digunakan adalah critism. hal ini menandakan bahwa kritik sangat tidak diharapkan karena kritik bisa menurunkan semangat belajar mereka. sedangkan dalam correcting feedback, tipe yang paling banyak digunakan adalah gabungan coded dan uncoded. hasil temuan ini menekankan bahwa koreksi dengan simbol dan tanda bisa menghindari siswa dari kebingungan antara apa yang dikoreksi oleh siswa lain terhadap tulisannya dan apa dia telah tulis. sedangkan tipe yang paling sedikit digunakan dalam correcting feedback adalah direct answer atau jawaban langsung. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa hanya siswa dengan kemampuan bahasa inggris yang bagus yang mampu melakukan koreksi jenis ini. akhirnya, hasil penelitian ini menyarankan bahwa siswa perlu dukungan dan bantuan dari siswa lain dan juga guru untuk meningkatkan kemampuannya dalam menulis. kata kunci: siswa bahasa inggris, umpan balik, menulis introduction every student studying a language as their major for a degree in the university has the responsibility to master writing skills. in this case, they yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 69 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities have to know how to draft and revise, write structurally, and understand all the components of writing to later implement them in their future career which may require these skills. teachers, too, seek and implement various methods and techniques to assist their students in improving their writing skills. among the techniques used by lecturers to enhance these skills is the peer correction technique. peer correction is a technique where students read each other‟s draft composition and provide feedbacks to the writer before the final version is compiled (bartels, 2003). the feedbacks are to get the students to be aware of their mistakes in their writing compositions. chen (2009) says that feedbacks from peer is an essential part in writing because it trains students to focus on different stages of writing, raise their awareness of their ability to think about what they are doing, and identify their action to improve their writing. accordingly, feedbacks are an important aspect in the peer correction process because it is the key to improving the students‟ consciousness in reducing error in writing. hattie and timperley (2007) further assert that feedback is information provided by an agent (teacher, peer, book, parent and selfexperience) regarding aspects of one‟s performance or understanding. in this case, feedback is organized into several types such as praise, criticism, and suggestion (hyland & hyland, 2001), sharing knowledge, negotiation, support, consultation and appreciation (silviyanti & yusuf, 2014), and those in the context of directive, expressive, referential, metalinguistic, poetic, and phatic (ädel, 2006). the feedbacks provide different kinds of responds that can be used to encourage students in writing class. a study by lee (2009) investigates the written feedback produced by efl students in an academic writing program in japan. their comments were categorized into hyland and hyland‟s classification system (2001) of praise, criticism or suggestion. the findings showed that the students employed the highest percentage of suggestion, followed by criticism and lastly praise. the study concludes that praise was least used because the students were not confident on praising their peers “due to lack of experience and knowledge with peer review” (p. 137). this is different from hyland and hyland‟s study (2001) that had teacher participants as those providing written feedback to their students. teachers‟ feedbacks contained more praise, followed by criticism, then suggestion. thus, these praises were habitually used to construct their criticisms and suggestions in more pleasant 70 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 approaches. as for iranian efl learners, they preferred teachers‟ feedbacks to be given to them indirectly (maghsoudi & saeedi, 2013). harmer (2007) further points out two ways of giving feedbacks in writing class, namely responding and correcting. in responding, the feedbacks are given by providing comments. meanwhile in correcting, it dispenses the correction by marking the error part in the writing without any responds. the studies above reveal that feedbacks are generally given and presented in different ways. therefore, we were further interested in understanding the implication of peer correction technique towards our efl students. one of our colleagues has applied this technique in her writing class and found that despite students were found to often make similar errors in their writing, thus, after they were trained to give feedbacks to their peers‟ work, their awareness level was better compared to when they received feedbacks merely from their lecturer. it was also interesting to observe that their confidence increased after this activity was carried out. this was seen by their eagerness in composing their writing during class with more varied topics to be written and submitted to the lecturer. referring to this circumstance, we were keen to seek the answer to the following research question: what are the type of feedbacks in responding and correcting made by efl students in conducting peer correction activity? we hope the findings of this research can be beneficial to teachers in understanding the needs of the students on peer correction activities in teaching writing, especially efl learners. literature review the teaching learning process nowadays requires students to become the main character of learning activities to distinguish it with the way of teacher-centred approach and makes student-centred approach more preferred. therefore, student-centred and self-determining concepts in the modern and democratic pedagogy bring about peer correction as a technique which gives them freedom and autonomy in studying (lin & chien, 2009). this activity also brings the students to gain possibilities to read different yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 71 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities formats of thinking and arguing to activate their self-evaluation through reading their peers‟ articles. applying peer correction and giving feedbacks enable the students to experience their weakness and similar problems in their own writing (wang, 2009). andreani (2009, p. 42) further notes the advantage of peer feedbacks is that it helps raise learners‟ awareness in “becoming independent selfeditors”. it makes the students feel less intimidated by correcting each other‟s work (silviyanti & yusuf, 2014). in the learning and teaching process, feedback from peer also motivates the learners to write for an audience, train them to assess their own writing and creates it with better quality and higher accuracy (polio, 2001). it also provides the sense of confidence for the learners by the high level potential of responds and interactions among classmates by way of a collaborative and friendly dialogue in which set the two-way feedbacks up and negotiate the thinking between two-sides (rollinson, 2005). a. feedbacks on peer correction harmer (2007) says that feedbacks mostly occur when the students explore the writing process on the stage of editing. he also clarifies two ways of giving feedbacks, namely responding and correcting. 1. responding in order to give the feedbacks, students are required to offer a response to each other‟s works by stating comments. they are demanded to write their ideas to respond the mistakes produced by their friends. victoria (2001, as cited in harmer, 2007, p. 150), suggested that the teacher needs to provide students with guidelines or a short list of sentences in order to make sure that the comment given is focused, such as “my immediate reaction to your piece of writing is…, i like the part…, i’m not sure about…, the specific language errors i have notice are…,” etc. ellis (2009) added this activity as an act of direct feedbacks. he said that by providing the correct form of error correction, it can inform the learners on how to correct their errors with explicit guidance. the responses from this category of feedback can be divided into several types. as mentioned earlier, hyland and hyland (2001) divide direct responses in correction into suggestion, criticism and praise. another study by silviyanti and yusuf (2014) has further extended these responses into sharing knowledge and negotiation (brown, 2001), support (williams & jacobs, 2004), consultation (hedge, 2000) and appreciation (yau et al., 2003). these 72 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 responses were all found in their research on collaborative activities which occurred in the implementation of class blog in their writing class. their students were to provide feedbacks on writing posts by the students‟ groups in the class blog, and these types of responses were found, respectively, in the comment threads. they have aid each student to become more aware of their limitations in writing and further make progress in future writing tasks. 2. correcting in the correcting process, the students are required to correct each other‟s work by marking the errors in their peers‟ articles. ellis (2009) clarifies this activity as an act of indirect feedbacks. he said that the students do not receive any direct response of the correct form. yet, they only indicate the errors by marks and symbols. in view of that, indirect feedbacks are divided into coded and uncoded (ferris, 2003). coded is the feedbacks in which the teacher specifies the errors by providing coding scheme, such as tenses, noun endings, etc. (hong, 2004), whilst uncoded is the feedback that indicates errors by underlining or circling. harmer (2007) has further develops some symbols which are commonly used to mark the errors. they are defined as follows: table 1: correction symbols (taken from harmer, 2007, p. 149) no. symbol meaning example error 1 s a spelling error the asnwer is obvious 2 wo a mistake in word order i like very much it 3 g a grammar mistake i’m going to buy some funitures 4 t wrong verb tense i have seen him yesterday 5 c concord mistake (e.g the subject and the verb agreement) people is angry 6 ʎ something has been left out he told ʎ that he was sorry 7 ww wrong word i’m interested on jazz music 8 { } something is not necessary he was not {too} strong enough 9 ?m the meaning is unclear that is a very excited photograph 10 p a punctuation mistake do you like london. 11 f/i too formal or informal hi mr. franklin thank you for your letter… yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 73 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities the symbols provided by harmer (2007) may vary according to the teacher who utilizes them in her writing class. they may be added or modified in which the teacher may introduce other appropriate symbols to be used by the students when they are trained to correct their peers‟ error in writing. b. the advantages of peer correction peer correction technique has several advantages to increase students writing proficiency. first, it is believed to increase students‟ communicative competence by encouraging the students to express and negotiate their ideas with other learners (tsai & lin, 2012). by exchanging papers, each student has an opportunity to communicate by reviewing their peer‟s writing. in this stage, the students who are inactive in the class are also encouraged to provide their opinion and evaluation on the text being corrected. furthermore, the students who participate in the peer correction activity has been found to experience a more comfortable, confident, and inspiring learning environment (lin & chien, 2009). supported by the first benefit mentioned above, the communication between students in reviewing each other‟s writing make them more contented rather than being reviewed by the teacher. the interaction between peers brings about the flexibility in the learning process. it drives them to become more confident in giving their ideas about errors in writing. this activity also inspires the learners to learn more and compose a better writing (rollinson, 2005). by receiving feedbacks from their peers, the students can gather ideas to enrich their knowledge in composing a good writing. peer correction can also make the students aware of their own mistakes. involving them in an activity to correct the error in their peers‟ essays can assist them in thinking critically. they are able to indicate their own errors; such the correct use the sounds, syntax, and grammar of a written language (linguistic competence). the students can improve their linguistic competence in english writing from peer correction activities (hong, 2004). in short, the implementation of peer correction offers benefits to the students. it helps them share knowledge with their friends on the mistakes and errors produced. furthermore, involving them in this activity can elevate their analytical assessment to affirm their own mistakes and develop their ability to write better. 74 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 c. the disadvantages of peer correction peer correction technique also bears disadvantages to both teachers and students. teachers, most of the time, are uncertain on the quality of corrections provided by the students to their peer‟s writing. this, too, applies to the students. tsai and lin (2012) said that low achievement or proficiency of the learners typically correct their friend‟s work falsely. in this case, when they review their peer‟s work and take the role of giving comments or corrections, they tend to give unrelated comment and wrong correction. it brings about the discrepancy between the writer and the corrector. it is common that some learners usually depend more on teachers for corrections and feel uneasy conducting peer correction activity (sultana, 2009). on the other hand, the responding and correcting given by students may also lack of honesty because of fear for affecting their peers‟ final score (lin & chien, 2009). in order to balance the imperfection of the peer correction activity, lin and chien (2009) suggested that teachers should instruct the students to express all their ideas honestly on their peers‟ writing before peer correction activity starts. lin and chien further said that teachers should also assure the students that their final score would not be affected because of the negative comments they may give. besides, sultana (2009) also offered that the teacher should train the students to give the correct feedbacks by observing and reviewing the students‟ work in applying peer correction technique. she also recommends teachers to create a flexible class environment to make the students comfortable in conducting the peer correction activity. method this research was conducted at the study program of english education at syiah kuala university banda aceh. the data was from writing tasks or essays of students who were in the fifth semester and undertaking the course argumentative writing. the lecturer of this course had implemented and trained the students with peer correction activity in class. these students were informed on the way peer correction works before the activity started, i.e. what to comments, how to start comments, and the use of the coding scheme prepared by the lecturer (hereafter coded as ynd in this paper). yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 75 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities a number of 25 essays (within 360-500 words each) with the topic “places for vacation” were collected from ynd. each of these essays were coded as s1 (referring to student 1) to s25 (referring to student 25). prior to this collection, the lecturer had taught the students on the stages of writing process in five meetings. afterwards, they were each to write an essay based on these subsequent tasks: (1) choosing a topic, (2) composing the first draft, (3) conducting peer correction activity and (4) writing up the final version of their essays. these tasks were done in the next three successive class meetings. the draft of essays we collected and made copies were those from task 3, in which the peer correction activity was performed. each student was given an essay (a task given in the previous meeting) of their peer to provide both responding and correcting feedbacks during the class time of 90 minutes. they were to remain anonymous to the writers and only known by ynd as the teacher noted down this information on paper before passing out the essays for peer correction. just as the class ended, the corrected essays were submitted back to ynd. these essays were returned to the writers to be revised in the next class meeting. upon data collection, we further categorized and coded the feedbacks found in the essays into responding and correcting feedbacks. the types of responding feedbacks we looked were extended to those framed by silviyanti and yusuf (2014), namely support, sharing knowledge, negotiation, appreciation and consultation. the codes provided for each type of feedbacks in the analysis were sp for support, sk for sharing knowledge, n for negotiation, a for appreciation and co for consultation. the correcting feedbacks we analysed were in the types of coded and uncoded feedbacks (ferris, 2003)). the codes provided for each of this type of feedback in the analysis is c for coded and u for uncoded. these types were chosen because ynd used a coding scheme for her students to use which were adapted and modified by that proposed by harmer (2007). table 2 shows the coding scheme provided by ynd. table 2: coding scheme by ynd no. symbol meaning 1 ww wrong word 2 wo word order 3 um unclear meaning 4 ge grammar error 5 sp spelling 76 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 6 uw unnecessary word 7 r repetition 8 us unfinish sentence 9 cp capitalization 10 p punctuation after coding our data for types of feedback in the category of responding and correcting, we calculated the number of occurrences for each type to understand the most and the least used schemes by the students in carrying out the peer correction activity. subsequently, we discuss the implication of this technique for the students. result a. responding feedbacks in the category of responding feedbacks, we found a number of 61 feedbacks in the types of support, sharing knowledge, negotiation, and appreciation. consultation type was not found in the peer correction on the essays. however, the type of criticism feedback (hyland & hyland, 2001) was additionally found in the students‟ feedbacks and this was not found in the responses constructed by silviyanti and yusuf (2014) (see method section). in the data, this type of feedback was coded as cr. table 3 presents the types of responding feedbacks found in the peer correction activity and its number of occurrences from the collected essays. table 3: types of responding feedbacks no. types of responding feedbacks frequency percentage (rounded) 1. support (sp) 28 45.9% 2. sharing knowledge (sk) 12 19.7% 3. negotiation (n) 9 14.8% 4. appreciation (a) 7 11.5% 6. criticism (cr) 5 8.2% 5. consultation (co) 0 0 total feedbacks 61 100% yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 77 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities table 3 shows that the most common type of feedback in this category was support with 28 occurrences (45.9%), followed by sharing knowledge with 12 occurrences (19.7%), negotiation with 9 occurrences (14.8%), appreciation with 7 occurrences (11.5%) and the least was criticism with 5 occurrences (8.2%). the type of consultation feedback was not found. thus, we find this plausible due to the fact that the type of peer correction conducted in this study is different from silviyanti and yusuf (2014). in their study, the students could provide feedbacks interchangeably through the comment threads for every essay post in the class blog since blog is an asynchronous online platform. this study, on the other hand, had peer correction activity conducted directly on the essay paper of each student with one corrector for each essay, or in other words, it was done synchronously. the following sections explain and discuss the five types of responding feedbacks found in this study which will be described from the most occurrences to the least. 1. support the most used feedback in the category of responding feedbacks by the students was support. a number of 28 occurrences (45.9%) were found in the data. for this type, the students gave comments to their peers‟ essays with encouragement along with some ideas for improvement. the kind of responses for this type of feedbacks can be seen in the following examples. these examples contain grammatical errors because they are directly taken from the students‟ writing, and we keep them as they are to show authenticity of the feedbacks. sp1 “the essay on the whole is interesting. you made some types of mistake. maybe it is not a big deal mistake but you must careful in writing.” (s1) sp2 “so far your writing is good. your writing really can make young people want to visit seoul. but, maybe you must give your attention on your grammar in your essay and i got confused with the refer in your subject…” (s2) sp3 “this essay is very interesting and informative. i like to read it. it gives me much information about jogya‟s art and culture, also jogya‟s people respect to their culture history and culture grow. however, you should increase your writing skill in term 78 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 of grammar error and punctuation. overall, it is very good, completely coherence and unity.” (s5) sp4 “i like your sentence. but, you should add topic sentence and clear the supporting ideas.” (s8) sp5 “it‟s very amazing story. i really interested. however, there are some punctuation error and difficult to understand. you are bad at punctuation, but at least you have tried. so, try again and be good at it ” (s13) from the examples in sp1to sp5, confidence-boosting words directed to the writers of the essays are found. words and phrases such as ‘good’, ‘really make us want to’, ‘interesting and informative’, ‘amazing’ and even providing the symbol of a smiley face (i.e. ) are extended by the correctors to uplift the writers before the correctors proceed with their comments for corrections. despite mistakes were found, the type of support feedbacks also reassure the writers to accept their mistakes without feeling dejected. words such as ‘not a big deal’, ‘at least you have tried’ and ‘try again’ are among the supportive words to comfort the writers and further reassure them that their mistakes can be mended in the future. for this type of feedbacks, the students mostly support their friends‟ work rather than focusing too much on the errors in detail in the essays. 2. sharing knowledge the next type of feedback used by the students is sharing knowledge with 12 occurrences (19.7%). in this feedback, the students provided comments by stating their opinion about the text, whether it is good or not, then followed by their reason and opinion. the following examples are some feedbacks which comprise sharing knowledge. sk1 “the things that i like from this essay is the place is interesting and attract many people to go there, but there are just a little things that you offer to the reader about seoul. it‟s only for shopping and extraordinary experience. you must add some place, weather, climate, popular famous singer bands and actors, etc.” (s2) sk2 “i got your point, but in my opinion, i think you should pay attention to your grammar, punctuation, and choose yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 79 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities appropriate words because sometimes it is hard to understand. i have to re-read for more than five times.” (s3) sk3 “this essay has the interesting topic to persuade the reader. however, there are some grammatical error on each point of the paragraphs. also, there are unnecessary word in that essay. you have to add the words that can add the interesting for the reader.” (s3) sk4 “this essay is nice but need more development. you can add some places in san francisco that can attract more people to go there like golden bridge and many more not just have a tea time and sunbathing that can we find in another place even in our country.” (s4) sk5 “…i think it will be good to add detail about super classico. if you want to share about why bueno aries as best city for football maniac, i suggest you to add why it becomes best city for football maniac, such as (maybe) the stadion, fans united….” (s7) from the examples in sk1 to sk5, sharing knowledge is done by the students by communicating their concern on the content and organization of the texts which were deemed unsatisfactory and further impart their understanding on the topic for further improvement. for instance, s7 in sk5 shared his knowledge on football in which he suggested to the writer to add more reasons on why buenos aries is a great city for football enthusiasts. overall, the students recommended several ideas proceeded with specific reasons for the writers to revise their texts and make them more interesting and easier to read. 3. negotiation after support and sharing knowledge, negotiation had 9 occurrences (14.8%). in this type of responding feedback, the students reviewed their peers‟ essays by exchanging ideas to be included in the writing. options to be negotiated were provided in order to suggest ideas or propose the correct form of the errors found in the essays. the examples for the type of negotiation feedback are as bellow. n1 “is it „boca junior or boca junior‟?” (s7) 80 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 n2 “i think you should change your title and target reader because your title is “buenos aries as best city for football maniac”, but you often/always mention boca junior, boca junior and boca junior. maybe, you can change the title and target reader to be more specific for argentina‟s fans or boca junior‟s fans…what do you think?” (s7) n3 “…in my opinion it is better to put the word of “for” than “in”. i also recommend you to put an adjective word before “place” because it can persuade readers to go there and readers also know what that place looks like. for example, “must be smart to choose a best place to…” or “must be smart to choose a great place to…” the last is i think you have to pay attention to the spelling. you have a miss type in the third paragraph. it should be “expensive”, not “expansive”. i suggest you to revise your title become more interesting.” (s9) n4 “…in this text, you just write the point. it is better for you to write the reasons why the place is good, right?” (s20) n5 “1st paragraph, 1st line: “who have a passion on sea” (wrong word on the „a‟ and „on‟). better to change it with “who have passion for the sea” to make your writing better. (s24) in this type of negotiation feedback, the students mostly negotiated on ideas and the appropriate word choices to be used in the texts. for examples, in ni, s7 confirmed the correct spelling by providing his option in the form of a question (i.e. ‘is it ‘boca junior or boca junior’’). in n2, he further dealt with the topic of the writer in which he thought should be changed. he provided several causes for his idea for the writer to consider. then in n3, s9 negotiated with the writer on the use of some words, such as changing the word ‘best’ and ‘great’ to make the sentence more convincing. therefore, in this type, most of the comments were established in questions, suggestions and persuasions to negotiate. 4. appreciation the type of appreciation feedbacks had the least occurrences in the data, which were 5 (11.5%). they were in the form of comments which appreciated or praise (hyland & hyland, 2001) the writers on their essays. this finding is in line with lee (2009), who learned that efl students used praise as the least employed feedback in peer correction activity. it was yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 81 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities assumed that this was perhaps due to their insufficient practice and knowledge in conducting this activity. the examples from data are as follows: a1 “the essay is explained systematically. started from the name of university in melbourne and ended by situation in melbourne. it is really good organization idea… you are very fantastic!” (s9) a2 “i like about your amazing story. i really want to visit it…” (s10) a3 “interesting article. the way you write introductory paragraph is very good. it is systematically. you start from general until specific…” (s11) a4 “wonderful and beautiful text. keep going!!” (s13) a5 “the text is wonderful, makes the readers interested.” (s24) in the appreciative feedbacks, students provide positive responses to their friends‟ writing in the form of admiration. these are done by s9 and s10 who used the word ‘fantastic’ and ‘amazing’ in a1 and a2 to compliment the writer, and s13 who praised with ‘wonderful and beautiful’ in a4 to congratulate the writer. they commonly praise the writers on their well thought ideas, organization and informative contents of the essays. 5. criticism this type of feedback had the least occurrences in the data, which were 5 (8.2%). the responses in this feedback were given directly to the writers to point out the incorrect expression in the text (hyland & hyland, 2001) and without any preceding words of support even in the next following sentences. it is different to the type of support feedback described earlier, in which after the students mention the errors, they are followed with words of encouragement, such as in sp5 by s13: ‘you are bad at punctuation, but at least you have tried. so, try again and be good at it ’. criticisms were given quite straight forward. the examples for this type of feedbacks can be seen below. cr1 “the topic sentence is not clear and not related to the supporting ideas, so many repetitions.” (s1) 82 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 cr2 “there are more than one main idea in one paragraph.” (s1) cr3 “paragraph 4 (in my opinion) is not related to the title.” (s7) cr4 “…your title is too general, because in your paragraph you explain about handicraft in yogyakarta.” (s11) cr5 “your writing is as descriptive rather than opinion paragraph.” (s13) from the examples in data, we can see that the students directly criticize the errors made by their peers and most of these criticisms were related to the organization and unity of the essay. to voice their criticism, words such as ‘not clear’, ‘not related’ and those in the form of comparison (i.e. ‘your writing is as descriptive rather than opinion paragraph’ in cr5 by s13) were used to disapprove the writers. no other words of support or encouragement followed the criticism for the writers. b. correcting feedbacks in the category of correcting feedbacks, a number of 142 feedbacks were found. they were classified into the types of coded and uncoded. thus, additional types of a combination of coded and uncoded and direct answer were further discovered in the data. the type of direct answer is the feedbacks of correct answers to errors written directly in the text without putting any marks or symbols. table 4 present the types of correcting feedbacks found in the peer correction activity and its number of occurrences from the data. table 4: types of correcting feedbacks no. types of correcting feedbacks frequency percentage (rounded) 1. a combination of coded and uncoded (cu) 100 70.4% 2. uncoded (u) 26 18.3% 3. coded (c) 9 6.3% 4. direct answer (da) 7 4.9% total feedbacks 142 from table 4, the most common type of feedback in this category was a combination of coded and uncoded with 100 occurrences (70.4%), followed by yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 83 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities uncoded with 26 occurrences (18.3%), coded with 9 occurrences (6.3%), and the least was direct answer with 7 occurrences (4.9%). the discussion on each of this type of correcting feedbacks is explained below. 1. a combination of coded and uncoded this type of feedback is the most common type of correcting feedbacks used by the students at 100 occurrences (70.4%). it employs both coded and uncoded feedbacks to check the errors. some examples from the type of a combination of coded and uncoded feedbacks are as follows. as previously mentioned, these examples contain grammatical errors because they are directly taken from the students‟ writing and they are kept as they are to illustrate authenticity of the feedbacks. ge cu1 “…a traditional ship that make honeymooners feeling incomplete…” (s1) ww cu2 “breathing fresh air and spoiling your eyes with romantic few.” (s1) sp cu3 “... a beautiful setting of builing architecture.” (s1) ww cu4 “…different attractions that is very interesting…” (s2) ww ge cu5 “… is located in the aceh, it has many island with natural scenery um p and surving,.” (s3) from the examples, it shows that the students marked the errors by either circling or underlining the error (i.e. uncoded) and further provide a symbol above it to indicate its error (i.e. coded). in the data, the errors the students checked for were on tenses, words choice, punctuation, unnecessary words, unclear meaning, spelling, capitalization, and repetition. 2. uncoded the next type of correcting feedback used was uncoded, with 26 occurrences (18.3%). in this type, the students marked the errors by circling, underlining or lining the incorrect forms. some of the examples from data are as below u1 “…who want to have enjoy…” (s3) 84 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 u2 “… provides beautiful scenery you will find a view…” (s3) u3 “…is good for surfers, simeulue island is paradise.” (s3) u4 “…which contain so many thing related to…” (s8) u5 “…not only korean, but…” (s10) from the examples in u1 to u5, we observed that for this type of feedback, the students focused on the errors in grammar, subject verb agreement, punctuation and word choice. 3. coded coded feedback did not occur much in the data. only 9 occurrences (6.3%) appeared out of 147 correcting feedbacks. in this type, the students were asked to correct their friends‟ work by marking the errors with several symbols provided by ynd (see table 2). some examples of the students‟ work can be seen in the following examples: ge c1 “…, there are a lot of korean cosmetics brand like etude house...” (s2) ge c2 “…because the price is more cheaper than…” (s2) um c3 “…usually offer buy one get one and given a free bonus.” (s2) p p c4 “the clean sea, and the busung beach there are some…” (s3) ge c5 “there are many interesting place inside that building.” (s14) similar to the type of uncoded feedback, most feedbacks for this type were to indicate errors in the areas of grammar, subject verb agreement, punctuation and word choice. 4. direct answer we further found another type of feedback in the category of responding feedbacks that was not initially in the framework of this study, direct answer. in this type, the students provided the correct form of the errors directly in the essays. the examples from data were only from two students, and are as below. yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 85 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities is da1 “istanbul the exquisite charm...” (s21) are da2 “ there some places…” (s21) in da3 “if you are this region..” (s21) was da4 “…hagia sophia a church community…” (s21) is da5 “popular food in istanbul so delicious,..” (s22) direct answer had the least occurrences among the other types of correcting feedback (only 7 with 4.9%) and was only done by two students. we discovered from ynd that they had the highest writing scores in class, and for that reason we assume that they had the ability and confidence to directly provide the correct answer for the errors in the essay. discussion tsui and ng (2000) say that the results of comparative studies between peer and teacher correction is found to be neither superior. teacher comments are more favoured by students since peer correction is doubted for accuracy and quality, thus both do not especially aid students in improving their revisions (chaudron, 1984). this study has further shown that for the responding feedback, the students made comments under the type of support as the most used ones and the criticism as the least used ones. in view of that, what can be inferred from this finding? we come to an assumption that by knowing this fact, therefore teachers, too, should be supportive in giving feedback to their students in indicating their writing errors. perhaps the use of supportive comments from these efl students illustrate that this was the type of feedback that can accommodate their needs in learning writing. in the students‟ response, they considered their peers‟ feeling while stating their comment and support them to reduce their errors (see example sp2). it is essential to provide a sufficient reassuring teaching environment because to learn a foreign language, especially in the skill of writing, is not as easy as flipping a coin. they require support to convince them that learning to write competently in english is possible. support and appreciation or praise can 86 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 strengthen their language performance and promote their confidence (hyland & hyland, 2001), thus, without overexerting it to avoid students from being indolent in improving their writing skills in the future. criticism as the least used feedback has us further speculative that this type of response was disfavoured by the students. the criticism meant here were responses written out directly to point out the writer‟s mistakes (see example cr1) without any commentary of improvement (see example sp4). out of 147 correcting feedbacks found, only 5 were classified as criticism and this number is almost insignificant in the data. this finding contradicts with the results discovered by lee (2009), in which comments of criticism was provided three times more than praise by the students in japan (where english is also treated as a foreign language such as in indonesia). we further presume that this is also related to the culture and belief of these acehnese students. in aceh, to sharply criticize someone directly is considered an illmannered attitude. even those who go into conflict due to criticizing each other sharply are resolved by the society through a traditional ceremony called peusijuek (refer to the work by yusuf & yusuf, 2014). therefore, criticizing in acehnese is done indirectly to avoid social anxiety, such as approaching someone initially with positive comments before criticizing without hurting his or her feelings. even the criticism in the support feedback was done positively with the use of delicate words (see example sp5). this culture is reflected in the way the students provided responses in the responding feedbacks, with support as its most used type of feedback. in the category of corrective feedback, the type of a combination of coded and uncoded was mostly used by the students. this implies that they prefer this type of feedback to avoid confusion from the writer. therefore, after marking the errors, the students would further code them to make it clear to the writer of their correction. the least used type of correction is direct answer and this was also specifically done by two students, who were claimed by ynd to have the highest writing scores in the class. this signifies that direct answer was only done by those who have high confidence in their writing skill since they are certain of the correction, and therefore they are assertive to provide the correct answer directly in the essay. considering the result of the implementation of peer correction which provided some crucial information, the writer also discovered similarities with tsai and lin (2012) in the drawback of peer correction activity. they mentioned that learners with low achievement or low proficiency cannot correct their friend‟s work appropriately. nevertheless, this study also yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 87 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities ascertained a similar problem where students missed correcting some errors in their peers‟ essays. the examples can be found in cu1-cu2 where there were still errors that the students did not correct due to their low proficiency of english. from 61 responding feedbacks, 27 (44.3%) were incorrectly given. furthermore, from 147 correcting feedbacks, 14 (9.5%) of them were mistakes or included the wrong feedback. it can be reckoned that to provide responding feedbacks are more difficult than correcting feedbacks because responding requires short compositions to comment on the errors, whilst correcting simply entails merely codes and symbols. apparently, the students who have low proficiency in writing were those who tended to give more incorrect feedbacks. for instance: ww “it has a lot of place to experience something new…..” (s8) in that sentence the student marked the word ‘has’ as the wrong word choice, yet, it could be seen that it is correct and the grammatical error is actually found in the word ‘place’ in which it should be ‘places’. furthermore, students who have lower achievement gave comments which contained general knowledge about writing. such as: “i love your essay honestly, because this is first times i know about that place. it is so interesting information. but, your essay is very short, so you have to add information more about that place to make reader want to visit there.” (s16) respondent s16 only commented on the length of the essay and no comments were specifically made about the content, organization and grammar of the essay. however, for students who had better proficiency in writing, they responded the essay with detailed information and suggested the correct form of the error. for example: “1st paragraph, 1st line: “who have a passion on sea” (wrong word on the „a‟ and „on‟). better to change it with “who have passion for the sea.” (s24) therefore, it was common that these students who conducted peer correction activity also made errors in their own comments. this is another setback of peer correction activity found in this study. the fact that each student could only review one paper; it reduced their chances to consult their ideas and corrections with other students. 88 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 67-90 conclusion this study reveals that the type of feedback in the category of responding that the efl students used most in peer correction was support. this indicates that support is an important pursuit in these students‟ learning to drive each other into improving their writing skills. whilst the least used was criticismindicatingf that it was not considerably favoured to be given in the peer correction feedback since they restrain conflict and can cause social anxiety. these findings suggest to teachers that students need and prefer to be given much support in providing feedbacks towards their writing errors to reinforce their writing proficiency and confidence. furthermore, the type most used in correcting feedbacks was a combination of coded and uncoded. this illustrates that to provide both mark and symbol on an error can avoid confusion between the student conducting peer correction and the writer of the essay. the least used was direct answer, which signified that it was only done by students who had high english proficiency and confidence to provide the correct answer directly on the errors in the essay. this study also has several limitations. first, the essays and the feedback were both written in black ink. in a few essays, it was difficult for us to distinguish the writing of the student writer and the student corrector. therefore, for future research we recommend that teachers should beforehand instruct student correctors to use coloured pens to write their responses and corrections. second, the implementation of peer correction itself also allowed only one student to correct one essay and this generated a lack of communication between the writer and corrector and also between the corrector and other correctors. this caused students with low english proficiency to provide wrong corrections. therefore, it is suggested that a research on peer correction activity conducted in groups be done in the future so that more sharing knowledge among the students in writing can be accomplished. finally, to additionally broaden our understanding in the implication of efl students‟ feedbacks in peer correction activities, it is suggested that future research employ the instrument of interview with the students to extract in-depth information on their perspectives, preferences and needs on this activity to further verify the findings of this study. yusuf, y.q., silviyanti, t.m., & tauhidah, r.,looking into efl students‟ 89 type of feedbacks on peer correction activities references ädel, a. 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(2014). contemporary acehnese cultural prohibitions and the practice of mystical threats. kemanusiaan: the asian journal of humanities, 21 (2), 21–53. 4 -sep2016 yusuf.silviyanti & tauhidah 0 -cover jul 2016 0 -p. i jul 2016 hal editor 0 -p. ii jul 2016 daftar isi p. i 1 -pp 1-21 sukarno celt 2016 2 -pp 22-48 pasaribu-kadarisman celt jul 2016 pp 17-44 3 -pp 49-66 prastikawati-wiyaka-sodiq celt jul 2016 4 -pp 67-90 yusuf-silviyanti-tauhidah celt jul 2016 5 -pp 91-117 jubhari-bazergan-mokoginta-sitoto-syarif-iswari celt jul 2016 pp.88-115 6 -pp 118-132 maru celt jul 2016 7 -pp 133-144 murniati-riyandari celt 2016 8 -pp 145 148 celt thanks to reviewers cover-belakang untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 22 no.1; june 2022 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia indonesian celebrities on youtube: an analysis using bourdieu’s perspective 1lambok hermanto sihombing, 2jonathan william s, and 3puji lestari 123department of communication, president university, bekasi, indonesia 1lambok.president@gmail.com; 2jonathanwill.president@gmail.com, 3pujilestari.president@gmail.com received: 11-01-2022 accepted: 11-05-2022 published: 30-06-2022 mailto:lambok.president@gmail.com mailto:3pujilestari.president@gmail.com https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj indonesian celebrities on youtube: an analysis using bourdieu’s perspective 1lambok hermanto sihombing, 2jonathan william s, and 3puji lestari 1lambok.president@gmail.com; 2jonathanwill.president@gmail.com, 3pujilestari.president@gmail.com 123department of communication, president university, bekasi, indonesia abstract: numerous indonesian celebrities moving to youtube have dominated the viewership and trending segments. the researchers chose deddy corbuzier, baim wong, raffi ahmad, and nagita slavina as they are celebrities who transitioned to youtube and achieved success after only a few years of its existence. using bourdieu's social capital theory, the researchers identified celebrities' capitals that give them an advantage when transitioning to youtube. capitals resulted in dominance and elevated celebrities to celebrity status. according to bourdieu, cultural capital may play a significant role in pursuing power and position within a community. this condition, we believe, exists as a result of the relationship between celebrities and their fans. celebrities attempt to attract fans through the use of youtube in order to achieve power. as a result, youtube celebrities view these opportunities as business opportunities that eventually lead to financial success. key words: celebrities, capitals, domination, power, youtube abstrak: selebriti indonesia yang tertarik untuk bertransisi menggunakan youtube telah mendominasi dan menjadi tren saat ini. penulis memilih deddy corbuzier, baim wong, raffi ahmad, dan nagita slavina karena mereka adalah selebriti yang berpindah ke youtube dan meraih kesuksesan hanya dalam beberapa tahun keberadaannya. penulis menggunakan teori “social capital” dari bourdieu untuk melihat keuntungan apa saja yang mereka raih saat beralih ke youtube. modal mendominasi dan mengangkat status mailto:lambok.president@gmail.com mailto:3pujilestari.president@gmail.com 40 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj selebriti lebih baik lagi. menurut bourdieu, modal berperan penting dalam mendapatkan kekuasaan dan status seseorang di dalam komunitas. penulis melihat kondisi ini terjadi salah satunya melalui hubungan antara selebriti dengan penggemarnya. selebriti berusaha menarik perhatian penggemar melalui penggunaan youtube untuk mendapatkan kekuasaan. pada akhirnya, selebriti youtube melihat hal ini sebagai peluang bisnis yang besar yang mampu memberikan pengaruh bagi kondisi keuangan selebriti tersebut. kata kunci: selebriti, modal, dominasi, kekuasaan, youtube introduction youtube was founded in 2015, and 18 months later was acquired by google. for the last 15 years, youtube has been the undisputed king of online video. it has a monthly user base of over 2 billion people who watch hundreds of videos multiple times (business insider online platform, 2015). additionally, youtube has developed into a critical platform for some of the most significant trends and controversies in today's new media environment. youtube is unique in that anyone can upload content as long as they have a channel. the requirement is consistent with the organization's mission: to give everyone a voice and showcase them to the world (youtube about, youtube mission). youtube's prominence as a platform for publishing video content grows in indonesia. additionally, the number of hours of content uploaded from indonesia grows yearly. according to 2018 research conducted by tech in asia, 92 percent of indonesian users stated that their first stop when looking for video content is youtube (tech in asia online platform, english-language technology company). indonesian users believe that youtube enables them to discover interesting content on a variety of topics. the engaged audiences demonstrate that youtube is beginning to outperform television in terms of popularity. many people in indonesia create accounts, but few continue to grow their channels through video uploads. several indonesian youtubers are wellknown (tech in asia online platform, english-language technology company). chandra liow, titan tyra, nessie judge, and arief muhammad are just a few youtubers who started early. chandra liow discussed beatboxing, music video production, and visual effects. titan tyra discussed makeup, skincare, and her vlog. nessie judge entertained her audience with horror stories and sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 41 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conspiracies. arief muhammad, meanwhile, shared his vlogs. the youtubers present a variety of content related to their passions and interests, such as singing or performing cover songs, playing a musical instrument, or performing stand-up comedy. several of them began their careers as youtubers from the ground up. they were unsure what to do, what equipment to use, or how to edit the videos. they even lack equipment until they master the skills and perform them independently. these youtubers establish their channels and gain popularity due to their concepts, content, and creativity. finally, they have assembled their production crew. youtubers, too, have objectives when they create their channel. first, we take a glance at subscribers, views, likes, and comments. second, they attempt to become a youtube trend once more. moreover, they attempt to earn money through youtube. youtubers are dominated by a particular demographic and by people who work in the entertainment industry. they are well-known. celebrities play a significant role in the media and on other digital platforms. because some of them are regarded as credible and trustworthy, people believed that celebrities could become the most outstanding achievement of a healthy lifestyle, as evidenced by their sports choices, business endeavors, fashion choices, foods and beverages consumed, and even trends that are still ongoing. according to the definition, celebrities are incredibly close to the media and frequently become the center of attention. apart from models, singers, film and television stars, and other entertainment industry members, athletes and business people can also be considered celebrities— additionally, several politicians transition to celebrity status or vice versa (theguardian.com, 2020). as with the rest of the world's entertainment industry, celebrities in indonesia are divided into various categories, including musicians, film stars, masters of ceremonies, and commercial stars. the majority of celebrities compete to establish widely accepted general trends to increase their celebrity status. however, many celebrities stir up controversy in order to increase their celebrity. basically, this will garner significant attention from the media and their general public. television has become a highly effective medium in recent years and one of the most widely used and viewed forms of media. it bolsters celebrities' intentions and is frequently used to boost their popularity, and the television industry desperately needs celebrities because they are the ones who can earn the public's trust. in this instance, we chose muhammad ibrahim, or baim wong, a prominent figure in indonesia. he is one of the youtube celebrities who regularly create content. despite his relative inexperience in the youtube world, his channel has amassed more than ten million subscribers (jpnn.com, 42 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 5th june 2020). his prior prominence influenced the phenomenon as a national celebrity. baim wong's time with his family is what drives him to be more active on youtube than on television. according to baim, television station schedules and film shoots keep him away from his family, whereas youtube enables him to spend time with his family on his terms. baim wong's content is primarily focused on his daily interactions with his family, relatives, and celebrity friends. his range is likely to garner considerable interest from baim wong's and other celebrity youtubers' fans. apart from that, his content is personal. additionally, baim's content includes personal lifestyle and charitable endeavors. it can elicit fans' empathy and garner the attention of other youtubers, as baim's actions are deemed reasonable and well-liked by the community. he rises to prominence as a public figure who never forgets to assist those in need. because youtube allows for freedom of expression while also allowing creators to earn money and be compensated for their work, more celebrities come to youtube and create content. youtube's freedom of expression has been appealing for celebrities because, on television, they are subject to rules and regulations imposed by the komisi penyiaran indonesia (kpi), which can result in penalties if they violate them. unlike on television, however, youtube allows all content creators to create videos. according to fortune magazine, youtube's rise has been compared to television's demise as the most-watched platform. furthermore, it has expanded its offerings with youtube tv (fortune magazine, 2017). the phenomenon resulted in the popular jargon "youtube is more than a television" (young lex, 2016), which was coined about a song by young lex and skinnyindonesian24. after conducting research on youtube, the researcher discovered that celebrities such as deddy corbuzier, raffi ahmad, ruben onsu, and halilintar family began opening youtube channels in 2016. it is entirely consistent with the jargon "youtube is more than a television." these celebrities' channels have seen a significant increase in views, subscriptions, and likes, to the point where they are gradually displacing many other content creators in trending segments. the arrival of celebrities on youtube will affect the youtube environment of established content creators, as their perspectives will be divided. the audience's interest in content has shifted away from traditional youtubers, such as gaming, vlogging, and creativity, and toward the new and fresh content that celebrities have brought to youtube, such as pulling pranks, proudly displaying their wealth, posing as people in need, and hosting giveaways. sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 43 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj we used rans entertainment, deddy corbuzier, and baim wong as our primary subjects in this research. the subjects are television and youtube celebrities. rans entertainment is a production and entertainment company founded by raffi ahmad and nagita slavina. they typically post content on their youtube channel about vlogs, podcasts, cartoons, and celebrities. deddy corbuzier shared motivational videos, podcasts, and martial arts content. the baim paula family shared various types of content, including vlogs, giveaways, and interviews with celebrities. the researcher applied bourdieu's social capital theory (silvia rogosic and branislava baranovic, 2016), which states that social capital is the accumulation of all potential resources required for institutionalized relationships of respect, interest, fascination, and acceptance to a greater or lesser extent. bourdieu also stated in his book theory of social fields: concepts and applications (hilgers, m., & mangez, e. (2015) that the social world is divided into numerous fields of practice, each with its own set of rules, the body of knowledge, and type of capital. as bourdieu stated, social fields theory is analogous to environments where individuals compete for position and play to win. the researcher will analyze how celebrities dominated youtube between 2016 and 2021. the researchers discussed the topic from the audience's and older youtube content creators' perspectives. additionally, the researchers classified several influential celebrities, youtubers, and content creators according to their period. bourdieu's social capital theory was a grand theory, and bourdieu's field concept encompassed the research that substantiated his theories and concepts. we classified the research according to how celebrities establish dominance and capitalization on youtube. the oretical framework in the world of entertainment, celebrities are inextricably linked to global fame. a celebrity is defined as someone well-known, whether in entertainment, sports or simply the state of being well-known (cambridge dictionary 2018). according to hearn and schoenhoff (2015), a person's ability to capture the public's attention is the determining factor in whether or not they become a celebrity. as with an inherently attractive individual or group, a pet, sports athlete, or comedian can become famous if their distinctive appearance, talent, skill, wealth, or even achievement has shaped the definition of celebrity and fame from the start (turner 2006; ruiz-gomez, a., 2019). 44 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj rojek (2001) explains that fame is classified into several categories based on celebrity figures and acquired fame. the first is ascribed status, which refers to celebrity gained from familial or sibling relationships. achieved status refers to the fame individuals may obtain due to their achievements-attributed status, precisely the film character's persona. moreover, celebrities' fame is aided by technological advancements such as televisions, big screens (movie stars), and social media celebrities. according to the article, celebrities are defined by the content they share on their social media accounts. (zulli, 2018; hearn & schoenhoff, 2015; hearn & schoenhoff, 2015). we can observe celebrities' meteoric rise via the internet, referred to as influencers or content creators. a. ruiz-gomez, 2019 (turner, 2006; ruiz-gomez, a., 2019). celebrity status and financial rewards were associated with fame, which appeared to be attainable (turner, 2006; ruiz-gomez, a., 2019). due to their established reputation, it can be relatively simple to obtain a promotion, job, or even money. as a result of this fact, an unprecedented number of fameseekers have turned to social media as a means of self-promotion (macdonald, 2014). in conclusion, celebrity significantly impacts the growth and development of a career path or life. domination is a type of power, typically social power, which can exert control over other people (mccammon, 2018). this statement demonstrates that celebrities wield influence over others. their supporters are included in this context. rubin & mchugh (1987) and stever (2009a, 2011a) have discussed the motivations for developing a relationship with a celebrity, including task attraction, in which fans believe that this person (celebrity) is the best at something they have ever seen. then there is romantic attraction, which means that fans believe their favorite celebrity is attractive and appealing to them romantically, and the final appeal is based on the person's character and qualities, which means that the celebrity is a good person and role model for them. as a result, the celebrity's attractions can direct their fans to various locations. several pieces of literature have concentrated on these types of fans who exhibit pathological signs of celebrity worship, stalking, and other such behaviors (maltby et al., 2006; mccutcheon et al., 2003; mccutcheon et al. 2016). this theory demonstrates that fans are willing to go to great lengths for their favorite celebrities, particularly for simple and free actions such as subscribing or following, leaving comments, and liking a celebrity account. returning to domination, another source (pettit 2014) acknowledges that, while individuals may experience relational domination within specific relationships, power may be structural, involving what he refers to as 'deeper sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 45 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj sources of subjection.' these relationships are possible only due to the practices and institutions of broader society and the world: the culture, economy, and constitution in which people live. this domination exercised by celebrities over their fans becomes structural due to functional interactions between them: communication, relationships, and institutions such as youtube and social media (their communication platforms), the celebrities' agencies, and fan communities. in more detail, the celebrity establishes the relationship, while their fans establish dominance. the more well-known a celebrity is, the more fans they can attract. the more fans celebrities have, the more power and dominance they can create. their dominance has a bearing on their influence and career. bourdieu (1986) introduced the concept of contemporary social capital, stating that it is a collection of actual or potential concepts associated with ownership of a long-lasting network or, more or less, a reciprocal relationship between familiar institutions. while other scholars view social capital as a necessary component of social networking, bourdieu used it to articulate the consequences of social inequality. social capital is similar to the source of information such as ideas, business opportunities, financial wealth, power, emotional support, goodwill, trust, and cooperation provided by individuals and business networks (baker, 2000). however, the relationship between celebrities and youtube is not solely for the benefit of their fans and youtube users but also to pursue business opportunities that will result in financial matters. for instance, baim wong is one of indonesia's most successful youtube celebrities. according to social blade data, baim wong is estimated to earn between rp. 830.20 million and rp. 13.29 billion for every month. it occurred due to his videos being viewed by thousands or more people. furthermore, he received many subscribers, likes, and comments on his videos. social capital can be used in the most depressing way possible by focusing exclusively on society's middle and upper classes and ensuring that "wrong people" are excluded from their exclusive spheres (o'brien s., fathaigh m.o. 2005). the concept of cultural capital refers to assets, competencies, qualifications, and skills through the lens of cultural authority. according to bourdieu, having cultural currencies enables people to compensate for lack of capital by converting them to socioeconomic status. bourdieu also believes that cultural capital may play a significant role in pursuing power and position within a community. 46 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj field theory enquires into how individuals construct social fields and their impact. social fields are places or environments where individuals or groups compete against one another, such as academia, music, politics, and popular culture (marquis, christopher; tilcsik, andrás, 2016). bourdieu's 1993 book cultural fields emphasizes the role of any relevant audiences as agents with authority to generate symbolic capital. in cultural fields, the ability to make judgments or declare something enables audiences to reposition themselves. the dominant player on the field is the incumbents; these are the individuals who maintain the field, change competition rules, and risk destabilizing their dominant position. the challengers, dubbed the insurgents, sought to compete against the incumbents successfully. while incumbents attempt to defend and impose consensus, insurgents seek to "shatter the doxa's silence and cast doubt on the unproblematic, taken-for-granted world of the dominant groups" (bourdieu, 1993). due to the cultural fields' consistent reproduction of the incumbents' privileges, the insurgents have few opportunities to demonstrate their values and abilities. bourdieu asserted that the insurgents establish authority over the fields through two mechanisms. the first is external issues, such as crises or advancements in other fields that affect the field (cattani et al., 2014). the second is the availability of relational reception space in which the audience is disposed to consider the proposed offers due to its beliefs and preferences. however, the mechanisms by which audiences vary are similar to those that govern social structure and stratification. the purpose of field theory is to ascertain how incumbents and insurgents operate on social levels. on youtube, we identify the insurgents' strategies for flouting the incumbents' authority and privileges. method the research analyzed and evaluated the identities of a celebrity (who later became a youtuber) and a youtuber. observation is a technique for collecting data involving systematic observation and recording a phenomenon. the observation can be made by recalling youtube's unique feature of allowing anyone to upload content as long as they have a channel. the requirement is consistent with the organization's mission: to give everyone a voice and show them the world (youtube about website). the data sources for the analysis were the youtube accounts of the three research objects, rans entertainment, deddy corbuzier, and baim paula. the researchers sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 47 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj chose those channels as the primary subjects of this study because their channels have grown significantly over their active years of uploading content. baim paula joined youtube in 2018 but has already amassed 18.3 million subscribers by 2021. first, the researchers examined rans entertainment and their capitalizations on youtube through 2021. the researchers discussed rans entertainment in detail beforehand, focusing on their capitals, including their relationships with fans and other influential individuals. the capital can be seen in the comments section of their youtube video and on other related social media platforms. the journey of becoming established in the entertainment industry and amassing capital results. next, the researchers observed and analyzed the channel of deddy corbuzier. on deddy's channel, the researchers are examining how his social capital affects the engagement of his videos. the researchers will compare two of his videos featuring various guests. comments, likes, and views will be analyzed to determine the extent to which his guest possesses the power. as studies have indicated, youtube and social media have evolved into platforms for people to express their opinions (their identity is no exception). they can be considered data sources about the uploaded videos via youtube's features, including comments, likes or dislikes, and subscribers. the researchers then observed baim paula's channel and determined the amount of social capital they possessed. their social capital will be judged by their relationships with fans and viewers and how they establish and maintain those relationships. the researchers will monitor their interactions with fans and their comments, likes, and views. capital gains will be included as data. finally, the researchers discovered the field theory, which examined how individuals construct social fields and how those fields affect individuals; social fields are places or environments where individuals or groups compete, such as academics, music, politics, and popular culture. as a result, the researcher will examine youtuber elements, particularly those of celebrity youtubers, such as their slogans, color scheme, content theme, and level of engagement on youtube. their account and other related sources such as television and articles provide updates on the celebrity youtuber. after compiling all necessary data, the researcher organized it into research and discussion sections and interpreted it according to theories and facts. as a result, the study will reach its conclusion. 48 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj results a. rans entertainment on youtube rans entertainment is a youtube channel and production company founded by raffi ahmad and nagita slavina, two well-known indonesian celebrities. they launched their first video promoting their jeans brand on youtube in december 2015. their channel growth is quite captivating. they gained 19.7 million subscribers in six years, in 2021, with approximately 2,000 uploaded videos and 3,841,000,000 views. rans entertainment is also ranked 219th globally and 4th in its local area by analytical website id.noxinfluencer. rans entertainment's content primarily focuses on their son, rafathar, music, cooking, makeup, vlogging, tips, tricks, and interviews with other influential people. rans entertainment can upload up to three videos per day. figure 1: rans entertainment youtube channel the researchers observe the channel's growth to ascertain raffi ahmad and nagita slavina's cultural capital. according to bourdieu, in an article published in idea societa journal titled "modal dalam praktik sosial arisan sosialita" by wati (2015), regardless of how much social capital an agent owns, it is contingent upon the agent's ability to mobilize the other capitals effectively. raffi ahmad and nagita slavina already had fans (cultural capital) prior to their youtube appearances, and the fans mobilized their capital to support the celebrity. their social capital on youtube, particularly their fans sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 49 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj who show their support through likes and subscriptions. camamero (2011) asserts that the strength of ties has increased the influence of word of mouth, encouraging people to engage in reciprocal behavior and trust in the relationship. likewise, their support is evident in their comments on raffi ahmad and nagita slavina's videos, which contain the following dialog: assania assania mama gigi imut banget,cantik,sabar,gak ngebosenin,good attitude,dan ramah. aa rafi semenjak nikah sama mama gigi tambah sukses semoga langgeng dan bahagia ya rans. (mommy gigi is so cute, beautiful, patient, attractive, well-behave, and friendly. since raffi got married with mommy gigi, he becomes more successful. may you have long-lasting family relationship and always be happy). this is then followed by the comments: aminah khairunissa thalib bismillah trending gaes! (bismillah. it becomes hot issues) and yaya saputra sampe paketan habis gaes nonton rans entertainment terusss����� (till i don’t have any internet quota left as i always watch rans entertainment most of the time) the comments were chosen based on their support for the content and channel. both comments were encouraging, even though they will go unnoticed by raffi and nagita. this phenomenon corresponded to alberoni's 1972 concept of mass media, as described in "transformasi selebriti menjadi politisi: urgensi personal front dalam ranah sosial." according to the journal of kajian ilmu komunikasi, 2015, while every individual is aware of and discusses 50 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj celebrity behavior, elites or celebrities may not be aware of or recognize the existence of the individuals. raffi ahmad and nagita slavina gain sufficient economic capital from youtube by leveraging their cultural and social capital. cited from id.noxinfluencer, raffi earned approximately 101.7 million rupiah for each video uploaded. he received between 1.52 and 5.32 billion rupiahs per month, with an average click per mile of idr 11 thousand to idr 38.5 thousand. the capital gain was consistent with his position as the fourth most subscribed youtuber. raffi ahmad and nagita slavina are establishing themselves as insurgents on youtube, but they are also incumbents in the entertainment industry. positions in entertainment, such as a well-known celebrity, become symbolic capital. because social capital is "governed by the logic of knowledge and acknowledgment," it can be referred to as symbolic capital (bourdieu, 1986 in johnson 2016). raffi ahmad's symbolic capital will be revealed in january 2021, when he is trusted to be one of the celebrities who received the covid-19 vaccination. figure 2: raffi ahmad with president joko widodo (27th january 2021, instagram @raffinagita1717) raffi ahmad and nagita slavina have come to power on youtube in less than six years, earning more revenue than other youtube content creators. raffi ahmad and nagita slavina's cultural, economic, and social capital have fueled their fame and dominance on youtube. sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 51 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. deddy corbuzier on youtube the next observation goes to deddy corbuzier's youtube channel. he is well-known to the public as one of indonesia's most popular magicians. he launched his youtube channel in 2009 and began regularly uploading in 2011. he amassed 13.9 million subscribers and 814 videos in less than ten years. deddy's content is primarily focused on podcasts, motivation, strategic fundamental combat tips, and his various perspectives on current events. each day, he uploads one video. figure 3: deddy corbuzier youtube channel the researchers observe the channel via the content that deddy posts. compared to his other works, the podcast is one of the works that he frequently shares. deddy invites other influential people and celebrities to collaborate on his podcast. deddy maintains his relationships with others and uses them to attract viewers to his youtube channel, but this may or may not be the case depending on the people he invites. his youtube channel demonstrates this statement. this is agnez mo's appearance on deddy's podcast. they discussed their past, and given that agnez is one of deddy's ex-girlfriends, this subject could become a trend and garner a large audience. it is demonstrated by deddy's viewership, which has surpassed 7 million views. numerous people also leave comments about agnez mo in the comment section. they demonstrate their support for agnez and express positive sentiments about her. the following is the conversation between them. 52 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 4: deddy corbuzier podcast with agnez mo corry au agnez makin kesini karier makin melonjak tinggi tapi doi makin rendah hati bangeet.... dan satu hal yg gw tangkap dr seorang agnez mo dia mampu membuat org yg di sampingnya nyaman ❤❤ (agnes has become more popular in these few days, and she also becomes more humble. one thing that i can see from agnez mo is that she is always able to make her comfortable) fitri dian sari fans berat banget sama agnes mo smart pny skill good attitude perpect deh;) seneng aja liatnyaa (i am a big fan of agnez mo. she is not only smart but also wellbehaved. perfect! always happy to see her) ragit dp agama membuat kita jauh dari dosa ada juga yang melakukan dosa dengan nama agama #omded2019 (religion makes us far from the sin. however, there is also a sin under the religion name). sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 53 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj iwantop "negara ini terbentuk atau didirikan berdasarkan kesepakatan bersama antar suku bangsa dan agama bukan dari mayoritas atau minoritas", setuju pak � (the nation is built based on the agreement of every tribe, nation, and religion, not minority or majority. agree, sir!) according to bourdieu in ―on bourdieu: key figures, concepts and developments‖ by ovyind ihlen (2018) of public relations and social theory book, social capital is a combination of the potential resources that are linked to the possession of a quality network of more mutual acquaintance and recognition. the definition can accrue due to a conscious or unconscious investment strategy involving exchanges of gains. it was proven in collaboration with agnez mo. although deddy gained many viewers on his youtube channel, agnez mo also gained positive views from the audience. shafira billa aku kira, selama ini agnez mo sombong semenjak go international jarang ada di indo. ternyata diluar dugaan! sumpah attitude dan auranya positif banget skrang! makin matang makin cantik. amazing agnez! (i thought, agnez mo became a selfish public figure after go international. it rarely happens in indonesia. surprisingly, she is not. for heaven’s sake, her positive attitude and persona now show that she becomes more beautiful. agnez is amazing!) jum riani dan terjawab sudah... kenapa seorang agnes mo bisa jadi seorang artis yg go internasional dan jarang di terpa gosip2 negatif. ternyata ada seorang ibu yg benar² menjaga anak perempuan nya..... dari dulu aku sllu mengidolakan agnes. love u full (it’s been answered why agnez mo can go international and become the public figure that is rarely gossiped by media. the answer it because there is a mother that really takes care of her daughter. i have been crazy about agnez since i was a kid. full of love.) 54 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj women net ngga nyangka kalo ternyata agnez orangnya se asik ini. (i never imagine that agnez mo is easygoing) next, deddy invited letjen agus widjojo lemhana on the other episode of his podcast. figure 5: deddy corbuzier podcast with letjen agus widjojo lemhanas that is letjen agus widjojo lemhanas's appearance on deddy's podcast. they discussed radicalism in indonesia under the heading "radikalisme sudah masuk dalam bumn?" this video received only 559,448 views, which is less than half of the views received by agnez mo. deddy corbuzier amassed sufficient economic capital from youtube, according to cultural and social capital theory. deddy earned approximately 335.5 million rupiah for each video uploaded, according to id.noxinfluencer. he earned between 1.6 and 3.73 billion rupiah per month, with an average click per mile of idr 11 thousand to idr 38.5 thousand. as a result, he was ranked 461st globally and 14th in indonesia. in conclusion, celebrity relationships benefit both parties. in this case, agnez mo earned a favorable image from the audience, while deddy corbuzier benefited from youtube views and revenue. in the other case, deddy benefited from letjen agus's valuable content, while letjen agus gained exposure and educated the public about radicalism or other sensitive topics. sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 55 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. baim wong on youtube the last observation goes to baim wong's youtube channel. baim wong is well-known in indonesia as one of the country's most popular actors and models. he has starred in 19 indonesian films, over 30 indonesian soap operas, two indonesian web series, and eight television shows and has become a brand ambassador for more than five well-known indonesian brands. baim established his youtube channel on 4 june 2016 and actively uploaded videos on 28 august 2018. he named his youtube channel "baim paula" because the majority of their content focuses on baim and paula's daily vlogs and lifestyles, as well as challenges and charities. at the moment, baim paula has 18,2 million subscribers on youtube and has uploaded 1.28k videos. baim paula's youtube channel posts one to two videos daily. figure 6: bapau’s family youtube channel baim paula is ranked 259th in the world and 6th in indonesia. baim and paula also earned substantial money from videos they uploaded to youtube. they earned idr 166.33 million from a single youtube video, and between idr 1.27 and 4.45 billion in a single month (id.noxinfluencer). 56 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj figure 7: baim and paula’s second youtube channel next, the researchers observed through baim paula's uploaded content that the most popular videos on youtube were when baim and paula collaborated with raffi ahmad to conduct a social experiment in which he and raffi were dressed as lunatics and observed how strangers reacted to them. not only that, their daily vlogs detailing their daily activities and social interactions with other celebrities also encourage viewers to subscribe to their channel. the researcher noted that when baim and paula achieved celebrity, they collaborated with another influential and well-known celebrity, such as raffi ahmad. as a result, raffi can increase the number of viewers on baim paula's channel. one of baim paula's most popular youtube videos is the image below, with over 14 million views. figure 8: baim and raffi doing the social experiment sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 57 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the public enjoys watching baim and raffi conduct this social experiment. it was purely to make other people or their fans happy. numerous people commented on how pure and humble this action was, given that they are both prominent figures in indonesia. siti fatmawati ketika saya pertama kalinya lihat vidio ini, saya nangis, sedih dan bahagia, saya nangis dan sedih karana melihat kabaim, penampilannya kaya gituh cuman demi membahagiakan orang orang, dan tdk merasa malu, senangnya saya melihat ka baim, ka baim orang nya baik jujur, sopan, dermawan, eh ada karafi juga, ya alloh seneng bgt, semoga orang orang seperti mereka, selalu di berkahi oleh alloh swt, dan selalu ada dlm lindungan alloh swt. (when i first saw this video, i cried out, both happy and sad, because i saw baim using his unique appearance to make others happy and without any sense of shame. i am delighted to see you, baim. he is affable, sincere, courteous, and generous. also, there was raffi. my god. i am extremely pleased. i hope people enjoy them. they will always be blessed by allah swt and under allah swt's protection). taufik doang cuma baim wong yg bilang klu uang yg di bagikan itu. uang yg udah nge subscribe chanelnya. salut buat baim wong. ga pernah sombong sama siapa pun. makanan yg dikasih orang langsung dimakan. minuman sisa pun juga langsung diminum.. saya yakin seyakin-yakinnya artis lain ga akan berani kayak baim. makan makanan yg di kasih orang atau minum minuman sisa orang.. terima kasih baim. kami juga sayang kamu. (only baim wong stated that those who subscribed to his channel received the distributed money—salute to baim wong. never be superior to others—immediate consumption of the sustenance provided. the remainder of the drink was immediately consumed as well... i am certain other artists will need more fortitude to do it like baim. consume food that others have given you or imbibe their leftovers... thank you baim. also, we adore you). 58 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj panci gaming rafi sama baim memang sahabat terbaik� (rafi and baim are best friends). apart from the social experiments he uploaded to youtube, he also created giveaway content that drew investment and strengthened his relationship with the viewers of his videos. this image illustrates the content. figure 9: baim’s content with one of the fans the video of baim giving away something to one of his fans demonstrates the relationship developed and how it fosters reciprocal investment between baim and his fans. this action is also connected to bourdieu. according to ihlen (2018) in his journal on bourdieu: key figures, concepts, and developments, social capital must be established well before a need arises, "as if for [its] own sake, and thus outside [its] period of use." not only with fans but also with the public and other influential people, baim had garnered investment. establishing relationships can help build social capital supporting baim's work, as demonstrated by the comments on one of the giveaway videos. wi_vi membuat wajah sedih jadi tersenyum itu sangat langka. semoga pahalanya berlipat buat bosque sekeluarga. (rarely can a sad visage be transformed into a smile. the reward should hopefully be multiplied for bosque and his family). sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 59 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teguh pay bismillahirrahmanirrahim...ada istilah "siapa menanam..siapa menuai"..yg kita bisa liat bossque di tiap konten pranknya selalu memberikan sesuatu yg tentunya sangat bermanfaat bagi org lain... subhanallah...dan saat sy melihat konten yg ini sangat sarat dgn air mata,entah sadar atau tidak...nyatanya air mata sy udeh turun dr tempatnya...ya alloh..semoga bossque serta bapau family di berikan kesehatan & di berikan rizki yg berlimpah...insya alloh selamat dunia akherat & juga di jauhkan dr api neraka...aamiin ig @teguh_indrayan. (bismillahirrahmanirrahim... there is a term "who plants..who reaps". what we can see bossque in each of his prank content always gives something that is of course, very useful for other people... subhanallah... and when i see this content, it is very full of tears, whether consciously or not... in fact my tears have come down from their place... ya allah... i hope bossque and the family's father are given health & abundant fortune... god willing, be safe in the world hereafter & also kept away from hell fire. the researcher discovered through the dataset analysis that baim paula's content can be used to forge strong bonds with their fans and the general public. the relationships could be reciprocal, with baim receiving public support and increasing the engagement of his videos, while the public may receive a gift from baim and paula via the comment sections. as a result, social capital is required to establish strong relationships that benefit both parties. conclusion to summarize, the researchers determined that all three celebrity youtubers possess the same symbolic capital, enabling them to achieve dominance and fame on youtube. before deddy, baim, raffi, and nagita joined youtube, they already possessed symbolic capital indicating their status as reputable celebrities in the public eyes. the symbolic capital may give them an advantage on youtube, where most views come from their fans. additionally, relationships are critical. 60 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 39 – 61 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj celebrities' social capital demonstrates their relationships with other celebrities and their fans. relationships with other celebrities can take the form of collaboration, which can have a significant impact because it combines the two capitals owned by the celebrity's relatives. collaborations between celebrities can be mutually beneficial. they can benefit from one another, as they may gain easy exposure and funding due to the video advertisement. furthermore, the researchers discovered the critical role of social capital with their fans in a celebrity's capital and gaining value. as mentioned previously, baim has a strong relationship with his fans, as evidenced by his collaborations with the public and gifts to his fans. it can create the impression that baim is a very kind and humble celebrity, attracting the public's attention. each capital that celebrities own and receive enables them to ascend to the top of youtube and become dominators. after establishing themselves as one of the most powerful content creators on youtube, celebrities acquire additional capital such as trending segments, providing economic and symbolic capital. as they grow in popularity and dominance, they will acquire additional capital. references al farisi, b. (2020). penghasilan sebulan bisa mencapai rp 10 miliar, berikut serba-serbi youtube rans entertainment. from kompas.com: https://www.kompas.com. cattani, g. f., & allison, p. (2014). insiders, outsiders and the struggle for consecration in cultural fields: a core-periphery perspective. american sociology review, 258-281. claridge, t. (2015). bourdieu on social capital theory of capital. from social capital and research training: https://www.socialcapitalresearch.com/bourdieu-on-social-capital-theoryof-capital/. fatmawati, n. i.(2020). pierre bourdieu dan konsep dasar kekerasan simbolik. jurnal politik dan sosial kemasyarakatan, 41-60. grunewald, l., & haupt, j. (2014). value creation on youtube how musicians, youtubers and commercial networks create social, https://www.kompas.com/hype/read/2020/06/24/094545166/penghasilan-sebulan-bisa-capai-rp-10-miliar-berikut-serba-serbi-youtube?page=all https://www.socialcapitalresearch.com/bourdieu-on-social-capital-theory-of-capital/ https://www.socialcapitalresearch.com/bourdieu-on-social-capital-theory-of-capital/ sihombing, l.h., william s, j., lestari, p., indonesian celebrities on an 61 youtube: analysis using bourdieu’s perspective https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cultural and economic capital. conference: music business research days: at vienna, 1-22. hearn, a., & schoenhoff, s. (2015). from celebrity to influencer: tracing the diffusion of celebrity value accross. in h. allison, & s. schoenhoff, a companion to celebrity (pp. 194-212). isna, t. d. (2021). gimana raffi ahmad-nagita slavina gak kaya raya? 1 kali upload video youtube saja raup rp70 juta. from wartaekonomi.co.id: https://www.wartaekonomi.co.id/read318051. khan, g., & sokha, v. (2014). virality over youtube: an empirical analysis. internet research, 629-647. mahbub, d., & shoily, k. f. (2016). the place of pierre bourdieu's theories in (popular) cultural studies. brac university journal, 1-9. ni'imah, m. (2015). transformasi selebriti menjadi politisi: urgensi personal front dalam ranah sosial. kajian ilmu komunikasi vol. 45 no. 2, 141154. rogosic, s., & baranovic, b. (2016). social capital and educational achievements: coleman vs. bourdieu. ceps journal, 81-100. ruiz-gomez, a. (2019). digital fame and fortune in the age of social media: a classification of social media influencers. adresearch esic international journal of communication research, 8-29. u., f. h., mulyana, a., & regina, m. (2018). motive, meaning and social action of youtube content creators in indonesia. saudi journal of humanities and social sciences (sjhss), 230-239. wati, k. s. (2015). modal dalam praktik sosial arisan sosialita. jurnal idea societa, 1-27. yeru, t. e. (2019). celebrification of instagram users as a practice. conference: new media and the changing social landscape of contemporary societies, 405-418. https://www.wartaekonomi.co.id/read318051 a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 1; july 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the implication of pre-service teacher’s beliefs about grammar for english language policy in indonesia cecilia titiek murniati & angelika riyandari english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia tel +62 81391325263 +62 85600541350 email: c.murniati@gmail.com a_riyandari@unika.ac.id received: 14-12-2015 accepted: 14-07-2016 published: 31-07-2016 133 the implication of pre-service teacher’s beliefs about grammar for english language policy in indonesia cecilia titiek murniati and angelika riyandari c.murniati@gmail.com; a_riyandari@unika.ac.id english department, faculty of language and arts, soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia abstract: recent studies have suggested that teachers‟ beliefs have a significant influence on actual classroom practice and, consequently, on students‟ achievements. however, little research has been done to investigate the influence of indonesian language policy and teachers‟ beliefs. the study reported seeks to examine the influence of english language policy on pre-service teacher's beliefs about the teaching of english language grammar in indonesian schools. the research participants were pre-service teachers who have taken the subjects of structure, teaching methods, and micro-teaching in three public and private universities in central java and yogyakarta special district. due to time and scheduling limitations, the sampling method used in this study was convenient sampling. documentation, survey schedules, interviews, focus group discussions were used to gather the data. the findings revealed that although the language policy in indonesia has put english language teaching and learning within the framework of communicative competence since the enactment of the 2006 school-based curriculum, the pre-service teachers still believed that traditional method of teaching grammar (explicit grammar instruction) was imperative to use. the pre-service teachers tended to exclude english language policy enacted by indonesian government in their discussion about teachers‟ beliefs. instead, the pre-service teachers constructed their beliefs about english language grammar teaching and learning process on their prior experiences in learning and teaching grammar. key words: language policy, teacher‟s belief, pre-service/intraining teachers 134 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 133-144 abstrak: studi terbaru menunjukkan bahwa pandangan guru sangat berpengaruh terhadap praktek pengajaran di dalam kelas dan prestasi siswa. namun, penelitian tentang kebijakan bahasa di indonesia dan pandangan guru belum banyak dilakukan. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti pengaruh kebijakan bahasa inggris terhadap pandangan calon guru tentang pengajaran tata bahasa inggris di sekolah-sekolah di indonesia. responden penelitian adalah calon-calon guru di tiga universitas negeri dan swasta di jawa tengah dan daerah istimewa yogyakarta yang telah mengambil mata kuliah structure, teaching methods, dan microteaching. metode sampling yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah metode convenience sampling mengingat waktu dan jadwal yang terbatas. metode pengumpulan data menggunakan dokumentasi, survei, wawancara, dan focus grup discussion. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa meskipun kebijakan bahasa di indonesia telah menempatkan pengajaran bahasa inggris dalam kerangka kompetensi komunikasi (communicative competence) sejak diberlakukannya kurikulum 2006, calon guru masih percaya bahwa metode traditional pengajaran tata bahasa (instruksi pengajaran tata bahasa eksplisit) harus tetap digunakan. calon guru cenderung tidak menyentuh kebijakan bahasa inggris yang telah ditetapkan oleh penerintah indonesia dalam diskusi tentang pandangan mereka terhadap pengajaran bahasa inggris. alih-alih, calon guru mendasarkan pandangan mereka tentang pengajaran tata bahasa inggris pada pengalaman pribadi mereka ketika belajar tata bahasa inggris. kata kunci: kebijakan bahasa, pandangan guru, calon guru introduction this article discusses the language policy and the preservice or intraining teacher‟s belief system of the students of english teacher education study program in three different cities: semarang, salatiga, and yogyakarta. as a school subject which is mandated by the state in the context of a globalizing economy (see indonesia republic government enactment number 32, year 2013, chapter 771, article 1 c), english language program teaching and learning deem structured planning and execution to reach the expected result. studies on preservice or in-training teacher‟s belief shows that the training given during their study at teacher education study program will influence the tendency of a teacher to act including how the preservice or in-training teacher perceive problems they face in teaching and murniati, c.t., & riyandari, a., the implication of pre-service teacher‟s 135 belief about grammar for english language policy in indonesia learning english (rokeach, 1968). however, it is important to note that there is a belief these preservice can undergo changes as a result of the reality they face in their work later. the language policy of a certain country is one of the „realities‟ the english teacher should accept. law no. 20/2003 on the national education standard, chapter 38 article 2 states that, the primary and secondary education curriculum is developed according to their relevance to each group or unit education as well as school/madrasah committee (komite sekolah) under the coordination and supervision of the district education office (deo – dinas pendidikan kabupaten/kotamadya), the ministry of national education (mone), or kantor departemen agama kabupaten/kota, the ministry of religious affairs (mora) for primary education and the province for secondary education [kurikulum pendidikan dasar dan menengah dikembangkan sesuai dengan relevansinya oleh setiap kelompok atau satuan pendidikan dan komite sekolah/madrasah di bawah koordinasi dan supervisi dinas pendidikan atau kantor departemen agama kabupaten/kota untuk pendidikan dasar dan propinsi untuk pendidikan menengah.] the article above becomes the base of eight national education standards – graduate competency, content, process, personnel, infrastructure, management, funding, and assessment standards. these education standards influence how the english language programs runs. unfortunately, the implementation of these national standards in the teaching of english does not go well. the seriousness of the parties involved in the implementation of national standards in education is in question especially those from the ministry of education. yulia (2014) points out that while elt is perceived as important by both the district and the individual schools, the way to run the program is differently understood by both parties. yulia (2014) gives some examples of the drawback of implementing elt standards: the documents which become the guide of the implementation such as curriculum, syllabus, and lesson plans are implemented without proper appraisal; teachers are rarely assessed and supervised, and given inservice training. the lack of monitoring and supervising from the district supervisor may affect teachers‟ performance in the classroom. yulia (2014) also writes that teachers‟ limited ability in the teaching of english is another major problem on elt. she says that english teachers do 136 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 133-144 not have adequate ability in teaching english both in their pedagogical and professional aspects. the teachers‟ lack of pedagogical and professional aspects is shown by yulia (2014) in the fact that despite the government regulation no. 19/2005 which clearly states that the focus of elt in indonesia is to develop students‟ communicative competence, the teachers tend to ignore the notion by focusing on structural approach to fulfil the students‟ need to prepare for the national examination. the development of linguistic competence then becomes more important than the communicative competence. the lack of communicate competence as well as motivation results in the students‟ inability to communicate in english (see yulia, 2014). considering the problems of elt in indonesia above, the belief system of preservice or in-training teachers of english language education program has an important role in improving national standard of education. as stated earlier the belief system resulted from the training receives by the preservice or in-training teachers during their study influences the way preservice or intraining teacher perceives a problem of teaching and learning, therefore the belief system which agrees with the national education policy should be encouraged. especially on the teaching of english grammar, previous studies show that teacher‟s belief, indeed, influenced the way teachers choose their method of teaching grammar. however, study on the teachers‟ belief on teaching grammar has not developed well. studies on teaching grammar in indonesia focus on the materials and teaching techniques (baleghizadeh, 2011; sugiharto, 2005; meyer & gallo, 1998). more studies on indonesian teachers‟ belief on teaching grammar will boost the improvement of national standard of english education simply due to the fact that teachers play central roles in the teaching and learning process. the findings on teachers‟ belief will encourage the improvement on elt in indonesia including the curricula and systematic evaluation of its implementation. elt teaching improvement will producehighly qualified students who are proficient in english. review of literature crystal (2003) in his book english as a global language states that english is a language which has special roles in many countries; hence murniati, c.t., & riyandari, a., the implication of pre-service teacher‟s 137 belief about grammar for english language policy in indonesia english can be regarded as a global language. crystal mentions two ways for a language to be considered global. the first way is when a language becomes an official language of a country whose mother tongue is not that language. the second way is when a language becomes a country‟s priority in foreign language teaching. the explanations clearly put english language as a global language as english is the official language in countries such as india, nigeria, singapore whose first languages are not english. english is also the priority of foreign language teaching in countries like indonesia, china and russia (crystal, 2003: p. 4-5). crystal further explains that english is needed by those countries as a medium of communication in areas of politics, business, entertainment, international relations, international travel, and education in order to increase the countries‟ positions in the world. a. english language in indonesia english language education in indonesia is developed around the context of the national language, bahasa indonesia. the status of bahasa indonesia as the national language is shown in indonesian constitution, uud 1945, article 36. the constitution states that bahasa indonesia is the language of national unity; to unite indonesians who speaks more than 550 local languages (sneddon, 2003: p. 5). to foster the use of bahasa indonesia, it is taught as compulsory subject at all education levels – primary school up to university. with its position as a national language, bahasa indonesia is the official medium of communication in indonesia and used in government, education, and business sectors. in its development, bahasa indonesia has characteristics as a diglossia (sneddon, 2003). although formally bahasa indonesia is standardized by eyd (ejaan yang disempurnakan/perfected spelling) format, indonesians use bahasa indonesia differently based on the context, whether it is in a certain situation or with certain people, or even in certain social level. standardized bahasa indonesia (bahasa indonesia baku) is usually used in formal settings like in the classroom, government meeting, business meeting, and in official documents. on the other hand, informal bahasa indonesia is used in casual conversations. dardjowijoyo (2000), as cited in yulia (2014), writes that english is the first foreign language to be taught in schools and universities in indonesia after their independence. he mentions that indonesians, after their independence, felt the needs to master an international language for the medium of communication at international level. the decision to choose english , not dutch, as the foreign language to be taught at all level of education in indonesia, according to dardjowijoyo (2000) as cited in yulia 138 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 133-144 (2014) was that right after indonesia‟s independence from the netherlands‟ colonialism in 1945, dutch language was still unfavourably considered as „the language of the enemy‟. at that time, english was made a compulsory subject starting from high school until university. it is important to note here that english was decided as a foreign language, not a second language, as bahasa indonesia is the sole national language. english continues to be a compulsory foreign language taught at indonesian school and and at the university level as english increasingly becomes more commonly used as a medium of communication internationally (see kachru, 1998; kirkpatrick, 2007). in asia, english becomes asian lingua franca (mcarthur, 2002). countries in asia use english to communicate and to conduct business with other countries. countries joined in asean (association of south east asian nations) use english as their de facto lingua franca (kirkpatrick, 2007). therefore, english language becomes more strategic for indonesians to learn. english language teaching in indonesia, then, should provide its learners with adequate ability to communicate in english. b. english language teaching (elt) in indonesia as mentioned previously, after the revolution, english language was a compulsory subject offered at high schools and universities. in the early years after gaining independence, the teaching of english in indonesia relied on the grammar translation method, a method which, according to dardjowidjojo (2000), as cited by yulia (2014), was left over by the dutch. dardjowidjojo continues that audiolingual method was introduced in 1953 with the help from the ford foundation. the books produced from the project, english for sltp and english for slta, were the compulsory books for sltp (junior high school) students and slta (senior high school) students. those books were the embryoes of the 1975 curriculum (yulia, 2014). madya (2008) describes english curriculum implemented in indonesia from the early years of indonesia‟s independence until 2006. madya states that the subtopics in the books used in 1975 curriculum are mainly contained grammatical structures, thus it can be said that the 1975 curriculum is structure oriented. madya adds that the target skills of 1975 curriculum are sequenced into listening, speaking, reading and writing. the learning of language forms is the focus of the 1975 curriculum. the next curriculum, the 1984 curriculum, concentrates on language use, not language form anymore (madya, 2008). madya says that the 1984 murniati, c.t., & riyandari, a., the implication of pre-service teacher‟s 139 belief about grammar for english language policy in indonesia english curriculum covers reading, dialogues, and writing which shows the features of communicative curriculum. reading is aimed at developing the students‟ ability to comprehend various texts and increasing their vocabulary and structural experiences... dialogues are used to teach skills to use english orally to express various communicative functions. writing is aimed at developing the students‟ skills in constructing correct and acceptable sentences and arranging them into a paragraph and various simple texts (madya, 2008: pp. 13-4) madya (2008) claims that despite its objective as communicative english curriculum, 1984 curriculum is still structurally oriented based on the structure-related instructional goal. madya categorizes the 1984 english language curriculum as the weak functional type. the 1994 english curriculum concentrates on the mastery of communicative skills using meaning-based approach. this curriculum mention some of the crucial points; they are, first, the themes of linguistic elements of english, such as grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation, focus on four english language skills. second, the teaching and learning process are taught under the related themes. third, in the teaching and learning process, the four language skills are basically inseparable, and the students involved in meaningful learning activities (departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 1994a, 1994b). those points aim to develop learners‟ social communication skills. kasihani (2000) writes that the 1994 curriculum uses the communicative approach. on communicative approach, kasihani (2000) notes that the implementation of such an approach is difficult as english as a foreign language is not used in every-day indonesia, therefore the teaching remains on the cognitive knowledge of english. for the 2006 curriculum, the schools, or educational units, need to develop their own curriculum. these school-level curricula are assisted by the government through a guide book for school-level curriculum development, and school-level curriculum development training. the 2006 curriculum does not set standards on the level of english proficiency for each level, only differences in vocabulary items and types of expressions used. like the 1994 curriculum, the 2006 curriculum emphasizes the mastery of communicative competence. the 2013 curriculum aims at the development on competences and character building andfocuses on the values of moral education. the 140 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 133-144 emphasis on values and moral education instead of competencies cannot be evaluated as the implementation of this curriculum in the national level is postponed. the most important thing to note in 2013 curriculum for english language teaching is that english in primary schools depend on school policy as it is not mandatory. in the implementation of 1975-2006 curriculums, madya (2008) evaluates that the teaching and learning of english has become unsatisfactory as a result of some factors. first, many teachers use outdated methods and have very little training in english teaching. second, many teachers are not trained in english teaching methodology. third, there is a lack of quality materials. fourth, classes are too large. methodology data in this study was collected qualitatively from intervies and focus group discussions. the qualitative data aimed to know teacher‟s belief in detail. the population of this study was preservice or in-training teachers at english language education programs in in three public and private universities in central java and yogyakarta special district. the method of sampling used is convenient sampling due to time and scheduling limitations. findings grammar is the most challenging subject in english teaching. it is unarguable that the teaching of english grammar includes the teaching of the structure of that language. therefore, it is the way to teach grammar which is debatable. some researchers argue that the teaching of grammar should be fun, communicative, and interactive as krashen (1981) states that implicit grammar instruction where the learners study the grammar used in the real situation is the best to teach grammar. however, a report by farrell & lim (2005) shows that experienced grammar teachers in singapore heavily believe that the traditional approach of teaching grammar which does not emphasize on communicative teaching strategies is the most effective method of teaching grammar although the same respondents are willing to teach grammar more communicatively. murniati, c.t., & riyandari, a., the implication of pre-service teacher‟s 141 belief about grammar for english language policy in indonesia respondents basically believed that grammar is important to master english. it is “the most basic” as reported by one member of this study‟s focus group discussion: i think grammar is the most basic skill. i mean, it is important when we learn reading, writing, and speaking. we have to master grammar, whether we like it or not. if we master grammar, everything will be easier. this basic skill is really difficult, so we have to struggle to master grammar. this is the most important, i think (suri, focus group discussion, june 24, 2014). it can be inferred from the respondent‟s opinion that teaching grammar to english language learners is a must. additionally, respondents of this study stated that grammar served as the foundation for communication as stated by one of the respondents: well, if we meet, communicate with other people, if our sentences are ambiguous, people won‟t understand us. so we need to understand that one first, structure. after we have agood grammar mastery, we can express our opinions well, and people will understand us (personal interview, june 24, 2014) the respondent‟s emphasis on the close relation between communicative competence and the mastery of the grammar implied the respondent‟s belief that grammar should be taught to support the communicative competence. this respondent‟s opinion represents other respondents‟ beliefs. however, when asked about the best way english grammar should be taught, the opinions differ. similar to previous studies done by english scholars, the respondents of this study showed different ideas of how grammar should be taught. some respondents reported that grammar was best taught using communicative approach. one respondent pointed out the necessity to use communicative approach to teach grammar since learning grammar was commonly perceived as boring by students in the classroom. yes learning grammar is boring, yes. in the classroom (we) only listen to the teacher … the teaching of structure must be communicative and interesting too in the classroom, then the students will understand (grammar) better (vivien, personal interview, june 24, 2014). 142 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 133-144 the need to make english grammar teaching interesting and communicative is also voiced by other respondent who said that grammar teaching should encourage active learning. first, the students themselves. they should be more active. i think ... want, what i teach will make the students active. they should search for themselves, that is the first point (sari, personal interview, june 24, 2014). the respondent implied the teaching of grammar should not be the teaching of the form, but most importantly the teaching of the grammar use. a similar opinion is expressed by other respondent: in my case, i prefer to have examples first; i prefer to know when and in what context we use certain formulas. i apply deductive method. later, the teacher teaches the formula. personally, when i was given the rules (of grammar) first, i would get confused. i prefer examples, how to use them, to formulas (focus group discussion, june 24, 2014). the respondent clearly believed that grammar teaching should focus on the application of rules, the context, so the students would be more familiar with the use of english grammar. yet, some respondents sounded reluctant to apply the communicative approach. these respondents reported that there were other factors that should be considered in applying communicative approach such as class size which was usually big, the time, and the teaching target which usually aimed to prepare students for written test. the mixed feeling toward the implementation of communicative approach was expressed by the respondent: yes, it can be done, but in fact it is not effective... may be we can use games in the first few minutes to create better atmosphere. but we can‟t do it for every meeting (focus group discussion, june 25, 2014). the opinion above shows that the respondent is willing to use game, one way to implement the communicative approach to teach grammar, but at the same time the respondent voices the objection for using much of the method. murniati, c.t., & riyandari, a., the implication of pre-service teacher‟s 143 belief about grammar for english language policy in indonesia as explained previously, english language teaching in indonesia is regarded as unsatisfactory to produce qualified english language competence. one of the factors mentioned is the lack of teacher‟s professionalism, thus teacher‟s belief can be one of them. the most important finding to be noted in this study regarding teacher‟s belief is the strong role modelling. the interview with the respondents revealed that their choice of method used for teaching english grammar depends heavily on the method chosen by their teacher/lecturer that they considered the most appropriate. thus, teachers‟ prior experiences in learning grammar influence their choices of teaching approaches. the respondents say: later, when i teach grammar, i, mam, will refer to my grammar lecturer last semester. yes, i will do ice breaking by asking questions, so the students learn from them. that is, (we) start with questions, then we explain the rules and then do the exercises (annette, personal interview, june 24, 2014). later, when i teach grammar i will teach it the way my former lecturer taught me. so the focus is not written english but oral (english) … using oral (english). so we will be able to apply (the grammar) and to think hmmm so this is the way to apply the grammar (debbie, personal interview, june 24, 2014). during the interviews and focus group discussions, the respondents never referred to the national standard of english language teaching. the respondents‟ indifference to the english language policy in indonesia may be the result of the „imperfect‟ national language curricula, the lack of government‟s supervision and training, or the lack of awareness of the teacher‟s training program on the importance of putting the national language policy to their curriculum. conclusion the result of this study show that english language teaching and learning in indonesia emphasize on communicative competence. on the teaching of english grammar, preservice teachers acknowledged the importance of communicative approach in teaching grammar. however, the pre-service teachers still believed that the traditional method of teaching grammar (explicit grammar instruction) was imperative to use. the other finding is that the pre-service teachers tended to exclude english language 144 celt, volume 16, number 1, july 2016, pp. 133-144 policy enacted by indonesian government in their discussion about teachers‟ beliefs. instead, the pre-service teachers constructed their beliefs about english language grammar teaching and learning process from their prior experiences in learning and teaching grammar. references crystal, d. (2003). english as a global language (2nd volume). united kingdom: cambridge university press. depdikbud, d. p. (1994a). kurikulum pendidikan dasar garis-garis besar program pengajaran (gbpp) sekolah dasar. depdikbud, d. p. (1994b). kurikulum sekolah menengah umum. garis-garis besar program pengajaran. farrell, c & lim, p. (2005). conceptions of grammar teaching: a case study of teachers‟ beliefs and classroom practices. tesl-ej, 9 (2), 1-10. kasihani, k.e.s. (2000, september). pengembangan kurikulum bahasa di indonesia. in national convention of indonesian education, jakarta, 19, 22. krashen, s.d. (1981). second language acquisition and second language learning. oxford: pergamon. madya, s. (2008). curriculum innovations in indonesia and the strategies to implement them. in y. h. choi & b. spolsky (eds.), elt curriculum innovation and implementation in asia (pp. 1-38). seoul, south korea: eduklc. yulia, y. (2014). an evaluation of english language teaching programs in indonesian junior high schools in the yogyakarta province. rmit. unpublished thesis. 7 -sep2016 murniati & riyandari 0 -cover jul 2016 0 -p. i jul 2016 hal editor 0 -p. ii jul 2016 daftar isi p. i 1 -pp 1-21 sukarno celt 2016 2 -pp 22-48 pasaribu-kadarisman celt jul 2016 pp 17-44 3 -pp 49-66 prastikawati-wiyaka-sodiq celt jul 2016 4 -pp 67-90 yusuf-silviyanti-tauhidah celt jul 2016 5 -pp 91-117 jubhari-bazergan-mokoginta-sitoto-syarif-iswari celt jul 2016 pp.88-115 6 -pp 118-132 maru celt jul 2016 7 -pp 133-144 murniati-riyandari celt 2016 8 -pp 145 148 celt thanks to reviewers cover-belakang untitled 134 the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post arina isti’anah arina@usd.ac.id english letters, faculty of letters, sanata dharma university, indonesia abstract: this research is an investigation into the language use in people’s opinions of capital punishment for drug convicts in the jakarta post. capital punishment was executed to six drug convicts on january 18th, 2015. controversy about this action has risen before and after the execution. people give their opinions in social media, such as facebook, twitter, blogs, and newspapers. the jakarta post is a well-known english newspaper in indonesia which has a lot of readers. people choose this newspaper to convey their ideas so that their opinions will be read by people around the world. as the issue about capital punishment is popular recently, this research attempts at finding out people’s ideology about capital punishment for drug convicts. critical discourse analysis was conducted in this research as an approach to figure out how language use by the people can reveal their ideology of capital punishment. this research focused on observing four opinions of capital punishment for drug convicts in the jakarta post. the analysis shows that material processes dominate the opinions, followed by relational, mental and verbal processes. the ideologies revealed in the opinions are power, pessimism, and criticism. before the execution, pessimism dominates the opinions, while after the execution criticism appears most in the opinions. key words: language, ideology, critical discourse analysis, capital punishment, power, pessimism, criticism abstrak: penelitian ini merupakan sebuah investigasi terhadap penggunaan bahasa dalam opini masyarakat mengenai hukuman mati isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 135 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post terhadap narapidana narkoba di the jakarta post. hukuman mati baru saja diberikan kepada narapidana narkoba pada 18 januari 2015. banyak kontroversi yang muncul baik sebelum maupun sesudah eksekusi tersebut. masyarakat memberikan pendapat mereka di media sosial seperti facebook, twitter, weblog, dan suratkabar. the jakarta post merupakan surat kabar berbahasa inggris yang cukup terkenal di indonesia dan mempunyai banyak pembaca. penulis di kolom opini memilih surat kabar ini agar tulisanmereka dapat dibaca oleh orang-orang di seluruh dunia. karena isu tentang hukuman mati populer belakangan ini, penelitian ini mencoba untuk menemukan ideologi masyarakat mengenai hukuman mati pada narapida nanarkoba. penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan analisis wacana kritis untuk mengungkapkan bagaimana penggunaan bahasa oleh masyarakat dapat menunjukkan ideologi mereka mengenai hukuman mati.penelitian ini terfokus pada empat artikel mengenai hukuman mati yang ada di kolom opini di the jakarta post. berdasarkan analisis yang telah dilakukan, proses material mendominasi opini masyarakat, diikuti oleh proses relasional, mental, dan verbal. ideologi yang muncul adalah kekuatan, pesimisme, dan kritik. sebelum eksekusi mati, pesimisme mendominasi opini masyarakat, sedangkan setelah eksekusi didominasi oleh kritik. kata kunci: bahasa, ideologi, analisis wacana kritis, hukuman mati, kekuasaan, pesimisme, kritik introduction drug abuse and addiction are serious problems as they destroy human beings. it does not only create injuries but also health and behavioral problems. drug addiction is also risky for pregnant women and their babies. some drugs can cause a baby to be born too small or too soon, or to have withdrawal symptoms, birth defects on learning and behavioral problems (recovergateway.org/substance-abuse-resources/drug-addiction-effects/). indonesia is recorded as a country which has a high percentage of drug abuse and addiction. the national narcotics agency (bnn) mentions that there are 4.5 million drug users in indonesia, 22% of those are students and 70% are workers (www.bbc.com). students, housewives, artists, office or independent workers, politicians, even athletes cannot be separated from drug abuse. consequently, the indonesian government has decided to solve this case by giving capital punishment to the convicts, particularly dealers. 136 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 recently, capital punishment was executed to six drug dealers: each of them came from brazil, nigeria, netherlands, malawi, vietnam, and indonesia. people started to comment the issue in various media, such as facebook, twitter, blogs, and newspapers. online media are seen as the suitable place to convey their ideas in different perspectives. the jakarta post is an online and printed english newspaper in indonesia. to convey their opinions, people can write their ideas in the opinion columns. the columns can be accessed easily by the readers. the popularity of the newspaper and its easy access motivate this research. language use in opinion can greatly influence readers. people can convey their ideologies through the choice of words. to comprehend the ideology, language study is necessary to conduct as ideology is constructed and conveyed by symbolic forms of various kinds (thompson in wodak & meyer, 2001). people cannot perceive or interpret a social group’s ideology by giving free judgment. proofs on language choice must be discussed thoroughly to avoid misleading interpretations. in order to achieve critical interpretations on a text, critical discourse analysis (cda) provides tools to criticize texts. cda believes that text and talk play a key role in maintaining and legitimizing inequality, injustice, and oppression on society (leeuwen in renkema, 2009, p. 277). to prove the previous statement, halliday’s systemic functional linguistics (sfl) is believed to provide the fundamental insight that made it possible to move linguistic analysis beyond formal description and use it as a basis for social critique (leeuwen in renkema, 2009, p. 279). sfl proposes that meanings are represented through ideational (field), interpersonal (tenor), and textual (mode) functions: language is to represent the speaker’s experience of the real world, to enact social relations with the addressee and to relate text to context (yang in renkema, 2009, p. 158). ideational function is found by conducting transitivity analysis. by doing so, people’s support or disapproval of capital punishment for drug convicts can be seen clearly through the representation of the participants in the clause. motivated by the above background, this research intends to achieve two purposes.the first purpose is to figure out the language use in the opinions. the language use in the opinion is described in terms of the participants in the clauses of the text. manan asserts, “transitivity is the very foundation of representation as it enables the analysis and interpretation of a particular event or situation in different ways (2001, p. 38).” transitivity is able to describe the isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 137 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post role of its participant in each clause from the process occurring there. each process in transitivity analysis shows how language users relate themselves to the real world. the second purpose is to find out the ideologies brought by the opinions of capital punishment for drug convicts. the findings of language use in the opinions become the tools to interpret the ideology in the opinions. ideology can never be very far away from analysis of the words (carter & simpson, 2005, p. 14). the choice of words in the data is able to derive how people convey their ideologies of certain cases through the choice of process, participants, and circumstances in the clauses. this article is expected to give some benefits for the readers, particularly language researchers. this research proves that cda enables the language researchers to criticize certain issues in a society. cda is applicable to observe language use in politics, economics, educations, or literature. this research enriches the application of cda in a social issue, capital punishment for drug convicts. this research is believed to also give insight for linguists who have passion in investigating language use in various social phenomena. another benefit is, by describing language use in certain issues, critical interpretation of it can be reached. the power of media to wrap certain issues in their language greatly influences people’s mind. as a result, distorted opinions may happen. this research depicts how the critical observation on language use can avoid the previous assumption. those interested in cda can use the findings of this research as a comparison on similar topics or methods. consequently, deeper understanding on cda can occur since academicians have more topics to compare. literature review a. language and ideology ideology is the message or meanings which are found in language. ideology could be argued as how social relationships are shown in analysis (fairclough, 1995). furthermore, fairclough (1995) clarifies that in the analysis of a language, ideology exists in various ways at various levels. ideology should be located both in the structure and discursive events. in the structure level, it constitutes the outcome of past events and the conditions for current events. 138 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 on the other hand, in discursive events, ideology reproduces and transforms its conditioning structure. ideology reveals the implicit and explicit meanings of the language use. meanwhile, wodak (2007) clarifies that ideology is equated with intended or non-intended meanings, with illocutionary and perlocutionary forces. ideology enables the readers of the analysis react differently. however, ideology makes itself felt in a language even though there may not becontradictions thompson (1990) in wodak and meyer (2001) points out that ideology is the study of the ways in which meaning is constructed and conveyed by symbolic forms of various kinds. in conclusion, wodak and meyer (2001) say that ideology is the basic social representations of social groups. it has a schematic structure that represents the self-image of each group, featuring membership devices, aims, activities, norms, and resources of each group. in sum, ideology can be defined as both intended and extended meanings interpreted from language choice in a text. b. systemic functional linguistics (sfl) and critical discourse analysis (cda) sfl and cda are closely related to one another. young and harrison (2004) identify that both sfl and cda share some unities: they share a view of language as a social construct, language influence the contexts and vice versa, and they emphasize the cultural and historical aspects of meaning (1). the meaning of language cannot be separated from its contexts. sfl propose the two contexts in which language is influenced. sfl treats language as a means to convey people’s ideas in various ways and purposes by means of wordings (mathiessen and halliday, 1997). to create meanings grammar can be represented within metafunctions: ideational (field), interpersonal (tenor), and textual function (mode). the first metafunction, ideational, includes the language users’ experience of the internal world of their consciousness through their reactions, cognitions, and perceptions, and also their linguistic acts of speaking and understanding (halliday, 2004). to figure out how language users relate their experience to the real world, transitivity analysis is offered. morley (2000) asserts that transitivity aims at identifying the participants or things which are involved, the actions and event taking place, and any relevant surrounding circumstances. there are six isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 139 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post processes in the ideational function, namely material, mental, verbal, relational, behavioral and existential processes. research on language and ideology has been conducted by many scholars. isti’anah observed language use by people to comment the issue on the jakarta governor election (2014). the research concludes that most opinions utilized material processes to show what jakarta people expect from the governor, reflected by actor-goal, affected, and goal-recipient participants. manan conducts similar research to find out how newspaper brings its ideology of anwar and the reformation (2001). the research finds out that anwar is portrayed as a powerful figure in malaysia. it also concludes that language in the media has an important role in the construction of social reality. the previous studies prove that cda can be applied to criticize social issues. methodology this research observed the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug convicts in selected opinions in the jakarta post. there were four selected opinions talking about capital punishment for drug convicts, two of which were published before january 18, 2015 and the two others after the execution. the jakarta post was chosen as the source of the data since that newspaper can be accessed easily on the internet. as a consequence, the newspaper has a great power to influence the readers’ mind on a certain issue as it can be accessed easily from people’s gadget. the approach to observe the data above was critical discourse analysis. baxter mentions that in language study, cda enables language scholars to observe how features of grammar work ideologically within individual texts to undermine oppressed groups (cited in litosseli, 2010, p. 127). the observation of word choice enables the researcher to determine what process happens in the text. fairclough (2006) clarifies that the critical approach in cda is able to show how discourse is shaped by relations of power and ideologies, and the constructive effects discourse has upon social identities, social relations and systems of knowledge and belief, neither of which is normally apparent to discourse participants (p. 12). this research is in an attempt to find out how the choice of lexical and grammatical features in the opinion reveals people’s ideologies towards the issue of capital punishment of drug convicts. as an example, one of the clauses 140 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 in the data is “indonesia (actor) is among the few countries with the harshest drug laws, executing drug traffickers (goal) to create a deterrent effect.” the lexical choice “execute”marks the existence of a material process. the process is done by the powerful figure, or an actor, in this case, “indonesia”. the action “execute” is done towards another participant, which is called a goal, “drug traffickers”. such analysis is able to reveal poweras the ideology brought by the clause. power, in the clause, is revealed through the material verb done by the actor. this choice is also able to influence the readers’ mind that indonesia is a country which is eager to punish the traffickers for the sake of its integrity. for the procedures, each opinion was broken down into its clauses, thus analyzed using transitivity analysis. the findings of processes, participants, and circumstances in each opinion were, then, put in a table and presented in percentage. this article also discusses how certain choice of processes in the data can bring different ideologies and how different ideologies can be revealed by the same process. findings based on the analysis of the data, there were 108 clauses found in the four articles containing opinions related to capital punishment. before january 18, 2005, there were 50 clauses talking about capital punishment, while after january 18, 2015, there were 58 clauses talking about it. the two periods have the similarity of the choice of processes: dominated by material processes, followed by relational processes. the table below displays the findings. table 1: summary of processes in the opinions before and after january 18, 2015 no processes before january 18, 2015 after january 18, 2015 no % no % 1 material 29 58 29 50 2 relational 18 36 27 46 3 mental 2 4 1 2 4 verbal 1 2 1 2 total 50 100 58 100 isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 141 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post the table above shows that there are no significant percentage differences on the use of language choice in the opinions before and after january 18, 2015. before january 18, material processes are used in 58%, while after january 18, the same processes are used in 50%. for relational processes, they are used in 36% before january 18 and 46% after january 18. the last two processes, mental and verbal processes, are used 4% and 2% in the opinions before january 18, and are exercised in 2% for verbal processes in both before and after january 18. the material processes utilize different appearance of participants in the clause. material processes refer to the process of doing or happening. the clauses below display the use of actor-goal participants. (1) in 2008, indonesia (actor) executed two drug traffickers (goal) and in 2013, it (actor) executed one more drug trafficker (goal). (www.thejakartapost.com) (2) for the convicts, all indonesian nationals, jokowi’s compassion (actor) would have saved their lives (goal) since they were sentenced to death for premeditated murder and drug trafficking. (www.thejakartapost.com) (3) jokowi (actor) has proven himself (goal) to be an assertive leader true to his words and intentions. (www.the jakartapost.com) the material verbs in clauses 1 to 3 require two participants, actor and goal. the verbs “execute”, “save”, and “prove” are included as transitive verbs that require an object. the object in clauses 1-3 are categorized as a goal. a goal receives an action done by an actor. another variation use of participants in material processes are actor, goal, and affected. (4) …that those most deserving of the death sentence under our laws (actor) can escape, as long as they diligently grease the palms of the law enforcers. (www.thejakartapost.com) (5) they (goal) will less likely be caught shooting up, or perspiring near customs officers like the drug mules. (www.thejakartapost.com) (6) …and the drugs (affected) are confiscated. (www.thejakartapost.com) a material process enables a single participant. an actor can stand as the only participant as in clause 4. it is possible as the material verb “escape”refers to “happening”rather than “doing”. the different participant can be found in 142 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 clause 5 which has a goal as the participant. a goal can stand alone in passive. a similar analysis also occurs in clause 6. there is an affected in 6, which is also in passive. in the relational processes, there are three variation uses of participants. below are the findings: (7) hence, the argument that death penalty carries a deterrence effect (carrier) is implausible (attribute). (www.thejakartapost.com) (8) however, he (carrier) is a pragmatic politician and bureaucrat, not the idealist with visionary grand concepts that some have made him out to be (attribute). (www.thejakartapost.com) a relational process entails intransitive verbs and verbs indicating possessive or circumstantial relations (manan, 2001, p. 39). the relational process in clauses 7 and 8 has carrier and attribute participants. in clause 7, the carrier is attached to its attribute, and the clause cannot be passivized. the carrier is in the form of a noun phrase (np) and the attribute is an adjective. similar to clause 7, clause 8 also has an np as the carrier and another np as its attribute. the head of attribute in 8 is “politician”and“bureaucrat”. this type of relational process is called an attributive relational process marked by “to be”and “linking verbs”as its verb (isti’anah, 2012, p. 28). a different type of a relational process is found in clause 9. (9) in current conditions, we (possessor) have little clout in speaking up for over 200 citizens on death row abroad (possessed). (www.thejakartapost.com) the participants there are not carrier-attribute, but possessor-possessed. this type of relational process is called possessive relational process, marked by verbs “have”and its synonyms. a possessor is the np which owns a possessed, which is also an np. the head of the possessed in clause 9 is “clout”. the use of mental processes is found in the following clauses: (10) jokowi (sensor) wants to project an image of firmness in upholding the law (phenomenon). (www.thejakartapost.com) isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 143 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post (11) experts and policymakers, jokowi (sensor) included, believe capital punishment serves as an effective deterrence against crime (phenomenon). (www.thejakartapost.com) (12) millions of citizens (sensor) are satisfied with the announcement of the executions (phenomenon). (www.thejakartapost.com) in clauses above, the mental process is marked by the verbs “want”, “believe”, and “satisfied”. in clause 10, the mental verb is categorized as a volition verb. in clause 11, the mental verb is said as a cognition verb, while in clause 12 the mental verb is called an affection verb. the mental verbs in clauses 10 to 12 are different, but the clauses have the same participants, senser-phenomenon. a sensor is the participant who senses or feels, while a phenomenon is the participant which is felt. the sensors in clauses 10 to 12 are realized in a form of an np and so is the phenomenon of clause 11. the phenonemon in clauses 10 and 12 are in the form of a prepositional phrase (pp). the other process in the opinions is verbal processes. the processes can be seen below. (13) jokowi (sayer) says he will not pardon almost 60 other drug convicts on death row either (verbiage). (www.thejakartapost.com) (14) many of his policies and actions in these past three months (sayer), excluding the “big-mother” drama alluding to the influence of his patron speak of a leader who is not easily pressured by either domestic public opinion or international pressure. (www.the jakartapost.com) a verbal process is a process of saying. this process has sayer and verbiage participants. a sayer is the participant who says, marked by an np. in clauses 13 and 14, the sayer is realized by an np. in clause 13, the verbiage is the form of a noun clause (nc). an nc can be put in the verbiage position as it has the same function as an np. in clause 14, the verbiage is in the form of a pp modified by a nc. however, the verbiage here also refers to the sayer itself. the paragraphs above demonstrate that language users have freedom to convey their meanings by the choice of wordings. the same process can be realized through various ways. different verbs determine processes, thus participants in the texts. the analysis illustrated above also proves that language scholars are able to find the ideologies of people towards certain issues. the analysis is needed so that objective interpretation can be made. 144 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 from the analysis, there are three ideologies found: power, pessimism, and criticism. each of which is discussed below. table 2: summary of ideology in the opinions before and after january 18, 2015 no ideology before january 18, 2015 after january 18, 2015 no % no % 1 power 17 34 6 10 2 pessimism 24 48 12 20 3 criticism 9 18 40 70 total 50 100 58 100 table 2 above depicts different ideologies which appear before and after the execution to the six drug convicts. before january 18, 2005, the opinions are dominated by “pessimism”, while after january 18, the opinions are dominated by “criticism”. before the execution, “pessimism” appears in almost a half of the total data, 48%. on the other hand, “criticism”dominates the opinions published after the execution, realized in 70%. a. power power is the first ideology found in the data. power is shown in the data by the existence of different processes: material, mental, and verbal processes. material processes are marked by the use of material verbs. as the dominating process in the data, this process is also realized in different ways. below are the examples: (15) indonesia isamong the few countries with the harshest drug laws, executing drug traffickers to create a deterrent effect. (www.thejakartapost.com) (16) the death penalty is retained because it is believed to have deterrence effect. (www.thejakartapost.com) (17) now jokowi, just over two months into his term, has refused to grant clemency to five convicts and will also withhold it from nearly 60 others. (www.thejakartapost.com) in the above clauses, the material process is marked by the verb “execute”, meaning to kill someone as a legal punishment (cambridge advanced leaner’s isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 145 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post dictionary). the material process contains of actor and goal as its participant. in clause 15, the actor is “indonesia” and the goal is “drugtraffickers”. another participant is circumstance, “to create a deterrent effect”. the choice of actor in clause 15, which is a country facing a big problem of drug abuse reveals that indonesia has a power to punish the traffickers. the punishment is expected to give a ‘lesson’ to the citizens. the material process in clause 16 above is marked by the verb “retained”. however, the participants in clause 16 are different from the ones in clause 15. in clause 16, the participants are affected and circumstance. “the death penalty” is the affected, as the verb “retain” is realized in passive clause. “retain” is regarded as happening process as it does not always involve the actor’s role. in other words, affected can be the only participant is the clause, excluding circumstance, in passive clause. the circumstance in clause 16 shows reason. the existence of the circumstance in clause 16 gives further understanding why the affected is chosen. the actor in clause 16 is unnecessary to mention as it is already clear that the one having power to punish the traffickers is indonesia. “power” is also revealed in clause 17. in clause 17, the actor is an np, jokowi. the choice of an actor reveals that people regards jokowi as a powerful figure who has the authority to “refuse” the goal. the material process in clause 17 is included as a process of doing in the form of a transitive verb, which needs another participant. the goal in 17 is realized in a pp. the existence of the goal in clause 17 also indicates the president’s power to reject the drug convicts’ clemency. “power” is also shown in the mental and verbal processes. below are the clauses: (18) experts and policymakers, jokowi included, believe capital punishment serves as an effective deterrence against crime. (www.thejakartapost.com) (19) many of his policies and actions in these past three months, excluding the “big-mother” drama alluding to the influence of his patron, speak of a leader who is not easily pressured by either domestic public opinion or international pressure. (www.thejakartapost.com) 146 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 “power” is revealed in clause 18 by the choice of its participant. in clause 18, jokowi acts as a senoer who tries to influence people about his intention to eradicate drug abuse in indonesia. here, he is portrayed as a powerful figure who chooses capital punishment as the best way to solve the massive effect of drug abuse. similar to clause 18, clause 19 also shows jokowi’s power as the president. however, “power” is realized by the different process. the verbal process here has a verbiage which refers to the sayer itself. such phenomenon occurs as the language user intends to stress the power of jokowi’s policies and actions, shown by the sayer. b. pessimism the second ideology found in the data is “pessimism”. “pessimism”is first revealed by the material processes. below are the examples. (20) jokowi, however, has apparently failed to learn from the past. (www.thejakartapost.com) (21) similar to reports of new recruits to extremist movements, the death penalty has not deterred extreme jihadists. (www.thejakarta post.com) (22) …that those most deserving of the death sentence under our laws can escape, as long as they diligently grease the palms of the law enforcers. (www.thejakartapost.com) in clause 20, the material process is marked by the verb “fail”. the actor of clause 20 is jokowi and the goal is “to learn from the past”. the president’s failure to learn from the past is seen as people’s pessimism towards the president to solve the massive effect of drug abuse in indonesia. similar to clause 20, clause 21 also shows pessimism using material process, marked by the verb “deter”. the verb is modified by a negation “not”, whose actor is “the death penalty”. the goal in clause 21 is an np, extreme jihadists. people think that terrorism, done by extreme jihadists, is not comparable to drug abuse. the death penalty for extreme jihadists is tolerable, while drug abuse is seen as a different case. extreme jihadists do not have any access to enable corruption. on the other hand, drug abuse is closely related to another criminal case. what people expect to eradicate is not drug abuse itself, but also it’s surrounding affects. isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 147 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post “pessimism” is also shown by material process which has an actor participant. the actor in clause 22 is an np, “those most deserving of the death sentence under our laws”. the material verb “escape” is categorized as a verb of happening rather than doing. therefore, the clause does not need a goal. “pessimism” is revealed by the verb “escape”. the actor is able to do the action as negation is empty there. the circumstance of condition can be found in clause 22, “as long as they diligently grease the palms of the law enforcements”. people are not only pessimistic about president’s ability to solve the problem, but also the law enforcements. besides material processes, “pessimism” is also revealed in relational processes. below are the examples. (23) labeling drug trafficking as an extraordinary crime is groundless from the perspective of international law. (www.thejakar tapost.com) (24) the intention that the death penalty will get rid of drug traffickers is therefore not achievable.... (www.thejakartapost.com) (25) as the above arguments demonstrate, the death penalty is ineffective for combating drug trafficking... (www.thejakar tapost.com) in clause 23, the relational process is categorized as an attributive relational process. the carrier is the np, “labeling drug trafficking as an extraordinary crime”, which is attached to its attribute, “groundless from the perspective of international law”. the government actually expects that indonesian citizens support its sentencing death to the drug convicts. however, the participants in clause 23 reveal that people are pessimistic about what the government has done. drug abuse is as ordinary as other cases, so it does not need to involve the death penalty. “pessimism” also appears in clause 24. the carrier is an np, “the intention”, which is modified by an nc, “that the death penalty will get rid of drug traffickers”. the attribute is an adjective, “achievable”. the verb “to be” in clause 24 is modified by a negation, not, which also stresses “pessimism”. in a relational process, carrier is always attached to its attribute. therefore, by choosing this process, people are pessimistic about the government’s decision to retain death penalty as the best punishment to its traffickers. 148 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 in clause 25, “pessimism” is also shown by carrier-attribute relations. the carrier in clause 25 is “the death penalty” and the attribute is “ineffective”. this process reveals people’s pessimism about the death penalty as an effective way to eradicate drug abuse in indonesia. the occurrence of a circumstance of purpose “for combating drug trafficking” functions to modify the attribute. this construction stresses “pessimism” that the death penalty will stop drug abuse. in the analysis, “pessimism”is mostly revealed by relational processes. it proves that the death penalty is not supported in indonesia as the best policy to solve drug abuse. c. criticism the last ideology found in the data is criticism. criticism is revealed by material processes as seen in the examples below: (26) the government’s policy has been widely criticized internationally but has the near-unanimous support of the indonesian public and politicians. (www.thejakartapost.com) (27) the death penalty, and particularly the executions of drug traffickers by the government of president joko “jokowi” widodo, has recently generated two vastly differing reactions. (www.thejakartapost.com) (28) president jokowi is indeed untainted by human rights violations. (www.thejakartapost.com) the material process in clause 26 is passive. the participant is a goal, “the government policy”. this participant receives a material verb “criticize”, described further by a circumstance of manner, “internationally”. this choice of process reveals criticism as the actions of the government are not only paid attention to by its citizens, but also people throughout the world. while other countries eliminate the death penalty, indonesia keeps it as an attempt to stop drug abuse. criticism goes to the government led by joko widodo. criticism also appears in clause 27. the actor in clause 27, “the death penalty”, is modified by another np, “and particularly the executions of drug traffickers by the government of president joko “jokowi” widodo”, which actually functions to strengthen the role of the actor. an actor is the participant which leads the action of doing, “generate”. this construction reveals “criticism” as the president is also mentioned in the clause to modify the actor. the goal in clause 27 is also an np, “two vastly differing reactions”. isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 149 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post the goal also shows criticism as it becomes the effect of the president’s policy about capital punishment to drug convicts. another way which reveals criticism is shown in clause 28. there, “president jokowi” is realized as the goal as the clause is passive. the actor in clause 28 is an np, “human right violations”. the material verb “untainted” reveals criticism as it reflects that the president is not influenced by the issue of human right. what jokowi is concerned about is the future of indonesian citizens. jokowi is not influenced by the opinions and demonstration related to his decision. he attempts at showing people around the world that indonesia has its own law which must be respected, too. what he decides is criticized widely by people in the name of human rights. the same ideology can be shown by different use of process. through relational processes, criticism can be identified as seen below: (29) in current conditions, we have little clout in speaking up for over 200 citizens on death row abroad. (www.thejakartapost.com) (30) however, he is a pragmatic politician and bureaucrat, not the idealist with visionary grand concepts that some have made him out to be. (www.thejakartapost.com) (31) …his rejection of clemency for death-row inmates and today’s line-up of executions is not uncharacteristic of his leadership. (www.thejakartapost.com) in clause 29, the relational process is shown by possessor-possessed participants. “criticism” is revealed through the lexical items “little clout”, as the possessed. indirectly, the opinion criticizes the government which seems to close its “ears”. what the government has decided of capital punishment is unchanged. the circumstance of time, “in current conditions”,refers to jokowi’s presidential era. his era is different from previous, on which capital punishment can be “bargained”. another circumstance, in speaking up for over 200 citizens on death row abroad, is actually criticizing the upcoming effect faced by indonesian citizens who were also sentenced death. the current government seems not to protect its own citizens. the relation to countries whose citizens are punished by death is also out of jokowi’s concern. similar to previous analysis, clauses 30 and 31 also criticize jokowi. in clause 30, jokowi is attached to an attribute, “a pragmatic politician and bureaucrat”, which is modified by another np, “not the idealist with visionary 150 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 grand concepts that some have made him out to be”. clause 31 also criticizes jokowi’s decision as an attribute, “not uncharacteristic of his leadership”. both clauses reveal that jokowi is actually open to criticisms, but what he promoted in his campaign about mental revolution “forces” him to retain the capital punishment execution. what is said in clause 31 clearly criticizes jokowi’s leadership as the president. conclusion it is inevitable that capital punishment attracts people’s eyes on it. the way people comment on the issues reflects the society. the massive effect of drug abuse in indonesia cannot be ignored and has to be overcome seriously. this research finds that the capital punishment done in jokowi’s presidential era does not get sufficient support from the citizens. pessimism which appears before the execution is the proof, presented in 48%. after the execution, criticism follows, shown in 70%. the findings reveal that indonesian people are still concernedwith human rights issues. besides, they also put attention to indonesian relationswith other countries. drug abuse is also seen as a crime which is closely related to corruption. people criticize that the eradication of drug abuse should touch the law administers. people are still pessimistic that the “mental revolution” campaigned by jokowi is only for partial matters, as power only appears in 10% after the execution. references atmanta, d. 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(2001). methods of critical discourse analysis. london: sage publication. young, l. & harrison, c. (2004). systemic functional linguistics and critical discourse analysis: studies in social science. london: continuum. appendix 1: article published before january 18, 2015. death penalty does not deter drug traffickers the attorney generals office (ago) has announced its plan to execute five people by the end of 2014: mostly drug traffickers. indonesia is among the few countries with the harshest drug laws, executing drug traffickers to create a deterrent effect. however, indonesia’s position to retain the death penalty, particularly for drug offenses, is problematic. isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 153 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post first, the indonesian legal community often refers to drug trafficking as an “extraordinary crime”, thereby justifying the extraordinary punishment of the death penalty. however, labeling drug trafficking as an extraordinary crime is groundless from the perspective of international law. article 6 of the international covenant on civil and political rights (iccpr) — which indonesia has ratified — states that for countries that have not yet abolished the death penalty, it may only be imposed for “the most serious crimes”. various un bodies, such as the un high commissioner for human rights, un human rights committee, un special rapporteur for extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions killings and the un office on drugs and crime, have consistently asserted that drug offenses do not meet the threshold of “the most serious crimes” to which the death penalty may lawfully be applied. in his 2012 report to the un general assembly, the un special rapporteur on extrajudicial killings stated that the death penalty should only be applied for offenses of intentional killings, based on the practices of retentionist states and the jurisprudence of the un and other bodies. in march 2014, the international narcotics control board — the independent and quasi-judicial body for monitoring government compliance with the three international drug control conventions, of which indonesia is a member, encouraged states to abolish the death penalty for drug-related offenses. the 1988 convention against illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances does not recognize the concept of “extraordinary crimes” for drug offenses. the convention places drug offenses into two categories. first, drug offenses of a “grave nature”, such as the production, manufacturing and extraction of drugs. second, offenses that are “particularly serious”, such as the involvement of organized criminal groups in the production of drugs. the 1988 convention does not explicitly recognize the death penalty for drug offenses. therefore, from an international drug law and international human rights law perspective, categorizing drug trafficking as an “extraordinary crime” and applying the death penalty to drug offenses is indefensible. 154 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 second, the death penalty is retained because it is believed to have deterrence effect. this view is simply invalid. in 2008, indonesia executed two drug traffickers and in 2013, it executed one more drug trafficker. according to the 2012 death penalty report by the harm reduction international group, there were approximately 100 people on death row in indonesia, including 58 drug traffickers. according to the 2013 annual report of indonesia’s national narcotics agency (bnn), there were 260 drug traffickers arrested in 2013 — an increase from 157 people in 2011 and 202 people in 2012. these numbers suggest that while the death penalty is continuously imposed and executions are carried out, the crime of drug trafficking shows no sign of abating. it seems obvious that the death penalty does not deter drug traffickers. further, in the past few years there have been cases where drug traffickers were able to operate from inside the prison. this indicates that they may not be afraid of the penalty because they can bribe prison officials and other law enforcers. hence, the argument that death penalty carries a deterrence effect is implausible. third, it is also often argued that drug trafficking has fatal consequences for younger generations and therefore drug traffickers deserve to be sentenced to death. but as william schabas — an international scholar on the death penalty — rightly points out, in most cases, the drug traffickers are arrested and the drugs are confiscated. interdicting drugs before they reach the public means that the trafficker sentenced to death could not have sold the drugs nor could anyone else and, hence, no lives have been lost. fourth, the higher probability that a harsh sentence is to be passed down, the higher probability that corruption is involved. it is widely known that the indonesian legal system is tainted with corruption and bribery. in this corrupted legal environment, if a drug trafficker is arrested and punishable by the death sentence, he or she is ready to pay high sums to enforcers to avoid prosecution or seek lenient sentences. rich drug traffickers will likely be able to evade the death penalty while those who are poor and cannot afford to bribe will be the ones facing execution. the intention that the death penalty will get rid of drug traffickersis therefore not achievable and the risk that the state executes the wrong person is higher. isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 155 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post fifth, organizations running illicit drug trafficking are involved in a complex network controlled by some powerful people. those arrested are often just drug mules taking the greatest risks. imposing the death penalty on them will not deter the drug kingpins controlling the syndicate as they will continue to seek, groom and exploit vulnerable individuals to do the dirty jobs. illicit drug trafficking unquestionably has harmful effects on individuals and society. however, there is a common misconception that imposing the death penalty and executing those involved in drug trafficking is the magic formula to address this problem. as the above arguments demonstrate, the death penalty is ineffective for combating drug trafficking, and thus indonesia must evaluate its strategy. indonesia should probably start by evaluating its unrealistic “2015 indonesia drug free” program. while drugs have negative impacts on human beings, drugs can be positive too, for the purposes of health, science and technology. this means that we cannot live in a “drug-free world”, but looking at indonesia’s stubbornness to retain the death penalty despite its useless effect, one would ask whether indonesia is open and ready to evaluate its misguided beliefs. appendix 2: article published before january 18, 2015 view point: death penalty not always the best policy for the umpteenth time the death penalty has sparked controversy in indonesia. this time around it is president joko “jokowi” widodo who restarted the nationwide debate after he refused to grant mercy to five convicts on death row, which means they face imminent execution by firing squad. cabinet secretary andi widjajanto said thursday the president had signed a regulation that stipulates his rejection of the convicts’ plea for clemency. for the convicts, all indonesian nationals, jokowi’s compassion would have saved their lives since they were sentenced to death for premeditated murder and drug trafficking. jokowi says he will not pardon almost 60 other drug convicts on death row either. jokowi must have listened to his aides, legal experts and human rights champions, as well as people’s voices, before taking the tough decision. 156 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 however, there are several push factors that might have driven him to set aside considerations of human rights. first and foremost, it is already an open secret that drugs are accessible to everybody, including minors, a situation that jokowi describes as a state of narcotics emergency facing the nation. on thursday the national narcotics agency (bnn) found meth and marijuana inside the campus of a university located near to the bnn headquarters in east jakarta, prompting the agency to conduct more raids in other campuses. the un office on drugs and crime (unodc) says indonesia is among the largest producers of methamphetamine. indonesia ranked third in asia after china and thailand in terms of the amount of meth seized in 2012: 2.1 tons, which was triple the amount seized in 2008. second, narcotics pose a serious threat to jokowi’s much-vaunted mental revolution, which he envisions as a national character-building exercise to instill a new way of thinking and to encourage the adoption of positive values in all sectors. the mental revolution is supposed to induce healthy lifestyles and clear minds, which are required for national development. drug addiction will, of course, sabotage the goals. many governments, including indonesia, maintain death sentences for drug traffickers because of the moral decay they have inflicted on society, which amounts to a serious crime. third, drug-related crimes, as well as other crimes, have continued unabated in part because of poor law enforcement, which is evident in the involvement of law enforcers in the drug supply chain and the corrupt prison administrations that enable convicted drug lords to operate their businesses from behind bars. for most indonesians who are longing for tough law enforcement, jokowi’s merciless policy in the war on drugs looks to live up to their expectations. the president has also showed bold enforcement of the law when he ordered the sinking of foreign boats caught poaching fish in indonesian waters, which has been justified under the law since 2009 but never before carried out. it is crystal clear that jokowi wants to project an image of firmness in upholding the law. his support for the death sentence is just a logical consequence. experts and policymakers, jokowi included, believe capital punishment serves as an effective deterrence against crime. isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 157 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post weak, inconsistent law enforcement has becomea consistent threat to the rule of law in the country, as evident in public distrust for law enforcers and, hence, in widespread disobedience to the law. public defiance of the law is commonly visible on the streets, where motorists violate traffic rules at will because the offenses mostly go unpunished. jokowi could have been inspired by french philosopher jean-jacques rousseau, an avid proponent of the death sentence. in rousseau’s mind, wrongdoers were enemies of the state and violators of the social contract and therefore must either be exiled or put to death. a healthy state, he said, has few criminals. in fact, the death penalty has remained in place in many democracies, including the us, which is why indonesia has insisted on maintaining capital punishment as an instrument of deterrence, although that is not always the case. the death penalty runs counter to article 28a of the constitution, which clearly stipulates the right to life and defends life as a fundamental human right that shall not be curtailed under any circumstance. but this principle has been widely disregarded, including by the constitutional court as the defender of the constitution. in 2009 the court ruled that the right to life is not absolute and that capital punishment is a justified restriction of that right. jokowi, however, has apparently failed to learn from the past. the previous administration of president susilo bambang yudhoyono helped at least 110 indonesians escape the death penalty in china, iran, malaysia and saudi arabia, thanks in part to the unofficial moratorium on executions his government imposed between 2008 and 2012. yudhoyono commuted the death sentences of a number of convicts, including foreign drug traffickers. yudhoyono’s foreign minister marty natalegawa admitted indonesians sentenced to death overseas had benefited from the practice. marty said indonesia would have found it difficult to convince the governments of foreign countries to reprieve indonesian convicts on death row if jakarta had failed to show mercy, too. before resuming executions in 2013, yudhoyono had granted 19 of the 126 clemency pleas that he received since taking office in 2004. now jokowi, just over two months into his term, has refused to grant clemency to five convicts and will also withhold it from nearly 60 others. 158 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 in so doing jokowi has put the lives of more than 100 indonesian nationals currently facing death sentences overseas in danger. assuming that jokowi knows well the risks of his decision, he must be ready to face public condemnation for failing to protect his people abroad. appendix 3: article published after january 18, 2015. end death penalty, even if we’re not all that humane “take not life, which god has made sacred, except by way of justice and law. thus does he command you, so that you may learn wisdom.” this quote from the koran is among the sources of muslims’ agreement here with indonesia’s capital punishment, despite wide criticism of the criminal code inherited from dutch colonial times — and despite endless lambasting of the judiciary as being among the nation’s foremost corrupt institutions. support for the death penalty also comes from many, regardless of religion, particularly for the crimes of terrorism and drug abuse, the latter given the real fear of anyone’s youngsters being exposed to drug traffickers, from small-town alleys across the vast country, to the middle-class suburbs of the capital. families financially and emotionally drained by an addict are not the subject of daily headlines, but the sporadic, dramatic police raids and arrest of suspected abusers, producers and traffickers with large numbers of banned drugs invigorate the emotional push for strong government measures. and not many care to differentiate the drug user from the traffickers. it is such fears and sentiments that make the concern of human rights activists ring hollow in society, even as stated by the un special rapporteur for indonesia, with a name unfortunately harking back to the old colonial land, cornelis flinterman, who recently visited the country: “crimes involving narcotics cannot be considered the most serious crime for which the death penalty can be used as a legitimate penalty,” he said. indonesian diplomats to ordinary citizens have dismissed such protests from the un, the european union, home governments of the executed and death-row convicts and global rights organizations. they have defended president joko “jokowi” widodo, who has declared there will be no clemency for drug abuse convicts. thus, at least 20 other drug convicts on death row can expect louder international solidarity for their fate, though with little empathy here. isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 159 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post however, the appeal of, among others, the national commission on human rights to end the death penalty in related laws apart from the criminal code should be supported; it isinevitable that indonesia, which has adopted the universal human rights principles, acknowledges that the right to life is non-derogable. true, many of us are notas humane as human rights activists — surely terrorists and traffickers deserve to be shot, as like murderers they have no respect for others’ lives and continue to wreak damage and destruction from behind prison bars? but the chronic problem of indonesia being a destination, production center, apart from a hub, of drug trafficking shows law enforcement, including shooting convicts to death, has not solved the issue. similar to reports of new recruits to extremist movements, the death penalty has not deterred extreme jihadists. support for capital punishment here for drug abusers is based on strong religious beliefs and the equally strong conviction that nothing less than killing perpetrators destroying our children and families will help reduce the crime. such convictions remain, even as reports reveal that the big fish remain untouchable, that small-scale abusers become recruited into smuggling rings in prison, and as cleaning the judiciary from corruption has not been able to catch up with daily, largescale graft across the legal system, from the police to the courts to prison wardens — meaning that those most deserving of the death sentence under our laws can escape, as long as they diligently grease the palms of the law enforcers. millions of citizens are satisfied with the announcement of the executions, rather than giving convicts the comparable comfort of life-long imprisonment — but this is not upholding justice. president jokowi has successfully signaled his intent to uphold the law against drug smugglers. he could lead us a step forward in making drug abuse policies more effective and improve credibility in a judiciary that aims to deliver justice, including the heaviest penalties to those deserving them. this is not to say that those executed on sunday were innocent. but just because we cannot clean the judiciary fast enough compared to countries ranking much lower on global corruption index lists, does not mean we can take the fast lane and kill some convicts. as a former trafficker told me, those who get arrested and jailed are just stupid. the real kings of the business diligently consort with law enforcers and stay clean of drug abuse themselves. they will less likely be caught shooting up, or perspiring near customs officers like the drug mules. 160 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 in current conditions, we have little clout in speaking up for over 200 citizens on death row abroad. at the very least president jokowi needs to put a hold on death penalties — because the executions’ message is notlaw enforcement and justice. it is law enforcement, but still selective justice to those who didn’t manage to escape the firing squad. appendix 4: article published after january 18, 2015 time to abolish the death penalty in indonesia last week, we learned that lindsay sandiford, a british citizen, was sentenced to death for drug trafficking charges by a bali court. the prosecution asked for a 15-year sentence, but the judges decided instead to impose the maximum penalty: death. in recent years, indonesia had appeared to be shifting away from the death penalty, in line with the global trend toward abolition. no one has been executed here since 2008, and death sentences have dropped to just a handful annually. this shift is visible in foreign diplomacy as well. for the first time last year, indonesia changed its vote for a un moratorium on the use of the death penalty from opposition to abstention. indonesia’s delegate stated on the record that the public debate on capital punishment in indonesia was “ongoing, including concerning a possible moratorium”. the denpasar district court’s action this week stands in stark contrast to indonesia’s stated and demonstrated policy to move away from the death penalty. this new death sentence should serve as the impetus for the complete abolition of the death penalty in indonesia. more than two-thirds of the countries in the world have abolished the death penalty. the year 2013 should be the time for indonesia to follow suit. we should abolish the death penalty, first of all, because it is the right thing to do and would show the world that indonesia is committed to the protection of human rights. we should also abolish the death penalty so that we are no longer compared to other death penalty retainers, like the us, whose criminal justice systems are notoriously problematic and rife with errors. the controversies surrounding death penalty cases in america are well-documented. isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 161 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post in the us, two out of three death penalty cases are overturned on appeal for mistakes committed by lawyers, judges and investigating officials at the original trial. many americans believe that innocent people have been executed in the us. the case of carlos deluna, a man executed in texas in 1989, has received a great deal of attention in the us because of a recent investigation that strongly indicated his innocence. a total of 142 prisoners have been exonerated from death row in the us since 1973. indonesia is not immune from these same concerns about executing the innocent. the case of sengkon and karta, who served six years in prison before they were declared innocent in 1980, is a bitter reminder that the law, as a man-made institution, is fallible. nations across the world are beginning to recognize that if they are to make a commitment to human rights, they must also make a commitment to the right to life by abolishing the death penalty. countries like the us may be willing to execute people who are innocent or who did not receive a fair trial. but indonesia can and should do better. indonesia should lead the way for association of south east asian nations (asean) member states and emerging global powers by abolishing the death penalty once and for all. jokowi’s stance on death penalty ignores unfairness the death penalty, and particularly the executions of drug traffickers by the government of president joko “jokowi” widodo, have recently generated two vastly differing reactions. the government’s policy has been widely criticized internationally but has the nearunanimous support of the indonesian public and politicians. regrettably, the only visible segment of the indonesian public strongly opposed to the death penalty are the human rights activists. in the sights for the next round of executions are two australians, andrew chan and myuran sukumaran, leaders of the bali nine drug ring. the stern and swift executions tell something of jokowi’sppresidency and his leadership. it perhaps came as a shock to the international community, which had euphoric expectations of jokowi when he won the presidency. many distant observers had unrealistic expectations that jokowi as a “new” politician 162 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 would strive for all the “good” things: clean government, effective bureaucracy, human rights and so on. president jokowi is indeed untainted by human rights violations, and seems to genuinely care for the welfare of his people. however, he is a pragmatic politician and bureaucrat, not the idealist with visionary grand concepts that some have made him out to be. as we have seen in the first three months of his presidency, in terms of policy and actions within his control, he lived upto his “packaging”, including the expected tugof-war against the string-pulling of the old guard. disregarding the current mess caused by the oligarchs within his coalition on political appointments and the chief of police debacle, jokowi has proven himself to be an assertive leader true to his words and intentions. he is not swayed by the whims of public opinion as his predecessor was. scrapping the fuel subsidy was an action the significance of which has been somewhat overlooked. the fact that it did not create a huge uproar, in spite of its perception as a pandora’s box by previous presidents, shows that jokowi’s leadership and political capital are greater than any other president since the beginning of reformasi. that said, his rejection of clemency for death-row inmates and today’s line-up of executions is not uncharacteristic of his leadership. many of his policies and actions in these past three months, excluding the “bigmother” drama alluding to the influence of his patron, speak of a leader who is not easily pressured by either domestic public opinion or international pressure. jokowi has shown that to some extent he has tunnel vision, concrete and measurable goals that fit his rather narrowly defined goals and vision. he saw the need to reallocate money to support his infrastructure build-up and health and security protection programs. hence, he was prepared to risk a tidal wave of public uproar. the same thing can be said of his leadership of indonesia vis-a-vis other countries and the international community. jokowi is not a hyper-nationalist leader who would isti’anah, a. the language and ideology of capital punishment for drug 163 convicts found in selected opinions in the jakarta post ferment nationalism against other countries to garner public support or show himself as a “man of the people”. but nor will he cave in to international pressure if, in his calculation, it is not beneficial for his measurable goals to do so. he is not a friend to a million strangers like his predecessor, as clear from the recent executions of foreigners and sinking of illegal fishing ships. the saving of any of the lives in the second execution roll-call, in particular the lives of the much-publicized two australians is now a forlorn hope. the fact that the first batch of executions included foreign citizens, exempting just the two australians would be perceived as a double standard and as peculiar subservience to australia. in light of rows between the two nations over issues including australia’s obstinacy on boat people and the lack of apology for the wire-tapping incident, it is particularly tricky for the australian government to lobby for the lives of chan and sukumaran. it is lamentable that the indonesian government, backed by overwhelming public opinion, looks likely to continue with the executions. it is particularly sad to see that of the convicts in the next batch, martin anderson from ghana, waiting to be executed for possession of a mere 50 grams of heroin. it seems probably that president jokowi’s stubborn stance on executions, in spite of the international outcry and the constitutional provision for the right to life, is down to the advice he is getting. he is likely being supplied with data and statistics on the drug problem plaguing indonesian society. it is thus only logical in his mind to go ahead with the executions. advocates against the death penalty will need to be able to connect their arguments to concrete and measurable goals within jokowi’s programs. they will also need to be able to show a clearer picture how the death penalty, as well as being prone to error, is also very unfairand can create a mess of the indonesian justice system. one clear contrast is the execution of anderson with the perfunctory sentences of between three and six months in prison for the killers of three ahmadi villagers in cikeusik, banten, in 2011 — an outrageous disparity. 164 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 134-164 the conclusion: abolish the death penalty to allow time to rethink and review the fairness of the sentences. foreign countries understandably need to lobby for the lives of their citizens, but this will prove futile if it means jokowi having to show preferential treatment to certain countries, which he will probably not do. foreign diplomats will need to help human rights activists frame the issue in the larger context and articulate how an end to the death penalty is in indonesia’s interests. cover-december celt 15 vol 2 index rev 2   ora lunyu dalane mbok? the use of phatic expressions in traditional selling and buying chusni hadiati english study program, english department, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university, purwokerto, indonesia email: chusnihadiati@yahoo.com received: 29-11-2016 accepted: 02-02-2017 published: 05-12-2017   https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in traditional selling and buying chusni hadiati chusnihadiati@yahoo.com english study program, english department, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university, purwokerto, indonesia abstract: selling and buying as a social praxis is commonly found in daily activities. traditional selling and buying is generally conducted in local language or dialect. banyumas dialect or banyumasan is a non-standard variation of javanese language spoken along the serayu river. traditional selling and buying in banyumas, consequently, is conducted in banyumas dialect. language plays important role in traditional selling and buying. in addition to its referential functions, phatic functions emerge from its practice. referential functions are realized when language is used to achieve referential things such as goods and services. on the other hand, phatic functions are gained when language is used to initiate, maintain, and end a conversation. phatic functions are very specific to traditional selling and buying which is rarely found in modern selling and buying. in modern selling and buying, seller and buyer may not be involved in a real conversation since goods exchange still occurs without any language exchange. this article proves the functions of phatic expressions in traditional selling and buying. it employs qualitative research method and conversational analysis to find the functions of phatic expressions. based on the analysis, phatic expressions in traditional selling and buying in banyumas dialect are mainly functioned for greeting, thanking, asking condition, showing surprise, emphasizing, and ending a conversation. key words: phatic expressions, traditional selling and buying, affective functions. mailto:chusnihadiati@yahoo.com hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 293 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: jual beli merupakan praktik sosial yang terjadi dalam kegiatan sehari-hari. jual beli tradisional pada umumnya dilakukan dengan menggunakan dialek setempat. dialek banyumas, banyumasan, merupakan variasi bahasa jawa yang dituturkan di sepanjang sungai serayu. jual beli tradisional di banyumas dilakukan dengan menggunakan dialek banyumas. bahasa memiliki peran penting dalam jual beli. di samping fungsi referensialnya, bahasa juga memiliki fungsi fatis. fungsi referensial direalisasikan ketika bahasa digunakan untuk memperoleh barang dan atau jasa. fungsi fatis digunakan untuk memulai, menjaga, dan mengakhiri percakapan. fungsi fatis merupakan fitur bahasa khusus dalam jual beli tradisional karena fungsi fatis tidak ditemukan di dalam jual beli modern. dalam jual beli modern, penjual dan pembeli dapat tidak terlibat dalam percakapan karena jual beli masih tetap dapat dilakukan tanpa pertukaran bahasa. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif yang bertujuan untuk membuktikan fungsi fatis dalam jual beli tradisional. fungsi fatis dalam jual beli tradisional digunakan untuk memberikan salam, menanyakan keadaan, menunjukkan keterkejutan, menekankan, dan mengakhiri percakapan. kata kunci: fungsi fatis, jual beli tradisional, fungsi afektif introduction having been involved in social interaction, human being are obliged to preserve harmonious relationship due to the fact that they are social creatures. they maintain the social bound by using many devices includes language. in addition to its main function as a tool to convey message from speaker to hearer, language can also be used to express personal expression. in some conditions, a conversation may happen for no reason. speaker and hearer use language merely to avoid silence in a conversation. it a simple way, the conversation does not carry any significant intention. in this condition, phatic communion deliberately takes place. selling and buying likes other daily activity is employed by human being to fulfill their need. unlike modern selling and buying, traditional selling and buying usually use simple management and small capital. it also generally conducted in local language or dialect. chambers and trudgill (1994, p.3) define dialect as a substandard, low status, often rustic form of language, generally associated with the peasantry, the working class, or other group of lacking in prestige. dialect is also a term which is often applied to form of language, particularly those spoken in more isolated parts of the world, which 294 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj have no written form. dialects are also often regarded as some kind of (often erroneous) deviation from a norm-as aberrations of a correct or standard form of language. javanese language is mainly spoken in java island. one variation of javanese language is banyumas dialect. banyumas dialect is a substandard of javanese language which has different phonological, grammatical feature, and lexical features. (wedhawati & arifin, 2006, p.17). this dialect is mainly spoken along the serayu river (koentjaraningrat, 1984, p. 23). banyumas dialect or banyumasan is primarily spoken in banjarnegara regency, purbalingga regency, banyumas regency, cilacap regency and kebumen regency (barlingmascakeb). traditional selling and buying in banyumas area is generally realized in banyumas dialect. in addition to its referential functions, traditional selling and buying conversation also reflect phatic functions. speaker and hearer involved in this activity often show phatic functions through their utterances. these utterances are used by the speakers not only to gain referential function but also to preserve harmonious relationship. preserving harmonious relationship among speakers may not be found in modern traditional selling and buying since transaction can take place without any single utterance exchanged in modern selling and buying. thus, the phenomena of phatic functions in traditional selling and buying are worth investigating. this article aims at proving the functions of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying in banyumas dialect. literature review malinowski has described the importance of phatic communion in everyday conversation as ‘free, aimless, social intercourse’. he further explains that ‘language here is not dependent upon what happens at that moment, it seems even to be deprived of any context of situation. he adds that the meaning of any utterances cannot be connected with the speaker’s or hearer’s behavior, with the purpose of what they are doing (malinowski, 1999 [1926], p. 302). here malinowski highlights that participants in communication may not have certain referential function, they merely communicate to preserves social relation. the similar thing is proposed by coupland, coupland, and robinson. they mention that ‘phatic communion is taken to designate some sort of hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 295 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj minimalist communicative practice, though along several possible dimensions. the ‘mereness’ of phatic communion [.....] by virtue of its interest vlue, low informative value, low relevance, perhaps, also its low trustworthiness, presupposes an alternative mode of ‘true’ or’authentic’ discourse from which phatic talk deviates (1992, p.210). what is explained by coupland et al. (1992). reflect the similar points with malinowski’s. they agreed that phatic communion is used to express interlocutors’ felling instead of referential or ideational meaning. leech, in his pragmatic term of maxim, (1983, pp. 141-142) also introduce phatic maxim which is defined as ‘the activity of talking mereley to preserve sociability’. the maxim is formulated in positive and negative form as to ‘keep talking’ and ‘avoid silence’. he mentions that phatic maxim does not carry illocutionary points in communication, it serves to extend common ground of agreement and experience shared by the participants. the subject matter in such communication tends to be non-controversial since it it is used to show participants’ attitude instead of the matter of fact. bakhtin (1999 [1986], p. 127) mentions ‘a large number of genres that are widespread in everyday life are so standard that the speaker’s individual will is manifested in its choice of a particular genre, and, perhaps, in its expressive intonations. the genres include greeting, farewell, congratulation, all kind of wishes, information about health, business, and so forth. based on the above mentioned statements, it can be inferred that phatic communion has more affective functions than referential functions and it used by participants to maintain social relationship. phatic communion is ferquently found in everyday conversation, include in selling and buying conversation. participants in selling and buying conversation usually have referential function that is to get goods or service. however, in their conversation they also use phatic communion with certain purposes. language as a means of communication is used in daily interaction. selling and buying is a social praxis whic is very close to human’s life. language play important role in selling and buying. selling and buying becomes the context of language use. in this article i use traditional selling and buying as the context of the research due to the fact that in traditional selling and buying, interlocutors (seller and buyer) are actively involved in transaction. it is very common in traditional selling and buying for a buyer to bargain the price. in modern selling and buying, a transaction may take place without any single utterance produced. a buyer can come to a supermarket, take the good and 296 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pay it in cashier without saying anything. the phenomenon in traditional selling and buying is different from the modern one. traditional selling and buying is defined as a transaction that involves seller and buyer in direct interaction or face-to-face communication, it uses small capital and it is usually conducted in local language or dialect. traditional selling and buying carries traditional or local value of the society. to comprehend the transaction, linguistic and non-linguistic context are necessary. those local values live in the utterances used in the transaction of traditional selling and buying. for example, a buyer may postpone the payment and still he can get the good he needs which means he can pay later. a seller can help her buyer by allowing him to pay the good next time. traditional selling and buying is marked by interpersonal relationship between seller and buyer. consequently, seller and buyer often produce utterances showing their personal feeling. those who are involved in traditional selling and buying usually have known each other, thus, they need to preserve harmonious relationship. in relation to this condition, seller and buyer in traditional selling and buying often produce affective utterances. therefore, language which is used in traditional selling and buying reflects affective function in addition to its referential function. (hadiati, 2016, p. 22). affective functions in traditional selling and buying are demonstrated by using phatic utterance. in traditional selling and buying, utterances at least carry three major functions, i.e. referential, affective and phatic functions. referential function is realized when utterances produced are used to facilitate the exchange, both goods and service. a seller’s price offering, for instance, is a type of referntial function. the second is affective function. it is utilized when uttereances are used to express personal feeling, whether it is a praise or compliment and disappointment. an utterance which is used to show a buyer’s complaint is an example of affective function. an utterance to praise the product quality is also classified as an affective function because both utterances-to show a buyer’s complaint and to praise product qualityreflect the speaker personal feeling. the third function is phatic function and it is basically used to avoid silence. it is also used to preserve harmonious relationship between seller and buyer, and to smoothe the conversationto express speaker’s personal feeling. since there is direct interaction between seller and buyer, friction may take place in traditional selling and buying. to avoid the friction, participants in interaction uses polite utterances. phatic expression can also be used to hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 297 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj show politeness because it tends to be used to express affective function rather than referential function. based on the explanation, i intend to prove the functions of phatic communion in traditional selling and buying. traditional selling and buying conversation in this research are those displayed in banyumas dialect. method this research uses qualitative method since it tries to explain the findings qualitatively (creswell, 1994). data are obtained from natural conversations of traditional selling and buying in traditional market. this research employs fifty traditional selling and buying conversations purposively chosen to elicit the realization of phatic communion in traditional selling and buying. the conversations are collected from traditional markets in banyumas, cilacap, banjarnegara, and purbalingga. sony handy-cam dcr-sx20e is chosen as the devices to record the data because it can provide clearer image and voice so that the utterances can be transcribed precisely. wray and bloomer (2006, p. 139) mention that in most circumstances, audio data is sufficient, but it is certainly worth considering using video equipment. they further explain that most people will soon forget about the recording as they become involved in the activities. the recorder is put in a hidden place, so that it can capture the natural conversation as well as the facial expression. having transcribed the recording conversation, i classify the utterances by using microstructure and macrostructure (van dijk as cited in renkema, 1993). microstructure and macrostructure are used to identify the utterance’s function. those functions are then elaborated by utilizing the context linguistic and non-linguistic context. non-linguistic context, facial expression, for instance, is important in determining the use of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying in banyumas. the schemata on banyumas culture also function as context since it takes part in meaning-making of phatic expression. findings the goal of selling and buying tansaction is to buy or to sell things and service. to gain the goal, seller and buyer use certain utterances. it has been noted that phatic expressions play important role in traditional selling and 298 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj buying. they are used to express affective feeling between seller and buyer. seller and buyer maintain harmonious relationship in addition to its referential function. the research findings show that phatic expressions in traditional selling and buying in banyumas dialect are mainly functioned for greeting, thanking, asking condition, showing surprise, emphasizing, and ending a conversation. each function is explained with regard to its context, both linguistic context and non-inguistic context. the first function of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying transaction is for greeting. in traditional selling and buying conversation, a speaker initiates the communication by greeting the hearer. greeting aims at reducing the distance between them. greeting as it is used to show phatic expression is depicted by the conversation below. context: a seller comes to a buyer’place to offer her goods. she starts the conversation by greeting her potential buyer. her buyer regularly buys the goods from her. seller : kula nuwun ‘excuse me’ buyer : mangga ‘yes please’ seller : ibu, badhe nambah tiganipun?’ ‘mam, would you mind buying the eggs? when a seller comes to a kiosk to offer the goods to the kiosk’s owner (buyer), she start the conversation by greeting her hearer. kula nuwun is javanese word that means excuse me. by uttering kula nuwun, the speaker asks for apology if she disturbs her hearer. the hearer may be very busy or in the middle of doing something. by uttering an excuse, the speaker tries to maintain good social relationship with the hearer since she has apologized first in case she disturbs the hearer. the speaker can directly offer her goods without greeting the hearer. in fact, she does not do that since she realizes that by doing so, she may disturbs the hearer or she may create an awkward communication. by greeting the hearer, the speaker shorthen the distance between herself and the hearer. the shortened distance will make the participants relax and can continue the conversation smoothly. kula nuwun does not carry referential function in accordance with speaker’s intention. she wants to offer the goods not merely greet the hearer. however, by greeting the hearer, the speaker may get her referential intention. hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 299 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the conversation above shows that greeting is not aimless, yet it is important to continue the conversation smoothly. by starting the conversation using greeting, the speaker has maintained a good social environment which may help her achieving her real communication’s goal, that is, offering the goods. malinowski (1923) makes distinction between language used as an instrument of reflection and language used as a mode of action. it can be seen that language is used to give information and also to build social thing. the use of greeting to initiate a conversation can be seen as a mode of action, this means that the speaker tries to maintain social relationship with the hearers. malinowski explains further that [...] to a natural man another man’s silence is not a reassuring factor, but on the contrary, something alarming and dangerous [...]. the breaking of silence, the communion of words is the first act to establish links of fellowship, which is consummated only by the breaking of bread and the communion of food. the moern english expression, ‘nice day to-day’ or the melanesian phrase ‘whence comest thou?’ are needed to over the strange unpleasant tension which men feel when facing each other in silence (1923, p. 313). the expression kula nuwun is meant to greet the interlocutor and it is utilized to avoid silence between them. in traditional selling and buying, greeting can be used to avoid silence. compare to modern shopping in minimarket, a customer is sometimes welcomed by cat statue’s waving that is believed in some culture to bring luck. natural greeting is frequently used in traditional selling and buying. it clearly shows that in traditional selling and buying, buyer and seller also try to preserve harmonious relationship. the second function of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying is thanking. thanking is also found in traditional selling and buying conversation which can be seen as phatic communion. a speaker expresses her gratitude to hearer for hearer’s kindness. the conversation below shows the realization of thanking. context : a seller comes to buyer’s place to offer her goods. when her buyer has already given the price, the seller still persuades her to increase the price. seller : ‘krambile kur gangsal welas bu?’ ‘are the coconuts only fifteen mam?’ buyer : ‘enggih. mbok ora gedhe banget’ ‘yeah....they are not big enough, aren’t they? seller : ‘sendas kebo lah [tertawa]’ they are as big as bufallo’s head [laughing] 300 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj buyer : kuate tuku lagi limo las koh. adole egi embuh. engko disit [melihat ke kelapa sekali lagi]. engko tek imbuhi ya kena ‘i can only afford fifteen, the trading condition is not so good now. hold on [looking back to the coconuts]. i will add the price’ seller : ‘nggih bu, matur nuwun’ ‘yes mam. thank you’. when a seller (speaker) knows the price given by the buyer, she asks for additional price by convincing the hearer that the product has better quality. after taking a look at the product, the buyer then increases the price. knowing that the price has increased, the seller expresses her gratitude by thanking to the buyer (hearer). matur nuwun is said by speaker to show her gratitude to the hearer. if she does not express her gratitude or if she does not show her thankfulness, the conversation still can continue. however, it can cause gawky situation. by expressing her thanking, speaker also tries to preserve harmonious social relationship with the hearer. avoiding gawky situation can be demonstrated by using phatic expression such as thanking. saying thanking using matur nuwun can smoothe the communication due to the fact that thanking you can also be used to avoid silence. avoiding silence is also a realization of phatic expression. it can be summed up that phatic expression is used to avoid silence in traditional selling and buying transaction. matur nuwun is considered as a phatic expression due to its mereness in communication. it does not bring significant reference in the conversation. it also has low informativeness. when the speaker finishes her business in transaction, she can solely leaves the kiosk without saying good bye. her saying god bye by uttering matur nuwun shows the mereness of this utterance. it is in line with coupland et al. (1992) who highlight that phatic communion is taken to designate some sort of minimalist communicative practice, though along several possible dimensions. the ‘mereness’ of phatic communion [...] by virtue of its low interest value, low informative, low relevance, perhaps also its trustworthiness, presuppose an alternative mode of ‘true’ or ‘authentic’ discourse from which phatic talk deviates. a decade before, laver (1981, p. 290) argues that the ‘linguistic behavior of conversational routines, including greeting and parting, as well as pleas, thnaks, excuse, apologies and small talk, is part of linguistic repertoire of politeness’. he further explains that [...] phatic communion [...] serves to hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 301 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj establish and consolidate the interpersonal relationship between two participants [...]. phatic communion is a complex part of a ritual, highly skilled mosaic of communicative behavior whose function is to facilitate the management of interpersonal relationship. the information exchanged between the participants in this communicative process is not primarily referential information, but rather is indexical information about aspect of the participantss social identity relevant to structuring the interactional consensus of the present and future encounters. the function of phatic communion thus goes beyond the criterion in malinowski’s phrase of ‘ties of union’; it certainly does serve to establish such broad ties in that the tokens of phatic communion are tokens exchange in the ritual transactions of the psychosocial acceptance, but it also provides the participant with a sbutle tool for use in staking indexical claims which shape and constrain their detailed relationship in the crucial marginal phases or encounters when their psychological comfort in most at risk. he then modifies and braodens malinowski’s concept and states that ‘language is used to convey more than the prepositional content of what is said’. expression of matur nuwun is said as phatic communion since it has no referential content. it functions to facilitate the management of interpersonal relationship between seller and buyer. moreover, matur nuwun is used by seller to show her appreciation after buyer increases the price. asking condition (weather) is the third fuction of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying. it can be seen as a way to show attention to the interlocutor. a speaker who asks condition of the interlocutor can be considered as a polite speaker who tries to preserve good relationship. asking condition as the realization of phatic expression is portrayed by below conversation. context: after raining hard a night before, a seller comes to buyer’s place to sell his goods. when he enters the kiosk, buyer asks the street’s condition to him. buyer knows that seller lives in a mountain area and rain causes slippery street. it is not their first transaction. buyer : ‘piwe pak wiryo? ora lunyu dalane, mbok?’ : ‘how are you mr. wiryo? the street is not slippery, is it?’ seller : ‘ya madan. ana mie sedap bu’ : ‘yes so so. is there any mie sedap mam?’ buyer : ‘kae nang nduwur’. that’s above there’ 302 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the speaker show her attention to the hearer by asking the condition, in addition to prior situation, a speaker shows her attention by asking hearer’s condition. after raining hard a night before, the street can be very slippery and it can be very dangerous for the hearer. thus she asks the hearer’s condition. asking condition can be used as way to show attention and to initiate a conversation. if the speaker does not ask the condition and she asks the referential intention of the hearer, she can still continue the conversation. by saying piwe pak wiryo, ora lunyu dalane?, the speaker tries to show her attention as well as to start the the conversation. the topic of weather condition becomes very common in phatic communion (malinowski, 1999, p. 303). asking weather condition is identified as non-controversial topic so that it can be used to initiate a conversation. it does not carry referential intention and it is merely used to express speaker’s personal feeling. if buyer directly asks her seller by using referential utterance, such as, ‘how many kilogram of coconut sugar do you bring?’, the conversation still can run, however, it becomes very awkward. using referential utterance in the beginning of a conversation may be considered as impolite, moreover if the speaker and hearer are or it is not the first transaction. if it is the first transaction, it will be permissible for a buyer to use referential utterances. to avoid being impolite, buyer then asks about the wheather. it can be said that asking condition which is realized in phatic communion in traditional selling and buying conversation is a kind of politeness strategy. topic about weather is considered as phatic communion in malinowski’s term, however, an objection is postulated by crystal. he states that ‘culture vary greatly in the topic which they ppermit as phatic communion. the weather is not as universal a conversation-filler as the english might like to think! for examle, rundi women (in burundi, central africa) upon taking leave, are quite often heard to say, routinely and politely, ‘i must go home, or my husband will beat me’ (1987, pp.10-11). the similar objection is also highlighted by hymes (1974, p.127) who says that ‘wishram chinook of the columbia river [...] one does not talk when one has nothing that needs to be said’. nonetheless, hymes does not clarify if the ‘almost silent’ paliyans never exchange greeting, e.g. under certain circumctances; and he does not elaborate either on the concept of what is with the wishram chinook that ‘needs to be said’. those objection highlighted by crystal and hymes encourage me to note that the topic classified as phatic communion differ greatly in cultures. the utterance ‘piwe pak wiryo, ora lunyu dalane?’ which is utilized to ask weather is hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 303 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj phatic communion since it is used by speaker with no referential content. it is realized merely to avoid silence, showing surprise is the fourth function of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying. a speaker shows her surprise to uncommon or unusual condition as it is depicted by the conversation below. context: a seller comes to his buyer’s place to sell his coconut sugar. it is very early morning that he was the first to come to the kiosk. the seller seldom comes so early thus it surprises his buyer a bit. seller : ‘gula bu’ ‘coconut sugar mam’. buyer : ‘lha ndengaren tekane gasik’ ‘you surprisingly come so early’ seller : ‘iya arep maring kota koh ‘yes. i will go downtown’. the hearer does not usually come so early to the kiosk, hence, when he comes so early, the speaker shows her surprise by uttering lha ndengaren tekane gasik. the word ‘ndengaren’ means surprisingly, hence the utterance is used to show surprise. if the speaker says ‘yes’ after the hearer says ‘gula bu’, the speaker shows referential intention regarding the hearer’s offer. by showing surprise, it does not mean that the speaker does not give any consideration to hearer’s offer, she just tries to preserve social relationship with the hearer. noticing buyer’s iregular action shows that seller give attention to her buyer. buyer who gives attention to her seller shows that she cares about her. by showing her surprise, the speaker appreciates her hearer who has come so early. hearer is the first customer who comes to the kiosk. it will give advantage for the kiosk owner. if both of them can complete the transaction in the early morning, the kiosk owner can do other activities and the seller can go to the town directly. a seller can soon go downtown for other activity. from the illustration, it can be said that by coming to the kiosk early in the morning, both parties can save time. time-saving can be beneficial for both of them. in a simple way, it can be summed up that phatic expression realized in showing surprise can be used to preserve social relationship between speaker and hearer. ‘gift-giving’ in a conversation can be seen as a strategy to preserve harmonious relationship with the interlocutor. in traditional seling and buying, a party whether it is a buyer or a seller can benefit from harmonious closeness. he or she can get financial advantages from the cooperation. 304 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj preserving good social relationship can give positive impact to both of them both socially and financially. giving attention is a kind of ‘gift’ in a conversation. the term gift-giving has been used by brown and levinson (1987) in their politeness strategy. one of positive politeness strategy is giving gift to hearer. brown and levinson state that s (speaker) may satisfy h’ positive-face want (that s want h’s want, to some degree) be actually satisfying some of h’s wants. hence we have the classic positive-politeness action of gift-giving, not only tangible gifts (which demonstrate that s knows some of h’s want and want them to be fulfilled), but human-relations wants such as those illustrated in many of the output considered above-the wants to be liked, admired, cared about, understood, listened to, and so on. expression ‘lha ndengaren tekane gasik’ is a phatic communion that can function as a positive politeness stratgy. here, i emphasize that in traditional selling and buying, phatic communion can be used as politeness strategy. a speaker can show her politeness by using phatic expression. emphasizing is the fifth function of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying. emphasizing is also used to invite other participants. speaker uses phatic communion to emphasize on a certain thing as it is shown by the conversation below. context: some sellers come to the kiosk to sell their coconut sugar. when a seller is going to put her coconut sugar on scale, she makes sure that it is hers. buyer : ‘ayuh ngeneh pada ditimbang gulane’ ‘come and put your coconut sugar on scale’ seller : ‘kiye nggone aku bu. kiye mbok nggone nyong ya?’ ‘here is mine mam. it is mine, isn’t it?’ buyer : ‘iya kuwe ne rika’ ‘yes, that is yours’. when there are more than two participants in the kiosk, a seller who wants to put the coconut sugar on scale makes sure that she takes her own not other’s. by uttering kiye mbok nggone nyong ya?, the speaker makes sure that the goods belong to her and she does not take other’s goods. if at that time, she just puts the goods on scale without uttering kiye mbok nggone nyong ya?, the conversation still can run as it is. however, she utters kiye mbok nggone nyong ya?, to invite other to comment on what she says. hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 305 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the utterance kiye mbok nggone nyong ya?, is used by the speaker to make sure that she takes her own goods not other’s. besides, for emphasizing, the utterance is also used to invite other interlocutors to contribute in the conversation. kiye mbok nggone nyong ya? is the realization of facilitative tag. facilitative tags are used as positive politeness devices because they invite the addressee to contribute to the discourse (holmes, 1995, p. 81). by stating kiye mbok nggone nyong ya?, speaker invites other participants to contribute in the conversation. it is proven by the next utterance ‘iya kuwe ne rika’. utterance ‘iya kuwe ne rika’ proves that the invitation is answered by other participant. to sum up, emphasizing which is realized into phatic expression can exhibit a politeness strategy in traditional selling and buying conversation. since it functions as a politeness strategy, emphasizing is displayed to preserve appropriate social relationship. ending a conversation can also be demonstrated by using phatic expression. by using phatic expression, a speaker can end a conversation as well as preserve good social relationship. the use of phatic to end a conversation can be depicted by below conversation. context : a seller has just finished the transaction. when, the buyer asks about the payment, whether he wants cash or he wants to shop, the seller says that he wants to go to the market for buying new clothes for his grand daughter. buyer : ‘ngarah apa kiye?’ seller :’ anu arep nggo badan bu ming pasar’. ‘mmm...i want to buy eid ul fitr’s preparation to the market’. buyer :’ oiya ya.... arep badan. pasar ya prepegan kiye’ ‘oh i see. it’s going to be eid al fitr. the market must be very crowded’. seller :’ iya koh, genah kiye putune njaluk klambi anyar’. ‘yes it is. my grand daughter asks for a new clothes’. buyer:’nganah mbok arep tuku klambi anyar’. ‘there you go if you want to buy new clothes’. after the seller says that he is going to the market to buy new clother for his grand daughter, the conversation perhaps has ended. it is due to the fact that there is no further referential intention between seller and buyer (speaker and hearer). however, the speaker (buyer) still answers it by saying nganah mbok arep tuku klambi anyar. the utterance indicates that the speaker wishes 306 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the hearer good luck and that he can find what he wants. if the speaker does not answer it, or he just keeps silent, the conversation still can continue. by saying nganah mbok arep tuku klambi anyar, the speaker also tries to preserve good social relationship with her hearer. preserving good social relationship can smoothe the conversation and speaker thinks that she has to keep good social relationship with the hearer since it will give benefit to her. in addition, by stating nganah mbok arep tuku klambi anyar, she also tries to avoid silence between the participants. avoiding silence is the realization of phatic expression. it is in line with leech (1983, pp. 141-142) explains that phatic maxim is termed as the activity of talking merely to preserve sociability. it is formulated in positive and negative form as to keep talking and to avoid sillence. he further highlights that phatic maxim does not carry illocutionary points in communication, it serves to extend common ground of agreement and experience shared by the participants. hence, utterance nganah mbok arep tuku klambi anyar, does not carry illocutionary content in communication. it is used as a common ground of agreement that the speaker agrees with the hearer. it can be seen that ending a convrsation in phatic expression in traditional selling and buying can be demonstrated to preserve well-balanced environment. the discussion show that phatic expression plays significant role in traditional selling and buying conversatiodn. buyers and sellers involved in the transaction do not only consider referential functions but also affective functions. affective functions can be realized into phatic expression. phatic expression in traditional selling and buying are realized for greeting, thanking, asking condition, showing surprise, emphasizing, and ending a conversation. it proves that afective functions are clearly demonstated in traditional selling and buying. conclusion speaker and hearer or seller and buyer who are involved in daily conversation try to maintain social relationship besides their referential goal. traditional selling and buying as a social praxis demand human being to maintain harmonious bond among speakers due to the fact that those involved in traditional selling and buying are usually neighbors. they need to preserve social cooperation since they realize that they live side by side. harmonious interaction can be realized by utilizing phatic communion in daily hadiati, c., ora lunyu dalane mbok?: the use of phatic expressions in 307 traditional selling and buying https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj conversation. it does not have referential functions. however, it is valuable in maintaining convenient community. this article has proven the functions of phatic communion in traditional selling and buying in banyumas dialect. the discussion shows that phatic expressions in traditional selling and buying conversation are used for greeting, thanking, asking condition, showing surprise, emphasizing, and ending a conversation. those functions do not have referential consideration in traditional selling and buying, nevertheless, they exist in the conversation. it proves that both speakers and hearer regard phatic communion as significant part in traditional selling and buying conversation as it is used to preserve human social communication. the analysis is based on context-dependent analysis without considering interlocutors’ real intention. it focuses on the utterances produced by speakers and hearers without asking them directly the motives of using such utterances. for further research, it is suggested that interlocutors’intention can be a part of elaboration on the fuctions of phatic expression in traditional selling and buying conversation. it can be conducted by interviewing interlocutors about their motive regarding the particular factors that determine their linguistic behaviour. having considered speakers’ motive, a further research can reveal other interesting phenomenon with regard to the use of phatic communion in daily conversation. references bakhtin, m. (1999 [1986]). the problem of speech genres. in a. jaworski & n. coupland (eds.), the discourse reader (pp. 121132). london and new york: routledge. brown, p., & levinson. s. c. (1987). politeness: some universals in language usage. cambridge: cambridge university press. chambers, j.k., & trudgill, p. (1994). dialectology. great britain: cambridge university press. creswell, j. w. (1994). research design: qualitative & quantitative approaches. london: sage publications. coupland, j., coupland, n., & robinson, j. d. (1992). how are you?: negotiating phatic communion. language in society, 21(2), 207-230. 308 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 17, number 2, december 2017, pp. 292 – 308 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v17i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hadiati, c. (2016). strategi percakapan dalam jual beli tradisional bahasa jawa dialek banyumas [conversation strategy in traditional selling and buying in banyumas dialect] (unpublished doctoral dissertation, jenderal soedirman university, purwokerto). holmes, j. (1995). women, men and politeness. essex: pearson education limited. koentjaraningrat. (1984). kebudayaan jawa [javanese culture]. jakarta: balai pustaka leech, g. (1983). principles of pragmatics. harlow: longman. malinowski, b. k. (1923). the problem of meaning in primitive languages. in ogden and i.a. in i. a. richards (ed.), the meaning of meaning. a study of influence of language upon thought and of the science of symbolism (pp. 296-336). new york: harcourt, brace, & company, inc. malinowski, b. (1999 [1926]). on phatic communion.. in a. jaworski, & n. coupland, (eds.), the discourse reader (pp. 302-305). london and new york: routledge. renkema, j. (1993). discourse studies: an introductory textbook. philadelphia: john benjamins publishing company. wedhawati, & arifin, s. (2006). tata bahasa jawa mutakhir [advanced javanese grammar]. yogyakarta: penerbit kanisius wray, a., & bloomer, a. (2006). projects in linguistics: a practical guide to researching language. new york: hodder arnold. 10.pdf (p.1) 10 dec2017.pdf (p.2-18) · .. " .. ~ r -4'j." ~ l ~~gl-a';ma i.2s ~~.2ul1. 'l'f/~~\~\ ., '-~-::-::--'r---/ -/ -----1 \ \ i~~j:~~) ~~~_' __ 1 ~;)..i s" oj i 'ztfll.. t.2. ~~ . .: f'a h a f i ~ -------1 '·'r,,"··' twentieth century anadian scince fiction· an analytical note on certain dominant themes jacob george c.'· abstract: modem science /iction being overwhelmingly an americoli phenomenon. a distinctive canadian model or tradition that could be contrasted witllthe american one emerged only during the last couple of decades. the delayed flowering of sciellce fictioll andfantasy in the canadialliiterary context is ojtell'allribuled to a certaill atrophy of the fantastic imagination ill canada. yet. the rare appearance of 'sciellce fictional flights' in pre-second world war. calliit is best ascribed ilotto the aridity of the falllastic imagination, but to the fact that the preponderance of works tllat constitute the 'canon' of canadian /iction are realistic or liaturalis';c. such a marginalization of the falltostic mode appears to be the direct consequence of holding realistic and naturalistic paradigms os effective tools of nationalism. key words : science fiction. cqluldian fictioll. nationalism canadian science fiction [n her article titled, "canadian monsters," margaret atwood speaks of this design: canadian fiction on the whole confines itself 10 ordinary life on middle earth ... [in) a cultural colony a lot of effort musl go into simply naming and describing observed realities. inlo making the visible real for those who actually live there. not much energy is left over for exploring other. invisible realms. (the canadian imagination 99) . i. jacob george c., phd. dire<:tor. centre for canadian studies. union christian college, aiyiaye. kerala. india . 2 cel~ volume 2, number i, july 2002 : 1ii obviously the attainment of these targeted goals motivates canadian literature to tum increasingly to various non-realistic and metafictional fonns-which frequently include or approximate, science fiction and fantasy, despite such a favorable swing, canadian literary environment appears to be more inhospitable to science fiction in comparison with the nurturing american one. the enonnous output of science fiction in the united states is obviously related to the emphasis placed on research and development in science and technology. the opposite situation in canada-the tendency to rely on the research and development of others-has surely discouraged the production of canadian science fiction. in addition, canada's strong conservative political tradition regards, with deep suspicion, change (the new, the different. the ajien. the other, etc .• ) which both science fiction and fantasy demand. it is also true that being such an essentially typical american product, the more nationalistic of canada's writers have every reason to eschew science fiction. interestingly, america's aggressive attitude towards nature and the unknown. whatever lay west of the ever-advancing frontier, translates readily into the mythology of conquering and domesticating the unknown that finds expression in much science fiction. conversely, the canadian attitude prompts, in atwoodian terms, the image of a vast. threatening, and powerful nature which makes man a victim who is not only incapable of conquest but has to struggle even for survival (survivol 31). evidently such a climate works against the motivating principles of science fiction and probably makes the pre-war canadian science fiction output negligible. yet, donalda. wollheim who writes off canadian science fiction as "' an undetectable segment," in a december 1942 article titled "whither canadian fantasy?" makes a prophetic observation that canadian science fiction is like "the untapped canadian north ... still to be exploited!' destination: out of this world, a comprehensive bibliography of canadian science fiction and fantasy brought out by the national library of canada, furnishes the statistical data which proves that this prediction attains fulfilment by the 1970s and 80s. several titles listed in destination have not only remained for long in the list of best sellers but have ajso helped in shaping a distinctly canadian 'tradition' or 'canon'. incidentally the same inhibiting factors which once stunted the growth of science fiction appear to have prepared the springboard for the genre in canada, during its period of emergence as a serious literary j. george c, twentieth century canadian science fiction 3 endeavour. the inadequate progress in the field of science and technology, and the feeling of being "victimized," when coupled with the cold war political climate and the suspicions about the intentions of the untied states, create a sense of impending catastrophe in the canadian mind. somewhat like an individual who has a totally illogical tendency to make of his death a universal event, a threatened society too has a tendency to confuse the approaching disaster with the disappearance of civilization and even with the end of history and all humanity. under the circumstances, canadian creative writers become obsessed with the vision of universal destruction. obviously, while the mainstream writers in canada continue to prefer the familiar orbits around the twin poles of realism and naturalism to communicate this vision, their counterparts in a sub-stream like science fiction seem to have turned increasingly to the concepts of apocalypse and entropy, recognizing in them the potential to translate their fears. in this context, the varied manifestation of apocalyptic and en tropic impulses in the canadian science fiction produced during the three decades of its 'establishment' deserve more critical attention. . the concepts of apocalypse and entropy allow clear-cut categorizations at the theoretical level. in simplistic terms, both these concepts attempt to describe the end of the world. but they also contradict each other in several other ways-apocalypse is metaphysical, based on moral and religious distinction, and promises violent destruction (with a 'bang' in ehotean phraseology) followed by regeneration; entropy is physical, based on indifferent scientific laws, and brings about slow but irreversible decay (which eliot figuratively calls 'whimper'). but the literary manifestations of these concepts as seen in phyllis gotlieb, hugh maclennan, wayland drew, and so on, go beyond the prescriptive transparency and blur the sharp distinction of individual categories. apocalyptic literature the key figure during the 'establishment' period of canadian science fiction is undeniably phyllis gotlieb. according to david ketterer, "from the sixties to the early eighties phyllis gotlieb was canadian sf. from a purist point of view, she may still be" (cljiuldian science fiction and fantasy 67). significantly, all the three novels which won fame for gotlieb and declared the arrival of a canadian tradition in science fiction, are apocalyptic 4 celt, volume 2, number i, july 2002: 111 in nature. sunburst (1964), gotlieb's first novel repeatedly f~uses on certain images which tally perfectly with many of the "apocalyptic moments" identified by r. w.b. lewis in trials of the won! (t 96). in his work, lewis interprets the most conspicuous symbols of the book of revelation and lists ten phases of the apocalyptic process. the most indispensable ones, among these-the destruction of (the book's) world by violent means, the battle between 'the forces of light and the powers of darkness' , and the appearance of the 'new heaven and earth' -appear to constitute the fulcrum of sunburst. beginning with the explosion of a nuclear reactor in the year 1994, the novel reveals gotlieb's deep conviction of decadence and prophetic confidence of renovation. the focal event of the novel takes place in the year 2024, in sorrel park, an isolated midwestern town. following the nuclear explosion in the vicinity, forty-seven children are born with diverse telepathic ("psi") powers and markedly delinquent tendencies. now confined to a compound known as dump, these mutant 'dumplings' are the object of both fear and official investigation. using their preternatural powers, the dumplings break out of their sanctuary and" threaten to destroy a computer bank which controls half the world. their attempts are thwarted by shandy, a precocious thineen-year-old girl who is impervious to the mind-reading powers of the dumplings. though the plot summary of sunburst reads exactly like that of an american pulp, it gets elevated from the realm of pulp sf because of its subtle handling of the apocalyptic strain. while the popular religious conception of the apocalypse genninates from the belief in positive new worlds elsewhere and elsewhen, sunburst offers a secularized apocalyptic vision which stems from the notion of the end of the world as something instigated by man. as ketterer observes in new worlds for old, "in a very real sense, the atomic bomb completed the process of secularization that apocalyptic thinking has undergone since medieval times' (94). the apocalypse in gotlieb is actualized through powerful metaphors-the most effective among these is evidently the 'sunburst' metaphor which operates on several levels. the metaphor refers most obviously to the reactor explosion, which, in destructive power, approximates the dimensions of the biblical apocalypse as drawn in the book of revelation (20: 9-15). it also articulates aptly, the physical devastation on the individual and social planes. shandy's father, a physical wreck of a man, carries on his back, "a sunburst with twisting rays of exploded scar, and between the rays thick brown keloids; with a humped center of ruined j. george c, twentieth century canadian science fiction 5 flesh, cracked and oozing" (30). the later reference to the dump as a "sore ... to be opened up" (42), equates the dump with shandy's father's oozing 'sunburst', and the name sorrel park which has the resonances of the colour sorrel (reddish brown) implies that the town itself is a further exploded version of the same scar. in sunburst, as in most apocalyptic literature, along with the possibility of the destruction of the world, one finds the conflict between the forces of light and the powers of darkness. shandy and her four morally responsible "psi" friends fight against the delinquent, mesomorphic dumplings. true to the apocalyptic spirit, onjer and justice win out in the end in sunburst, through shandy, the saviour figure. she alone remains impervious to the mindreading, telepathic, telekinetic powers of the dumplings; and exhibits a high moral sensitivity. in a world moving towards retrogression and chaos, shandy represents an oasis. it is in such small advances in civilization that gotlieb recognizes the possible 'new heaven and earth'. gotlieb's continued preoccupation with the sam~ theme and pattern becomes evident in heart of red iron (1989). dahlgren, the scientist who creates ergs suffers the consequences of the vengeful retaliation of the machines. his son seven is born a mumnt (with four arms) when the renegade machine ergs tamper with his genetic structure. [n the novel, despite the nightmarish experiences the humans have to endure, what results is human survival and machine defeat. significantly, the survival in gotlieb's novels has a distinct canadian flavour. while survival in american literary texts occasions wild jubilation, in canadian literary as well as social milieu (as noted by atwood), "the survivor has no triumph or victory but the fact of his survival" (survival 33). such bare survivals characterize gotlieb's science fiction and set the tone and stance of apocalyptic science fiction in canada. the process of secularization of apocalypse takes a new tum with jim willer's paramind (1973). unlike gotlieb who defines apocalypse only in terms of the fight between the forces of good and evil, and attempts to chalk out a credible process of rebirth, willer seems to associate apocalypse with the "sense of the end". in paramind computers take over the world and subvert the political system which makes possible a government by the people for the people. during the first stage of the cataclysmic changes drawn in paramind what gets realized is a government by the machine for the people, but inevitably t~e computers aim for a government "by t~e machine, for the machine:' in the novel the effect of impending apocalypse is achieved by 6 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002 : 1ii conveying to the readers the sense of the immediacy of destruction. the credibility of this process is enhanced through the association of the imminent disaster with the readers' prejudices and perceptions about machines and technology. among the novels shaped by apocalyptic imagination in the 70s' matt colien's the colours of war (1977) appears to occupy an important place. [n the novel, canada and the united states are in a state of civil disorder. food and fuel shortages, corrupt governments, anned forces in the streets and outbreaks of violence are just some of the "colours of war" which cohen identifies. obviously, in the colours of war the apocalyptic transformation results from the creation of a new condition, based upon a process of extrapolation and analogy. [f (as stated by frank kennode in the sense of an ending) "apocalypse depends on a concord of imaginatively recorded past arid imaginatively predicted future" (8), the colours of war easily meets the necessary requirement. the tendency to actualize what might be termed as an epistemological or philosophical apocalypse, is occasionally seen in canadian science fiction. according to david ketterer. in science fiction, philosophical apocalypse can be made possible ~n three ways: "by presenting a radically different image of man. by pointing to the existence of a previously unsuspected outside manipulator, and thirdly, by radically altering man's vision of human reality" (new worlds 81). helene holden's after the fact (j 986) and monica hughes' invitation to the game (1992) appear to follow ketterer's third privileged path. [n after the fact, holden attempts to find out just 'what happens to a civilization after a major catastrophe when all attempted standards are questioned'. the novel emphatically establishes that the human race would revert to a primitive state. what is envisaged by holden is an apocalyptic transfonnation tuned according to the mythic structure of death and rebirth, for which the cycle of the seasons is the model. the privileged position of apocalypse in canadian science fiction of the 1980s probably facilitates the entry and gradual elevation of entropy to the position of a controlling metaphor. despite being a related concept, entropy remains precluded from the canadian literary scene till this period, owing to the strong hold of realism on canlit. apocalyptic art, deeply rooted in western culture and tradition easily reconciles with the principles of realism, even when it contradicts some of realism's more stringent rules. entropy, on the other hand, is not so much a mode, or style, as a basically j. george c, 1\ventieth century canadian science fiction 7 different way of perceiving one's raison d'etre, teleology, and the meaning of the world around us-none of which could be expressed without violating basic principles of realism. canadian science fiction, therefore. begins to show an increased interest in entropy only at a time when realism is at low ebb. in addition. while the progressive recession ofthe nuclear threat makes apocalyptic visions look anachronistic, growing dependency on scientific principles to explain the fate of the universe makes entropic visions relatively rational. voices in time hugh maclennan's voices in "me (1981) becomes extremely significant in this context. it is not only an ambitious excursion into science fiction by a mainstream canadian writer, but also a serious exploration into the possibilities offered by the concept of entropy. in the novel. maclennan interweaves the voices, set like flies in amber, of three men who represent three different generations. the principal pattern in the novel is woven by the voice of john wellfleet, whose family history is reconstructed from papers found in the post-nuclear-holocaust ruins of montreal. wellfleet's older cousin. timothy. host of montreal television's current affairs show invites the old, frail conrad oehmel, wellfleet's stepfather. to appear on his sensationalistic show and then wrongly accuses him of being a nazi. as a result, oehmel is assassinated by a concentration camp survivor. maclennan seems to conclude that, "murder of truth led to the murder of people" (120). and finally to the destruction of a civilization. such an "intelligible' summary of the novel fails to bring out some of its deeper thematic and conceptual currents. viewed from the temporal parameters, voices in time appears to move freely in time and space, regardless of the ensuing confusion. beginning in 2039, two decades after the "destructions," the novel drops back to the late 1960s' shuttles to )909, then back to 1918-19, resumes in 1932,andcontinues in germany until 1945. after returning to 2039, the sequence more or less reverses itself. the narrative thus apparently jars our sense of reality and presents a hypnotized world under the reign of entropy. the dominance of entropy becomes more obvious in voices in time when the protagonist looks back on the events in nazi germany and quebec that have culminated in his shattered twenty-first-century world, and identifies two crucial phases in history-the destructive eras of feminist 8 celt, volume 2. number i. july 2002: 1ii ascendancy and the constructive eras of moral order and masculinist ascendancy. both the destructive as well as the constructive phases in the novel appear to represent tendencies which trigger entropy, when read in close conjuntion with the explications of the concept given by planck and arnheim. while max planck argues that, it is "the hypothesis of elementary disorder, which forms the real kernel of the principle of increase of entropy and, therefore the preliminary condition for the existence of entropy" (eight lectures so), rudolf amheim adds that "the increase of entropy is due to •.• a striving towards simplicity, which will promote orderliness and the lowering of the level of order" (entropy and art 52). in their final effect these two tendencies amount to the same thing: one would feel equally lost in a totally chaotic environment, where no two elements are in an orderly relation with each other, and in an environment consisting only of uniform elements, where the surplus of orderliness would render all differentiation impossible. tolerable levels of violence robert g. collins' tolerable levels o/violence (1983) is another work o( the 80s with obvious entropic overtones. the plot outline of the novel reads like that of a popular thriller. in the novel civilized values have broken down, in .1999, to t~e point where a daily violence rating is as normal as a weather forecast. on many days it is wise to stay barricaded in one's home. the novel opens in a rural setting west of ottawa with the protagonist john cobbett, an english professor at national university, burying a thug. mrs. cobbett shot the man, a member of one of many marauding gangs at large in north america, after she caught him attempting to rape her nine year old son. now cobbett must defend his home against gang retaliation. the fictional world encountered in tolerable levels of violence is thus a terrifying one because in it all social order has collapsed and violence unleashed. people who populate this terrain feel the pressure to tum themselves into 'isolated systems': "they take in a decreasing amount of information, sensory data, even food" (32). yet, isolation, instead of guaranteeing survival offers only slow disintegration and death. the second law of thermodynamics which states unequivocally that 'the entropy of a closed system must increase' perhaps leads to a better understanding of tolerable levels of violence in which the society undergoes gradual decay and disintegration. j. george c, twentieth century canadian science fiction 9 the galan expedient an entropic vision of similar nature is seen in wayland drew's the gaian expedient (1985). drew's novel explores the fictional potential of james e. lovelock's gaia hypothesis which attempts to establish that "the entire range of living matter on earth constitutes a single living entity [called gaia], capable of manipulating the earth's atmosphere to suit its overall needs" (gaia 9). some of the nightmares of lovelock get actualised in the gaian expedient. according to lovelock, if "gaia's intelligence network and intricate system of checks and balances [are] totally destroyed, there would be no going back ..• [a] planet that broke all the rules, would fall soberly into line, in barren steady state, between its dead brother and sister, mars and venus" (gaia 46). in the novel, unrestricted exploitation of nature speeds up the process of entropy and by the end of the twentieth century, civilization disintegrates leaving only a hidden colony on the remains of canada's west coast. but after nearly a hundred years, the slow but steady forces of entropy catch up, making decay and dissolution of the physical world inescapable. entropy at the level of human factor can sometimes mean gradual reduction from the animate to the inanimate. in the title story of andrew : weiner's distant sigllqls (1989), the destruction and the eventual dumping of human beings become a significant symbolic representation of the entropic process. 'd street' in the fictional world of weiner is the place where people are deleted at the touch of a button. here people are quickly forgotten because a bus-"the exit mechanism"~hanges the social mix and extinguishes the human identity. the story makes evident the possible dehumanizing effects oftechnology-the valorization of "things" over people and the consequent objectification-which lead to entropy. conclusion the proliferation of science fiction in canada, during the postj 960 period, appears to be a response to abruptly changing social conditions. being the product of a social milieu which is in a state of flux, science fiction becomes a genre better equipped to meet the challenges and demands of rational living and serves as a vehicle to express the hopes, fears and aspirations of a people. hence the successive appearance of apocalypse and entropy in canadian science fiction during its period of "establishment' apparently remains in correspondence with the dominance of a sense of impending destruction and an ever-present feeling of menace in canadian 10 celt, volume 2., number i. july 2002 : 111 consciousness and literature. though apocalypse and entropy originated in different conceptual frameworks and have different overall meanings. in canadian science fiction. they become literary metaphors with an analogous effect: of projecting a sense of loss and danger. the continued presence of such visions in canadian literature can thus provide a significant insight into, the process of shaping the canadian mind. omliography arnheim. rudolr. entropy and art : all essay on disorder and onler. bcrklcy: u of cajifomia p. 1971. atwood. margaret. "canadian monsters". the canadian imagination: dimensions 0/ a utemry culture. ed. david staines. cambridge: harward up. 1m. 97-107. -survival: a thematic guide to canadian utemture. toronto: anansi. 1972. cohen. matl the colou" o/war. new york: methuen. 1m. collins. roben g. tolemble levels o/violence. toronto: ballantine books, 1983. drew. wayland. the galan expedient. toronto: random house. 1985. gotlieb, phyllis. heart 0/ red iron. new york: st. martin·s. 1989. -. sunbunl. greenwich. conn.: fawcell publications. 1964. holden. helene. after the foci. onawa: oberon press. 1986. kcrmode. frank. the sense 0/ an ending. new york: oxford up. 1967. ketterer. david. canadian science ficlion and fantasy. bloomington: indiana up. 1992. -. new worlds lor old: the apocalyptic imaginalion. science fiction and american ulemlure. bloomington: indiana up. 1974. lewis. r.w.b. trials o/the word. new haven: yale up, 1965. lovelock. james e .• gaia: a new look 01 u/e on earth. new york: oup. 1979. maclennan. hugh. voices in 7ime. markham. ont.: penguin. 1981. planck. max. eighl lectures on theoretical physics. trans. a.p. wills. new york: columbia u.p. 1915. j. george c, twentieth century canadian science fiction 11 spencer. hugh alan douglas. et al. destination: out o/this world. ottawa: national library of canada. 1995. weiner. andrew. distant signals and other stories. victoria. b.c.: porcepic books. 1989. willer. jim. paramind. toronto: mcclelland & stewart. 1973. wollheim. donald a. "whither canadian fantasy?" uncanny tales december 1942: 18-22. twentieth century.pdf logo: guide for contributors a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 learners' language challenges in writing english barli bram ....................................................................................................... 1 autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. ............................................................................................ 16 scrooge's character development in charles dickens' a christmas carol theresia erwindriani .................................................................................... 28 teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono ....................................................................................... 45 “america, you know what i'm talkin' about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson ............................................................................................... 60 a love for indonesia: the youth's effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism shierly june and ekawati marhaenny dukut ................................................. 72 a book review: discourse analysis antonius suratno ........................................................................................... 88 celt, vol.12, no.1, pp. 1-100, semarang, juli 2012 (index) scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol 1 theresia erwindriani 2 abstract: this paper deals with scrooge’s characterization in dickens’ a christmas carol, who is a rich, cold-hearted, miserly, misanthropy, and an anti christmas old man. he experiences a gradual character development that comes from his awareness of his bad character and from the ghosts and other characters after seeing the visions of his past, present and future shown by the ghosts on christmas eve. yet on christmas day, he becomes an altered old man, by being a kind, warm, generous old man to everyone, especially to the poor and a person who honors christmas and has christmas spirit in his heart. this study uses the formalistic approach to analyze scrooge’s character development, by focusing on a christmas carol‟s text. in studying about scrooge’s characterization, charles dickens’ message, namely charity is also proven. with charity, 1 this article is part of the undergraduate thesis defended at the faculty of letters, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta in april 28, 2000. 2 theresia erwindriani, s.s., m.m. <arinda75@yahoo.com> is an alumna of the faculty of letters, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta. she receives her master of management, in human resources management from indonesian business school, jakarta in 2006. she is a full-time lecturer of the secretary department, saint theresa secretarial academy, jakarta. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 30 dickens shows that people can especially help the poor and make them happy. key words: character, characterization, character development, christmas, charity introduction this paper wants to discuss about one of charles dickens‟ works entitled a christmas carol. charles dickens, the author of this novel, is an english novelist in the victorian age. kassman (1988:93) states that dickens decided to publish his work, a christmas carol, in 1843 in order to celebrate christmas. in his christmas stories, including a christmas carol, dickens emphasizes on the spirit of christmas, thus the reader can understand the significance of christmas. in his novels, dickens often tells about the neglected and illtreated children, and also the poor who live in suffering because of injustice that oppresses them at that time. he shows his sympathy with human suffering as seen his novels, particularly in a christmas carol. some writers say that dickens always concerns himself with the social problems of his age and his concern for the poor can be seen in a christmas carol. it is the expression of his charity. according to bowyer and brooks (1954: 332), dickens is always alive to the social problems, particularly the condition of the poor and his christmas stories are really expositions of charity. wilson has also the same opinion as bowyer‟s: ….he also concentrated on the social conditions of his own day, as in oliver twist and hard times (an attack on the utilitarians), and presented in a christmas carol, his view of man‟s duty to man – scrooge‟s the miser, miraculously becomes a philanthropist, christmas symbolizes the only way in which the word t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 31 can be improved – by the exercise of charity. (1958:241) this paper wants to discuss about scrooge‟s characterization through dickens use of the third person „his‟ or how other characters have described and evaluated scrooge. this paper also tries to see how scrooge experiences his gradual conversion through the visions of his past, present, and future shown by the three spirits. lastly, it will try to find out the message dickens‟ wants to convey through his main character‟s development. characters in a christmas carol evans says that a christmas carol (1843) is dickens‟ expression of his belief that basically everyone has kindness in himself. between 1843 and 1848 he wrote his christmas books including the christmas carol. the most popular perhaps of all his works, this shows his belief in human kindliness… (1940:158) whereas, chesterton (1911:112) states that dickens‟ work, a christmas carol, is a happy story because it tells about a sudden change. the christmas carol is a happy story first, because it describes an abrupt and dramatic change. it is not only the story of a conversion, but of a sudden conversion. (1911:112) chesterton (1946:128) also adds that dickens‟ a christmas carol is the change of someone who rejects christmas during his life. in talking about characterization, holman and harmon (1986:83) say that a character can be either static or dynamic. a static character is someone who doesn‟t experience a conversion in celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 32 himself. something that happens to him does not influence on his character. the action describes his character. while a dynamic character is someone who is influenced by the actions and experiences. he experiences a conversion himself as the result of the actions. meanwhile, rohrberger and woods (1971:20) in reading and writing about literature define characterization as the process by which the author creates character. meanwhile gill (1995:125) also has a similar opinion to rohrberger and woods that chat characterization is the way in which a character is created. further rohberger and woods (1971:20) say about the methods in characterizing the persons. they say that the author can use the direct method in order not only to describe his character‟s physical appearance, intellectual, and moral attributes, but also to clarify the degree of the character. the author can also use the dramatic method by placing the character in situations to describe what the character is by his speaking and acting. in a christmas carol story, there are twelve characters. ebenezer scrooge is the major character, whereas the others are the minors. the characters are illustrated as follows: 1. ebenezer scrooge ebenezer scrooge is a rich old man but stingy. he does not want to share his wealth with the needy. he is also a cold-hearted man. he does not care about anything and anyone. besides, he is a cruel old man. he always treats everyone badly. on christmas eve, however, he experiences a gradual character development when the ghosts of christmas past, present, and future show him the visions of his past, present, and future. the visions have changed his bad character. at the end of the story, t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 33 he becomes a friendly and philanthropist old man to others, especially to the poor. 2. bob cratchit bob cratchit is scrooge‟s underpaid clerk. he is a goodhearted man to everyone. he is fully attentive to his poor family. 3. tim cratchit tim cratchit, called tiny tim is the youngest son of bob cratchit. he is a cripple one. though he is a terminally ill and weak child, he is tough in facing his poor life. 4. ghost of jacob marley jacob marley is scrooge‟s late friend. he is also scrooge‟s former partner at the firm, scrooge and marley. he died seven years ago. when he was still alive, his bad character was the same as scrooge‟s. after his death, the ghost of marley visits scrooge‟s on christmas eve in order to warn him not to do the bad deeds anymore as he had done in the past. 5. ghost of christmas past the ghost of christmas past is the first spirit that visits scrooge on christmas eve to show him the visions of his past. the ghost has long white hair as an old man, its face look like a child and it has no wrinkles at all. from the crown of its head, there is a stream of bright light. it also holds a great extinguisher cap. the ghost of christmas past is the representation of scrooge‟s past. 6. ghost of christmas present the ghost of christmas present is the second spirit that visits scrooge to show him the visions of his present. generally, it has a good appearance, cheerful voice, and energetic manner. the ghost itself is the symbol of scrooge‟s present. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 34 7. ghost of christmas future the ghost of christmas future is the last spirit that shows him the visions of his future. it has a frightening appearance. the long back tunic covers the form of its head, face, body, hands, and legs. it is representation of scrooge‟s bad future. 8. fred fred is scrooge‟s nephew. he is good hearted, friendly, jolly, and a sympathetic young man. he always treats everyone well. 9. the gentleman they are charitable gentlemen. they come to scrooge‟s house before christmas day to ask donations for the poor. 10. fezziwig fezziwig is the head of the firm in which scrooge works as an apprentice. fezziwig is a kind-hearted, cheerful, and energetic old man. 11. belle belle is scrooge‟s old fiancee. she is a beautiful, patient and faithful girl. she loves scrooge so much. she is very patient in waiting for their happy time, that is, their marriage. but unfortunately, scrooge only pays attention to his wealth than their love relationship. because of her disappointment, at last she breaks off her engagement. 12. fan fan is scrooge‟s little sister. she is nice and cheerful child. she visits scrooge in order to bring him home. t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 35 scrooge’s unique characterization in relation to jacob marley, scrooge is actually his surviving partner of a firm named scrooge and marley. marley is dead because of certain accident. when marley was still alive, scrooge was described as a cruel, miser, and an avaricious old man (1948:35). this can be seen from the quotation as follows: oh! but he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone. scrooge! a squeezing, wrenching, grasping, clutching, covetous old sinner! (dickens 1948:6) other people‟s comments on scrooge‟s bad character can also be seen below: “…such an odious, stingy, hard, unfeeling man as mr. scrooge. you know he, is robert! nobody knows it better than you, poor fellow!” (dickens 1948:87) “if he wanted to keep „em after he was dead, a wicked old screw,” pursued the woman… (dickens 1948:113) again, we can see scrooge‟s miserliness through his other mean treatment to his clerk. it can be seen when his clerk asks permission to have christmas holiday because he wants to celebrate christmas with his family. actually scrooge is not willing to allow his clerk to have the holiday because he thinks that it is a disadvantage for him if he has to give his money as the clerk‟s salary on the holiday. at last he allows his clerk to have holiday in condition that he has to come earlier to work next morning (dickens 1948:18). scrooge is also known as a hard-hearted, a misanthropic, and a harsh old man. his characterization is described by dickens as follows: celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 36 …hard and sharp as flint, from which no steel had ever struck out generous fire, secret, and selfcontained, and solitary as an oyster. the cold within him freeze his old feature, nipped his pointed nose, shriveled his check, stiffened his gait, his made his eyes red, his thin lips blue; and spoke out shrewdly in his grating voice (dickens 1948:6). scrooge‟s misanthropy can be known from dickens‟ comment on his manner towards other people. …but what did scrooge care! it was the very thing he liked. to edge his way along the crowded paths of life, warning all human sympathy to keep its distance, was what the knowing ones call “nuts” to scrooge (dickens 1948:7). scrooge is also an anti christmas one. his character can be seen from his refusal of his nephew‟s christmas greeting. “a merry christmas, uncle!” god save you!” cried a cheerful voice it was the voice o scrooge‟s nephew, who came upon him so quickly that this was the first intimation he had of his approach. “bah!” said scrooge, “humbug!” “what else can i be, returned the uncle, when i live in such a world of fools as this? merry christmas! out upon merry christmas! …if i could work my will,” said scrooge, indignantly, ”every idiot who goes about with „merry christmas‟, on his lips, should be boiled with his own pudding, and buried with a stake of holly through his heart. he should!” “keep christmas in your own way, and let me keep it in mine.” t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 37 “keep it!” repeated scrooge‟s nephew. “but you don‟t keep it.” (dickens 1948:9-10) scrooge’s anti christmas character scrooge‟s gradual anti-christmas character development begins when the ghost of christmas past causes him to see the visions of his past. when the ghost shows scrooge the vision of his childhood, he was a solitary one who had been neglected by his friends and his father. when fan, his little sister, comes to him to bring him home, at the first time he doesn‟t believe what she has said. but she convinces him that at last, his father permits him to come home. scrooge doesn‟t believe the fact because he still regards himself as an isolated child (dickens 1948:44-48). scrooge experiences a sudden change of heart when he sees the visions of his past. suddenly he feels pity for himself because of his poor former self, as a misanthropy child and he cries. he regrets his previous experience because he should give something to the boy who sings a christmas carol at his door, but he doesn‟t do that. scrooge begins to experience his conversion little by little by realizing that he should do a good deed for other people (dickens 1948:46-47). then the ghost of christmas past brings him to see the visions of his adulthood. one of the visions is when he works as an apprentice at fezziwig‟s firm. fezziwig asks scrooge and dick wilkins to stop working and close the warehouse on christmas eve. then he asks his workers to clean the room and change it into ballroom. fezziwig is a good-hearted old man because he asks scrooge and his other workers to stop working on christmas eve and to celebrate christmas together with him and everyone with joyful heart (dickens 1948:51-52). celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 38 again, scrooge experiences his gradual character change when the ghost “examines” scrooge in order to know further about scrooge‟s reaction in responding fezziwig‟s good manner toward his workers. in the vision, though he is a rich old man, his wealth doesn‟t change him. he is very different from scrooge. scrooge‟s good qualities are gradually losing because of his wealth. fezziwig still has the virtues until his old age. whatever he says and does, he has made the workers happy because of his pleasant manner towards them. through the vision, scrooge gradually realizes his bad attitudes towards others these days (dickens 1948:56). then the ghost brings scrooge to see his other vision when he grows older. here, he begins to appear his character development, becoming a covetous man (dickens 1948:57). in the next vision, scrooge sees the vision of his ex-fiancee. the girl disappointed because scrooge only thinks of his wealth and only pays attention to his wealth than their love relationship. finally, the girl breaks off their engagement because of her disappointment (dickens 1948:58). scrooge begins to realize his old bad manner towards his old fiancee after seeing the vision of his old love. it is really painful for him. the vision of his old love is so frightening for him, thus he tries hard to refuse the ghost‟s order to see another vision. but the ghost forces him to see it (dickens 1948:60). then the second ghost, namely the ghost of christmas present visits scrooge to show him the visions of his present. before it brings him to see the vision, suddenly he asks the ghost to show them. his own demand to the ghost of christmas present to show him the visions of his present has shown his gradual conversion. he begins to realize the good effect of the previous visions because from the visions he learnt to find out his old selfidentity. t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 39 “spirit,” said scrooge submissively, ”conduct me where you will. i went forth last night on compulsion, and i learnt a lesson which is working now. tonight, if you have aught me to teach me, let me profit by it”. (dickens 1948: 70). the ghost of christmas present brings scrooge to the next scene. they visit bob cratchit‟s house. there scrooge sees the cratchits‟ poor condition. the cratchits are a poor family. though they are poor, they live in happiness. …they were not a handsome family; they were are not well dressed; their shoes were far from being waterproof; their clothes were scanty; …but they were happy, grateful, pleased with one another, and contented with the time…( dickens 1948:.88). when scrooge sees the cratchits, actually he has a greater attention to tiny tim, the youngest son of bob cratchits than the others because in his opinion, tiny tim is a terminally ill and he hopes the child can be saved from his poor condition. but the ghost says that it is hopeless to save him unless there is someone who helps him. it means that the child will die because his poor family cannot save him. the ghost really warns him not only to think of his own life, but also to think of other people‟s life especially tiny tim‟s. the child will die for lack of good food, medicine, and so on if nobody saves him. the ghost warns him that his coldness has made other people suffer. according to the ghost, he is a worthless man if he doesn‟t have a deep concern for the poor, especially for the poor cripple child, tiny tim. actually the poor child represents scrooge‟s indifference to the poor. the ghost criticizes his coldness to the poor, particularly to tiny tim by repeating his own words: “if he be like to die, he had better do it, and decrease the surplus population.” after hearing the repetition of his own celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 40 words, suddenly he is aware of his bad treatment to the poor (dickens 1948:85-86). the third spirit that brings scrooge to see the visions of his future is the ghost of christmas future. though, basically, he fears the ghost‟ mysterious appearance, again, he experiences his selfawareness of its good intention for his own interest. through his previous visions, he has learned from the ghost‟s good lessons about his bad character. when ghost of christmas future comes to him, he is willing to see the visions of his future. even he asks the ghost to show him the visions as soon as possible because he wants to uses the precious time in order to reflect on his bad life. “ghost of the future!” he exclaimed, “ i fear you more than any spectre i have seen. but as i know your purpose is to do me good, and i hope to live to be another man from what i was, i am prepared to bear you company, and do it with thankful heart… “lead on!” said scrooge. “lead on! the night is waning fast, and it is precious time to me, i know. lead on, spirit!” (dickens 1948:. 104-105). the next scene scrooge sees is about the cratchits. he sees bob cratchit and his wife‟s sorrow because of tiny tim‟s poor condition. tiny tim has a terminal illness for lack of good food, medicine, and so on. they cannot do anything to save the poor child because they don‟t have enough money to buy the things they need. they only expect other people will help to save their poor child. the ghost warns him that tiny tim‟s poor condition actually represents scrooge‟s indifference to the poor suffering, especially the poor child suffering (dickens 1948:122). then the ghost shows scrooge the last scene. it brings him to a grave yard. there the ghost points to a grave that actually it is his own grave. scrooge is really scared when he sees the terrible vision t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 41 of his own grave pointed by the ghost. he spontaneously refuses it because actually he doesn‟t want to die as a neglected one. the grave is frightening him so much, thus he begs the ghost‟s mercy to change his fate. “spirit!” he cried, tight clutching as its robe, … “good spirit,” he pursued, as down upon the ground he fell before it: “your nature intercedes for me, and pities me. assure me that i yet may change these shadows you have shown me, by an altered lide!”… “i will honour christmas in my heart, and try to keep it all year. i will live in the past, present, and the future. the spirits of all three shall strive within me. i will not shout out the lesson they teach. oh, tell me i may sponge away the writing on this stone!” (dickens 1948:127) scrooge really hopes that he can change his fate by his prayer and the ghost hears his will. when he prays, the ghost vanishes and he finally can come home again. the ghost gives him an opportunity to change his bad life. after experiencing a new life, scrooge sees everything with joy. he really gives thanks to his late friend, marley‟s ghost that directly has warned him about his bad character and the three spirits that has warned him about his bad treatment towards others through the visions of his past, present, and future (dickens 1948:127-128). scrooge is really happy when he realizes his altered and new life. he regards himself as a re-born one, as the one who has a new life. his new life is an energetic and a joyful young man‟s life. scrooge reacts as if as an energetic young man by his crying and laughing as an expression of his new life (dickens 1948:129). after seeing the whole visions, scrooge experiences his totally conversion. it can be seen from his good point of view celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 42 towards anything he sees. scrooge‟s conversion also can be seen from his good manner towards everyone. “what‟s today, my fine fellow?” said scrooge. “today!” replied the boy. “why, christmas day.” (dickens 1948:130) ….scrooge regarded everyone with a delighted smile. he looked so irresistibly pleasant, in a word, that three or four-humourous fellows said, “good morning, sir! a merry christmas to you! and scrooge said often afterwards, that of all the blithe sounds he had ever heard, those were the blithest in his ears (dickens 1948:132). everything and everyone he sees along the street make him happy. finally he realizes that his new life makes him joy and happy through everything and everyone he sees (dickens 1948:134). scrooge‟s first charity after his conversion is to send a big turkey to the cratchits because he has sympathy with their poor condition. he wants to share joy by giving turkey to them on christmas day (p. 130-131). besides, scrooge‟s charity after his conversion can be seen from his good conversation with the charitable gentlemen. scrooge‟s kindness appears when he treats the gentlemen well. in the conversation, he really intends to help the poor by giving his possessions through the charitable gentlemen. his intention can be proved when he asks them to come and see him in order to take his possessions (dickens 1948:133134). scrooge‟s other kindness through his willingness to come to his nephew‟s house in order to have dinner with the nephew‟s family. he is not an anti christmas anymore. he wants to celebrate it together with his nephew‟s family because he wants to share joy and happiness with them (dickens 1948:136). scrooge‟s conversion t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 43 also can be seen from his good manner towards his clerk, bob cratchit. he regards his clerk as his good friend. besides, he also rises bob‟s salary and really intends to help his clerk‟s poor family scrooge becomes an altered old man after seeing the visio ns of his past, present, and future shown by the three spirits. he really fulfill his promise to change his bad character. he becomes an good hearted old man to everyone. his other charity is saving tiny tim‟s poor life. finally, the poor child can be saved from his terminal illness because of scrooge‟s kindness. beside, scrooge is not an anti christmas any longer. he honors christmas in his heart and celebrates christmas together with everyone because he wants to share joy, love, and happiness with everyone. now, scrooge is very happy because he can make everybody happy by sharing what he has with them. he really becomes a friendly, warm, kind, and philanthropic old man to everyone (dickens 1948:136-137). charles dickens’ message through scrooge, charles dickens wants to convey his message, which is mainly about charity. although scrooge was illustrated as a stingy person, eventually his charity can be seen from his good deeds to the cratchits when he gave them a turkey, raised bob‟s salary, and saved tiny tim from his poor condition, and to the other poor people that is represented by the charitable gentlemen who asked donations for the poor by giving his money to them. he treated everyone well. scrooge‟s kindness to others, especially to the poor, dickens indirectly wants to teach us about the significance of charity. dickens also conveys the message through other characters, that is, scrooge‟s nephew, fred by saying that christmas is a good time to have a deep concern for others, especially for the poor. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 29-45 44 …”christmas among the rest. but i am sure i have always thought of christmas time, when it has come round …as a good time: a kind, forgiving, charitable, pleasant time: the only time i know of, in the long calendar of year, when men and women seem by one consent to open their shut-up hearts freely, and to think of people below them as if they were fellow passenger to the grave, not another race of creatures bound on their journey” (dickens 1948:.11) marley‟s ghost also almost have the same opinion as fred‟s. he has a deep concern for human beings. “mankind was my business. the common welfare was my business: charity, mercy, forbearance, were all my business...” ( dickens 1948:31). conclusion through a formalistic analysis, it is found that dickens describes scrooge‟s characterization in his novel, a christmas carol, as a cold-hearted, miserly, misanthropy, and an anti christmas old man. however, scrooge began to have a gradual character development when the ghost of christmas past, present, and future visited him on christmas eve in order to remind and warn him about his bad character by showing his visions of past, present, and future. after seeing the visions, he realized his wrong doings and intended to change it. so, on christmas day, he becomes an altered person. he became a good – hearted, friendly, kind, and generous old man, and he honors christmas in his heart. through his novel, a christmas carol, dickens manages to convey his message on charity, to his readers. dickens wants us to have charity to others, especially to the poor because by having charity, we can make others happy and we will happy because of that. t. erwindriani, scrooge‟s character development 45 references abrams, m. h. a glossary of literary terms. new york: holt, rinehart, and winston, 1981. bowyer, john wilson and john lee brooks. prose, poetry, and drama. new york : appleton century crofts, inc., 1954. chesterton, g. k. appreciation and criticisms of the works of charles dickens. new york: e.p. dutton and co., 1911. _____. charles dickens. stockholm: the continental book company, 1946. dickens, charles. a christmas carol in prose. batavia: p. noordhoff, 1948. evans, b. ifor. a short history of english literature. harmondsworth: penguin books, ltd., 1940. holman, c. hugh and william harmon. a handbook to literature. new york: macmillan publishing company, 1986. kassman, john. introducing dickens. london : unwin hyman, 1988. kennedy, x.j. and dana gioia. literature: an introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama. 6 th ed. new york: harper collins college publishers, 1995. lemme, barbara h. development in adulthood. boston: allyn and bacon co., 1995. rohrberger, mary and samuel h. woods. reading and writing about literature. new york: random house, 1971. wilson, john burgess. english literature: a survey for students. london: longman, 1958. index of subjects celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 acquisition, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28 african american, 62, 69, 70 african american culture, 69 american television, 6163, 66 anti-christmas character, 37 approach, 1822, 2428 articles, 1, 2, 7 autonomous learning, 19 behaviourist method, 20 bernie, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 beulah, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 black sitcoms, 62, 68, 70 black, 61-69 charity, 30, 31, 43-46 classroom, 16, 22-23, 25-28 cognitive approach, 21 cohabitation, 24 comma splice, 11-12 communication, 16, 18, 20-22, 28 communicative approach, 19, 21, 28 computer-assisted communication, 21 corruption, 79 cuisiniere rods, 19 cybernautical approach, 16-20, 22-23, 26-29 cyberspace, 20, 23 dickens, 29, 30-32, 35-46 diction, 1, 10 diversity, 67, 73-79, 89 drama, 46-57, 59-60 elle, 16-18, 25, 27 english education programme, 2, 5, 6, 12 english extension course, 2, 5 6 english novelist, 30 episodic drama, 53 ethnicities, 74, 76 finite verbs, 1, 7-8, 15 foreign language, 47 fox network, 67 game, 49, 53, 55-57 grammar-oriented writing, 14 indonesia, 73-77, 79, 81-84, 8788 injustice, 79, 82 language-learning process, 17 learning, 1628 linguistic, 1, 2, 6 misanthropy, 29, 36, 38, 45 multicultural, 73, 74, 88 multiculturalism, 73-77, 79, 81, 82-85, 87-88 multiculturalist discourse, 67 multilingualism, 7 multimedia technology, 24 neuro-scientific research, 21 non-conventional methods, 19 number-noun concord, 8 oracy processes, 46-47, 59 paragraph writing, 1, 3 pluralism, 76, 79, 84, 89 punctuation, 3, 9, 12 reformation era, 79 scrooge, 29, 31-45 second-language learning, 21 segregationism, 61-62 student’s literacy, 47 subject-finite verb concord, 8 systemic functional linguistics approach, 90 television, 61-62, 64, 66, 68-69 tenses, 9 unity in diversity, 78 victorian age, 30 youth, 72, 73, 76-79 index of authors celt, volume 11, number 1, year 2011 adhyanggono, g.m, 46 bram, barli, 1 erwindriani, t., 29 george c., j. 16 june, s. and ekawati m.d., 73 nelson, a., 61 suratno, a. ,89 index of articles celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 adhyanggono, g.m. teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 4660. bram, barli. learners’ language challenges in writing english. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 1-15. erwindriani, theresia. scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 29-45. george c., jacob. autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 16-28. june, shierly and ekawati marhaenny dukut. a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 73-88. nelson, angela. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 61-72. suratno, antonius. a book review: discourse analysis. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 89-93. celt volume 11, number 2, year 2011 thank the following people for their outstanding work as reviewers: a. effendi kadarisman (universitas negeri malang, indonesia) c. soebakdi soemanto (universitas gadjah mada, indonesia) fr. borgias alip (universitas sanata dharma, indonesia) helena agustien (universitas negeri semarang, indonesia) subur wardoyo (ikip pgri semarang, indonesia) 3 theresia erwindriani_2012_12_1(29-45) 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 89-93 anton a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the implementation of herringbone technique in reading comprehension at second semester of non-english department hidayatur rohmah education of english language and literature, post graduate program, surabaya state university, surabaya, indonesia email: hidayaturrohmah@unwaha.ac.id; hidajauhar@gmail.com received: 21-06-2016 accepted: 25-06-2016 published: 23-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the implementation of herringbone technique in reading comprehension at second semester of non-english department hidayatur rohmah hidayaturrohmah@unwaha.ac.id; hidajauhar@gmail.com education of english language and literature, post graduate program, surabaya state university, indonesia abstract: herringbone technique is the technique to help students find important information and main idea in a text by seeking the answer of six comprehension questions on a diagram. this study is intended to know how the lecturer’s implement herringbone technique to the students’ reading comprehension, especially detail information and main idea. the research was done at stai bahrul ‘ulum tambakberas. the subject of the study was the second semester of pai-a students consisting 33 students. the study is descriptive qualitative conducted in four meetings. the researcher applied several techniques including observation, field notes, interview, questionnaire, and students’ test. to analyze the lecture’s implementation, data condensation which are selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting and transforming all the data found. then data display means compressed the information, and the last was conclusion drawing. in analyzing the test, the researcher used holistic scoring scale adapted from brown. and diagram used to analyze the students’ respond toward the implementation. the research finding shows that the implementation of herringbone technique is conducted into three phases; (1) pre-reading phase, which focussed on background knowledge and brainstorm, (2) whilstreading, which consist on reading activity, fill and discuss the diagram, and (3) post-reading which mean to check the students’ understanding. in conclusion, the use of herringbone technique in teaching reading comprehension requires the lecture to do specific activities of teaching and learning process in accordance with the stages of herringbone technique. the student’s responses result to the herringbone questions and the number of main ideas during teaching learning process increased from first until fourth meeting. the students’ responded toward the implementation of herringbone technique was very good, gave rohmah, h., the implementation of herringbone technique in reading 65 comprehension at second semester of non-english department https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj possitive effect and helped them more easily in understanding the text. key words: reading, reading comprehension, herringbone technique, main idea. abstrak: teknik herringbone adalah teknik untuk membantu peserta didik menemukan informasi penting dan ide pokok teks dengan melihat enam pertanyaan pemahaman pada diagram, penyelidikan ini berniat unuk mengetahui bagaimana dosen menerapkan teknik herringbone pada mahasiswa dalam pemahaman membaca menggunakan teks naratif, terutama pada informasi lengkap dan ide pokok. penelitian ini dilakukan di stai-bu tambakberas. pesertanya adalah mahasiswa semeser2 pai-a yang terdiri dari 33 mahasiswa. jenis penelitian deskriptif kualitatif digunakan. penulis menggunakan beberapa teknik seperti catatan lapangan, observasi, interview, pertanyaan, dan tes. untuk menganalisa penerapan herringbone menggunakan data kondensasi yakni menyeleksi, memfokuskan, menyederhanakan, meringkas, dan mentransfer semua data yang ditemukan. lalu data display dilakukan untuk meringkas informasi. dan yang terakhir menarik kesimpulan. dalam menganalisa tes, peneliti menggunakan skala nilai secara keseluruhan diadaptasi dari brown.untuk respon siswa menggunakan diagram. temuan-temuan menunjukkan bahwa implementasi teknik herringbone dilaksanakan dalam tiga tahap;(1) sebelum tahap membaca, yakni fokus pada latar belakang pengetahuan, mengungkapkan pendapat,(2)selagi membaca,yang terdiri dari kegiatan membaca, mengisi dan mendiskusikan diagram herringbone, dan (3) akhir membaca yang dimaksudkan untuk mengecek pemahaman siswa. pada akhirnya, penerapan herringbbone technique dalam mengajar mengajar pemahaman membaca pada tekks naratif mengharuskan dosen untuk melakukan aktifitas belajar mengajar yang spesifik sesuai dengan tahap teknik herringbone. hasil jawaban siswa pada peranyaanpertanyaan dan ide pokok di teknik herringbone selama proses belajar mengajar meningkat dari pertemuan pertama sampai pertemuan ke empat. respon siswa terhadap penerapah teknik herringbone juga sangat bagus, memberikan efek positif dan membantu siswa lebih mudah mengerti dalam memahami teks. kata kunci: membaca, pemahaman membaca, teknik herringbone, ide pokok. 66 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 64 – 78 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction reading is one of the ways to get information. reading becomes an important part in our life, because sometimes to get the information the people will read. reading which constitutes one of english language skills is also beneficial in learning english. when students read text, for instance, the text that students read can be useful to support their writing skill and enrich them with vocabulary, grammar and so on. furthermore, richard (1996, p.164) affirms that reading comprehension activities may address different levels of comprehension, including literal comprehension (understanding meanings stated explicitly in a text), inferential comprehension (drawing conclusions and making predictions based on information in the text), and evaluation (making judgment about the content of a text based on personal or other values). reading comprehension gives the big contribution to students to perform their communication skill better. in their daily life, students are always related to the written or printed words, for instance: text books, magazines, newspapers, announcements, letters, even advertisement. by reaching good reading comprehension, the students can catch the information given by the writer well. for non-english department students, reading does not merely mean to understand the meaning of words or recognize new vocabulary of english but comprehend the content of written information or message explicitly and implicitly as well. the reader requires good comprehension to obtain message or information from the materials he or she reads. the next problem the students can not comprehend the text well. therefore, reading skill should be taught seriously in the classroom in order to make the students understand the text. herringbone technique tries to accommodate six comprehension questions (who, what, when, where, how, and why) to get the information of the text. when the students answer the six questions above, students also write the main idea across the backbone of the fish diagram. the information can lead the readers to get the topic of the text that they read. this is one of the technique that influence students in understanding and comprehending the text. this study tries to explain in detail about efforts or steps when implementing herringbone technique to make the six questions in herringbone technique: who, what, when, where, why, and how be integratedly chained. this study also describe the students’ results in reading rohmah, h., the implementation of herringbone technique in reading 67 comprehension at second semester of non-english department https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj comprehension through the implementation of herringbone technique, and about the students’ respond to the implementation of the herringbone technique in reading comprehension class. review of literature on reading nuttal (1996, p. 4) states that reading is a perceptive process in which people look at and interact with the text, to understand, interpret and attain meaning to the written symbols in the text. if someone rread the other symbols could be number or other kinds of meaningful pattern, such as the arrangement of an offensive football team, but it does not mean reading. reading is also regarded as a skill that is interpreting codes into ideas. according to nunan (2003, p.4), reading is viewed as a process of decoding written symbols, working from smaller units (individual letters) to larger ones (words, clauses and sentences). in other words, the use of techniques are to decode written forms in order to arrive at meaning. based on the theory above, the researcher assumes that reading is an activity involving the process of interaction between the reader and the text in which the content of the text is selected to get an understanding of the message written beyond it. a. reading comprehension smith (2003, p. 19), states that comprehension is building understanding, both of a particular text and the more global concepts around which it is built. it is an active and demanding process, especially when students are reading to learn new and difficult concepts. furthermore he also defines that readingcomprehension is a process that begins with word recognition. it does not end, however, until students derived meaning from the ideas both stated implied in the text and have been able to evaluate and respond to these ideas. richard (2001) defines that reading comprehension is a process of using syntactic and semantic information found in printed text to reconstruct in the reeader’s mind. according to snow (2002), reading comprehension as the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language. from the theories presented above, it can be inferred that reading comprehension is an ability to understand what he/she reads by involving his experience and knowledge. the differences of experiences and background knowledge brought to the text can 68 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 64 – 78 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj cause variationin comprehension. then, the comprehension process itself can be referred to what good readers do when read. b. the herringbone technique deegan (2006, p.102) states that herringbone technique develops comprehension of the main idea by plotting who, what, when, where, why, and how question on a visual diagram of a fish skeleton. using the answer to the wh questions, the students writes the main idea across the backbone of the fish diagram. according to tierney, readence, & dishner (1980) say that herringbone technique is a structured outlining procedure designed to help students organize important information in a text chapter. so, herringbone technique can help students to understand the information of the text. figure 1: herringbone diagram in this research, herringbone technique helps the students understand the connections between supporting details to identify a main idea. the herringbone is a useful graphic organizer for students to organize information. the advantages of herringbone technique according to bouchard (2005, p. 54) is being able to answer and understsand the questions who, what, when, why, where, and how can greatly aid ells when reading and comprehending text. this strategy also shows the relationship of the details to the main idea, which is often a troublesome comcept for ells. on the other side, there are some advantages of herringbone technique, they are: (1) the students will be more active in the class especially in reading. when they do the steps of herringbone technique in reading, they will have activities that make them active in the class. (2) herringbone technique also makes the students enthusiastic in reading a text, because they just focus on the simple question. (3) in discussion process the students can share the information about the text that they have already red. (4) he activities in reading make the students fresh and out of boring reading. and (5) herringbone technique activities can makes the students are easier to find the main idea of the text. rohmah, h., the implementation of herringbone technique in reading 69 comprehension at second semester of non-english department https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj research method this study was largely a qualitative in nature used a descriptive method, in which there is no treatment in this study, therefore, the data gathered from this study were not affected by others or by the researcher because in collecting the data, the researcher just attended the class and gather the data based on his capacity as a researcher. the subject of the research was the lecture and second semester students of non english department. they are pendidikan agama islam-a (pai-a) students. the reason to choose this class is that it was class in where the students directly experiencing in the use of herringbone technique. this class has 33 students, 17 girls and 16 boys. the setting of the research is in universitas wahab hasbulloh (unwaha) which is located in tambakberas jombang. the data of this research was the teacher and students’ activities in applying the herringbone technique in the process of teaching and learning reading comprehension in the classroom. the source of data was from the process of teaching and learning while the teacher implemented the herringbone technique in the classroom. to collect the data appropriately, the researcher uses observation checklist and fieldnotes, interview, and questionnaires. the researcher analyze the students’ work on herringbone diagram. the score put from the students’ work on the second and the tast implementation of herringbone technique, because in the second meeting, the students start to answer the diagram alone. to analyze the data of the implementation of herringbone technique, the researcher uses data condensation, data display, and coclusion drawing or verification (miles & huberman., 2014, p. 31). result the observation was done on june 29th, 2015 until july 8th, 2015. the researcher accesses the subjects of the research namely a lecture and students in which they are involved in the teaching learning process, especially in the implementation of herringbone technique in the teaching reading narrative text at stai-bu tambakberas jombang. the objective of implementation of herringbone technique at stai-bu tambakberas jombang is to show that students could understand the text. the 70 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 64 – 78 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj fish diagram is used to help students identify the main idea and the related supporting ideas of a lesson, text or concept. it contains six questions that help students organize the details of the text. according to the lecture, the implementing herringbone makes the students to be more active and comprehend the story that they have red. a. the lecture’s implementation of herringbone technique in reading comprehension the implementation of herringbone technique in teaching reading was done by the lecture simultaneously in each teaching learning process from the first meeting until the fourth in a classroom. in implementing herringbone technique to teach reading, the lecture applied almost similar steps from the first meeting until the fourth, but the tittle of the text was different. the text was taken based on teaching material in reading book for second semester of pai students. 1. phases of herringbone technique herringbone technique which was implemented in reading process was used to help in developing reading comprehension skill, especially in comprehending a narrative text. this technique emphasize on the process learning. the procedures of herringbone technique in reading narrative text can be presented using the following. figure 2: procedures of herringbone technique adapted from bouchard (2005, pp. 54-55) introduction select a text for students to read showing the herringbone diagram to the students draw a diagram of the herringbone discuss the smaller bones are attached to the backbone of the fish explain that they will be asked to look for information that answers the following questions: who, what, when, where, how, and why rohmah, h., the implementation of herringbone technique in reading 71 comprehension at second semester of non-english department https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reading comprehension process allow time for students to read the text give them copies of the diagram show students how the information is organized around the main idea formulate the main idea after the students learn the procedure, they can complite the diagram reading comprehension product of narrative text all of the figures above presents the process of herringbone technique in the reading comprehension of narrative text. all the procedures do not only do in one meeting but several meetings, it is about four meetings. at the first until the fourth meeting, the lecture introduces herringbone technique and then gives some models of narrative text to be read and discuss about the comprehension of the text. in the following part, the students’ and lecture’ activities are described in detail. the lecture applied the similar steps in implementing herringbone technique in each meeting as long as three times observation. the lecture then divided the learning activities in three sections namely pre activity, whilst activity, and post activity. from the observation of the implementation of herringbone technique that have been explained above in the selecting conversation of written field notes of every stages of the implementation, the researcher did data display which is suitable to the lecture ans students’ activities related to the process approach stages. the data is displayed in table 1 as follows: 72 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 64 – 78 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj table 1: sorted data all sorted data categorized data l: i want to use herringbone technique for your reading process. herringbone technique itu adalah... how is the herringbone technique implemented by the lecture in second semester of pai students’ reading comprehension? l: to make you more understand about the technique, i will show you the diagram of herringbone technique. (data belong to this question) l: read the story at a glance on this page, read silently. read the story, start from the title until the last paragraph. ss: yes mom..(students start to read the story) l: i will call one student to read again, loudly, all of the story. emm...mbak intan! read the story loudly, please. s1: yes mom. bismillahirrohmanirrohim...mismatch... (continuou to read the story) l: ...please record the answer to the question on the herringbone diagram here and discuss with your group to formulate the main idea! ss : yes mom (students start to answer the six questions and discuss the main idea with their group) l: based on your group, who is the text talking about? ss : peter and rhoda l: what did peter and rhoda do? ss : they were eating in a restaurant ss : and talking about married and new experience rohmah, h., the implementation of herringbone technique in reading 73 comprehension at second semester of non-english department https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj l: where did jose saw a beautiful abstract painting? ss : on the floor l : when did jose saw it? s1: six o’clock in the evening,mom l : how did they (peter and rhoda) test the relationship? s1 : peter and rhoda try to make new friends and have new experience l : why did they do it? s4: because peter and rhoda very young l: could you tell me what is the main idea of the first paragraph? g1: peter and rhoda eating in a restaurant and talking about their relationship in the future. 2. table of process and dispaly the table in the left side above was still a rough categorization of the obtained data from checklist and fieldtotes. however, in order to make the data above be much more systematical, the researcher gone to the next step to make it clear whether the data belong to the first or second quesstion. table 2 shows that generally the lecture implemented herringbone technique well. all the phases of herringbone technique done by the lecture, starting from introducing herringbone technique to the students, showing the herringbone diagram to the students, reading the text, answer the herringbone diagram and discussion. table 2: table of data display (how herringbone technique is implemented by the lecture) l: i want to use herringbone technique for your reading process. herringbone technique itu adalah.... 74 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 64 – 78 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj l: to make you more understand about the technique, i will show you the diagram of herringbone technique. l: read the story at a glance on this page, read silently. read the story, start from the title until the last paragraph. l: i will call one student to read again, loudly, all of the story. emm...mbak intan! read the story loudly, please. l: ...please record the answer to the question on the herringbone diagram here and discuss with your group to formulate the main idea! l: based on your group, who is the text talking about? ss: yes mom..(students start to read the story) l: what did peter and rhoda do? s1: yes mom. bismillahirrohmanirrohim...mismatch. .. (continuou to read the story) l: where did jose saw a beautiful abstract painting? ss : yes mom l : when did jose saw it? (students start to answer the six questions and discuss the main idea with their group) l : how did they (peter and rhoda) test the relationship? ss : peter and rhoda l : why did they do it? ss : they were eating in a restaurant ss : and talking about married and new experience l: could you tell me what is the main idea of the first paragraph? ss : on the floor s1: six o’clock in the evening,mom s1 : peter and rhoda try to make new friends and have new experience s4: because peter and rhoda very young g1: peter and rhoda eating in a restaurant and talking about their relationship in the future. rohmah, h., the implementation of herringbone technique in reading 75 comprehension at second semester of non-english department https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj b. the students’ results to the implementation of herringbone technique in reading comprehension from the result of four times observation, the study found that when the lecture implemented herringbone technique in teaching reading comprehension, the students’ responses and answers to the herringbone technique questions concerning general information of the text and main idea of a paragraph during teaching learning process increased. it can be seen from number of active students in responding herringbone’s questions improved in every meeting. the first meeting showed that number of active student in responding herringbone’s questions during teaching and learning process was low, there were only few active groups. in second meeting, number of active student was more than in the first meeting, eventhought they have to answer the herringbone questions individually. for the third and fourth, number of active student in responding the herringbone questions was more and more inreased. the condition of class when the lecture taught reading in the last meeting, the students’ replies to the herringbone questions were better than the first meeting, second, and the third. the number of active students was increase. every time the the lecture read the question on the diagram, certainly the students answered well and fluently, it can be detected from conversation in the extract above, like some students (ss), all students(ss), and many students (ms) answered in the extract. it showed that total student’s reply in the fourth meeting more than three meetings before. it means that the students’ result in reading comprehension and students’ responses to the reading comprehension questions concerning general information of the text and main idea of a paragraph through the implementation of herringbone technique increased. c. students’ respond to the implementation of the herringbone technique in reading comprehension class the students’ responses are obtained from students’ behavior while they are in the teaching and learning process as well as being interviewed. moreover, the researcher took five samples of students. furthermore, the result of observation and interview is divided into three parts, the sudents’ interest of the ht in english lesson, the effect of the game in learning and 76 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 64 – 78 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj comprehension and the last was the benefit of the ht in students’ reading comprehension. from the interview about the application of the herringbone technique in english lesson, most of the students like the applied of herringbone technique in teaching and learning english. the herringbone technique made them more interested in learning english.the herringbone technique is simple and interesting technique. it did not need many tools to do this technique, except herringbone diagram. it was easier to do. from the observation sheet in first until the last implementation, the students felt that by using herringbone technique was more interesting and easier. from the researcher’s interview to the students about the benefit of herringbone technique in students’ reading comprehension, it that was shown that the herringbone technique gave positive effect for the students in their reading comprehension. learning by using herringbone technique helped students more easily in understanding the text, so that, the students were more easily to answer questiions related with the text. and from the effect of the herringbone technique in learning reading comprehension, the students agree that the use of herringbone technique could help the students in increasing the study achievement in english lesson. it proved when they haven’t apply the herringbone technique, the students felt difficult to make the main idea of the text. but, after applying the herringbone technique, they felt happy and helped because before make the main idea, they have to answer the six questions which have correlation with the main idea. to sum the respond up, based on the finding of the interview result it can be concluded that the applied of herringbone technique in teaching reading comprehension made the students more interest in studying english. the diagram also helped the students easier in learning english so that the students could answer questions and the main idea related with the text properly because their reading comprehension was better than before. conclusion the present study has investigated a number of issues as presented in the discussion including the techniques of teaching used by the teacher in using herringbone technique. the lecture believes in the use of herringbone in rohmah, h., the implementation of herringbone technique in reading 77 comprehension at second semester of non-english department https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reading comprehension of non-english department, then the findings of the research, as a set of conclusions, are inferred as follows. based on the findings and discussion of the study, it can be cocluded that first, the lecture can implement herringbone technique in teaching reading comprehension well, since the steps applied by the lecture in implementing this technique is similar to the steps suggested by promonents of herringbone technique. the lecture’s activity in observing phase was done properly. she presented pictures, a text, and picture of herringbone diagram. she also explained how to answer six questions an manage the main idea in the diagram. the activities were reading text, listening to the lecture’s explanation, filling the fishbone diagram, and doing discussion. second, this study also found that students’ reading comprehension increase after herringbone technique was implemented, it can be seen from the student’s responses result to the herringbone questions and the number of main ideas during teaching learning process increase from first meeting to next meeting up to fourth meeting. the students’ respond to the implementation of herringbone technique was very good. it can be seen from the data interview. most of the students like the applied of herringbone technique in teaching and learning english. the herringbone technique gave positive effect for the students in their reading comprehension. learning by using herringbone technique helped students more easily in understanding the text, so that, the students were more easily to answer questions related with the text. the technique also make students enjoy to learn english, especially in reading comprehension. references bouchard, m. (2005). comprehension strategies for english language learners. new york: scholastic inc. deegan, j. (2006). herringbone technique. teacher web. retrieved on march 14, 2013 from http://www.teacherweb.com/pa/nazareth areamiddleschool/thespecialistteam/herringbonetechnique.doc miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. new york: sage. 78 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 64 – 78 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj nuttall, c. (1996). teaching reading skills in a foreign language. bath: heinemann. nunan, d. (ed.). (1992). collaborative language learning and teaching. cambridge university press. richards, j. c., & renandya, w. a. (eds.). (2002). methodology in language teaching: an anthology of current practice. cambridge university press. snow, c. (2002). reading for understanding. towards an r&d program in reading comprehension. santa monica: rand corporation. tierney, r. j., readence, j. e., & dishner, e. k. (1980). reading strategies and practices: a guide for improving instruction. boston: allyn & bacon. jul2018 4. 555 cover ojs.doc.pdf (p.1) 004 jul2018.pdf (p.2-16) women resistance toward discriminations: a modern literary work analysis on feminism review in bekisar merah mujiono and moh. zalhairi moejie_nova73@yahoo.com; brong_sumpret@yahoo.com english education department, language and literature faculty, university of kanjuruhan malang, indonesia abstract: this study was conducted to discover the discriminations against women in the bekisar merah novel and how they formulate resistance to those discriminations. to address the above objective, this study used descriptive qualitative research design with a feminism approach. source of the data in this study was the second edition of bekisar merah novel written by ahmad tohari. the data included were words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs on bekisar merah which portray women’s discrimination toward lasi, the women figure in the novel, and power types formulated by her who resisted the discrimination. to analyze the data, content analysis was applied. triangulation was used to ensure the trustworthiness of the data. the result of the study showed eight forms of discriminations and three resistances. the discriminations were domestic abuse, molestation, gender harassment, seduction behavior, imposition, coercion, bribery, and subordination. the resistances were physically, mentally, and verbally. key words: resistance, feminism, and discrimination abstrak: penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mendiskripsikan diskriminasi terhadap perempuan pada novel bekisar merah dan mendiskripsikan bagaimana mereka merumuskan perlawanan terhadap diskriminasi tersebut. untuk mencapai tujuan di atas, penelitian ini menggunakan rancangan penelitian diskriptif kualitatif dan pendekatan feminisme. sumber data dalam penelitianini adalah novel bekisar merah edisi kedua yang ditulis oleh ahmad tohari. datanya berupa kata, frase, zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 223 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah kalimat dan paragraf pada novel bekisar merah yang menggambarkan diskriminasi terhadap lasi sebagai figur perempua npada novel tersebut dan bentuk kekuasaan yang dirumuskan oleh dia yang menolak diskriminasi. analisis isi dilakukan untuk menganalisis data. triangulasi digunakan untuk mendapatkan keabsahan data. hasil penelitian menunjukkan delapan bentuk diskriminasi dan tiga resistansi perempuan. diskriminasi yang berupa kekerasan dalam rumah tangga, pemaksaan, penganiayaan, pelecehan, perilaku rayuan, paksaan, penyuapan, dan perendahan martabat wanita. resistensi wanita berupa fisik, mental, dan lisan. katakunci: resistensi, feminism, dan diskriminasi introduction literary work is the way to extend the idea of the writer about the dynamic activities of human life. literary work is a human creation which is reflected from real life (luken, 2003). the idea of writing a literary work starts by perceiving human life which led to restlessness. the restlessness usually brings a writer to think and create a new world in form of literary works. in windiyati’s opinion literary work has its own existence which shows a reality using a beautiful language (2008). in line with the above statements, literary work is, therefore, not in social alienation, but it represents a phenomenon that occurred in a society. many problems usually emerge in human life that it becomes interesting to be represented by literary works. one of them is what is known as gender bias. it is the understanding of men and women’s different roles based on sex. women are isolated in domestic works while men are in some productive ones. this understanding finally creates what we know as patriarchy culture which puts man as a superior being and brings women not only to be subordinated but also to be treated in incorrect ways, such as violence. one of the novelists who present this issue in his work is ahmad tohari, through his novel, bekisar merah (2013). the novel portrays the practice of patriarchy culture which legitimizes man’s domination over women. it also presents violence against women which are practiced in different ways. lasi, the women figure in the novel, got unfair treatments since she was young until she became the wife of mr. bambung, a millioner and authority holder in her country. 224 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 underlying the above statements, studies in feminism have been investigated by a great number of scholars from a wide range of disciplines. windiyati (2008) revealed that there is (1) an injustice against women manifested in the class system in the society of bali, which became the setting of the novel, (2) various forms of gender injustice or inequity that was reflected in the family, and (3) the study was about women radicalism. radicalism was shown by the main character in the novel that is trying to obtain equality by getting married with a man from a brahman caste. unfortunately radicalism tends to benefit the main character only. in fact, this benefit to the main character happened during the existing oppressive system. other scholars such as ambarwati, (2009), and kuncoro (2010) have investigated feminism from the point of view where feminism was associated with feminism perspectives. the findings revealed that women exist as independent human beings, irrespective of all forms of gender oppression and are able to demonstrate status and dignity as human beings. existence was realized in the form of freedom to choose and decide what they thought was right, without their thoughts being determined by men. meanwhile, kurnia et. al (2013) had studied about feminism in the novel of secuil hati wanita di teluk eden written by vanni chrisma. kurnia et. al’s analysis finds that (1) gender inequity experienced by the main character is manifested in the form of stereotypes, (2) violence experienced was in the form of domestic: either as physical or emotional, and (3) the struggle of women drawn from the results of these studies was limited only to the awareness and freedom of speech. that is why modern literary work analysis on feminism review, which explore ideas of the writer and about the dynamics of human life specifically on women resistance toward discriminations is an interesting topic to conduct. literature review a. gender as perspectives gender is not something people are born with, and not something owned, but something that is done or performed (west & zimmerman, 1987; butler, 1990). rudman and glick (2008) argue that gender relations involve intimate heterosexual interdependence, which often shows the genuine feelings of love and affection between the sexes. in its lexicon meaning, gender is represents the genitalia of man and women. according to sugihastuti and sastriyani (2007) gender is categorized into two specific definitions. the first zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 225 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah relates to what is understood as genital organs like understood by rudman and glick above. the second, however, is the social construction of gender. the social construction defines women as weak, having soft characteristic, being fussy, participating motherhood, and are infamously emotional, while men are strong and rationale. meanwhile, money (1988) has introduced the terminological distinction of the genital organ as biological sex and the social construction as gender. oakley, as cited by freedman (2001), argues that sex is a word that refers to the biological differences between male and female. it is the visible difference in genitalia, the related difference in procreative function. gender, however, is a matter of culture. it refers to the social classification into masculine and feminine but gender is not only about the genital differences between man and women revealed by god. with regards to two previous statements, fakih (2012) distinguishes between sex and gender as follows. sex is something which is permanent while gender is termed after behavioral differences between men and women and is socially constructed. related to the above arguments, money (1998) puts a deep difference between gender as a role of human and sex as part of our body. he says that gender as role is a set of societal norms which dictates what sort of behavior is commonly acceptable for a person based on their actual experiences. another scholar, umar (2005) gives a specific explanation to understand the concept of both terms. he divides the concept of gender into four parts. they are gender attribute, gender identity, gender assignment, and gender role. gender attribute is what have been explained above as genital organs while gender identity is a set of symbols which is associated with men and women based on their gender attributes. gender assignment and gender role in umar’s explanation are similar. both are socially constructed and indicates what men and women must do. society categorizes what they must do based on the genital limitation of their body. gender is a set of behavior that is learned and performed. it is something we do, not what we are, and it can change from culture to culture and even in individual attitudes over the course of a lifetime. b. gender inequalities according to fakih (2012), gender can be manifested in form of (1) women marginalization, (2) women subordination, (3) creating a stereotype to women, and (4) women violence and work burden. the first, in women marginalization, gender inequality has a great impact especially on women and 226 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 poverty. in poverty stricken countries, it is more likely that men have more opportunities to have an income and have more political and social rights than women. some strategic positions in the industry, politic institution, office, and organization put women subordinate to men. in career, women usually perform only as a secretary or treasurer, thus, women most likely experience more poverty than men (fakih, 2012). based on sultana (2010), the term women’s subordination refers to the inferior position of women, their lack of access to resources and decision making. women’s subordination means the inferior position of women to men. the feeling of powerlessness, discrimination and experience of limited self-esteem and self-confidence jointly contribute to the subordination of women. in support of this, herlambang (2013) argues that subordination is the cultural violence faced by women. it can be legitimated from ideology, language, religion, art, and knowledge. the reality which is commonly found in the society shows that religion has a great position in legitimating the gender inequalities. religion interprets gender as something given and should be kept for it is god’s rule. the effect of religious interpretation makes the society keep the violence expressive without feeling guilty. it is more ironic when women do not think they become the victim of the subordination. women see what is done by men to them, in the form of domination, as something normal. the third is women stereotype. this can be seen when the women beautify themselves. when there is a rape, the society most likely blames the women for they are thought as always inviting the man to do so. this is one of the examples which commonly happens and believd in a partriarchial society. fourth, violence is the common implication of gender bias. it is an assault to women’s physical body or their phycology. one of the causes of violence is the gender bias of men who believe that they have more power than women which make them feel superior and think of women as not brave enough to fight back. fakih (2012) states that it is because of power which is not balanced between men and women in society that this occurrence happens. further, fakih, (2012) explains that the gender inequalities explained above can be classified into two broad classes which are physical and nonphysical violence. gender inequalities like marginalization, women poverty, subordination, violence, stereotype, and work burden are manifested in many social systems. it can be in the state institution, local and world organizations zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 227 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah such as united nation (un), state policy, and constitutions. however, the gender inequalities are also happening in public space, families, educational settings, religious settings, and many other settings (jones, 2010; fakih, 2012). c. the notion of feminism gay (2012), states that the term of feminism has become misconstrued and negatively associated in the twenty-first century. further, he explains that feminism is a movement whose primary purpose is to achieve quality in all realms between men and women. freedman (2001) explains that feminism concerns themselves with women’s inferior position in society and with discrimination encountered by women because of their sex. according to bhasin and khan (1995), feminism is an awareness of women who are under man’s domination in many aspects and have an established set of actions to resist it. gender inequality is the foundation of feminism movement. they believe that it is constructed time by time and from generation to generation culturally, so, the movement created is a form of struggle to get back the rights of women. d. gender reform feminisms the term of feminism began from the gender reform of western feminism because feminism, the reaction of women discrimination, is its successor. according to freedman (2001), gender reform feminism is categorized into three series of waves. each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. the first wave comprised women's suffrage movements of late-nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century feminist movements that were concerned with gaining equal rights for women. its focus was on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. by the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage, although some feminists were active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights as well. the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. the second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women. the third wave according to krolokke (2005) was a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism. in the early 1990s in the usa, third-wave feminism began as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and to the backlash against initiatives and 228 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 movements created by the second wave (krolokke (2005). third-wave feminism distinguished itself from the second wave around issues of sexuality, challenging female heterosexuality and celebrating sexuality as a means of female empowerment (cameron, 2010). further, he explains that third-wave feminism also seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which they argue, over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women. by the 20th century covertures had been abolished in the uk and the us, in many continental european countries married women still had very few rights. for instance in france, married women received the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965. feminists also worked to abolish the marital exemption in rape laws which precluded the prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives. the birth of feminism in europe finally inspired literary critics to apply the spirit of feminism on literary analysis. in the beginning, feminism was a social theory which was adapted to literature. there are no differences between feminism as social theory and the theory of literary work analysis because both focus on gender equality. the birth of feminism analysis on literature is the contribution of genetic structuralism. taine cited by endraswara (2008) states that literary work is not only an imaginative fact but also a recording of culture and social situation when it is written. explicitly, genetic structuralism emphasizes the necessity of literary work which is seen as a copy of the situation and the condition of society when the work was written. this means that the researchers get an inspiration from the dynamics of community life and it is not pure imagination. so the genetic structuralism seeks to provide more to the external analysis of the literary works. dealing with this view, genetic structuralism criticizes and gives new offer to literary review theory that was born earlier. it is pure structuralism which only emphasizes the intrinsic side. thus, the birth of feminism that tries to look at and examine the literature from the perspective of women's oppression is part of the development of the analysis of genetic structuralism. feminists believe that literature was not born in a social void. e. the theories of feminism there are four main types of feminist theory that attempt to explain the societal differences between men and women. first is gender difference. gender difference perspective examines how women's location in, and zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 229 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah experience of, social situations differ from men's. feminist theorists believe that the different roles assigned to women and men within institutions better explain gender difference, including the sexual division of labor in the household. existential and phenomenological feminists focus on how women have been marginalized and denied the opportunity for self-realization (freedman, 2001). second is gender-inequality. this theory recognizes that women have been isolated to the private sphere of the household and, thus, left without a voice in the public sphere (freedman, 2001). bouchier as cited by jones (2010) states that family is a basic institution which exploits women. further, fakih (2012) argues that women are still expected to manage the private sphere and take care of household duties and child rearing making new discrimination to women for it increase women’s work burden. third is gender oppression. according to barker (2003) oppression is the social act of placing severe restrictions on an individual, group or institution. while deuthsch (2006) explains that oppression is the experience of repeated, widespread, systemic injustice. with regards to the two above concepts, the theory of gender oppression argues that not only are women different from or unequal to men, but they are actively oppressed, subordinated, and even abused by men. to comprehend the above theory of gender oppression, psychoanalytic feminism such as the psychology freud’s view of feminism (ahmed, 2012) and radical feminism are discussed. psychoanalytic feminists attempt to explain power relations between men and women by reformulating freud's theories of the subconscious and unconscious, human emotions, and childhood development. while radical feminists argue that being a woman is a positive thing in and of itself but that this is not acknowledged in patriarchal societies where women are oppressed. they identify physical violence as being at the base of patriarchy, but they think that patriarchy can be defeated if women recognize their own value and strength, establish a sisterhood of trust with other women, confront oppression critically, and form female separatist networks in the private and public spheres. radical feminism is the breeding ground for many of the ideas arising from feminism. radical feminism attempts to draw lines between biologically determined behavior and culturallydetermined behavior in order to be free both men and women as much as possible from their previous narrow gender roles. fourth is structural oppression. this theory posits that women's oppression and inequality are a result of capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. it 230 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 seeks to explain oppression and inequality across a variety of variables, including class, gender, race, ethnicity, and age. it may be said that not all women experience oppression in the same way. they face different forms of discrimination in the workplace. methodology this study used descriptive qualitative research method. to describe women resistance toward discriminations, feminism approach was applied. the source of the data was the second edition of bekisar merah novel written by ahmad tohari. the novel was published by pt gramedia pustaka utama in january of 2013. the data were in the form of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs on bekisar merah which portray women’s discrimination toward lasi, the women figure in the novel, and power types formulated by her when resisting discrimination. the data collected was based on some steps; (a) formulating key words or phrases pertinent to the problem or question of interest,(b) searching the general references for relevant primary sources, (c) obtaining and reading relevant primary sources, and noting and summarizing key (onwuegbuzi, leech, & collins, 2012). this is then followed by (d) the researcher reading bekisar merah novel written by ahmad tohari, (e) marking the data which by the researcher as corpus, and (f) categorizing the data based on the problem focus of the study. in analyzing the data in this study, content analysis was applied. it was used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts or sets of texts. content analysis was applied in this study to find out the content and meaning of the text. to comprehend the sense of the text, an analytical construct was applied. researchers quantified and analyzed the presence, meanings and relationships of such words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the texts. content analysis which was applied in this study was through inductive approach. elo and kyngas (2007) divided the steps of inductive approach into open coding, creating categories, and abstraction. thus, in this research, open coding was done by writing notes and headings in the text while reading, then listing categories that are grouped under higher order headings. the aim of grouping the data was to reduce the number of categories by collapsing those that are similar or dissimilar into broader higher order categories. the last is abstraction. it means formulating a general description of the research topic through generating categories. to get trustworthiness of the data, three triangulations were conducted: (1) theoretical triangulation was used to zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 231 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah confirm more than one theoretical position in interpreting data, (2) methodological triangulation was used to apply more than one method for gathering data, meanwhile (3) investigator triangulation was conducted to compare between researchers in the field and interpret compiled data. results and discussion the discriminations against women which were manifested in the bekisar merah novel can be seen as the following data. there were eight women discriminations and three kinds of women resistance toward discriminations. a. woman discriminations (1) domestic abuse domestic abuse, also known as spousal abuse, occurs when a man in an intimate relationship or marriage tries to dominate and control their wife. domestic abuse that includes physical violence is called domestic violence. domestic violence and abuse are used for one purpose: to gain and maintain total control over the victims. domestic abuse toward lasi in bekisar merah novel can be seen as follows: malah perangai darsa sekarang berubah. ia jadi suka marah, sepanjang hari uring-uringan. kemarin darsa membanting piring hanya karena lasi agak lama pergi ke warung. aku kasihan kepada lasi. suami seperti kambing lumpuh, pakaianya yang sengak harus dicuci tiap hari, tapi saban kali lasi malah kena marah (‘darsa’s character has a lot of changes. he is easy to be angry now. yesterday, he broke the plate because lasi took a long time to go to a food stall. i pity her. her husband was like a lame goat whose dirty clothes should be washed every day, but she was always to be an object of her husband’s temperament) (tohari, 2013, p. 44). the above quotation demonstrates how darsa treated his wife in a very rude way whereas the instigation was really simple. lasi was taking too much time going to the food stall. it showed that darsa who felt himself superior tried to dominate his wife, and he used his being angry to order his wife around. he wants lasi to obey him quickly without considering any of his wife’s condition. lasi, as his wife, must accept that unpleasant treatment although she gives fair treatment toward her husband every day while doing some domestic work. as 232 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 explained by freire (2013), the relation between child and parents commonly indicates the rule of culture practiced in society. with regards to his opinion, the above data illustrated how patriarchal culture was practiced in lasi’s family. the fundamental understanding gave lasi the understanding that men have control to all parts of life including within the family. thus, as a woman, lasi, had to follow what was instructed by her husband. the right to create a decision in the household was totally held by man. (2) molestation molestation is a sexual abuse which is in the form of holding or touching the female’s body without their acceptance (fakih, 2012). this form can be observed from the quotation of data below. lasi hamper tertidur. namun terkejut karena tiba-tiba lampu padam dan ada bioskop di tembok depan sana. lasi kembali terjaga. apalagi kemudian handarbeni kembali duduk disampingnya sambil melingkarkan tangan ke pundaknya (lasi almost slept, but she was shocked because the lamp suddenly went out and there was a motion picture in wall. she was not sleepy anymore due to the fact that handarbeni sat close to her as he put his hand on her solders) (tohari, 2013, p. 161). in the situation above, it must be noted that, when a woman, like lasi, does not resist an unwanted sexual advance, it does not mean that she gives her consent. sometimes physically resisting can put a victim at a bigger risk for further physical or sexual violence. the point of this is truly related to handarbeni’s form of sexual abuse towards lasi. without asking lasi, he puts his hand on her shoulders. lasi who cannot do anything just let herself to be touched by him. (3) gender harassment gender harassment means statements and behaviour that is degrading someone (women) based on her sex. gender harassment in the novel was manifested in the data citations below. lasi menahan napas. tetapi di sebelahnya handarbeni malah tertawa ngikik. handarbeni sudah belasan kali melihat film cabul yang sedang diputarnya itu dan kini sengaja menyajikannya kepada lasi demi sebuah tujuan. dan lasi kembali menahan napas ketika melihat si lelaki purba mulai memaksa perempuan pasangannya. brutal seperti kambing jantan zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 233 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah (lasi held her breath, but handarbeni who was beside her laughed loudly. handarbeni had seen that obscene movie a dozen times which was being played and he deliberately presented it to lasi for a certain purpose. lasi held her breath for the second time when she saw the ancient man began enforcing woman partner. brutal is as a goat) (tohari, 2013, p. 162). in the above quotation, both handarbeni and lasi were in a private room where handarbeni tried to invite lasi to be in an intimate situation. the way to persuade lasi was not verbally, but by showing an obscene video. handarbeni had a purpose to raise lasi’s desire. in contrary with his purpose, lasi felt uncomnvertable. in this case, there was a gender harassment done by handarbeni. as explained before, showing obscene picture or video for the certain purpose was categorized as part of woman discrimination. (4) seduction behavior seduction behavior was indicated by the presence of requests that were obscene or derogatory behavior based on sexual nature without the existence of a threat. notice the following data. bambung hanya tersenyum dengan sedikit mengangkat alis. dengan cara itu sesungguhnya bambung ingin mengatakan. biasa, apalah yang dikehendaki lelaki ketika sedang berdua dengan perempuan di sebuah ruangan yang sangat pribadi (bambung just smiled with slightly raised eye brows. in that way, bambung actually wanted to say if there was no other thing that he wished from a woman which was in a very private room unless an intimate service). tohari, 2013 p. 267). the above citation showed that mr. bambung attempted to seduce lasi to have intercourse with him. indeed, it was not done verbally, but by showing his behavior or body language to convey his desire to lasi. (5) imposition the imposition as illustrated in that novel was sexual intimidation which was done roughly or overtly. this kind was manifested in the quotation below. bambung yang merasa dirinya rusman, bangkit. dia siap mulai gerakan tari gatot kaca gandrung. gerakannya boleh juga. dan sepenggal nyanyian asmara mulai terdengar dalam nada takkaruan: wisma 234 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 nutadhuh wong ayu... dengan gerakan bagai rusman yang sebenarnya bambung merengkuh dan membopong lasi.bekisar merah itu tak sempat menolak.maka tubuhnya terangkat dan terayun-ayun dalam dekapan bambung. (bambung who feels himself as rusman rises. he was ready to start a dance of “ghatotkaca”. he danced well enough and a piece of romance began to besung: please pretty girl just follow what i want... with a movement which was like rusman, bambung embraced and carried lasi. she cannot refuse then her body was lifted and swung in his embrace) (tohari, -2013, p. 271). the above data showed the harsh and brash treatment of mr. bambung toward lasi. he tried to force lasi to engage in something which she did not want. even when mr. bambung did not get a response, he immediately held lasi who was powerless against a man who was so respected in the elite level politicians of the country. (6) coercion the coercion is typified by the action such as invitation to have intercourse with threat from the abuser. the example of data can be seen as follows. ayo, las. kamu telah membuat pak bambung benar-benar marah. sekarang kamu harus ikut kami pulang ke jakarta. kalau kamu menurut, kami berjanji akan memperlakukan kamu seperti biasa. namun bila kamu banyak tingkah, tak tahulah. yang jelas pak brangas pasti sudah menyiapkan borgol buat kamu. (come on las. you had made mr. bambung really angry. now, you must come with us to return to jakarta. if you cooperate, we promise to treat you as usual. but if you don’t, i do not know what will happen. indeed, mr. brangas must have prepared handcuffs for you) (tohari, 2013, p.316). from the above quotation, we can see how the threat was given to lasi. in the first time, lasi did not want to go back to mr. bambung’s house. finally, mrs. lanting, a woman who sent her to mr. bambung, said to her if she stand with her decision she will be just like a law breaker who should be taken to prison with a handcuff on her hand. treating lasi just like a law breaker is classified by the researchers as a threat for her. zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 235 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah (7) bribery the bribery is an invitation to do things pertaining to sexual attention accompanied with a promise to get certain benefits such as gifts, salary increases, or job title. bila menurut nanti kamu bisa minta apa saja atau ingin jadi apa saja. apa kamu ingin jadi... komisaris bank? atau anggota parlement? ya, mengapa tidak? kalau mau, nanti saya yang akan ngatur, maka semuanya pasti beres (if you follow what i want you ask for anything or to be anything. do you want to be the commissioner of banks or member of a parliament? why not? if you want to, i can organize everything, and everything will be like you want it to be). (tohari, 2013, p. 272). the data revealed how mr. bambung who had great power in the government offered to lasi to have a respectable career in a bank or to be a member of parliament. it was done in order to persuade lasi to have a close relation with him. as explained in the previous paragraph, the promise was not only in the form of money but also in everything which can make the woman to make a deal with a man. in this context, mr. bambung used his high position such as explained above, to get what he wants. (8) subordination the term ‘women’s subordination’ refers to the inferior position of women, their lack of access to resources and decision making, and to the patriarchal domination that women are subjected to in most societies (sultana, 2010). the data can be seen below. oalah, las, dasar kamu perempuan dusun. kamu tidak tahu bahwa kamu punya sesuatu yang disukai setiap lelaki: wajah cantik dan tubuh yang bagus. kamu juga mungkin tidak tahu bahwa sesunggunya lelaki kurang tertarik, atau malah segan terhadap perempuan yang terlalu cerdas apalagi perpendidikan terlalu tinggi. bagi lelaki, perempuan yang kurang pendidikan dan miskin tidak jadi soal asal dia cantik. apa lagi bila si cantik itu penurut. (my goodness, las, you were truly still a hick. you did not know that you had something which were interested every man: a pretty face and nice body. you also might not know that men were less interested or even reluctant to women who were too smart especially having high level of education. for men, women 236 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 were lack of education and poor were not matter as long as she was gorgeous. (tohari, 2013, p. 144). the above data was a dialogue between lasi and mrs. lanting who made lasi as a merchandise. she tried to indoctrinate lasi with the idea that a woman's value lies in their physical beauty and not the quality or capacity of the individual as a human being. moreover, she should behave much less tractable that obviously legitimized women to be under the control of men. the understanding of patriarchy culture that women have a faint nature and irrational are deemed inappropriate to serve as a leader. so far, the feminism movement that emerges to oppose the notion arguably successful because we see a lot of women who already take part in the political world. but unfortunately it is still symbolically and not substantively. that means if the spirit of feminism is not understood and applied correctly. as illustrated in the above data, it showed that although female had chance to be such kind of a member of parliament, it did not mean that if they had the same opportunities as men to vote the idea. it proved that the discrimination of women did not go away with the seating of a woman in a political institution. (9) women resistance toward discriminations in disclosing the resistance formulated by women figure in bekisar merah novel, the researchers observed the way of thinking, attitudes, and actions of the main character against discriminatory treatment that she received as a consequence of men’s domination. some forms of the resistance are physically, mentally, and verbally. (a) physical resistance physical resistance was lasi’s action to fight all forms of discriminatory treatment which she received. this form was contained in the excerpt below. lasi mencabut kayu penggaris dari ketiaknya, lari menyebrang titian dan siap melampiaskan kemarahan kepada para penggoda. (lasi revoked the ruler from her armpit, run cross the footbridge, and ready to vent her anger to the tease’) (tohari, 2013, p. 26). the above data was a piece of events in the bekisar merah novel. it described the situation when she and some friends were on the way home from school. zalhari, m. & mujiono. women resistance toward discriminations: a modern 237 literary work analysis in feminism review in bekisar merah in that quote, tohari did not use figure of speech. he directly showed the physical resistance was made by lasi. it was reflected from a ruler used by lasi to fight her male friends who continued to mock her as a child of rape. regardless of the physical nature as a woman, she ventured to oppose the mistreatment against her. (b) mental resistance mental resistance was lasi’s way of thinking. it often occurred because women were not strong enough to against it physically due to the domination and control exercised by men so strong and sometimes physical resistance even more threatening women. some excerpts from the novel that described this model are as follows. kedua tangan lasi mengepal. lasi terlempar kembali ke dalam dunia hayal, menjadi kepiting batu raksasa dengan capit dari gunting baja. lasi siap pertama-tama memangkas putus leher bunek, kemudian leher darsa, kemudian leher semua orang. (lasi’s hands clenched. she was in an imagination of being a giant stone crab with claws of steel scissors. lasi was ready to cut bunek’s neck, darsa’s neck, and then everyone else) (tohari, 2013, p. 55). the above data was a condition after darsa, lasi’s husband, was dishonest to have a special relation with another woman. different from what was previous mentioned before; the above quote reflected the use of figure of speech which was in form of a simile. tohari supposed lasi with a giant stonecrab with claws of steel scissors to discard all forms of unfair treatment that she received from her husband and all the people around her. because it is presented an internal conflict, it was classified into the mental struggle of the character. (c) verbal resistance what the researchers meant by this model was a statement of lasi to resist, oppose against all the unfair treatment that she received. although merely verbal, the researchers found a commitment and effort of the main character not to continue to let her being subjected by male. the form can be found in the quote below. “tidak!”lasi bereaksi cepat. namun sanggahannya itu diucapkan secara tenang dan dengan penuh rasa percaya diri. bambung agak terkejut karena lasi berani memotong ucapannya. (‘no!lasi reacted quickly, but that objection was spoken calmly and with full confidence. 238 celt, volume 15, number 2, december 2015, pp. 222-240 bambung was surprised because lasi dared to break him off. (tohari, 2013, p. 330). the above quotation was a fragment of an event when bambung got lasi to abort. the content was the result of her marriage to kanjat. lasi rejected the desire of bambung by saying “no” firmly. here, we saw that lasi no longer allowed was under bambung’s superiority. however, she fought for the rights of herself by cutting the words of bambung. the text used by tohari was unadorned or directly to the point without any deviation of meaning. conclusion the result of the study showed eight forms of discriminations and three forms of women resistances. the discriminations were domestic abuse, molestation, gender harassment, seduction behavior, imposition, coercion, bribery, and subordination. the resistances were physically, mentally, and verbally. the researchers found the discrimination for women with not having a chance to voice their idea which becomes the substantive of the political chance. the gender inequalities caused by patriarchy culture becomes worst for they are harassed while being subordinated. from the result of the analysis, the researcher also discovered certain ways for women to resist those discriminations. references ahmed, s. 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(2008). pemberontakan perempuan bali terhadap diskriminasi kelas dan gender: kajian feminis novel tarian bumi karya oka rusmini. journal humaniora, 20 (3). retrieved october 9, 2015 from http://journal. ugm.ac.id/jurnalhumaniora/article-/view/945/792. cover-december celt 15 vol 2 index rev 2 a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 2; december 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s short stories novita dewi the graduate program in language studies, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia ph: +62 87838622253 email: ceylandee@gmail.com received: 02-08-2016 accepted: 23-02-2017 published: 28-02-2017 beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s short stories1 novita dewi novitadewi@usd.ac.id the graduate programme in english language studies, sanata dharma university, yogyakarta, indonesia abstract: this article examines the absurd characters in bakdi soemanto’s selected short stories in the light of character reinforcement. through the use of analogy of name, environment, and interlocking relationships among the characters, it is revealed that these characters reflect contemporary society’s aspirations and expectation of their exemplary leaders or individuals with high authority. the presence of such weird but wise characters discloses the blurred boundaries of sanity and insanity in striving for meaningful life as well as the meaning of life. key words: absurdity, character reinforcement, analogy abstrak: artikel ini membahas penokohan dalam sejumlah cerpen bakdi soemanto melalui teknik penguatan tokoh. ketika tokoh-tokoh ini dinalisis melalui analogi nama, analogi lanskap dan analogi antar tokoh, terkuaklah harapan masyarakat zaman sekarang terhadap perilaku ideal pemimpin atau tokoh masyarakat. kehadiran tokoh yang absurd namun bijak ini mengaburkan batas antara yang waras dan yang tidak dalam pencarian mereka atas makna kehidupan. kata kunci: absurditas, penguatan tokoh, analogi 1 this article is a further elaboration of the preliminary findings appeared earlier as the quest of life meaning in bakdi soemanto’s selected short stories” in english language studies indonesia: for truth and meaning (yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press, 2015, pp. 127135) and the indonesian version thereof yang absurd, yang arif: analisis tokoh-tokoh cerpen bakdi soemanto. jurnal ilmiah kebudayaan sintesis 9, 1 (maret 2015), pp. 16 – 23. 164 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 163-176 introduction this article is written to examine the ways in which characters are designed in bakdi soemanto’s s selected short stories that appeared in the magician: a collection of short stories (2001) and tart di bulan hujan (2014). the first collection includes stories written originally in english and translated from indonesian, some by the writer himself. published thirteen years later, the second book comprises of 25 stories in indonesian, some of which had been published in the sunday edition of the indonesian daily newspaper kompas. initial readings of both books may lead the reader to believe that total chaos prevails in most stories because of the presence of almost all absurd characters. however, the absurd and unreasonable figures may very well satirize people we come across in our daily life regardless of their cultural background and social status. in his introduction to the magician, rambadeta aptly says that as ludicrous as the characters are, he is made to “sit back and contemplate on the ordinary citizens’ apparent attempt at coping with their day-to-day life struggles” (soemanto, 2001, p. 6). the discussion is to show that seen through character reinforcement technique, the protagonists in soemanto’s stories are all caught in a moral drama beyond their control. they do not create the drama, but they become unsuspecting actors on a stage set by socio-economic (and political) forces beyond their own capacities to understand. absurd characters found in modern play such as brecht’s a man’s a man (1964), kafka’s the trial (1972), sartre’s no exit (1955) (see milovanovic & thomas, 1989, p. 49-50) are hard to forget. whilst baffled, we take great delight in following the characters’ journey throughout the stories. the character does not have to be a benevolent, saint-like and unusually noble figure. nor is s/he cast with diabolic cruelty ever known to us to stay in our mind. they are just ordinary people with a degree of absurdity due to their incapability either to resist or to control the conditions imposed upon them. characters like vladimir and estragon who continue to puzzle us with their ludicrousness are particularly interesting to readers of existentialist literature. norton the insomniac narrator and his alter-ego tyler durden in fight club are great men whose desire for self-destruction allows us to see the failings of the contemporary politics and commercial culture. to mention other examples still, the characters in steinback’s of mice and man are affected by the shaping conditions of social existence that led them to feel their bitter loneliness and desperation with which the author begs us to rethink of the world we live in (hart, 2004, p. 35). dewi, n., beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s 165 short stories thus, characters make up an inextricably important part of the literary design as they seize the imagination of the readers. although the characters are sometimes different in terms of background, interests, physique, outfits, social positions and so forth, they all share our own experiences. they possess things we do not have and wish to have, although the characters’ course of action often makes us unease. simply put, we see (parts of) ourselves in the characters. literature review built on previous techniques of characterization such as those of chatman, hamon, ewen, to mention some, rimmon-kenan (1983) expounds indirect characterization in narrative fiction. despite the development and refinement of narrative theories today as shown by, among others, nieragden (2002), rimmon-kenan’s characterization theorizing remains useful. here, she suggests that indirect characterization can operate through reinforcement of analogy, i.e. analogous names, analogous landscape and analogy between characters. the elaboration is as follows. name association is a good clue. hamon via rimmon-kenan (1983, p. 68) mentions that, among others, names often parallel with character trait visually. letter “o” in a name is often used for the big and fat character, while letter “i”, is for the small and thin one. tom and jerry from the cartoon series and the seafaring merchant marine captain haddock and his journalist bestfriend tintin cast by the belgian cartoonist hergé in the adventures of tintin are but two examples. note should be taken here that sometimes this visual name association with character portrayal may sometimes work in reverse order. george milton is a small man with quick-witted brains in steinbeck’s of mice and men. this short-tempered but a loving and devoted man befriends lennie small, a huge heavily walking man in contrast to his name. thus, analogous name can highlight both similarities and contrasts. analogy can also operate through onomatopoeic and articulatory names, for example the onomatopoeia of the buzz of flies in the name beelzebub (hamon in rimmon-kenan, 1983, p. 68). literally "lord of the flies," baal zevuv is himself one of satan's companion arch devils. one can also recall the miser, misanthropic money-lender ebenezer scrooge who is cleverly cast by dickens to create spiteful sound of the very name. the name dumbledore is reportedly chosen by the author of harry potter series from the early modern 166 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 163-176 english word for "bumblebee", i.e. large hairy bee not only for his physical appearance but also for dumbledore's own fascination with music and humming to himself. this unique name, matter-of-factly, makes it almost untranslatable given its attached meaning (wyler, 2003, p. 10). next, the enigmatic mrs. doubtfire of the 1990s american comedy movie continues to delight parents and children alike despite the character’s name. analogous names also include morphological combinations, such as joseph carpenter or sinbad the sailor, and allegory like the characters in john bunyan’s pilgrim’s progress which is peopled with christian, hopeful, great-heart, envy, ignorance and many more including the four wicked giants – giant grim, giant maul, giant slay-good, and giant despair. next, a writer can be precise, and at times excessive, in describing her/his character by making use of places, buildings, people and environment to be delineated in either narration or dialogue, and sometimes both. among the famous example is the grave, dark and eerie setting in almost all of edgar alan poe’s short stories of the macabre in the likes of “tell-tale heart”, “the fall of the house of usher”, “the cask of amontilado”, “the black cat” where we meet morbid, vengeful and death-obsessed characters. the third analogy is achieved through comparison and contrast of two characters. like analogous name which can accentuate the similarity and/or difference between the character trait(s) and her/his external make up, the presence of two characters or more in the same story is deemed comparable as to emphasize the respective characterization. cinderella v. her step-sisters, cordelia v. regan and goneril in shakespeare’s king lear, steinbeck’s george v. lennie, are often cited as examples. having briefly outlined three main concepts in character reinforcement, this article is to see the extent to which the characters in bakdi soemanto’s short stories under study can be seen as employment with or without modification of this method. each character will therefore be examined in the light of character reinforcement through the use of varied correlations in terms of name, environment and intertwining relationships among the characters. to ease the discussion, the section that follows will first present brief summary of each short story. dewi, n., beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s 167 short stories précis of the short stories in “a tale of the magician”, instead of looking for a job, lancingan, to his wife’s irritation, keeps on telling everyone about his wistful thinking of becoming a magician. he has nurtured this dream since 35 years ago when a magician came to his kindergarten school to perform numerous spellbinding tricks. from that day on lancingan wishes no other professions but ability to conjure money and other magical tricks. his search brings him to the old wise man who lives in the lawu mountain who soon makes out his visit and hands the magic power to the younger man. upon the old man’s instruction to wash his face and look at the reflection on the water, lancingan was petrified – his face has completely disappeared. now that no one can see his face, he can do anything without being recognized, because, says the old man, “those who are faceless are shameless” (soemanto, 2001, p. 27) in “the barber”, the 98 years old plakotham is a barber whose eighth marriage to ijah, the dark sweet country girl of 70 years younger, took place after his 90th birthday. ijah used to be a lotek seller who provided delivery service of her delicious javanese vegetable salad to plakotham and later won the heart of the customer. now that they have been married for 8 years and no sign of pregnancy, ijah’s mother who was in fact the main initiator of this marriage, begins to worry. besides, money is also scarce because the vips who used to see plakotham for haircut have lately chosen to go to the hair salon instead. ijah’s mother then tells her daughter about plakotham’s mysterious box. rumour has it that the barber keeps all his wealth inside. on one eventful day when no money is left to buy rice, ijah waits in suspense to see her husband open the not so heavy a box only to find that inside is the hair of the vips treasured by the barber. ijah is collapsed and barely hears her husband’s bragging about the hair to bring to the museum to cash out heaps of money. suli the junior clerk in “eyes” works in a university copying papers and prepares other necessities for the professors. he likes his works and especially feels honoured when the professors sometimes bring gifts from their overseas trips. the only thing that makes suli discomfort is seeing his friend subur with his thieving habit. suli owes subur a room to stay free of charge, but he cannot stand witnessing subur brings home reams of paper and tubes of ink. believing that every action has its own consequences, suli is determined to expose subur’s crime. he dares to confront subur who threatens him to poke his eyes out. but then subur gives suli a big punch on the stomach and on his way to 168 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 163-176 the hospital suli cries out in pain, “my eyes, subur …my eyes, not my innocent stomach…!” (soemanto, 2001, p. 57) like “eyes”, “the finger” tells of zowan, an honest ikip graduate who works as a personnel official, knowing very well that becoming a teacher is not rewarding; and a humiliation at that; what is more when the students come from wealthy families. but unlike suli in the previous short story, zowan is not comfortable filling in tax forms of the high-ranking officials with false data. his superior also experiences such nervousness especially when he sees zowan’s deformed left finger which seems always to point towards him and his offense. the superior orders zowan to have his finger amputated otherwise he will be fired. when the superior visits him after the operation, zowan is in a deep sleep, but it is the right finger that adamantly stands erect facing the superior “like the burning point of an arrow” (soemanto, 2001, p. 65). at that instance the superior, imagining fire break cries out loud for help and desperately pleading not guilty with which the hospital shortly turns into chaos. the i narrator in “head” is a typist who lately finds that his brain is incapable of synchronizing with his hands. he frequently makes a fool of himself at the recent community security meeting and even at work when he keeps touching the wrong things like drinking from other people’s cup, or worse, eating other’s half-eaten snack and, worse still, scratching the head of his boss when he’s got itchy scalp. out of the advice of his good friend bu tinny, the narrator takes a leave and has some rests at home. however, things do not work out better after his resignation that he decides to remove his wayward head from the body. when his wife asks the neighbours to help rip the head from his body, he is horrified. “foot” is a story of protest. the narrator’s feet are always wrapped in socks and covered by shoes. one day the right foot is swollen and any attempts are made in order that it won’t hurt when concealed by dress shoes or sport shoes. problem occurs when the narrator is called to become a master ceremony and be fully clothed in javanese attire including a pair of selop, for slippers with closed toes will make his right foot even more aching. one night the narrator overhears the feet talking to each other: they envy the eyes, the ears, the mouth and other body parts that enjoy the atmosphere and the beautiful girls. gamelan music and delicious food, whilst feet are kept covered in rubbed and smelly shoes. upon hearing that, the narrator decides to treat the feet in the same way he takes care of his face, teeth, lips, underarms, etc. fairly and lovingly – some tips he learns from the famous model lusinem. dewi, n., beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s 169 short stories he’ll be the first high javanese speaking (with solonese dialect) mc in barefoot. appeared as “nyidam” in the indonesian version, this lighthearted and humorous “craving” tells of sri limbuk, a young pregnant woman who feels queasy every time she smells her husband’s body or sees his armpit hair. burhan can easily meet his wife’s request to wash himself four times a day and shave the armpit; but he is unable to discontinue his chicken satay business simply because his wife get nauseous with the smell of the fishy meat. even when burhan later prepares the satay and sells the food in the home of his good friend pak ambuz, sri limbuk is determined to leave him temporarily and stays with her mother. luckily, thanks to the new venue in front of the museum, burhan’s satay business develops rapidly with more menus including a variety of traditional drinks. pak ambuz’s nieces offer help as waitresses sporting traditional costumes to pull more customers. pak ambuz nonetheless keeps telling burhan that sri limbuk is a very special woman to love who will make him a rich person one day. the now convinced burhan then braves himself to take his wife back home only to be confronted by his difficult mother-in-law who finally gives in at the sight of a lot of money handed to her. upon seeing his wife, burhan offers to buy her golden jewelry and everything she wants, but sri limbuk unswervingly rejects because her only wish is to lick unusual objects in the likes of a golf stick, a scale model of a megaproject, and the muffler of a luxurious car. it is not until the pregnant woman unexpectedly breaks wind oozing a rancid stink after two months that she quickly gets up and passionately hugs her husband. she cannot wait to go home with him despite her mother’s disapproval. “she’s really a special woman”, the elated husband thinks to himself (soemanto, 2001, p. 98; soemanto, 2014, p.124). “tart di bulan hujan” is the last work of bakdi soemanto (1943 – 2014) included in the book of the same title. sum’s only wish is to celebrate and enjoy christmas cake with “si bocah” (meaning “the child”) for which reason she is saving her money for months (soemanto, 2014, p. 145). despite the objection of her cab driver husband, sum steadfastly sets aside her wages earned by house cleaning to buy the expensive cake. by the rainy month of december, she has saved enough money to get the decorated, shimmering forest christmas cake she yearns for so long. almost immediately after the cake is bought, sum rushes to the nearby church to put the special-gift-for-the-childcake in front of the crib. the priest declines sum’s idea; and the poor woman brings the cake home with sadness. sum’s husband, much to her surprise, has invited street children to come and kneel around the simple christmas crib he 170 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 163-176 set in their home. rejoicing, sum, her husband, and the children sing, laugh, and eat the cake just the same. discussion the first pattern of character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s short stories discussed are all fighters with funny names. the characters, for the most part, are firmly anchored in daily reality. almost all of them fight all their life against the hardship of daily living for they are in dire need of financial support. lancingan is jobless; plakotham’s revenue has dwindled to almost zero; suli’s welfare is under threat and zowan is soon to lose his job. the i narrators in “head” and “foot” are incapable of self-management owing to their respective body organs that refuse cooperation with which their professions are at stake. lancingan, plakotham, suli and zowan are unusual names. the author chooses names with some kind of malapropism. here incorrect, nonsensical and uncommon words are often used in place of a word with a similar sound to create humorous, if not strange, utterance. whether intended or not, wordplay is clear in the naming of several characters. suli is a rearrangement of usil (indonesian word for being nosy) – a name best suit the character (albeit his well-meaning personality) who seems to probe into other people’s private affair, in this case, subur, who steals office supply. when read from back to front and rearranged the word “mahkota” (head or crown in indonesian) can be grafted from the name plakotham the barber who provides attentive and meticulous treatment for the the vips’ hair. to speculate, zowan is just another soemanto’s many characters with onomatopoeic buzz of a bee such as pak zura, buzz, bu zwilly, zwili zanten, pak ambuz – all depicted in a rather bizarre way. however, it is hard to ignore that the name zowan is picked out of the author’s own fascination with the sound. in speculation, still, the dutiful zowan obeys his father as well as his superior to have his crooked finger operated. indonesians with javanese speaking background often use the word “sowan” or to pay a visit to the older or more reputable person instead of the indonesian word “berkunjung” to show politeness and deep respect. the same is true with pak ambuz who appears briefly in “craving”. as the name conveys, i.e. to sniff, he comes across as undisturbed by fishy smell as to welcome burhan the satay seller to do his business in his home. dewi, n., beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s 171 short stories name association and sense of smell also appears in “foot”. the narrator in the story reluctantly accepts his emcee job and suggests instead one a. h. pangambuan to no avail because the committee prefers the javanesespeaking mc. the javanese word “ngambu” (to smell something) is inserted in this bataknese-sounding name. this name resonates the narrator’s own swollen smelly right foot. as it stands, the author’s skillful choice of names has made character enforcement here effective. as for the last “human body part” story told by the first person narrator with no name, no clue is apparent, but in “head” other (minor) characters have analogous names. morphological combinations appear in the story in such names as doctor akar poteng, pak atmo sate, pak karso ludruk, pak sumit cebol, professor utiyoks to show that the narrator mingles with people from all walks of life in the neighbourhood; and to lose his head (read: sanity) is a disgrace. here we see that all characters find themselves caught in ludicrous situation over which they have no control. milovanovic and thomas argue that characters in existentialist literature are met with the dilemma of choosing between acceptance and resistance (1989, p. 49). by agreeing with unwanted situations, they maintain, the absurd characters promote their own domination. on the contrary, it is by choosing to exercise freedom through resistance that such characters may give meaning both to their existence and their actions even if this path creates disharmony or ill-fated situations. as argued by kearney, much of the interest in the works of the father of existentialist novels, albert camus, lies on the discord between the character’s existence and reality (2013, p.169). suffice it to say for now that bakdi soemanto’s short stories often confront the readers with unhappy coincidences that complicate the story, increase the suspense, and, consequently, add greater emotional and comical effects of these stories. that’s a moment of absurdity. according to the absurdist, the topsy-turvy world cannot be explained in rational manners. human beings, thus, need not to add to this chaotic situation, but to focus on and committed to things of importance in this world in order to make life meaningful, if it is true that life is meaningless. the character’s apparent irrationality is a major aspect which persists throughout the story. the second pattern of character reinforcement shown in bakdi soemanto’s selected short stories is that behind the folly, lies the hero. one might think that these short stories are but reading materials for self-indulgent, sceptic readers who try either to escape or to console themselves with the 172 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 163-176 thought that they are not the only one to suffer in this, flawed, world. however, seen from the existentialist point of view, the character’s folly articulates the absurdity of all human races. through the two other types of enforcement, namely analogy of landscape/ setting and analogy between characters, the characters’ farcicality sends forth important messages. in fact, it is the folly that comes across as major characteristics of the hero. to begin with the analogous landscape, the hero is doing unusual things as a result of his concern as well as his conscientious as a sole fighter living in hostile environment. but this well-meaning character is often misunderstood. the barber is prudent; he loves what he does and he does what he loves. his action is absurd but calls for our unswerving commitment to our vocation. burhan is to choose between his satay business and his wife who cannot stand the smell of sate. zowan and suli are by no means successful employees if wealth is the only measure of accomplishment, but they play their conscience in the midst of cheating and corrupt environment. the “master of typist, expert of period and comma” in the short story “head” is upset when his 8year fine and flawless work is ridiculed by his boss and even advised to see psychology students or doctor for his recently odd behaviour. to quote at length the boss’ callous commentary: typing […] is a matter of skill. it’s a practical matter. the brain needn’t be given too active a role. and even less so all this questioning, reflecting, checking here and there – it’s just not necessary. you’ll just get yourself all worked up. […] typing […] is not a philosophical matter. it is unrelated to social values, social problems, or any other strange thing like that. typing is a matter of letters. nothing more. (soemanto, 2001, p. 71) in a society who values instant gratification and devalues hard work, the typist, the junior clerk and the barber to some extent, are not at all popular. everyone wants to be like lancingan in “tale of a magician” who aspires to cause something to disappear like magic. he wished that nobody would have identified lancingan (rhymes with “bajingan” the indonesian word for thug), had he done any crime. here, the author places the characters among people and places who entirely have different views. for example, husbands who see things differently from the wives; employees who disagree with their bosses; husbands controlled by demanding mothers-in-law who want to ensure the better life of their daughters, and many more. as such, the characters do not develop as a product of a specific environment, but an anti-product, hence dewi, n., beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s 173 short stories their aberration in the world of the normal. the well-intentioned characters have to live against all odds. surely, they may not be quite the same as albert camus’ sisyphus who keeps on rolling a big rock up to the mountain top only to see it rolling downward again and again. but, it can be argued here that soemanto’s own philosophical stance towards the hero is like that of steinbeck who believed that “honest and true literature was all about trying to understand human beingswhat makes them up and what keeps them going” by means of the bizarre but honorable characters (hart, 2004: 42). winet concurs that, soemanto belongs to the new generation of playwrights/writers who cast existentialist, absurdist and mythicized characters in the life the ordinary people living in contemporary indonesian society (2010, p. 145). as said elsewhere (dewi, 2014, p. 113), soemanto sees human beings in their intense engagement with work as neither terrible penance nor futility, but the meaning of their existence. behind the absurdity lies the hero. the last pattern that emerges is the many faces of the fools in bakdi soemanto’s short stories. analogy between characters can help illuminate the character traits; and in bakdi soemanto’s short stories, they come in comparison and contrast. in the magician story, lancingan is depicted in contrast to his father, his wife and the old man from the lawu mountain. unlike lancingan, they are all cast as hard workers and scorn lancingan’s wistful thinking. while the barber is thrifty, ijah and her mother are moneydriven and scheming characters. they unreasonably plot the marriage despite the age difference. both women share the mother of sri limbuk the craving pregnant woman in terms of their contempt of marital commitment in the name of money. suli is the opposite of subur. no depiction of him is available in the story but judging from his name, subur is everything that the skinny suli is not. character contrasts are present in the rest of the stories in terms of social status, integrity and, more importantly, the ways they view life itself. the characters in “head” and “foot” are comparable. they both have to go through the time of doubt about their body and self. just as the character’s head is difficult to manage, so are the disobedient feet of the other character, the humorous tone in both stories allows the reader to reflect on one’s own ignorance, if not stupidity. how much time do we spend to take care of the unassuming, subordinate part of our body? what does it mean when one member of the body refuses to obey? these are, indeed, not short stories with happy endings, but each offers thought-provoking narration of individuals in search of life-meaning as well as meaningful life. in the end, one might considers that the meaning of life is truly present in the act of searching. 174 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 163-176 meaning exists in the persistent quest. what is painful maybe is not in the eyes of the absurdist. did not camus remind us to imagine that sisyphus is but a happy man? what can the perseverance of the character in “tart di bulan hujan” be compared with? she works hard to save the money to buy the cake under the scorn of others, only to find that her determination is crushed. unlike other stories under discussion, sum’s story here is less depressing. instead, it explores the idea that every person has a special role to play in the divine unfolding at christmas. soemanto’s fresh take on the christmas story seems to addresses every person’s need for personal meaning during the drizzly, festive season. presumably, the writer combines the biblical story of the magi and jesus’ account of the poor widow who give all their best. the absurdity lies more on the refusal of the priest to accept sum’s idea than the seemingly wasted behavior of our heroine here. nevertheless, analogy between characters can be seen between the women in “craving” and “tart di bulan hujan”. both sri limbuk and sum are strong women who can win (other than defeat) their respective husband’s heart. just as the pregnant woman insists on her husband’s hygiene, sum untiringly convinces her husband that saving for a christmas gift for “the child” is necessary. here the two women embody the continual fight for identity and existence, no matter how peculiar their craving for something can be to others. conclusion bakdi soemanto’s short stories present a redemptive perspective on our oft-mistreatment of weird characters. the absurd characters in the narrative are given voice as they are made to speak to us about what is really happening to them behind their irrationality. the plausibility of the existence of such characters is made through the technique of reinforcement. a number of existentialist ideas, as postulated by janet winecoff (1964) for latin american literature and such later scholars as maurice lee (2008) and richard brosio (2010), are present in the stories: the severe seclusion of the individual (“head”, “eyes”, “finger”); the lack of communication among close family members (mildly seen in almost husband-wife relations in the stories discussed); the limit situation or point of crisis in life in which the individual is dewi, n., beyond absurdity: character reinforcement in bakdi soemanto’s 175 short stories forced to come to grips with reality (“head”, “eyes”, “finger”), producing anguish and the importance of anguish itself (“head”, “foot”, “a tale of a magician”, “tart di bulan hujan”); personal authenticity (almost in all stories) or falsification (especially in “a tale of a magician” and “the barber”). soemanto’s short stories provoke us with ill-fated ventures that sometimes make the story far from simple. they increase the readers’ suspense as to heighten greater emotional and comic effects. absurdity of this kind may appeal to some acquired taste, but the short stories discussed can be seen as a means of containment for the society’s aspiration today. the presence of the characters may reflect contemporary society’s qualms and ordinary people’s expectations of their leaders’ behaviour – be they government officials, managers, university professors, religious leaders or anyone with high authority. as the characters grow out of their “weird” experiences, we are invited to join them in confronting moral issues while chasing their own dreams that might be absurd to us. thus, the characterization is so designed to help reveal the blurred boundaries of sanity and insanity in striving for life meaning as well as meaning of life. to sum up, bakdi soemanto offered us stories with absurd characters to help us rethinking of the world we live in. references brosio, r. a. (2000). chapter five: existentialist contingency, we may just be on our own—and camus's solidarity. in counterpoints, 75, 161-194. dewi, n. (2014). sajak-sajak sahabat sadhar: sebuah apresiasi puisi. yogyakarta: penerbit universitas sanata dharma. dewi, n. (2015). yang absurd, yang arif: analisis tokoh-tokoh cerpen bakdi soemanto. in jurnal ilmiah kebudayaan sintesis, 9 (1), maret, 16 – 23. dewi, n. (2015). the quest of life meaning in bakdi soemanto’s selected short stories. in n. dewi & b. bram (eds.), english language studies indonesia: for truth and meaning, 127-135. yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press. hart, r. e. (2004). moral experience in of mice and men: challenges and reflection. the steinbeck review, 1 (2), fall, 31-44. stable url: http://www.jstor. org/stable/41583611 176 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 163-176 kearney, p. (2013). absurdism and lyricism: stylistic extremes in camus’ novels. journal of camus studies. lee, m. (2008). pessimism and existentialism in v.s. naipaul. journal of caribbean literatures, 5, (2), spring, 153-167. stable url: http://www.jstor. org/stable/40986260 milovanovic, d. & thomas, j. (1989). overcoming the absurd: prisoner litigation as primitive rebellion. social problems 36, (1), february, 48-60. stable url: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-7791%28198902 %2936%3a1%3c48%3aotapla%3e2.0.co%3b2-3. nieragden, g. (2002). focalization and narration: theoretical and terminological refinements. poetics today, 23 (4), 685-697. rimmon-kenan, s. (1994). narrative fiction: contemporary poetics. london: routledge. soemanto, b. (2001). the magician: a collection of short stories. yogyakarta: kanisius. soemanto, b. (2014). tart di bulan hujan: kumpulan cerpen kompas. jakarta: penerbit buku kompas. winecoff, j. (1964). existentialism in the novels of elena soriano. in hispania, 47 (2), may) 309-315. stable url: http://www.jstor.org/ stable/336667 winet, e. d. (2010). hamlet and caligula: echoes of a voice unclear in origins. in indonesian postcolonial theatre (pp. 141-173). palgrave macmillan uk. wyler, l. (2003). harry potter for children, teenagers and adults. meta: journal des traducteursmeta:/translators’ journal, 48 (1-2), 5-14. untitled a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.2; december 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural enrichment on descriptive text reny crisdiana department of language and literature education, graduate program, universitas negeri surabaya email: renycrisdiana@gmail.com received: 20-5-2016 accepted: 17-12-2016 published: 9-12-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural enrichment on descriptive text 1 reny crisdiana 1 renycrisdiana90@gmail.com 1 department of language and literature education, postgraduate program, universitas negeri surabaya abstract: this study is aimed to develop a digital learning game as a medium to enrich students’ insight about their local culture embedded in descriptive text material. adapting the “system approach” model designed by dick and carey, this study employed need analysis, material development and formative evaluation as steps to develop the product. the need analysis was conducted by analyzing the documents, administering questionnaires to the students, and interviewing the teachers. the material development was done by designing a blueprint of the product’s content, pictures, and sound in the computer applications. the formative evaluation consisted of theoretical validation and empirical validation. the result of the theoretical validation was classified into four categories involving multimedia, language content, cultural and pedagogical aspects. the multimedia validator graded the most criteria of the game’s design and layout on a very good scale. the language content validator graded the most criteria of the learning game’s content in the balance between “very good” and “good” scale. the cultural aspect had been validated by the natives of mentioned places, consisting of a native of java, bali, and flores. lastly, the pedagogical aspect was validated by two teachers who taught seventh grade and eighth grade at smpn 26 surabaya on a “very good” scale. those final scales obtained after some revisions from the validators had been conducted. the result of empirical validation was obtained from the tryout of the product to fifteen students of smpn 26 surabaya. the result of the empirical validation showed that the students have positive responses to the developed learning game, consisting of the “very good” and “good” scale for the mentioned criteria. in conclusion, the digital learning game has met its final product to crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 355 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj be used by the students to learn the culture for descriptive text material. keywords: digital-learning game, culture, descriptive text, junior high school student abstrak: penelitian berikut ditujukan untuk mengembangkan media pembelajaran berbasis permainan digital untuk memperkaya wawasan siswa mengenai budaya, terutama budaya lokal yang dilekatkan pada teks deskripsi. dengan mengadaptasi model pendekatan sistem yang didesain oleh dick dan carey, penelitian ini menerapkan analisis kebutuhan, pengembangan materi dan evaluasi formatif dalam mengembangkan produk. analisis kebutuhan dilaksanakan dengan menganalisis dokumen, menyebarkan angket kepada siswa dan mewawancarai guru. pengembangan materi dilakukan dengan mendesain kisi-kisi isi produk dan mendesain gambar dan suara di beberapa program komputer untuk menghidupkan isi game. evaluasi formatif terdiri dari validasi teoritis dan validasi empiris. hasil dari validasi teoritis diklasifikasikan menjadi empat kategori yang terdiri dari aspek multimedia, konten bahasa, budaya dan pedagogis. secara keseluruhan, validator multimedia memberikan skala “sangat baik” pada kriteria desain dan tata letak.validator konten bahasa memberikan skala yang seimbang antara "sangat baik" dan "baik" pada kriteria isi materi dan kebahasaan. aspek budaya telah divalidasi oleh penduduk asli dari tempat yang disebutkan, yang terdiri dari penduduk asli jawa, bali dan flores yang mana isi game telah sesuai dengan budaya setempat. terakhir, aspek pedagogis divalidasi oleh dua guru yang mengajar kelas tujuh dan kelas delapan di smpn 26 surabaya. kedua guru menilai permainan pembelajaran digital ini dengan skala "sangat baik". penilaian akhir dari beberapa validator tersebut diperoleh setelah beberapa revisi telah selesai dilaksanakan. hasil dari validasi empiris diperoleh dari uji coba produk kepada 15 siswa di smpn 26 surabaya. hasil dari validasi empiris menunjukkan bahwa siswa memberikan skala “sangat bagus” dan “bagus” untuk sebagian besar kriteria pembelajaran dalam game. dapat disimpulkan bahwa permainan digital berbasis pembelajaran dalam penelitian ini telah mencapai produk akhir untuk digunakan sebagai media untuk mempelajari budaya pada teks deskripsi. kata kunci: permainan digital berbasis pembelajaran, budaya, teks deskripsi, siswa smp 356 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction the government has set a visionary goal in engaging english subjects into the 2013 curriculum. adopted from school-based curriculum (kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan), english as a local content subject in 2013 curriculum is basically set up as a medium to assist learners’ need and support the development of local heritage like tourism potential as stated below, “meningkatkan penguasaan bahasa inggris untuk keperluan peserta didik dan untuk mendukung pengembangan potensi daerah, seperti potensi pariwisata” (kemendikbud no. 81a, 2013: 16). furthermore, english as a compulsory subject for secondary schools has more specific goals set in the core competencies consisting of spiritual, social, knowledge and skill that are elaborated into a set of basic competencies. one of the basic competencies of english subject postulates the acknowledgment of english as an international language as an initial competence to be known by junior high students in learning english. this acknowledgment is a basis to grow in learning english by understanding the factual, conceptual and procedural knowledge in line with science, technology, art and culture in this global competition (kemendikbud no. 68, 2013, p.58). unfortunately, the acknowledgment of english as an international language is not depicted in the textbook which is released by the government entitled when english rings the bells. the contexts of the textbook merely represent english as a national language in indonesia instead of english as a foreign language. most of the context of english conversation in the seventh grade’s textbook takes place between students and parents. moreover, the textbook for eighth-grade students merely provides a monotonous classroom context with the minimum illustration of the real usage of english in indonesia. one of the materials for seventh grade which mentions “from now on, i will say “good morning”, “good afternoon” or “good evening” when i meet people” (kemendikbud, 2014 p. 21) indicates that the sentence implicitly guides the students to use english in their daily lives as a first or second language instead of english as a foreign language in indonesia. those mentioned misconceptions are manifested from the preface of the textbook that postulates the expectation of english usage in daily communication – “materi yang berfokus kepada kehidupan peserta didik sehari-hari diharapkan dapat diaplikasikan secara langsung dalam komunikasi aktif kepada semua orang di sekitarnya” (kemendikbud, 2014). crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 357 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj however, replacing indigenous language as a means of daily communication with an influential and world language like english will lead to language shift and threaten language death (graddol, 2006 & crystal, 2014). when a language dies, the local wisdom could be culturally devastating. for this case, language takes its essential role as a repository of civilization that links to the historical meaning. baker (2003:2) states that “every language will reflect the values, beliefs and assumption of the culture it came from”. culture itself has two main domains, encompassing ‘culture’ with a capital ‘c’ related to aesthetic sense such as art and literature and ‘culture with little ‘c’ related to patterns of behavior, values and beliefs (kumaravadivelu, 2003, p. 267). hence, the loss of a language means losing an identity, value, belief, custom and a unique canon of literature such as sagas, folktales, songs, rituals, proverbs, and many other practices. fundamentally, every subject of study including english subject is aimed to develop students’ self-potential for rational thinking and intellectual academic by understanding what they see, listen, read and learn based on the various perspectives of national cultures (kemendikbud no. 68, 2013, p.4). the curriculum requires the eminent culture to be learned by the students in order to grow pride in the indonesian culture and heritage that are expected to be applied and manifested in social life and social problems (kemendikbud no. 68, 2013, p. 4). hence, although the core competence in the curriculum states that the context of english communication for junior high school is their social environment, it should not solely mean that they have to replace the means of communication from local or national language to english when doing communication with their parents or their surroundings of native indonesian. it is absolutely alright to have english conversation among students in a classroom context but it should not be in the social context. in a social context, english language teaching should make the students familiar with various kinds of english speakers supposed to communicate successfully with all sorts of speakers no matter they come from. hence, it is truly possible to develop a situation in which intelligibility in learning english and the student’s local identity equally co-exist. 358 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj literature review descriptive text as a first text type learned by students in junior high school plays an essential role to mirror a contextual circumstance related to cultural aspects. in the 2013 curriculum, the basic competence of descriptive text for the junior high school level is aimed to understand the structure of texts and language elements for implementing the social function of the text by stating and asking a short and simple description of people, animals, and things based on the appropriate contexts (kemendikbud no. 68, 2013, p. 59). the context itself entangles a variety of cultural aspects such as religion, habit, custom, tourism object and other related aspects that are different from one place to other places. hence, descriptive text is the only text type discussed in this study without considering other text types since it is the first text type learned by students and might serve a good medium to describe and promote indonesian culture and heritage. creating a contextual environment in english language teaching is not an easy thing to do since english is used as a foreign language in indonesia but the advancement of informatics technology gradually wipes out any difficulties in elt. heinich et al., (2002) proclaim that informatics technology can facilitate a rich and contextual environment. in addition, brown states that technology “could offer linguistic input and output, feedback, student collaboration, interactivity, and fun” (2000, p. 143). the underlying theory for developing this product is based on the call field. beatty stated that “call is a young branch of applied linguistics discipline” (2010, p. 2). starting from the 1980s, call (computer-assisted language learning) becomes a prominent language instruction that incorporates real-life skill-building through the computer program (brown, 2000). games and simulations as one of the call programs provide the stimulation of problem-solving tasks that involve verbal language as goals of the program. through games and simulation, students can rapidly access exercises, vocabulary glosses and pronunciation in a fun way (brown, 2000). there have been a number of researchers that conduct a study related to call. utami (2007) conducted a quantitative and descriptive qualitative study about the use of the call program for maritime vocabulary learning in surabaya merchant marine school by analyzing the materials and the activities developed in that school through the call crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 359 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj program and also analyzing the effectiveness of the program. in addition, khamid (2011) conducted a qualitative study by developing reading tests for national exam preparation through computer-based testing (cbt) in smk pgri which is completed by tutor’s and student’s courseware as a guideline in using the program. furthermore, assyururia (2011) conducted a qualitative study by developing reading materials using e-learning xhtml editor (exe) in smkn 2 buduran sidoarjo which adapted the toeic-like format. those applications developed by the previous studies are merely aimed to provide interactive teaching and learning that can be accessed every time and provide quick feedback for the students. they mostly adapt the available printed book that is eventually stored in an electronic module and tasks. the content of the application is mostly designed in a decontextualized task with a series of explanations and questions and few and no animations that reflect the explanations and questions. therefore, this research is aimed to develop a contextualized task that mirrors a real context of english usage by presenting a cultural aspect in each case. the task will be designed through macromedia/adobe flash in the form of a game-like format since macromedia/adobe flash provides a learning interaction menu that enables the user to develop a digital learning game with various kinds of animation. therefore, this research is aimed to develop a digital learning game as a medium for cultural enrichment on descriptive text for junior high school students. method this research employs the research and development (r&d) method. borg et al. (2003) define educational research and development as a process to develop and validate educational products by conducting a series of integral cycles. the purpose of r&d efforts in education is not to formulate or test theory but to develop qualified products designed to meet specific educational needs (gay, mills & airasian, 2012). a series of cycles that are used to conduct research and development is initially adopted from dick and carey model of instructional design. however, in that r&d project requires a substantial amount of financial and personnel support which is commonly completed by an industry-based 360 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj development model, borg et al. (2003) suggests that r & d project for a thesis or dissertation might undertake a small-scale project that involves a limited amount of original instructional design and limit the development steps of r&d cycle. so, this study limited the steps of dick and carey model by conducting the first until the ninth steps without conducting the summative evaluation. dick and carey (2001 8) stated that summative evaluation is “not considered as an integral part of the instructional design process, per se,” because it “usually does not involve the designer of the instruction, but instead it involves an independent evaluator.” van der akker (1999, p. 7) outlined that the prominent elements to be conducted in development research are 1) preliminary investigation, 2) theoretical embedding, 3) empirical testing and 4) documentation, analysis and figure 1: the modification of the instructional design adapted from van der akker (1999) & dick and carey (2001) crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 361 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj reflection. thus, the design and procedure of development research conducted in this study were adapted from van der akker (1999) elements and dick & carey (2001) design as illustrated in figure 1 and is elaborated in the next sub-points. a. need analysis need analysis was the first step to be conducted to identify specific goals of the developed learning instruction. the procedures used to collect information in needs analysis is known as need survey. as richards (2001) mentions a variety of procedures that can be used to conduct need surveys, this study employed some of those procedures to collect information such as delivered questionnaires, did interviews and analyzed the available documents such as the textbooks, curriculum content and students writing. the procedure in conducting need analysis is elaborated as follows. 1. document analysis a preliminary need analysis conducted in this study was analyzing the documents related to teaching and learning process for junior high school level. the documents analyzed consisted of the 2013 curriculum and the teacher’s and student’s textbooks of seventh and eighth grade delivered by the government. the result of those document analyses was elaborated specifically in the background of this study in which some problems and obstacles were found and needed to be solved by conducting this research. 2. analyzing students’ need the samples of the students' writing revealed students’ interests and problems in expressing thought in english. most students were enthusiastic about composing a writing task decorated by artistic designs. their imagination and creativity implemented in the form of writing and drawing brought meaningful contexts for their texts. despite the students’ eminence in designing the writing tasks, the students also faced some difficulty in composing the text. most of their writings contain some grammatical errors, incoherent sentences, misspelling, unsuitable punctuation and some other mistakes of language elements. in short, there was a gap between the competencies that the students were able to do and what they needed to able to do. 362 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3. analyzing teachers’ need the main obstacle that the teachers faced was the lack of the textbook’s content. the textbooks entitled “when english rings the bell” were only as a guide to deliver the lessons. the teachers must search other related sources and browsed to the internet to enrich the materials. the teachers postulated that it was easier to deliver the lessons by using the media. however, the teachers expected that they could edit and might develop a media like video because sometimes the video or game they found on the internet had some irrelevant contents that needed to be cut. in addition, a teacher stated that the students needed much more exposure to the reading materials to enrich their vocabulary competence and familiarity with the structures. the data obtained from the need analysis above were significantly used to develop the product which is elaborated in the following subtopic. after obtaining those significant data, the product was specifically developed and described in the following sub-topic b. product development the process of product development was started by deciding the content of the multimedia and lasted by programming the content in the form of a game-like format. the specific description of the product development was elaborated in the following sub-point. 1. designing blueprint of material content the main material for the game was developed from the core competence and basic competence of the 2013 curriculum. the competencies chosen to develop the multimedia product are presented in table 1. table 1: the core competences (kl) & basic competencies of descriptive text for smp 7th grade 8th grade ki 3 memahami pengetahuan (faktual, konseptual, dan prosedural) berdasarkan rasa ingin tahunya tentang ilmu pengehuan, ki 3 memahami dan menerapkan pengetahuan (faktual, konseptual, dan prosedural) berdasarkan rasa ingin tahunya tentang ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi, seni, budaya crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 363 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teknologi, seni, budaya terkait fenomena dan kejadian tampak mata. ki 4 mencoba, mengolah, dan menyaji dalam ranah konkret (menggunakan, mengurai, merangkai, memodifikasi, dan membuat) dan ranah abstrak (menulis, membaca, menghitung, menggambar, dan mengarang) sesuai dengan yang dipelajari di sekolah dan sumber lain yang sama dalam sudut pandang/teori. terkait fenomena dan kejadian tampak mata. ki 4 mengolah, menyaji, dan menalar dalam ranah konkret (menggunakan, mengurai, merangkai, memodifikasi, dan membuat) dan ranah abstrak (menulis, membaca, menghitung, menggambar, dan mengarang) sesuai dengan yang dipelajari di sekolah dan sumber lain yang sama dalam sudut pandang/teori kd 3.10 memahami fungsi sosial, struktur teks, dan unsur kebahasaan dari teks deskriptif dengan menyatakan dan menanyakan tentang deskripsi orang, binatang, dan benda, sangat pendek dan sederhana, sesuai dengan konteks penggunaannya. kd 4.12 menangkap makna dalam teks deskriptif lisan dan tulis, pendek dan sederhana. 2. developing the content in the computer’s software macromedia/ adobe flash was the main software used to program the game’s format. at the beginning of the product development, the learning game was developed in macromedia flash but because the actionscript in macromedia flash was not compatible with all versions of flash program, the product development was finally continued in adobe flash. beside using adobe flash, the product was developed through photoshop, audacity and format factory. the animation and design were originally created by the researcher. finally, the product of the learning game was ready to be validated by some experts in formative evaluation. c. formative evaluation borg et al. (2003) states that the preliminary form of the product must be able to be field tested to know whether or not the tentative product could meet its objective. hence, the preliminary finishing product was reviewed and validated by some experts based on their fields before the product was tried out to the students and teachers. 364 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1. theoretical validation the product was reviewed and validated by two experts, consisting of the expert of multimedia and the expert of language content. in addition, the content of culture was validated by each native of the mentioned places, including javanese, balinese, and flores. finally, the product was validated by teachers before the product was tried out to the students. 2. empirical validation the empirical validation of the d.o learning game was conducted by trying-out the product to the students. the try-out was conducted in smpn 26 surabaya on december 11th, 2015. the students involved were eight grade students. fifteen students were chosen randomly. the students gave feedback through questionnaires. the students were expected to give their opinion about the general outlook of the game related to the learning game. d. final products the final product of this study is d.o. (describing object) learning game in the form of .exe application. it is a digital learning game about cultural aspects in descriptive text addressed to teacher and student of junior high school level. the .exe application of this game is compatible to most computer’s operating systems (os). the product had been passed the validations and revisions. this interactive reading task can be used as a medium to learn descriptive text material and cultural aspects for the students. in addition, it can be used as a medium for experimentation step of the scientific approach for teachers to teach descriptive text. results and discussions the findings of this study were obtained from the formative evaluation. the formative evaluation consisted of theoretical and empirical validation. the theoretical validation dealt with the evaluation of the developed learning game obtained from experts’ evaluation. the empirical validation dealt with the evaluation of the developed learning game obtained from the students’ point of view. the data of the formative evaluation were collected from questionnaire and observation sheet. crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 365 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a. types of validity achieved by the d.o (describing object) learning game based on the formative evaluation that has been conducted, the product of this study has met its validity. the validity was measured by some criteria evaluated by some experts. the product achieved its validity after it did not have any poor scale. the product once obtained two poor criteria from the multimedia validator which were about the layout of the text and the contents of navigation. yet, two poor criteria could be revised based on the multimedia’s suggestion and finally could achieve scale 1 (very good). finally, the product could meet the validity of multimedia aspects, language content, culture content and pedagogical value. as this product emphasizes more in the reading skill, the criteria to develop the question within the game is adapted from the criteria to develop a reading test by brown (2004) and weir (2005). types of validation that the product obtains from each aspect are described in the following passages. 1. content validity weir (2005) calls content validity as context validity that deals with the representative aspects of competency covered in a test. the d.o learning game is mainly aimed to deliver descriptive text competence derived from the basic competence (kompetensi dasar) 3.10 and 4.12 of 2013 curriculum for junior high school. basically, this descriptive text was employed to promote culture. thus, the content validity in d.o learning game can be achieved based on the representative aspects of the curriculum’s competences measured by the teachers and the suitability of representative cultures measured by the chosen native people. the criteria of the game’s content that represent curriculum competences are covered in the second aspect of the questionnaire administered to the teachers. the result of the teachers’ measurement shows that the scale for the game’s material is balanced between “very good” and “good”. in addition, the content validity based on cultural content was also measured by three native people of javanese, balinese and flores people. after conducting the revision, the cultural content achieved its appropriateness to be performed in the learning game. 366 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2. construct validity brown (2004) defines construct validity as major components within a particular domain of competence. as this learning game mainly presented reading skill which is still integrated with listening skill, the quality of the written and spoken text had to be definitely measured. the measurement of the language construct was measured by a language validator. the criteria that covered this construct are presented in the questionnaire administered to the language validator. the language content criteria measured by the expert results 44% for both “very good” and “good scale” and 12% for “average” scale. these scales indicate that the language criteria of the game has passed the minimum scale although some revision is also needed to improve the game’s content. 3. face validity face validity deals with the appearance of a task whether the task performs familiar format, items, direction, length, language level, practicality and other related aspects (brown 2004 and weir, 2005). the face validity in d.o learning game can be achieved based on the judgment of the multimedia validator and students. most questions that were asked to the multimedia validator covered criteria in face validity, including the design, navigation, aspect of communication and sources format. after finishing a series of revisions, the result of multimedia validation is dominated by a “very good” scale that shifts the preceding dominance of “average” scale. furthermore, the face validation was also measured by the students including the aspects about the general outlook of the game, the relevancy of the game’s content, and the contribution of the content to language competence. students has various judgments in assessing this matter, yet most of the criteria assessed are dominated between “very good” and “good” criteria. 4. criterion validity brown (2004) defines criterion validity as the extent to which the criterion has actually been reached. moreover, weir (2005) extends the criterion validity into the comparison of a particular aspect to other aspects in measuring the same product. thus, the result of the validated criteria is confronted between each other validator in that one criterion occasionally crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 367 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj was asked to two or more validators. the confronted criteria encompass the basic criteria as follows. table 2: the confronted criterion validity among the validators criteria scale teachers stu den ts lang uage valid ator multi media valid ator the attractiveness of the game 5 5 the familiarity of the format 4 4 the clarity of the direction 4 4 4 4 the challenge throughout the game 4 4 the suitability of the descriptive text’s content 5 5 5 the suitability of the cultural content 4&5 5 5 the suitability of the language for its intended audience 4&5 4 5 the types of validity above reinforce the equivalent quality of the product in the theoretical and empirical validation. b. call principle within d.o (describing object) learning game the product of this research, which is in the form of a digital learning game, is developed on behalf of the call principle. the product employs a computer program to create and run the application (flash player) for language learning. it ties tightly between learner autonomy in which learners can work at their own pace and computer science (beatty, 2010). the design of the product is in the form of multimedia which is part of the integrative approach of call principle which is developed from a constructivist view. this integrative approach emphasizes on socio-cognitive competence by familiarizing the students with genres and discourses through the integration of pictures and sounds (warschauer, 2004 & beatty, 2010). in offering immersive environments for an integrative 368 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj approach, the product implements game as the main format of the multimedia. game is one of eight generic call applications (beatty, 2010). the developed digital learning game in this study endorses pedagogical purpose. while the students enjoy playing with the animation, the delivery of descriptive text as the main genre employed within the game should be comprehended. the comprehension of the students in responding to the descriptive text can be analyzed from their ability to answer each question supposed to be able to continue to next scenes of the d.o learning game. besides, beatty (2010) notes that the fundamental aspect in using game-like formats for language skills is “to what degree are skills learned in a game of use in the real world?” answering beatty’s question, d.o learning game covers listening and reading skill of descriptive text performed in contextual environments. the students can imitate the way they describe their closed environments, including describing people, animals and things by using the cultural vocabulary used in daily communication. furthermore, according to prensky (2001), digitaleducational games attract players because they are “a form of fun and play”, and they also contain six structural elements. responding to prensky’s statement, based on the students’ questionnaire, most students thought that the d.o learning game is a very fun learning game. in addition, d.o learning game also fulfills six structural elements recommended by prensky including (1) rules, in which a player must answer correctly to continue the next challenge and the player must follow the direction to answer correctly such as using capital letter for the first letter of people’ and month’s name, pay attention to the listening and reading passage and other rules; (2) goals and objectives, in which the main goal of d.o learning game is providing a joyful learning media to develop students’ english skills in descriptive text by embedding culture to its content while its objective is developing students competencies in structure, vocabulary and pronunciation; (3) outcome, shown by the dancing animation, checks, and a button to continue the scene that may evoke players' emotions like satisfaction; (4) conflict, competition, challenge, and opposition, shown by the various format of the questions such as multiple-choice adapted, essay, matching, and true or false task; (5) interaction, d.o game engages player to interact with the characters within the game by helping the characters to solve the problem so that the crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 369 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj characters can continue the destination; (6) representation, shown by the contexts that represents indonesian students who guide the foreigners to know indonesian culture and heritage. in short, the d.o learning game has fulfilled the call principle. hays, (2005:15) states that a digital game for language teaching is “an artificially constructed, competitive activity with a specific goal, a set of rules and constraints that is located in a specific context”. the artificially constructed performance is presented by the animation within the game, including the animation of the people, animals and things within the game. the goals, rules and constraints have been elaborated within prensky’s theory above. the context in the d.o learning game entangles various places in indonesia. c. the delivery of culture through d.o learning game the delivery of culture becomes one of the objectives in developing digital learning games in this study since 2013 curriculum requires the eminent culture to be learned by the students. the delivery of culture is aimed to grow students’ pride to indonesian culture and heritage which can be applied and manifested in social life and social problems (kemendikbud no. 68, 2013, p.4). in this developed learning game, the delivery of culture is implicitly embedded in descriptive text material as an enrichment of the learning activity. the context of culture addressed in this learning game is intercultural learning. byram (1986: 323) claims that “intercultural learning encourages the learners to compare their own and foreign culture and arrive thus at a better understanding and appreciation of their own.” so, because junior high school students are still in the beginning level in studying english lessons, the percentage of local culture in the d.o learning game is more exposed than the foreign culture. it is aimed to strengthen students’ own culture from a young learner before gaining interference from foreign cultures. the analysis of culture delivered in the d.o learning game is analyzed based on adaskou & et al's classification of culture (1990: 3) as follows. first, the sociological sense in d.o learning game covers culture with small c which encompasses “the organization and nature of family, of home life, of interpersonal relations, material conditions, work and leisure, customs and institutions'' (adaskou & et al., 1990, p. 3). in the d.o learning game, the sociological sense is presented through the presentation 370 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of people’s characters in which the distinction of performance and environment appears between java, bali and flores. java, which is dominated by moslem is portrayed by the use of headscarf, kopyah and sarong. bali, which is dominated by hindu is represented by the balinese kebaya, ritual offering, temple, and barong. flores, which is dominated by christian is represented by the bishop and church. moreover, the nature of greeting in each family environment indicates a different sociological sense in each place in indonesia. the ritual and customs also beckon the richness of indonesian culture such as reog ponorogo from east java, barong ritual from bali, and patika ceremony from kelimutu, flores. in addition, peacock also symbolizes various meanings. in reog ponorogo, peacock symbolizes a crown of a powerful king, in india peacock feather symbolizes krisna’s sacred symbol and in the u.s peacock’s feather symbolizes a knowall eye. second, the semantic sense in the d.o learning game deals with the conceptual system embodied in the semantic area related to life in java, bali and flores. skirt has several cultural models in indonesia, namely jarik for java, kamben for bali and ikat for flores. also, cultural personnel are presented in several ways such as hansip for java, pecalang for bali and mosalaki for flores. beside what have been mentioned above, east java in d.o learning game specifically covers some semantic senses such as kopyah, lurah, ojek, bemo, tugu pahlawan, bung tomo, suro boyo, dadak merak, and jaranan. some semantic senses in bali are rangda, barong, ubet-ubet, chess-board like sarong, gede, putu, kadek, subak, i gusti ngurah rai and meru. some semantic senses in flores are komodo, tabeoite, kelimutu, tiwu ata polo, tiwu ata mbupu, tiwu ko’o fai nuwa muri, wae rebo, lingko and lodok. some semantic senses to common indonesian culture and values are musyawarah, gotong royong, and kebaya. the semantic sense in india is tanga. some semantic senses in american culture are give-and-take and dog-cart. third, the sociolinguistics sense in the d.o learning game deals with the use of language related to its sociocultural context in the various communicative functions. this sociolinguistics sense in d.o learning game includes the way to introduce one’s self and greeting. in a common introduction, a person usually only mentions name and where s/he comes from, not mentioning all identities such as date and place of birth, hobby, occupation and other related identity when introducing one’s self (lestari, 2010, p. 17). the way to introduce one’s self appropriately is presented in crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 371 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the introduction of dora, dolu, budi, kadek and yustus in which they only mention the needed information in an introduction. in addition, the urge to apply english with family and closed environment like what is mentioned in when english rings the bells textbook – “from now on, i will say “good morning”, “good afternoon” or “good evening” when i meet people'' – is culturally inappropriate because this urge might mediate to language shift. so, the students need to maintain the culture to use local language when communicating with their closed environment but they are still able to speak english with the foreigners. this circumstance is presented by some characters in the d.o learning game such as when budi greets his mother by saying assalamu’alaikum, kadek greets her mother by saying omswastiastu and yustus greets his father by saying tabeoite. this suitable sociolinguistic implementation is expected to grow awareness to the students so that they still maintain their local language in line with their ability to speak english. overall, the product of this study in the form of a digital learning game, namely describing objects (d.o) game, has achieved its main objective which is as a medium for cultural enrichment on descriptive text for junior high school students. this product has achieved several types of validation assessed by some experts, teachers and students. also, the product has fulfilled the call principle within the learning game. the learning game presents various cultural contents, involving the majority of local culture and a small degree of western culture. at last, this product is expected to be useful for indonesian teachers and students in learning english, especially for descriptive text material, without neglecting value of local culture and national heritage because national culture and heritage is a fundamental foundation for education to build present and future patriotic civilization – “pendidikan berakar pada budaya bangsa untuk membangun kehidupan bangsa masa kini dan masa mendatang” – (kemendikbud no. 68, 2013, p.4). conclusion the digital learning game developed in this study is mainly aimed to enrich students’ understanding about descriptive text and culture, mainly about local culture. the product has passed its validation after finishing some revisions based on four aspects, involving multimedia, language 372 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature volume 19, number 2, december 2019, pp. 354 – 376 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj content, cultural and pedagogical aspects. the teachers as validators of pedagogical value responded positively to the developed product and they thought that the product can be used as a medium to deliver descriptive text material enriched by intercultural content. furthermore, the students as the targeted audiences of this digital learning game also responded positively to the developed learning game. students’ interest can be marked out by giving good scales for the general outlook of the game. in addition, the delivery of descriptive text as the main genre employed within the game can be delivered as well while the students enjoy playing with the animation of the game. the students’ comprehension in responding to the descriptive texts can be analyzed from their ability to answer each question supposed to be able to continue the next scenes of the d.o learning game. they also stated that the content of the game was relevant to their language competency. lastly, the students’ enthusiasm can be noticed by their suggestions for the developer to continue the game by adding many more local and foreign cultures within the game. however, the students’ criticism was addressed to the quality of the graphics that needs to be enhanced. after a study in developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural enrichment on descriptive text for junior high school students is finished, there are some suggestions that need to be delivered for some parties. the first suggestion is addressed to teachers, the next suggestion is addressed to educational institutions and the last suggestion is addressed to further researchers and developers. the details of the suggestions are elaborated below. teachers may use this digital learning game in implementing experimenting step of scientific approach. this digital learning game can be benefitted as a teaching aid to teach descriptive material by exploring indonesian culture. in that this learning game is not completed by a module about a particular way to teach a descriptive text by employing this game, teachers should employ their own method and creativity to benefit this learning game for a teaching aid. moreover, teacher or educator should deliver culture in language teaching to reinforce students’ local identity. educational institutions such as school and ministry of education should develop and enrich more teaching and learning media in various forms such as video, cartoon, game and other teaching aids. this educational media should explore more about local wisdom and heritage within the related materials. there have been a number of attractive foreign crisdiana, r., developing a digital learning game as a medium for cultural 373 enrichment on descriptive text https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i2 issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj learning media provided freely on the internet but most of them are embedded in the foreign cultures. in learning english, students still need to grow their pride in their local identity since indonesian tend to be very welcoming and respectful of foreign cultures. western culture is generally assumed to be more prestigious, indonesian sometimes do not really respect their own identity and treat themselves as an inferior nation when facing foreigners. consequently, if indonesian holds this inferior principle, indonesian generation may always keep a follower principle toward other nations, follow what is happening, not a developer, develop what should happen. an attractive and interactive digital media might serve a better understanding about indonesian local culture and identity for the students to be proud of. finally, because this present learning game does not contain a final score to measure students’ proficiency, further researchers may develop another learning game completed by final scores to measure students’ accomplishment in the game. in addition, further developers of a pedagogical media should consider time and content appropriately before starting the project. also, further researchers may conduct a study about the use of digital learning games to reduce a culture of fear in facing a test. the researcher of this present study has a subjective speculation that being afraid of a test has become a culture in indonesia that bothers students’ concentration. a number of pedagogical digital games may serve a good treatment to reduce the problem because students will be familiar to face tests in a fun atmosphere. references adaskou, k., britten. d., & fahsi, b. 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(2005). language testing and validation: an evidence-based approach. new york: palgrave macmillan. a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ new information maya lisa aryanti english language study program, faculty of languages, university of widyatama, bandung, indonesia email: maya.lisa@widyatama.ac.id received: 20-07-2016 accepted: 24-07-2016 published: 17-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ new information maya lisa aryanti maya.lisa@widyatama.ac.id english language study program, faculty of languages, university of widyatama, bandung, indonesia abstract: the purposes of this research are to find out the functions of the interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and what they indicate to, to find out which information the interjections denote and to find out how many functions the interjections functioned as pragmatic markers possibly have. the data are five different interjections taken from five different novels. the results of this research are concerning to the functions of the interjections functioned as pragmatic markers. generally, the functions are utterance initial, attention marker and a response signal. further, interjections functioned as pragmatic markers take form as attitude, feelings or both. the interjections denote given/old information, new information and both. the last result is that it is possible for interjections to have more than one function. to sum up, interjections functioned as pragmatic markers have roles and forms in discourses. in addition, interjections functioned as pragmatic markers denote information. key words: interjections, pragmatic markers, given information, new information abstrak: tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan interjeksiinterjeksi yang berfungsi sebagai penanda pragmatik, apa yang ditunjukkan oleh interjeksi-interjeksi tersebut, untuk mengetahui jenis informasi apa yang ditunjukkan oleh interjeksi-interjeksi tersebut dan untuk mengetahui jumlah fungsi yang dimiliki oleh interjeksi yang berfungsi sebagai penanda pragmatik. data yang diambil dalam penelitian ini berasal dari lima novel yang berbeda.hasil dari penelitian ini berkenaan dengan fungsi-fungsi interjeksi sebagai penanda pragmatik yang umumnya berfungsi sebagai 90 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ujaran pembuka, penanda yang digunakan untuk menarik perhatian, dan sinyal pemberi jawaban. selanjutnya, interjeksi-interjeksi yang berfungsi sebagai penanda pragmatik ini diiringi oleh perilaku, perasaan atau keduanya. interjeksi-interjeksi ini merujuk pada informasi lama/informasi baru, informasi baru dan keduanya. hasil terakhir dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa interjeksi-interjeksi yang berfungsi sebagai penanda pragmatik mempunyai leih dari satu fungsi. singkatnya, interjeksi-interjeksi yang berfungsi sebagai penanda pragmatik selain memiliki peran dan bentuk di dalam wacana juga dapat merujuk pada jenis-jenis informasi tertentu. kata kunci: : interjeksi, penanda pragmatik, informasi yang diberikan, informasi baru introduction interjection and pragmatic markers have different definition. interjections are words which describe feelings. these words are purely emotive words and are included into emotive emphasis (norrick, 2008). further, the words do not enter into syntactic relations (norrick, 2008) and have never included into grammatical structure of a sentence (fraser, 2008). meanwhile, pragmatic markers are devices which have little or no meaning in themselves (erman, 2001) and no role in determining the semantic meaning of the basic propositional content of a discourse segment of which they are a part but do have a critical role in the interpretation of the utterance (fraser, 2008) and can be understood by looking at clues in the context and/or situation and by having a conventionalized pragmatics meaning mapped onto them (erman, 2001). however, recent research conducted by fraser (2008) and norrick (2008) offer new theory concerning interjections and pragmatic markers. the general focus of this paper is to describe the relation between the function as interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and the context. the data were taken from five different novels. futher, the theories which will be used to support interjections and pragmatic markers theories are theories of contexts proposed by levinson (1983) and grundy (2000). theories proposed by quirk, greenbaum, leech, and svartvik. (1985), norrick (2008), aijmer’s theory in slembrouk, taverniers, and herreweghe (2009) and fraser (2008) will be helpful to find out the first functions of the aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 91 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interjections as pragmatic markers and to find out how many functions the interjections as pragmatic markers have. to find out the forms of interjections as pragmatic markers and what they indicate, theories proposed by burton (1984), djajasudarma (2006), norrick (2008) and aijmer’s theory in slembrouk et al. (2009) are used and theories proposed by levinson (1983), grundy (2000), and brinton (1996) are used to deepen the explanation of the last point. review of related literature interjection and pragmatic markers have different definition. interjections are words which describe feelings. these words are purely emotive words and are included into emotive emphasis (norrick, 2008). further, the words do not enter into syntactic relations (norrick, 2008) and have never included into grammatical structure of a sentence (fraser, 2008). however, they have forms. the forms can be in a form of a syntactic like formulation (norrick, 2008), in a form of attitudes (burton, 1984) and feeling (burton 1984; djajasudarma 2006), in the form of markers within the information frame of discourse (norrick, 2008), and in the form of sounds (burton, 1984). interjection can take form in a syntactic like formulation. free standing interjections mean interjections which are alone while interjection occur in various more or less formulaic combinations (norrick, 2008) means interjections which take forms of single words (e.g: well!, hey!. ouch!, etc) (burton, 1984), of phrases (e.g: ‘oh dear!’ (burton, 1984), hell yeah, no shit, yeah but and yeah right (norrick, 2008); of sentences (e.g: ‘i say!; ‘you know’) (burton, 1984). attitude includes recognition (e.g: ah) quirk et al. (1985), signal some sort of difficulty in responding to the foregoing turn (e.g: well) (norrick 2008), request for silence (e.g: psst [ps]) quirk et al., (1985) and call for attention (norrick, 2008; quirk et al.,1985). meanwhile, feeling includes admiration, sadness, sickness, curiousness, happiness (djajasudarma, 2006), satisfaction, surprise (e.g: oh!) (norrick 2008), sorrow (e.g: alas) (norrick 2008), excitement, delight (e.g: yippee ) (quirk et al.,1985). markers within the information frame of discourse (norrick, 2008) include discourse markers, continuers, attention signals (norrick, 2008), hesitators, expletives (norrick, 2008; quirk et al.,1985), emotive emphasis 92 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj along with exclamations, the persuasive do in imperatives, expletives, intensifiers and the general clause emphasizers such as actually, really, and indeed (quirk et al., 1985). further, interjections may take the form of sounds (e.g: hm!) (burton, 1984). meanwhile, pragmatic markers are devices which have little or no meaning in themselves (erman, 2001) and no role in determining the semantic meaning of the basic propositional content of a discourse segment of which they are a part but do have a critical role in the interpretation of the utterance (fraser, 2008) and can be understood by looking at clues in the context and/or situation and by having a conventionalized pragmatics meaning mapped onto them (erman, 2001). in fact, pragmatic markers have many functions. however, only five functions will be described. the first one is that pragmatic markers are used to initiate discourse, including claiming the attention of the hearer, and to close discourse (brinton, 1996). the second one is that pragmatic markers are used to serve as a filler or delaying tactic used to sustain discourse or hold the floor (brinton, 1996). the third one is that pragmatic markers are used to subjectively express a response or a reaction to the preceding discourse or attitude towards the following discourse, including also “back-channel” signals of understanding and continued attention spoken while another speaker is having his or her turn and perhaps “hedges” expressing speaker tentativeness (brinton, 1996). the fourth one is that pragmatic markers are used to to effect cooperation, sharing, or intimacy between speaker and hearer, including confirming shared assumptions, checking or expressing understanding, requesting confirmation, expressing deference, or saving face (politeness) interpersonally (brinton, 1996). the last one is that pragmatic markers are used to denote either new information (erman, 2001, p. 201; schiffrin 1987a) or old information (quirk et al. 1985, p. 1482; schiffrin 1987a; brinton 1996). given/old information is information which is known by senders (cook, 1989)/speakers (saeed, 2001) and receivers (cook, 1989)/hearers (saeed, 2001). this information can be considered as shared knowledge/background (bloor, 1995; schiffrin, 1994). new information is information which is unknown by senders (cook, 1989)/speakers (saeed, 2001) and receivers (cook, 1989)/hearers (saeed, 2001). this information, in general, can be treated as additional information (saeed, 2001) and the focus of the speaker’s message (bloor, 1995). moreover, aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 93 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj this new information serves a communicative function within a clause (schiffrin, 1994). given/old information is indicated by presupposition triggers (such as passive forms and existential form), definite articles (saeed, 2001) and introductory clauses/sentences (schiffrin, 1994; bloor, 1995). new information is indicated by indefinite articles (saeed, 2001) and it is the explanation of given information/of what the introductory sentence is (bloor, 1995). in addition, concerning to given/new information (quirk et al., 1985) states that information focusing gives emphasis in language. the interjections can be considered as pragmatic markers by viewing the function of the interjections which are alike to those of pragmatic markers. interjections as pragmatic markers have some functions and forms. further, they denote certain information. the functions are as turn initiators/utterance initials, summonsing/attention getting device/attention markers, response signals, and signals of cognitive state. theories proposed by burton (1984) and quirk et al. (1985) contain explanation about this utterance initial. burton (1984) states that “often found at the beginning of sentences, especially in dialogue, to express feelings or attitudes, interjections play no part in the grammar of a sentence.” in addition, quirk et al. (1985) state that “interjections are sometimes used to initiate utterances: oh, what a nuisance; ah, that’s perfect.” in addition, according to norrick (2008) the interjections oh, hey, ah, and are as primary interjections among the most frequent turn initiators. talking about this primary interjection he adds that both primary interjection and secondary interjection can stand alone as complete utterance, generally meant to index an internal state of the speaker. further, norrick (2008) states that the interjection hey is basically a summonsing or attention getting device whereas in responses, oh is a signal of surprise. in addition, according to aijmer (1987), interjection oh often retains this force in combination with other interjections.” further, norrick (2008) states discourse marker ‘well’ signaling some sort of difficulty in responding to the foregoing turn. in addition, the interjections ah, and ooh, also pertain primarily to the information state, signaling some change in the speaker’s cognitive state. context can be defined as concepts, true pragmatic meaning of utterances, true pragmatic acts (mey, 2005), physical setting (cummings, 94 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 2005)/physical environment (yule, 1996) within which an utterance is produced to include linguistic, social and epistemic factors” (cummings, 2005). further, cruse (2006) states that there are four most important aspects of contexts: preceding and following utterances and/or expressions (‘co-text’), the immediate physical situation/physical environment (yule, 1996), the wider situation, including social and power relations, and knowledge presumed shared between speaker and hearer. utterance is a metapragmatic folk term used to describes sentences (grundy, 2000)/the pairing of a sentence and a context (levinson, 1983) whether (or how) they are related to sentences (or, in fact, to other units such as propositions, turns or tone units) (schiffrin, 1994) as they occur in discourse (grundy, 2000). in addition, these utterances are units of language (whether spoken or written) that are inherently contextualized and the raw data of linguistics (griffiths, 2006). meanwhile, utterance meaning is a meaning which can be conveyed directly from the utterance by considering contexts (griffiths, 2006; levinson, 1983; allan, 1986), people’s awareness of language (griffiths, 2006), and shared knowledge availability possessed by addressee(s) (griffiths, 2006). further, utterance meaning is the meaning of explicature and of implicature (griffiths, 2006) and it properly includes a description of denotation; and that a description of denotation properly includes a description of sense (allan, 1986). the context of an utterance includes, not only the relevant co-text (i.e., the relevant surrounding text), but also the relevant features of the situation of utterance (lyons, 1995). in addition, utterances previous to the utterances are also under consideration (linguistic context) (mcmanis, stollenwerk, and sheng, 1987). the physical environment, or context, is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted (yule, 1996). physical context (mcmanis et al., 1987) is included into this aspect. physical context encompasses where the conversation takes place, what objects are present, and what actions are taking place (mcmanis et al., 1987). social context is included into wider situation, including social and power relations. this context includes the social relationship and setting of the speakers and hearers (mcmanis et al., 1987). the last, knowledge presumed shared between speaker and hearer is included into epistemic context. epistemic context is background knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers (mcmanis et al., 1987). aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 95 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj shortly, these functions, forms and information can be figured out by considering the context in which interjections are in. the general focus of this paper is to describe the relation between the function as interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and the context. methodology the research method used in this paper is a descriptive method. according to sugiyono (2009, p. 1) qualitative research exists because there is a change in paradigm in viewing reality/phenomena/symptoms. in addition, punch (1998, p. 29) states that a qualitative research not only uses nonnumerical and unstructured data, but also, typically, has research questions and methods. he adds that another method used is interpretative description, allowing the writer to describe as well as interpret the signs used including dialogue and narration, camera shots, camera angles and movement, color and lighting. all data are taken from five novels. they are the lord of the rings: the fellowship of the ring by j.r.r. tolkien (1994a), the lord of the rings: the two towers by j.r.r. tolkien (1994b), why didn’t they ask evans? by agatha christie (1974), dragonfly by k.r dwyer (1979), and the juror by george dawes green (1995). the writer took the data from the novels above because the writer found out that the interjections used in the novels have similar functions to those of in reality either in written or spoken. the techniques of data collection are as follows: 1. reading five novels 2. gathering all of the interjections the writer needs 3. rereading the novels for several times in order to make sure that the taken data are really needed 4. listing them based on theories proposed by norrick (2008), aijmer in slembrouk et al. (2009) and their function 5. determining what these interjections indicate 6. counting how many functions an interjection may have 96 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the analyzed data are five different interjections (e.g: ah, oh, well, hey, and alas) from five different novels. to analyze the data, reading either the narration or utterances around the interjections and pointing out the context are important before finding out the first function of the interjections functioned as pragmatic markers, their forms and which information they denote. counting how many functions of an interjection may have in an utterance is the last step. findings there are eight data which are analysed. all of them are from five different novels. a. data 1 the first data is taken from the novel why didn’t they ask evans? written by agatha christie (1974). from page 82-83 the following conversation takes place: “and the caymans most emphatically weren’t?” “most emphatically.” “and then, just when everything has gone off well from caymans’s point of view—body successfully identified, verdict of accidental death, everything in the garden lovely – you come along and mess things up,” mused frankie. “’why didn’t they ask evans?’” bobby repeated the phrase thoughtfully. “you know, i can’t see what on earth there can be in that to put the wind up anybody.” “ah! that’s because you don’t know. it’s like making cross-word puzzles. you write down a clue and you think it’s too idiotically simple and that everyone will guess it straight off, and you’re frightfully surprised when they simply can’t get it in the least. ‘why didn’t they ask evans?’ must have been a most frightfully significant phrase to them, and they couldn’t realize that it meant nothing at all to you.” (christie, why didn’t they ask evans?, 1974, pp. 82-83) aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 97 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the above informs about bobby, who asks the nurse to phone frankie saying to her that he had had something important he must tell her and here frankie comes back to the hospital again. bobby tells her the last sentence from the dead man ’why didn’t they ask evans? which later becomes their next clue to seek the murderer. here the interjection has two functions. they are a response signal and as an utterance initial. the first functions are both utterance initials and as response signal because interjection ah functioned as utterance initial is used to begin an utterance and interjection ah functioned as a response signal is used to show frankie’s reaction towards what bobby says. frankie uses interjection ah! to mark an old information and to begin her comment. the old information can be seen in the next context within the utterance. here frankie presupposes that ’why didn’t they ask evans? has certain meaning for the caymans and is a mystery for bobby. the interjection takes a formulaic combination in a form of a sentence. the meaning of the interjection is comprehension because the interjection ah indicates frankie’s attitude (recognition) towards bobby’s talk. in the context above bobby questions the riddle he has and he has no assumption. on the other hand, frankie has her own assumption here. thus here the interjection has three functions; as an utterance initial, as a response signal and as a marker of old information. b. data 2 the second data is taken from the novel the lord of the rings: the two towers written by j.r.r. tolkien (1994b). from page 215 the following conversation takes place: ‘what’s the matter?’ asked merry. ‘are you lying on an ant-hill?’ ‘no,’ said pippin, ‘but i’m not comfortable. i wonder how long it is since i slept in a bed?’ merry yawned. ‘work it out on your finger!’ he said. ‘but you must know how long it is since we left lόrien.’ ‘oh, that!’ said pippin. ‘i mean a real bed in a bedroom.’ ‘well, rivendell then,’ said merry. ‘but i could sleep anywhere tonight.’ (tolkien, the lord of the rings: the two towers, 1994b, p. 215) 98 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the above gives information that the conversation takes place in isengard and the speakers are gimli the dwarf and pippin (hobbit). the first functions are both as an utterance initial and as a response signal. interjection oh is considered as an utterance initial because it is used to begin an utterance or to initiate discourse and to claim the attention of the hearer. interjection oh functioned as a response signal is used to mark his reaction towards the previous utterance. this interjection denotes old information. the old information here is the period of time since they stayed in lόrien in which they enjoyed sleeping on a bed in a bedroom. the interjection here is used to indicate pippin’s recognition and it takes form a formulaic combination in a form of a phrase (oh, that!). in the end here interjection oh has three functions; as an utterance initial, as a response signal, and as a mark of an old information. c. data 3 the third data comes from the novel is taken from the novel the lord of the rings: the fellowship of the ring written by j.r.r. tolkien (1994a). the following conversation can be found on page 82: ‘well!’ said gandalf at last. ‘what are you thinking about? have you decided what to do?’ ‘no!’ answered frodo, coming back to himself out of darkness, and finding to his surprise that it was not dark, and that out of the window he could see the sunlit garden. (tolkien, the lord of the rings: the fellowship of the ring, 1994a, p. 82) from the conversation above, it can be interpreted that gandalf and frodo are discussing about the terror of the ruling ring bestowed by bilbo to frodo in frodo’s house in shire. gandalf says to frodo that the ring is dangerous and cannot be destroyed easily because the ring always tries to make its bearer to use it. after gandalf tells frodo about why the ring is so dangerous he tells frodo where he can destroy it if he really wishes to. interjection ‘well’ is functioned as an utterance initial. the interjection marks new information. here, the utterances are new information because previously in the context it is gandalf who tells frodo everything about the ring and its terror. frodo asks him many things and he finally knows how dangerous the ring is but he has not yet known what he should do. he asks gandalf to wear it but he refuses. he suggests gandalf to destroy it but aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 99 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj gandalf says that the ring cannot be destroyed so easily and this is proven when frodo was asked to throw the ring into the fireplace he felt there is a great reluctant within him. so, here gandalf asks him two questions which are totally new (‘what are you thinking about? have you decided what to do?’). by considering the context, the writer can say that interjection well is not only in a form of hesitator to indicate gandalf’s great anxiety but also to indicate his doubt. he asks two questions after he explains everything to frodo because he wants to make frodo understands what is going on and because he wants to tell him the danger of the ring. further, this interjection appears as a freestanding interjection because it only consists of a word (well!). in the end the interjection has three functions. the first is as an utterance initial, the second is as a marker for new information and the last as a hesitator. d. data 4 the next data is still taken from the lord of the rings: the fellowship of the ring (tolkien, 1994a). the data is taken from page 176: ‘hey! come frodo, there! where be you a-going? old tom bombadil’s not as blind as that yet. take off your golden ring! your hand’s more fair without it. come back! leave your game and sit down beside me! we must talk a while more, and think about the morning. tom must teach the right road, and keep your feet from wandering.’ (tolkien, the lord of the rings: the fellowship of the ring, 1994a, p. 176) from the data above, it can be understood that frodo and his friends are in tom bombadil’s house. tom makes the hobbits to tell him their tale (including frodo’s story about the riders). here frodo has slipped the ring because he is annoyed to tom who seems to think that the ring matter is not a perilous matter and he actually has an opportunity to make a prank on bombadil when tom tells the hobbits about an absurd story concerning badgers and their queer ways. however, when he is about to reach the outer door tom calls him. the interjection takes a formulaic combination in a form of a sentence. the first function of interjection hey is as an attention marker. the interjection hey used by tom bombadil signals that he wants to get frodo’s attention. the second function of this interjection is to initiate an utterance. considering there is an overlap between its function with pragmatic marker function this interjection can denote old information. the old information 100 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj can be seen in the context (frodo is using his ring making him invisible and here tom bombadil asks him to put off the ring). thus, here interjection hey has three functions: as an attention getter, as an utterance initial and as a mark of new information. e. data 5 the fifth data is taken from the novel dragonfly written by dwyer (1979). hereunder is the conversation taken from page 133: “not interested,” she said, turning away from the window. “hey! what about your friends?” he nodded at the girl behind her. “i’ll ask her.” the other girl came to the window. she was a petite brunette, in her late teens or early twenties. she was wearing tight jeans and a long-sleeved white sweater and a short buckskin jacket. “yeah?” “how much?” “you just did that routine with velma.” “okay, okay.” embarrased, he told her what he wanted. she appraised the car and said, “seventy bucks.” (dwyer, dragonfly, 1979, p. 133) the dialogue above involves rice and two different attractive girls who happen to be prostitutes. he was driving his cars alone when he saw young and generally attractive girls, alone and in groups of two or three, stood at the curb near the bus stops. he finally decided to turn a corner and stopped near two flashily dressed young girls, and put down the automatic window on the passenger’s side. the interjection takes a formulaic combination in a form of a sentence. the first and the second function of the interjection are as attention marker and utterance initial. rice used the interjection hey above is as attention signal to the addressee (unnamed girl) to take attention to what he is going to ask her later. the interjection denotes an old information. the old aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 101 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj information is heather nichols. this can be identified by considering the next contexts, “…. what about your friends?” he nodded at the girl behind her which have utterance meaning that there are many girls in front of the speaker’s eyes but he only chose one girl. this can be seen from definite descriptive ‘the girl’ in he nodded at the girl behind her. interjection hey! above is used after the speaker notices that there are many girls and two of them attract him. rice uses the interjection to express his cognitive change. he uses it first only because he just wants to attract the unnamed girl’s attention in order that she wants to ask her friend to go dating with him. the interjection is used to indicate the speaker’s attitude. according to the context rice uses interjection hey! to greet one of the girls. the attitude shown by the interjection hey above is doubt. thus, here the interjection hey has four functions: as an attention marker, as an utterance initial, as a mark of new information and as a mark of a cognitive change. f. data 6 the juror novel written by george dawes green (1995) becomes the sixth data. the data is taken from page 289: the telephone rings. she lets it. after four rings the machine picks up, and in a moment she hears inez, her dealer. “hey babe. when are you going to call me? i’ve got to talk to you. zack lyde gave me a call. told me he wants a piece he saw up at your studio. he says it’s called, um, second-grade passion for a tv lion? says he’ll pay twelve for it – do we have a deal? says he’d like to know immediately – he’s having dinner with one of his asian friends and he wants to be able to offer it…..” (green, the juror, 1995, p. 289) from the above, it can be interpreted that annie is in her studio in the morning thinking. she has just freed from her juror duty but she is still under the teacher’s pressure. here she gets a call from inez, her art dealer. there are two functions of the interjections in the beginning. they are as attention getter and an utterance initial. the interjection is used firstly to get annie’s attention and the second the interjection is used to initiate the utterance. this interjection denotes new information because this interjection is used to start a talk containing new information. the interjection takes a formulaic combination in a form of a phrase (hey babe). further, interjection 102 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj hey is used to show in form of attitude (recognition) because it is used only to greet someone. thus here, there are three functions of interjection hey: as an attention getter, as an utterance initial and as a mark of new information. g. data 7 the data is taken from the novel entitled the lord of the rings: the fellowship of the ring. the data can be found on page 261 from the novel written by tolkien (1994a): ‘alas!’ he cried. ‘it was this accursed knife that gave the wound. few now have the skill in healing to match such evil weapons. but i will do what i can.’ (tolkien, the lord of the rings: the fellowship of the ring, 1994a, p. 261). the above informs that frodo is stabbed by one of the ringwraiths (the black riders). the weapon is not an ordinary weapon. it’s called as an accursed knife because when strider lifted up the long thin knife and raised it the edge of it was notched and the point was broken off. when the strider held it up in the growing light, the blade seemed to melt, and vanished like a smoke in the air, leaving only the hilt in strider’s hand. the strider is speaking to the hobbits (meriadoc, pippin, sam & frodo). the interjection ‘alas’ functions as an attention marker and as emotive emphasis because aragorn uses the interjection as an attention marker and an overt signal of emotion in order to get the hobbit’s attention. furthermore, the interjection is used to denote new information. the new information can be conveyed by the context in the next utterance itself. the interjection has three forms. they are feeling, attitude and a free standing interjection. it is considered as a freestanding interjection because the interjection does not come along with another syntactic like formulation/unit. the feeling is supposed to be sorrow but by considering the context the writer can say that actually the feeling the interjection indicates to is anxiety. this can be seen from the provided context in where frodo has just been stabbed by one of the black rider and the weapon which is used to stab him is not an ordinary weapon but a deadly and accursed one. the attitude of the interjection is informing. this can be seen from the next context/following utterance which seems like the strider’s comment to what has just happened. he informs the others that the knife is a cursed knife aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 103 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and that there are a few healers who can heal the wounds caused by this weapon. there are three functions of the interjection. they are as an attention marker, as a new information marker and as an emotive emphasis. h. data 8 the last data is taken from the novel the lord of the rings: the two towers written by j.r.r. tolkien (1994b). from page 166 the following conversation takes place: ‘you move me, gimli,’ said legolas. ‘i have never heard you speak like this before. almost you make me regret that i have not seen these caves. come! let us make this bargain – if we both return safe out the perils that await us, we will journey for a while together. you shall visit fangorn with me, and then i will come with you to see helm’s deep.’ ‘that would not be the way of return that i should choose,’ said gimli. ‘but i will endure fangorn, if i have your promise to come back to the caves and share their wonder with me.’ ‘you have my promise,’ said legolas. ‘but alas! now we must leave behind both cave and wood for a while to the end of the trees. how far is it to isengard, gandalf?’ (tolkien, the lord of the rings: the two towers, 1994b, p. 166) from the conversation above, it can be concluded that gandalf, aragorn, legolas and gimli, the king of rohan and his men are on their way to isengard. here they are talking about the wonder of their homeland. gimli is a dwarf living in a cave and he loves darkness and mines material. legolas is an elf who loves forest and sunshine. gimli is talking about the beauty of the cave while legolas is talking about the forest. here gimli is successfully to make legolas love the cave and make him to make a bargain. the function of the interjection is firstly as an attention marker. the second function is as an utterance initial. the interjection alas is used to denote ‘now we must leave behind both cave and wood for a while to the end of the trees’ as new information because the interjection is used to emphasize their current state. the interjection shows legolas attitude because the interjection is used to emphasize his emotional state. in another word, the 104 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj interjection takes a form as attitudes (recognition and an overt signal of affect). the interjection takes a formulaic combination in a form of a phrase (but alas). in addition, the feeling is sad. legolas longs to visit fangorn and he also makes a bargain to gimli that he will visit his cave but he must put his wish aside because their doom is approaching. the interjection is used to show comprehension because it is used as a sign that someone understands of his state. thus, here the interjection alas has four functions: as an attention marker, as an utterance initial, as a mark of new information and as an emotive emphasis. based on the analyses of the data above, interjections as pragmatic markers may take three forms. it can be in form of free standing interjection and can take a formulaic combination in a form of either phrases or sentences. examples of free standing interjections: ‘well!’ (data 3) and ‘alas!’ (data 7). examples of interjections taking a formulaic combination of a phrase: ‘oh, that!’ (data 2), “hey babe” (data 6) and ‘but alas!’ (data 8). examples of interjections taking a formulaic combination of sentences “ah! that’s because you don’t know.” (data 1), ‘hey! come frodo, there!’ (data 4) and “hey! what about your friends?” (data 5). to figure out the forms of interjections as pragmatic markers, context is not needed. however, it will be both helpful and crucial when i determined attitude shown by the interjections, its function as pragmatic markers, overst signals of emotion and denotation of information which can be either old or new. recognition is the most common form of attitude shown by some of the data. this can be seen from data 1, data 2, data 4, data 5, data 6 and data 7. meanwhile, the other two datas show different attitudes: hesitation/query (data 3) and emphatic emphasis (data 8). the functions of interjections as pragmatic markers whose attitude is in a form of recognition can be a combination of response signals and utterance initials, a combination of attention getter and utterance initials, a combination of attention marker, cognitive change and utterance initial, and a combination of attention marker and emotive emphasis. recognition is considered as an attitude when someone understands and notices something. the function of interjections as pragmatic markers whose attitude is in a form of hesitation or query is as hesitator and utterance initial. hesitator is used to show one’s doubt towards something. also, the function of interjections as pragmatic markers whose attitude is in a form of emphatic aryanti, m. l., interjections functioned as pragmatic markers and given/ 105 new information https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj emphasis is as attention marker, utterance initial and emotive emphasis. when emotive emphasis becomes an attitude shown by interjections, it shows overt signal emotion. it is used to show emotional reaction towards something or certain events and to give emphasis on one’s emotional state. this is shown in data 1 (mild surprised), data 3 (great anxiety and doubt), data 7 (sorrow and anxiety) and data 8 (sad). interjections as pragmatic markers may denote old information, new information or maybe both. old information denoted by interjections functioned as pragmatic markers can be in a form of opinion or prediction which is considered to be true (data 1), in a form of shared experience/shared knowledge (data 2), and personal background knowledge (data 7). meanwhile, new information denoted by interjections functioned as pragmatic markers can be in a form of the “closing” summary of new information the speaker has just given and the begining of initial questions in order to get new responses (data 3), in a form of certain direct reaction towards occuring certain events (data 4), in a form of initial conversation containing new information (data 6), in a form of new information (data 7) and in a form of a new response giving emphasis on their current state (data 8). to sum up, interjections functioned as pragmatic markers have many forms and attitudes. the interjections as pragmatic markers may take the forms of free standing (2 data), a formulaic combination in a form of a phrase (3 data) and of a sentence (3 data). they become overt signal of emotions when they have emotive emphatic which can be inferred through the context. the feelings indicated by the interjections becoming the overst signal of emotions are doubt, great anxiety, sorrow and anxiety and sad. interjections as pragmatic markers have more than two functions. all of the interjections taken as data in this paper has four functions in maximum and has three functions in minimum. the most common functions of interjections as pragmatic markers are as response signals, attention getters/attention markers and utterance initial. further, most of the first functions of the interjections as pragmatic markers are as attention markers (4 data) while the others are both utterance initial and response signal (3 data) and an utterance initial (1 data). the interjections functioned as pragmatic markers denote old information (5 data) and new information (3 data). old information denoted by interjections functioned as pragmatic markers are generally in a form of experience/shared knowledge, and personal background knowledge while new 106 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 89 – 108 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj information denoted by interjections functioned as pragmatic markers are generally in a form of certain direct reaction towards occuring certain events, in a form of initial conversation containing new information and in a form of a new response. the study of interjections and pragmatic markers are newly developed. there are many arguments and overlaps surrounding them. basically, interjections are discussed in scope of grammar and syntax while pragmatic markers are discussed in scope of discourse or pragmatics. interjections are used to express feeling while pragmatic markers are used to monitor communication. interjections can be pragmatic markers if their functions are similar to or fulfill those of pragmatic markers. in addition, most of the theories used in this paper are compiled based on actual data of certain environment not based on text (e.g: novels). conclusion most of the first functions of the interjections as pragmatic markers are as attention markers (4 data), while the others are both utterance initial and response signal (3 data), and an utterance initial (1 data). the interjections as pragmatic markers may take forms; free standing (2 data), a formulaic combination in a form of a phrase (3 data), and of a sentence (3 data). the attitudes indicated by the interjections are recognition, overt signals of emotion and affect, a hesitator and call for attention. the feelings indicated by the interjections are doubt, great anxiety, sorrow and anxiety and sad. the interjections functioned as pragmatic markers denote old information (5 data), and new information (3 data). interjections as pragmatic markers have more than two functions. all of the interjections taken as data in this paper has four functions in maximum and has three functions in minimum. references agatha, c. 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(1996). pragmatics. hongkong: oxford university press. 05. 570-4568-1-pb.pdf (p.1) 570-84-103 006 jul2018.pdf (p.2-21) a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.2; december 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia the quest for critical thinking framework in elt hamzah puadi ilyas english education department, graduate school, university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka) jakarta, indonesia email: hamzahpuadi@uhamka.ac.id received: 20-09-2016 accepted: 14-09-2018 published: 25-12-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the quest for critical thinking framework in elt hamzah puadi ilyas hamzahpuadi@uhamka.ac.id english education department, graduate school, university of muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka (uhamka) jakarta, indonesia abstract: even though some authors argue that critical thinking (ct) is almost impossible to be taught to students in non-western countries since western and non-western countries have different cultural background, several studies on ct conducted in asia, africa and predominantly muslim countries have showed that it can be taught to non-western students. ct has actually been fashionable in non-western countries, and several non-western countries have nowadays included it in their educational agenda. in spite of ct’s gaining popularity in non-western countries, there is very little information as regards what kind of ct which is adopted in those non-western countries’ education and what ct framework which can work in their teachinglearning processes, especially in the field of elt. this article attempts to propose a critical thinking framework that can be used in elt as well as other school subjects. the framework is the result of critically analyzing, examining and synthesizing 20 critical thinking taxonomies, strategies, programs and tests. key words: critical thinking framework, critical thinking in elt, critical thinking strategies, critical thinking programs abstrak: meskipun beberapa penulis beranggapan bahwa critical thinking (ct) atau berpikir kritis hamper tidak mungkin diajarkan kepada siswa di negara non barat karena barat dan non barat memiliki latar belakang budaya yang berbeda, beberapa studi ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 311 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj tentang ct yang diadakan di asia, afrika dan negara-negara yang didominasi muslim menunjukan bahwa ct dapat diajarkan kepada siswa non barat. pada kenyataannya ct telah popular di negara-negara non barat, dan banyak negara-negara tersebut telah memasukan ct ke dalam agenda pendidikan mereka. namun, meskipun ct semakin populer di pendidikan negara-negara non barat, sedikit sekali informasi tentang ct seperti apa yang di adopsi di negara-negara non barat dan kerangka ct seperti apa yang bisa berhasil dalam proses pembelajaran, khususnya dalam bidang pembelajaran bahasa inggris (elt). artikel ini mengusulkan kerangka ct yang dapat digunakan di elt, juga mata pelajaran lain di sekolah. kerangka tersebut merupakan hasil dari analisa, pemikiran, dan sintesa 20 taksonomi, strategi, program dan tes tentang berpikir kritis. kata kunci: kerangka berpikir kritis, berpikir kritis dalam pengajaran bahasa inggris, strategi berpikir kritis, program berpikir kritis. introduction indonesia has included critical thinking (ct) in its education. it has been written in the government document (regulation of the republic of indonesia, number 17 year 2010 regarding educational management and administration) as an educational objective in all levels of education. with regard to secondary education, the document (article 77 numbers a, b, c and d) writes “secondary education aims to produce pupils who are (a) faithful to god, morally correct, and noble, (b) knowledgeable, skilful, critical, creative, and innovative, (c) healthy, independent and confident, and (d) tolerant, socially sensitive, democratic and responsible.” the appendix of the document informs that the word ‘critical’ means ct. in the non-western world, ct has also been very popular at the level of educational policy development where countries seem keen to incorporate ct into their educational agenda. however, there is very little information on ct implementation in the countries’ educational sectors, including in the field of english language teaching (elt). there is a gap between policy statements and actual practice in those non-western countries. therefore, there is a need to generate a ct framework that can be used in education, especially in elt. 312 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there are at least two advantages by incorporating ct in elt. first, students can learn critical thinking, and second, they can improve english language proficiency. this article proposes a ct framework that can be integrated into elt. ct across cultures recently, many non-western countries have begun to include ct in their educational agendas; however, literature has emerged that offers contradictory views about integrating ct into elt. the term elt here refers to the teaching of english as a second or foreign language in non-western countries. a few authors are against the infusion of ct into elt since, according to scholars, western and non-western culture is different. an example for this is atkinson’s (1997), but the majority as shown by beaumont (2010), benesch (1999), davidson (1998), gieve (1998), halvorsen (2009), hawkins (1998), kubota (1999), liaw (2007), pally (1997), and thompson (2002) are for its inclusion. the following are details of their arguments. atkinson (1997) states that native speakers and non-native speakers of english have different ways of thinking; therefore, it is difficult for non-native english speakers to accept the teachings of ct. he argues by asking the question “how might individuals from cultural systems that manifestly differ from mainstream u.s. culture respond to and benefit from thinking skills instruction?” (p.79). authors such as davidson (1998), hawkins (1998), and kubota (1999) argue this proposition. davidson (1998), for example, informs that there were presenters from such countries as malaysia, singapore and the philippines who reported that they included ct in their teaching while at the seventh international conference on thinking in singapore in june 1997. this shows ct has been practiced in education in those countries. kubota (1999) argues that the literature in applied linguistics often misleadingly described the asian students, especially japanese students, as passive and uncreative, while many studies on the japanese schools, according to her, showed the opposite. in a more extreme view, hawkins (1998) argues that not providing access to ct means preventing english language learners from success. some studies on ct in education conducted in non-western countries have also showed that it is not impossible to teach ct to non-western students. in south korea, shin, lee, and ha (2006) conducted a study to understand and compare dispositions toward ct in nursing students by ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 313 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj adopting a longitudinal inquiry at a baccalaureate university programme between 1999 and 2002. there were 32 students who participated four times in completing a questionnaire. the study used the ‘california critical thinking disposition inventory’ (cctdi) to measure students’ ct disposition, and it reported that there was a statistically significant improvement in ct disposition of the participants. in turkey, korkmaz & karakus (2009) carried out an experiment with a group of high school students in a geography course. one of the research questions was to find out whether blended learning change students’ ct dispositions. in the study, the control group was taught using a traditional teacher-centered and lecturing approach with question and answer sessions, while the experimental group was taught through a website with various visuals and animations in a computer lab with one computer for each student. the students were assigned activities on the website outside of the classroom and were asked to deliver their assignments via the instructor’s e-mail. cctdi was used to measure the students’ ct disposition. the study showed that a blended learning model can contribute to ct disposition. in kuwait, al-fadhli & khalfan (2009) conducted a study to discover the impact of e-learning models on improving ct. there were 45 students in the e-learning groups and 32 in the traditional (control) groups. while the control groups were taught in a traditional manner with lecturing as the main teaching activity, the e-learning groups were taught using an e-learning model with several two-way interactive activities. the result showed that the e-learning groups scored higher than the traditional group, not only in the mean score but also in the five ct skills, namely, analysis, evaluation, inference, inductive and deductive reasoning. seeing the importance of ct, some non-western countries have issued educational policies in regard to ct. for example, the south african department of education (doe) released a new curriculum known as outcomes based education (obe) in 1997. according to braund, scholtz, sadeck, & koopman (2013), obe actually emphasizes “cooperation, ct and social responsibility, thus enabling individual learners to participate in all aspects of society” (p. 175). in 2006, the doe introduced a new curriculum for south african schools in grades 10-12. similar to obe, this curriculum’s emphasis was on developing students’ critical and creative thinking skills and abilities (lubben, sadeck, scholtz, & braund, 2010). 314 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the people’s republic of china has also started to incorporate ct in their education. according to richmond (2007), china’s governmental agencies support the use of the case study method in teaching learning processes, which could encourage students’ ct. also, china has included a ct section in its english textbooks for university students. for example, ‘new standard college english’, a series of english textbooks edited by simon greenall and mary tomalin, contains ‘developing ct’ sections in each unit. malaysia is reported to have adopted ct by introducing a ‘smart school programme’ (richmond, 2007). salih (2010) reports that malaysia’s curriculum development centre has constructed a conceptual framework entitled ‘thinking skill thinking strategy’ with the purpose of infusing ct into school subjects. shakir (2009) reports that the minister of higher education of malaysia has asked universities in the country to introduce soft skills, one of which is ct. singapore is also very serious in promoting ct. richmond (2007) reports that goh chok tong, the singaporean prime minister, announced a new programme called ‘thinking schools, learning nation’ (tsln). this programme focuses on creative thinking and learning skills. according to baildon & sim (2009), ‘thinking schools’ means educational institutions in singapore can produce citizens who have an ability to think critically and creatively, “while ‘learning nation’ emphasizes that the culture of thinking and lifelong learning should be high on the educational agenda” (p. 407). all in all, even though a few authors argue that the inclusion of ct is impossible in elt, many studies on the integration of ct in elt in nonwestern countries have shown positive results: non-western students’ ct skills can be improved and ct can be infused in elt. this can be inferred that the infusion of ct in elt has two advantages: promoting elt students’ ct and at the same time improving their english. methodology for searching the framework there were some stages conducted in order to generate a ct framework which can be used in education, especially in elt. firstly, ct concepts (taxonomies, strategies, programs, and tests) were collected and collated. then they were meticulously examined and analyzed to find key ideas. thirdly, the entirety of the key ideas was re-examined to establish a new ct framework. all ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 315 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the ct concepts which belong to taxonomies, strategies, programs, and tests, are explained below. a. critical thinking taxonomies two taxonomies, bloom’s and freeman’s taxonomies, were reviewed and examined. bloom’s renowned taxonomy appeared in 1956 and was acclaimed as a tool to classify intended behaviours with regard to mental acts as a result of educational experiences (moseley, baumfield, elliot, gregson, higgins, miller, newton, 2005). bloom’s taxonomy consists of six categories, starting from ‘knowledge’ as the lowest stage to the next stages such as ‘comprehension,’ ‘application, ‘analysis,’ ‘synthesis’ and ‘evaluation.’ according to bloom (as cited in moseley et al., 2005) each category needs the skills from the lower category. for example, the ‘application’ category needs the skills and abilities of ‘comprehension’. similarly, ‘evaluation,’ which is the highest stage in the taxonomy, demands the skills and abilities of ‘synthesis.’ there is, however, some criticism of bloom’s taxonomy. wood (as cited in moseley et al., 2005) found that it was difficult for teachers to differentiate between two ct categories: analysis and evaluation. moseley et al. also report that many authors have criticised the ‘evaluation’ category as the highest stage. that is why ormell (as cited in moseley et al., 2015) proposes that the categories should be considered parallel, not hierarchical. the difficulty found by teachers to differentiate categories in bloom’s taxonomy may be because it is too general, and there is no clear example of its application. although in 1977, hannah & michaelis (as cited in moseley et al., 2015) provided a list of verbs for each category, the verbs can have various interpretation. besides this, there are some similar verbs in different categories. for example, the verb ‘compare’ can be found in the categories of analysis and evaluation, ‘conclude’ in synthesis and evaluation, and ‘summarise’ in synthesis and evaluation. there is no explanation how ‘compare’ is applied in the process of analysis and/or evaluation. similarly, there is no example how ‘conclude’ in synthesis can be different from ‘conclude’ in the evaluation stage. another criticism of the verbs attached to each category is that some verbs may not promote ct. the verbs ‘tell’ and ‘write’ under the category of synthesis may not really promote ct if students are only asked to tell and write about their personal information, for example in the context of elt. similarly, the verb ‘imagine’ falling into the category of synthesis might not encourage students’ ct skills. because it generates various interpretation, bloom’s 316 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj taxonomy and the verbs attached to each category requires clear examples of implementation. freeman (2014) conducted a study to investigate the types of questions and tasks of efl (english as a foreign language) textbooks’ reading texts. in her study, she used bloom’s, sanders’, barret’s, nuttal’s, and day & park’s taxonomies, some of which, according to her, were not targeted at reading in a second or foreign language. sanders’ taxonomy, according to freeman (2014), is the results of an interpretation of bloom’s taxonomy, and bloom’s and sanders’ taxonomies inspired barret’s taxonomy. while nuttal’s taxonomy imitates that of barret, day and park’s taxonomy “closely resembles nuttal’s” (freeman, 2014, p. 76). this shows that bloom’s taxonomy is the basis of various taxonomies and can be interpreted in various perspectives. freeman’s taxonomy consists of three categories: content questions, language questions and affect questions. content questions consist of three comprehension question types: textually explicit, textually implicit and inferential comprehension. language questions also consist of three comprehension question types: reorganization, lexical and form. affect questions comprise two comprehension question types: personal responses and evaluation. as mentioned, freeman’s taxonomy is the result of selecting elements of bloom’s, sanders’, barret’s, nuttal’s, and day & park’s taxonomies. each taxonomy, according to freeman, is the result of interpretation and adaptation of the previous one with bloom’s taxonomy acting as the starting point. it can be concluded that freeman’s taxonomy is also the result of interpretation and adaptation of bloom’s taxonomy. it is therefore proposed here to combine both bloom’s and freeman’s taxonomies and to examine them to find their key ideas. b. critical thinking strategies six empirical studies on infusing ct into elt (efl/esl) were reviewed and examined. the six empirical studies reviewed (dantas-whitney, 2002; daud & husin, 2004; davidson & dunham, 1997; park, 2011; shahini & riazi, 2011; yang & gamble, 2013) were conducted in iran, taiwan, south korea, japan and malaysia, as well as one conducted in the usa with the participants coming from mostly asian countries: japan, thailand, taiwan, south korea, kuwait, indonesia and mongolia (dantas-whitney, 2002). the strategies of each study were examined to generate key ideas. ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 317 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the study by dantas-whitney (2002) infused critical reflection a term which is closely associated with ct into an esl (english as a second language) classroom at a large university in the usa. reflective audiotaped journals were used as a tool for critical reflection, and two questions were posed: (1) how do students use audiotaped journals to integrate personal perspectives into the consideration of course content? and (2) how do students perceive audiotaped journals as a tool for language learning? dantas-whitney’s (2002) analysis produced three themes (relevance, ct, multiple identities) in regard to the first research question and one theme related to the second research question, namely that “students perceived the audiotaped journals as valuable opportunities for oral language practice, non-threatening corrective feedback and self-evaluation” (p. 548). regarding the ct theme, dantaswhitney showed three excerpts reflecting students’ ct responses. one participant expressed his critical thought addressing drugs while another participant criticized the influence of mass media on women’s self-image. unfortunately, dantas-whitney did not provide the number of audiotaped journals showing the participants’ engagement in critical and reflective thinking. she states, “the audiotaped journals in this study encourage many of the students to engage in critical and reflective thinking” (p. 549). however, the excerpts showing critical and reflective thinking that were provided in the article show that ct can be promoted in the efl classroom. daud & husin (2004) investigated the use of a literary text combined with concordance, a software installed on a computer to access language from a corpus, to develop esl students’ ct abilities. the study used othello, which was chosen, according to them, as it introduced multiculturalism and human relations. while the participants in the experimental group (n = 21) were allowed to use the computer concordance to analyse othello, the control group (n = 19) was given traditional instruction in which the blackboard, students’ notes and textbooks were used. through classroom observation, they report that the lesson sparked a lively discussion in the two groups. the statistical results, based on the ‘cornell critical thinking test’, showed that even though there was a difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of their ct abilities, in general both groups showed improvement. the study shows that elt, along with literature, can be used as a vehicle to teach ct, and non-western students’ ct skills may be enhanced. davidson & dunham (1997) also used ct in a content-based efl programme in japan in a study in which they attempted to find if english learners exposed to ct skills training would do significantly better than similar those without such training. the ‘ennis-weir critical thinking essay test’ 318 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj (ewctet) was used to measure japanese students’ progress in ct after experiencing intensive academic english instruction for one year. while the control group (n=19) received only content-based intensive instruction, the treatment group (n=17) was given additional training in ct based on norris and ennis’s list of ct skills. the result showed that the treatment group (mean score = 6.6) outperformed the control group (mean score = 0.6) on ewctet. a study by park (2011) explored critical reading using news articles conducted in a university classroom in south korea. there were 38 participants who were all students majoring in english education. the critical literacy lesson was given and audio-recorded, and was included in a reading course which integrated speaking, listening and writing. after reading the texts, the students participated in discussion about the issue of social equality, wrote a response paper to promote “ct as well as measure students’ achievement in the class” (park, 2011, p. 29) and presented an article of their choice. based on the findings of the study, park (2011) reported that “the reaction papers collected at the end of the class revealed students’ increasing command of the use of key terms to support their arguments. they were able to manipulate the language used in the text to meet their own agenda” (p. 42). shahini & riazi (2011) conducted a study on philosophy-based language teaching (pblt) in an efl classroom in iran to assess the development of students’ speaking, writing and thinking skills. they were motivated by literature showing that pblt could enhance students’ communication skills and thinking abilities in the l1 setting. the participants were university students in iran majoring in engineering, sciences and humanities with the same english proficiency levels. the pblt approaches such as asking alternative views, clarifications and reasons were introduced to the experimental group, while the control group was exposed to ordinary or non-philosophical questions. the statistical data showed that there was significant difference between the experimental and control groups in speaking (mean difference = 5.35) and writing (mean difference = 9.82). this study demonstrates that pblt may be a potential tool to promote students’ ct skills in an elt context as it helps students to respect viewpoints, explain concepts, apply reflective thinking and be critical on an issue. yang & gamble (2013) carried out an experiment by designing a course for ct-integrated efl instruction at a university in taiwan. the study intended to find out whether the course they designed helped the experimental group to perform better than the control group in terms of ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 319 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj english proficiency, ct and academic achievement. the study reported that students in the experimental group (n=31) were guided in ct activities such as information literacy and critical reading (reading), critical reflection/sharing, article critique/peer feedback, debate (listening/speaking), argumentative writing and peer critique with an emphasis on ct skills (writing), while the control group (n=37) was taught effective language learning by following the textbook without emphasizing ct activities. to check students’ ct skills, the students wrote an essay about global warming which was analyzed using the ‘holistic critical thinking scoring rubric’ (hctsr). quantitative data revealed that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group both in overall english proficiency and in ct skills. c. critical thinking programs the existing literature proposes several ct programs that were designed by relevant scholars and authorities. they include: philosophy for children (p4c), taxonomy of socratic questions (tsq), cognitive acceleration (ca), feuerstein’s instrumental enrichment (fie), top ten thinking tactics (tttt), de bono’s cort programme (cort), swartz and park’s thinking skills taxonomy (sptst), six thinking hats (sth) and fisher’s story-based activities (fsba). studies adopting those critical thinking programs have been conducted, and many authors (e.g. aubrey, ghent, & kanira, 2012; green, 2009; jenkins & lyle, 2010; lam, 2012; mills-bayne, 2009; reznitskaya, glina, carolan, michaud, rogers, & sequeira, 2012; stanley, 2007; thwaites, 2005; trickey & topping, 2004; vansieleghem, 2006) are the proponents of p4c and ca in promoting pupils’ ct skills. matthew lipman created p4c due to his concern for college students’ low level of thinking skills in his philosophy class (glevey, 2006). p4c consists of eight novels designed for children aged 3-16 years old. fisher (2008) reports that the teacher’s manual consists of discussion plans consisting of “questions around a central concept or problem” (p. 23). fisher also goes on to say that the series of questions follow socratic questions. as it is claimed that p4c adopts socratic questions, the questions need reviewing. one of the ct authorities to have interpreted socratic questions is richard paul. paul (1990) argues “socratic questions, wherein students’ thought is elicited and probed, allows students to develop and evaluate their thinking by making it explicit” (p. 269). therefore, paul’s (1990) interpretation of socratic questions was reviewed and examined. 320 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj with regard to ca, three programs for school children have been developed: case (cognitive acceleration through science education), came (cognitive acceleration through mathematics education) and caa (cognitive acceleration through the arts). regarding feuerstein’s instrumental enrichment (fie) ct programme, fie according to its creator feuerstein (as cited in glevey, 2006) aims to “change the overall cognitive structure of the retarded performer by transforming his passive and dependent cognitive style into that characteristic of an autonomous and independent thinker” (p. 75). tttt, according to mcgregor (2007), aims “to help students become more effective learners” (p. 111). in line with its name, this programme proposes ten tactics that are believed to be able to engage students in ct activities. some tactics include ‘comparing and contrasting,’ ‘getting the point,’ and ‘pinpointing the problem.’ on the other hand, cort, which stands for cognitive research trust, was created for younger high school students (mcgregor, 2007); the programs consist of six themes, for example, ‘organisation,’ ‘interaction,’ ‘creativity’ and ‘action’. sptst, according to mcgregor (2007), is the basis for the development of two other ct programs, namely activating children thinking (acts i) and sustaining children’s thinking (acts ii). those two thinking programs aim to infuse thinking across the curriculum to make students become better thinkers (mcgregor, 2007). similarly, sth, which was created by edward de bono, aims “to enable the learners to think in different ways rather than engaging in several different types of thinking simultaneously” (mcgregor, 2007, p. 140). there are six hats of different colours that represent the direction of thinking and focus questions. finally, fisher (2008) proposes story-based activities (fsba) to promote ct. he states that stories have elements of narrative constructions that are open to reflection, interpretation and discussion and have “a context for critical thinking and discussion on issues of importance” (p. 76). the elements of narrative constructions proposed by fisher (2008) include ‘contexts’, ‘temporal order’, ‘particular events’, ‘intentions’, ‘choices’, ‘meanings’ and ‘the telling.’ d. critical thinking tests as access to commercial ct tests is limited, the review and examination are restricted to the available materials the existing literature includes and the sample tests. the ct tests reviewed and examined include the watson-glaser ct appraisal (wgcta), the ennis-weir ct essay test (ewctet), the ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 321 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj california ct disposition inventory (cctdi) and the california ct skills test (cctst). the wgcta was used by hashemi and ghanizadeh (2012), who carried out an experimental study on critical discourse analysis (cda) and ct in iranian efl. they describe the wgcta as having 80 test items in five subtests: interference, recognizing unstated assumptions, deduction, interpretation and evaluation of arguments. for example, recognizing unstated assumptions, which starts from test item numbers 17-32, is described as “recognizing unstated assumptions or presuppositions in given statement or assertion” (hashemi & ghanizadeh, 2012, p. 40). the ewctet was used by davidson and dunham (1997). they explain that there are eight paragraphs with each paragraph illustrating a skill. paragraph 1, for example, states ‘noticing misuse of analogy and/or shift in meaning,’ indicating that the paragraph requires clarity. paragraphs 2-5 talk about irrelevant/relevant reasoning, defective reasoning and the lack of a reason. those four paragraphs clearly deal with reasons. paragraph seven also talks about the idea of clarity as the skill states ‘recognizing equivocation and/or the use of an arbitrary definition.’ the other two paragraphs are about insufficient sampling and the credibility of expert testimony. it can be concluded that the two key ideas contained in ewctet used to assess critical thinking are ‘clarity’ and ‘reason’. the cctdi “is specifically designed to measure the disposition to engage problems and make decisions using critical thinking” (http://www.insightassessment.com). the official website also mentions that cctdi asks test takers to respond to their agreement or disagreement with statements that express beliefs, opinions, expectations, perceptions and values. the cctst also explores analysis, inference, evaluation, deduction and induction (clemson university). the website from clemson university also says that analysis involves identifying assumptions, reasons and claims. while inference skills enable respondents to make conclusions from reasons and evidence, inductive and deductive reasoning deal with drawing inferences. results the first level of bloom’s taxonomy, knowledge, only requires students to recall and remember information. this does not encourage students’ ct skills. in the same manner, the first comprehension question type, textually 322 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj explicit, of freeman’s taxonomy does not promote ct because “in this question type the answer to the question can be found stated directly in the text” (freeman, 2014, p. 83). textually implicit, which is the second comprehension question type of freeman’s taxonomy, is likely to show the possibility of promoting ct as, according to freeman (2014), “in this question type the answer to the question is stated directly in the text but is not expressed in the same language as the question” (p. 83). however, the example of this question type is not provided. the third type of freeman’s first category, inferential comprehension, is clear enough though there are also no examples provided. she states that this type of question asks students “to combine their background knowledge with the information in the text and make necessary connections” (p. 83). this activity may require students to present their ‘viewpoint,’ or ‘perspective’. this seems similar to the second category of bloom’s taxonomy, comprehension, in which students are asked to understand the problems, state the problems using their own words and establish relationships between dates, principles, generalizations or values. the activities, to a certain degree, require students to ‘summarise’ and present their ‘viewpoint.’ sample example verbs such as ‘predict’ and ‘give example’ attached to the comprehension category proposed by hannah & michaelis can support the activities. giving an example is necessary when students need to ‘clarify’ their viewpoint in, for example, stating the problems using their own words, as suggested in bloom’s taxonomy. the second and third question types, lexical and form, seem to be able to encourage ct. lexical question types, for example, ask learners to guess the meaning of a word or phrase from the context. to a certain degree, this requires them to make an ‘assumption.’ on the other hand, form questions ask students “to focus specifically on grammar and form, not information” (freeman, 2014, p. 83). the example of activity proposed by freeman is asking students to explain the use of one tense rather than another. this activity requires students to give ‘reasons’ to support their opinion or ‘viewpoint.’ affect questions, the last category of freeman’s taxonomy, consist of two comprehension question types: personal response and evaluation. this category can be associated with the last category of bloom’s taxonomy, which is also named ‘evaluation.’ the examination of bloom’s and freeman’s taxonomies shows that this category may promote ct. the above mentioned empirical studies dealing with infusing ct into elt is now followed by an examination of each study’s ct strategies, with a ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 323 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj view to obtaining key ideas from them. first of all, dantas-whitney’s audiotaped journal assignment consisted of five main points. examining the points, there are several key ideas that emerge such as summary (summarise information), reflection (relate the information to a personal experience, or the experience of someone you know), perspective (compare what you have learned to the situation in your country), prediction (talking about how this information can help you in the future), and viewpoint (other related areas that interest you). in short, the key ideas of dantas-whitney’s critical thinking strategies are ‘summary,’ ‘reflection,’ ‘perspective,’ ‘prediction’ and ‘viewpoint.’ the key ideas of dantas-whitey’s ct strategies are in line with the taxonomies reviewed above. summary, for example, is also found in the list of verbs of bloom’s taxonomy, namely comprehension, synthesis and evaluation categories. as has been mentioned, a criticism of bloom’s taxonomy and its list of verbs for each category is that it does not provide explicit examples, so many teachers are confused how to use ‘summary’ for comprehension, synthesis and evaluation. on the other hand, summary in dantas-whitney ct strategies is very clear in that it asks students to summarize the information they have learned about the topic (from textbooks, radio interviews, classmates’ presentations and discussions, videos and outside speakers). it can be inferred that dantas-whitney’s ct strategies clarify the taxonomies. with regard to viewpoint or perspective, dantas-whitney critical thinking strategies explicitly ask students to discuss their perspective on the topic by discussing their opinion, relating the information to a personal experience, comparing what they have learned and mentioning other related areas. this is similar to freeman’s taxonomy, inferential comprehension, which asks students “to combine their background knowledge with the information in the text” (freeman, 2014, p. 83). an examination of daud & husin’s descriptions of lessons conveys four key ideas. when seeing an assignment such as ‘describe the different representation and meaning of ‘love’ in different contexts,’ it may be inferred that the prompt asks the student to clarify meaning in various perspectives. the statement ‘analyze the words based on occurrences, meanings in different contexts, the identity of the character using them, the person they refer to and the reason for using them’ also gives an idea of perspective and reason. reason and perspective also appear in the statement ‘analyze the words based on occurrence, meanings in different contexts, the identity of character using them, the person they refer to and the reason for using them.’ evidence can be found in the statement ‘based on the words, justify whether othello is a cold324 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj blooded murderer.’ therefore, the key ideas in the critical thinking strategies used by daud & husin are ‘clarity,’ ‘perspective,’ ‘reason’ and ‘evidence.’ examining norris & ennis’s list of critical thinking skills as adopted by davidson and dunham conveys key ideas such as ‘clarity,’ ‘evidence’ and ‘assumption.’ clarity comes from ‘elementary clarification, e.g. asking and answering questions that clarify and challenge.’ evidence is from ‘basic support such as making and judging observations,’ and ‘inference, for example, making and judging deductions/ inductions.’ and, ‘advanced clarification, e.g. identifying assumptions’ gives an idea of ‘clarity’ and ‘assumption.’ the examination of park’s critical engagement strategies, especially the post-reading stage, shows emerging key ideas such as ‘viewpoint’ (compare and contrast opinion), ‘reason’ (determine the reliability of data source supported by cultural and personal experience), and ‘evidence’ (determine text’ propaganda and bias; determining the decision authors make). shahini & riazi’s pblt strategies clearly show key ideas which include ‘clarity’ (questions for clarity), ‘disagreement’ (questions for exploring disagreement), ‘alternative’ (questions for considering alternatives), ‘viewpoint’ (e.g. according to what criteria do you say that? is this case basically the same as that?), and ‘conclusion’ (questions for jumping to a conclusion). the examination of yang & gamble’s instructional procedures for the experimental group centers only on ‘focus on critical thinking’ parts, which show several key ideas. for example, ‘identification of “information need”’ may refer to prediction. evidence, viewpoint and perspective can be derived from the statements ‘recognizing bias, use of supporting data, and diversity of opinion,’ ‘critical analysis of information sources,’ and ‘evaluate claim and evidence from three authentic, self-selected articles.’ therefore, the key ideas obtained from yang and gamble’s strategies are ‘prediction,’ ‘evidence,’ ‘viewpoint’ and ‘perspective.’ the key ideas of ct strategies above clarify, or even complement the taxonomies, especially bloom’s taxonomy, which lacks explicit application. as mentioned, dantas-whitney’s summary can be used as an example of what a teacher can do in dealing with the categories of bloom’s taxonomy. other strategies such as prediction, reason and evidence fit the taxonomies. while prediction is listed in the list of verbs of bloom’s taxonomy, reason and evidence are in agreement with freeman’s taxonomy, personal response ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 325 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj category, in which the students are required to provide a rationale and justification for their view, as has been mentioned above. the examination of critical thinking programs above has generated some key ideas. the socrates questioning shows six key ideas of asking critical thinking questions and consists of questions asking for ‘clarification,’ ‘assumptions,’ ‘evidence,’ ‘viewpoints or perspectives,’ ‘implications and consequences’ and ‘question.’ with regard to ca, the first part of ca, setting the thinking agenda, consists of questions that convey the ideas of the questioning viewpoint (what do you think?), reason (do you have a reason?), perspective (is there another way?) and prediction (what do you think happens next?). the second part, developing responses, poses some questions regarding reason (what reasons do you have for saying that?), agreement and disagreement (why do you disagree/agree?), clarification (what do you mean by that?) and alternative (are there any alternatives?). the third part consists of questions asking for clarity (are you saying that…?), assumption (so far your point of view…am i correct in assuming that you think…?), summary (can you sum up your arguments/ideas/views?), prediction (what do you predict will happen next?), and implication (the implications of what you have said are…). therefore, the key ideas that emerge from ca are ‘viewpoint,’ ‘reason,’ ‘perspective,’ ‘prediction,’ ‘agreement,’ ‘disagreement,’ ‘clarity,’ ‘alternative,’ ‘assumption,’ ‘summary’ and ‘implication.’ these key ideas support paul’s socratic questioning. the examination of fie focuses on the ‘improved performance’ column, as the ten activities listed in the column are actually what the critical thinking processes in the other column expect. the activities deal with making conclusion (confidence in drawing accurate conclusions; can draw accurate conclusions from events or data), promoting perspective (can project relationship among broader, complex concepts; sees problem situations and takes initiative to solve; understand cause and effect.), exploring alternative and judging consequence (stop to think before acting; explores alternatives; assesses consequences), seeking clarification and understanding implication (can organize and integrate bits of information into meaningful system; seeks clarification of instructions; understand implicit instructions). it is therefore inferred that the key ideas of fie are ‘conclusion,’ ‘perspective,’ ‘alternative,’ ‘consequence,’ ‘clarification’ and ‘implication.’ examining the ten activities listed in tttt generates the key ideas. for example, the first and fifth tactics (pinpointing the problem clarifying what the problem is; correct communication making your instructions as clear as 326 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj possible) indicate clarification. other tactics mostly refer to perspective (systematic search going beyond scanning of material, continuing to look at the data; planning paying selective attention to relevant information; check and change trying new ideas when solution is not working; comparing and contrasting seeing similarities and differences; getting the point shifting confusing information for relevant and irrelevant material; using several sources thinking about more than one piece of information). it is concluded that the two key ideas found in tttt are ‘clarification’ and ‘perspective.’ seven key ideas emerge as a result of examining the six themes contained in the cort. the first and fourth themes (to broaden perception; to develop effective new ideas) show perspective. the second theme (basic thinking operations, i.e.: when to use ‘analyze,’ ‘compare,’ ‘conclude,’ etc.) contains an element of conclusion. the third theme (intended to be interactive, constructive argument: examining both sides, evidence, agreement, disagreement, irrelevance, outcomes) talks about perspective, evidence, agreement and disagreement. the fourth theme, i.e. to develop effective new ideas, clearly refers to perspective. finally, the fifth theme (information, questions, guessing, belief, values and clarification) contains the elements of question and clarification. the seven key ideas from cort, therefore, deal with encouraging ‘perspective,’ ‘conclusion,’ ‘evidence,’ ‘agreement,’ ‘disagreement,’ ‘question’ and ‘clarification.’ examining sptst generates key ideas that are clearly mentioned in its ct activities such as assumptions, reasons/conclusions, conditional reasoning, reasoning by analogy and prediction. consequence can be inferred from ‘causal explanation (how does one thing affect another?).’ other activities such as ‘thinking up different possibilities to reaching a solution,’ ‘weighing up pros and cons to inform a view or decision,’ ‘creating new ideas and developing a framework,’ and ‘model or suggestion that connects multiple pieces of information together’ can be considered to be encouraging perspective. so, the six key ideas promoting critical thinking proposed by sptst are ‘assumption,’ ‘reason,’ ‘conclusion,’ ‘prediction,’ ‘consequence’ and ‘perspective.’ regarding sth, the strategies corresponding with the white hat focus on questions about ‘question.’ the strategies with a yellow hat ask about reason. a question in the green hat explores perspective, and two questions with the blue hat can promote viewpoint. therefore, it can be concluded that the key ideas of ct activities proposed by sth are questions exploring ‘question,’ ‘reason,’ ‘perspective’ and ‘viewpoint.’ ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 327 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj an examination of example questions of fbsa posed in each element generates some key points which are mostly similar to paul’s socratic questioning. they include clarification (e.g. what does ‘once upon a time’ mean?), prediction (e.g. what could have happened? what should have happened? what could/should happen next? what does x hope will happen), reason (e.g. what reasons would x give?), viewpoint (e.g. what kind of story is it? why does x think that? what is the decisive moment in the story? what is the message (or moral) of the story? what did the character feel, think and believe? what did they all feel, think or believe?), alternative (e.g. what alternative choices or decisions are there?), consequence (e.g. what were the consequences?) and perspective (e.g. could you tell this story in different ways? how would you change the characters or events?). the key ideas of fsba are questions about ‘clarity,’ ‘prediction,’ ‘reason,’ ‘viewpoint,’ ‘alternative,’ ‘consequence’ and ‘perspective.’ the examination of four critical thinking tests has generated key ideas about what they are testing. the key ideas of critical thinking tests in alphabetical order are ‘agreement,’ ‘assumption,’ ‘evidence,’ ‘clarity,’ ‘conclusion,’ ‘disagreement’ and ‘reason.’ the examination of 20 ct concepts (taxonomies, strategies, programs and tests) above has generated several key ideas. the entire list of key ideas is (in alphabetical order): agreement, alternative, assumption, evidence, clarification, conclusion, consequence, disagreement, implication, perspective, prediction, question, reason, reflection, summary and viewpoint. critical thinking taxonomies, strategies, programs and tests share most of these ideas. for example, clarity, perspective, assumption and reason are found in all critical thinking taxonomies, strategies, programs and tests. however, there is one key idea that is not shared by the critical thinking strategies, programs, taxonomies and tests. this idea is ‘reflection’; it is only found in dantas-whitney’s audiotaped journal assignment for writing task. as proposed by dantas-whitney this concept is ‘relating the information to a personal experience or the experience of someone you know.’ this seems to overlap with ‘viewpoint’ and ‘perspective’. as mentioned in the previous section, dewey states that reflective thinking means examining things, not accepting things at face value. adopting dewey’s idea, all key ideas of these critical thinking taxonomies, strategies, programs and tests can be categorized as reflective thinking. reflection is, therefore, omitted from the list of key ideas. 328 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 2, december 2018, pp. 310 – 332 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj some other activities are not included in the key ideas, as they do not seem to promote critical thinking. for example, one of ten tactics in tttt is ‘setting your own target understanding your purpose, wishes and the goals others have for you.’ the idea derived from the phrase is ‘achieving goals,’ though it is not related to critical thinking in this context. another is ‘sequencing ordering or ranking information’ which is found in sptst. this phrase could be a part of the process of gathering evidence. therefore, these two phrases are not represented in the final list of key words. this section, therefore, proposes that the textbook evaluation must be done by examining text-based questions and tasks probing/about agreement, assumption, evidence, clarity, conclusion, consequence, disagreement, implication, perspective, prediction, question, reason, reflection, summary and viewpoint. these ideas create the ct framework used education, especially in the context of elt. conclusion the argument claiming that ct is almost impossible in non-western countries may be baseless. there is no single study supporting this proposition. on the other hand, some studies on ct in non-western education, including in elt, have shown the opposite: it is possible to teach ct to non-western students and it is possible to incorporate ct into elt. at least there are two advantages of infusing ct into elt. first, non-western students can learn how to be critical, and second, at the same time they can improve english language proficiency. the reason why non-western students lack ct might be the educational system which has not fully supported ct, not because the students cannot be critical. realizing the importance of ct in this ever-globalizing world, nonwestern countries have included ct in their educational agenda. some programs have been designed by educational authorities in those countries. so far, however, there has been little discussion about what kind of ct which can be used in education, especially in elt. the proposed ct framework above as a result of synthesizing 20 critical thinking taxonomies, strategies, programs and tests can be used as a guide to promote elt students’ ct skill; however, the framework can also be used in other school subjects such as civics, religion, history, literature, economics, or even biology. ilyas, h.p., the quest for critical thinking framework in elt 329 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i2; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj elt practitioners, especially those teaching efl and esl, may get benefits from this ct framework, but they also need to be critical to the framework. finally, studies investigating the effectiveness of the framework in promoting students’ ct skill need to be conducted in order to find possible additional elements of ct, and thus improving this framework. references al-fadhli, s., & khalfan, a. 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(2013). effective and practical critical thinkingenhanced efl instruction. elt journal, 67(4), 398-412. 9.pdf (p.1) 685-304-326 009 dec2018.pdf (p.2-24) figure 1: community of inquiry framework (source: garrison 2016; 2017) table 1: the distinction between traditional classroom learning and e-learning traditional classroom learning e-learning advantages · immediate feedback · being familiar to both instructors and learners · motivating students · cultivation of a social community · learner-centered and self-paced · time and location flexibility · cost-effective · potentially available to global audience · unlimited access to knowledge · archival capacity for knowledge reuse and sharing disadvantages · instructor-centered · time and location constraints · more expensive to deliver · lack immediate feedback in asynchronous e-learning · increased preparation time for the instructor · not comfortable for some · potentially more frustration, anxiety, and confusion (source: zhang, zhao, zhou, & nunamaker 2004, p.76) table 2: survey item table specification construct sub-issue survey item note cronbach’s alpha 1 engagement in online learning – pre-pandemic 1-3 (3 items) no cronbach’s alpha calculation as it belongs to those yielding nominal or textual data 2 engagement in online learning – during the pandemic (focus on general it) 4-9 (6 items) cronbach’s alpha calculation performed to see internal consistency 0.69 3 engagement in synchronous-asynchronous writing online course 10-15 (6 items) cronbach’s alpha calculation performed to see internal consistency (excluding one item with yes/no answer) 0.84 4 learning environment prepared for the writing online course (materials, assignment, assessment etc.) 16-21 (6 items) cronbach’s alpha calculation performed to see internal consistency 0.68 5 learning environment for online vs. face-to face modes 22-24 (3 items) 0.67 6 learning environment focusing on group work 25-29 (5 items) 0.79 average cronbach’s alpha value 0.73 table 3: online learning glitches (it and non-it oriented) statements negative perception positive perception mean* sd d a sa c2.1 not having a good internet connection is my problem in joining writing-a online course. 7 14 18 4 2.44 16.28%% 32.56% 41.86% 9.30% c2.2 not having enough internet quota is my problem in joining writing-a online course. 11 11 13 8 2.42 25.58% 25.58% 30.23% 18.60% c2.3 not having a computer / laptop is my problem in joining writing-a online course. 14 15 9 5 2.12 32.56% 34.88% 20.93% 11.63% c2.4 the specification of my computer / laptop cannot support the online learning properly. 9 18 10 6 2.30 20.93% 41.86% 23.26% 13.95% c2.5 managing time is my problem in joining writing-a online course. 9 15 16 3 2.30 20.93% 34.88% 37.21% 6.98% c2.6 not having a conducive learning environment at home or my boarding house is my problem in joining writing-a online course. 10 13 15 5 2.35 23.26% 30.23% 34.88% 11.63% note: sd: strongly disagree; d: disagree; a: agree; sa: strongly agree * a 4-point likert scale table 4: synchronous-asynchronous perception statements negative perception positive perception mean* sd d a sa c3.1 i joined the scheduled synchronous sessions actively. 0 4 25 14 3.23 0% 9.30% 58.14% 32.56% c3.2 apart from the synchronous session, i also did asynchronous session to see any new announcement. 0 3 26 14 3.26 0% 6.98% 60.47% 32.56% c3.3 apart from the synchronous session, i also did asynchronous session to see/read the posted materials. 0 4 26 13 3.21 0% 9.30% 60.47% 30.23% c3.4 apart from the synchronous session, i also did asynchronous session to review what has been discussed during synchronous session by looking back at the forum or chat facilities. 2 4 26 11 3.07 4.65% 9.30% 60.47% 25.58% c3.5 apart from the synchronous session, i also had a small discussion with classmates. 0 3 21 19 3.37 0% 6.98% 48.84% 44.19% note: sd: strongly disagree; d: disagree; a: agree; sa: strongly agree * a 4-point likert scale table 5: writing-a online course learning environment statements negative perception positive perception mean* sd d a sa c4.1 the assignments given helped me understand the writing materials better. 0 1 20 22 3.49 0% 2.23% 48.51% 51.16% c4.2 the feedback i received from my teacher helped me improve my writing. 0 1 16 26 3.58 0% 2.33% 37.21% 60.46% c4.3 writing reflective journals helped me improve my writing 0 2 16 25 3.53 0% 4.65% 37.21% 58.14% c4.4 i got enough materials to learn writing-a from my teacher. 0 2 21 20 3.42 0% 4.65% 48.84% 46.51% c4.5 apart from materials i got from my teacher, i also tried to get additional online resources to learn the materials on my own. 3 3 26 11 3.05 6.98% 6.98% 60.47% 25.58% c4.6 i was encouraged to reflect on my learning. 0 3 26 14 3.26 0% 6.98% 60.47% 32.56% note: sd: strongly disagree; d: disagree; a: agree; sa: strongly agree * a 4-point likert scale table 6: learning environment (online vs. face-to face modes) statements negative perception positive perception mean* sd d a sa c5.1. compared to during pandemic, i mastered the materials more when joining face-to-face classroom instruction. 2 5 22 14 3.12 4.65% 11.63% 51.16% 32.56% c5.2. compared to during pandemic, i communicated with my friends and teacher better when joining face-to-face classroom instruction. 1 4 23 15 3.21 2.33% 9.30% 53.49% 34.88% c5.3. compared to during pandemic, i got to know my friends more when joining face-to-face classroom instruction. 1 4 19 19 3.31 2.33% 9.30% 44.19% 44.19% note: sd: strongly disagree; d: disagree; a: agree; sa: strongly agree * a 4-point likert scale table 7: learning environment (small group oriented) statements negative perception positive perception mean* sd d a sa c6.1 i had my own small group to discuss the assignments. 3 5 21 14 3.07 6.98% 11.63% 48.84% 32.56% c6.2 during the small group discussion, i got assisted by my classmates. 2 7 23 11 3 4.65% 16.28% 53.49% 25.58% c6.3 during the small group discussion, i assisted my classmates. 1 10 20 12 3 2.33% 23.26% 46.51% 27.91% c6.4 joining writing-a online course improved my life skills. 1 3 21 18 3.3 2.33% 6.98% 48.84% 41.86% note: sd: strongly disagree; d: disagree; a: agree; sa: strongly agree * a 4-point likert scale a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 2; december 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia designing and developing supplemental technology of paci model materials through blended learning methods effendi limbong english education department, teacher training and education faculty, mulawarman university, east kalimantan, indonesia ph: +62 8115555932 email: limbong_efflin@yahoo.com received: 09-08-2016 accepted: 12-05-2016 published: 28-02-2017 designing and developing supplemental technology of paci model materials through blended learning methods effendi limbong limbong_efflin@yahoo.com english education department, teacher training and education faculty, mulawarman university, east kalimantan, indonesia abstract: the 21st century english teachers and lecturers are required to have competencies in translating content knowledge (ck), integrating various pedagogical knowledge (pk) and implementing technological knowledge (tk) in order to produce effective and efficient teaching. this research reveals and describes researcher’s efforts and pre-service efl teachers’ (pre-service efl teachers) roles in designing and developing the supplemental teaching and learning materials with powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and internet (paci) model. to transform researcher roles and model to introduce and implement technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (tpack) framework, this research implemented blended learning: traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion based on project-based learning. this research employed the qualitative autobiography narrative of self-study from the researcher’s experiences to implement blended learning. semi-structured interviews were conducted with four preservice efl teachers of group a and five pre-service efl teachers of group b to seek the pre-service efl teachers’ experiences in designing and developing paci model. the results suggested that blended learning could effectively and efficiently integrate and implement the design and development of a paci model. most importantly both researcher and two groups realized that in integration of tpack during a computer literacy course, the subject matter may be shaped by the application of technology; teaching as well as learning might be changed by the use of technology and the way to represent and communicate specific lessons to students. 272 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 key words: tpack framework, blended learning, project based learning, facebook, paci model abstrak: pada abad ke-21 seluruh guru dan dosen bahasa inggris wajib memiliki kompetensi dalam menerjemahkan materi ajar, mengintegrasikan berbagai pengetahuan pengajaran dan menerapkan kemampuan dan keterampilan teknologi untuk menghasilkan pengajaran yang efektif dan efisien. penelitian ini mengungkapkan dan menjelaskan upaya peneliti dan pengalaman para calon guru bahasa inggris disaat merancang dan mengembangkan bahan pembelajaran dan pengajaran dengan menggunakan aplikasi model powerpoint, audacity, camtasia dan internet (paci). untuk mengubah peran dan model peneliti untuk memperkenalkan dan menerapkan kerangka teknologi, pedagogical, dan content knowledge (tpack), penelitian ini dilaksanakan dengan menerapkan metode penggabungan proses perkuliahan tatap muka dan facebook kelompok diskusi berdasarkan pembelajaran berbasis-proyek. penelitian ini menggunakan narasi autobiografi kualitatif dari pengalaman peneliti untuk menerapkan pembelajaran berbasis-proyek. wawancara setengah terstruktur dilakukan terhadap empat orang kelompok a dan lima orang dari kelompok b calon guru bahasa inggris untuk memperoleh gambaran pengalaman yang telah mereka lakukan dalam merancang dan mengembangkan model paci. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pembelajaran berbasis-proyek terbukti efektif dan efisien dapat mengintegrasikan dan menerapkan desain dan pengembangan model paci. yang terpenting adalah bahwa peneliti dan dua kelompok calon guru bahasa inggris menyadari bahwa dalam integrasi tpack pada mata kuliah computer literacy, materi pelajaran bahasa inggris dapat diperjelas dengan teknologi yang mencakup proses pengajaran, pembelajaran, dan penyampaian materi ajar bahasa inggris akan berubah dengan menggunakan dan menerapkan teknologi terhadap peserta didik. kata kunci: kerangka tpack, penggabungan pembelajaranpengajaran, pembelajaran berbasis-proyek, facebook, model paci. introduction aligning with the 21st century demands, the indonesian minister of national education has issued several laws and regulations regarding teacher and lecturer competence to improve the quality of education in indonesia. one is the regulation of national education minister no.16 year 2007 on teachers standard academic qualifications and competency which was limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 273 paci model materials through blended learning methods obligated that each indonesian teacher should meet specific standards of academic qualifications and competencies. the standard consists of pedagogic, personal, social and professional competencies. pedagogic and professional competencies concern the utilization of information and communications technologies (icts) in the development of educational; specifically, teachers and lecturers need to be able to design teaching and learning with technology and utilize and integrate technology into the teaching and learning process (mone, 2007). in response to this regulation, faculties of teacher training and education, particularly english study program of the teacher training and education of mulawarman university, which is located in samarinda, indonesia has the responsibility to educate their pre-service efl teachers graduates to be able to master these four competencies. in line with minister of national education demands and following the suggestions of many researchers, the english study program of teacher training of mulawarman university offers three educational technology courses; namely 1) computer literacy, 2) computer application, and 3) computer assisted language learning as component of its syllabus (bullock, 2004; english-department-study-program, 2009; leh, 1998; oakley, 2008; sumarni, 2013). the pre-service efl teachers start to enroll the computer literacy in semester two. this topic covers the knowledge and skill (technical skills) needed to operate software such as powerpoint, audacity, camtasia, and internet literacy. during this topic, the pre-service efl teachers also learn the windows operational system embedded with the knowledge and skills to search and download any educational sources and materials from the internet. they also need to understand social media (i.e., youtube, facebook, twitter and so on) to support their learning. during their study of this topic, pre-service efl teachers are able to design and create their presentation during their program in addition to make multimedia to support their future teaching (english-department-study-program, 2009). there are two projects that the pre-service efl teachers need to design and develop as the goals of this topic. in the first project, the pre-service efl teachers have to design and develop supplemental multimedia to provide explanations of the specific grammar point they selected to focus on. the books as the main sources were the english books in the junior high school (year 7 to 9). the second project was to follow up the first project by 274 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 creating and exercises or quizzes to evaluate the learners’ understanding about the specific grammar selected. the computer application topic is offered by the english study program in semester three. this topic covers the knowledge and skills to operate the photo story, scratch, sparkol video scribe, and powtoon software. at the end of this topic, the pre-service efl teachers are able to operate and apply the four softwares to support their learning and teaching in efl lessons during their courses and also in their future teaching (english-department-study-program, 2009). they have two projects to complete in this topic. in the first project, the pre-service efl teachers have to design and develop the supplemental multimedia to explain a specific english lesson by using the photo story, scratch, sparkol videoscribe, and powtoon software. the books as the main sources were the english books in the junior and high school (year 7 to 12). the second project, as a follow up from the first project, was to create an exercise or quiz for evaluating the learners’ understanding about the specific english lesson. the computer assisted language learning is taken by pre-service efl teachers in semester four. this topic covers the knowledge and skills for making and editing videos using mobile phone, flip video and other videos of educational materials to support their teaching and learning by using windows movie maker. the pre-service efl teachers also may combine the previous software that they had mastered in computer literacy and computer application topics to teach efl. during those three courses, the pre-service efl teachers also learn how to integrate all offline and online software into their lesson plan within other courses during their program (english-department-study-program, 2009). in addition, during the call course, the pre-service efl teachers should experience an innovative technology learning environment that provides them numerous opportunities to use technologies and to adopt effective and efficient strategies to integrate the technology knowledge from their technology courses with other teaching courses by putting the tpack framework into practice, the roles, modelling and assistance of the lecturers who support and encourage pre-service efl teachers are essential (brown, 2007; larsen-freeman & anderson, 2011; limbong, 2015; nunan, 1999; stephenson, 2001). in other words, pre-service efl teachers not only learn about technology but also learn with or through technology (cahyani & cahyono, 2012; dede, 2010; eickelmann, 2011; koehler & mishra, 2006; lemke, 2010). limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 275 paci model materials through blended learning methods in educational contexts, the teacher education institutions should apply the tpack framework in their undergraduate program (kay, 2006; niess, 2005; sweeney & drummond, 2013) because technology can help make complex subject matter ideas more accessible to students, because the integration of technology changes the teaching as well learning experience, and because with technology specific concepts and topics of a subject matters become easier to master by students (chien, chang, yeh, & chang, 2012; rilling, dahlman, dodson, boyles, & pazvant, 2005). the strategy to combine the subject matter with pedagogical and technological knowledge is essential to the success of the teaching and learning process (koehler et al., 2007). one the strategy is to adopt the tpack framework to make teaching and learning more effective and efficient (koehler & mishra, 2005, 2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2009; koehler et al., 2007; mishra, koehler, & henriksen, 2011). figure 1 tpack many teachers, instructors, and researchers have already explored and used the tpack framework in varieties of knowledge, and its advantages have been well documented (chai, koh, tsai, & tan, 2011; harris, mishra, & koehler, 2009; koehler & mishra, 2005, 2006, 2008b). however, more research is required on the use of tpack framework as guidance for lecturers 276 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 in delivering and modeling it in their specific lessons. tpack should be combined with the project-based learning approach (sumarni, 2013; yusofa, hassan, jamaludin, & harun, 2012) and with blended learning of face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods (yusofa et al., 2012) in teaching specific lessons so that learners may observe its implementation in the real classroom. in particular, research is scarce in teaching efl context on the impact the implementation in the efl classroom of the of tpack framework combined with the project-based learning through blended learning between face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods. another aspect that has largely been neglected is for pre-service efl teachers not only to learn about technology but also to learn with or through technology (koehler & mishra, 2005, 2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2009) in designing and developing multimedia for problem-solving (macklin, 2008) in specific lessons, how lecturers teach and how pre-service efl teachers learn to teach with technology and how to make multimedia has been scarcely explored. the aims of this research was to (1) to describe the researcher’s experiences in designing and developing multimedia technology-integrated materials of the paci model with project-based learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods throughout the tpack framework, (2) to explore the pre-service efl teachers’ experiences with project-based learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods during the computer literacy course throughout the tpack framework the major research question describe in this research was what are the experiences of lecturers and pre-service efl teachers to implement tpack framework in action in designing and developing multimedia technologyintegrated materials of paci model with project based-learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods. the major research question was broken down into several sub-questions: 1) what are the researcher’s experiences in designing and developing multimedia technology-integrated materials of paci model with project based-learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods throughout tpack framework? limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 277 paci model materials through blended learning methods 2) what are the pre-service efl teachers’ experiences with project basedlearning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods during the computer literacy course? the significance of this study, therefore, lies in describing and discovering the researcher experiences with the method of blended learning in designing and developing multimedia technology-integrated materials of the paci model throughout tpack framework implementation during the computer literacy course. this study can contribute to the improvement of teacher training programs in indonesia by lecturers, teachers and pre-service efl teachers because it demonstrates the model and activities of the tpack framework in action by employing the blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion with project-based learning methods in designing and developing multimedia project, particularly in the education of teachers of english. finally, as this is a new area of implementation of the tpack framework in the indonesian context, the findings of this narrative explanation may contribute to future research in this area. further study of how the integration of multimedia of paci model into teaching and learning in efl context in combination with tpack framework can be achieved and enhanced the quality of teaching for educators, especially for university lecturers, teachers and pre-service teachers, which would in turn lead to an improvement in learners’ learning and achievement in any lessons. the methods of the research the major aims of this study were to describe how the researcher in designing and developing multimedia technology-integrated materials of paci model with project-based learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods throughout tpack framework during the computer literacy course in the faculty of teacher training. the goal was to better prepare lecturers and the pre-service efl teachers to design and develop supplemental multimedia for teaching specific english lessons in their teaching of efl in the indonesian context. 278 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 interpretivism as the epistemology was chosen as the most appropriate for describing the participants’ experiences. denzin (2001) asserted that interpretive research focuses on life experiences “that radically alter and shape the meanings persons give to themselves and their live projects” (p. 34). cohen, manion, and morrison (2011) highlighted that an interpretive paradigm is to understand the subjective world of human experience focusing on actions. actions are only meaningful to us in so far as we are able to ascertain the intentions of actors to share their experiences (cohen et al., 2011, p. 18). thus, this approach aims to grasp the diversity of subjects’ experiences (kvale, 1996). the aim of the scientific method for the interpretive researcher is to understand how this glossing of reality goes on at one time and in one place and compare it with what goes on in different times and places (cohen et al., 2011). a. an autobiography narrative self-study in this context, this research used qualitative research. according to norman k. denzin (2003) “qualitative research primarily involves a variety of activities and empirical material collections including case study, personal experience, introspection, life story, interview, artifacts, cultural texts, and historical texts that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives” (p. 5). the narrative autobiography self-study design as the methodology was chosen to describe his experiences in designing and developing multimedia technology-integrated materials of paci model with project-based learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods throughout the tpack framework. according to creswell (2012), “in an autobiography approach, the individual who is the subject of the study writes the account” (p. 504). in this research, the researcher or lecturer used his own story as the data. both autobiography and narrative are similar in that, it depends on who writes or records the story (clandini & connely, 2002). to seek the experiences of pre-service efl teachers, qualitative narrative study was employed in which the researcher sought to understand the phenomenon by focusing on a total picture of the pre-service efl teachers’ experiences with project-based learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion methods throughout tpack framework (ary, jacobs, & sorensen, 2010). b. participants selection procedure limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 279 paci model materials through blended learning methods the computer literacy course was the focus of this research with four classes (a,b,c,d) with approximately 28-32 of pre-service efl teachers in each class. the efl class with less than 40 students a classroom are still included in the standard category). this study employed purposeful sampling to select the participants. gay, mills, and airasian (2011) stated that in qualitative study the most common form of sampling is purposive or purposeful sampling “based on the assumption that the researcher wants to discover, understand and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned” (merriam, 1998) and the participants must be “information-rich” (patton, 1990). in addition, creswell (2012) points out that the participants are to know more about the central phenomenon. due to overload of assignments and preparation for final exams, only nine pre-service efl teachers (2 from a class; 3 from b class; 2 from c class and 2 from d class) were willing to participate and were able to be interviewed. the researcher divided them into two groups (group a and group b). the four of pre-service efl teachers on group a were named with wati, ita, joni, and anton, while the five pre-service efl teachers in group b were named with efflin, raiendi, erna, siska and robiah. these are all pseudonyms. c. interview collection technique the most common and widely adopted data collection technique in qualitative research is the interview (bryman, 2012; donley, 2012; gay et al., 2011). the interview is a basic mode of inquiry that assists researchers in gathering comprehensive information from the research constituents (miller & glassner, 1997; seidman, 1991) and “is one of the most powerful ways we have of understanding others” (punch, 2005, p. 168). through interview, the participants may express their experiences without any hesitant to speak creswell, 2012) and they can articulate and share ideas comfortably without any forces from others to describe and interprete their experiences (oishi, 2003; creswell, 2012). in this research, face to face group semi-structured interview data collection was employed (bryman, 2012) and the interviews were digitally voice recorded. the researcher interviewed group a and group separately on different days in order to acquire a deeper understanding of the meaning of the interviewees’ experiences as a phenomenon in society (creswell, 2009; fontana & frey, 2003; seidman, 1991). the semi-structured interview allowed the researcher to expand the standard questions with additional questions to elicit richer, and sometimes unexpected answers from the 280 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 participants (mitchell & jolley, 2012) and to let the participants develop issues they regarded as important (longhurst, 2010). to enrich the data sources of this study, the links about the discussion of computer literacy’s content on facebook close-group discussion are provided in appendix 3. these facebook closed-group discussion names of computer literacy for a, b, c, and d classess are still using by all the preservice efl teachers who enrolled in the computer application and call courses. we have agreed to always use this group for sharing any kinds of new information related to technology courses. d. data analysis procedures content analysis data was employed after transcribing the data to find the codes. by coding the data the researcher was able to detect frequencies (which codes occur most commonly) and patterns (which codes occur together) (strauss & corbin, 1998). starting with open coding in which the researcher attaches a code to a piece of text to describe and categorizethemes and also properties/sub categories (the characteristic of a category/theme or phenomenon of that piece of text). the researcher then did axial coding, grouping the open codes that are similar in meaning, causal conditions that lead to the phenomena, their intervening conditions and the actions and interactions of, and consequences for the actor in situation (cohen et al., 2011; strauss & corbin, 1998). last was selective coding, in which the researcher identified the core categories or central categories or phenomena of the text data, integrating them to form a theory (cohen et al., 2011; strauss & corbin, 1998). findings and discussions the researcher’s experiences that have been implemented during computer literacy course are narrated below. a. redesigning the content of educational technology the researcher is the lecturer for the computer literacy, computer application and call courses. the first step that researcher took was to redesign the goals of the computer literacy, computer application, and call courses after completing his doctor of education (ed.d) from limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 281 paci model materials through blended learning methods flinders university in 2015. learning from his dissertation with the title ‘experiences of indonesian pre-service english as foreign language teachers in implementing technology in teaching practicum: an investigation through the tpack framework (limbong, 2015) revealed that the participants expected some changes or improvement from their training courses at university in order to better prepare them to integrate technology into english as foreign language teaching. the changes are, for example, modifying the computer courses content, modeling the integration computer courses into efl teaching, selecting competent lecturers to teach computer courses and integrating and modeling tpack framework in english department (limbong, 2015). hence, the researcher aimed to fill the gaps from his findings in order to overcome the issues faced by the pre-service efl teachers and also to prepare pre-service efl teachers ready for being 21st century teachers through this current study. some books and journals such as morrison and lowther (2010), grabe and grabe (2001), roblyer and doering (2013), newby, stepich, lehman, and russell (2000), smaldino, lowther, and russell (2008) and newby, stepich, lehman, russell, and ottenbreit-leftwich (2011), mayer (2009), alessi and trollip (2001), (koehler and mishra (2006); pamuk (2012), iste (2007) particularly iste nests-t and iste nests-s, were the resources that inspired him in his redesign of the three courses’ goals, to adopt and implement the tpack framework into these three technological courses. the focus outputs of nets-s are creativity and innovation, communication and collaboration, research, and information fluency, critical thinking, problem solving and decision making, digital citizenship and technology operations and concepts (iste, 2007). the details of nets-s are to prepare pre-service efl teachers to demonstrate creative thinking and develop innovative products and use digital media to communicate and work collaboratively and apply digital tools to gather, evaluate and use information with technology. the aim was to prepare the prepare pre-service efl teachers to use critical-thinking skills to plan, manage projects, and solve problems using appropriate digital tools and resources and to demonstrate capability in selecting and using applications effectively and productively (iste, 2007; morrison & lowther, 2010). the expectation was that during their english teacher training program, especially the three technological courses, the preservice efl teachers would be able to learn, see, and implement the model of the tpack framework implementation from the lecturers in the classroom (harris et al., 2009; koehler & mishra, 2005, 2006, 2008; koehler et al., 282 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 2007; mishra et al., 2011; schmidt, thompson, mishra, koehler, & shin, 2009; shulman, 1986, 1987; zhao, tan, & mishra, 2001). the additional goal was that after completing their teacher program, the pre-service efl teachers would be able to interpret the iste national educational technology standards for students (nets-s) and for teachers (nets-t) (iste, 2007) and the tpack framework in their future teaching. preparing the pre-service efl teachers for being 21st century teachers is the core target of the minister of education, as well as the vision of the faculty of teacher training and education which is to educate its professional graduates to implement the tpack framework in their future teaching. hence designing and creating supplemental multimedia technologyintegrated teaching and learning materials using the powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and internet (paci) model are the learning targets of the computer literacy course, as explained below. b. designing and developing supplemental multimedia of paci model for teaching grammar adapting allessi & trollip (2001), model of instruction and mayer (2009), multimedia learning, the researcher created the paci model. it stands for powerpoint (p), audacity (a), camtasia (c) and internet (i). the intersection amongst these four software create four knowledges and skills, namely powerpoint-audacity (pa), audacity-camtasia (ac), and camtasiapowerpoint (cp) for designing and developing the multimedia of the paci model for supplemental technology-integrated materials. as can be seen from the figure below, the internet is the main additional sources for designing and developing the multimedia of paci model, while the context circle is the frame that limits the scope of the multimedia purposes (e.g. the scope of lessons, the students’ level and varieties of lessons). figure 2 the model of powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and internet (paci) model limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 283 paci model materials through blended learning methods 1. powerpoint powerpoint (p) is software that is embedded with microsoft office and was introduced many years ago. it provides a user-friendly interface that lets users create colorful and informative displays in any subject area. it covers backgrounds, animations, sounds, and functions that can be formatted to create a limitless variety of slides for presentation and to set to automatically show according to a present schedule. it can also be hyperlinked to other technology sources (morrison & lowther, 2010). in short, with powerpoint we may input the materials you are going to present, create slides, decorate the powerpoint, add background and gifs, add more objects and pictures, change the font color you want, change the font styles, and put in some effects and transition. to make its features more beneficial for teaching and learning, the researcher combines it with other software, as mentioned previously. figure 3 the power point interface 2. audacity 284 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 audacity (a) is free and open source software for recording sound that runs on windows, mac, and linux and can be downloaded from http://www.audacityteam.org. audacity can be used for recording any sound of our choice, whether it is voice, music, audio playing on the computer, and so on. specifically, audacity is a simple software for editing sounds, for instance cutting, copying, pasting and deleting part(s) of the recording, inserting silences, pauses or music, splitting recordings into separate tracks, mixing tracks, raising or lowering the volume, speeding the recording up or down, and even improving the audio quality by removing constant background noise (martínez, 2010). figure 4 the audacity interface 3. camtasia camtasia (c) is not free software. it is available at http://techsmith.com for about $s99. according to silva (2012) camtasia is a screen-capture software that directly records all movement and activities on screen that we are working on such as typing in word-processing application, surfing the internet, using photo editing or web design software and interacting with social networks or online activities. figure 5 camtasia interface http://techsmith.com/ limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 285 paci model materials through blended learning methods 4. internet internet (i) is the a network consisting of cables and radio signals used to connect millions of computers to other computers to form the internet that can be used to exchange massive database of information (morrison & lowther, 2010). the intersection among powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and internet (paci) model there are four knowledge and skills are arising from the intersection between powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and the internet. the figure below is the intersections between p,a,c,i that the researcher named the paci model. 1. powerpoint and audacity the first knowledge and skill is the intersection between powerpoint and audacity (pa). any instrumental music or sounds as back sound that have been downloaded from the internet can be added into powerpoint slides. however, it is better to add these instrument music or sounds into audacity because the editing features are better done with this software. audacity is used for recording sound, voice or the other audio, or compounding two sounds or voices, depending on the text in the presentation. the other benefit of audacity is its capability to decrease noises during the recording phase. we can delete these noises wherever the location. with audacity, we can decrease or increase the volume of the instrument, sound or recorded narration. also, it can be used to speed up or to slow down the instrument or narration depending on the text or explanation on the powerpoint slides. 286 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 2. audacity and camtasia the second knowledge and skills are the intersection between audacity and camtasia (ac). it is used for transferring the voice or narration or music from the audacity into camtasia. since the function of camtasia is to produce things becomes a video, so it will be better if the video has been integrated or mixed with sounds, narration or any kinds sound related to our lessons which can be imported and edited by using audacity. while the internet benefit on this stage is a media to look for some free instrument to enrich the sound of the objects or for instrument only. 3. camtasia and powerpoint the third knowledge and skills are the intersection between powerpoint and camtasia when the whole completed powerpoint slides are transferred directly to camtasia to be made into movie file. it is strongly suggested to ensure that all animation on powerpoint slides are designed correctly because if there are any mistakes on the slides, it will need time to edit these mistakes. the connection between these two applications is to make a presentation more alive by producing it as a video. 4. powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and internet (paci) model the last knowledge and skills are of these four knowledges and skills of powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and internet (paci) model. these four knowledge and skills cannot be separately. the content or lessons that are designed, selected, and created by using each of these software are combined to produce a video multimedia for teaching specific lessons and in this research is grammar lesson. in this research, the specific lesson was grammar. in short the paci model covers several applications that have been described. the purposes of paci model are to make supplemental multimedia of the paci model of technology-integrated materials to make the presentation more attractive and efficient by producing it as a video with varieties of texts, colors, sounds, instrument, animation, graphics and so on. the users, particularly educators and learners may create their own multimedia by using the paci model to help them to understand the specific lessons better. to produce the first and second projects in the computer literacy topic, the researcher and pre-service efl teachers drew on the model of instructional design by allessi & trollip (2001), and mayer (2009). the first phase of their design are similar in planning which comprises defining limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 287 paci model materials through blended learning methods the scope, identifying the learner characteristics, establishing the constraints, producing a planning document, and determining and collecting resources. second phase is the design which comprises developing initial content ideas, conducting task and concept analysis, doing a preliminary program description, and creating flowcharts and storyboards. the last phase is development which comprises preparing the text, creating the graphics, producing audio, producing animation and video, assembling the pieces, preparing support materials, doing an alpha test, making revisions, and finally doing a beta test. to understand how to operate the paci model in terms of technical skill, the 14 weeks with 90 minutes face to face time with the help of facebook colose-group discussion were integrated during the computer literacy course. the details of this course’s contents and activities are described on appendix 1. implementing blended learning in the classroom of computer literacy course the process of teaching and learning during computer literacy was the main data for this research. the learning target or goals of this course is to enable pre-service efl teachers to design and create their own presentation during their program as well as to make multimedia to support their future teaching, (english-department-study-program, 2009). blended learning or mixed or combined learning was the approach that the researcher applied by combining technology with traditional face to face instruction in a teacher-directed environment without internet or e-learning components (allen & seamn, 2007; hilliard, 2015; picciano, 2007; shea, 2007). bl is technology facilitated learning that retains a strong and deliberate role for the teacher in the learning process (oliver, 2005). simply, bl courses combine the delivery of “traditional face-to-face class activities” (picciano, 2007, p. 9) with “computer-mediated” (graham, 2006, p. 5) and online instruction (hilliard, 2015; picciano, 2007). a. experiences in implementing face to face method in the computer literacy course during the face to face process, some technical issues arose because of insufficient hardware facilities such as the low processor and memory of the 288 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 computers and low bandwidth available in the campus area. for example, due to insufficient internet bandwidth in the computer laboratory, not all laptops could access the facebook closed-group discussion to open the links provided (limbong, 2015). in addition, not all computers were installed with camtasia software, hence all pre-service efl teachers had to bring their own laptops (sweeney & drummond, 2013). although all pre-service efl teachers brought their own laptops, the rendering process (preparing the paci model) for making a video of the multimedia often failed. the main reason was that the laptops were not faster enough to render the multi-tasking of the multimedia. the camtasia software is not free and not all pre-service efl teachers were able to buy the software. as a result, not all of them were able to finish the draft of the project in time. they often borrowed other pre-service efl teachers’ laptops that had the software. as a result, not all groups were ready to present their projects. furthermore, not all pre-service efl teachers lent their laptop as they were still busy with their own projects. although the camtasia software was installed in the computer laboratory, it could not be used every time as it was used by other lecturers. b. experiences in implementing facebook closed-group discussion in the classroom on computer literacy course a facebook closed-group discussion was created by the chairman of each class and all pre-service efl teachers were actively engaged in sharing the links as external resources of information. the researcher also often shared the links related to the specific information in the facebook closed-group discussion. the researcher found that not all pre-service efl teachers engaged in discussing problems encountered during the computer literacy course. the main factors inhibiting pre-service efl teachers from engaging in the facebook closed-group discussion were lack of personal internet data to access facebook on their mobile phone and no internet access at home. also, not all pre-service efl teachers had advanced mobile phoned to access facebook. the majority of pre-service efl teachers asked other pre-service efl teachers who had the facebook information to provide it via short message text (sms). one of the most serious impacts was that not all pre-service efl teachers were able to open the links on their mobile phone at home. they usually opened facebook at campus the slow internet connection was another issue that inhibit them from opening and watching the links of facebook closed-group discussion. the lecturer faced these issues by providing a lot time to recheck the facebook closed-group discussion and answering questions from all members limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 289 paci model materials through blended learning methods of the four classes. it was not an easy job to handle these questions one by one. also, he often ran out of the battery on mobile phone that always connected with the facebook. the special purpose of the lecturer in designing and developing the paci model during the computer literacy course was to implement technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge especially content knowledge, technological knowledge and technological, content knowledge in a real context. this meant that the pre-service efl teachers would become familiar with tpack framework and could learn the technology and use it to support teaching and learning of specific grammar lessons. c. experiences in implementing project-based learning in the computer literacy course pbl was the approach the lecturer employed during the teaching and learning process. the main reason for adopting this approach was to make the pre-service efl teachers engage in working together by using research based-learning or experiential learning. by implementing project-based learning, the expectation was that the pre-service efl teachers would experience interesting and meaningful learning and would be enriched with the knowledge they found by themselves (sumarni, 2013). however, the majority of pre-service efl teachers were not familiar with this approach. they lacked experience in being involved in the learning process through research assignments, authentic questions, and well-designed products. they were still incapable of autonomous work together over a particular period (sumarni, 2013). the pre-service efl teachers preferred to adopt the traditional curricula in which they wanted to be passive learners. they still expected to be taught one by one as if high school students. as suggested by sumarni (2013) these pre-service efl teachers‘ should be accustomed to follow the learning at campus with the learning approach that can internalize the values and spirit of the scientific method’ (p. 479). findings and discussions the findings of this study summarized into several themes in regard to preservice efl teachers’ experiences with project based-learning through blended learning between traditional face to face and facebook closed-group discussion 290 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 methods during the computer literacy course, as described and discussed below. a. the experiences of pre-service efl teachers toward project-based learning in computer literacy the interview data showed that some pre-service efl teachers were not familiar with pbl approach, although the majority were happy with this approach because it allowed them to become active learners, with central roles in designing, planning and implementing by working together with other members when they did were working on their own projects. they agreed with wati’s expressions as stated below: i seldom practice the project-based learning, but i like it as it is a good approach for learning something from others when we worked together. i myself do not know much about these software, but i always ask another student to directly teach me to do this project. but, he was always busy with his own assignments, so that i afraid to take his time. the four groups of pre-service efl teachers also wanted to learn the technical skills, not only from the internet and other pre-service efl teachers but also directly from the lecturer who showed, demonstrated and guided them to overcome the issues working on the project. for example, efflin from group b expressed his opinion: i hope that the lecturer not only gives the links and short explanation to learn the software, but he should guide us to do the project in the classroom. we still need a lot of exercises so that we may directly experience learning about the software in detail. the data showed that majority of pre-service efl teachers had seldom experienced project-based learning, not only when they were in the high school, but also during their teacher training program. as a result, their experiences of solving the problems were scarce. although they were familiar with this approach, by giving them the wide chance to gain experience and understanding of the problems by searching, discussing and finding the solutions with their own learning style they were able to improve their academic achievement, motivation and creativity in the real context. this finding is similar to the findings of with previous study that limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 291 paci model materials through blended learning methods underlined that through project-based learning, students are given a huge potential to experiment with interesting and meaningful learning experiences (sumarni, 2013). this finding suggested that all lecturers should provide pre-service efl teachers with project-based learning so that they can experience finding the solution to their problems during the teaching and learning processes. the expectation of adopting project-based learning approach is for the pre-service efl teachers to become constructivist learners in cooperating with each other in finding and building their own knowledge by experiencing learning by doing and learning from mistakes or trial and errors activities through active learning (yusofa et al., 2012). the experiences of pre-service efl teachers toward facebook closed-group discussion method in the cl course all pre-service efl teachers agreed that through facebook closed-group discussion they would be able to obtain any information, not only about the content of cl, links, webs, and other information for knowing the technical skills about paci model, but also directly to find all the information regarding the comments, feedback and suggestions from lecturer and other pre-service efl teachers that are usually uploaded on the facebook closedgroup discussion. below is ita’s opinion: any comments and feedback from the previous presenters and lecturer were directly seen by all of us, and we could directly apply it to our own projects, so as not to make the same mistakes again when we had our turn to present the project in the next meeting. all pre-service efl teachers expected to have access to the internet so that they could directly see and explore the links that were uploaded into facebook closed-group discussion. they expressed their disappointed about low internet access, not only in computer and language laboratories, but also around the campus area. as expressed by joni and agreed by all preservice efl teachers, i realized that the facebook closed-group discussion was very important for accessing any links, information, feedback and comments to improve our knowledge and skills. however, we experienced that the internet 292 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 connection was not enough to download that information. my own internet data that connected to my mobile phone was not able to download the video or youtube link. i did not even have internet access at home; hence i often spent my own money to buy the internet data. from these interview data, it can be concluded that integrating facebook closed-group discussion was important to support pre-service efl teachers’ understanding about the paci model. however, their progress was slow due to the unavailability of internet access in the campus area. the pre-service efl teachers had to provide funds to access the facebook closed-group discussion. from this finding, the lecturer and all pre-service efl teachers expected the faculty to provide high internet access that could help them to increase their knowledge and skills. my previous study (limbong, 2015) suggested that the role of faculty was crucial in increasing the quality of lecturers and pre-service efl teachers by providing advanced hardware, software and internet access. the experiences of pre-service efl teachers toward face to face method in the computer literacy course all pre-service efl teachers still preferred to have f2f method in the cl course. they agreed that facebook closed-group discussion was important, but some technical issues such as trouble-shooting, slow laptops to render the video, and crashes in software processing were the critical problems that need to be solved immediately. all the groups expressed similar expectations, as robiah expressed below: observing, doing, and guiding directly from lecturer, must be very helpful for us and the shortcut to do the paci model were my expectation. although, we still may learn those strategies from the internet, the lecturer must have simple and easy strategies. therefore, i still preferred to have f2f in addition to learn from facebook closed-group discussion. the above quotation showed that all pre-service efl teachers expected to have guidance, not only to improve their knowledge about the technical skills but also to acquire strategies to overcome the technical issues. most of limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 293 paci model materials through blended learning methods them were capable of mastering the technical skills, but were still unable to deal with the technical issues. therefore, besides the guidance from the lecturer, hands-on instructions by technicians were needed as well. in the real context during designing, planning and implementing the paci model, only few preservice efl teachers knew how to record their voice by using an external device such as a mobile phone and external microphone. most pre-service efl teachers directly recorded sound or voice using their laptop speaker which produced bad record quality of recorded voice. the lecturer uploaded strategies into facebook closed-group discussion for the benefit of other members. conclusion the results suggested that blended learning is effective and efficient for designing and developing supplemental technology-integrated materials of the paci model and supports pre-service efl teachers and researcher teaching competencies. although not all pre-service efl teachers were familiar with the project-based learning approach, at the end of this course, they were being familiar on it and were able to produce multimedia of paci model. most importantly both the pre-service efl teachers and the researcher experienced the integration of tpack during computer literacy course. the researcher and pre-service efl teachers realized that the content of computer literacy course may be shaped by the application of technology; teaching as well as learning was changed by the use of technology of facebook closed-group discussion and the way researcher represented and communicated the content of computer literacy course to pre-service efl teachers. it was also revealed the role of the researcher change from being the primary source of information to being a support, collaborator, and coach, while pre-service efl teachers changed from passive to active designers and users of pedagogical technology. the small number of participants to be interviewed and documents of facebook group closed-discussion links were the limitation 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(1986). those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. educational research, 15 (2), 4-14. shulman, l. s. (1987). knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform. harvard educational review, 57 (1), 1-21. silva, m. l. (2012). camtasia in the classroom: student attitudes and preferences for video commentary of mircrosoft word comments during the revision process. computers and composition (29), 1-22. doi: 10.1016/j.compcom.2011.12.001 smaldino, s. e., lowther, d. l., & russell, j. d. (2008). instructional technology and media for learning, vol. 9. new jersey: pearson. 300 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 stephenson, j. (2001). teaching & learning online: pedagogies for new technologies. london: biddles ltd. strauss, a., & corbin, j. m. (1998). basics of qualitative research : techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory, vol. 2. london: sage publications, inc. sumarni, w. (2013). the strengths and weaknesses of the implementation of project based learning: a review. international journal of science and research (ijsr), 6 (14), 478-484. sweeney, t., & drummond, a. (2013). how prepared are our pre-service teachers to integrate technology? a pilot study. australian educational computing, 27 (3), 117-123. yusofa, k. m., hassan, s. a. h. s., jamaludin, m. z., & harun, n. f. (2012). cooperative problem-based learning (cpbl): framework for integrating cooperative learning and problem-based learning. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 56, 223 – 232. zhao, y., tan, s. h., & mishra, p. (2001). teaching and learning: whose computer is it? journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 44 (4), 348-354. appendix 1: the computer literacy content and activities table 1 the computer literacy content and activities week medium activities 1st face to face welcoming pre-service efl teachers, discussing learning contract, introducing the pbl approach, creating facebook closed-group discussion, introducing the computer literacyy topic goals and its projects, assigning the pre-service efl teachers to learn the pp-audacity-camtasia-internet. asking pre-service efl teachers to make their own group follow up the face to face first week class, lecturer started to upload and share some links (web, youtube, and other engine searches) to support students limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 301 paci model materials through blended learning methods understanding about the paci software. lecturer also asked the pre-service efl teachers to share the links that they have already known for supporting their understanding the technical skills about the paci model. in short, they must understand how to operate the paci model (technical skills). 2nd face to face showing the previous paci model (lecturer’s and pre-service efl teachers’ project) discussing the specific software were used to create the previous projects asking and answering sessions about the lecturer’s expectation for creating the paci model installing the software needed. every comments and feedback from pre-service efl teachers and lecturer were uploaded to facebook closed-group discussion for reminder to all members by the chairman of the class. 3nd facebook & face to face pre-service efl teachers share the link for helping them to understand the paci model all pre-service efl teachers may comments about the link or offer another links that they think easier to follow and understand. during ftf session, the lecturer asked the pre-service efl teachers’ progress about paci lecturer asked for other pre-service efl teachers’ help if other have difficulty in understanding paci model lecturer gave some solutions and clarification about paci model assigning the pre-service efl teachers to choose their specific grammar to be presented for the next meeting in group (project group presentation) 4rd facebook & face to face three of groups were started to design and plan their paci model the draft of the project were freely uploaded to facebook closed-group discussion for getting comments from others and lecturer before the presentation day presenting draft multimedia from three or four groups. comments and feedback from lecturer and also from pre-service efl teachers were demonstrated particularly by lecturer in the three first group presentations, many comments and feedback were given by lecturer for making multimedia with the paci model. those comments and 302 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 feedback were upload on facebook closed-group discussion for reminding other pre-service efl teachers to follow and avoid in the next group presentations. 5th facebook & face to face presenting the draft project multimedia of paci model by other groups comments and feedback from lecturer and also from pre-service efl teachers were demonstrated particularly by lecturer some technical issues were arose and solutions were demonstrated by the lecturer and also from other pre-service efl teachers every comments and feedback from pre-service efl teachers and lecturer were uploaded to facebook closed-group discussion for reminder to all members by the chairman of the class. 6th facebook & face to face presenting the draft project multimedia of paci model by other groups demonstrating the comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. some technical issues were arose and solutions were demonstrated by the lecturer and also from other preservice efl teachers 7th facebook & face to face presenting the draft project multimedia of paci model by other groups demonstrating the comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. some technical issues were arose and solutions were demonstrated by the lecturer and also from other preservice efl teachers 8th facebook & face to face submitting the group project multimedia (first project) preparing the second project (second project); individual project: the ten of grammar test and explanation. lecturer uploaded some links how to make animated test and asked pre-service efl teachers to search and upload the links for helping all members to understand in making animated test. 9th facebook & face to presenting the first draft of individual project (three or four pre-service efl teachers) demonstrating the comments and feedback from limbong, e., designing and developing supplemental technology of 303 paci model materials through blended learning methods face lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. demonstrating and answering the pre-service efl teachers’ questions and give some comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. 10th facebook & face to face presenting the first draft of individual project (three or four pre-service efl teachers) demonstrating the comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. demonstrating and answering the pre-service efl teachers’ questions and give some comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. 11st facebook & face to face presenting the first draft of individual project (three or four pre-service efl teachers) demonstrating the comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. demonstrating and answering the pre-service efl teachers’ questions and give some comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. 12nd facebook & face to face presenting the first draft of individual project (three or four pre-service efl teachers) demonstrating the comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. demonstrating and answering the pre-service efl teachers’ questions and give some comments and feedback from lecturer and also other pre-service efl teachers to address some issues in terms of text, animation, sound and so on. 13rd facebook & face to submitting the individual project 304 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 271-304 face 14th face to face assessing the pre-service efl teachers together asking for comments and feedback to evaluate the overall computer literacy topic appendix 2: protocol of interviews (a) do you like the blended learning approach during the computer literacy (cl) course? why? (b) do you often get involved on facebook closed-group discussion (facebook closed-group discussion)? why? (c) which one do you prefer between traditional face to face or facebook closed-group discussion to understand the cl course? (d) do you like the project based-learning (pbl)? why? (e) have you practiced this approach before? when (f) what did you experience with the pbl approach at the first time? (g) have you familiarity with powerpoint, audacity, camtasia and internet software? (h) when did you learn the paci knowledge? where? (i) did you learn to improve the paci software from the internet or friends? (j) did your members group help you when you did the paci project? why? (k) do you think that paci model is important in your future teaching? appendix 3: the facebook group-closed discussion links https://www.facebook.com/groups/889225051176685/ the link for a class https://www.facebook.com/groups/1806315436250233/ the link for b class https://www.facebook.com/groups/940463489378681/ the link for c class https://www.facebook.com/groups/305671023128340/ the link for d class 19m century women and homosexuality: the case of virginia woolf's mrs. dalwway angelika riyandaril abstract: woolfs mrs dalloway po,.tray.f tile experience of a /9'" century woman ill dealil/g with hoil/i1.{('.mality. the incapability to sllow affection to the same sex, the t/('"ial of the feeling and the struggle to keep the love leads the woii/tlll to an emotional suicide. the woman s choice to nulrr)' a mall, iui\'{' a child, and play her role as a sophisticated housewife are tilt' "'tl.\'s to compro{llise with the norms and collventions of that age where home was the centre of woman slife. key words: /9 '1• cellluf)' omall. hoillil.{('xllality. housewife introduction the fact that legally women were not considered able to clarissa dalloway's first encounter with women's love started from the arrival of sally seton in bourton. that arrival changed her life totally. sally's role in eighteen-year-old clarissa was very crucial in leading clarissa to her present life. sally seton for young clarissa was the representation of a woman she was not: it was an extraordinary beauty of the kintl she most admired, dark, largeeyed, with that quality which, since she hadn't got it herself, she always envied a sort of abandonment. as if she could say anything, do anything; a quality much commoner in foreigners than in englishwomen. (mrs, dalloway, 37) \, angelika riyandari, s.s., m.a, is a lecturer of the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, semar:mg 20 celt, volume i, number i, december 200 i : 19-25 sally broke the rules and nonns of those days; she smoked cigarette, run from the bathroom naked, cut flowers in unordinary way, and even stole the chicken. sally brought female vitality had not known by clarissa before: 'sally's power was amazing, her gift, her personality' (mrs. dalloway, 38). the climax of her memory of sally was when sally kissed her, at that moment clarissa found the truth about herself and her feeling to sally: then came the most exquisite moment ifher whole life passing a stone urn with nowers in it. sally stopped; picked a nower; kissed her on the lips. the world might have tum upside down! the others disappeared; there she was alone with sally. (mrs. dalloway. 40) clarissa felt the love she never experienced, the first female-bond she knew: it was not like one's feeling for a man. it was completely disinterested. and besides. it had a quality which could only exist between women, between women just grown up. it was protective, on her side; sprang from a sense of being in league together. a presentiment of something that was bound to part them (they spoke of marria~e as a catastrophe), which led to this chivalry, this protective feeling which was much more on her side than sally. (mrs. dalloway. p. 39) clarissa's feeling for sally rose an awareness of her love to sally. moreover, clarissa's love for sally was more than physical love. it was likely that sally could fulfil her need for mother's figure. according to abel (1992), clarissa's childhood was a tableau offemale loss: a dead mother, a dead sister, a distant father, and a stem maiden aunt, therefore sally's ability to nurture clarissa's hean took over the role of mother for clarissa: sally it was who made her feel, for the first time, how sheltered the life at dourton was. she knew nothing about sexnothing about social problems . ... there they sat, hour after hour, talking in her bedroom at the top of the house, talking about life, how they were to reform the world. (mrs. dalloway. 38) clarissa's feeling for sally was very precious for her, but she knew that.as a respectable woman, she should not love sally: • and she felt that she had been given a present, wrapped up, and told just to keep it, not to look at it a diamond, something infinitely precious, wrapped up •.... (mrs. a. riyandari, 19 th century women and homosexuality 21 dalloway, p.40).' it was a secret between sally and herself. that feeling should be hidden because women of 191h century were supposed to impart high moral standard of behaviour which definitely excluded homosexuality (lewis, 1984). clarissa's love for sally prevented her for marrying peter, her first love. peter loved clarissa and she loved him, yet she did not want to .marry him because she felt that she would be bound to him, incapable to be herself: • ... with peter everything had to be shared; everything gone into (mrs. dalloway, 10)'. if she married peter, the passion and freedom she had in her relationship with sally would disappear: 'why always take. never give? (mrs. dalloway, 184)'. sally's love was different. she filled what clarissa lacked of, sally did not take but she gave: 'sally it was who made her feel, for the first time, how sheltered the life at bourton was (mrs. dalloway, 38).' yet, although clarissa chose not to marry peter, she arried richard. the reason was likely that as a 19111 century woman she was framed to be a respectable woman thus followed her instinct to love sally was impossible. she was married because she t:ared about her safety and appearance (marcus, 1983). peter described clarissa 'so choice by saying: 'the obvious thing to say of her was that she was worldly; cared too much for rank and society and getting on in the world .... ' (mrs. dalloway, 85). clarissa's husband, richard, served his role well, he gave her a respectable life as a wife of a mp (member of parliament). clarissa also chose richard because at least he did not dominate her: 'for in marriage a little licence, a little independence there must be between people living together day in day out in the same house; which richard gave her, and she him'(mrs. dalloway, p. 10). clarissa felt that richard gives her room both physically and mentally to be herself. clarissa's choice to get married made her take the consequence as well. by marrying to richard, she denied her feeling to sally. clarissa was unable to fulfil her sexual role as richard's wife. in her marriage, clarrisa put companionate love over romantic love. clarrisa failed richard in their sexual relationship for her longing for a woman's charm: . .. yet she could not resist sometimes yielding to the chann of a woman, not a girl, of a woman confessing, as to her they often did, some scrape, some folly. and whether it was pity. or their beauty, or that she was older, or some 12 celt, volume i, number 1. december 2001 : 19·25 accident· like a faint scent, or a violin next door (so strange is the power of sounds at certain moments). she did undoubtedly feel what men felt. (mrs. dalloway. 36) yet, when she occupied herself with a woman's and wife's role, the denial of her love to sally made her feel that she began to lose her identity. she felt that she was not the same clarissa anymore, she did not even recognise herself: she had the oddest sense of being herself invisible; unseen; unknown; there being no more marrying. no more having children now. but only this astonishing and rather solemn progress with the rest of them. up bond street; this is being mrs dalloway; not even clarissa any more; this is being mrs. richard dalloway. (mrs. dalloway, 13) by choosing to marry richard and playing the role of a wife and mother clarissa began to feel that she sacrificed her own identity. she commited an emotional suicide by being someone else, someone respectable and secure. however, clarissa's choices can be understood because as a middle class women in 19'h century, it was very difficult to view a woman as having a separate identity from the centre of her world, her home (lewis, 1984). clarissa's inability to serve the role of a real wife made her chose to live like a nun. her withdrawal from wife and husband relationship was in a way described her spiritual preservation. she preserved her love to sally by killing her physical needs and turning to a spiritual life. clarissa's choice to live like a nun was not something uncommon. in the early 1920's, most women were not familiar with the idea of sexual pleasure, many women were brought up thinking that sexual passion is both sinful and having something to do with the animal kingdom than with human society, they were the moral preserver of the society and they were expected to be pure and p~sionless (lewis, 1984). the expectation over purity and responsibility for the family often caused women to choose living in celibacy because this choice gives some women the status of freedom from the family bond (marcus, 1983). for clarissa, living as a nun set her free from her duty as a wife)nd a way to keep her love for sally. lewis (j 984) describes the issue of women's desire for other women by saying that at in the late nineteenth a. riyandari, 19 th century women an.d homosexuality 23 and early twentieth century the passionate and disturbing love from one woman to the other was transformed to the spiritual searching. thus "make duty and need could not be separated. the attic room where clarissa slept can be seen as the symbol of her withdrawal but she also felt: 'there was an emptiness about the heart of life.' (mrs. dalloway, 35). the lost of enjoyment in her present life is described as well by the description of her bed. ' narrower and narrower would her bed be.' (mrs. dalloway, p. 35). abel (1992) associates clarissa's bed as a grave which relates to the death of clarissa's adult sexuality. moreover, clarissa's relationship with miss kilman, her daughter's tutor is even more very complicated. it was a love·hate relationship: for it was not her one hated but the idea of her. which undoubtedly had gathered in to itself a great deal that was not miss kilman; had become one of those spectres with which one battles in the night; one of those spectres who stand astride us and suck up half our life·blood. dominators and tyrants; for no doubt with another throw of the dice. had the black been uppermost and not the white. she would have loved miss kilman! but not in this world. no. (mrs. dalloway. 15) clarissa did not hate miss kilman personally but the idea of who she was. it was likely that clarissa hated miss kilman because the tutor reminded her of herself. miss kilman loved clarissa's daughter, elisabeth. the way clarissa loved sally. as a woman. miss kilman reminds her of the desire to love another woman. her hatred towards miss kilman was the reflection of her hatred towards her fate. it was like looking at herself in the mirror. clarissa and miss kilman felt something that was not supposed to be felt according to the society. clarissa hated miss kilman because she reminded clarissa of her denial in her life. yet. clarissa could not totally hate miss kilman because if she hated miss kilman it means that she hated herself as well. jensen (1983) sees clarissa's love·hate feeling toward miss kilman as a reflection of her feeling guilty. while both of them find their love in women, they are happened to be in different social class. clarissa, as a middleclass woman, focused her life in a more selfish life of social vanity while as a lower.class woman, miss kilman's life was more toward productive social life. miss kilman's poverty and her way of life always reminded clarissa of how meaningless and artificial her life was. 24 celt, volume i. number i. december 200 i ; 19-25 furthermore, the hate felt by clarissa might be also caused by her protectiveness toward elizabeth. clarissa knew that her daughter was very fond of miss kilman therefore she was afraid that elizabeth would fall in love with miss kilman the way clarissa loved sally. she did not want elizabeth to face the problem she had and had to choose the path she chose for she knew how painful it was. the party in the end of the novel is the climax of clarissa's choice. her fight to deny her desire for woman led her toward desperation. clarissa felt that she no longer existed. even her party, her place to find a refuge failed her: 'every time she gave a party she had this feeling of being something not herself, .. .' (mrs. dalloway, 187). her desperation was emphasised by her meeting with sally who was then a mother of five boys. the meeting showed her how different their jives at that time, although she still loved sally but it was not the same anymore. both of them were not free, they had to obey their society's norms and conventions to be wives and mothers. the moment when sally met clarissa gave her insight that they had belonged to different worlds: they kissed each other. tirst this cheek. then that. by the drawing-room door. and clarissa turned. with sally's hand in hers. and saw her rooms full. heard the roar of oices. saw the candlesticks. the blowing cunains. and the roses which richard had given her. (mrs. dalloway .188) clarissa's holding sally's hands symbolises her past but her looking at the party symbolises her present. conclusion clarissa's denial of herlove for sally represents 19111 century women's attitude toward homosexuality which was considered as unusual. however. her decision to marry richard represents her consciousness of the social conventions and norms practised in her time where home was the centre of women's world. clarissa's struggle to make and keep her choices is women's struggle to make and keep their choices. it is also the reflection of women's desire to be themselves. finally, clarissa's decision to keep on alive can be seen as women's determination to fight for their rights. a. riyandari, 19 th century women and homosexuality 25 bibliography abel, e., 1992. narrative structure(s) and female development: the case of mrs dalloway. in: bowlby, r. (ed.). virginia woolf. london: longman, 1992, pp. 77· 101 bowlby, r .• 1988. virginia woolf: feminist destinations. oxford: basil blackwell ltd caine, b., 1997. english feminism 1780 ·1980. oxford: oxford university press henke. s.a .• 1981. mrs. dalloway: the communion of saints. in : marcus, j.(ed.). new feminist essays on virginia woolf. lincoln: university of nebraska press. 1981, pp 125 . 147 hawkes. e .• 1981. woolf's 'magical garden on women'. in: marcus, j(ed.). new fem inist essays on virginia woolf. lincoln: university of nebraska press. 1981. pp 31 . 60 jensen. e.. 1983. clarissa dalloway's respectable suicide. in: marcus. j. (ed.) . virginia woolf.' a feminist slant. lincoln: university of nebraska press. 1983. pp. 162 ·179 lee. h .• 1977. the novels of virginia woolf. london: methuen & co ltd lewis. j., 1984. womell in england 1870 • 1950: sexual divisions a"d social challge. sussex: wheatsheaf books ltd marcus. j., 1983. the niece of a nun: virginia woolf. caroline stephen. and the cloistered imagination. in: marcus. j. (ed.) virginia woolf: a feminist slant. lincoln: university of nebraska press, 1983. pp. 7· 12 smith. h.l., 1990. british feminism in the twentieth century. hants: edward elgar publishing limited woolf, v .• 1925. mrs. dalloway. london: the penguin book 19th century women.pdf logo: guide for contributors a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 learners' language challenges in writing english barli bram ....................................................................................................... 1 autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. ............................................................................................ 16 scrooge's character development in charles dickens' a christmas carol theresia erwindriani .................................................................................... 28 teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono ....................................................................................... 45 “america, you know what i'm talkin' about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson ............................................................................................... 60 a love for indonesia: the youth's effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism shierly june and ekawati marhaenny dukut ................................................. 72 a book review: discourse analysis antonius suratno ........................................................................................... 88 celt, vol.12, no.1, pp. 1-100, semarang, juli 2012 (index) “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson 1 abstract: this paper compares and contrasts the beulah show (abc, 1950-1953) and the bernie mac show (fox, 2001-2006) in order to trace the differences and similarities between the racialized, gendered, and classed representations of blacks in american television situation comedy genre over a fifty-year period. the paper critically examines and interprets the image constructions of each series‟ central character, beulah brown and bernie mac, within the contexts of race, gender, and class, specifically utilizing herman gray‟s theory of the discursive practices of segregationism, pluralism, and multiculturalism. the paper demonstrates that these image constructions are representative of race and black (objectivity and) subjectivity in u.s. society. the analysis of beulah brown is based on screenings of the episode “donnie‟s dance date” which featured hattie mcdaniel, ruby dandridge, ernest whitman, david bruce, jane frazee, and stuffy singer in 1951 and the analysis of bernie mac is based on screenings 1 angela m. nelson, ph.d. <anelson@bgsu.edu> +14193720284 is an associate professor, at the department of popular culture, bowling green state university, ohio, usa. she is currently president of the midwest popular culture association/aca, and is co-chair of the black music culture area, 2012 pca/aca. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 61-72 62 of “bernie mac, ladies man,” the fourth episode of the series in 2001. key words: black sitcom; the bernie mac show; the beulah show. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac historically, black situation comedy, or black sitcoms, has demonstrated how interactions of race, gender, and class are constructed and narrated in relation to african americans on television because black gendered and classed representations appear frequently in the situation comedy genre (macdonald 1992:181, gray 1995:74). in this paper, i will compare and contrast the beulah show (abc, 1950-1953) and the bernie mac show (fox, 2001-2006) in order to trace the differences and similarities of racialized, gendered, and classed representations of blacks in american television situation comedy genre over a fifty-year period. the beulah show was off the air in 1953 and, fifty years later, bernie mac was one of a handful of black sitcoms that preeminently featured african american male characters in 2003. this paper will critically examine and interpret the image constructions of each series‟ central character, beulah brown and bernie mac, within the contexts of race, gender, and class, specifically utilizing herman gray‟s theory of the discursive practices of segregationism, pluralism, and multiculturalism (gray 1995:84). as will be demonstrated, these image constructions are representative of race and black (objectivity and) subjectivity in u.s. society (gray 1995:75-76). my analysis of beulah brown was based on screenings of the episode “donnie‟s dance date” which featured hattie mcdaniel, ruby dandridge, ernest whitman, a.nelson, “america,you know what i‟m talkng about!” 63 david bruce, jane frazee, and stuffy singer in 1951 2 . my analysis of bernie mac was based on screenings of “bernie mac, ladies man,” the fourth episode of the series in 2001. image constructions of “beulah” in the beulah show in the beulah show, beulah brown, a black, live-in maid (played by ethel waters, 1950-51; hattie mcdaniel, 1951-52; and louise beavers, 1952-53), was a pivotal figure in the henderson household, a suburban white middle class family. the henderson family included father and businessman harry (william post, jr., 1950-52; david bruce, 1952-53), mother and homemaker alice (ginger jones, 1950-52; jane frazee, 1952-53), and their 10-year old son donnie (clifford sales, 1950-52; stuffy singer, 1952-53). beulah could manage and solve all of their problems except her own which was convincing her boyfriend and fix-it shop owner bill jackson (percy “bud” harris, 1950-51; arthur “dooley” wilson, 1951-52; ernest whitman, 1952-53) to marry her. bill along with beulah‟s girlfriend oriole winston (thelma “butterfly” mcqueen, 1950-51; ruby dandridge, 1951-53), a fellow maid of the henderson‟s next-door neighbors, was always present to assist beulah in resolving her weekly situations (brooks and marsh 1995:96, terrace 1976:47). in october 1950, the beulah show was the first major american television situation comedy series to star a black 2 according to hattie mcdaniel‟s biographer carlton jackson, mcdaniel filmed six episodes of the tv beulah in the summer of 1951 before becoming very ill in august (140). jackson also notes that mcdaniel‟s episodes were not aired at that time. even so, “donnie‟s dance date” was chosen for analysis because mcdaniel‟s “beulah” was the most perfected, due in part to her playing the radio role for four solid years. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 61-72 64 performer. the beulah show, and two other series the laytons (dumont 1948) 3 and the amos „n‟ andy show (cbs, 1951-53) 4 operated within the discursive practice of segregationism (or “separate-but-unequal”). segregationist, or separate-but-unequal, discourses presented blacks in stereotypical and subservient roles thereby making them socially, culturally, and politically “separate and unequal” to whites. black sitcoms appearing on television from 1948 to 1953 illustrated explicit social and cultural rules of race relations between blacks and whites. specifically, black otherness (or black objectivity) was required for white subjectivity; blacks and whites occupied separate and unequal worlds; black labor was always in the service of white domesticity; and black humor was necessary for the amusement of whites (gray 1995:75). historically, beulah‟s role is closely patterned after the mammy, the primary image construction of black females in american popular culture prior to the tv beulah. mammies were faithful, obedient domestics who could also be domineering, strong-willed, and bossy (dates 263). they were a “blend of quick temper, earthy wisdom” (macdonald 1992:341) and typified the “good” black mother figure in white homes (collins 1991:73). beulah is a mammy (bogle 2001:22). she is faithful, obedient, and respectful to the henderson family, and is a “good” black mother figure in the henderson home. for example, at the beginning of the episode, “donnie‟s dance date,” beulah‟s subservient role as a 3 amanda randolph was the first black person to star in a television network sitcom series, the laytons, which aired from august to october in 1948 on the dumont network (1945-55). vera tatum co-starred in the series but little is known about the actress or the series in general (brooks and marsh 585; hill, raglin, and johnson 5). 4 the significance of amos „n‟ andy to the evolution of american situation comedy genre in general and the codification of television representations of blacks in particular are examined at great length in studies by michele hilmes (1997), melvin ely (1991), and arthur wertheim (1979). a.nelson, “america,you know what i‟m talkng about!” 65 domestic is clearly illustrated. she is shown wearing a standard housekeeping uniform serving a cooked breakfast to harry and alice even laying the cloth napkin on harry‟s lap. beulah‟s faithfulness and obedience to the family is demonstrated in her willingness to nurture donnie. at breakfast, alice tells harry that she is concerned about donnie‟s social life because his dance school teacher madame matilda from the “academy” says he is the “clumsiest dancer in the class” and is the “most awkward with the girls.” beulah overhears their conversation and offers to teach reluctant donnie how to dance for the upcoming social event. beulah, with bill‟s assistance, teaches donnie how to “boogiewoogie,” which assures that he will be successful at the dance. overall, beulah is compassionate, competent, content, proud of her work, and devoted to the hendersons (bogle 2001:22). however, in interactions with her own “family” consisting of bill and oriole, beulah can be both bossy and quick-tempered. for example, she berates bill for wanting to eat lunch when the more important duty at the moment was for her to teach donnie how to dance. finally, beulah‟s construction as a mammy is supported by the fact that she is intelligent, conscientious, and full of earthy wisdom. for example, her earthy wisdom is demonstrated by the pithy comment she makes at the opening of the episode: “don‟t let nobody tell you that i‟m in the market for a husband. „course, i would be, but they don‟t sell husbands in a market” (“donnie‟s dance”; watkins 1994:305). even though beulah is on one level a typical black, live-in domestic, her portrayal does not succumb totally to the simplistic functions often ascribed to the mammy stereotype because of the intricacies of character development in tv sitcoms. the central character of any tv show has a large amount of “narrative power” simply because the episodes are written from their point of view, are based on their values, and literally revolve around them. many celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 61-72 66 sitcoms from the 1950s and early 1960s centered on the domestic authority of the white father. however, because beulah is the central character of the series, she is given the same relative amount of narrative power. for example, beulah‟s narrative importance is rendered (1) in the flow and content of familial conversations, (2) in her position at the center of the narrative, and in her (3) visual and aural dominance within the rooms of the house (leibman 1995:118, 129). therefore, beulah is afforded this narrative importance, not because she is black, female, and working class but because she is the star of the show. in conclusion, beulah brown was a victim of the time in which her character appeared on television. even though her race and class indicated on one level that she was separate-and-unequal from the henderson family, on another level, she was constructed simply as another typical sitcom star that enjoyed the same rights and privileges as white fathers in other sitcoms. the beulah show should be remembered as one of the pioneers of the american television situation comedy genre because it helped to shape the sitcom form, it was one of the first tv sitcoms filmed on the west coast (castleman and podrazik 1982:59), and it was the first significant tv sitcom to focus on blacks. unfortunately, however, it also pioneered and televisually began constructing an image of black women that has been very difficult to dismantle. image constructions of “bernie” in the bernie mac show appearing fifty years later, bernard “bernie mac” jeffery mccullough plays a semi-version of himself in the bernie mac show. he is a successful, stand-up comedian married to wanda (kellita smith), a successful corporate executive. bernie and wanda take custody of his drug-addicted sister‟s three children: 13 a.nelson, “america,you know what i‟m talkng about!” 67 year-old vanessa tompkins (camille winbush) who hates just about everything and begrudges her mom‟s absence; middle child jordan tompkins (jeremy suarez), 8, who is a nerdy asthmatic; and 5-year-old bryana tompkins (dee dee davis) who always asks “why?” (speier). to cope with his new family life, bernie is often seen celebrating at times but mostly commiserating with his cardplaying buddies w.b. (reginald ballard), chuy (lombardo boyar), and kelly (michael ralph). the bernie mac show debuted november 14, 2001, on the fox network. it introduced as well as shared several characteristics of fox network comedies malcolm in the middle (2000-2006) and titus (2000-2002). these innovative approaches included no laugh track, slightly offbeat characters (speier), a single high-definition digital camera that follows the characters around, on-screen popup video-style comments, and confessionals to the camera (hochman 2002:16). unlike the beulah show, the bernie mac show operates within the discursive practice of pluralism (or “separate but equal”) and multiculturalism (or “diversity”). the discourse of multiculturalism/diversity “offers a view of what it means to be american from the vantage point of african americans” and many black sitcoms appearing after 1984 are engaged in a “cultural politics of difference within blackness” (gray 1995:90). however, bernie mac participates in the multiculturalist discourse because of its innovative approaches to the television form in general, not particularly for its engagement of difference within televisual blackness (gray 1995:90). bernie mac also operates within the pluralist discourse where blacks and whites are just alike except for minor differences of habit and racial perspective and where blacks in this television world face the same experiences, situations, and conflicts as whites except that they are separate from whites (gray 1995:87). celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 61-72 68 bernie mac is constructed as successful, materialistically affluent, and individualistic like his eighties counterparts benson dubois in benson (abc, 1979-86) and george jefferson in the jeffersons (cbs, 1975-85) and cliff huxtable in the cosby show (nbc, 1984-1992). just as with these earlier characters, themes of success and affluence define bernie‟s representation as a new black male in television (gray 1986:228-30). his living environment and lifestyle explicitly convey upper middle-class status. surpassing george and cliff in material success, bernie lives in a semimansion with wide hallways, spacious rooms, plush furniture, and abundant art objects and plants. furthermore, he drives a luxury suv. bernie is not a white collar professional as george, benson, and cliff; he is nevertheless a successful standup comedian living in los angeles. whereas benson and george were often seen in business suits and cliff in his medical coat and signature designer sweaters, bernie wears loose-fitting silk shirts, wool blend slacks, and jewelry. bernie‟s blackness and maleness is an important facet of the show but it is constructed mimetically. that is, bernie is “one of us,” the viewers of the show: equally intelligent and equally able to control circumstances (chesebro 1987:21). like his 70s and 80s counterparts george, and cliff, bernie does not ignore or disregard african american culture and its sensibilities. for example, when bernie and his friends are deciding who should help vanessa create a costume for a seventies dance, bernie says he should because he was the one who put the “p” in p-funk and he told “earth and wind” to get “fire.” both of these cultural references are to black popular bands of the seventies, parliament and earth, wind & fire. however, his blackness is not the issue. although bernie is a black man, he is also a typical tv character representing certain circumstances and values, norms, and beliefs seen repeatedly in a.nelson, “america,you know what i‟m talkng about!” 69 american dramatic television over the last fifty years (chesebro 1987:29). for all intents and purposes, bernie has successfully assimilated into american society and his experiences are just like anyone else‟s. his maleness and blackness is naturalized to the point of being cast as a normal part of everyday life and therefore, so too are his situations, dilemmas, and experiences. for example, in this episode, “bernie mac, ladies man,” bernie questions his masculinity after spending the afternoon with three female spouses of wanda‟s male co-workers. this is further exaggerated when at the company picnic wanda‟s boss comments on the fact that bernie is a “stay-at-home dad” and minimizes bernie‟s standup comedy career. bernie politely objects to this evaluation of his life but cannot seem to get through to wanda‟s boss and excuses himself to select food from the picnic table. the dilemma is resolved when bernie visits mama kim‟s nail salon. she and papa kim tell him: “you‟re a strong black man bernie mac. just be yourself.” indeed he does. thankfully, bernie mac is not beulah. the representations of blacks in television comedy today have changed significantly for the better. however, bernie mac has contributed to this change by its innovative approaches to the television form and its restyling of the black family. however, the quality and success of bernie mac was in question when fox dismissed the show‟s african-american creator and executive producer larry wilmore during the middle of the 2003 season (rice 2003:14). bernie mac is able to retain its status as an unconventional sitcom even as black sitcoms with prominent african american male characters such as house of payne (tbs, 2006-present), meet the browns (tbs 2009-2011), cleveland show (fox 2009-present), are we there yet? (tbs 2010-present), let‟s stay together (bet 2011-present), reed between the lines (bet 2011-present), and for better or worse celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 61-72 70 (tbs 2011-present) entered the primetime tv lineup in 2006 and after, when bernie mac was cancelled and ended its first-run episodes. bernie mac is a member of the 21 st century generation of new black male images in prime-time television and the future analysis of black men in television must be measured in relationship to this series and the impact of its star. references “the bernie mac show.” sitcoms online. <http://www.tvtome.com/ berniemacshow/> retrieved 5 february 2003. “bernie mac, ladies man.” in bernie mac. writ. kriss turner. dir. lee shallat-chemel. perf. bernie mac, kellita smith, camille winbush, jeremy suarez, dee dee davis, reginald ballard, lombardo boyar, michael ralph. fox. 28 november 2001. bogle, donald. primetime blues: african americans on network television. new york: farrar, straus, and giroux, 2001. brooks, tim and earle marsh. the complete directory to prime time network and cable tv shows, 1946-present. 6 th ed. new york: ballantine, 1995. castleman, harry and walter j. podrazik. watching tv: four decades of american television. new york: mcgraw-hill, 1982. chesebro, james w. “communicaton, values, and popular television series—a four-year assessment.” in television: the critical view. 4 th ed. edited by horace newcomb. new york: oxford up, 1987:17-51. collins, patricia hill. black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. new york: routledge, 1991. dates, jannette l. “commercial television.” in split image: african americans in the mass media. 2 nd ed. edited by jannette l. dates http://www/ a.nelson, “america,you know what i‟m talkng about!” 71 and william barlow. washington, d.c.: howard up, 1993:267327. “donnie‟s dance date.” in beulah. writ. ian mclellan hunter. dir. richard bare. perf. hattie mcdaniel, jane frazee, ruby dandridge, david bruce, ernest whitman, stuffy singer. spon. procter and gamble. ad. agency dancer-fitzgerald-sample. abc. summer 1951. ely, melvin patrick. the adventures of amos „n‟ andy: a social history of an american phenomenon. new york: free p, 1991. gray, herman. watching race: television and the struggle for “blackness.” minneapolis: u of minnesota p, 1995. ---. “television and the new black man: black male images in primetime situation comedy.” in media, culture and society 8, 1986: 223-42. hill, george, lorraine raglin, and chas. floyd johnson. black women in television: an illustrated history and bibliography. new york: garland, 1990. hilmes, michele. radio voices: american broadcasting, 1922-1952. minneapolis: u of minnesota p, 1997. hochman, david. “make room for bernie mac.” in tv guide 2 feb. 2002: 14-22. hough, arthur. “trials and tribulations—thirty years of sitcom.” in understanding television. edited by richard p. adler. new york: praeger, 1981:201-223. jackson, carlton. hattie: the life of hattie mcdaniel. lanham: madison, 1990. leibman, nina c. living room lectures: the fifties family in film and television. austin: u of texas p, 1995. macdonald, j. fred. blacks and white tv: african americans in television since 1948, 2 nd ed. chicago: nelson-hall, 1992. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 61-72 72 ---. don‟t touch that dial!: radio programming in american life from 1920 to 1960. chicago: nelson-hall, 1979. rice, lynette. “clipped „wing.‟” in entertainment weekly 11 apr. 2003: 11, 14. speier, michael. “the bernie mac show: tv review.” variety 19 nov. 2001. in http://www.findarticles.com, retrieved 22 april 2002). spigel, lynn. make room for tv: television and the family ideal in postwar america. chicago: u of chicago p, 1992. terrace, vincent. the complete encyclopedia of television programs, 1947-1976. south brunswick: a. s. barnes, 1976. watkins, mel. on the real side: laughing, lying, and signifying—the underground tradition of african-american humor that transformed american culture, from slavery to richard pryor. new york: touchstone, 1994. wertheim, arthur frank. radio comedy. new york: oxford up, 1979. index of subjects celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 acquisition, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28 african american, 62, 69, 70 african american culture, 69 american television, 6163, 66 anti-christmas character, 37 approach, 1822, 2428 articles, 1, 2, 7 autonomous learning, 19 behaviourist method, 20 bernie, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 beulah, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 black sitcoms, 62, 68, 70 black, 61-69 charity, 30, 31, 43-46 classroom, 16, 22-23, 25-28 cognitive approach, 21 cohabitation, 24 comma splice, 11-12 communication, 16, 18, 20-22, 28 communicative approach, 19, 21, 28 computer-assisted communication, 21 corruption, 79 cuisiniere rods, 19 cybernautical approach, 16-20, 22-23, 26-29 cyberspace, 20, 23 dickens, 29, 30-32, 35-46 diction, 1, 10 diversity, 67, 73-79, 89 drama, 46-57, 59-60 elle, 16-18, 25, 27 english education programme, 2, 5, 6, 12 english extension course, 2, 5 6 english novelist, 30 episodic drama, 53 ethnicities, 74, 76 finite verbs, 1, 7-8, 15 foreign language, 47 fox network, 67 game, 49, 53, 55-57 grammar-oriented writing, 14 indonesia, 73-77, 79, 81-84, 8788 injustice, 79, 82 language-learning process, 17 learning, 1628 linguistic, 1, 2, 6 misanthropy, 29, 36, 38, 45 multicultural, 73, 74, 88 multiculturalism, 73-77, 79, 81, 82-85, 87-88 multiculturalist discourse, 67 multilingualism, 7 multimedia technology, 24 neuro-scientific research, 21 non-conventional methods, 19 number-noun concord, 8 oracy processes, 46-47, 59 paragraph writing, 1, 3 pluralism, 76, 79, 84, 89 punctuation, 3, 9, 12 reformation era, 79 scrooge, 29, 31-45 second-language learning, 21 segregationism, 61-62 student’s literacy, 47 subject-finite verb concord, 8 systemic functional linguistics approach, 90 television, 61-62, 64, 66, 68-69 tenses, 9 unity in diversity, 78 victorian age, 30 youth, 72, 73, 76-79 index of authors celt, volume 11, number 1, year 2011 adhyanggono, g.m, 46 bram, barli, 1 erwindriani, t., 29 george c., j. 16 june, s. and ekawati m.d., 73 nelson, a., 61 suratno, a. ,89 index of articles celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 adhyanggono, g.m. teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 4660. bram, barli. learners’ language challenges in writing english. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 1-15. erwindriani, theresia. scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 29-45. george c., jacob. autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 16-28. june, shierly and ekawati marhaenny dukut. a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 73-88. nelson, angela. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 61-72. suratno, antonius. a book review: discourse analysis. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 89-93. celt volume 11, number 2, year 2011 thank the following people for their outstanding work as reviewers: a. effendi kadarisman (universitas negeri malang, indonesia) c. soebakdi soemanto (universitas gadjah mada, indonesia) fr. borgias alip (universitas sanata dharma, indonesia) helena agustien (universitas negeri semarang, indonesia) subur wardoyo (ikip pgri semarang, indonesia) 5 angela nelson_2012_12_1(61-72) 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 89-93 anton cover.pdf 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1��� ! �/�2����"��n�*����!/�'�*����;#$$#<���3���������������� ����l�e���4!� �� � ��� �& ����� ���4!�� � �f���� �������� '��� �����������#��;�</� �=� � �� female agency in native a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 22 no.1; june 2022 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia female agency through border-crossing and transformation in native american women’s poems bayu kristianto english department, faculty of humanities, universitas indonesia bayu.kristianto@ui.ac.id received: 30-01-2022 accepted: 11-05-2022 published: 30-06-2022 mailto:bayu.kristianto@ui.ac.id https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj female agency through border-crossing and transformation in native american women’s poems bayu kristianto bayu.kristianto@ui.ac.id english department, faculty of humanities, universitas indonesia abstract: this paper analyzes two poems by indigenous women authors from america, karenne wood and joy harjo, centering on the deer image, ―deer woman‖ and ―deer dancer,‖ respectively. the deer image has certain significance for these authors and their communities, because deer were hunted to provide sustenance for their survival. in certain cases, in these communities, boundaries between the deer and the human could not be easily ascertained. the transformation of the deer into the human and vice-versa underscores the fluid boundaries of human relationships with other beings, as well as the power and agency that emanate from such transformation. through a close reading of the two poems, analysis reveals a conception of female agency that centers on willing transformation and aims for complete union with another in the interest of community survival and well-being. these native women authors‘ poetic representations of deer serve as a critique of female agency, which is usually and primarily defined from the perspective of western feminists. key words: deer woman, female agency, indigenous feminism, native american, transformation abstrak: makalah ini menganalisis dua puisi karya pengarang perempuan pribumi amerika, karenne wood dan joy harjo, dengan fokus pada dua citraan kijang, berjudul ”deer woman” dan ”deer dancer.” citraan kijang memiliki peran signifikan dalam kepenulisan puisi kedua pengarang ini dan komunitas mereka karena kijang merupakan binatang buruan yang menyediakan makanan untuk keberlanjutan hidup. dalam situasi-situasi tertentu, bagi komunitaskomunitas ini, batas antara eksistensi kijang dan manusia tidak mudah mailto:bayu.kristianto@ui.ac.id kristianto, b., female agency through border-crossing and transformation in 83 native american women‘s poems https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj untuk diidentifikasi. transformasi dari kijang menjadi manusia dan sebaliknya menunjukkan adanya batas yang cair antara manusia dan makhluk hidup lainnya serta kekuatan dan agensi yang timbul dari transformasi tersebut. melalui pembacaan dekat kedua puisi tersebut, analisis menunjukkan konsepsi agensi perempuan yang berpusat pada proses transformasi yang memang dikehendaki oleh agen-agen yang terlibat. baik kijang maupun manusia menginginkan terjadinya proses penyatuan dengan makhluk hidup yang lain demi keberlanjutan dan kesejahteraan hidup komunitas. representasi kijang dalam puisi-puisi kedua pengarang perempuan pribumi ini berfungsi sebagai kritik terhadap konsep agensi perempuan yang didominasi oleh perspektif para feminis barat. kata kunci: deer woman, female agency, indigenous feminism, native american, transformation introduction through indigenous feminism, this paper attempts to delineate a conception of female agency that can both complement and complicate how female agency is understood as part of feminist studies‘ discourse of agency. i argue that indigenous feminism, as represented by native american women authors, offers female agency that considers the need to go beyond oneself, to cross borders, and to see transformation and union with the other as desirable. in indigenous feminism, the performance of female agency is a collaborative act ensuring that both the individual and the community benefit. this analysis focuses particularly on two poems written by karenne wood and joy harjo on the deer image, which shed light on female agency from an indigenous worldview. literature review indigenous scholar carolyn dunn quotes laguna scholar and writer paula gunn allen, who defines deer woman as ―a supernatural who appears as a human woman and as a doe by turns; she is to bewitch men and women, and eventually cause their deaths into descent [descending into the lower world] and prostitution‖ (―animal metamorphosis‖). this negative image of deer woman is quite common among indigenous communities; however, a number of native american authors, such as joy harjo, karenne wood, carolyn dunn, linda hogan, and ofelia zepeda have rendered the deer figure 84 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 82 – 94 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj more positively. in susan power‘s novel grass dancer (1995), the two female characters who embody deer woman in the novel‘s contemporary settings are depicted as possessing power they can exercise to strengthen or destroy the community. in louise erdrich‘s novel the antelope wife (1998), ―the best hunter allows his prey to lead, [he] just lets himself be drawn to the meeting‖ (qtd. in dyke, 2014, p. 177), and waits until the time is ripe for him to capture the prey (in the form of a deer) and figuratively become one with it. in erdrich‘s novel, the deer woman is manifested as ―that most elusive figure,‖ the antelope woman (dyke, 2014, p. 175). in this version of the deer woman, she both flees the hunter and, paradoxically, longs to be captured and united with him, flesh and soul. this union often transgresses boundaries separating animals and humans because the deer woman longs for union with a human male figure, in this case, the hunter. laguna pueblo writer leslie marmon silko wrote the short story ―yellow woman,‖ which has many similarities to deer woman myths. ―yellow woman‖ recounts the journey of a woman who wanders beyond village boundaries and is thought to have been kidnapped by a kachina spirit. silko depicts the young woman as a willing participant in sexual engagement with her captor, something often defined by western critics as an instance of either actual rape or simply rape fantasy. melody graulich (2003) uses the term ―rape fantasy‖ in her reading of the story to convey positive meaning, that is, an act by a woman who exercises sexual fantasy within which she submits herself to a man while still retaining control of the entire scenario. despite the use of verbal dominance in some parts of the story, the man does not control her, and she has many opportunities to break free of him, to be on her own, and to return to her village. to a. lavonne ruoff (1978), rape fantasy should not be understood as standing on its own, but rather, an intricacy of the confluence of the real and the mythical. the sexual union sheds light on the intimate relationship between human and non-human worlds because the female narrator in ―yellow woman‖ can never be sure whether she is engaging with a human or a non-human spirit being (ruoff, 1978). understanding this story as simply another rape fantasy would definitely deprive it of its spirit and mythical element. by playing the role traditionally reserved for men, the yellow woman figure ―embodies an aggressive sexuality,‖ often associated with maleness, but her desire remains fundamentally female (barnett, 2005, p. 20, emphasis added). silko, however, is not free of critical accusations. victoria boynton (1996), for example, accuses her of falsely appropriating traditional pueblo stories of yellow woman, which she can tolerate, and blending them with kristianto, b., female agency through border-crossing and transformation in 85 native american women‘s poems https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj american capitalistic culture‘s negative trend of commodifying and celebrating rape, which she cannot tolerate. to boynton, silko is no more than a regular american, victimized by a widespread, popularized rape culture. furthermore, in her view, silko demonstrates her victimization under the pretext of writing about female independence and sexual energy through the appropriation of traditional native american stories (boynton, 1996). barnett (2005), on the contrary, stresses that ―yellow woman in old pueblo tales is both heroic and sexual, that is, she protects the pueblos with her heroism and also with her uninhibited sexuality, which affirms the life force of nature‖ (p. 19). women, as observed by paula gunn allen (2014), ―at least at certain times or under certain circumstances, must be improper or nonconformists for the greater good of the whole‖ (p. 24). however, as opposed to barnett, allen claims that yellow woman or kochinnenako ―does nothing heroic‖ since she is just part of the agency process among various forces of nature (2014, p. 31). through yellow woman‘s ritual agency, ―the orderly, harmonious transfer of primacy between the summer and winter people is accomplished‖ (allen, 2014, p. 29). the kochinnenako story is about ―the change of seasons [and] the centrality of woman as agent and empowerer of that change‖ (allen, 2014, p. 32). significantly, both deer woman and yellow woman give themselves up for the community‘s greater good. since the hunter searches for food to sustain his family and community, deer woman surrenders herself to the hunter; yellow woman gives herself to the kachina spirit to receive his gifts, which she will then present to her community. the myths of yellow woman and deer woman manifest women‘s strength and independence as agents of their sexuality, uninhibited by fear of rape and ever-confident that they will always be in full control of themselves and their sexuality. method this paper utilizes a qualitative methodology in the form of a close reading of literary texts. the analysis focuses on the ideas of border-crossing and transformation as they are manifested in the two poems by karenne wood and joy harjo. it scrutinizes various poetic devices used by the poets, and it endeavors to reveal how these devices are used to shed light on the two ideas or concepts mentioned above. the poems are read analytically and critically to emphasize the poets‘ engagement with those crucial concepts and to what extent the poems are empowering to both indigenous and non-indigenous 86 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 82 – 94 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj audiences. an indigenous feminist perspective is used as a critique of the dominance of western feminism in the concept of female agency. results and discussions for her poem ―deer woman‖ (see appendix a), karenne wood adopts the deer woman‘s point of view, depicting a scene in which she wanders away from her family in search of flowers. a male hunter is stalking her: ―[he] hunted [her] into the forest as [she] sought the blue / star-petaled flower‖ (stanza 1). soon, she senses his approach and flees. despite her efforts, the hunter comes closer. she realizes there is no escape, and she must give herself up to him. at the same time, however, she feels the need to unite with him, ―to dissolve into him‖‘; in his mouth, she senses ―the deep red song of an appeasable desire‖ (stanza 6). eventually, she cannot help but be ―bound by hunger, which is a kind / of love‖ (stanza 7). thus, the poem focuses on the union between the deer and the hunter; the deer has tempted the hunter, and the hunter has, essentially, captured her. she bows to her fate—union with her captor, based no longer on domination and submission, but on love. indeed, in the deer‘s eyes, the enemy hunter offers not death and destruction, but pleasure, contentment, and love in the act of indissoluble union. here, the female deer wanders in search of pleasure: ―the blue / starpetaled flower, its scent like magnolia and pears.‖ she knows exactly what she wants, that is, ―to pick my steps‖ and becomes so immersed in this pursuit that she forgets the family and community to which she belongs, which offer her shelter, protection, and love. she forgoes her sense of belonging to her familiar homeland, until eventually, she reaches the place ―across patched snow, where fields grasped edges of the sky.‖ this is the farthest she has ever been, and she should not be there now. while the young woman in silko‘s ―yellow woman‖ obviously indicates a yearning for sensual pleasure with the man she has just encountered, woods repeats an independent stanza of only one line; deer woman twice acknowledges, ―there is within some of us a longing to be stripped clean.‖ this reflects the desire to be emptied, to dissolve, to give up the self, to end one‘s current, separate existence, and to appear as something entirely different, to merge with another. kristianto, b., female agency through border-crossing and transformation in 87 native american women‘s poems https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj as the deer woman wanders deeper into the forest, she feels the hunter‘s presence more strongly: ―his scent rose to [her] with the wind.‖ in her attempt to escape, she becomes ever more deeply entangled in potential union with him. with all her might, she struggles to dissociate herself from him: ―… i ran as i was made—haunches taut, nostrils steaming, / in flight like a swallow, i ran into glistening whiteness,‖ using all her body‘s resources to escape her pursuer. the phrase ―glistening whiteness‖ refers to the moment she loses herself so entirely that she can no longer identify her surroundings. she has perhaps entered the realm of the mythical as she is nearing union with her hunter. this situation is reminiscent of yellow woman entering the river area where she meets the young man silva, who lures her with his charm. but in wood‘s poem, the deer woman feels the hunter becoming more and more a part of her: ―… i could feel his hunger‘s fist / as my own. i had taunted his dreams more than once, / dreamed that mouth, the whole darkness of him.‖ her desire for union, her own desire, was already within her, so she cannot free herself from his influence. she has also been present in his dream, so the hunter is obsessed with her capture and cannot resist her taunts. the deer woman who fears his presence, for he seems to embody a threat, also craves him. then, she desires to give herself to him completely. the moment comes when her dissolution becomes complete as she surrenders and is captured: there is within some of us a longing to be stripped clean, to give it all—red strings of sinew tufted hair, marrow, white ropes of fat, to bare the body‘s pulse. i froze heavy with the need to dissolve into him, his mouth the deep red song of an appeasable desire. just before her capture, at the instant of glancing back to look at the hunter, the deer realizes that her entire body will become his; the meaning of her existence is precisely to benefit other beings in need of her flesh, for she will provide sustenance for the hunter, his family, and his community. she feels no regret at giving herself entirely to her captor. her understanding of this union becomes sexual because she sees the man no longer as a hunter, but as a lover: ―his mouth / the deep red song of an appeasable desire.‖ this encounter between the hunter and the deer becomes a passionate sexual act (―the deep red song‖), and only complete dissolution of each self can satisfy their hunger for one another‘s body and existence. the poem‘s last two lines underscore the deer woman‘s acknowledging her weakness at being captivated by the man and falling into his embrace: ―… i will kneel in a cloud‘s 88 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 82 – 94 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj wisp of grace, to discover / how completely our own wanting wounds us.‖ she confesses that her desire has made her vulnerable and finds the source of her ―defeat‖ within herself. her agency, however, is in making the decision to give herself up to the man, to cope with any sense of fear of him, but eventually, to reap the reward of dissolution of the self and of merging with others to benefit them. among the ojibwe people, such as those living on the lac du flambeau reservation in wisconsin, men hunt to ―provid[e] deer meat to multiple nuclear families.‖ they hold traditional values emphasizing ―the subsistence value of sharing meat‖ (reo and whyte, 2012, p. 20). ojibwe people ―owe a great debt of gratitude to deer,‖ for they have always provided the food needed by the community ―for thousands of years‖ (reo and whyte, 2012, p. 23). for hunters, ―[f]ulfilling community obligation gave [them] personal satisfaction and kept them in good moral standing within the community‖ (reo and whyte, 2012, p. 22). indigenous cosmology generally holds that prey animals are aware that they would give up their bodies to be consumed by humans as a part of the cycle of nature and life. for example, ojibwe hunters ―believe [that] deer willingly give themselves up to hunters, so long as hunters show them continual respect‖ (reo and whyte, 2012, p. 23). this act of giving themselves up to humans is believed to be an act of love, that is, the love that comes from the animals themselves and the love that belongs to the creator. if this poem is read from an indigenous perspective, the hunter-man is actually devoid of any violent intention to overpower the deer woman. he seems to pose a threat, but if men and women‘s roles in the great order of the cosmos are taken into account, men have no power or authority to dominate and subdue women: ―there is within some of us a longing to be stripped clean.‖ thus, ―deer woman‖ showcases the working of female agency from a traditional indigenous perspective. when a woman desires a relationship with a man, she is in full control of herself and her sexuality. the act of dissolution seems to contradict the notion of individual sovereignty, but dissolution does not entail actual submission or loss of the self. on the contrary, just as the deer gives herself to the hunter to benefit other beings, man and woman‘s dissolution is desirable, for it benefits entities greater than their individual selves, in this case, the tribe. in wood‘s poem, a woman (both deer and human) strongly desires to dissolve into another being. in joy harjo‘s poem ―deer dancer‖ (see appendix b), a woman makes herself completely vulnerable to others in a bar, offering her body so that her presence benefits her people. ―deer dancer‖ narrates a kristianto, b., female agency through border-crossing and transformation in 89 native american women‘s poems https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj story of a beautiful native woman entering a bar frequented by indians, ―indian ruins‖ and ―broken survivors,‖ that is, descendants of genocide and colonization. appearing in a bar in the midst of a blizzard, on ―the coldest night of the year,‖ her arrival surprises everyone, for ―[s]he was the end of beauty.‖ this poem originated from a story harjo heard of ―a mysterious young indian woman in a red dress [who] suddenly appeared in the milwaukee indian bar‖ and ―had the sudden attention of the tatters of men playing pool who could not believe the vision‖ after she stepped onto a table and began removing her clothing (―notes on ‗deer dancer,‘‖ harjo, 2002, p. 217). what happened after the woman finished her nude dance and left the bar is not known to harjo, and certainly not to us, but harjo, despite the young woman‘s strange performance, expected only good things for her afterward. in her notes about the poem, harjo writes: ―it is early in the morning and she is safe‖ (―notes on ‗deer dancer,‘‖ 2002, p. 217). intriguingly, this young woman decided to leave wherever she was on the coldest night of the year, in a blizzard, for a bar full of society‘s rejects. curiously, all of them, despite not knowing her name, seem to know her indigenous background, the name of her tribe, and the fact that her family is from the deer clan: ―no one knew her, the stranger / whose tribe was recognized, her family related to deer.‖ she is regarded as a manifestation of the deer woman, and by performing on the table, she becomes a deer dancer. in the non-mythical world, the reason for her strange behavior—out in a horrible storm, at night, pregnant, dancing naked on a bar table—remains a mystery. such behavior suggests cathartic action that might enable her to deal, probably erroneously or pathologically, with some personal crisis. note, however, that she leaves the drink richard surreptitiously purchases for her on the bar. thus, she subtly abjures the ―drink of betrayal‖ introduced by colonizers, that has given indian nations so much sorrow, sickness, and heartache. this leads us to harjo‘s placement of her in the mythical realm by equating her with the buffalo calf woman, a beautiful spirit being who appeared to the lakota people and presented them with sacred objects and teachings to live in the right way (―notes on ‗deer dancer,‘‖ harjo, 2002, p. 217). this nameless woman is not simply a random girl stranded in a sleazy bar, looking for the wrong kind of attention; her dishabille is not a prurient strip tease. rather, she is a mythical figure empowering her people, who are 90 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 82 – 94 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dealing with post-apocalypse stress syndrome and the historical trauma of colonization and contemporary marginalization: ―she was the myth slipped down through dreamtime. the promise of feast we all knew was coming. the deer who crossed through knots of a curse to find us.‖ she is a spirit being, an ancestral figure returned to care for her people by reassuring and sustaining them, taking the burdens of all the people in the bar: ―she shook loose memory, waltzed with the empty lover we‘d all become.‖ she becomes their cathartic release from multi-generational trauma, dancing the dance that can heal the onlookers‘ wounds. the deer dancer becomes ―an ironic symbol of survival for the bar occupants, both male and female‖ (andrews, 2000, p. 211). even more interesting is the fact that she is pregnant: ―the woman inside the woman who was to dance naked in the bar of misfits blew deer magic.‖ she carries life within her body, indicating gestation, growth, and creation of new human beings and new spirit. the strength and resilience of her female body is clear. harjo illuminates the people‘s survival, continuity, and the rise of indian nations through the metaphor of the young mother-to-be dancing with the future baby in her womb: ―i had to tell you this, for the baby inside the girl sealed up with a lick of hope and swimming into the praise of nations.‖ the woman‘s arrival has entirely transformed the bar—no longer crowded with ―broken survivors‖ but with an uplifted community: ―this is not a rooming house, but a dream of winter falls and the deer who portrayed the relatives of strangers. the way back is deer breath on icy windows.‖ with her breath on her people‘s ―icy windows,‖ that is, their souls, the woman reminds them of their strength through memories of sustenance provided by deer. the mythical deer figure reminds ―broken survivors‖ that their lives are not utterly meaningless, but instead, contain great power because the ancestors are with them at all times, but especially at the lowest, most inopportune moment—in a sleazy bar amidst a blizzard—to remind them of their strengths and their skills of survival. the line ―deer breath on icy windows‖ offers metaphorical reassurance of the ancestors‘ return, their immediate presence, and their constant participation in the people‘s contemporary lives. this deer dancer ―reminds those who watch her of the power that native american myths and rituals still possess, a source of strength that needs to be sustained and revitalized by those who have retreated to the bar‖ (andrews, 2000, p. 211). in this poem, harjo transforms a (possibly) ordinary young woman into a mythical figure empowering people struggling with desperation and chronic trauma. in the absence of hope and strength of spirit, she becomes ―the myth slipped down through dreamtime.‖ she embodies ―[t]he promise of feast we all kristianto, b., female agency through border-crossing and transformation in 91 native american women‘s poems https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj knew was coming,‖ like the deer that gives itself to the hunter so that a human community can survive. the young woman has metamorphosed into the familiar deer figure: their ancestor has come to embrace them. this random young woman seems to be looking for money, sex, or sensation by performing an ostensibly sexual, stereotypical strip tease on a bar table: ―a stained red dress with tape on her heel.‖ instead, she is ―the deer who entered our dream in white dawn, breathed mist into pine trees, her fawn a blessing of meat, the ancestors who never left.‖ all the signs that accompany this woman‘s presence are positive and sustaining. her dance is not sexual, but naturally sensual, filled literally with life-spirit. she gives of herself to her people because that is her role in the great order of the cosmos. the deer dancer is ―a source of cultural sustenance disguised as a stripper whose apparel and conduct, at first glance, seem to perpetuate a variety of negative stereotypes about women‖ (andrews, 2000, p. 212). in fact, she is asked the quintessential question asked of all slumming, prostituting, beautiful women: ―what’s a girl like you doing in a place like this?‖ however, she is not ―asking for it‖ or giving herself up to be raped; she is not a victim within this intricate system of relations. she can decide what is best, and giving herself entirely to her people is no contradiction of what is best for her. conclusion in ―‗it‘s only a penis‘: race, feminism, and difference,‖ australian scholar christine helliwell (2000) launches a critique of western feminism which she accuses of making rape ―a universal practice‖ (p. 790). rape is construed as worse than assault and even death itself. what she observes is ―the sexualization of sexual violence in rape [that] greatly intensifies [emotional] consequences for women in western societies [emphasis original]‖ (helliwell, 2000, p. 791). helliwell conducted anthropological research among the gerai dayak community in indonesian borneo (also called kalimantan), which she found to be a rape-free community. a middle-aged man secretly entered the house of a much younger woman, asking for a sexual favor. the woman rejected him and forced him to leave. to helliwell, the man deserved serious punishment for his crime. on being asked why she did not kick or hit the man to punish him, the gerai woman looked at her in puzzlement and said that she did not need to take the action since ―it‘s only a penis,‖ which would not hurt anybody (helliwell, 2000, p. 790). this left helliwell astounded. in the 92 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 82 – 94 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj morning after this incident, people laughed at the funny occurrence, and the man had to leave the village temporarily due to profound shame. in this community, the penis is not accorded any power greater than the vagina. in such a relatively rape-free community, the notion of domination and coercion by men over women becomes irrelevant. indeed, many native american and indigenous communities are relatively rape-free, especially prior to european colonization, with its attendant sexual violence. testimonies by european women, for example, mary rowlandson and mary jemison, demonstrate the level of protection indian people gave to non-indian women whom they held captive. rowlandson, in her famous account a narrative of the captivity and restoration of mrs. mary rowlandson, published in 1682, expresses fears of being hurt and sexually abused by her indian captors, but throughout her captivity, nothing of the sort ever happened. another european woman, mary jemison (1743– 1833), despite fear of being hurt or killed by her mohawk captors, eventually found that they were holding a ceremony to adopt her into the tribe, after which they treated her as family (seaver, 1992). sara deer, a native legal scholar, states, ―rape was once extremely rare in tribal communities‖ (2009, p. 150), and ―sexual assault crimes are relatively recent phenomena in [these] communities‖ (p. 152). it cannot be denied, however, that rape is ―more than a metaphor for colonization—it is part and parcel of colonization [, and now we see that] the entire fabric of native communities has been victimized by sexual assault‖ (deer, 2009, pp. 150 and 160). use of the terms ―rape‖ and ―rape fantasy‖ to describe men and women‘s unions that seem to border on rape from the western perspective is somehow mistaken. in karenne wood‘s poem ―deer woman,‖ the female deer seems to be attempting to escape the hunter, but she also knows full well that she will freely give herself to him. the hunter acts as if he is aggressively pursuing the deer, but in essence, he enacts the hunter role in a ritual in which both hunted and hunter are dissolved into perfect union. in actual hunting, the man would respect the captured prey, thank it for giving itself up to him, and pray for the release of its soul. in joy harjo‘s poem ―deer dancer,‖ the young woman, albeit expecting a baby, dances and removes her clothing—entirely taboo for any woman, but especially one who is pregnant—revealing herself, but actually reminding her people of the life force contained in her natural body. she becomes the deer woman, ―consumed‖ by the people, albeit merely symbolically, and ensuring their (spiritual) survival. having crossed the border between human and non-human, she remains in a liminal space where there is bodily and existential fluidity between humans and animals. kristianto, b., female agency through border-crossing and transformation in 93 native american women‘s poems https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj female agency from an indigenous perspective takes into account the significance of border-crossing and the need for transformation. indigenous feminism posits that women have sexual agency and sovereignty over their bodies. they understand completely, however, that personal independence and the community‘s survival and continuance do not necessarily have to contradict one another. on the contrary, it is with absolute sovereignty that women and men engage in dissolving into another‘s body, as well as into the body of the community as a whole. indeed, taking up this role is a manifestation of personal sovereignty and integrity as one freely aligns the self with the great order of the universe. references allen, p. g. (2014). kochinnenako in academe: three approaches to interpreting a keres indian tale. in a. jaggar (ed.), just methods: an interdisciplinary feminist reader (pp. 21-33). new york: paradigm. andrews, j. (2000). in the belly of a laughing god: reading humor and irony in the poetry of joy harjo. american indian quarterly, 24(2), 200-218. barnett, l. (2005). yellow woman and leslie marmon silko‘s feminism. studies in american indian literatures, 2 (17), 18-31. boynton, v. (1996). desire‘s revision: feminist appropriation of native american traditional stories. modern language studies, 26(2/3), 53-71. deer, s. (2009). decolonizing rape law: a native feminist synthesis of safety and sovereignty. wicazo sa review, 24(2), 149-167. dunn, carolyn. animal metamorphosis. http://www.mythicjourneys.org/newsletter_dec06_animalmetamorphosi s.html. accessed 30 january 2022. dyke, a. v. (2013/2014). encounters with deer woman: sexual relations in susan power's the grass dancer and louise erdrich's the antelope wife. studies in american indian literatures, 15(3/4), 168-188. erdrich, l. 1998. the antelope wife. minnesota: flamingo. 94 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 22, number 1, june 2022, pp. 82 – 94 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v22i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj graulich, m. (1993).introduction: remember the stories. ‗yellow woman‘ leslie marmon silko. m. graulich (ed.), new brunswick, new jersey: rutgers university press. harjo, j. (2002). deer dancer. how we became human: new and selected poems: 1975-2001, new york & london: norton, 2002, 67-69. harjo, j. (2002). notes on ‗deer dancer.‘ how we became human: new and selected poems: 1975-2001. new york & london: norton, 216-217. helliwell, c. (2000). ‗it‘s only a penis: race, feminism, and difference. signs, 25(3), 789-816. power, s. (1995). the grass dancer. london: picador. reo, n. j. and whyte, k. p. (2012). hunting and morality as elements of traditional ecological knowledge. human ecology, 40(1), 15-27. rowlandson, m. (1682/1997). the sovereignty and goodness of god: with related documents. boston & new york: bedford/st.martin‘s. ruoff, a. l. (1998). ritual and renewal: keres traditions in the short fiction of leslie silko. melus, 5(4), 2-17. seaver, j. e. (1992). a narrative of the life of ms. mary a. jemison. norman: oklahoma university press. silko, l. m. (1974). yellow woman. the man to send rain clouds: contemporary stories by american indians. k. h. rosen (ed.), new york: the viking press. wood, k. (2011). deer woman. sing: poetry from the indigenous america. coke, a. a. hedge (ed.). tucson: arizona university press, 272. inge's the tiny closet in gender perspective: retaining the polarisation g.m. adbyanggonol abstract: this article is an overview toward a play 0/ an american dramatist, william inge. in this case, the play is viewed/rom gender perspective as considered 'quite representative' to reveal what friedan (1995) stated as polarisation o/men and women. the writer wants to depict the representation 0/ men and women in the play as the central issue affecting the result o/this analysis. in addition, the term gender should be understood as an umbrella term pervading the whole discussion. to what extent the verification 0/ the polarisation may analytically come as the conclusion. key words: american dramatist, gender. polarisation introduction in the first place the writer needs to admit that this article is inspired by the interest of the writer upon the current women's movement roaring worldwide. their movements seem to be more concerned with how to construct and define their existence not as woows the 'other' (as quoted in sheldon & widdowson, 1993) but as part of human race. the culturally established concepts of men and women with their social, political and economical consequences have brought about an almost endless history of women's suffering. women become the oppressed and men are the oppressors. this vision needs to be changed. realising that biologically we (men and women) are different no morebut we are still human race, friedan in her article entitled beyond gender (1995) has significantly emphasised the notion of mutual understanding and recognition between men and women as the following. i. gm. adhyanggono, sse is a lecturer of the faculty of letters. soegijapranata catholic university. semarang 28 celt, volume i, number i, december 2001 : 2743 our job now is to move beyond polarisation to a vision of community that can unite us as descent people. are women strong enough to join or even lead men in finding that new vision? we won't stop talking about human values. but women, after all, cannot hold up more than half the sky.(l99s: p.3) from the quotation above, it is obvious that the focus of the movement (not only women's) is to build or shape a new paradigm setting itself free from the polarisation, the traditional images of men and women. furthermore, friedan points out that the danger of countering the hatred of women with the hatred of men (1995:p.2) will be considered contra-productive since it will entrapped us into the polarisation with a new oppressor. thus, it is the idea of equality based on the need for redefining their relationship that becomes the very heart of this study. in the second place, it needs to be understood that the writer does realise his sex as a man in positioning himself in this approach. to what extent this recognition may influence the analysis can be reflected in the result. it is something inevitable. in addition, if we refer to what ecker stated in her feminist aeslhetics (as extracted in humm,1992:p.360) that co truly gendered perspective would mean that the sex-male or femaleof both the artist and the critic is taken into account, then this recognition re-strengthened the use of gender perspective in this article. in the third place, this study proposes a definition of gender among many others. the term gender is defined as culturally shaped group of attributes and behavior given to the female or to the male (humm.1992:p.406). further the theoretical ground of gender is based on what melani budianta wrote in her article entitled sastra dan ideologi gender (1998). it is stated that there are three basic concepts or principles of gender, namely: 1) anti biological determinism, 2) relational, and 3) multidimensional. method of study deconstruction in this article is predominantly becoming the tool used. that the process or the analysis as well as the result are to be consciously per<:~ived inevitable and need not be argued since there is no clear-cut betw~n them. both deconstruction and gender study try to destabilise the establised opposition in many aspects. thus it is considered that g.m. adhyanggono, inge's the tiny closed in gender perspective 19 deconstruction can provide more question's on gendered problems as mentioned for the topic of this study, durant and fabb in their literary studies in action (1996) have described deconstruction as an attempt or approach that intends to show how one pole of sa us sure's binary opposition is valued more than the other and consequently how the 'valued more' is culturally privileged and believed whereas the other is suppressed and denied. moreover, it seeks to subvert the tendency of exalting the privileged one in the oppositions by pointing out how it relies for its meaning on its opposite (the suppressed). deconstruction destabilises the special meaning and value invested in the favoured tenn in each case, by forcing on people who establish the special value of a tenn the recognition that it cannot be defined apart from its related, and undesirable. negative pole.(l996:p.42) the method of deconstructing is applicable to all text. green and le bihan (1996:21 5) support this idea and point out that the app licability of deconstruction lies in the strength and the complexity of its p hilosophical base. the idea of all te t incluoes various kinds of texts ranging from nonfiction to fictio n, autograph to a poster advertisement and e ver. a radio program or silent movie. hence, it is also applicable for this study. synopsis the story of the play takes place somewhere in midwestern city of the united states. it is not clearly stated where it is. there are four characters involved namely; mr. newbold (the roomer or the guest), mrs. crosby (the landlady), mrs. hergesheimer (mrs. crosby's friend) and elsie (mrs. crosby's servant). yet, from the dialogue it can be inferred that it is probably set in the mid twentieth century. the play is basically staged in mrs. crosby's house since it is not divided into scenes or acts. thus, inge's the tiny closer is typically a short and continued-form drama. the story begins when mr. newbold, living in mrs. crosby's house, feels that someone has tried to get closer even enter a small closet he also rents. he considers that the closet is a very private place to him so that no one could easily break into it. yet, realising that someone has already monkeyed with the lock of the door. he is very disappointed and angry. he asks mrs. crosby as his landlady to mark his order to keep away anyone trying to go upstairs. 30 celt, volume i, number i, december 2001: 27-43 mrs. crosby as the landlady feels that she has already done the best she could. nevertheless, in order to please her roomer she agrees to carry out the order more strictly. she promises mr. newbold not to let elsie, her servant, go upstairs for any purpose. mrs. crosby asks him not to worry much about it. then, he goes to work. when he gets out, mrs. crosby looks so nervous and excited. she childishly looks out of the window to make sure that he has already gone. then, she orders elsie to keep on working in the kitchen and calls her friend, mrs. hergesheimer. while phoning, she reveals her very feeling toward mr. newbold. she thinks that he is so myst~ri9~t a,nd arrogant. it is reflected in his very manner that according to mrs. crosby is so 'starchy'. further, she is very curious about the closet. she wants to find out what inside it in case that he hides something from everybody. mrs. crosby asks mrs. hergesheimer to come and fulfill their curiosity. when mrs. hergesheimer comes, mrs. crosby decides to break into the closet and see the secret as they ever tried before. she insists mrs. hergesheimer to accompany her. by the time they go upstairs. elsie comes out of the kitchen and just smiles on what tho! two women are doing. then. she comes back into the room. unexpectedly, mrs. newbold sneaks into the house. he has already felt that it must be the 'insiders' who once did it and he wants to prove it. when he hears the women go down stairs. he hides in the other closet of the room. he is extremely nervous and ashamed that what he's been hiding from will be revealed. what the women have found is so weird. they find dozens of women hats inside the closet. they do not believe it but it happens. mrs. crosby's sentiment toward mr. newbold is getting more and more. she concludes that it is he who makes the hats; and it is hard to accept. she thinks it is very unusual for a man to make hats, women hats precisely. and hide them in the closet. she gets angry with him and decides to ask him to leave the house. mrs. hergesheimer disagrees with her but she insists it. it is very hard to believe, very unnatural that a man would do such a thing. she even burlesques the hat before a mirror and throws it onto the chair. he knows it. as mrs. hergesheimer goes home and mrs. crosby goes to the kitchen, he comes out of his hiding place and feels so upset. his pride has gone; his starchy manner perishes. he stands still looking at the hat lying on the chair. for a while he keeps on standing and then. takes the hat with tears running g.m. adhyanggono, inge's the tiny closed in gender perspective 31 down his cheek. mr. newbold slowly regains his courage. the last thing he does is heading to the kitchen and calls for mrs. crosby with a threatening agonised self-pride. characterisation dealing with how men and women are pictured in the play will inevitably bring us to the description of all characters. in then first place, it is better to have a description of which mr. newbold is. mr. newbold is depicted as a man of about fifty. he is large and rather nice looking. he always wears conservative clothes with dark blue suit. white shirt and modest tie. he has got thin hair upon which it is carefully combed. mr. newbold likes to have his black shoes shiny. he is typically who takes great pride in his appearance (curry. 1985:20). in the play mr. newbold functions as the protagonist since he is the one who struggles for not being interfered to defend what is right to him. further, he is a very starchy person both in manner and principle. one of the examples to depict his starchiness can be seen in a dialogue between him and mrs. crosby. mrs. crosby do you suppose som:one could got up there when no one was around and .. ... ... ........ . ..... . mr. newbold i'm sure i don't know. but i won't stand for anyone's monkeying with that lock, mrs. crosby. that room, while i rent it. is my private property, and i gave strict instructions that no one was to go near the closet. and i expect my orders to be respected. (p.21 ) there are two other characters that may also provide descriptions on mr. newbold. mrs. crosby may describe him as a self-centered person. the depiction of being so can be observed in the following dialogue as she is phoning mrs. hergesheimer. mrs. crosby : mrs. hergesheimer? have you got a minute? he's just left "you're not to go into my room,"he says to me again, for the two hundredth time. "someone's been playing with the lock on my door, and you' re not to go near that closet," he says, like it was his house and he was ordering me about . ..... . .. . .. . ..... . ... .. . love letters? but why he needs a whole closet for his love letters? if he's got any. besides, i don't think he's type ocman that has love letters. (p.23) 31 celt, volume i, number i, december 200 i : 27-43 in addition, mrs. hergesheimer describes mr. newbold as a haughty individual. this clue may be depicted as she is shopping at baumgarden's. mrs. hergesheimer : i made a point of talking to him when i was shopping in baumgarden's yesterday. my. he struts around that floor. you'd think he was president instead of floorwalker. i asked him where they kept the artificial flowers. i knew, but i just wanted to see if he'd recognise me. he smiled and made a lordly gesture with his hand. showin' me the way. you'd have thought he was the king of persia, with all his fine manners. (p.24) from the evidences we may have a description what kind of person he is. the depiction of mr. newbold from other character's viewpoints will significantly support the central issue on this article. in the second place, we are going to depict mrs. c rosby. in the play she functions as the antagonist since she is most of the time in opposition to mr. newbold. she always wants to interfere what becomes mr. newbold's affairs. mrs. crosby can be described as a woman. mrs. crosby is a woman who cannot help for not talking. such a depiction may be portrayeu in the following dialogue. mr. newbold mrs. crosby : mrs. crosby! (no response) mrs. crosby! (coming from the kitchen). i wasjust straightening up after breakfast. i'm afraid none of guests like the new bacon i was serving. on my word it is. every bit. i didn't buy it to bring down expenses. not at all. it's fine bacon. hickory smoked. only it's the kind you slice yourself. that's why i got it. you can cut yourself a good thick slice of bacon that you can really get your teeth into, instead of that other stuff that shrivels up like tissue paper ........... (she is the son of woman who continues talking until someone stops her.) (p.20) the quotation above is quite obvious that she is fond of talking. in addition, mrs. crosby also likes gossiping. it can be traced, particularly, when she talks to her friend. mrs. hergesheimer, about what kind of person mr. newbold is. g.m. adhyanggono, inge's the tin)' closed in gender perspective 33 mrs. crosby that's what i've been telling myself, mrs. hergesheimer. i've got every right. for all i know. i may be harbouring a spy, or a criminal, or a lunatic ...... ........ he might have a bomb in there he meant to destroy us with. i'm not gonna set idly by while someone is plouing something. (p.24) another description that we can observe from her is that she likes to peach. in this case, she intends to peach against mr. newbold. she certainly does it on purpose, as she wants to reveal his very secret to public. this behaviour can be seen in the following dialogue. mrs. crosby : i 'm going to ask him to leave. mrs. hergesheimer: oh no. mrs. crosby. don't do that. mrs. crosby : i am. i'm going toask him to leave. and i'm going to call the store he works at and tell them what kind of freak they have working for them. indeed i am. (p.27) in addition, mrs. crosby is also depicted as a woman who has a pride. she obviously reveals it when she and mrs. hergesheimer are talking about mr. newbold. she deliberately places herself as an individual who is proud of her national identity. mrs. crosby : ......... .. ... .... .1 pride myself i'm real american, and i say if anyone's got any secrets he wants to keep hid, let'm come out into the open and declare himself. (p.24) the third figure is mrs. crosby's friend. mrs. hergesheimer. mrs. hergesheimer is a woman who, in the play, functions the minor character or supporting character. she also likes gossiping. she might be well depicted as an individual that, to some extent, always follows blindly what other people think of. in this case she is chiefly a character who almost has no self-decision. this can be pointed out in the following. mrs. crosby : i'm not going to do it if you don't come with me. mrs. hergesheimer : well ................. .. mrs. crosby : after all, you've been just as curious about this as i've been, and i think y.ou owe it to me to come along. mrs. hergesheimer : well, if that's (he way ~ou feel about it, mrs. crosby, i'll come along. after all, it's not as though we were doing anything criminal. (p.2s) 34 celt, volume i. number i. december 2001 : 27-43 from the above quotation. seemingly. her indecisive characteristic is due to her curiosity on mr. newbold. thus. we may also infer that she likes to interfere someone else's affair. the last character to describe is elsie. there are not many evidences that can depict her. nevertheless, there is a clue that may partially represent her. she could be depicted as a woman who understands her position as mrs. crosby's servant. in addition. it confinns her obedience to her lady. (slowly. cautiously. the two women go up the stairs together. the stage is empty for a few moments. and then elsie comes in from the kitchen. looks up the stairs with curiosity. then. as though the behaviour of the two women were too much for to understand. she shrugs her shoulders. laughs gently. and returns to the kitchen .. ".).(p.26) the relationships and the positio ns of the characters the play can be classified into a comedy of satire. as a fiction. it may tell us about how the middle class society represented as a group of people who are always intereste in interfering someone else's affairs. to understand how it embodies the play, it is bener for us to initially understand the relations and positions of the three most important figures that can be delineated in the following. ~ mrs. hergesheimer ~~ ________ --+. mrs. crosby b as touched upon, mr. newbold is the protagonist. mrs. crosby is the antagonist, and mrs. hergesheimer is the minor or supporting character. a represents the relationship between mrs. crosby and mr. newbold. b points out abhe relationship between mrs. crosby and mrs. hergesheimer whereas c is between mrs. hergeshe~mer and mr. newbold. g.m. adhyanggono, inge's the tiny closed in gender perspective 35 the relationship between mrs. crosby and mr. newbold is the central point to elaborate the analysis. there is, of course, a conflict, between them in which it is initially caused by their perception on the so-called ·private'. mr. newbold thinks that he has the right to keep his closet free from anybody. on the contrary, mrs. crosby thinks that she is the landlady and has every right to make sure her property is used properly. although the conflict is not straightfoward, they both realise that they have a very touchy disagreement. this situation is likely to be 'a time bomb'. there is a statement of mrs. crosby that appropriately delineates such a kind of situation. mrs. crosby : that's what i've been telling myself, mrs. hergesheimer. i've got every right. for all i know, i may be harbouring a spy, or a criminal, or a lunatic. what's he got in that closet that he don't want anyone to see? can you tell me? it must be something he's ashamed of, or he wouldn't mind if anyone saw. isn't that what you say? and if it's something he's ashamed of ,i think we should find out what it is. you can't tell_he might have a bomb in there he meant to destroy us with. i';:n not gonna set idly by while someone is plouing something, mrs. hergesheimer. i pride myself i'm reall\merican, and i say if anyone's got any secrets he wants to keep hid, let' m come out into the open and declare himself. mr. newbold has always seemed like a fine man, and i got nothing against him personally, and he's the best roomer i ever had: keeps his room spotless. elsie don't have to do anything but make the bed. and i appreciate that, but if you ask me, it's kind unnatural for a man to be so tidy. isn't that what you say? there's been something suspicious about him from the very first.(p.24) b represents the relationship between mrs. crosby and mrs. hergesheimer. they both are friends. there is no conflict between them that can be delineated in regard with the plot of the play. it can be inferred that their relationship is very closed. to mrs. crosby, mrs. hergesheimer is a friend who wants to share anything. this can be indicated when mrs.crosby directly calls her after mr. new bold's leaving. on the phone they talk as if they have already got the common interest for mr. newbold. thus, it can also be stated that there is almost no conflict between them. 36 ~it. volume i, number i, december 2001 : 27-43 c. delineates the relationship between mrs. hergesheimer and mr. newbold. on thing that can be inferred from their relationship is that actually they both don't have the 'real conflict'. their conflict is quite indirect in which it is constituted under the influence of mrs. crosby's perspective or suspicion to him. what happens at baumgarden's becomes the proof for mrs. hergesheimer to know what kind of person mr. newbold is. in this case. she has an opinion that he is typically an arrogant. to her. it can be indicated by the way he treats people in formal manner. deconstructing the tiny cwset as touched upon. the method of study used in this analysis is deconstruction. one thing to start analysing the play is by finding out the binary opposition in it. the oppositions are to be classified into two columns; favoured and not favoured. the following table shows the oppositions that exist in the play. -favoured not-favoured i. landlady ~ i. roomer ~i 2. men 2. women 3. president 3.j1oorwalker 4. american 4. non-american 5. natural 5. unnatural the left column consists of words that are privileged in the play. they are privileged because first. they are explicitly stated in the playas good or important. and second, some of them seem to be talked exclusively. the right column is for the not-favoured words. they are not privileged since some of them are meant to reveal some peculiar cases, and one of them is discussed in a footnote. (durrant. i 996:p.44) the second step to be conducted is by drawing any resemblance of the contrasted words. first, we are going to draw the resemblance between landlady and roomer. the two words might considerably have the same underlying assumption in common. in the play. the words point out at the industrial relationship between mrs. crosby as the one who has the capital and mr. newbold as the one who rents for the capital. this owner-tenant relationship runs a very important role for mrs. crosby in bringing about her curiosity and suspicion to him. second, the contrasted men and women g.m. adbyanggono. inge's the tiny closed in gender perspective 37 have the resemblance in which the two words refer to the culturally attributed definitions of human being based on the biological detennination. third. it is president andj100rwalker to be contrasted. linguistically, they certainly are nouns; however, they might also refer to the structurally social status or occupations. president is the head of a republic whereas floorwalker, as footnoted in the play, is department store employee who supervises sales personnel and assists customers. (curry, i 985:p.24}.founh. american and non-american are about nationality. fifth. natural and unnatural might be seen as etymologically the same since the later is added with prefix uno. the two words are adjectives. the next step is trying to prove that contextually the not-favoured words are inherent in some way in the favoured ones. this can identified by deleting the not-favoured in order to verify that the favoured can to some extent stand by itself. if we delete roomer. then landlady will significantly lose its meaning in the play. mrs. crosby will not be described as such landlady if mr. newbold is not depicted as such roomer. thus it must be there to also articulate the other. similarly. it also occurs to men and women. when women is obscured, then there is no tendentious comparison of men and women as stated by mrs. crosby" oh, men are much tidier than women, "1 told her.(p.22} in this case it is quite obvious that women is used to define the significance of men in a biased perspective. hence. men will be soundless if women are not there. between president andj1oorwalker. it is also meant to be a comparison. mrs. hergesheimer describes mr. newbold's manner as if he is a president though she does not actually mean it. she thinks that as a floorwalker it is not necessary for him to behave as a president. thus if president does not come appear. then there is no comparative emphasis she wants to reveal. meanwhile, if not american is interpretatively articulated as a hidden meaning. then american is going to lose its exclusive value. in addition the exclusiveness of american lies on how it is described and used by mrs. crosby to vauntly express her being american. in this case, american is connoted as honesty and straightforwardness. thus, to determine its • american', it needs everything that is 'not american' as the articulator. the last is between natural and unnatural. if unnatural is obscured, then natural will not come appear as an articulatedhidden meaning. the word unnatural will only be a word that has no profound meaning in the play. hence, one thing that can be concluded from the inherent resemblance of the words is that they exist in order to reinforce the contrast. it detennines 38 celt, volume i, number i, december 2001 : 27-43 how they are 'politically' used to serve the favoured words as depicted in the play. this method is to some extent affecting the initial reading on the play. the trny closet can be initially seen a comedy of satire about the middle class society at the mid of twentieth century. yet, this method might further analyse the relationship between men and women in particular, as a representation of the traditional concepts of men and women that are still on going in the so-called modem time. after being deconstructed, then what might come appear as the central idea or theme of the play is about the social rejection to the so-called 'unusual' based on biological determination of one's choice. regarding the positions and the relationships of the characters, it has 10 be understood that the theme basically emerges from the gendered bias that exists in the play. thus, of course. there is a shift of idea from a mere comedy of satire in literature study into a gender perspective in cultural study. nevertheless, we should not be confused with the shifting idea since this study is not meant to replace or to undermine the validity of each approach. as we found the binary oppositions in the play, we may have landlady. men, president, american. and natural as the favoured. one thing, which is very interesting to identify, is that of the five words. four are uttered by female characters, either mrs. crosby or mrs. hergesheimer. even natural as a hidden meaning, is implied by mrs. hergesheimer. this may indicate that there is tendency to use pragmatical issues to judge someone based on biological determination. to prove the indication, let's try to study the following dialogue. mr. newbold mrs. crosby : mrs. hergesheimer? oh, yes, i believe i did. she called me yesterday and told me she seen you. "whata fine man that mr.newbold is'" she says. "you are lucky woman, mrs. crosby, to have such a fine guest. alii got in my house is a latta old-maid schoolteachers, and i'm always cleanin' up after 'em. ''1bat' what she says. "oh, men are much tidier than women," i told her. i kept schoolteachers once, and they was always in the bathroom, curling their hair in there or giving themselves shampoos, or shaving their legs on my nice bedspreads. mr. crosby was alive then, and it almost drove him crazy. he never could get to the bathroom when he wanted to, because of them schoolteachers. (p.22) g.m. adhyanggono, inge's the tiny closed in gender perspective 39 from the dialogue above, we may have a picture of how she compares men and women in such away just to define mr. newbold's coyness. the way she describes how men are tidier than women is by giving an example of what old-maid schoolteachers usually do. old-maid schoolteachers are those who like to get themselves busy with curling and shampooing their hair in the bathroom, or shaving their legs on the bed. what mrs. crosby wants to say is that only women do it all and not men like mr. newbold. it is quite obvious that this touches the gender bias. apart from her real interest whether cynical or not, she has already placed and pictured women in that way. further evidence of how the 'nature' of women is revealed can be found in the following. mrs. crosby : that's what i' ve been telling myself, mrs. hergesheimer. i've got every right. for all i know, i may be harbouring a spy, or a criminal, or a lunatic. what's he got in that closet that he don't want anyone to see? can you tell me? it must be something he's ashamed of, or he wouldn't mind if anyone saw. isn't that what you say? and ifit's something he's ashamed of, i think we should find out what it is. you can't tell he might have a bomb in there he meant to destroy us with. i' m not gonna set idly by while someone is plotting something, mrs. hergesheimer. i pride myself i'm a real american, and i say if anyone's got any secrets he wants to keep hid, let'm come out into the open and declare himself. mr. newbold has always seemed like a fine man, and i got nothin' against him personally, and he 's the best roomer i ever had; keeps his room spotless. elsie don't have to do anything but make the bed. and i appreciate that, but if you ask me, it's kinda unnatural for man to be so tidy. isn't that what you say? there's been something suspicious about him from the very first. (24) from the above quotation, it can be deduced how mrs. crosby, is depicted as a woman who likes to intercede someone else's affairs. this may bring about a basic question; is it only typically woman? it is indeed arguable. man may have the same urge as well, if it is seen as an urge. in addition, we should consider the position of mrs. crosby at the time in which she is the landlady and bragging herself as american. thus, regarding all of 40~elt, volume i, number i, december 2001 : 27-43 . '~ 4· . these, it cannot be seen as a gender bias. yet, an important clue that can be drawn lies at the end of her statement. she states that man is not supposed to be so tidy, and it is unnatural if he reajiy is. hence, there is a judgement of men and women based on biological determination that relies much on the traditional image about the characteristics of both sexes. traditionally, men tend to be messy whereas women tend to be tidy. thus, if any of them breaks the image, then it has to be seen as something unnatural. mrs. crosby : i would. i'd rather be harboring a communist than a man who makes hats. mrs. hergesheimer: why, there's nothing wrong with making hats.l don't see anything wrong with it. why, lots of men make hats. some of the finest designers there are men why, of course. mrs. crosby : but he kept them locked in his closet. he was ashamed of them. (p.27) unlike the previous evidences, the above dialogue indicates that there is a different percept' on between mrs. hergesheimer and mrs. crosby about mr. newbold. after they find out what in the closet, hergesheimer thinks that there is notbing wrong for a man making hats. she even gives evidence that some weji-mown designers are men. yet, crosby argues that he keeps them in the closet. she thinks he does not want anybody to see them, as he is ashamed of what he has done. further, what can be deduced from the above dialogue is that there is no agreement between mrs. crosby's statement and her argument. her statement is about her disagreement about a man who makes hats. yet, when she is asked by mrs. hergesheimer to give the reason, the only answer she can make is that because mr. newbold keeps them in the closet. thus, it is very illogical, and it may also be perceived as gender bias. a more intense and obvious description of mrs. crosby's disagreement and rejection to mr. newbold can be delineated in the following dialogue. mrs. crosby. i am. i'm going to ask him to leave. and i'm going to call the store he works at and tell them what kind of freak they have working for them. indeed jam. mrs. hergesheimer: oh, i wouldn', do that. it's not against the law for a man " to make hats. he hasn't done anything really wrong. g.m. adhyanggonot inge's the tiny closed in gender perspective 41 mrs. crosby why, a man who'd make hats and lock them up in his closet, there is no telling what kind of person he is. he might do any kind of dangerous, crazy thing. mrs. hergesheimer: oh, i don't think so, mrs. crosby. really i don't. mrs. crosby : i'd rather he was a communist. at least you know what a communist is up to. but a man that makes hats! what can you tell about such a creature? (p.27-28) one thing that can be inferred from the above excerpt is that there is reemphasis on her hatred or disagreement to him, which indirectly shows her real position to the concept of anti biological determinism. it means that her truly attitude is rejecting the equality of men and women in particular term. the experience of mr. newbold to do as what women do, in this case making hats, is seen as deviation of the social norms. butler ever stated in her gender trouble (1990) as extracted in www.lheoly.org.u k resources: judith butler that to some extent women and men can say that feel more or less 'like a woman' or 'like a man'. in addition, it is culturally considered as an achievement to more honestly identify them in social structure that exists. referring to it, what he does by making hats is a process of iden tifying and defining him as a free individual. this is what mrs. crosby den ies because she extremely sticks on the old images about men and women. in gender study, she can be seen as a representation or a symbol of those who still keep the old values. unlike her, mrs. hergesheimer may be symbolised as those who are moderate, the ones who recognise the changes of perception between men and women within society, but still hesitate to join in. further, we may observe on the relational aspects of the play. as touched upon, what makes the play interesting is about mr. newbold's experience. when he has chosen to make hats, there is a reaction from mrs. crosby. first and foremost is about making the hats, and second is about keeping them in the closet. these are what she objects. it is interesting for us to know that apart from his position as the protagonist, mr. newbold may be contextually perceived as a biologically-defined man but has certain uniqueness that is making hats, women hats precisely. in post modem time. there is no problem with it, but what make it problem is the way he keeps them. mrs. crosby initially uses this as her disguise to criticise him. yet, what the play presents further might be interpreted as a fear of mrs. crosby to the concept of hermaphrodite in mr. newbold's nature. the play depicts 42 celt, volume i, number i, december 200 i : 27-43 how a woman is afraid of a man having women's characteristics as she (might) has. further, it is very interesting to observe that this fear can be grasped as generally social perception within the structure of the society in the play. mrs. crosby may see mr. newbold as 'an effeminate man' or 'sissy'. the third aspect that needs to be reinforced is about the multidimensional aspects in the play. the multi-dimensional aspects in gender study, may deal with symbols, the ethnicity, social class, race and so forth. yet, in this analysis, the most obvious aspect of the play is the use of hal that obviously refers to a particular sex. in inge's the tiny closet, the hats are culturally and socially designed to be women's accessories. it can be proven as described in the following. (mrs. hergesheimer flutters out of the house as though wanting to avoid further involvement. mrs. crosby studies the hat again, taking it to the mirror to try it on. she deliberately burlesques il~ elegance and all that it signifies offeminine daintiness and beauty ....... ) (p.28) from the above excerpt, it cnn be easily defined that the hats made by mr. crosby are women's hats. this may to some extent describe that hats, which are symbolically represent beauty, elegance and women, are used to articulate the fear of mrs. crosby upon feminine tendency possessed by mr. newbold. another evidence pointing out at the fear of mrs. crosby can also be delineated as follows. mrs. crosby: i don't care if he does. just let him try to scold me, in that superior way of his. (imitating mr. newbold)" mrs. crosby, someone's been tampering with the lock on my closet. i demand privacy, mrs. crosby. that's all i ask, isjustone tiny cjosettocall my own. that's all i ask." hmm. i'll have an answer for him. "what in god's name does a grown-up man like you mean by making hats, mr. newbold? shame!" that's what i'll tell him. and he won't act so superior then. (p.28) conclusion thus, it can be stated that what so-called the fear of having the characteristic of the opposite sel( is truly the very heart of the play. that mrs. crosby has such a fear is to be seen as culturally social construction. regarding that she is a middle class white woman, the case is quite obvious to be said that it retains the polarisation of men and women as traditionally and culturally shaped. its retaining of the polarisation lies in the representation g.m. adhyanggono, inge's the nny closed in gender perspective 43 of the characters from which their relationships are formed. further. such a kind of interrelation brings about a perception that though mr. newbold is the protagonist, it is mrs. crosby who should be deconstructively perceived as the one who has the real gender problem. references budianta, melanie. 1998. sastra & ideologi gender. jakarta: horrison curry. dean. 1985. plays/or reading. washington d.c.: english language programs division, bureau of educational and cultural-affairsunited states information agency. durrant, allan & fabb, nigel. 1996. literary studies in action. london & new york: routledge. friedan, betty. 1995. beyond gender. http:uwww.(eminist.comlbeyond.htm gaunlett, david. 1998. judith butler(summary on gender trouble) hll12il www.theol). org.uklctr-butl.htm green, keith & lebihan, jill. j996. critical theory and practise: a coursebook. london & new york: routledge. humm. maggie. 1992. feminism: a reader. london & newyork: harvester wheatsheaf shelden, roman & widdowson, peter. 1993. a reader's guide to contemporary literary theory.3nj ed. london and new york: harvester wheatsheao logo: a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia paca (predicting and confirming activity) reading strategies to promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class 1ririn ambarini, 2listyaning sumardiyani, and 3 english education department, faculty of language and arts education, universitas pgri semarang, semarang, indonesia subur laksmono wardoyo email: 1ririnambarini@upgris.ac.id; yiyien.averros@gmail.com; 2listyaningsmd@gmail.com; 3 subur_wardoyo@yahoo.com received: 29-03-2017 accepted: 02-04-2017 published: 27-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj paca (predicting and confirming activity) reading strategies to promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class 1 ririn ambarini, 2 listyaning sumardiyani, and 3 subur laksmono wardoyo 1ririnambarini@upgris.ac.id; yiyien.averros@gmail.com; 2listyaningsmd@gmail.com; 3subur_wardoyo@yahoo.com 1,2,3english education department, faculty of language and arts education, universitas pgri semarang, indonesia abstract: this research is based on the study which is attempted to examine the use of paca reading strategies to promote students’ teaching strategies in tefl 1 class. the objectives of this study are (1) to find out the students’ teaching strategies in tefl i class before using paca reading strategies, (2) to find out the significant difference between the students who use paca reading strategies and those who do not use paca reading strategies in their capability of teaching strategies in tefl i class. the population of this study is the fifth semester students of english department in pgri university of semarang. there are six classes of tefl i class in english department and two classes are taken as the sample of the study. the classes are 5g and 5h. they are divided into the experimental class (5g) and the control group (5h). the result of the study shows that the students in the experimental class which were taught by using the technique of paca reading strategies to promote their teaching strategies had better achievement than the students in the control group which were taught without using the technique of paca reading strategies. the average score of the pre-test of the experimental class was 76.72 and the control class was 72.85. the average score of the experimental class was 81.98 and the control class was 72.85. the pre-test and the post-test score then were calculated to get the t-test to know whether there was significant difference between the experimental class and the control class. the t-test was 0.47 and the t-table was 0.213. then the t-test and t-table were compared. the data shows that the t-test was higher than the ttable. it means that there was significant difference between the experimental class and the control class. 48 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 47 – 63 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj key words: paca reading srategies, teaching methods and strategies, tefl. abstrak: penelitian ini didasarkan pada penelitian yang menguji penggunaan strategi membaca paca untuk meningkatkan strategi pengajaran siswa di kelas tefl. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah (1) untuk mengetahui strategi pengajaran di kelas tefl 1 sebelum menggunakan strategi membaca paca, (2) untuk mengetahui perbedaan yang signifikan antara mahasiswa yang menggunakan strategi membaca paca dan yang tidak menggunakan strategi membaca paca dalam kemampuan menerapkan strategi mengajar di kelas tefl 1. populasi penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa semester lima jurusan bahasa inggris di ikip pgri semarang. ada enam kelas tefl 1 di jurusan bahasa inggris dan dua kelas diambil sebagai sampel penelitian yaitu kelas 5g dan 5h sebagai kelas eksperimen (5g) dan kelompok kontrol (5h). hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa di kelas eksperimen yang diajarkan dengan menggunakan teknik strategi membaca paca untuk meningkatkan strategi pengajaran memiliki prestasi yang lebih baik daripada mahasiswa dalam kelompok kontrol yang diajarkan tanpa menggunakan teknik strategi membaca paca. skor ratarata pre-test kelas eksperimen adalah 76.72 dan kelas kontrol adalah 72.85. nilai rata-rata kelas eksperimen adalah 81,98 dan kelas kontrol adalah 72,85. skor pre-test dan post-test kemudian dihitung untuk mendapatkan t-test untuk mengetahui apakah ada perbedaan yang signifikan antara kelas eksperimen dan kelas kontrol. uji-t adalah 0,47 dan t-tabel adalah 0,213. kemudian t-test dan t-tabel dibandingkan. data menunjukkan bahwa t-test lebih tinggi dari t-tabel. ini berarti ada perbedaan signifikan antara kelas eksperimen dan kelas kontrol. kata kunci: strategi membaca paca, metode dan strategi pembelajaran, tefl ambarini, r., sumardiyani, l., &wardoyo, s.l., paca reading strategies to 49 promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj introduction reading is the most important skill for foreign language learners, because they have little exposure to the target language outside the classroom and most of the information in english comes through reading (danasasmita, 2007). in such contexts, students get more opportunities to read rather than to listen to english (ibid). this is why the main emphasis in most programs of english as a foreign language (efl) is usually on the written skills especially reading. amaya (2001) states that "[i]n many parts of the world a reading knowledge of a foreign language is often important to academic studies, professional success, and personal development. this is particularly true of english as so much professional, technical and scientific literature is published in english”. teaching english as a foreign language (tefl) involves teaching english to those whose first language is not english, either in the uk or overseas in differrent types of organisations. the term tefl is associated with the teaching theory, qualification, and careers. in the tefl 1 class of english department of pgri university of semarang, according to the course outline designed for semester five, tefl 1 constituent with tefl 2 course that contain materials focusing on the principles of english teaching methodology. this course deals with the basic theory of teaching english such as how to teach english through grammar translation methods, audiolingual methods, communicative approach, silent way, suggestopedia, community language learning, and so forth. from the description above, the writer would like to observe the use of paca reading strategies to promote students’ teaching strategies in tefl i class with the fifth semester students of english department in ikip pgri semarang in the academic year 2012/2013. previous research findings there has been a number of research concerning with the use of reading strategies in teaching process. one of the studies was conducted by stevens, et al in nunan (2000). he revealed that students work on cooperative groups significantly outperformed on standardized measures of reading comprehension, reading vocabulary, language mechanics, language expression, and spelling. they also performed better on writing sample and oral reading measures. 50 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 47 – 63 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj another study was conducted by vianty (2007). in her research entitled “the comparison of students’ use of metacognitive reading strategies between reading in bahasa indonesia and in english”, she said that the use of metacognitive reading strategies is a very important thing. it is used to encourage the students to use the metacognitive reading strategies so that they are able to improve their reading performance both in bahasa indonesia and in english. the next study that was conducted by al-tamimi (2006) entitled “the effect of direct reading strategy instruction on students’ reading comprehension, metacognitive strategy awareness, and reading attitudes among the eleventh grade students in yemen”. he said that the use of direct strategy instruction is very useful to be applied in the teaching and learning process. it is used to encourage the students to use the direct reading strategy so that they are able to improve their reading comprehension, metacognitive knowledge and reading attitudes. the other study was that conducted by wallace (2005) entitled “the impact of implementing four specific reading strategies (outlining, sq3r, plan, and paca) on the high school geography classroom”. in her research, she said that the use of the four reading strategies (outlining, sq3r, plan, and paca) is very useful to be applied in the teaching and learning process. it is used to encourage the students to apply those strategies to their geography readings as well as to expository texts in other disciplines so that they are able to determine what is important, summarize material, recognize fact from opinion and continue to develop critical thinking skills. based on the previous research findings above, the writer would like to use paca reading strategies to promote students’ teaching strategies in tefl class for the fifth semester students of english department in pgri university of semarang. literature review a. reading strategies there are some principles of reading that underlie the implementation of reading strategies (pinnell & fountas, 1998; stern, 1983). those principles are: (1) students need to understand the aims of reading so that they will be able to understand and enjoy the reading activities, (2) students need to learn ambarini, r., sumardiyani, l., &wardoyo, s.l., paca reading strategies to 51 promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj and understand the structure of written language so as to get the information and new ideas, (3) students need to know the language sounds, enjoy the sounds, and use the knowledge of using the language sounds as the means to be an illiterate person, (4) students should have lots of experience about the sound symbols so that they are able to use that experience to read and write, (5) students need to deepen the meaning of words so that they can take the advantage of it to catch the information from their reading activities effectively and efficiently, (6) students have to develo the suppleness and articulateness to improve the understanding so that reading activities will be both the joy and the enjoyment for them (rayner, foorman, perfetti, pesetsky, & seidenberg, 2001, p. 4). reading is the most important skill for foreign language learners, because they have little exposure to the target language outside the classroom and most of the information in english comes through reading (hoffman, baumann & afterbach, 2000). rayner et al. (2001) states that "in many parts of the world a reading knowledge of a foreign language is often important to academic studies, professional success, and personal development. this is particularly true of english as so much professional, technical and scientific literature is published in english” (richards & rodgers, 2003). at school, teachers can only provide some guidance, but they cannot provide students with all the information that they need. the best service that teachers could provide their students is to teach them reading strategies that might help them become independent readers so that they are able to access all types of materials on their own (scrivener, 1994). according to delgado (2005, p. 6), there are lots of reading strategies that can be applied in the process of teaching learning so that students will get more undertanding and also comprehension toward the content of the texts they are reading. those reading strategies are as follows: 1. anticipation guide, 2. chunking the text, 3. close reading, 4. dialectic journal, 5. graphic organizer, 6. guided reading, 7. interactive reading guide, 8. k-w-l chart (what i ... know, want to know, learned), 9. making the text, 10. predicting, 11. previewing, 52 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 47 – 63 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 12. quetioning the text, 13. quickwrite, 14. read aloud, 15. skimming/scanning, 16. summarize/paraphrase/retell, 17. think aloud, 18. visualizing, 19. activate prior knowledge, 20. raft (role, audience, format, topic), 21. paca (predicting and confirming activity), 22.tp-castt (title, paraphrase, connotation/denotation, attitude, shift, theme, titles), 23.soapstone (subject, occasion, audience, purpose, speaker, tone) b. paca reading strategy active readers often use a reading strategy called paca. paca stands for predicting and confirming activity. the strategy is based on the idea that a reader can often predict what a selection will be about. after the prediction is made, the students can look for information that confirms whether they are right or wrong. what they find out can help them understand their reading (kinsella, 2001, p. 6). the paca uses student predictions to set a purpose for reading. students make these predictions based on an initial set of information provided by the teacher, even if they have very little knowledge about the topic to be studied. given additional information, students can revise their predictions (or hypotheses) and pose them as questions to be answered during reading (kinsella, 2001). those steps are as follows: step 1: predict what you will read. step 2: read and confirm your predictions. step 3: support your predictions c. teaching strategies in tefl class 1. what is a good english teacher? according to sisman & acat (2003) and woods, jeffrey, troman, & boyle (1997), a good language teacher is characterized by: ambarini, r., sumardiyani, l., &wardoyo, s.l., paca reading strategies to 53 promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a) technical knowledge—understanding linguistics; grasping basic principles of language learning and teaching; language proficiencies in speaking, reading, writing and listening; knowledge about language learning process through one’s own experience; understanding the relationship between culture and language and knowledge of latest development of language teaching and learning. b) pedagogical skills---well-informed language teaching approaches; teaching techniques; ability in lesson plan design and other classroom behavior management skills. c) interpersonal skills. d) personal qualities. 2. english teaching presentation oral presentations are becoming a more important part of language teaching, especially in the university environment. the focus of the class is often on the specific language for presentation, the use of visuals and organisation. this focus is usually determined by the lecturer. nevertheless, in this day of student-centered teaching approaches, it is important to also know what students actually want out of a presentation class and if we as lecturers are meeting these objectives in our courses and with the textbooks we are using. students overwhelmingly view presentation classes as an opportunity to improve their english ability rather than actually learn how to give presntations. (miles, 2009; dillon & maguire, 1997; eric, 2000; sisman, 2001) presentation skills can be defined as those which are limited in use to presentations only and not transferable to oral communication or conversation. from this definition, we can conclude that powerpoint skills would be defined as a presentation skill as they are not normally used in conversation related to language skills improving their speaking, and improving their english. what this shows is that both students and teachers/lecturers seem to see the purpose or focus of oral presentations in terms of language improvement, not as a means to actually learn how to present in english. (miles, 2009). this is especially important when one considers that giving oral presentation means that the students are able to present what they have already learned about the content of the materials about teaching methods in the classroom where they 54 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 47 – 63 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj could learn how to present them in english (katchen, 2004; gottlieb, s., 2004). based on the above theories, as a part of having the scores of the students in tefl i class, the students are assigned to be able to give their ideas of teaching methods and the examples of activities of those certain teaching methods in the presentation session. in this kind of performance test that is taken as the pre-test in the research, the students will give their best performance by presenting the best powerpoint to explain and explore their ideas about certain teaching methods, by giving the appropriate examples of the related teaching methods. they will also be documenting their presentation with videotaping so that they can learn what kind of improvement they have made for the next performance tests in the presentation session and teaching practice session (hanušová, 2004; isman, 2003). 3. teaching strategies in tefl class using paca reading strategy there are several methods and approaches in foreign language teaching. some of them are more widely spread and put in practice than the others. the main characteristics of methods and approaches in foreign language teaching, together with their positive and negative aspects etc. were presented – as to the future teachers – in one of the methodology courses (esl glossary, 2012; ananthakrishnan, 1993; oddens, 2004). incorporating the usage of the communicative approach into the teaching process means developing the learners’ communicative competence (=an ability to use the language appropriate to a given social context) and avoidance of learners’ mother tongue in classes (larsen-freeman, 1986; baytekin, 2004). the development of methodology is connected with the development of methods and approaches in the foreign language teaching as we know them nowadays. in the longman dictionary of applied linguistics, methodology is defined as: (1) the study of the practices and procedures used in teaching, and the principles and beliefs that underlie them, and (2) such practices, procedures, principles, and beliefs themselves. one can, for example criticize or praise the methodology of a particular language course.” (nunan, 2000; beydogan, 2002; bircan, 2003). the use of the learners’ mother tongue should be eliminated but it is sometimes very hard or ambarini, r., sumardiyani, l., &wardoyo, s.l., paca reading strategies to 55 promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj even impossible; when teaching beginners using the target language only it is often the case that the learners do not understand everything (harmer, 1995; bowen, 2006; celep, 2001; otto-van. 2004; richard, 2006). in this case, it is the teacher’s task to explain the learners the advantages of this way of teaching and to support the learners’ motivation. research method a. the research design degu & yigzaw (2006) stated that experimental means systematical method to build causal-effect relationship. the researchers have to manage situation where some variables impact into one or more dependent variables that could be identified. in this study, the research team used pretest-posttest, control design. the design of the experiment could be described as follows: experimental group r o1 x o2 control group r o3 ---o4 b. population in an experimental design, there should be a population that will be investigated. patton (1990) stated that a population is any group of individuals that have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher. the population in this study is the fifth semester students of english department in pgri university of semarang in the academic year 2012/2013. the class consists of two classes with the total number of students are 90 students. each class consists of 45 students. c. sample sample is the part of the amount and characteristics from its population (patton, 1990). it is a part of population to be investigated by a researcher to do the research easily. sample of the research is taken from the total number of population. this research used simple random sampling. it is called simple because in deciding sample from the population as randomly without carrying the class or 56 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 47 – 63 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj level from its population. the population in this research is all the students of english department in pgri university of semarang. there are three classes from the fifth semester. the researcher team chooses class 5g as the experimental group and class 5h as the control group. the total number of the students from those classes are 90. they are 45 from class 5g and 45 from class 5h. d. the research variables independent variables are the condition or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates in her or his attempt to ascertain their relationship to observe phenomena (cresswell, 2003). based on the definition, the independent variable of the study is the methods of teaching using paca reading strategies. dependent variables are the conditions or characteristics that appear, disappear, or change as the experimenter introduces, removes, or changes independent variable (cresswell, 2003). based on the definition, the dependent variable of this study is the students’ achievement in teaching strategies. e. the instrument for collecting the data the researcher team uses one test type. it is a kind of performance test in the form of presentation and teaching practice. this type of test is chosen because the researchers have to check the students’ teaching strategies in implementing the methods of teaching they have already learned during joining tefl 1 class in the presentation session and in the teaching practice session. teaching practice is a test to measure the student’s ability in teaching. before they practice teaching, they must know the methods of teaching they have already learned and understood with or without using paca reading strategy. students’ capability in giving presentation about the theory of teaching methods and giving the examples of teaching learning activities based on those methods will be measured by rubricenglish teaching presentation and the capability of the students in implementing the methods of teaching as the teaching strategies in their teaching practice will be measured by rubricmicroteaching. ambarini, r., sumardiyani, l., &wardoyo, s.l., paca reading strategies to 57 promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj research findings after the students in the experimental class were taught by using paca reading strategies, they used those strategies to understand more the materials of teaching methods in tefl 1 class. then, they analized the materials of teaching methods, made them into power point, and presented them in front of the class in the form of presentation where they would present not olnly about the characteristics of teaching methods, but also the advantages and the disadvantages of the teaching methods together with the examples of the class activities how those teaching methods could be applied in teaching practise. the scores of the students’ presentation about the teaching methods learned in tefl 1 class were used as the score of their pre-test. there is a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test. it means that the students of the experimental class that were taught how to use paca reading strategies to analize the materials of teaching methods in tefl i class and to improve their teaching strategies in tefl 1 class had an improvement of 7.88. the scoring of the students’ teaching practice was used as the score of their post test. the result shows that the average of the scores of the pre-test was 75.38 and the average of the scores of the post-test was 83.26. based on the data above, we can see there is no significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test, even the students of the control group were low after they got the post-test. the control class that were taught without using the technique of paca reading strategies to analize the materials of teaching methods in tefl 1 class and to improve their capability of teaching practice related to the implementation of the theory of teaching methods they had done in the presentation had the difference mean 5.53 (78.38 – 72.85). the mean of the post-test scores of the experimental class and the control class had a significant difference. the mean score of the experimental class was 83.36 and the mean score of the control class was 78.38. it means that the mean scores of the experimental class is higher than the control class. the improvement of the mean of the post-test of the experimental class and the control class was 4.98.in addition, the improvement of the mean of the experimental class was 19.94. it can be calculted from mx2 – mx1 = 83.87 – 75.38 = 8.49. the improvement of the mean of the control class was 5.53. it can be calculated from my2 – my1 = 78.38 – 72.85 = 5.53. if t-test ≤ t-table, it means that there is no difference ability between the experimental group and the control group in the students’ teaching strategies using the technique of paca reading strategies to analize the materials of 58 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 47 – 63 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teaching methods in tefl 1 class and to improve the teaching strategies as the implementation of the theory of the materials they had done in the presentation in tefl i class. the t-table value for α = 5%, with df = nx + ny – 2 = 45 +41 – 2 = 84, is 0.213. based on that result, the t-value > t-table where 0.47 > 0.213. thus, there is a significant difference in the students’ ability in the students’ teaching strategies in tefl 1 class between the experimental group and the control group. discussion the ability of the students in teaching strategies in tefl 1 clas who were taught by using the technique of paca reading strategies to analize the materials of teaching methods and to promote teaching strategies is sufficient. the researcher used that method to improve the students’ ability in the performance of teaching strategies. the students can share their ideas of teaching methods and teaching activities creatively without being ashamed. they were interested and happy in the learning way. based on these facts, the scores of the students who were taught by using the technique of paca reading strategies to analize the content of the teaching methods in tefl 1 class materials are good. it can be seen from the result of the mean score of the post test in the experimental group which was taught by using the technique of paca reading strategies to analize the materials of teaching methods and to promote teaching practice, which are 83.26. it can be seen from the result of mean score of the post test in the control group which was taught without using the teachnique of paca reading strategies to improve their performance in the presentation session and in the teaching practice session, which are 78.38. it was caused that the students who did not use the technique of paca reading strategies in analyzing the materials of teaching methods got lack of understanding to elaborate the teaching methods into the significant activities during the process of teaching learning. the students’ ability in the presentation session and teaching practice session which was taught using the technique of paca reading strategies to understand more the materials of teaching mehtods in tefl 1 class was different from the students’ ability in the presentation session and teaching practice session which was taught by using the technique of paca reading strategies to understand more the materials of teaching mehtods in tefl 1 class. ambarini, r., sumardiyani, l., &wardoyo, s.l., paca reading strategies to 59 promote students’ teaching strategy in tefl 1 class https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj it can be seen from the final score of both classes. the mean score of the experimental class is higher than the mean score of the control class. the mean score of the post-test of the experimental class was 83.26 and the mean score of the pot-test of the control class was 78.38. these results present the significant difference in the presentation session and in the teaching practice session, because t value is higher than t table, which is t.05= 0.213 (0.47> 0.213). conclusion the mean of the students who were taught by using the technique of paca reading strategies to understand more the materials of teaching methods in tefl i class and to promote the students’ teaching strategies for the pre-test was 75.38 and this score belongs to the low scores. the mean of the students who were taught by using the technique of paca reading strategies for the post-test was 83.26 and it belongs to the good scores. the mean of the students who were taught without using the technique of paca reading strategies for the pre-test was 72.85 and this score belongs to the low scores. the mean of the students who were taught without using the technique of paca reading strategies for the post-test was 78.38 and it belongs to the low scores. suggestions this study has shown that paca reading strategies was an appropriate method in improving the students ability in the presentation session where they have to give the information of certain teaching techniques/methods including the examples of activities in the classroom and in the teaching practice session where the students should be able to practise how to teach the students with certain materials according to the syllabus of the related school level and with the appropriate activities based on the teaching methods they have presented in the presentation session. they can be more creatively and freely in giving and sharing their ideas and thoughts by discussing each others’ teaching methods and classroom activities both in the presentation session and teaching practice session. since the use of paca reading strategies can improve the students ability in the presentation of certain teaching methods in tefl 1 class materials and in the teaching practice session, it is suggested that the lecturers 60 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 47 – 63 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj of tefl 1 use this method as an alternative method in teaching the materials of tefl 1 about the teaching methods in english class so that the students will get much more better understanding about the content of the materials about how to elaborate the teaching methods and create the classroom activities based on the appropriate teachinng methods. moreover, the students can share their ideas freely without being ashamed. they also have so many ideas or thoughts related to the certain teaching methods they had already learned and give the examples of classroom activities based on those methods, and then in the teaching practice session, they will be able to create the classroom management including the opening, the content, and the closing of the classroom activities. it can make their teaching performance good and even better. the next researchers must be able to give more improvement in the use of the technique of paca reading strategies because it can improve the students’ ability in the presentation session about elaborating the teaching methods in tefl 1 class and in the teaching practice about implementing the classroom activities based on the appropriate teaching methods they have already learned. based on this study, we can say that the use of paca reading strategies is an effective method in improving the students’ capabilities both in the presentation session and in the teaching materials in tefl 1class. it is, therefore, suggested that the institution gives information or training for the lecturers of tefl 1 in using paca reading strategies in tefl 1 class so that the students will be able to improve their abilities in understanding the materials related to teaching methods used in teaching english as a foreign language so that they will get better performance and also scores in the presentation session and in the teaching practice session. references al-tamimi, n. o. 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(1997). restructuring schools, reconstructing teachers. buckingham: open university press. 3.pdf (p.1) 003 jul2018.pdf (p.2-18) a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 19 no.1; july 2019 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia english teachers’ personally-initiated learning (pil): their professional development preferences i.g.a. lokita purnamika utami english language education department, faculty of language and art, universitas pendidikan ganesha, singaraja, indonesia email: lokitapurnamika@undiksha.ac.id received: 07-12-2016 accepted: 26-02-2017 published: 31-07-2019 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj english teachers’ personally-initiated learning (pil): their professional development preferences i.g.a. lokita purnamika utami lokitapurnamika@undiksha.ac.id english language education department, faculty of language and art, universitas pendidikan ganesha, singaraja, indonesia abstract: this article aims at reporting a result of a small research in bali about english teachers’ personally-initiated learning (pil) preferences. the study was done through a small survey involving 156 english teachers and continued with a focus group discussion (fgd). the survey was mainly about english teacher’s pil preferences, and the aspects which influence their participation. the survey revealed some pil preferences, namely: web-browsing, reading books, colleagues sharing, reflection from experience and doing research. following the survey analysis, 2 times of 90 minutes fgd were conducted by involving 15 english teachers. the focus group discussion was conducted to see english teachers’ pil experiences and opinion regarding the pil preferences found in the survey. the study found that english teachers’ preferences were influenced by their time, family responsibility, ability, age, effect-relevance and schoolculture. besides that, personal motivation was found to be essential in their professional development participation. suggestions for school administrators are discussed as it reflects the implication of the findings of the study. key words: personally-initiated learning, professional development, english teachers abstrak: artikel ini bertujuan untuk melaporkan hasil penelitian kecil di bali tentang preferensi guru bahasa inggris dalam 'belajar dengan inisiasi personal’ (pil). penelitian ini dilakukan melalui survei kecil yang melibatkan 156 guru bahasa inggris dan dilanjutkan dengan diskusi kelompok terarah (fgd). survei yang dimaksud berkenaan 90 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 89 106 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj dengan preferensi pil oleh guru bahasa inggris dan aspek yang mempengaruhi partisipasi mereka. survei mengungkapkan beberapa preferensi pil, yaitu: web-browsing, membaca buku, berbagi dengan rekan, bercermin dari pengalaman dan penelitian. setelah analisis survei dilakukan, penelitian ini dilanjutkan dengan 2 kali 90 menit fgd yang dilakukan dengan melibatkan 15 guru bahasa inggris. fgd dilakukan untuk melihat pengalaman dan pendapat guru mengenai preferensi pil yang ditemukan dalam survei. studi ini menemukan bahwa preferensi guru bahasa inggris 'dipengaruhi oleh ketersediaan waktu, tanggung jawab keluarga, kemampuan, usia, efek-relevansi dan budaya sekolah. selain itu motivasi pribadi ditemukan sebagai hal yang penting dalam partisipasi pengembangan profesional mereka. saransaran untuk pimpinan administrasi sekolah diberikan karena hal tersebut merupakan implikasi dari temuan penelitian ini. kata kunci: pembelajaran dengan inisiasi personal, pengembangan profesional, guru bahasa inggris introduction to improve or maintain teachers’ professionalism it is essential for teachers to engage in professional development efforts. cahyono (2010) believes that continuous professional development engagement is ultimately necessary for teacher professionalism as teachers need to adjust or to keep up with any educational changes and teaching challenges. being up to date with any educational changes, they may improve teachers’ practice quality. many scholars (lieberman, 1996; kennedy, 2005; davidson, dunlop, soriano., kennedy, & phillips., 2012) have discussed options of professional development models or activities. their accounts can be generally classified into two board classifications, namely structured professional development and unstructured professional development. the first involves all learning activities which are organized by professional development providers. the later involves personally appropriated activities which are various in target, time and ways. this article discusses the later account done by english teachers in indonesia. in this article, it refers to personally-initiated learning (pil), which is teachers’ self-initiated learning efforts. research to date (ashadi, 2010; cahyono, 2010; hastuti et al., 2009; evans, tate, navarro, & nicolls, 2009) report teachers’ refusal in participating in structured professional development in indonesia because of various factors utami. p.l., english teacher’s personally-initiated learning (pil): their 91 professional development preferences https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj such as time, financial reward, family responsibilities, lack of sustainability, etc. thus, as the findings showed some unfortunate condition for structured professional development, the study tries to answer two questions related to unstructured professional development: 1) what are english teachers’ pil preferences, and 2) what aspects influence their pil preferences? review of literature this section specifically addresses personally-initiated learning (pil). to give the contextual description, the next part is an account about elt professional development in indonesia. a. pil (personally-initiated learning) as english teachers’ professional development effort professional development refers to any kinds of efforts done by the school administrator as well as a teacher. mizell (2010, p.1) states professional development as “the strategy schools and school district use to ensure that educators continue to strengthen their practice throughout their career”. by this definition, mizell emphasizes the efforts initiated by schools and school districts to have teachers engage in professional development activities. however, day (1999) emphasized that the ones who initiate the effort are not only schools and schools district but also teachers as individuals. he states: professional development consists of all-natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school, which contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom. (day, 1999, p.4). teachers’ perceptions of what activities constitute professional development are frequently limited to attendance at courses, conferences, which are often to meet pd (professional development) policy requirements. teachers do not always see professional learning at school as a form of professional development (hustler et al., 2003) and regularly see it as part of the routine. meanwhile, some scholars (haigh, 2005; horn & little, 2010; weimer, 2011) believe that even sharing among teachers about their classroom challenges and difficulties is also professional development. mizell (2010) mentions that self-initiated learning is a form of professional development. this may include several activities such as individual reading, 92 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 89 106 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj study/research, study groups among peers, peer coaching, mentoring and online course. another expert prefers to classify these activities into several types. according to lieberman (1996) there are three types of professional development: 1) direct teaching (courses, conferences, workshops, consultations); 2) learning in school (mentoring, peer coaching, action research, critical friendships and task-related planning teams); and 3) out of school learning (visits to other school, learning networks, school-university partnerships and so on). when teachers seek learning opportunities with their initiatives, they are actually doing personally-initiated learning (pil). pil is characterized with a highly-personalized structured and less systematic learning procedure. brennan (2016) mentions that this highly-personalized learning is basically a practice-based learning. this term shared the same principle with self-directed learning where learners organize their learning (brennan, 2016) in which one proactively seek out information when needed and take the necessary steps to master it (zimmerman, 1990). teachers in doing pil may do this individually or may involve other teachers in their learning. regarding terminology, lieberman (1996) mention about learning in school, which is mostly pil such as mentoring, peer coaching, action research, critical friendships and task-related planning teams. however, unlike pil, this term does not cover what teachers can do individually at their own time, such as web-browsing at home, personal reading, joining an online course, etc. recently scholars (nilsson, 2012; o’brien & jones, 2014) also come with a new term: professional learning, as a more flexible term for any unstructured learning efforts, either at school or at home. they distinguish the term professional learning from traditional professional development because it is unstructured and highly personalized in nature. specifically, davidson et al. (2012) provide some ways for english teachers’ professional development activities. related to personally-initiated learning, they mention about networking with other english teachers through various way such as having a membership of the professional association and joining many elt facebook and twitter groups. through these groups they can share experience or opinion about teaching practices which is the most stimulating ways to develop. they may engage in sharing and learning from a more experienced teacher which is an invaluable way to gain insight into teaching english. utami. p.l., english teacher’s personally-initiated learning (pil): their 93 professional development preferences https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj some scholars have also studied english teachers’ pil options. martinbeltran & peercy's (2014) study examines the collaboration between english teachers and content-area elementary school teachers. banegas, pavese, velázquez, & vélez (2013) did an investigation on their teaching practice through collaborative action research. furthermore, there are also options to develop one’s professionalism by seeing one’s own strength and weaknesses. for instance, doing a contextual-reflection and self-reflection (chien, 2014), working with a mentor teacher (wang, 2002), and using teaching portfolio (mclean, m., & bullard., 2000) or digital portfolio (trent, j., & shroff, 2013) besides those options above, there are also professional development options which are more highly-personalized in structured in which teachers can structure the activity, the time, the scope and the resources by themselves. these options may include a model of exploring the internet (orr, duncum, & wallin, 2013), active reading-research-findings as a base for their teaching (luke, a & mcardle, 2009) professional dialogue (cheng & winnie, 2012) and doing a reflective practice (bleach, 2014). personally-initiated learning can be a solution toward teacher’s hesitance of doing professional development. for instance, teachers who claim that they do not have sufficient time may try activities which are more individual learning. teachers who say they cannot afford to participate in seminar or conference may have peer collaboration or coach with their colleagues at school. furthermore, with the proliferation of online learning platforms, there is also online professional development. b. elt professional development in indonesia in indonesia, national system of education no. 20/2003, chapter xi article 40 enacts teacher’s responsibilities. it states that teacher is responsible to have professional commitment to improving the quality of education. cahyono (2010) mentions that there are four options for indonesian elt teachers’ professional development. the options include sending teachers to graduate program in elt, assigning teachers to join in-service teachers’ certification, sending teachers to a professional training program and building teachers’ awareness of the importance of continuous improvement learning (cil) to be a competent teacher is crucial. cahyono (2014) reported a result of a survey on factors that cause low achievement in national examination (ne). in general, the survey reveal that the dominant factor causing students low achievement in ne were the teaching learning process in the classroom. 94 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 89 106 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the finding on the survey mentioned previously is in line with alwasilah's (2012) opinion. his article presented a statistical number of teachers according to their professional components. the survey revealed that secondary teachers mastered the following as part of their professionalism: 1) learning materials (51.3 percent), 2) methods of teaching (16.7 percent), 3) curriculum implementation (11.9 percent), 4) instructional technology (10 percent), and 5) learning evaluation (9.7 percent). this survey result suggests that for them, mastering english seems to be more comfortable than mastering methods of teaching, implementing the curriculum, using instructional technology and conducting learning evaluation. alwasiah (2012) also belief that efl professionalism is teachers’ mastery of english and its pedagogy. similarly, the result of the survey above also found that most efl teachers still have difficulties in teaching some basic competencies. elt training and efl professional development programs should emphasizes these two aspects. besides teacher mastery of english and pedagogy, the competency in technology literacy also needs to be considered to support efl professionalism. instructional technology is the weakest area of efl teaching, followed by curriculum implementation and methods of teaching (alwasiah, 2012). unfortunately, many efl curriculum developers at lptks have taken this issue lightly (alwasiah, 2012; evan,et.al, 2009). lie (2007) describes the chance of english teachers’ professional development in indonesia is described by she states that many efl teachers in indonesia are not able to join in a professional development program; not because they do not want to but because they are not able to. at school, they struggle with teaching 40-50 students in one class, not to mention live with low salary, which makes the majority of teachers have to do some moonlighting work after school. consequently, many of them are not able to put enough time and energy into making class preparation, improving their quality and enhancing their professional development. scholars who study cpd in indonesia have revealed that teachers face various issue about cpd. evans, et al, (2009) found that there is a lack of effective monitoring and evaluation to determine the effectiveness of the indonesian professional development activities. for instance, there is lack of sustainability of the well-intentioned efforts to improve indonesian teacher’s quality; when donor money runs out, the efforts will stop. their research revealed that improvement must be made in terms of ongoing evaluation to keep the sustainability of indonesian professional development activities. utami. p.l., english teacher’s personally-initiated learning (pil): their 95 professional development preferences https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj a study by error! reference source not found. in indonesia, found there was a tendency that indonesian english teachers cannot involve very much in professional development because their professionalism is not yet adequately rewarded, i.e. they had a low salary. thus, more than half of the teachers admitted that they had a second job that hinders them from attending any professional development activities. on the contrary to their practice, they believe that sick pay should not be a reason for a teacher to act unprofessionally; thus, they believe that teachers should enhance their professionalism regardless of the financial rewards. the study indicated that the initial motives to choose being a teacher as a profession influence the way teacher performs professionally. these motives include a genuine passion for teaching, religious duties, financial hardship, the love for english language, perceived roles of women, or failure to enter other professions. such motives bring implications to teachers’ professionalism and their further growth. this finding is later confirmed by utami, prestridge, saukah, & hamied (2019) who find that cpd participation alone cannot guarantee the alignment of their perceptions and practices of effective teaching in the classroom. they identify motivation as one of the indicators of professional enthusiasm, which is a ”key ingredient of cpd that will help them shape their perceptions of effective teaching into their practice” (p.115) furthermore, utami & prestridge's (2018) study indicates that indonesian english teachers have different professional development disposition for online professional learning: compliant disposition and indifferent disposition. they identify that pd policy shapes these dispositions. teachers with compliant disposition participate in cpd because they are required to or to fulfil policy demand. thus, since online professional learning is not a component to be measured in teacher professional development evaluation, teachers with compliant disposition are inclined to be less active in doing online professional learning. meanwhile, teachers who have indifferent disposition, participate in any learning efforts because they want to get involved in the developmental process of being professional teacher. in other words, their learning action directly tied to professional attainment instead of merely fulfilling policy demand. the above research done related to professional development for elt in indonesia may portray english teachers’ perception and disposition regarding cpd participation. some teachers think that it is useful and vital. however, some teachers choose not to participate in cpd because of some reasons such as time, energy or money to afford the program. some others believe 96 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 89 106 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj unstructured professional development (called by different terms: professional learning, self-regulated learning, personally-initiated learning) as a more flexible learning option. methodology the study was conducted in bali province, indonesia, by involving some english teachers. it followed a qualitative research approach by utilizing survey and fgd (focus group discussion) as the techniques of collecting data. precisely, it followed phenomenological approach, which concerns about understanding the point of view of the subjects or participants’ perspective. the survey was not done to have a result to be generalized, but instead as a way of looking at prominent pil preferences of english teachers in bali and aspects influencing pil participation. for the survey, a questionnaire was developed by studying indonesian cpd (continuous professional development) manual (kemendiknas, 2010) and some research about teachers’ perception on professional development activities and the problems they encountered to participate (hustler et al., 2003; hustler et al., 2003; roux & valladares, 2014). the researcher distributed 200 questionnaires to random english teachers in bali, which were returned by 156 teachers. based on the result of the survey, focus group discussion (fgd) were conducted twice in buleleng regency, and each lasted for 90 minutes. there were 15 english teachers agreed to be involved in the fgd but some teachers refused because of some conflict with their working schedule and geographical distance. the data was analyzed by looking at the percentage of frequency of respondents choosing the items in the questionnaire, and doing content analysis on the discussion note gained during fgd. findings from the survey, it was found that 145 people selected web-browsing, 116 people selected colleagues sharing, 93 people selected reflecting from experience, 46 people selected reading books/e-book, and only 15 people selected doing research. these findings showed that english teachers most likely to prefer web-browsing as their way of personal learning; and less likely to prefer doing research. utami. p.l., english teacher’s personally-initiated learning (pil): their 97 professional development preferences https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj besides the frequency of pil preferences, the survey also found that english teachers considered some aspects influencing their participation. these aspects namely: time, family responsibility, age, ability, effect-relevance, school culture and personal motivation. the respondents were allowed to choose more than one aspect from the list. there are 149 people who chose the time, 84 people who chose family responsibility, 28 people who chose ability, 33 people who chose age, 139 who chose effect-relevance, 67 people who chose school culture, and 112 chose who personal motivation. figure 1: pil preferences web browsing adding books college sharing researching reflecting from experts among these aspects, time was considered to be very influential. these findings implied that english teachers with more time might have the possibility to do more personally-initiated learning. they described their striving in doing away too much responsibilities. based on the regulation, no. 14, year 2015 from kemendikbud professional teachers should teach 24 hours minimum. most teachers believed that this policy was successfully making them busy teaching and preparing the administrative report, which left them no time to do professional development. figure 2: aspects influencing pil lie (2007) and utami (2018) identify time as one influential aspect influencing professional development involvement. in the indonesian context, 98 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 89 106 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj lie(2007)error! reference source not found. states that many efl teachers in indonesia are not able to join in professional development program; not because they do not want to but because they are not able to. at school, they struggle with teaching 40-50 students in one class, not to mention live with low salary, which makes the majority of teachers have to do some extra job after school. similarly, utami, (2018) found that some teachers cannot do web browsing for making up class preparation because they are not able to put enough time and energy into it. they regretted the 24 hours teaching required by pd policy since this policy caused them to be unable to manage their time more effectively in order to learn and improve the quality of their teaching the discussion during fgd meetings resulted that english teachers were aware of some efforts that could be done personally for their professional development. the discussion revealed that english teachers dealt with many job-related challenges, such as new curriculum, innovative teaching techniques, online teacher competency exam, etc. their most preferred way was by doing web-browsing. surprisingly, the similar response also came from senior teachers who were likely digital immigrant. though speculation says that digital immigrant tends to find technology as complicated matter, yet the discussion in fgd implied that some digital immigrants were very adaptable and willing to learn advanced technology. they implied that they were quite familiar with some web-browsing activities such as reading current government education policy, downloading curriculum, teaching material or lesson plan documents, becoming a member of online english teacher association, and learning about innovative teaching techniques. how some digital immigrants learn better than others to adapt to the environment has been discussed by prensky (2001) who also believed that to some degree always leave some “accent” of their past. prensky’s claim about digital immigrant characteristics make it clear how english teachers in the study had a partial ability in using technology. the english teachers involved in fgd admitted that they were quite good at using their smartphones and a personal computer with an internet connection to help them do their task. the smartphone was mostly essential for their quickanswer needs, for instance, looking up vocabulary meaning in short time. english teachers also used their own pc to download what they need from the internet such as teaching material, visual and audio teaching media, government regulation, a model of the lesson plan, curriculum issue, etc. although they seemed to be quite good at technology such as using smartphones and learning through the web, very few of them have sufficient utami. p.l., english teacher’s personally-initiated learning (pil): their 99 professional development preferences https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj ability in using technology to produce something to be shared online. this lacking in sharing was known from their lack of knowledge on creating a blog or web. most of them were consumers, i.e. reading and downloading documents, video, etc but not yet a producer, i.e. producing teaching material, teaching tutorial, video or article. the discussion during fgd was also about their experience in doing colleagues-sharing. they perceived that relation with other teachers was very important, not only with english teachers but also with teachers teaching other subjects. they found that they frequently learned from their colleagues. their discussion was various ranging from sharing knowledge earned from a workshop that they did attend, discussing students’ behavior and characteristics, sharing about teaching strategies to sharing about innovative teaching media. this finding reflected cheng & winnie's (2012) study which also found that professional conversation could be a context of teachers’ professional learning. the fgd also discussed english teachers’ preference in reflecting from their experience. it showed that english teachers were likely to reflect on the way they taught their previous classes which, as found by (bleach, 2014) can be very useful for their professional development. they modified their lesson plans every time before they taught. they admitted that they were required to make and submit a whole-year lesson plans, which were perceived not the ones they applied in the classroom. the real lesson plans were those they made for their teaching, which mostly based on the reflection of their previous sessions. they consider the class’ characteristics in designing their lesson, e.g. they thought about encouraging students’ involvement activities in an unmotivated class. when the english teachers talked about their reading experience, their responses were quite similar. they did not have enough time for reading beyond reading the textbook to prepare for their lesson. most of them admitted handling family responsibilities, age and insufficient time, causing them to have a lack of reading. they did reading when they need to. for instance, when they had to prepare for the teacher competency exam, they would read more than usual. the discussion implied that reading was not yet as a habit, but was conducted to attain a target, e.g. earning a good score in an exam. previous research also revealed how to effect relevance influences their professional development participation, i.e. getting certificate of participation, the incentive of training (hastuti et al., 2009; muzaffar & malik, 2012). this 100 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 89 106 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj discussion showed that the effect-relevance aspect influenced their professional development participation. the effect-relevance and school-culture aspect are indicated when they talked about what motivates them to do a research. from the discussion it was known that teachers perceived researching as a very difficult matter, and only teachers with high personal motivation and willingness may want to do that. most teachers said that doing classroom action research (car) was done to fulfil the requirement of upgrading to higher career level. if it had not been required for their career level upgrading, they believed, fewer teachers would have done that. they mostly had very little time to do research. they argued that doing the research required much time, both in the process and the report making. besides, the changing expectation of the reviewers who review the research report made researching the last thing they want to do. some teachers said different reviewers might have a different expectation of how to do car. thus, many teachers were unmotivated when reviewer returned their research reports for several times with inconsistent feedback. the discussion also showed that teachers were aware that there was a different degree of stringent bureaucracy in the different regency, which caused the different rate of teachers upgrading their career level. the stringent bureaucracy affected teachers to do car. in addition, school culture may also influence teachers to do research. the discussion revealed that schools which had an excellent evaluation and recognition of on teachers’ achievement were more likely to have more teachers doing research or another achievement. on the contrary, schools which less reinforced teachers for their efforts were likely to have demotivated teachers. this finding supports what expectancy theory states. gemeda & tynjälä (2015) explained that expectancy theory has three perceptions: 1) expectancy (the belief that effort will lead to the desired performance), 2) instrumentality (the belief that if one meets performance expectations, one will receive a greater reward) and 3) valence (the value one personally places on the rewards). thus, the way schools recognizes one achievement, such as doing research, may influence teachers to make more or fewer efforts to perform achievement. ashadi (2010), dayoub & bashiruddin (2012), hökkä & eteläpelto (2014) and utami (2018) discussed the influence of school culture and how english teachers demand of school support toward their utami. p.l., english teacher’s personally-initiated learning (pil): their 101 professional development preferences https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj development. they found that unsupported school culture may decrease teachers’ professional development participation such as the limited, or even nonexistent, collaboration among colleagues. the fgd also found that teacher personal motivation influences their personally-initiated learning activities. one teacher mentioned her experienced in accomplishing two courses through online courses named coursera. it took her 10 and 16 weeks. besides, her learning activeness, she also had done car research which was motivated by the problem she found in her classes. she was teaching at a school in a village and the school was not described to have a culture which may motivate teachers to do more than teaching. she believed that teachers should be knowledgeable and should not stop learning. her genuine effort reflects her high personal motivation. with relation to motivation, a study by yuwono & harbon (2010) in indonesia, involved 46 english teachers in salatiga shows that their initial motives influence english secondary teacher’s belief in choosing the teaching profession. the current study strengthened the claim that teachers with high personal motivation to be a good teacher, do more efforts to improve their professionalism. conclusion to answer the research question of no. 1: what are english teachers’ pil preferences? the study finds that english teachers pil preferences include webbrowsing, reading books, colleagues sharing, reflection from experience and doing research. some potential indonesian english teachers strive for making their ways to improve themselves. they have much responsibilities and insufficient time. thus, they consider pil as a more feasible professional development effort than attending a structured professional development. to answer the research question of no. 2: what aspects influence their pil preferences? the study reveals that time, family responsibility, ability, age, effectrelevance, school-culture and personal motivation as the influencing aspects. school and colleagues play essential role in establishing the external motivation for teachers to make professional development efforts. thus, school administrator should enhance teachers by facilitating them with professional development atmosphere such as providing a good internet connection, peer-observation opportunities, colleagues-sharing/ team teaching opportunities, self-evaluation checklist, etc. 102 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 19, number 1, july 2019, pp. 89 106 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v19i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the study may not provide sophisticated statistical data but it provides, to some degree, information about how english teachers practices personalityinitiated and what aspects may enhance their efforts. thus, to gain a better description of indonesian english teachers’ pil experiences a study with a larger survey sample is urgently needed. references alwasilah, c. a. 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(1990). self-regulated learning and academic achievement: an overview. educational psychologist, 25(1), 3–17. guide for contributors a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 learners' language challenges in writing english barli bram ....................................................................................................... 1 autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. ............................................................................................ 16 scrooge's character development in charles dickens' a christmas carol theresia erwindriani .................................................................................... 28 teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono ....................................................................................... 45 “america, you know what i'm talkin' about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson ............................................................................................... 60 a love for indonesia: the youth's effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism shierly june and ekawati marhaenny dukut ................................................. 72 a book review: discourse analysis antonius suratno ........................................................................................... 88 celt, vol.12, no.1, pp. 1-100, semarang, juli 2012 (index) a book review: discourse analysis discourse analysis barbara johnston oxford: blackwell publishing 2008, 311 pages isbn: 978-1-4051-4427-8 reviewed by antonius suratno 1 readers of books on discourse might have been familiar with this book, first because the older addition of this book was published by blackwell in 2002, secondly because the writer is 1 antonius suratno, m.a. <antono_dito@yahoo.com> is a lecturer in the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. he is currently pursuing a phd degree in newcastle university, england, uk. his research interests include discourse and rhetorical studies, corpus linguistics, as well as technology in elt. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 89-93 90 among the highly cited writer in the area of discourse. she has been a prolific author of books in the area of discourse and has had her books such as variation in discourse, discourse analysis and narrative, repetition in discourse and many more titles published since 1989. if you ever tried to search google scholar and put her name on the search book, it should not come by surprise that her name is on high count of hits suggesting people’s familiarity with her work. discourse analysis (da) is very often described broadly enough to encompass most if not all of what we have mapped as the area for language and social interaction. the word discourse’ has been broadly used and becomes a very fashionable term in various walks of lives. given the breath the term encapsulated in various texts and debates, it is often used indiscriminately, and due to the lack of limitations in its conceptual definition, the meaning has often become vague and even confusing, either meaning many things or almost nothing. in her terms, as she said, "discourse analysis" is to mean what people do, how they do it, suggesting that it is a phenomenon and it is also an approach. she admits why it is called "discourse analysis" rather than "language analysis" to underscore the fact that it is not centered on language as a form but rather on language in use. as a phenomenon it is not singular, and as an approach it is multiple and even multidisciplinary approach usable to investigate many different social phenomena in various types of research strands. as the title of this book suggests, it essentially is an account of basic concepts of discourse, as characterized by the scope and the level of discussion in every chapter. crystal clear and down-toearth language signifies the major strength of this book which is intended to beginner rather than advanced audiences in the field of discourse. its status as the second edition suggests the value of readership and that it has gained vast acceptance. compared to the older edition this second edition has undergone some changes a. suratno, a book review: discourse analysis 91 which include such areas as inclusion of discussion on the use of large corpora as data for discourse analysis, new sections on indexicality, stance and style, and social and personal identity, and expansion on intertextuality and interdiscursivity, a new section on the analysis of multimodal discourse and a new material on conversational implicature and an expanded discussion of critiques of speech act theory. this book starts with overview of what da is, what it is used for, the facets of discourse analysis, the types of data available for analysis, why transcription is necessary relevant to purposes analysts intend to pursue. the following chapter outlines the issue of discourse in its relation to the world, outlining such areas as history of philosophy and describing how language and thought, language and culture, or discourse and society are related. this is necessary in particular when people are dealing with theories and arguments in which the question of knowledge foundation to be advanced is required, and if theory needs support and what position arguments are resting on. in other words, this is touching the aspect of ontology and epistemology which represent people’s worldview, overall perspective from which one sees and interprets the world, which should be the basis for any investigation. the subsequent chapter is about how discourse is shaped by various kinds of structural conventions, and how structural conventions are influenced by what speakers use. discussion highlights the intersection between "grammar" and discourse which clarify for instance why researchers take systemic functional linguistics approach to discourse instead of conversational analysts due to the differences of the conceptualization of structure. whilst the former sees the communicative function as shaping the grammar, the latter sees structure as an inherent part of conversation. this chapter also details some other concepts of various units of discourse such as phrases, lines, utterances, celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 89-93 92 paragraph, episodes, etc. which often becomes the focus of analysis. issue of participants in discourse is also touched upon in another chapter. the interplay between people and discourse has generally been understood as mutual, people shapes discourse and discourse shapes people. this relationship has been partly explicated in the relation between power and discourse through the exploration of the roles of stance and hedging in discourse. the last three chapters were devoted to provide account on the concept of intertextuality and interdiscursivity by proposing a subtitle of priortexts and prior discourses. this chapter is an important section of the book which provides basic understanding of those two concepts alongside repetition and coherence in discourse to readers which are potential area of investigation in discourse. additional relevant discourse themes were also covered by this book. the plus points of this book are in the simple and illustrative language the writer has used which obviously fits to the beginner learners of discourse analysis as well as the dialogic nature of each chapter as shown by the provision of discussion sections in every end of section. further reading is another excellent feature of this book in an attempt to instigate deeper exploration of the discussed issues. another great feature is that each section of the book ends summary and discussion questions intended to provide readers a chance to reflect what has been understood about the section and is expected to expand readers’ perspective about the proposed issues. as a case in point, a section of discussion may ask readers to think about what they and other people in their field do or might do with discourse analysis, as well as ideas for small research projects using discourse analysis, are interspersed throughout the chapters. this for sure is not only challenging to readers but also instigating more critical and inquisitive thinking. this book, however, is not without its flaws, despite the breath of perspectives offered, this book lacks necessary outline of general approaches that discourse analysts may adopt. it should be a. suratno, a book review: discourse analysis 93 more interesting and potentially inspiring should chapter iv which covers relationship, roles and identities be explained in the perspective of likely approach someone can take, rather than repeatedly discussing relativity aspect of discourse in three different chapters. thus, it can be said that this book fail to deliver a general outline of research approaches that discourse analysts should be aware of. given the scope of topics and area of discussion, this book is of benefit to anyone interested in studying discourse, spoken and written discourse analysts may benefit from understanding the nature of the data by learning from chapter 2 on the topic of discourse and world. having clearly indentifying the characteristics of data in relation to the relevant ontology and epistemology, a researcher may pick up relevant research methods that will be best capable of answering the issues in questions, meaning that whether a researcher adopts conversation analysis (ca), corpus linguistics (cl), rhetorical or genre perspective, or critical discourse analysis (cda) will very much depend on the nature of the data to be investigated. equally beneficial is the conceptualization of ideology which is explicated in the perspective of discourse analysis which should be area of interest for anyone who is set to unveil power inequality in discourse through cda. students may be benefited from understanding the general principles of doing da through the understanding of what it is as a subject or research methodology. this book is useful primarily to beginner graduate students taking discourse as disciplinary course, also teachers of discourse who use it as a course book. index of subjects celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 acquisition, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28 african american, 62, 69, 70 african american culture, 69 american television, 6163, 66 anti-christmas character, 37 approach, 1822, 2428 articles, 1, 2, 7 autonomous learning, 19 behaviourist method, 20 bernie, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 beulah, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 black sitcoms, 62, 68, 70 black, 61-69 charity, 30, 31, 43-46 classroom, 16, 22-23, 25-28 cognitive approach, 21 cohabitation, 24 comma splice, 11-12 communication, 16, 18, 20-22, 28 communicative approach, 19, 21, 28 computer-assisted communication, 21 corruption, 79 cuisiniere rods, 19 cybernautical approach, 16-20, 22-23, 26-29 cyberspace, 20, 23 dickens, 29, 30-32, 35-46 diction, 1, 10 diversity, 67, 73-79, 89 drama, 46-57, 59-60 elle, 16-18, 25, 27 english education programme, 2, 5, 6, 12 english extension course, 2, 5 6 english novelist, 30 episodic drama, 53 ethnicities, 74, 76 finite verbs, 1, 7-8, 15 foreign language, 47 fox network, 67 game, 49, 53, 55-57 grammar-oriented writing, 14 indonesia, 73-77, 79, 81-84, 8788 injustice, 79, 82 language-learning process, 17 learning, 1628 linguistic, 1, 2, 6 misanthropy, 29, 36, 38, 45 multicultural, 73, 74, 88 multiculturalism, 73-77, 79, 81, 82-85, 87-88 multiculturalist discourse, 67 multilingualism, 7 multimedia technology, 24 neuro-scientific research, 21 non-conventional methods, 19 number-noun concord, 8 oracy processes, 46-47, 59 paragraph writing, 1, 3 pluralism, 76, 79, 84, 89 punctuation, 3, 9, 12 reformation era, 79 scrooge, 29, 31-45 second-language learning, 21 segregationism, 61-62 student’s literacy, 47 subject-finite verb concord, 8 systemic functional linguistics approach, 90 television, 61-62, 64, 66, 68-69 tenses, 9 unity in diversity, 78 victorian age, 30 youth, 72, 73, 76-79 index of authors celt, volume 11, number 1, year 2011 adhyanggono, g.m, 46 bram, barli, 1 erwindriani, t., 29 george c., j. 16 june, s. and ekawati m.d., 73 nelson, a., 61 suratno, a. ,89 index of articles celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 adhyanggono, g.m. teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 4660. bram, barli. learners’ language challenges in writing english. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 1-15. erwindriani, theresia. scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 29-45. george c., jacob. autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 16-28. june, shierly and ekawati marhaenny dukut. a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 73-88. nelson, angela. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 61-72. suratno, antonius. a book review: discourse analysis. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 89-93. celt volume 11, number 2, year 2011 thank the following people for their outstanding work as reviewers: a. effendi kadarisman (universitas negeri malang, indonesia) c. soebakdi soemanto (universitas gadjah mada, indonesia) fr. borgias alip (universitas sanata dharma, indonesia) helena agustien (universitas negeri semarang, indonesia) subur wardoyo (ikip pgri semarang, indonesia) 7 antonius suratno_2012_12_1(89-93) 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 adhy 5 a okk celt july 2012 p. 61-72 angela nelson 6 a ok celt july p. 73-88 shierly & eka 7 a ok celt july 2012 p. 89-93 anton guide for contributors a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature celt issn: 1412-3320 learners' language challenges in writing english barli bram ....................................................................................................... 1 autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition jacob george c. ............................................................................................ 16 scrooge's character development in charles dickens' a christmas carol theresia erwindriani .................................................................................... 28 teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? g.m. adhyanggono ....................................................................................... 45 “america, you know what i'm talkin' about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac angela nelson ............................................................................................... 60 a love for indonesia: the youth's effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism shierly june and ekawati marhaenny dukut ................................................. 72 a book review: discourse analysis antonius suratno ........................................................................................... 88 celt, vol.12, no.1, pp. 1-100, semarang, juli 2012 (index) a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism 1 shierly june 2 and ekawati marhaenny dukut 3 abstract: indonesia is a country which is full of cultures and diversities. a multicultural country usually finds and faces the same problem that is the internal conflicts and even separation. as the cultured humankind, people should see the diversity of cultures as the wealth of nations and the ancestor‘s heritage that should be well-kept and developed. this study is intended to discuss and analyze the multiculturalism in indonesia, its development, and what the youth should do as the successor of the country to increase their honor towards multiculturalism as the writer sees that there are many youth who have lost their loyalty to their own cultures. key words: multiculturalism, youth, diversity 1 this article was one of the papers nominated for soegijapranata catholic university‟s student of the year event in 2011. 2 shierly june +6281901214647 is a 2008 student from the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. 3 dra. ekawati marhaenny dukut, m.hum. <ekawatimd@gmail.com> +628122938202 is a lecturer at the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 74 introduction indonesia, an archipelago country which lies between the pacific and indian ocean, is a country that gives extraordinary beauty of nature and great culture. the high mountains, volcanoes, hills, seas, lakes, rivers, and beaches adorn the indonesian archipelago. not only is the wonderful nature, indonesia is also rich of cultures, it is also known as a country that consists of a lot of tribes and ethnicities. the tribes and various ethnicities indonesia brings have created unique cultures which have been bequeathed to their offspring thus making indonesia a multicultural country. the notion of ‘culture’ most countries bring their own cultures that will be different from other countries‟ cultures. etymologically, the word culture comes from the latin word colere meaning „to process‟ or „to do‟. findings from harris clearly indicates that culture is the learned, social acquired tradition and lifestyles of the members of a society, including their patterned, repetitive ways of thinking, feeling and acting (1983:5). thus, it means that culture is not always represented by traditional dances, costumes, houses, or ceremonies, but it is more highlighted to how someone behaves and acts which is usually carried and is led by the cultural background they come from. in other words, everyone brings and has his or her own culture. on the other hand, indonesia has its own word to call culture. in indonesian language, the word culture is translated to budaya. the word budaya itself is taken from sanskrit word buddhayah. it is the plural form of buddhi or mind. the word budaya here has the meaning as all the things that relate to human minds. the further understanding of budaya defined as the evolved way of life which s. june and e.m. dukut, a love for indonesia 75 is possessed together by a certain group and is bequeathed from generation to generation (“pengertian budaya”, 2010, http://boykb.blogspot.com/2010.07/pengertian-kebudayaan. html). from the definitions above, it is lucid that culture is learned. the way parents talk to their children, the politic campaign, the making of advertisements, and when someone tries to communicate with people coming from different cultural background and adjust the differences, are facts that culture is always learned through many ways. therefore, culture can be bequeathed by ancestors and learned by people when they find a new culture. the notion of ‘multiculturalism’ indonesia has a lot of cultures, such as those from songs, folklores, traditional costumes, dances, ceremonies, houses, festivals, food, beliefs and languages. it is considered as the wealth of multiculturalism in indonesia. there are a lot of studies done by researchers to define multiculturalism. however, to define multiculturalism is not easy. a study by heywood distinguishes multiculturalism into two terms: the term „multiculturalism‟ has been used in a variety of ways, both descriptive and normative. as a descriptive term, it has been taken to refer to cultural diversity… as a normative term, multiculturalism implies a positive endorsement, even celebration, of communal diversity, typically based on either the right of different groups to respect and recognize, or to the alleged benefits to the larger society of moral and cultural diversity (2007:313). here, multiculturalism is strongly stuck to what is so called “diversity”. the diversity can bring both advantages and disasters http://boykb.blogspot.com/2010.07/pengertian-kebudayaan.%20html celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 76 depending on which point of view it is highlighted: the diversity to unite or the diversity to separate. another researcher, however, argues that multiculturalism is valuable because it uses several disciplines to highlight neglected aspects of the social history of a country (trotman 2002:ix). multiculturalism also can bring disasters or bad effects. a finding from lamm (2005) indicates that “diverse people worldwide are mostly engaged in hating each other that is when they are not killing each other”. both positive and negative effects of the cultural diversity or multiculturalism exist and become an everlasting problem that also happens in indonesia till nowadays. the existing pluralism of cultures in indonesia is usually followed by some factors such as how the cultures in the world are created. the condition of indonesia‟s nature becomes the basic reason for this case. the condition of indonesia‟s nature, such as the archipelago landscape and the humid atmosphere, demands indonesian people to live and survive with all kinds of ways for it. for example, acknowledging the fact that we live within an area where there are nearby mountains, natural disasters such as the earthquake and the cold mud or lava coming from the volcanoes should already become an anticipated cultural knowledge. thus, there is no wonder if there are diversities among the output culture made by the indonesians. the other reason is, indonesia consists of many tribes and ethnicities and live in a certain conditions of lands. so, the tribes whose people have the same cultural background will express their art and culture adjusting to the place and natural condition they are living. according to sullivan: the culture concept developed from ideas of a community of shared values and behavior knowingly elaborated by the participants as right, just as civilized (2006:257). s. june and e.m. dukut, a love for indonesia 77 because of this, it is not surprising that some of the tribe members are trapped by same values and behavior, which accordingly sets them apart from others. with a good study and understanding about culture and in turn multiculturalism, and its effects in indonesia, it becomes a significant basis to observe the condition of multiculturalism in indonesia nowadays. looking upon what happens to the cultures and the youth‟ attitude toward it, which seems neglecting the culture, has intrigued the writer to focus and try to repair the negative aspects of multiculturalism. the birth of multiculturalism in indonesia the youth are the successors of the country who have to respect their own cultures. so, one of the aim of this paper is to open up the youth‟s mind in honoring and becoming more sensitive to the multiculturalism issues in indonesia. with that idea, it is expected that the youth will show more of their love to indonesia. indonesia is a country that has a long history in the unity of their cultures. the cultures, which are so many, have passed a long and very heroic process to be tied as the national culture of indonesia. people who come from regions in indonesia gathered and they declared themselves as indonesian, they did not bring their cultural-regional identities, as they were one heart to reach the indonesia independence although they come from the different cultural backgrounds. through the sumpah pemuda in 1928, the national culture of indonesia was built. the notion of national culture is defined as the sharing of an historical destiny, personal qualities, languages, heroes, territory and institutions (smith 1991; anderson 1983, as cited in helly 2002:79). it can be stated then that to be cultured is everyone‟s right. people live and deal with culture through out of their life. the celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 78 existence of culture-right is even declared in the international covenant on civil and political right article 27, 1996, which states that: in those states in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities should not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language (inglis 1995). it is vividly asserted that cultural diversity is inevitable since the freedom of each individual to make decision about his or her life creates infinite diversity. however, since there‟s no link and understanding amongst each other, the risk of violence and inequality are permanent, so a compromise needs to be found. the indonesian youth’s role for the country the role of the youth as the successors of the country is badly needed to overcome the violence and inequality experienced by some indonesians. the youth is known for their critical thought and bravery, which usually arises from the ideas and actions to make a better future. moving backwards to the colonialism era, the indonesian youth took a very big role in realizing the indonesian independence. the youth forced soekarno and hatta to immediately proclaim the independence of indonesia and create a country with its native cultures without the involvement of the colonialism ideology or foreign cultures. the mix of cultures in indonesia then was proposed in a national motto bhineka tunggal ika, or “unity in diversity” (cunningham 2002), whereby every indonesian is asked to respect each others‟ indigenous cultures such as the bataknese, sundanese, javanese, and bugisnese. s. june and e.m. dukut, a love for indonesia 79 in the reformation era in 1998, the youth‟ role was again involved in destroying the power of new order that was considered tormenting the indonesian people because of the government‟s corruption and injustice treatment towards the chinese culture whose development was prohibited at the time. in may 1998, there was deliberate massacre or slaughtering of the indo-chinese descendants as victims. as a result, there are youth organizations struggled for justice and reformation. the youth nowadays are much more fortunate by living in a better era compared to the youth living in the colonialism and reformation era. the youth do not need to physically fight for independence and social justice. youth nowadays have the time and energy to keep and continue the struggle and spirit of the previous youth generation by maintaining the pluralism of indonesian cultures through improving the sensibility and honor toward multiculturalism and also preserve it as the realization of the feeling of love to indonesia. however, as it is clearly seen in the daily life today, the youth tend to be interested and be drowned to the euphoria of „pop culture‟, that is “the shared knowledge and practices of a specific group at a specific time” (dukut 2010: 8), which they consider is awesome and modern. the youth even leave their own native culture and move to the culture where they consider it as more „civilized‟. they start to lose the faith and sensibility to their own culture and surely to the others‟ culture as well. a simple example is when the booming of the japanese harajuku style and korean wave, a lot of youth change their hairstyle, haircolor, dress and even their original name to japanese and korean name. this kind of condition is supported by the study of nozlopy (2005) in her study which points out that: the most obvious and visible identifier of such individualist, material youth culture are the cell-phone, celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 80 motorbikes, nike trainers and other fashions consumed and coveted by young people … these fashions are the domain of the indonesian abg, the ‘anak baru gede’ or „kid who just got big‟. the dissemination of popular culture among the indonesian youth is caused by what is so called „globalization‟. the mass media nowadays are also encouraging the youth to do culture abrasion in which they are led to be an idol or celebrity who exposed by gossip, glamour, controversial and sensational actions. as a result, the youth pursue the most up to date fashion, go clubbing, addict to drug and free-sex so they are pushing the indonesian culture away. as a result, there are just a minuscule number of youth who still hold to the culture. the severe condition attracts the other country to „steal‟ the indonesian culture whenever the youth are busy with the modern dance rather than their own traditional dances. they prefer to go to play-stations and timezones rather than kuda lumping and dakon. also, they prefer to eat at mc donalds and kfcs rather than enjoying traditional food such as wingko babat, pecel, and tahu ketoprak. it has been spread out to the world that our neighboring country, malaysia, has unfortunately claimed some of indonesian culture such as the song “rasa sayange”, reog ponorogo, the song “soleram”, gamelan music instrument, kuda lumping dance, batique, angklung, pendet dance, etc. as their culture. (“daftar kebudayaan indonesia yg diklaim malaysia”, 2009). this vividly shows how weak the culture-resistance of indonesia is. it may be caused by the weak sensibility and tolerance to hold on to the existing multiculturalism in the indonesian youth. s. june and e.m. dukut, a love for indonesia 81 negative effects of low appreciation to multiculturalism the lack of sensibility and tolerance towards multiculturalism in youth creates some behavior. the first is „ethnocentrism‟ or the narrow fanatism in which someone makes judgement about another race (racism) and culture using the standards of one‟s own (crowther 1995:393). here, ethnocentrism creates a particular assumption that a culture is better than other cultures because of the rules of the judgments. this condition and behavior that is expanded in indonesia‟s social, politics, and economics fields make worse the relationship of each ethnicity in indonesia, so in turn it also creates an external threat of being stolen by other countries. the gaps, social prejudice and ethnic discrimination are everywhere. the sensitivity to respect the other‟s culture is very weak. beginning in the 1980‟s, the debate changed. racial, linguistics, religious and ethnic discrimination were no longer the object of controversy about socio-economic and political inequalities, but about the right to express minority cultural orientation without social prejudice and (since the 1990‟s) about their effects upon the sense of belonging to a society (kymlicka and norman, 2000: introduction, as cited in hell, 2002). the other attitude springing out is the intolerance towards multiculturalism in indonesia which causes the war tribes and religion that sacrifices a large number of victims. the biggest war religion happened in ambon where christians and moslem followers competed to destroy each other. one influential reason for this is because in ambon, there are areas which are specifically for moslem inhabitants, and on another side, there are those only for christians. so religion wars become in evitable. a lot of sadistic murders, unknown corpses, mutilations, and bomb celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 82 explosion are also evident in indonesia. the war tribe such as those for the sampit and maduranese people was also the result of intoleration towards multiculturalism. a further impact is the separatism movement, which forcedly ask for a homogenous culture in an area, such as in aceh and papua. so, the worst thing that can happen is the genocide like that experience by sudan, africa. because of this, ovando and mclaren (1999) as cited in gorski (2000: xix) indicate that: as long as we continue to operate within the existing capitalist social relation of the larger society, there is good reason to believe that racism and social injustice will continue to pose a serious threat to democracy and that the dream of social equality will remain largely unrealized. picture 1: war religion in ambon (http://www.bbc.co.uk/2/asia-pacific/2243896.stm) low appreciation towards one‟s own culture may be a “too” much respect to a certain culture. this means that the native culture can be isolated as a result of totally imitating a new culture. for example, in order that teenager is seen modern, she would make use of an indonesian language with english accent and use as much of english vocabularies in her indonesian statements. unfortunately, for some indonesian elders, this teenager‟s action is s. june and e.m. dukut, a love for indonesia 83 regarded as dishonoring her own native indonesian language. it is an obligation to respect others‟ cultures, but if someone does it too much, he or she will kill his or her own native cultures. this is supported by the study of taylor (1996), as cited in helly (2002), which states, “each person‟s sense of self-esteem depends upon the acceptance of his or her culture by society. if this does not happen, then the dignity or self-respect of the person will be endangered”. however, opposing to the aforementioned facts, there is still a number of youth who still try to keep the existence of multiculturalism in indonesia. some youths show that they still keep their native culture and respect the others‟ cultures. some also mix the cultures and it creates integration among the cultures. for example, first, the javanese barongsai dancers who are involved in the sin cia or chinese new year celebration, second, the event of “buka puasa bersama” done by churches youths activists, and third, the creation of “lontong cap go mek” where “lontong” is javanese traditional food but it is used by chinese in their celebration. to keep the stability of the cultural pluralism in indonesia, some policies have been done, for instance, the holding of cultural events such as seminars on culture like the faculty on letters‟ international seminar on celt (culture, english language teaching & literature), annual traditional dance competition at school, and the transmigration program, such as the javanese families who transmigrated to sumatra or papua. picture 2: celt international seminar held by the faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university (http:www.journalcelt.com) celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 84 suggestions and conclusion the writers believe that increasing youth‟ sensibility and honor toward multiculturalism in indonesia can be reached through: a. kkn, kku, kapki programs starting from our very own environment in soegijapranata catholic university, for example, the programs of kkn, kku and kapki can be used for students to learn different cultures because they directly deal with the conditions of the people in the villages who are mostly from the lower class society, so that a feeling of solidarity will grow among the students. in the kkn program, the students can hopefully learn and study about the culture of people at the certain village and make some improvement relating to the cultural, educational and economy aspect. in the scope of cultural improvement, for those who like to teach, can teach and introduce the kinds of indonesian culture to the uneducated children of the village such as by teaching bataknese folksongs, telling sumatra folklores, and playing javanese puppet shows. based on the writers‟ experiences, this kind of teaching technique is effective to attract the projected students‟ interest in learning culture. in a pkm-m program for the handicapped, three techniques were used to show the importance of honoring multiculturalism: drama, song and handicraft. all materials in the teaching and performances were given and done using english in ciputra mal,l semarang. the students received an enthusiastic response from the viewers, parents, teachers, and also the handicapped students themselves because it is a rare opportunity to see the indonesian handicap students make good use of english language throughout their performances. s. june and e.m. dukut, a love for indonesia 85 whereas in kku program, the students can help and assist the microeconomic enterprises in developing the villagers‟ or certain communities business, for example, the traditional food such as wingko babat to be more durable and sold internationally as a typical food from semarang. students from the food technology department can give their recipes and techniques in making longer the preservation of the wingko babat. then, students from the management program can teach the community on how to make effective marketing strategies. picture 3 and 4: wingko babat semarang (http://www.agsfoo.net) meanwhile, the faculty of letters students can make use of their expertise in english language to promote and advertise wingko babat internationally. and lastly, the students from the science of technology and law can devise user friendly website and regulation that speed up the national and international proclaim of wingko babat as semarang‟s very own, unique, traditional food. similar to kku, in kapki program, the students can apply the knowledge they get in lectures and practice it by making programs so the society becomes more encouraged to make their own enterprise and make a better living. the enterprise should be something which focuses on the maintenance of their traditional cultures, such as the encouragement of pekalonganese batique, solonese batique and balinese batique. the party that can be involved to realize this idea is the p3m (pusat pengabdian dan pengembangan masyarakat) office. along celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 86 with its initial goal, p3m can highlight the cultural side to be more developed. b. tv sinetron, movies, and opera van java program with the increase of gossip shows, sinetron (soap opera) and foreign movies or programs which expose the glamour of the celebrities that adopt the foreign and pop culture through their fashion, lifestyle, actions, attitudes, and speech, the youths nowadays prefer to imitate the style of the celebrities or idol to make them become modern, up to date and fashionable. yet, at the same time, unconsciously they forget and lose their native culture as indonesian. for this condition, it is fortunate that there are some programs on tv that still brings up the elements of the indonesian traditional culture. for instance, the opera van java program that displays wayang orang (javanese puppet show acted by people), who are directed by a dalang (director), supported by the sinden (singers) and gamelan orchestra, often mixes some culture in its shows. it often plays the story of indonesian folklores from sabang to merauke that is supported by the costumes and stages, so not only javanese folklores are performed. the other examples of tv programs which support the description of indonesia‟s multiculturalism is in jelajah, belajar indonesia, 1001 dongeng, legenda, wisata kuliner, etc. picture 5 and 6: opera van java (http://profile.ak.fbcdn.net/object3/775/52/n65992392976_6424.jpg and private collection) http://profile.ak.fbcdn.net/object3/775/52/n65992392976_6424.jpg s. june and e.m. dukut, a love for indonesia 87 taking the basic idea of the aforementioned examples, it means that students can also involve some traditional music by making the fusion of some traditional music instruments such as the javanese gamelan with angklung, kulintang or sasando. picture 7: nikkimuzieku (http://journalcelt.blogspot.com) this idea is inspired by the existing example of “nikkimuzieku”, a music traditional group from faculty of letters at soegijapranata catholic university, which combines javanese gamelan with taiko (japanese traditional drum). in brief, the appreciation of indonesia multiculturalism can be reached by making mini opera van java or nikkimuzieku groups in schools. if as early as elementary students are exposed to a number of multiculturalism activities within their art and handicraft class, then we can look forward to a generation who highly honor the positive aspects of indonesia‟s multiculturalism. with this activity, the motto of unity in diversity can be assured. in conclusion, hopefully, from the idea proposed, the indonesian youth can start to dig out and revise their sensibility and honor toward multiculturalism. the writers believe that it must start now, so that the influence of pop culture that may fade away the unique indonesian multiculturalism can be decreased. so in return, the youth can show more of their love to the beloved country of indonesia. http://journalcelt.blogspot.com/ celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012: 73-88 88 references cunningham, c. (2009). indonesia. from http://www.everyculture.com/ ge-it/indonesia.html, retrieved on 25 april 2011. daftar kebudayaan indonesia yg diklaim malaysia. (2009). in http://paijomania.blogdetik.com/2009/08/ 24/daftar-kebudayaanindonesia-yg-diklaim-malaysia/,rretrieved 28 april 2011. dukut, e. m. popular culture studies module. unpublished. semarang: faculty of letters, soegijapranata catholic university, 2010. gorski, p. c. (1999). “a brief history of multicultural education”. in critical multicultural pavilion research room: edchange project. hamline university and edchange. http://www.edchange.org/ multicultural/papers/edchange_history.html, retrieved 27 april 2011. harris, m. cultural anthropology. new york: harper and row, 1983. heywood, a. political ideologies. 4 th edition. palgrave macmilan, 2007. helly, d. “cultural pluralism : an overview of the debate since the 60‟s institute national de recherché scientique, montreal”. in the global review of ethnopolitics vol. 2 no. 1. september 2002: 75-96. inglis, c. (1995). “multiculturalism: a policy response to diversity.” inmanagement of social transformation (most) unesco. from http://unesco.org/pp.4.htm, retrieved 28 april 2011. lamm, r d. (2005). “i have a plan to destroy america”. in http://www.snopes.com/politics/soapbox/lamm.asp, retrieved 29 april 2011. “pengertian budaya”. (2010). http://boykb.blogspot.com/2010/ pengertian-kebudayaan.html, retrieved 25 april 2011. sullivan, p. “culture without culture.” in the australian journal of anthropology. 2006: 253-264. trotman, c j. “introduction”. in multiculturalism: roots and realities. indiana up, 2002. http://unesco.org/pp.4.htm http://www.snopes.com/politics/soapbox/lamm.asp index of subjects celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 acquisition, 16, 17, 19, 25, 28 african american, 62, 69, 70 african american culture, 69 american television, 6163, 66 anti-christmas character, 37 approach, 1822, 2428 articles, 1, 2, 7 autonomous learning, 19 behaviourist method, 20 bernie, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72 beulah, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71 black sitcoms, 62, 68, 70 black, 61-69 charity, 30, 31, 43-46 classroom, 16, 22-23, 25-28 cognitive approach, 21 cohabitation, 24 comma splice, 11-12 communication, 16, 18, 20-22, 28 communicative approach, 19, 21, 28 computer-assisted communication, 21 corruption, 79 cuisiniere rods, 19 cybernautical approach, 16-20, 22-23, 26-29 cyberspace, 20, 23 dickens, 29, 30-32, 35-46 diction, 1, 10 diversity, 67, 73-79, 89 drama, 46-57, 59-60 elle, 16-18, 25, 27 english education programme, 2, 5, 6, 12 english extension course, 2, 5 6 english novelist, 30 episodic drama, 53 ethnicities, 74, 76 finite verbs, 1, 7-8, 15 foreign language, 47 fox network, 67 game, 49, 53, 55-57 grammar-oriented writing, 14 indonesia, 73-77, 79, 81-84, 8788 injustice, 79, 82 language-learning process, 17 learning, 1628 linguistic, 1, 2, 6 misanthropy, 29, 36, 38, 45 multicultural, 73, 74, 88 multiculturalism, 73-77, 79, 81, 82-85, 87-88 multiculturalist discourse, 67 multilingualism, 7 multimedia technology, 24 neuro-scientific research, 21 non-conventional methods, 19 number-noun concord, 8 oracy processes, 46-47, 59 paragraph writing, 1, 3 pluralism, 76, 79, 84, 89 punctuation, 3, 9, 12 reformation era, 79 scrooge, 29, 31-45 second-language learning, 21 segregationism, 61-62 student’s literacy, 47 subject-finite verb concord, 8 systemic functional linguistics approach, 90 television, 61-62, 64, 66, 68-69 tenses, 9 unity in diversity, 78 victorian age, 30 youth, 72, 73, 76-79 index of authors celt, volume 11, number 1, year 2011 adhyanggono, g.m, 46 bram, barli, 1 erwindriani, t., 29 george c., j. 16 june, s. and ekawati m.d., 73 nelson, a., 61 suratno, a. ,89 index of articles celt, volume 12, number 1, year 2012 adhyanggono, g.m. teaching english with drama for young learners: skill or confidence? celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 4660. bram, barli. learners’ language challenges in writing english. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 1-15. erwindriani, theresia. scrooge’s character development in charles dickens’ a christmas carol. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 29-45. george c., jacob. autonomous learning in elle: cybernautical approach as the viaduct to l2 acquisition. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 16-28. june, shierly and ekawati marhaenny dukut. a love for indonesia: the youth’s effort in increasing honor towards multiculturalism. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 73-88. nelson, angela. “america, you know what i’m talkin’ about!”: race, class, and gender in beulah and bernie mac. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 61-72. suratno, antonius. a book review: discourse analysis. celt, volume 12, number 1, july 2012, pp. 89-93. celt volume 11, number 2, year 2011 thank the following people for their outstanding work as reviewers: a. effendi kadarisman (universitas negeri malang, indonesia) c. soebakdi soemanto (universitas gadjah mada, indonesia) fr. borgias alip (universitas sanata dharma, indonesia) helena agustien (universitas negeri semarang, indonesia) subur wardoyo (ikip pgri semarang, indonesia) 6 shierly june_2012_12_1(73-88) 1 a ok celt july 2012 p.1-15 barli 2 a okk celt july 2012 p. 16-28 jacob 3 a ok celt july 2012 p. 29-45 arinda-theresia 4 a ok celt july 2012 p. 46-60 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���q��������q����� ���� -�����) � +288@, �%���$����� ���%�����e�*�����%�#����� ��&������������� c������������� �0�������1 � �� ����� ) � +2888, � �2�������� *��� (� ������� ���� �2������� �� ������������e� &�������)���� � 27� ������1������23��*��'���2��4����0523���� �2627� �"#�����4 �+2803, �)� �������)� �����������e�%�����������&���� � &���������$ � +0522, �����& ������(�3�����4����*��� �� �������������e��!�� �����������%����������������������� � 1����:�;��� % � +0558, � *��� � ������� ���� ���� &������� ��� ���� �� �� ���� ������ ������� �������5� ��)�������� �$����������)���������������� a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1412-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914(online) vol. 16 no. 2; december 2016 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music ans. prawati yuliantari indonesian language and literature department, stkip, st paul teacher’s college, ruteng, flores-ntt, indonesia tel: +62 82138860965 email: tia.yuliantari@gmail.com received: 09-12-2016 accepted: 23-02-2017 published: 28-02-2017 “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music ans. prawati yuliantari tia.yuliantari@gmail.com department of indonesian language and literature, st paul teacher’s college, ruteng, flores-ntt, indonesia abstract: rap music which has been popular since 2007 in manggarai region, east nusa tenggara, indonesia, gave rise to rap hybrid phenomenon. the mixture between american rap music formats and local elements of manggarai attracted the attention of young people in the region. one of the local songs that feature hybridity in rap manggarai is "molas baju wara" created by lipooz, one of the pioneers of rap in ruteng, the capital city of manggarai district. to discuss this phenomenon, the concept of hybridity in cultural territory proposed by james lull is adopted. this concept is used particularly to analyze the forms of hybridity reflected in " molas baju wara" and the ways they are used in showing the social and cultural conditions of manggarai. "molas baju wara" was selected as the object of study because the song is clearly showing the characteristics of hybridity in music. the study shows that hybridity could be perceived in manggarai rap music specifically in the use of local musical instruments like drums, cajon, and tambourine as a substitute for percussive sounds of drums, boombox, or turntable which are commonly used by rap musicians in their home country, the u.s.a. in addition, there are elements of local sound such as the sound of rain that represents ruteng as the rain city. hybridity characteristics can also be found in the use of manggarai vernacular in the whole lyrics as well as 202 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 201-216 the narration of local themes and certain sites that represent ruteng. key words: hybridity, music, rap, manggarai abstrak: musik rap yang populer sejak tahun 2007 di wilayah manggarai memunculkan fenomena rap hibrid. percampuran antara format musik rap amerika dengan elemen-elemen lokal manggarai menarik perhatian orang-orang muda di wilayah itu. salah satu lagu yang menampilkan hibriditas rap manggarai adalah “molas baju wara” yang diciptakan oleh lipooz, salah satu pioneer rap di ruteng, ibukota kabupaten manggarai. untuk menganalisa fenomena musik ini dipergunakan konsep hibriditas dalam teritori budaya yang dikemukakan oleh james lull. konsep ini dipergunakan untuk menganalisis bentuk-bentuk hibriditas yang terdapat dalam lagu “molas baju wara” dan mengetahui bagaimana bentuk-bentuk hibriditas itu dipergunakan untuk menampilkan kondisi sosial budaya masyarakat manggarai. “molas baju wara” dipilih sebagai objek kajian karena lagu ini secara jelas menampilkan karakteristik-karakteristik hibriditas dalam musik. hasil kajian dalam atikel ini menunjukkan bahwa hibriditas dalam musik rap manggarai terlihat pada penggunaan alat musik lokal seperti gendang, maupun cajon, dan tambourine sebagai pengganti suara perkusi dari drum, boombox, maupun turn-table yang lazim dipergunakan oleh pemusik rap di negara asalnya, amerika serikat. selain itu terdapat elemen suara lokal seperti bunyi hujan untuk merujuk pada kondisi ruteng sebagai kota hujan. karakteristik hibriditas juga ditemukan dalam liriknya, yakni dari penggunaan bahasa daerah pada keseluruhan liriknya, penggunaan dialek, tema, serta situs-situs tertentu sebagai representasi kota ruteng. kata kunci: hibriditas, musik, rap, manggarai yuliantari, a.p., “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music introduction rap music that has become a pop culture phenomenon in the 1990s spread around the world through films about hip-hop culture such as wild style (1982) and beat street (1984) (eflein, 1998). the music, according to tricia rose, was originally “a black cultural expression that prioritizes black voices from the margins of urban america” (rose, 1994, p. 2). it spread worldwide because it evokes the spirit and philosophy of and represents the voice of marginalized groups who had undergone exclusions by the authorities and the dominant society. through those films, the genre was introduced in various regions in indonesia (ayu, 2014; hiphopindo.net, 2008). the music, which was played in those films as the rhythm to which break-dancers move, had attracted a great number of audiences in indonesia and later become more popular than the other elements in hip-hop culture. rap music began to be known to manggarai public in 2007. they recognize the music genre through private and the local government radio stations in the district. the appeal of local rap lies in the local elements which are incorporated into the music and the lyrics. those elements distinguished manggarai rap from the mainstream rap in indonesia and the united states that were introduced in the regency through television and radio broadcasts. one of the songs that are popular among young people in manggarai is "molas baju wara" created by lipooz. the song tells about an attractive woman in red dress whose beauty draws men’s admiration. the lyrics were written in manggarai language and some of its musical elements were adapted to local tastes. the popularity of "molas baju wara" confirms merriam’s statement (1964) that one of the functions of music in society is, "[...] as a symbolic representation of other things, ideas, and behaviors." (p. 223). “molas baju wara" represents norms, behaviors, and ideas originated in manggarai society. as a musical genre that originated in a foreign country, rap is affected by appropriation in and adaptation to local culture. in manggarai rap songs, transformations of the tunes and lyrics are not only an adjustment to local tastes but also a way to criticize the society. criticism and aspirations are considered more effectively expressed when they are situated within the local culture as the context. in addressing the elements of hybridity in manggarai rap and the way they are connected to manggarai society, this article specifically analyzes the forms of hybridity reflected in “molas baju wara" and 204 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 201-216 the ways the forms are used in showing the social and cultural circumstances of manggarai society. methodology this study is a qualitative research. according to given (2008) “qualitative approaches are typically used to explore new phenomena and to capture individuals’ thoughts, feelings, or interpretations of meaning and process” (p. 29). furthermore, have (2004) points out that “most qualitative research tends to be based on an ‘interpretative’ approach, in the sense that the meanings of events, actions and expressions is not taken as ‘given’ or ‘selfevident’, but as requiring some kind of contextual interpretation” (p. 4). in accordance with the interpretive approach in qualitative research, a thick description method is applied in this study. pontoretto (2006) explains that “a thick description… does more than record what a person is doing. it goes beyond mere fact and surface appearances. it presents detail, context, emotion, and the webs of social relationships that join persons to one another.” (p. 261). for this purpose, this study examines manggarai rap song in its cultural context. the hybridity that is reflected in the elements of its music and lyrics describe the socio-cultural circumstances and philosophical perspectives of the members of manggarai society. as previously mentioned, the object of the study in this article is a song entitled "molas baju wara". analysis was conducted on the music and the lyrics in the song to identify the local elements contained in the song and other forms of hybridity in manggarai rap. "molas baju wara" was selected for the consideration that the song is popular among the manggarai and is representative to exemplify manggarai rap songs. rap phenomenon in manggarai was examined based on the concept of hybridity. hybridization in post-colonial context generally refers to the creation of new transcultural forms within the contact zone produced by colonization. such phenomenon can be associated with particular dynamics of cultural situation explained by homi k. bhabha. as cited by ashcroft, griffiths and tiffin (2007), bhabha argues that in colonizer/colonized relations there is a relationship of interdependence and the mutual construction of their subjectivities, and all cultural statements and systems are constructed in a space called the 'third space of enunciation.' according to canclini (2002), hybridity is the unexpected impact resulting from migration, tourism, and yuliantari, a.p., “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music economic and communication exchanges. not only that hybridity is found in art, it also prevails in everyday life through the improvement of skills and knowledge achieved by individuals and groups in order to integrate them into the new conditions in distribution system and consumption (p. xxvii). thus, in a nutshell, hybridity is an attempt made by individuals and groups to adjust themselves to the inevitable new conditions in the society. referring it to the one’s adjustment process as a consumer of cultural product and technology to the new circumstances impacted by distribution system and consumption, canclini’s viewpoint concerning the concept of hybridity corresponds with that of lull. as quoted by androutsopoulos & scholz (2003), lull defines hybridity as “contact and mixture of new and familiar cultural form that leads to ‘cultural hybrids’” (p. 467). this hybridization process constitutes a necessary stage in formulating a framework (imagined concept) for a new cultural territory. this process is observed in the music from the use of local sounds and in the text elements from the use of local vernacular as well as in referring to the topic and local institutions (p. 468). discussion a. geographic and sociocultural background before the forms of locality contained in "molas baju wara" are brought into view, the geographical and socio-cultural conditions of manggarai need to be presented in advance. geographic and socio-cultural conditions presumably have an impact on a society’s customs, values, and views on their surroundings. moreover, they are related to the characteristics of manggarai district in general and therefore ruteng in particular which have become the background of the song. manggarai district is located on the western tip of flores island. stretching between 08 ° .14 ".00 ° 09 ' south latitude and 120 ° .20' .55' east longitude, its height varies from 0 to more than 1500 m above sea level (bps kabupaten manggarai, 2014). the size of manggarai regency’s territory is 1669.42 square kilometers and it includs a small island called pulau mules. because of its geographical condition, the weather there is relatively cool with temperatures ranging between 20º 28º c during the daytime and 12º 18º c at night (hemo, 1988). 206 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 201-216 manggarai regency has 11 sub-districts with total population of 166,942 by the census taken in 2013 (bps kabupaten manggarai, 2014). manggarai residents rely mostly on wet rice fields and plantations for livelihood, but in some coastal areas such as reo in reok sub-district and iteng in satar mese sub-district, some of them live as fishermen and seaweed farmers. they plant crops that produce rice and vegetables in their farm whereas coffee, nutmeg, clove, cocoa, and vanilla are yielded in plantation sector. the livestock they raise include buffalos, horses, cows, pigs, and chickens. pigs are the main stock in the manggarai’s farms. they are especially important for pork consumption in the region and they also have special function in traditional events. administratively, ruteng, which becomes the setting in "molas baju wara" lyrics, is 60.54 km ². it is part of langke rembong sub-districts with 11 villages belonging to its territory. according to the census of 2013, the capital city’s total population was 71,534 with 1181.59 person / km. in density. no doubt that ruteng is the most densely populated area in manggarai district. since it was established as the center of government by the dutch in the late nineteenth century, ruteng’s recorded history was dated upon the replacement of traditional government’s ruling power in todo-pongkor by the colonial government in lingko puni (toda, 1999, pp. 313-323). the transfer of power was seen necessary as an impact of changes in the ruling system from vassal system under bima monarchy into colonial government under dutch east indie. changes in political system had also caused a chaos as motang rua resisted against the dutch colonial government. this war led to the replacement of traditional governance system based on the power of local rulers with colonial government with the appointment of the first king of manggarai by the dutch. along with the arrival of the dutch in manggarai, catholic missionaries spread the religion in the region. among the efforts of instilling the new belief into the people of manggarai that had been holding their traditional beliefs, the monks built a church, founded some schools, introduced crops, and made inventories as well as learnt local culture (deki, 2011; regus & deki, 2011). one of the first buildings established by the missionaries is ruteng cathedral which is located in the center of the city. it has become a landmark of the region. apart from the manggarai, there are also other ethnic groups live in the region. they live in the areas of ruteng that were named after the names of their cultural identity: kampung maumere is inhabited by people who come yuliantari, a.p., “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music from maumere in sikka district, kampung larantuka is inhabited by the people of larantuka from east flores district, and hombel area which is inhabited by people of bajawa from ngada district. however, it doesn’t mean that the complexes (kampungs) are exclusively inhabited by people of the ethnic groups whose identities represent the names of the kampungs. the names of the areas merely serve as a kind of primordial bonding. at present, those areas also welcome other local people of manggarai and newcomers from outside flores islands such as the minang, bima, java, bali, and many more. from the composition of the population it could be seen that cultural contacts between various ethnic groups and that cultural hybridity is not new in manggarai. as a city in rural area, there are not a lot of other activities for its inhabitants besides working for a living. in the late 2000s, referring to the sociocultural context brought up by "molas baju wara", the activities of the local community are limited in that they have to end them by dusk because the temperature drops significantly in the evening and they have not got sufficient supply of electricity. all of the activities in the city practically end when the shops are closed and commercial businesses stop. the only entertainment for the residents is the party that is often held for various purposes such as “kumpul kope,” a fund raising event for an upcoming wedding or for a long journey a son or daughter is about to set out on; “sambut baru,” a celebration for an acceptance of first communion in catholic church; and “pesta sekolah,” another fund raising event organized by parents for their children who want to go to college out of town. those kinds of parties have been valued moments for increasing a sense of brotherhood and solidarity among the residents and among the relatives of the family who hold the party. rapid changes have happened ruteng region. social mobility and urbanization have been affecting the socio-cultural landscape in the region from time to time. these descriptions of ruteng’s socio-cultural conditions are necessary to put "molas baju wara" within the context of its era. b. hybridization forms in “molas baju wara” song "molas baju wara" presents a story told from the male perspective of ruteng residents. a boy met a girl in red gown when he took a walk in the afternoon after spending time at home all day. he was attracted and inclined to get to know her, but when he was close to her, he became so mesmerized by her beauty and speechless. by the time he was able to pull himself together, heavy rain was pouring from the sky and the girl had gone. he was left alone in the rain and his clothes got dirty because he ran into a shallot peddler. 208 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 201-216 the music of the song is largely composed in pop melodies. the sound of acoustic guitar played by lipooz is predominant. lipooz uses live music as his effort of reducing the use of music samples from non-local composers (allin, 2012). reduction of samples of other people's songs in his songs is one of lipooz’s strategies to adjust manggarai rap to local tastes. live music performance is not a common practice in hip-hop music. in the u.s. in which rap originated, djs (disc jockey) generally put together some fragments of music from several popular songs (hoffmann, 2002; price iii, 2006). a change took place as mc plays dominant role in hip-hop culture in the late 1970s, the period when rap music entered world music industry (hess, 2010). some rappers created their own musical compositions for their rap lyrics. the change has influenced rappers outside the united states. they made their own music that suit local tastes. elements of local music were effectively incorporated through the creation of live music. the locality could be observed in the elements of local tunes or the sounds of traditional musical instruments. percussion sound that characterizes rap music is retained in the whole “molas baju wara” song. in contrast to rap music in general, which uses percussion of modern drum, artificial sound from tape called a boombox or a turn-table sound, percussion used in "molas baju wara" is a combination of traditional manggarai drum and a tambourine. a tune of a bass guitar is also used to accentuat the percussion rhythm. at the end of the song, the sound of the rhythm is created using a cajon. percussion in rap appeals young people because its rhythm is good to dance to at parties and gathering events. young people’s fondness for percussion rhythm could be learned in a research conducted by richard (2015) on rap music in manokwari, papua. youngsters in manokwari called rap music of "carpet dans". the term emerged because they used rap as a musical background of their dance on the carpet which was specifically held at a gathering place for young people. percussion, according to richard, attracted youngsters' attention in manokwari for its connectivity with their traditional drum. other than the music, hybridity appears in the incorporation of background sound that evokes familiar climatic conditions of manggarai, especially ruteng. this kind of background sound appears in “molas baju wara”in the form of the sound of heavy rain. located on the hills, ruteng is a region where rainfall is frequent and occurs in no specific season, unaffected yuliantari, a.p., “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music by the climate prevailing in other areas. based on 2014 statistics, rainfall in ruteng occurs 218 days a year; most of the time in december and january (bps kabupaten manggarai, 2014). so, the sound of rainfall is a familiar local sound to the people of ruteng. local sound in rap is also one of the elements used by cheech, a rapper from germany. through a song called "gemeinschaft", cheech put the sound of phone operator's voice saying "telefonauskunft kassel" into the song to accompany a musical sample taken from another song entitled "wir sind aus kassel" that has already been incorporated in "gemeinschaft"’s background music (androutsopoulos & scholz, 2003). other example of local sound elements can be found in a song entitled "jogja istimewa" performed by jogja hip hop foundation. in the beginning of the song, they present the sounds of drums and flute that are traditionally played by the soldiers of the sultan palace in yogyakarta in certain events. the sound was incorporated as local accent in the whole song. by listening to the sounds of flutes and drums, the listeners—who are familiar to such sounds—can immediately recognize that this rap song comes from yogyakarta. language is an effective means of communication that convey information, aspiration and the expressions of feelings. through the language in the text of the song, people who recognize the symbols in it can understand the meanings transmitted by the interlocutor (merriam, 1964). manggarai community, according to antony bagul dagur (1997), use several local languages: komodo language in komodo island, wae rana language in southeast manggarai, rembong language in rembong which has similarities to the northern part of ngada, the kempo language in kempo region, rajong language in rajong region, and special language of manggarai. dorotheus hemo (1988) explains that manggarai special language typically have six dialects namely riung, a dialect found in west manggarai, central manggarai dialect, manggarai peralihan dialect, east manggarai dialect, a dialect in which /s/ sound is replaced by /h/ sound found in kolang, pacar and rego regions, and a dialect in which /c/ is replaced by /s/ found in riwu and manus regions. the language used in “molas baju wara” is central manggarai vernacular that is commonly called ruteng dialect. the central manggarai vernacular is used for several reasons. firstly, lipooz comes from ruteng region which means he is the native speaker of the vernacular. secondly, the dialect is shared by the majority of the population in manggarai because the central government and education are in ruteng so people who work or go to school in ruteng can understand this dialect. third, the policy of territorial 210 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 201-216 expansion during 2000s that made manggarai administratively divided into three sub-districts consisting of manggarai, west manggarai and east manggarai. according to the abovementioned linguistic map, the division of the territory was not only based on geographic conditions but also linguistic distribution. the division has made ruteng dialect becoming the dominant language spoken by the inhabitants of manggarai district. in addition to the linguistic factor, according to lull (androutsopoulos & scholz, 2003), forms of hybridity appear in the specific familiar topic and local institutions represented the song’s text. in "molas baju wara," there are topics about locality. in the first verse, the story tells about a man waking up late because in the previous night he went to a party, got drunk and went home early in the morning: "holes jam satu gara-gara wie aku ngo pesta sale watu, rame dansa cha cha terasering sampai hemong waktu, kole jam telu agu langu ciu." here, party becomes an interesting topic in showing locality in manggarai rap. some singers in manggarai rap specifically talk about the habit of having a party in the society. among them are dodi rbc in his song "reggae manggarai", vian mahon in "kador neka culas bail", or in lipooz’s other song, "hip cha cha". feast has been one of significant features in manggarai social life since it is regarded as a medium in strengthening relations among friends, family members and relatives. in hip-hop culture, its music functions as the background of a party for young people in bronx. hip-hop songs are meant to be the rhythms to which youngsters dance, but in its development, parties are not a major concern for topics, especially after rap went into the mainstream entertainment industry. lyrics in rap songs focus on street life, violence and crime. the next aspect that contains hybridity is theme. "molas baju wara" presents a story of a meeting between a man and a woman whom he is attracted. in rap, romantic theme which portrays the relation between men and women is rare. rap songs in indonesia mostly talked about the problems in urban environment and the dilemma faced by young people (boden, 2005); meanwhile, rap songs in america contextualizes relationships between men and women in the corridor of misogynic (sullivan, 2003). this romantic theme of relationship between men and women shows that rap in manggarai is adjusted to local conditions, in which the themes favored by the people are the themes that exist in pop music. strong dominance of local pop music and indonesian pop music makes the rapper adapt to the market. this is the marketing strategy of the rap genre that is relatively new to manggarai community. yuliantari, a.p., “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music in this song, the concept of friendship among young people in ruteng is also demonstrated. they usually spend their spare time by strolling around the city. youngsters in the neighborhood or at schools have peer groups with whom they do various activities together like enjoying live music, exercising, or just hanging out to spend leisure times. friendship theme is commonly found in the lyrics of indonesian rap songs, but it is not a theme that attracts the attention of american rappers. according to taylor & taylor (2004), rap music attracts the attention of the international music industry when it exposes street violence. it is different from the earlier days of its appearance when rap music talks about the awareness of the condition of the black community at that time. c. hybridity to represent manggarai locality through the language used in the song, one can see the geographical concept of a society. geographical concept means how the locals put themselves in relation to the geographical environment. "molas baju wara" shown the concept of place and space associated with one's position geographically. in the song the singer appoint several places such as: sale watu, sale kota, eta mai kumba and eta mai awang. in manggarai grammar, the mention of the place and space preceded by the mention of the direction of the compass. the concept of the compass in manggarai language are awo (east), sale (west), le (south), lau (north). in addition to the direction of the compass, there is a concept of space that shows the location of a place in the geographical landscape as "eta" (above) and "wa" (below). the concept of direction and such places appears in the song. the words “sale watu” and “sale kota” showed that the two places are in the western part of the speakers. “kota” here refers to the center ruteng town, a place where the commerce, government, and motang rua field lies as the landmarks of ruteng. "eta mai kumba" and "eta mai awang" has different meaning. "eta mai kumba" refers to a specific place that is kumba region in ruteng. kumba region is situated in higher location than the speakers’. the concept of "wa" and "eta" occurs because of the contour of ruteng area which is hilly. the word “eta” denotes a place that is located higher than the speakers’. on the other hand, when the speaker is located in the hills, he said “wa mai kota”, meaning that the current location is in the higher region than the city. meanwhile, the expression “eta mai awang” explains the position of the clouds which is above the earth. this word is used when the speaker tells about the 212 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 201-216 pouring rain when he tried to approach the girl in red gown whom he wanted to know. according to merriam (1964), "[a song texts] conveys emotion or something similar to emotion to those who understand its idiom" (p. 223). through the lyrics of "molas baju wara", listeners are invited to explore the conditions of ruteng and the lives of its people. one of the unique circumstances of the people of ruteng is the festive atmosphere which lasts from dusk until dawn. in the party, music is playing all night long to entertain and invite the audience to dance cha-cha and terasering. in addition, local liquor commonly called sopi is served in the party. the drink keeps the party goers warm amidst ruteng’s coldness where the temperature can reach 12º c at night (hemo, 1988), and is used as a tribute to the guests who attended the party. sopi, the local liquor, is also called tuak or ciu in local vernacular. in the text of the song, lipooz uses the term ciu to refer to the traditional drink. exposing this party atmosphere makes the listeners feel the local conditions of manggarai in general and ruteng in particular. the habits of people who attend the parties from dusk until dawn is depicted at the beginning of the first verse. festive spirit represented by the words: "rame dansa cha-cha terrasering sampai hemong waktu, kole jam telu, agu langu ciu" (dance cha-cha terrasering forget the time, came home at three in the morning, drunk of traditional drink). other form of locality in the song is depicted on the lyrics in the second stanza: "de mama molas ge ho'o aku to'o ga, neka rabo bao toe ngo campe weli gola" (my gorgeous mother, i'd wake up now, sorry had not help you to go to buy sugar) and "nana ngo nia? rei di mama, emo det ngo ejor sale kota, toe beheng mama to'ong kole aku jam 5 " (my son, where are you going? ask mama, do not wandering around the town, i will not be long mama, i'll go home at 5). the two sentences show the close relationship between the child and his mother in manggarai community. the closeness of the relationship was particularly attached to the boy because he is the successor of the family. therefore, they called him “ata one” (insider), the one who is going to live in the clan, while the girls follow the husband's family, and so they are called “ata pe'ang” (outsiders) (allerton, 2004). proximity is shown by the prohibition of the mother to her son not to wander around the town because of the cloudy day and the town is far away. however, he reassures the mother by saying that he will not be long. the loving and intimate phrase appears in the last verse, "saki taung baju, com kole mbaru, ho’o kole rugi le mama daku”" (my clothes is dirty, let’s go home, i yuliantari, a.p., “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music will be scolded by mama). it depicts how the mother of the speakers showed affection by scolding him when he came home in the rain. another locality is the depictions of heavy rains that often occur in ruteng. the heavy rain with fog limits people’s vision. people cannot see vehicles and others within a few meters ahead because of heavy rain and fog. it is expressed in the words: "mori pa’u usang mese eta mai awang, […] hanang koe aku toe itas salang” (god, torrential rain fell, i am alone and i cannot see the road [ahead of me]). rainfall in ruteng is quite high. it is about 10,000 mm (bps kabupaten manggarai, 2014). the rain occurred because of local weather which is influenced by geographical conditions. ruteng region lies in the chain of mandosawu mountain range with gunung ranaka as the highest peak flores mainland (toda, 1999). the comical part is at the end of the song; the lyrics says “sampe duntak aku ata pika bawang” (i run into a shallot peddler and my head is hurt). it was the misty rain that clouded his sight and prevented him from seeing the coming peddler. it depicts one of the businesses types in ruteng, i.e. selling vegetables. shallot, betel, and areca nut stalls are opened on street sides. when the supplies of the vegetables are abundant, the sellers peddle around the town because the competition of the price among the owners of the stalls is quite tight. by peddling around they make higher profits and got more consumers than in the stalls. through abovementioned exposure, hybridity in manggarai rap performed by lipooz in "molas baju wara" reveals the socio-cultural conditions of manggarai community. those conditions are necessarily reflected in the local music to maintain traditonal values, norms and customs that are threatened by the eroding impact of modernity. by generating locality in the lyrics in the context of the philosophy of hip-hop culture, lipooz has declared his identity as the members of manggarai community and his attitude to be honest to himself. conclusion manggarai rap which is known in its cultural area since 2007 has a specific form of inclusion of local elements in its music and lyrics. the elements distinguish manggarai rap from indonesian rap and american rap. local elements in the music are reflected through the use of local sound 214 celt, volume 16, number 2, december 2016, pp. 201-216 elements like the sound of rain and the sound of drums, cajon and tambourine as a substitute for percussive sounds of drums, boombox, or turntable. hybridity in the lyrics is observed in the use of local vernacular for the whole part of the song, local theme and the description of local sites as a representation of ruteng. in manggarai rap songs, the transformation of the musical and lyrical elements serve as an adjustment to local tastes. on one side, as a new genre, manggarai rap must compete with other musical genres for spaces in the region given the fact that genres such as dangdut, rock and alternative pop had gain popularity in manggarai and indonesia before rap was introduced to the region. in that case, in popularizing the genre, the local rappers feel the need of addressing the current trend in the society. on the other side, manggarai rap should not leave rap music philosophy that it is a medium of expressing criticism and aspirations of the marginal groups. criticisms and aspirations of the people are more effectively expressed when they are put in the context of local culture. therefore, the hybridity in the elements of manggarai rap songs is crucial in dealing with those issues. "molas baju wara" created by lipooz is one example of the process of hybridity that can incorporate locality. through this song, lipooz explains socio-cultural conditions of the local community in manggarai particularly those living in ruteng, and they are selected to be the context of that song. the depiction local conditions in the musical and lyrical elements can be used as a means of preserving values, norms and customs of the local people that are threatened by the eroding impact of modernity. by generating locality in the lyrics in the context of the philosophy of hip-hop culture, lipooz has declared his identity as the members of manggarai community and his attitude to be honest to himself. as a manggarai people, he is regarded as "pecing adak", a member of the community with full awareness of his tradition in that he took actions—through rap songs—in preserving the legacy of the culture where he grew up by revitalizing the values, norms and philosophy that have long been cherished by manggarai people. yuliantari, a.p., “molas baju wara”: hybridity in manggarai rap music references allerton, c. 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�����--��862i � ����������. �+0522, �����������������������������������������'����� ��#������� ����0 �+����������&������0��������<�� ����1g��0>@6d53 � �������� * � +0553, � $����'����� �� #������e� &�������� ��������� ���� ��������x� ����������� �+����������&������0��������<�� ����-,��23d62id � -������� � � $ � +0553, � ������� ��������� #������� �"������� � !�� a � 4�������� �2��� � �� ��� &������ 0�������� 0�������� ���� ��������� +�� � 20>6278, � c��������e�&����� �� �������� � w������b � +0557, �.� ������ �����������#������� '�� ���� ��$������� ��������e� %������������������:�����������������������������+�, �� ������0�+�������� i�+7,��260@ � a journal of culture, english language, teaching & literature issn 1414-3320 (print), issn 2502-4914 (online) vol. 18 no.1; july 2018 copyright © soegijapranata catholic university, indonesia teachers’ implementations of teaching techniques for young learners 1veronica listyani diptoadi, 2ruruh mindari, and 3 hendra tedjasuksmana english department, faculty of teacher training and education, widya mandala catholic university, surabaya, indonesia email: 1diptoadi09@yahoo.com; 2ruruhmindari@yahoo.com 3 hendratedja1510@yahoo.com received: 02-02-2018 accepted: 05-06-2018 published: 21-07-2018 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teachers’ implementations of teaching techniques for young learners 1veronica l. diptoadi, 2ruruh mindari, and 3hendra tedjasuksmana 1veronika@ukwms.ac.id; 2ruruhmindari@yahoo.com; 3hendratedja1510@yahoo.com 1,2,3english department, faculty of teacher training and education, widya mandala catholic university, surabaya, indonesia abstract: although often taking part in seminars and workshops on how to teach english to their students, it seems that elementary school teachers of english (though not all) do not really implement what they have received in their classrooms. the seminar that the english department of widya mandala surabaya catholic university held on the 8th of august 2015 was a workshop where the participants, the elementary school teachers of english, were trained to demonstrate how to use drama, storytelling, games and songs as techniques in teaching english to their students. they were expected to be able to use these techniques in their respective classrooms. the techniques became the alternatives to the current techniques being practiced at schools to enliven the learning atmosphere. therefore, this study which is the third level or the last level of our project on developing an english handbook for english teachers at elementary schools, is in the form of an observational study describing how the teachers implemented the techniques -drama, storytelling, games and songs -in their respective classrooms, students’ responses and what problems took place when the teachers were carrying out the techniques. the results show that the teachers were able to teach those techniques in their classes, students actively took part more actively in their english class, and they liked games and songs much. key words: english handbook, observation, teaching techniques 20 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj abstrak: guru bahasa inggris di tingkat sekolah dasar seringkali tidak mengimplementasi teknik-teknik pengajaran bahasa inggris yang mereka dapatkan dari seminar atau lokakarya yang telah mereka hadiri. pada tanggal 8 agustus program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris mengadakan lokakarya bagi para guru bahasa inggris sekolah dasar, dimana mereka dilatih untuk mengajar bahasa inggris menggunakan teknik drama, storytelling, games dan songs. mereka diharapkan dapat menggunakan teknik-teknik tersebut di kelas masing-masing. studi ini yang merupakan tahap ke tiga dari serangkaian penelitian yang telah menghasilkan buku panduan mengajar bahasa inggris bagi guru bahasa inggris di sekolah dasar, bertujuan untuk mengobservasi para guru yang telah mengikuti lokakarya di kelas masing-masing. melalui observasi ini dideskripsikan cara mengajar guru menggunakan teknik tertentu berfokus pada proses belejar mengajar, kendala yang dihadapi dan respons dari siswa dengan rubrik bagi setiap teknik. hasil yang diperoleh dari observasi tersebut adalah bahwa guru pada umumnya berhasil menggunakan teknik2 tersebut dalam proses belajar mengajar, siswa menjadi lebih aktif dan mereka terutama menyukai games dan songs. kata kunci: panduan mengajar bahasa inggris di sekolah dasar, observasi, teknik mengajar introduction in teaching english to young learners, teachers may use either the childcentered approach (cca) or the influential approach (ia). the child-centered approach is much influenced by humanistic and constructivist approaches. both differ in the emphasis and intention. humanistic approaches emphasize the importance of the inner thoughts and feelings of each learner and intends at helping children reach their full potentials as ‘whole’ people, while constructivist approaches enhance the child as an individual who tries to make sense of the world to find himself or herself (paul, 2003). the ia consists of behaviorist approaches, input approaches, and multiple intelligences. behaviorist approach emphasizes on the reinforcement of behavior through repetitions and rewards. this approach is teacher-centered with a clear lesson plan and syllabus, has drills and choral repetitions, prevents errors, and uses praise and rewards as reinforcement. in input approaches, teachers, tapes, and reading materials can be the sources of the language inputs of learners. the approach puts learners to english exposures where they are at the current level, or they are exposed to diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 21 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the higher level when they are ready. unless they are ready, they are not supposed to produce new words and patterns. teachers can introduce new words and patterns to the learners, especially young learners, through physical demonstration and, therefore, make the learners physically active. multiple intelligences emphasize that parents and teachers have to recognize their children’s and students’ intellectual strength since their intelligence is different from one another; thus, the parents and teachers have to maximize their children’s and students’ intellectual capacity (paul, 2003). literature review a. how young learners learn languages lightbown and spada, quoted by brewster (2007) found that children imitate adults and analyze how language works; rather than iq, setting and context play an important role in acquiring a language; high motivation is a factor for language learners to be successful in language learning; and language must be contextualized so that students can understand it. brewster also states that there are six stages for children to undergo when learning a first language: 1) babbling (0-1 year), 2) first word ( at eleventh month), 3) two words (between eighteen months up to two years, 4) building creative syntactic and lexical complexity (third and fourth years), 5) expanding vocabulary and understanding on words, and 6) daily conversation skills. b. the characteristics of young learners as young learners are not the same as adults, teachers must know their characteristics, which are as follows: being curious (perry, b.d.) being active and mobile having capacity to grasp meaning (halliwell, 1992) having their own world of imagination (halliwell, 1992; slattery & willis, 2001). playing and learning best when having fun activities (halliwell, 1992; slattery & willis, 2001, scott&ytreberg, 2004). talking a lot (halliwell, 1992). being creative with limited vocabulary and grammar (halliwell, 1992). 22 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj having short concentration span being unable to think abstract things being more interested in “here and now” good at imitating things having the capacity for indirect learning (halliwell, 1992). c. techniques of teaching english to young learners considering young learners’ characteristics in the previous section, experts suggest interesting techniques to teach them english. some of them are through storytelling, drama, songs, and games. 1. storytelling storytelling is a technique of teaching english to young learners where the teacher tells a story using a story book or picture book or puppets. there are some reasons for using storytelling to teach young learners: (1) helping children master the rhythm and sounds of the language, (2) helping children master the vocabulary and grammar of the language, (3) helping children practice listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, (4) helping children learn about the world through picture books, (5) helping develop children’s imagination, and (6) helping children deal with their feelings, so they can accept their own feelings and understand other people’s feelings. 2. drama drama or role play is actually the development of storytelling. the teacher may use the same story and design the story to be a short drama that can be performed by his/ her young students. this will make the students like english better. the technique has positive effects to the students: (1) making young students actively involved, (2) being motivated in the teaching learning process, (3) guiding students to use the language appropriately in a specific context, (4) improving social and interpersonal skills, (5) improving imagination, cooperation, creativity, and critical thinking, and (6) stimulating long-term memory for what the students have learned. 3. songs/chants/rhymes a song is a piece of musical composition accompanied with lyrics. songs for young learners are usually about nature, animals, or anything of children’s world. a bit different from song, a chant is rhythmic lines diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 23 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj without melody. rhymes, which are the same sounds at the end of lines, can be found in songs as well as chants. singing songs is usually children’s favorite activity as it can bring an enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom and their mind. brewster (2007) gives some of the reasons why songs are good for learning english. linguistically, songs, chants, or rhymes introduce the english structure and reinforce vocabulary. they also improve young learners’ pronunciation. meanwhile, they develop the four skills in an integrated way. further, they introduce and familiarize children with the target language culture. affectively, songs, chants, and rhymes add fun to learning. they also motivate children, even shy ones, to participate, encourage a feeling of achievement and confidence by learning through chunks of language that they can demonstrate in front of parents or peers. 4. games games are any fun activities that give young learners chances to practice english. one of the ways to make students actively participate in classroom is playing games. there are reasons why games are used; some of them are as follows: (http://www.iolpmezunu.com/f70/games-younglearners-18896) arousing students’ interest and motivation in participating in the lesson. giving students a chance to communicate meaningfully. making students feel less anxious as they play games with only some of their friends. forming students’ basic skills in using the target language (tl). building a learning spirit as students take most of the roles while the teacher becomes a facilitator only. encouraging each student to take his/her turn. involving kinds of intelligences: spatial, visual, kinesthetic, interpersonal, etc. creating a ‘natural context’ to use tl besides as a teaching-learning variety in a lesson (http://www.cambridge.org.br/for-teachers/teaching-tips/teachingyoung-learners?games&id=160) http://www.iolpmezunu.com/f70/games-young-learners-18896 http://www.iolpmezunu.com/f70/games-young-learners-18896 //www.cambridge.org.br/for-teachers/teaching-tips/teaching-young-learn //www.cambridge.org.br/for-teachers/teaching-tips/teaching-young-learn 24 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj methodology the research design of this study is an observational study. the purpose of this observational study is to obtain information about how english teachers are using the techniques -storytelling, drama, songs and games -in teaching their respective students at the elementary schools and to find out the problems they encounter in implementing those techniques in the classroom. in order to have a multiplier effect to other elementary school teachers of english, the research was also designed to describe what techniques teachers of elementary schools usually teach english to their students and the reasons why they use those techniques. a. the subjects the subjects chosen for this study were eight english elementary school teachers who followed the tot workshop on august 8th, 2015, but only seven responded. those seven teachers came from various schools which had been the respondents of this study at the beginning. each teacher was assigned one technique according to the lot made by the researchers as described in table 1 below. the teachers prepared their lesson plans based on the format of model lesson plans they had got in the tot. they may use different materials suitable to the level of their students. out of those seven teachers who were observed, four were chosen to demonstrate the techniques in front of other elementary school teachers of english in a workshop held on the 30th of july 2016, which was attended by twenty-six teachers of english at elementary schools in surabaya. b. the instrument the instruments were in the form of an observation sheet covering the way the teachers implemented the technique in class, the material they used, the media presented to students. besides, an interview was conducted to the teachers and the result supported the one obtained by the questionnaire. in the workshop on 30th of july 2016, a questionnaire was also distributed to twenty-six teachers of english at elementary schools, asking which techniques they usually used and why they used those techniques. c. how the observation was done the writers used the following steps. first the schools were chosen and contacted. then the teachers of those schools were asked to make a lesson diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 25 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj plan for one of the four techniques. when the teacher was carrying out the technique assigned in her class, she was monitored by one of the researchers using the prepared rubrics. the researcher recorded how the teacher performed in class based on each of the stages of presentation: preinstructional activity, whilst-instructional activity, and post-instructional activity. to get the complete description of the use of that particular technique, out of seven teachers only one could be interviewed since the others had to teach another class after the observation. d. data analysis after the observation was done, then all the results, as well as the answers from the teacher who was interviewed, were collected and analyzed. after that, a conclusion was taken to find out if there were any suggestions that were beneficial for english teachers teaching at elementary schools. results the implementation of the four techniques was observed in seven schools located in surabaya, namely pencinta damai catholic elementary school, kristus raja catholic elementary school, yohanes gabriel catholic elementary school, mentari kasih elementary school, stella maris catholic elementary school, st. angela catholic elementary school, and st. carolus catholic elementary school. the schedule of the observations can be seen in: table 1: the schedule of class observations no techniques observed schools observed teachers dates of observations 1 songs pencinta damai catholic elementary school, surabaya francisca fenny widyanti, s.pd. 7 april 2016 2 pictures to teach vocabulary kristus raja catholic elementary school, surabaya sesilia endang p., s.pd. 11 april 2016 26 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj during the observations, the teachers were evaluated on the basis of stages of the presentation, teacher’s and students’ performance, quality of the presented materials, and the teacher’s attitude. in general, the presentations started with the pre-instructional activity where the teachers began eliciting ideas of what the students had got before, telling a story with the introduction of the characters followed by the students’ performance and some activities, or giving triggering questions concerning the topic to be taught. in the whilst-instructional activity, the teachers explained or reintroduced the materials through songs, pictures or video followed by such activities that engaged the students actively in the classroom, or the teachers asked the students to perform short parts of the story as mini drama before doing some other activities reflecting the story. in the post-instructional activity, the teachers reinforced what the students had got by giving them some exercises to do. the students’ performance shows the students’ positive response and active engagement in all activities, such as doing the exercises, doing some games, singing or performing mini drama. they really enjoyed the activities. all the teachers had prepared all the materials seriously in accordance with the level of the students. however, it was suggested that when making 3 game to teach the simple present tense yohanes gabriel catholic elementary school, surabaya maria cecilia meilawaty, s.pd. 14 april 2016 4 songs mentari kasih elementary school, surabaya sagita oetomo, s.pd. 14 april 2016 5 storytelling fruits, vegetables, and colors stella maris catholic elementary school surabaya titien yustiana, s.s 14 april 2016 6 game days of the week st. angela catholic elementary school, surabaya veronica indriati, s.pd. 21 april 2016 7 drama legend of lake toba st. carolus catholic elementary school surabaya januette ovelia t., s.pd. 28 april 2016 diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 27 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj pictures, the teachers should think of the size so that the students sitting in the back could see them. the teachers were all supportive to what the students did by encouraging them to perform, help them with clues while having difficulty to do the exercises, positively respond to any questions the students asked, and enthusiastically teach the students by creating media to make them understand the lesson easily. the results of teacher observations can be seen below in accordance with the order as stated in table 1 above are as follows: 1. teacher : francisca fenny widyanti, s.pd. school : pencinta damai catholic elementary school at randu no. 3, surabaya technique : songs performance stages evaluation stages of presentation pre-instructional activity she elicits ideas from the students by introducing the vocabulary to them. she did not give any handouts, as she uses some realia . whilst instructional activity when she started explaining the material, she reintroduced the vocabulary again through a song accompanied with pictures. she repeated the song twice, then she asked the students to sing along while acting out the actions found in the song. post instructional activity in this part, she asked the students once again to sing the song together, to reinforce the topic, which is about preposition. students’ performance the students were able to act out as well as pronounce the words correctly. they were actively engaged in the whole process of learning. and from their answers to the teacher’s questions, it can be concluded that they understand the material and enjoy the process of learning also. quality of the song the song was well-chosen, as it reflects the topic being learned, it was suitable for the students’ level, so it could be easily remembered. as it has pictures, it was entertaining. teacher’s attitude overall, she presented the lesson in a systematic way, she was patient and encouraging to make students’ participate. 28 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj notes: the teacher prepared her lesson well, she chose the right song to be presented in class. her performance in teaching was good and satisfying. 2. teacher : sesilia endang p., s.pd. school : kristus raja catholic elementary school at wisma permai tengah no. 1, surabaya technique : pictures to teach vocab performance stages evaluation stages of presentation pre-instructional activity the teacher was able to elicit vocab about clothes that they had been taught. the teacher went on with the introduction of new vocab about clothes too and colors. she introduced the words through pictures flashed on a screen. whilst instructional activity the teacher re-introduce the vocab (clothes and colors) that they just learned through pictures. post instructional activity the teacher let the students do the exercise by naming the kind of clothes and color the picture as instructed. students’ performance the students did the class activity lively. they understood the topic being taught. they could answer the teacher’s questions and they were actively engaged in the class activity, either doing the assignment in their books or going to the whiteboard to answer the exercise. they were standing and raising hands. quality of the pictures pictures drawn on cards are not big enough for students sitting in the back, but those on the screen are big and clear enough to be seen from back of the class. teacher’s attitude the teacher actively encouraged the students to learn and answer the questions. she tried to involve all the students to participate. she helped the students by giving a clue if they had difficulty in answering the exercise. in this activity, it is suggested that the pictures be put in a fairly big piece of carton so that they could be seen from the back of the class. notes: the teacher presented the material by reviewing what the 2nd grade students of elementary school had got before, and then introduced the new words. she presented the material so well that the students were attentive and active to participate. diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 29 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3. teacher : maria cecilia meilawaty, s.pd. school : yohanes gabriel catholic elementary school on teratai street, surabaya technique : game performance stages evaluation stages of presentation pre-instructional activity -the teacher greeted the students -the teacher asked some triggering questions in simple present tense. -the students replied the teacher. -the students were asked questions to describe a picture whilst instructional activity -students watched a video -teacher discussed the video with the students by giving comments and asking questions as follows: -the students read a text given by the teacher. -the students answered the questions based on the text -the students complete the conversations and number the pictures. -the students played with the dice then stick the frequency label on the picture. meanwhile, the teacher asked questions based on the dice as follows: how often does he swim? (he swims every sunday.) how often does she play the piano? (she plays the piano two or three times a week.) how often do you read newspaper? (i read a newspaper every morning.) etc. post instructional activity -the teacher reviewed the material about the simple present tense. -the students did a writing exercise on the worksheet. students’ performance the students looked happy because they experienced something new which was interesting for them, playing a game in the english class. they were excited to participate in the game. 30 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj quality of the game the game was simple but functional in teaching the use of the simple present tense. the teacher had made the teaching aid in the form of a large thick paper consisting of pictures of a child’s activities every day in the whole week. with this media, the students learn the concept of adverbs of frequency and practice the use of the simple present tense effectively. teacher’s attitude although she was a calm teacher, she was creative and able to carry out the game very well. once in a while, the students laughed because of her funny way in presenting a model mini dialogue using some puppets. 4. teacher : sagita oetomo, s.pd. school : mentari kasih elementary school at medokan asri no. 74 – 80, surabaya technique : songs performance stages evaluation stages of presentation pre-instructional activity she elicits ideas from the students by introducing the vocabulary to them. she did not give any handouts, as she used a lot of modeling the actions. whilst instructional activity when she started explaining the material, she introduced the vocabulary through a song accompanied with gestures. she asked individual students to model the words, and then asked the whole class to repeat the actions. post instructional activity in this part, she asked the students once again to sing the song together, to reinforce the topic, which is about action verbs students’ performance the students were able to act out the verbs as well as pronounce them correctly. they were actively engaged in the whole process of learning. and from their answers to the teacher’s questions, it can be concluded that they understand the material and enjoy the process of learning also. quality of the song the song was not quite well-chosen, as the relationship between the song and the topic was not really very clear. it was suitable for the students’ level, so it could be easily remembered. however, it was a bit too long, as the action words were quite many. diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 31 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj notes: the teacher prepared her lesson not quite well, as the song chosen had too many action words, so it took a long time for the students to model the action words. consequently, the lesson became a bit monotonous. overall, her performance in teaching was good enough, as she could maintain a lively atmosphere in class ( it was in the afternoon). moreover, the students showed a good mastery of the words and enjoyed the class. 5. teacher : titien yustiana, s.s. school : stella maris catholic elementary school at tembaan 18 – 22, surabaya technique : storytelling performance stages evaluation stages of presentation pre-instructional activity the teacher introduced the characters clearly. they were names of fruits and vegetables. colors were also introduced to the students. all events in the story were well sequenced. whilst instructional activity when the teacher finished telling the story, she gave some questions to the students and they could answer them well. post instructional activity the students were engaged in the activity by doing the class assignment the teacher gave. the students named the fruit and colored as instructed. teacher’s and students’ performance the teacher could make a contact with the students and she was confident in telling the story in english. however, she often used the indonesian language. the students were quite active to engage themselves by answering the teacher’s questions in the whilstinstructional activity. voice the teacher could make the students attentive to her as she spoke loud enough to be heard and the dynamic rhythms of her voice made the students able to listen attentively to the story. however, the teacher often used the indonesian language. facial expressions, eye contact and gestures the teacher was good at introducing characters by naming kinds of fruits & vegetables and she had eye contacts with the students so that they paid attention to the story being told. properties the teacher did not use any properties. teacher’s attitude overall, she presented the lesson in a very energetic way, moreover, she was patient and encouraging to make students to participate. 32 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj teacher’s attitude she was quite attentive to the students. if she found that they had difficulty in following her story, she slowly paced the story. she also gave responses when the students asked questions. notes: the teacher often used the indonesian language. she might have thought of her students who were in the 1st grade and still unable to listen to the story well when spoken in english. 6. teacher : veronica indriati, s.pd. school : st. angela catholic elementary school on kepanjen street, surabaya. technique : game performance stages evaluation stages of presentation: pre-instructional activity the teacher showed the youtube of singing walrus and asked the students to pay attention and focus on the days mentioned in the song. after that, she asked some questions such as how many days there are in a week, what is the first day mentioned in the song, the next day, the last day, etc. then, she asked the students about their daily activities on certain days such as when they go to church, when they study english, when they play piano, when they have sport class, etc. whilst instructional activity there were four activities in the whilst instructional activity: train of the days, day race (reading), run and touch (listening), and living sentence (completing sentences with the right day). in the first activity, the teacher exposes to the class a large card train consisting of a locomotive and six separate wagons. after explaining the correct order of days, she labeled each wagon with a name of day. then she asked the students to come in front to put the wagons in the right order according to the sequence of days to form a train. with one student holding a wagon forming a train, the train then walked around the classroom while singing the walrus song. in the second activity the teacher gave a set of day cards to each pair of students. then the pairs were asked to arrange the cards in the correct order on their table quickly. as soon as each pair had finished, they had to raise hands. the winner was the pair who first diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 33 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj finished arranging the cards correctly. in the third activity, run and touch, the students had to listen to the teacher’s instruction and then ran to touch the day card mentioned by the teacher on a certain spot on the walls. the last activity was completing sentences with the right day. this activity strengthened the students’ reading as well as writing skills. at the same time, it also functioned to calm down the young learners after giving an active physical activity in run and touch game. post instructional activity the students were given a worksheet to arrange letters into the correct names of the days. students’ performance the students were excited in doing every activity. they really enjoyed the lesson because they felt like playing. almost everybody was competing to have the chance to participate in each activity. there was one sensitive girl who cried while reporting to the teacher that somebody had pulled her shirt so that she could not run fast to touch the day card on the wall. however, overall, the class was lively but controlled. quality of the game the games were all functional as they had been well designed and prepared. for example, with the well made large card train with a locomotive and separate six wagons, the students could learn mentioning days of the week (speaking) and their sequence. the train also enhanced the students’ motoric development as they walked around the classroom as a train. day race developed the students’s reading skill (cognitive) and at the same time motoric speed (physical) by arranging the cards quickly in the correct order. run and touch obviously trained the students’ listening skill and physical capability to perform the task. meanwhile, completing sentences with the right day strengthened their reading and writing skills. teacher’s attitude the teacher showed her skill and creativity in managing such a big class. with her good english supported with sense of humor combined with her authority, she could present the lesson and involve the students very well. physically she was also energetic and technically, she was well prepared. 7. teacher : januette ovelia t., s.pd. school : st. carolus catholic elementary school, surabaya technique : drama 34 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj performance stages evaluation stages of presentation pre-instructional activity introduction: the teacher introduces the topic by showing the picture of lake toba (with background music). she asked the students whether they had ever heard or known about lake toba or not. she also showed a small island in the middle of the lake that is called samosir. then she told the students the location of the lake and the history of it. vocabulary grammar: next she introduced the vocabulary used in the legend of lake toba by showing the pictures through power point slides. she also explained the use of “there was” and “there were.” storytelling as the preparation for drama: as the preparation for drama, the teacher did the following activities:  introducing the characters in the legend of lake toba by showing the puppets of the characters;  telling the story of lake toba with facial expressions and gestures;  asking to the students about the target vocabulary and checking their comprehension in some pauses while telling the story;  asking the students the moral value of the story. whilst instructional activity a group of students who had been prepared before performed a mini drama about the legend of lake toba. the characters were toba, his wife, their son, and some minor characters as the boy’s friends. with the teacher as the narrator, all characters acted out in front and performed short dialogues which they had learned before. though simple and short, the mini drama was very good and entertaining. after the drama performance, the teacher divided the class into three groups. to each group, the teacher distributed mini puppets of the story characters. the first activity was for listening skill. anytime the teacher said one sentence from the story, the students had to tell who spoke the line in the story by raising the right puppet. the next activity was for story comprehension, vocabulary exercise, and structure practice. the students did the diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 35 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj following things:  matching each word with the right picture;  answering the teacher’s questions by circling the correct picture;  sticking the correct picture on the right scene;  choosing ‘was’ or ‘were’ in sentences;  rearranging jumbled words into a good sentence. post instructional activity the teacher distributed the series of pictures so that each student got one picture. she asked the students to arrange the picture into the story of lake toba by making a line. the teacher asked the students in turns to tell about the picture they had go the teacher let the students to retell the story of lake toba one by one. students’ performance everybody in the classroom was enthusiastic. the teacher introduced the story lively with her good pronunciation and intonation. she also carried out each activity well as all had been well prepared. while the teacher as the narrator was reading the story slowly, a group of students who performed the drama did their job very well. they tried to act as best as they could and they could speak the lines appropriately and smoothly without a text. it showed that they had memorized the dialogues before. meanwhile, the rest of the class paid attention to the scenes seriously. once in a while they laughed together at a funny action. they enjoyed the drama very much and even asked for one more performance. seeing their enthusiasm, the observer signaled the teacher to let the group play the drama once again. quality of the drama for young learners at a primary school, the drama was very good. despite the casting of one of the roles that was not very ideal, on the whole, it deserved an appreciation. the young actors tried to perform seriously which showed their efforts. teacher’s attitude the teacher did her job very well and enthusiastically. she also showed her creativity by preparing interesting puppets for the story and the good slides of the story, also by guiding the students in preparing for the drama performance, as well as designing the other learning activities following the drama. 36 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj besides class observations, an interview was conducted. however, only one teacher could be interviewed as the others had to teach again. this one teacher had no difficulty in preparing all the materials needed as they were all available at the school. the technique suggested in this research could bring a different atmosphere to the class and make the students understand the lesson better. she suggested that all the lessons and techniques used should be thematically taught. result of the workshop after the observations the workshop was conducted on saturday, 30th july 2016. the workshop aimed at disseminating all four techniques suggested in this research to elementary school teachers who taught english. the result is described as follows: a. techniques that can be implemented in the classroom there were twenty-six respondents who gave their opinions about which techniques they often use in the classroom. table 2 below shows how many teachers use particular techniques in teaching english. table 2: the number of teachers using particular techniques no technique # of teachers % games + songs 11 42.31 2 games 5 19.23 3 songs 4 15.38 4 storytelling 3 11.53 5 storytelling + games 1 3.85 6 storytelling + songs 1 3.85 7 games + songs + storytelling 1 3.85 total 26 100.00 the technique which is mostly used by teachers of english at elementary schools is a combination of games and songs, which took 42.31% (eleven teachers out of twenty-six), followed by games (19.23% or 5 teachers), songs (15.38% or 4 teachers), storytelling (11.53% or 3 teachers), and combinations of techniques, namely storytelling and games, storytelling and songs, and games, songs and storytelling, each of which took 3.85% (or 1 teacher). diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 37 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj there are reasons why the techniques are used by the teachers. the following discussion shows the results for each activity. 1. games and songs this combination of the two techniques is used as the teachers consider the time limit they have. they think that they do not need to prepare quite a lot and they can get the students’ attention as they like to play games and sing songs. moreover, the techniques can motivate the students to learn, and make them able to absorb the lessons easily. besides, there are many available references concerning games and songs. 2. games the reasons why the teachers like to use games are simple. they just think that students like playing so that this can make the students active and motivated to learn english. in addition, preparation does not take much time, and games are effective to obtain the students’ attention so that they can understand the lesson being taught. 3. songs like games, singing is an activity that the students like. besides the time limit the teachers have, they can get songs easily and they only need a little time to prepare songs. moreover, one teacher says that most songs can be used from the first up to the fourth grade, and songs can stimulate the right hemisphere of the brain. 4. storytelling this technique leads the students to learn to be good listeners. they can listen to the stories well and are triggered to imagine the stories. 5. storytelling and games this makes the students active and focus on what they are listening to and what they are playing. the teachers believe this will develop their intellectuality. 6. storytelling and songs songs are appropriate to be given to students of grades 1 up to four while storytelling to fifth and sixth graders. 38 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 7. games, songs and storytelling one teacher says that s/he can combine the techniques so that the students do not get bored. from the list, drama is not the technique one that is used by any of the teacher respondents in their class for some of the following reasons: the school english materials are quite a lot to be taught to the students while drama takes much time to prepare and to deliver. one meeting is not enough. students need to be trained for intonation and actions. not all teachers are able to teach drama. the number of students in one class is big. students have difficulty in acting. many students still have difficulty in creating dialogues classes can be uncontrollably noisy and those who are not chosen (due to big number of students in class) feel disappointed and sad. drama can be done in the extracurricular activity as the teacher and the students have ample time to do it. there are also teachers who do not use storytelling in their english class due to the following reasons: teachers cannot tell stories teachers cannot make the media storytelling needs more time there are many students in a class it’s hard for teachers to have various intonation and expressions of different characters students have difficulty in comprehending a long story. the teachers’ opinions when asked how the workshop was, all teachers in the questionnaires said that the seminar was really useful for the following reasons: the techniques presented in the seminar make the students enjoy the english lesson the techniques can be applied in the classroom diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 39 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj the seminar can make teachers aware that teaching english to elementary school students must be fun the seminar can refresh the teachers’ mind how to teach english the seminar recharges the teachers to get the spirit back to teach english the techniques inspire the teachers to be creative in teaching english the techniques can be a reference for the teachers to teach english the seminar is sort of an upgrading program for the teachers concerning english teaching techniques the seminar gives ideas of how to teach english in a fun way in short, the teachers of english in some elementary schools when observed could use the techniques quite well following all the stages of presenting the materials (pre-instructional activity, whilst-instructional activity and postinstructional activity), make their classes lively and active, and know how to encourage the students to participate in all activities in class. out of the four techniques proposed, games and songs seem to be the favorite techniques of the teachers when they teach english but they never or seldom use drama. conclusion finally, this research is completely finished. this third phase is the last phase of a set of three phases. in the first phase, a survey based on need analysis was conducted in order to know what techniques the elementary school teachers of english usually used. this phase resulted in the decision of using four techniques, namely songs, games, drama, and storytelling. therefore, a seminar was conducted to get ideas from the teachers to see whether the techniques could be implemented in a classroom before the handbook was printed. a prototype of the handbook for elementary school teachers to teach english and two cds are the products of the first phase. in the second phase, a workshop was conducted to train teachers (tot) how to use the techniques. all the participant teachers were divided into four groups, each of which performed one technique. a questionnaire was distributed to obtain suggestions from the teachers about the modules in the prototype. based on teachers’ suggestions, revisions were made and the handbook was printed in its final form. 40 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj in the third phase, an observation was carried out to see whether teachers of english in the elementary schools could implement the techniques in their own classes. after the observations, a workshop was conducted by asking four teachers in the observation to demonstrate the techniques in front of other invited teachers of english. this workshop resulted that in general the seminar could stimulate the teachers to teach english in a fun way and refresh the teachers’ way of teaching english to their students so that they are actively engaged in the english lesson. the most favorite techniques that the teachers think they can use are games and songs, but drama and storytelling seem to be hard to be implemented in classroom by the teachers. they suggest that drama and storytelling can be done during the extracurricular-activity hours so that the teachers and the students have more time to practice. references anthony, e. m. (1963). approach, method, and technique. english language teaching 17, 63-6. brewster, j. & ellis, g. (2007). the primary english teacher’s guide. edinburg gate: pearson education ltd. brown, d. (2007). teaching languages by principles. pearson education, inc. diptoadi, v. l., mindari, r., & tedjasuksmana, h. (2015). developing a teaching handbook for english elementary school teachers. surabaya: unika widya mandala surabaya. halliwell, s. (1992). teaching english in the primary classroom. new york: longman publishing. http://www.lanecc.edu/lfc/characteristics-children lightbown, p. & spada, n. (1993). how languages are learned. oxford: oxford university press. mrs. r. (n.d.). a list of character traits. teacher pay teacher. retrieved from http://www.teacherspayteachers.com/product/a-list-of-character-traits90373 http://www.lanecc.edu/lfc/characteristics-children http://www.teacherspayteachers.com/product/a-list-of-character-traits-90373 http://www.teacherspayteachers.com/product/a-list-of-character-traits-90373 diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 41 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj paul, d. (2003). teaching english to children in asia. quarry bay: longman asia elt. perry, b. d. (n.d). why young children are curious? retrieved on may 26, 2014 from http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/why-young-childrenare-curious. scott, w. a., & ytreberg l. h. (2004). teaching english to children (19th impression). new york: longman. slattery, m. & willis, j. (2001). english for primary teachers. oxford: oxford university press. appendices part 1 rubrics for drama no. description much agree agree quite agree dis agree remarks a. facial expressions, eye contact and gestures 1 introducing characters so lively that audience knows what each character is like. 2 presenting the story using timely facial expressions 3 presenting the story using timely body gestures 4 having eye contact with audience to catch attention b. voice 1 speaking with volume that can be clearly heard by the whole class 2 having clear enunciation 3 changing voice to show change of mood 4 changing voice to show change of character 5 dynamic rhythm of voice to follow the flow of story 6 emphasizing certain expressions to get audience attention http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/why-young-children-are-curious http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/why-young-children-are-curious 42 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj c. performance 1 able to perform the characterization of each character in the story 2 making an interaction with audience 3 able to keep audience attentive to the story 4 having confidence to perform in front of audience 5 able to keep the story flow despite the parts the teacher forgets 6 able to use the stage effectively that audience does not focus on one side only d. stages and result of presentation 1 pre-instructional activity a. introducing each character clearly b. introducing vocabulary clearly prior to/ in the course of the story c. story flow can be followed by students 2 whilst-instructional activity a. students are able to act out a particular scene b. students are able to answer the questions 3 post-instructional activity a. students are able to perform another assigned skill relating to the drama topic. 4 having audience involved in the activities e. properties 1 using appropriate properties for characters and settings 2 using available materials created to be properties of the story 3 colors used catch attention and bring excitement 4 showing creativity in the making of properties 5 properties well prepared diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 43 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj part 2 rubrics for games no. description much agree agree quite agree dis agree remarks a. stages of presentation 1 pre-instructional activity a. goal is clearly introduced to the students b. introducing vocabulary used in the game c. giving clear instructions 2 whilst-instructional activity a. going around the class to see if students ask for help or if the students are actively engaged in the game b. reflecting intended skills on the students’ performance 3 post-instructional activity a. giving additional exercises supporting the intended skills b. getting results in accordance to the intended skills. b. students’ performance 1 able to concentrate on the task 2 able to complete the task 3 able to exceed the average threshold 4 able to exercise a sense of selfcontrol 5 able to work together c. properties of game 1 goal directed 2 able to encourage students to learn 3 have sufficient time to be done 4 involve every student actively 5 remove tense, frustration and reluctance 6 able to keep students’ attention 44 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj part 3 rubrics for songs no. description much agree agree quite agree dis agree remarks a. stages of presentation 1 pre-instructional activity a. eliciting ideas well from students b. introducing vocabulary c. distributing handouts of lyrics/ displaying lyrics on screen 2 whilst instructional activity a. reintroducing vocabulary b. reminding students of sequences of parts of the song c. making students act out the song 3 post-instructional activity a. asking students to sing together b. reinforcing the topic having been learned b. students’ performance 1 able to act out the song 2 able to pronounce words correctly 3 understand the topic being learned 4 actively engaged in the activity c. quality of song 1 reflecting the topic being learned 2 easily remembered 3 lyrics well organized & in accordance with the topic being learned 4 entertaining & informative d. teachers’ attitude diptoadi, v.l., mindari, r., tedjasuksmana, h., teachers’ implementations of 45 teaching techniques for young learners https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 1 enthusiastically dealing with the students 2 encouraging students to participate part 4 rubrics for story telling no. description much agree agree quite agree disa gree remarks a. facial expressions, eye contact and gestures 1 introducing characters so lively that students know what each character is like. 2 presenting the story using timely facial expressions 3 presenting the story using timely body gestures 4 having eye contact with students to catch attention b. voice 1 speaking with volume that can be clearly heard by the whole class 2 having clear enunciation 3 changing voice to show change of mood 4 changing voice to show change of character 5 dynamic rhythm of voice to follow the flow of story 6 emphasizing certain expressions to get students’ attention c. performance 1 able to perform the characterization of each character in the story 2 making an interaction with the students 46 celt: a journal of culture, english language teaching & literature, volume 18, number 1, july 2018, pp. 19 – 46 https://doi.org/10.24167/celt.v18i1; issn: 1412-3320 (print); issn: 2502-4914 (online); accredited; doaj 3 able to keep the students attentive to the story 4 having confidence to perform in front of students 5 able to keep the story flow despite the parts the teacher forgets 6 able to use the stage effectively that students do not focus on one side only d. stages and result of presentation 1 pre-instructional activity a. introducing each character clearly b. introducing vocabulary clearly prior to/ in the course of the story c. story flow can be followed by students d. sequence of events creatively presented 2 whilst-instructional activity a. students are able to answer the questions 3 post-instructional activity a. engaging students to an activity which reconstructs the story b. helping students recollect the story 4 having students involved in the activities e. properties 1 using appropriate properties for characters and settings 2 using available materials created to be properties of the story 3 colors used catch attention and bring excitement 4 showing creativity in the making of 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