Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
14 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
College Athletic Reputation and College Choice among African
American High School Seniors: Evidence from the Educational
Longitudinal Study1
Jomills Henry Braddock, II
Hua Lv
Marvin P Dawkins
University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida
Abstract
This study extends research on college choice, with recent national
survey data, by examining what African American students say about the
importance of college athletic reputation in choosing which school to
attend. We use the Educational Longitudinal Survey to examine the overall
distribution of self-reported factors that shape college choices among
African American high school seniors who express plans to attend college
immediately after high school. We then conduct factor analysis to examine
the structure of relations among the diverse factors shaping student
preferences and their contribution to understanding variation in the college
choice process among African Americans. Finally, to understand the effect
of athletic reputation relative to other relevant college selection and access
factors, we undertake logistic regression analyses. Our descriptive results
show that roughly one out of every three African American respondents
report that a school’s athletic reputation is at least a somewhat important
consideration in determining their college choice. The factor analysis
for the full sample revealed five common dimensions--Academic/
Career, Economic/Practical, Demographic, and Social. Academic/Career
considerations-- representing the strongest factors, with Social/Academic/
Career considerations ranked somewhat lower in importance across
analysis groups.
An extensive and growing literature on college choice suggests that
students’ decision about where to attend college can be just as important
as their decision to attend (Astin 1965; Choy & Ottinger 1998; Hossler&
Gallagher 1987). Research on the college choice process has demonstrated
that a student’s selection of a college is influenced by supply and demand
considerations involving decision-making processes operating at both
individual and institutional levels (Hossler & Gallagher 1987). Individual
1 An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological
Association in New York, NY, August 2007. Please address all correspondence to Jomills H. Brad
dock, II (braddock@miami.edu).
18
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
decisions occur early as students identify colleges of interest. Institutional
decisions occur later when college admissions officers accept or reject
applicants according to their institutional needs. While both the supply
and demand sides of this process are important, the present study, like
most research in this area, focuses primarily on the supply-side in the
college choice process—student decision-making. Dembowski (1980)
notes three basic decisions a student must make: (1) which colleges to
apply to, (2) which colleges, if any, to visit, and (3) which college to attend.
We examine student self-reports of how institutional characteristics, and a
number of other relevant factors that have been identified in past research,
influence their college and university choices. More specifically, this study
replicates and extends research examining the importance of college
athletic reputation on African American students’ college choice by: (1)
employing more current national data; (2) examining gender differences;
and, (3) studying college choice prospectively among a longitudinal sample
of college bound seniors.
Review of Related Research
Carrington and Sedlacek (1975) cite early research on college
choice which identifies four general foci of students’ decisions: (1) factors
internal to the institution (e.g., academic reputation and prestige); (2)
factors external to the institution (e.g., location and proximity to student’
home); (3) human influences (relatives, friends, counselors); and (4)
individual factors (personal and family finances). Along with the earlier
research, more recent studies have examined and affirmed the importance
of these and other considerations, including: proximity to home (Corey
1936; Reeves 1932; Holland & Richards 1965; Bowers & Pugh 1973;
Erdman 1983), cost (Reinhardt 1938; Bowers & Pugh 1973), campus social
life (Bowers & Pugh 1973), as well as college athletic reputation (Braddock,
Sokol-Katz, Basinger-Fleischman & Lv 2006; Braddock & Lv 2006). Erdman
(1983) found that perceived reputation, location, and size are far more
important than other factors examined, including cost. Bowers and Pugh
(1973) also point out that students and their parents emphasize different
factors in the selection process: Parents emphasize financial factors,
proximity, and academic reputation, while students emphasize social and
cultural factors.
Research further indicates that students also differ among
themselves in the relative importance they assign to particular selection
factors based on: race-ethnicity (Lisack 1978; McDonough & Antonio
1996); gender (Holland 1958; 1959; Stordahl 1970; Hansen & Litten 1982);
academic rank (Stordahl 1970); and socioeconomic status (Munday 1976;
Hearn 1984; 1991; Kelpe-Kern 2000). Thus, research over several decades
Challenge 15
19
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
suggests that college choice decisions are significantly shaped by students’
access to information about, and perceptions of, colleges’ academic
programs, tuition, costs, availability of financial aid, general academic
reputation, proximity to home, size, and social life (Comfort 1925;
Ripperger 1933; Keller & McKewon 1984; Stewart, et al. 1987; Chapman &
Jackson 1987; Braxton 1990; Kinzie, et al. 1998; Hossler, Schmit and Vesper
1999; Braddock, Sokol-Katz, Basinger-Fleischman & Lv 2006; Braddock &
Lv 2006).
Research on African American Students’ College Choice
Earlier research on the academic experiences of African
Americans suggest that there are several reasons why it is important to
understand African American student’s college choice: (1) investing in
higher education represents the major avenue of upward mobility for most
African Americans; (2) African American students’ ability to obtain access
to graduate and professional education largely depends upon the type and
quality of their undergraduate education; and (3) both persistence and
graduation rates among African American students have been found to
vary with attendance at historically white and historically black colleges
(Thomas & Braddock 1981; Braddock & Dawkins 1981; Dawkins &
Braddock 1982; Dawkins 1989). More recent studies have confirmed
the importance of understanding college choice in the higher education
experiences of African Americans. For example, Hurtado, et al. (1997)
report that although African Americans were about as likely as whites
to apply to several colleges, they were significantly less likely than white
students to say they were attending their first choice, with similar findings
based on American College Testing (ACT) data being reported by Maxey,
Lee, and McLure (1995). Therefore, while previous research has examined
college choice decisions, with few exceptions (Braddock, Sokol-Katz,
Basinger-Fleischman & Lv 2006; Braddock & Lv 2006), the question of
whether, and how, a college’s athletic reputation may influence high school
students’ decisions to attend particular colleges or universities has not been
examined.
It can be argued that we have limited knowledge about the role
of college athletics because educational researchers, in general, fail to
incorporate sports into their theoretical and analytic models. However,
inattention to this topic is also due, in part, to the fact that most of the
national data sets used to examine the college choice process have
not included measures of athletic reputation (or related indicators of
intercollegiate athletics). For example, the major national college student
surveys (e.g., Freshman Norm Surveys collected by HERI, and the
Beginning Postsecondary Student Longitudinal Study collected by NCES)
16 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
20
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
have not included athletic reputation or related information among the
items in their college choice inventories. However, even when they have
been included, the independent influence of athletics has often not been
explored. Rather, athletic reputation data, when available, have more
typically been combined with other indicators to assess the relative effect
of “social” influences on student’s college choice (Hurtado, et al. 1997).
Athletics and Student College Choice
In some respects, the long-standing neglect of athletic reputation
in research on college choice is curious since some have characterized
intercollegiate athletics as “the front door or front porch to the university
(Toma & Cross 1998). The “front porch” metaphor suggests that college
sports are what outsiders see and what eventually gets them inside. One
of the populations it attracts is prospective students (Toma & Cross 1998).
This phenomenon has sometimes been called the “Flutie factor,” referring
to a 25 percent increase in Boston College’s applications the year following
quarterback Doug Flutie’s “Hail Mary” pass, which enabled Boston College
to upset the University of Miami in the Orange Bowl in 1983. Similarly,
North Carolina State University reportedly received a 40 percent increase
in applications following its NCAA basketball championship in 1983
(McCormick & Tinsley 1987). More recently, following the University of
Florida’s 2006 national football championship, and back-to-back basketball
titles in 2006 and 2007, early reports suggest the university will reap similar
benefits. For example, recent undergraduate applications reached an all-
time high (25,000 students applied for fewer than 7,000 slots), and the
average applicant SAT score is now 1400 (Garry 2007).
Similar associations between successful athletic programs and
student recruitment have also been attributed to HBCU’s. For example,
according to Evans, Evans, and Evans (2002), several HBCU’s -- Florida
A & M University, Hampton University, and Grambling University—have
experienced enrollment gains associated with winning teams. Specifically,
they suggest that, over the past five years, winning athletic programs in
football, baseball, track and field, and several minor sports at Florida A
& M University and Hampton University have helped their enrollments.
Grambling University has had greater success in recruiting students when
its intercollegiate athletic teams had winning seasons (Evans, Evans &
Evans 2002).
Within the higher education community, discussions about the
role and value of highly competitive intercollegiate athletics continue to
generate considerable controversy. Much of this debate often focuses on
what may be considered “value-added” outcomes of successful athletic
Challenge 17
21
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
programs, such as increased alumni giving (Turner, Meserve & Bowen
2001; Sperber 2000) or enhanced student applicant pools (Tucker & Amato
1993; Toma & Cross 1998; McCormick & Tinsley 1987; Murphy & Trandel
1994), thought to be associated with having successful high-profile sports
teams. While alumni giving is clearly an important matter, we consider
here only the arguments and research related to student applicant pools.
In this regard, studies examining the association between colleges’ athletic
reputation and student applicant pools provide limited, and somewhat
mixed results. However, the more methodologically rigorous studies tend
to show results which are consistent with the value-added “applicant pool”
benefits hypothesis. These studies have examined either numerical gains in
the applicant pool or the quality of the applicant pool.
Quality of Applicants. Economists McCormick and Tinsley (1987)
examined the effect of athletics on academics. Based on an analysis of 150
schools (including 63 from major conferences), these researchers found
evidence to support the argument that athletics serve as an advertising tool
and, consequently, schools with major college athletics have academically
stronger undergraduate student bodies than institutions without major
college athletics. Therefore, a symbiotic relationship exists between
athletics and academics at many universities (McCormick & Tinsley 1987).
Furthermore, according to McCormick and Tinsly, critics of athletic success
are misguided if they believe that universities will improve academically by
elimination of large-scale athletic participation. Rather, such action could
have detrimental effects for any particular school. Tucker and Amato
(1993) provide some evidence to support this argument by examining the
association between schools’ high-profile (football and basketball) teams
and student quality (as measured by average SAT scores) and finding that a
highly ranked football team boosted SAT scores. However, the same study
showed that a highly ranked basketball team did not have the same effect
(Tucker & Amato 1993).
Applicant Pool Size. Toma and Cross (1998), found that success in
intercollegiate athletics (as indicated by national championships in one of
the two marquee sports such as football and men’s basketball) appears to
translate into a sometimes dramatic increase in the number of admission
applications received, both in absolute terms and relative to peer institutions.
They note that football championships seem to have more profound impact
on applications received than basketball, and point out that their finding of
positive attention following a championship year (particularly for football),
appears to be “somewhat lasting.” Likewise, Murphy and Trandel (1994)
examined 46 football schools and found that a .25 increase in winning
percentage yielded a 1.370 percent gain in applications.
18 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
22
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Student Choice. Studies examining student college selection priorities
have produced somewhat mixed results. For example, one recent telephone
survey of 500 college-bound seniors reported in the Chronicle of Higher
Education suggests that “the quality of a college’s sports teams falls far down
the list of factors that high-school students consider when deciding on a
college” (Suggs 2003). The study found that 73 percent of the respondents
said their decision to attend a given college was not influenced by its
position in the divisional hierarchy of the National Collegiate Athletic
Association. More than a third (37%) said they did not know whether
their college of choice belonged to Division I, II, or III (Suggs 2003). These
descriptive survey results are provocative but limited, methodologically.
This is especially the case with regard to how this study conceptualized the
quality of a college’s sports teams. The size and representativeness of the
sample are also of concern.
One recent, more methodologically rigorous, study using
reports of college choice among students matriculating at four-year
institutions arrived at different conclusions. Using data from the National
Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS), Braddock, Sokol-Katz, Basinger-
Fleischman, and Lv (2006) found that, while “academic” and “economic”
considerations had the greatest impact on student college choice, college
athletic reputation was the most important among the “social” issues
students consider in selecting a college to attend. They also note that
the importance of college athletic reputation tends to be emphasized by
males, students from higher SES backgrounds, students who participate
in varsity intercollegiate athletics, students attending public colleges and
universities, and, interestingly, by students who place strong emphasis on
college academic reputation. In a subsequent analysis using the African
American subsample from the National Educational Longitudinal Study
(NELS), Braddock and Lv (2006) reported generally similar results.
The present study employs the more recent Educational
Longitudinal Survey to examine further what African American high school
senior students say about the importance of college athletic reputation in
choosing which school to attend. Like Toma and Cross (1998), our analyses
are guided by the conceptual model proposed by Hossler and Gallagher
(1987), which considers college choice as a three stage process, including:
(1) predispositions, where a student develops an interest in continuing his
or her education; (2) search, where a student gathers information on the
attributes and values that characterize alternatives among institutions; and
(3) choice, where a student decides which institution to attend. Toma and
Cross (1998) posit that the growth of intercollegiate athletics and the positive
attention it generates has a stronger impact at the search and choice stages,
Challenge 19
23
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
while also influencing students at the predispositions stage, especially
among those who follow sports, in terms of making them aware of higher
education from an early age ( Toma & Cross 1998). Specifically, we focus
primarily on one aspect of college choice—a college’s athletic reputation.
We first examine, among African American high school seniors planning
to attend four-year colleges or universities, the overall distribution of self-
reported factors that shaped the selection of their first choice institutions.
We then conduct factor analysis to examine the structure of relations among
the diverse factors shaping student preferences and their contribution
to understanding variation in the college choice process among African
American high school seniors. Finally, to understand the relationship
between athletic reputation and college choice, with other relevant college
selection and access factors taken into account, we undertake logistic
regression analysis.
Methods
Data
The data for this study are taken from the Educational Longitudinal
Study (ELS) conducted by the U.S. Department of Education’s National
Center for Education Statistics (NCES). The base year survey was
conducted in 2002 when the students were in tenth grade and employed
a two-stage, stratified random sample of nearly 17,000 tenth graders in
some 1,000 schools who were followed up in 2004 when the respondents
were in twelfth grade. Estimated response rates remain consistently over 90
percent.
The overall sample is made up of Whites (53.7 percent), Hispanics
(13.7 percent), African Americans (12.5 percent), Asian/Pacific Islanders
(9 percent), and Native American/Alaskan Natives (.8 percent). However,
our analytic subsample consists of 2,027 African American high school
seniors who reported plans to enroll in a four year college or university
immediately following graduation. We utilize the standardized NCES
panel weight for this sample in order to approximate the original base year
sample and to adjust the data for nonresponse bias.
20 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
24
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Measures
College Choice Influences. are measured by a Likert-type
inventory consisting of questions which ask the respondents: How much
importance does each of the following have in choosing your first choice
college or university: (a) active social life; (b) ability to attend same school as
parents attended; (c) good record for placing graduates in graduate school;
(d) size of school; (e) religious environment; (f) race-ethnic composition;
(g) good record for placing graduates in jobs; (h) low crime environment;
(i) easy admission standards; (j) strong reputation of school’s academic
programs; (k) geographic location; (l) chance to live away from home; (m)
availability of degree program that will allow me to get a chosen job; (n)
availability of specific courses or curriculum; (o) ability to attend school
while living at home; (p) low expenses; (q) availability of financial aid; and,
(r) strong reputation of school’s athletic programs.
The possible responses to these items range from (1=not important,
2=somewhat important, 3=very important). For the logistic regression
analyses, these responses were dichotomized to reflect an assessment of
either none or some importance attached to school’s athletic reputation.
The none category (0) includes (1=no importance) to reflect a lack of
importance attached to school’s athletic reputation. The some (1) category
includes (2=somewhat important and 3=very important) to reflect some
degree of importance attached to school’s athletic reputation.
Control Variables
Student Gender: 1=male, 0=female.
Family SES: This composite measure of socioeconomic status
was constructed by NCES, utilizing parent questionnaire data on:
father’s education level, mother’s education level, father’s occupation,
mother’s occupation, and family income. Quartile scores on this measure
are dichotomized where 1= top quartile; 0=second, third, and fourth
quartiles.
Standardized Achievement Test Score: is a composite scale measure
constructed by NCES based on students’ individual scores on reading and
math standardized achievement tests. Quartile scores on this measure
are dichotomized where 1= top quartile; 0=second, third, and fourth
quartiles.
H. S. Athlete: is measured by students’ reports of whether or not
they participated in interscholastic varsity sports during 12th grade where
1=participant and 0=nonparticipant.
Challenge 21
25
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
School Urbanicity: is a measure that uses U.S. Census categories
to classify the students’ school as urban (central city); suburban (area
surrounding a central city within a metropolitan statistical area); or rural
(out side a metropolitan statistical area). Codes: 1=Urban, 0=Non-Urban.
Results
Descriptive Analyses
Table 1 presents African American high school seniors’ responses
to each of the 18 original items in the College Choice Inventory (CCI).
Among the full sample (left panel), there is considerable variation in the
degree of importance attached to particular types of items in the CCI. Not
surprisingly, we note that specific items associated with academic and
career outcomes (e.g., school’s academic reputation, curricular offerings,
job placement record, graduate school placements, and specialized degree
programs), and financial considerations (e.g., low cost, financial assistance)
are rated as much more important than items associated with demographic
(e.g., religious environment, low crime) or social considerations (e.g.,
athletic reputation, social activities).
22 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
26
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Challenge 23
Table 1: Factors Affecting African American High School Seniors College Choice (N=2027)
Very Important Somewhat
Important
Not Important
Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female
Academic Reputation 66.6 61.8 70.8 26.8 30.8 23.3 6.6 7.4 5.9
Active Social Life 34.8 39.6 30.5 48.8 47.2 50.2 16.5 13.2 19.3
Financial Aid 75.7 71.5 79.4 18.9 21.8 16.3 5.4 6.7 4.3
Low Cost 52.0 51.6 52.3 35.6 34.8 36.4 12.4 13.6 11.3
Parents Alma Mata 6.6 8.7 4.8 13.2 17.1 9.8 80.1 74.2 85.4
Grad School Placement 60.3 57.7 62.6 30.1 31.5 28.8 9.6 10.7 8.6
Size of School 24.7 23.7 25.6 45.7 46.9 44.6 29.6 29.4 29.8
Religious Environ. 58.4 58.1 58.6 30.2 30.7 29.8 11.4 11.2 11.6
Race-Ethnic Comp. 32.0 32.0 32.0 38.3 38.6 38.1 29.7 29.5 29.5
Job Placement 73.0 72.0 73.9 22.7 23.1 22.4 4.3 4.9 3.7
Low Crime Environ. 52.9 47.9 57.2 33.1 34.4 32 14 17.7 10.7
Easy Admissions 38.8 38.7 38.9 37.9 38.4 37.5 23.3 22.9 23.6
Geographic Location 28.4 28.5 28.3 45.2 44.8 45.5 26.4 26.7 26.2
Live Away From Home 40.3 38.5 41.8 37.8 43 33.3 21.9 18.5 24.9
Live at Home 26.4 26.1 26.6 31.1 33.6 29 42.5 40.2 44.4
Special Degree Program 83.3 79.0 87.0 14.7 18.7 11.3 2.0 2.4 1.7
Specialized Curriculum 73.4 68.1 78.0 22.6 21.5 18.2 4.0 4.4 3.7
Athletic Reputation 26.3 35.6 18.2 29.9 33.7 26.5 43.8 30.7 55.3
Table 1: Factors Affecting African American High School Seniors College Choice (N=2027)
27
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
With few exceptions (e.g., athletic reputation, campus safety), the
results for males and females in the middle and right panels, respectively,
are quite similar. Not surprisingly, only one quarter of African American
seniors ranked a college’s athletic reputation as “very important” in their
decision-making (26.3 percent among the full sample and 35.6 percent and
18.2 percent among males and females, respectively). In contrast, a larger
proportion of African American seniors generally ranked college athletic
reputation as “not important” in their decision-making (43.8 percent
among the full sample and 30.7 percent and 55.3 percent among males and
females, respectively).
Nevertheless, it should be noted that roughly one half of our sample
of college-bound African American high school seniors (69 percent of the
African American males, and 45 percent of African American females)
considered a strong athletic reputation to be at least somewhat or very
important in their choice of college. In many respects, these patterns are
quite similar to those reported for the NELS: 88 African American sample
of high school seniors (Braddock & Lv 2006) and those reported for the
full multi-ethnic national sample of high school seniors (Braddock, Sokol-
Katz, Basinger-Fleischman, & Lv 2006). However, we should note that
among African American students, the current data suggest a substantially
stronger emphasis placed on athletic reputation among ELS college bound
seniors compared to that reported for the NELS college matriculant cohort.
Both the current patterns and over-time trends suggest that college athletic
reputation should be an important consideration not only for college
choice researchers, but also for college administrators and others involved
with student recruitment.
Factor Analysis
Principal components factor analysis with Varimax rotation was
performed on the set of 18 items to examine whether the CCI included
more than one dimension. Because previous reports based on the earlier
NELS Survey (Braddock, Sokol-Katz, Basinger-Fleischman, & Lv 2006)
have identified gender differences in the factor structure of the CCI, we
carried out our analyses on the full sample as well as parallel analyses for
the male and female subsamples. Factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0
were retained. Each factor consisted of the items loading at .50 or above
on that factor. All items that received a factor loading of less than .50 were
dropped from further analysis. For the full sample, one item was deleted
following the initial analysis and additional factor analyses were conducted
with the 17 remaining items. For the full sample, varimax rotation resulted
in five factors –Academic-Career, Demographic, Economic, Social, and
Practical. The specific items are listed in Table 2 according to their factor
24 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
28
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
loadings and the factors are presented in order of their Eigenvalue ranking,
and proportion of variance explained.
Table 2: Rotated Factor Loadings for Four Dimensions of Self-Reported
Influences onAfrican American High School Seniors’ College Choice (N=2027)
Challenge 25
1 2 3 4 5
ACADEMIC/CAREER (1)
Job Placement .786
Grad Placement .769
Academic Program .742
Job Degree Program .617
DEMOGRAPHIC (2)
Size of School .807
Geog. Location .782
Race-Ethnic Composition .669
ECONOMIC (3)
Financial Aid .786
Low Expense .737
Specific Curriculum .552
SOCIAL LIFE (4)
Athletic Program .732
Social Life .647
Live Away Home .627
PRACTICAL (5)
Live at Home .821
Easy Admission .561
Parents Alma Mater .536
Eigenvalue
Principal Components Extraction/Varimax Rotation
4.394 2.008 1.493 1.168 1.011
29
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
The factor analysis of ratings on these 17 items produced five factors
that were rotated to terminal solution (Table 2). The resulting five factors
explained 59.3 percent of the variance in the CCI importance ratings.
Factor 1, which was labeled Academic-Career, accounted for 16.3 percent
of the variance. This factor consists of four items that describe college
choice factors associated with academic, and status attainment concerns.
Factor 2, Demographic, accounted for 12.2 percent of the variance. This
factor consists of three items--school size, geographic location, and race-
ethnic composition. Factor 3, Economic, consists of three items—low
costs, availability of financial aid, and specific curriculum--accounted
for 10.4 percent of the variance. Factor 4, Social, which is represented by
three items—athletic reputation, ability to live away from home, and active
social life--accounted for 10.3 percent of the variance. Factor 5, Practical,
consisting of three items—live at home, attend parents alma mater, and
easy admissions standards--accounted for 10 percent of the variance.
For males, however, varimax rotation resulted in just four factors
that were rotated to terminal solution –Academic-Career, Demographic-
Social, Practical, and Economic. The specific items are listed in Table 3
according to their factor loadings and the factors are presented in order of
their Eigenvalue ranking and proportion of variance explained.
The resulting four factors explained 54.9 percent of the variance in
the CCI importance ratings. Factor 1, which was labeled Academic-Career,
accounted for 17.6 percent of the variance. This factor consists of five items
that describe college choice factors primarily associated with academic,
and status attainment, concerns. Factor 2, Demographic-Social, accounted
for 17.1 percent of the variance. This factor which combined consists of six
items--school size, geographic location, race-ethnic composition, athletic
reputation, ability to live away from home, and active social life. Factor 3,
Practical, consists of three items—live at home, attend parents alma mater,
and easy admissions standards--accounted for 10.3% of the variance. Factor
4, Economic, consists of three items—low costs, availability of financial
aid, and specific curriculum--accounted for 9.9 percent of the variance.
26 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
30
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Table 3: Rotated Factor Loadings for Four Dimensions of Self-Reported
Influenceson Male African American High School Seniors’ College Choice
(N=675)
Challenge 27
1 2 3 4
ACADEMIC/CAREER (1)
Job Placement .782
Academic Program .754
Grad Placement .741
Job Degree Program .670
Low Crime .545
DEMOGRAPHIC / SOCIAL (2)
Size of School .774
Race-Ethnic Composition .666.
Geog. Location .655
Live away from Home .653
Social Life .552
Athletic Reputation .470
PRACTICAL (3)
Live at Home .822
Easy Admission .584
Parent’s Alma Mater .538
ECONOMIC (4)
Financial Aid .786
Low Expense .734
Specific Curriculum .486
Eigenvalue
Principal Components Extraction/Varimax Rotation
4.900 1.990 1.369 1.076
31
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
For females, varimax rotation resulted in five factors that were
rotated to terminal solution –Academic-Career, Demographic, Economic,
Social, and Practical. The specific items are listed in Table 4 according
to their factor loadings and the factors are presented in order of their
Eigenvalue ranking, and proportion of variance explained.
The resulting five factors explained 57.9 percent of the variance in
the CCI importance ratings. Factor 1, which was labeled Academic-Career,
accounted for 15.3 percent of the variance. This factor consists of five items
that describe college choice factors primarily associated with academic,
and status attainment concerns. Factor 2, Demographic, accounted for 11.9
percent of the variance. This factor consists of three items--school size,
geographic location, and race-ethnic composition. Factor 3, Economic,
consisting of three items—low costs, availability of financial aid, and
specific curriculum--accounted for 10.7 percent of the variance. Factor 4,
Social, which is represented by three items—athletic reputation, ability to
live away from home, and active social life--accounted for 10.2 percent of
the variance. Factor 5, Practical, consisting of three items—live at home,
attend parents alma mater, and easy admissions standards--accounted for
9.8 percent of the variance.
Table 4: Rotated Factor Loadings for Four Dimensions of Self-Reported
Influences on Female African American High School Seniors’ College Choice
(N=773)
28 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
1 2 3 4 5
ACADEMIC/CAREER (1)
Job Placement .788
Academic Program .781
Grad Placement .721
Job Degree Program .573
Low Crime .509
DEMOGRAPHIC (2)
Size of School .801
Race-Ethnic Composition .740
Geog. Location .734
ECONOMIC (3)
Financial Aid .777
Low Expense .737
Specific Curriculum .573
SOCIAL LIFE (4)
Live Away Home .701
Athletic Program .674
Low Expense .639
PRACTICAL (5)
Live at Home .804
Parent’s Alma Mater .552
Easy Admission .525
Eigenvalue
Principal Components Extraction/ Varimax Rotation
3.991 1.954 1.604 1.288 1.013
32
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Logistic Regression Analysis
Our analysis employs logistic regression given the categorical
outcome measure in our model. We examine three different models where
parallel analyses are presented for the full sample, and separately for males
and females. Table 5 reports the logistic regression of importance attached
to college athletic reputation on gender, SES, standardized achievement
tests scores, participation in interscholastic varsity sports, public-private
high school attendance, and the importance African American high
school seniors attach to academic reputation when selecting a college. The
unstandardized regression coefficients represent the net or direct effect of
each of our predictor variables on the importance African American high
school seniors attach to colleges’ athletic reputations. Standard errors are
also reported in the tables. The reported Odds Ratios allow us to compare
the degree of importance attached to college athletic reputation across
categories of the predictor variables.
Table 5: Effects of Demographic and College Characteristics on African
American High School Seniors’ Rating of the Importance of Athletic
Reputation in College Choice (N=2027)
In Table 5, the left panel reports results for the full sample, the
middle panel results for males, and the right panel results for females.
First, considering the full sample, we see that gender and standardized
achievement test scores both exert significant (though different) effects
on importance attached to colleges’ athletic reputation. Male seniors are
significantly more likely than females to attach greater importance to a
college’s athletic reputation (b = .936, S.E. = .117, p<.001). Specifically,
African American male seniors are roughly one and one-half times more
Challenge 29
TOTAL MALES FEMALES
Odds
Ratio
b SE Odds
Ratio
b SE Odds
Ratio
b SE
Male 2.550 0.936a 117
Tests .344 -1.066a .208 .292 -1.231a .278 .434 -.836 b .305
Public 1.212 .115 .172 .965 -.036 .285 1.244 .218 .219
Urban 1.083 .080 .114 1.019 .018 .182 1.152 .142 .149
Acad Rep Imp 4.590 1.524a .245 4.308 1.460a .314 5.516 1.708a .422
Varsity Athlete 2.956 1.086a .125 3.467 1.243a .185 2.579 .947a .120
Constant -2.066 .127 .313 .355 -1.035 .451 .102 2.279 .479
Chi Square 244.930a 94.288a 61.724a
Cox and Snell R2 .149 .125 .073
a. p < .001
b. p < .01
c. p < .05
d. p < .10
33
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
likely than African American females to attach importance to athletic
reputation when selecting a college to attend (Odds Ratio: 2.55). On the
other hand, African American seniors with high standardized test scores
are less likely than African American seniors with lower test scores to
attach importance to athletic reputation when selecting a college, and this
difference is statistically significant (b = -1.066, S.E. = .208, p<.001).
Not surprisingly, African American seniors who participate
in interscholastic varsity sports are significantly more likely to attach
importance to athletic reputation when selecting a college, compared
to those who did not participate (b = 1.09, S.E. = .125, p<.001). Indeed,
African American high school student-athletes are nearly three times as
likely as non-athletes, to attach greater importance to athletic reputation
when selecting a college (Odds Ratio: 2.96). African American high school
seniors who attended public schools are also significantly more likely to
attach greater importance to colleges’ athletic reputation, compared to
African American seniors who attended private institutions (b = 1.052, S.E
.= .307, p<.01). More specifically, African American high school seniors who
attended public schools are more than 10 times as likely as those enrolled
at private schools to attach importance to colleges’ athletic reputation
(Odds Ratio: 11.71). In the full sample, the Cox and Snell R-Square is
.149, indicating that gender, SES, standardized achievement tests, varsity
sports, school sector, and the importance attached to academic reputation,
account for fifteen percent of the total variation in the likelihood of African
American high school seniors attaching importance to colleges’ athletic
reputation.
The middle panel of Table 5 reports, for African American males,
the logistic regression of the importance of college’s athletic reputation on
SES, standardized achievement tests scores, participation in interscholastic
varsity sports, public-private school attendance and the importance seniors
attach to academic reputation when selecting a college. Here, we see that
African American male seniors who participate in high school varsity sports
are significantly more likely to attach importance to athletic reputation
when selecting a college, compared to those who did not participate (b
= 1.679, S.E. = .538, p<.001). Indeed, African American male varsity
student-athletes are more than 8 times as likely as African American male
non-athletes, to attach importance to athletic reputation when selecting
a college (Odds Ratio: 9.76). African American male high school seniors
who attended public schools are also significantly more likely to attach
greater importance to college’s athletic reputation, compared to African
American male seniors enrolled in private high schools (b = 2.294, S.E .=
.544, p<.001). More specifically, African American male high school seniors
30 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
34
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
who attended public schools are more than 16 times as likely as those at
private schools to attach importance to college’s athletic reputation (Odds
Ratio: 17.81). Among males, the Cox and Snell R-Square is .224, indicating
that SES, standardized achievement tests, varsity sports, school sector, and
the importance attached to academic reputation, account for twenty-two
percent of the total variation in the likelihood of African American male
high school seniors attaching importance to college’s athletic reputation.
For African American females, the right panel of Table 5 reports
the logistic regression of the importance attached to colleges’ athletic
reputation on SES, standardized achievement tests, participation in varsity
sports, school sector and the importance seniors attach to academic
reputation when selecting a college. Here, we see that African American
female seniors who participate in high school varsity sports programs are
significantly more likely to attach importance to athletic reputation when
selecting a college, compared to those who did not participate (b = 1.631,
S.E. = .565, p<.01). Indeed, African American female student-athletes are
more than 7 times as likely as African American female non-athletes to
attach importance to athletic reputation when selecting a college (Odds
Ratio: 8.32). Interestingly, African American female high school seniors,
who consider a college’s strong academic standards to be important, are
also significantly less likely to attach importance to athletic reputation
when selecting a college, compared to those who place less importance on
the academic reputation of colleges (b = -1.968, S.E.= .839, p<.05). African
American female seniors who give strong consideration to a college’s
strong academic standards are roughly four and one half times less likely
to attach importance to athletic reputation when selecting a college (Odds
Ratio: 5.50). Among females, the Cox and Snell R-Square is .087, indicating
that SES, standardized achievement tests, varsity sports, school sector, and
importance attached to academic reputation, account for roughly nine
percent of the total variation in the likelihood of African American female
high school seniors attaching importance to a college’s athletic reputation.
Discussion and Implications
This study examined college characteristics and other factors
considered by African American high school seniors when choosing a
college. Consistent with prior studies (Braddock & Lv 2006) we find that
African American seniors planning to attend college consider a very wide
range of issues and college characteristics in their decision-making process.
Our analysis focused specifically on whether a college’s athletic reputation
plays a role in their decision-making. The findings suggest that while
college athletic reputation is clearly not among the top factors considered,
it does matter to a significant number of college bound African American
Challenge 31
35
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
high school seniors. Specifically, our descriptive results show that, for the
full sample, roughly one-half (56%) of African American high school
seniors report that a school’s athletic reputation is at least a somewhat
important consideration in determining their college choice. Among male
seniors, about two-thirds (69%) report that a school’s athletic reputation is
at least a somewhat important consideration in determining their college
choice. In contrast, among female seniors, less than half (45%) report that a
school’s athletic reputation is at least a somewhat important consideration
in determining their college choice. As previously noted, the current data
suggest a substantially stronger emphasis placed on athletic reputation
among ELS college bound seniors compared to that reported for the NELS
college matriculant cohort (Braddock & Lv 2006). While few would expect
college athletic reputation to be among the most important considerations
shaping African American high school seniors’ college choice decisions,
the evidence presented here demonstrates that it is by no means a trivial
matter. This finding is also consistent with results reported for the full
multi-ethnic sample (Braddock, Sokol-Katz, Basinger-Fleischman & Lv
2006).
The results of our factor analysis revealed different factor structures
across gender groups. For males, however, varimax rotation resulted
in just four factors that were rotated to terminal solution –Academic-
Career, Demographic-Social, Practical, and Economic. Among the full
sample and for females we found five common factors--Academic/Career,
Demographic, Economic, Social, and Practical. This study, like many prior
studies (Comfort 1925; Rippinger 1933; Keller & McKewon 1984; Stewart,
et al. 1987; Chapman 1981; Chapman & Jackson 1987; Braxton 1990; Kinzie
et al. 1998; Hossler, Schmit & Vesper 1999; Braddock, Sokol-Katz, Basinger-
Fleischman & Lv 2006), found that Academic/Career issues represent the
strongest factor with Social considerations ranked somewhat lower in
importance. Nevertheless, not unlike results reported elsewhere for the
full multi-ethnic sample (Braddock, Sokol-Katz, Basinger-Fleischman, &
Lv 2006), the present study found that college’s athletic reputation loads on
the Social factor across analysis groups. This suggests that among African
American high school seniors who value the potential for an active college
social life, a college’s athletic reputation is also an important consideration.
Perhaps, a number of these students see their college social life centering,
at least in part, on their school’s sports events.
Our logistic regression analysis revealed several interesting patterns
among variables that were related to the degree of importance African
American high school seniors attach to a college’s athletic reputation when
deciding which school to attend. First, we found that students who score
32 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
36
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
higher on standardized achievement tests give little consideration to college
athletic reputation. Not surprisingly, among African American students,
males, and varsity athletes (male and female) were found to give stronger
consideration to college athletic reputation than females or non-athletes.
While these are important findings, the study has several
limitations. Specifically, the present study was unable to account for
variations in several potentially important characteristics of four year
colleges—e.g., size, quality, location, race-ethnic composition, and the like.
Because we do not have access to the restricted data file containing college
ID (fice codes), we are unable to merge other data files which contain such
relevant information on key college characteristics. For example, we were
unable to ascertain whether an African American student’s college choices
might vary across HBCU’s and HWCU’s. It will be important for future
research to take into account such key institutional characteristics, which
conceivably, might influence the impact of athletic reputation in the college
choice process among African American students.
Notwithstanding future research needs and study limitations,
the results of this study provide insights into the debate regarding the
role of strong athletic programs as an important factor shaping college
choice among African American high school seniors. This is significant
information for consideration by college recruiting and admissions staff, as
well as for reflection among faculty and staff interested in the connection
between athletics and academics. We believe it is important to caution,
however, that these findings should not be narrowly interpreted to suggest
that prospective African American students are solely, or even primarily,
attracted to institutions with successful programs in high-profile athletics
such as football or basketball, or even NCAA Division I athletic programs.
The issue of college athletic reputation is much more complex. For example,
prospective students interested in highly competitive football may choose
Grambling University or Tennessee State University because of their long
tradition of excellence in that sport, without either knowing, or caring, that
those schools compete in Division I-AA, rather than the more prestigious
Division I-A, of the NCAA. Moreover, as Bowen and Levin (2003) suggest,
the appeal of strong athletic programs operates as strongly among Ivy
League and elite private universities as it does among big-time Division I
universities.
Challenge 33
37
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
References
Astin, A.W. 1965. Who goes where to college? Chicago: Science Research
Associates
Bowen, W.G. & S.A. Levin. 2003. Reclaiming the game: College sports
and educational values. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bowers, T. A. & R.C. Pugh. 1973. “Factors underlying college choice by
students and parents.” Journal of College Student Personnel 13:
220-224.
Braddock, J. H., II, & M.P. Dawkins. 1981. “Predicting black academic
achievement in higher education.” Journal of Negro Education
50: 319-327.
Braddock, J. H., II, J. Sokol-Katz, L. Basinger Fleischman, & H. Lv. 2006.
“Do strong intercollegiate athletic programs attract prospective
students? Evidence from the National Educational Longitudinal
Study.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association. San Francisco, CA.
Braddock, J. H., II & H. Lv. 2006. “Determining the college destination
of African American high school seniors: Does college athletic
reputation matter?” Journal of Negro Education 75: 532-545.
Braxton, J. M. 1990. “How students choose colleges.” Pp. 57-67 in D.
Hossler, J. Bean, & Associates, eds. The Strategic Management of
College Enrollments. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Carrington, C. H., & W.W. Sedlacek 1975. “Characteristics of no-shows
accepted for admission at a large university Journal of College
Student Personnel 13: 504-507.
Chapman, D. W. 1981. “A model of student college choice.” Journal of
Higher Education 52 (Sept-Oct): 490-505.
Chapman, R. C., & R. Jackson. 1987. College choices of academically able
students: The influence of no-need financial aid and other factors.
Research Monograph No. 10. New York: College Board.
34 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
38
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Choy, S. P., & C. Ottinger. 1998. Choosing a postsecondary institution:
Statistical analysis report. Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, National Center for Educational Statistics, U.S.
Department of Education, NCES 98-080. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Comfort, W. W. 1925. The choice of a college. New York: MacMillan.
Corey, S. M. 1936. “Student’s university choices.” Journal of Higher
Education 7: 207-211.
Dawkins, M. P. 1989. “The persistence of plans for professional careers
among blacks in early adulthood.” Journal of Negro Education 58:
220-231.
Dawkins, M. P. & J.H. Braddock, II. 1982. “Explaining outcomes for black
students in higher education using national longitudinal data .”
Negro Educational Review 33: 146-160.
Dembowski, F. L. 1980. “A model for predicting student college choice.”
College and University 55(2): 103-112.
Erdman, D. G. 1983. “An examination of factors influencing student
choice in the college selection process.” Journal of College
Admissions 100: 3-6.
Evans, A. L., V. Evans, & A.M. Evans. 2002. “Historically Black colleges
and universities HBCUS.” Education 123: 3-16.
Garry, S. 2007. “Athletic success a big win for UF.” Miami Herald.com
(http://www.miamiherald.com/605/v-print/story/60571.html).
Hearn, J.C. 1984. The relative roles of academic, ascribed, and
socioeconomic characteristics in college destinations. Sociology
of Education 57: 22-30.
_____. 1991. “Academic and nonacademic influences on the college
destinations of 1980 high school graduates.” Sociology of
Education 64: 158-171.
Holland, J. L. 1958. “Student explanations of college choice and their
relation to college popularity, college productivity, and sex
differences.” College and University 333: 3-20.
Challenge 35
39
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
_____. 1959. “Determinants of college choice.” College and University
351: 11-28.
Holland, J. L., & Richards, J. M. 1965. A factor analysis of student
explanations of their choice of a college. Iowa City, IA: American
College Testing Program.
Hossler, D., & K.S. Gallagher. 1987. “Studying student college choice:
A three-phase model and the implications for policymakers.”
College and University 62: 207-221.
_____., J. Schmit, & n. Vesper. 1999. Going to college: How social,
economic, and educational factors influence the decisions
students make. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Hurtado, S., k. Inkelas, C. Briggs, & R. Byung-Shik. 1997. “Differences in
college access and choice among racial/ethnic groups: Identifying
continuing barriers.” Research in Higher Education 38: 43-75.
Kelpe-Kern, C. W. 2000. “College choice influences: Urban high school
students respond.” Community College Journal of Research and
Practice 246: 487-495.
Keller, M. J. & M.P. McKewon. 1984. “Factors contributing to
postsecondary enrollment decisions of Maryland National Merit
Scholarship Semifinalists.” Paper presented at the annual meeting
of the Association for the Study of Higher Education. Chicago,
IL.
Kinzie, J., M. Palmer, J. Hayek, D. Hossler, S. Jacob, & H. Cummings.
2004. Fifty years of college choice: Social, political and
institutional influences on the decision making process.
Indianapolis, IN: LUMINA Foundation for Education.
Lisack, J. P. 1978. “Comparisons of the characteristics and plans of
Indiana high school seniors: By race and type program.”
Manpower Report 78-1. West Lafayette, IN: Office of Manpower
Studies.
Maxey, J., S.L. Jong, & G.T. McLure. 1995. “Are Black students less likely
to enroll at their first-choice college?” Journal of Blacks in Higher
Education 7: 100-101.
36 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
40
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Challenge 37
McCormick, R., M. & Tinsley. 1987. “Athletics versus academics?
Evidence from SAT scores.” Journal of Political Economy 955:
1103-1115.
McDonough, P. M., & A.L. Antonio. 1996. “Ethnic and racial differences
in selectivity of college choice.” Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. New
York, NY, April 8-13.
Munday, L. A. 1976. Impact of educational development, family income,
college costs, and financial aid in student choice and enrollment
in college. Iowa City, IA: American College Testing Program,
Research Report 77.
Murphy, R., & G. Trandel. 1994. “The relation between a university’s
football record and the size of its applicant pool.” Economics of
Education Review 104: 265-270.
Reeves, E. M. 1932. “Which college?” Journal of Higher Education 3: 67-
74.
Reinhardt, E. 1938. “Reasons given by freshmen for their choice of a
college?” School and Society 47: 511-512.
Ripperger, H. S. 1933. “When you choose your daughter’s college: Are you
practical or sentimental?” Good Housekeeping 97: 44-45.
Sperber, M. 2000. Beer and circus: How big-time college sports is
crippling undergraduate education. New York: Henry Holt and
Company.
Stewart, N. R. et al. 1987. “Counselor impact on college choice.” Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association. Washington, DC.
Stordahl, K. E. 1970. “Student perceptions of influences on college
choice.” Journal of Educational Research 635: 209-212.
Suggs, W. 2003. “Sports as the university’s ‘front porch’? The public is
skeptical.” Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved May 2, 2003
(http://chronicle.com/free/v49/i34/34a01701.htm)
41
Mukenge: Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Published by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center, 2008
Thomas, G. E., & J.H. Braddock, II. 1981. Determining the college
destination of Black students. Atlanta: Southern Education
Foundation.
Toma, J. D. & M. Cross. 1998. “Intercollegiate athletics and student
college choice: Exploring the impact of championship seasons on
undergraduate applications.” Research in Higher Education 39:
633-661.
Tucker, I. & L. Amato. 1993. “Does big-time success in football of
basketball affect SAT scores?” Economics of Education Review
12: 177-181.
Turner, S. E., L.A. Meserve, & W.G. Bowen. 2001. “Winning and giving:
Football results and alumni giving at selective private colleges
and universities.” Social Science Quarterly 82: 812-826.
38 Braddock II, Lv, Dawkins
42
Challenge, Vol. 14 [2008], Iss. 1, Art. 1
http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/challenge/vol14/iss1/1
Challenge
2008
Challenge, Vol. 14, No. 1
Ida Rousseau Mukenge
Recommended Citation
Journal 14 No1.pdf