Changing Societies & Personalities, 2020
Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 542–547

http://dx.doi.org/10.15826/csp.2020.4.4.116

Received 4 June 2020 © 2020 Andrei Yu. Dudchik 
Published online 29 December 2020 dudchik@philosophy.by

BOOK REVIEW

Julian Baggini (2018). How The World Thinks: 
A Global History of Philosophy. London: Granta

 Andrei Yu. Dudchik
Institute of Philosophy of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Belarus 

The concepts of dialogue and intercultural dialogue have gained popularity 
in contemporary humanities and social sciences as well as in international 
relations. In philosophy, various attempts were made to conceptualise the 
dialogue and to explicate its ontological, epistemological, ethical and other 
aspects. History of philosophy, in particular, has to deal with the problem of 
plurality of philosophical systems, discourses, traditions. While unsystematic 
attempts to conceptualise historical development of philosophical thought 
are known since Antiquity history of philosophy as an institutionalised form 
of philosophical knowledge existed since the 18th century. It is an interesting 
and a significant moment that institutionalised forms of history of philosophy 
appeared in the situation of religious plurality and conflicts (Santinello & 
Piaia, 2011). Classical canon of history of philosophy was centred mainly on 
the Western European tradition, while traditions of the East (for example, the 
Chinese or Indian), though represented fragmentarily, were deprecated for lack 
of conceptualisation and systematic form. Today, after criticisms of Eurocentric 
and orientalist views in history of philosophy (Kimmerle, 2016) non-Western 
intellectual traditions receive more attention. The interest in a dialogue between 
philosophical traditions motivates not only specialised research but also 
popular books for the wider audience as well. An example of such popularising 
approach can be found in Julian Baggini’s “How the World Thinks: A Global 
History of Philosophy” (Baggini, 2018).

Julian Baggini is well known for his popular works in philosophy. Baggini 
has published more than twenty popular books on various philosophical issues. 
His interests are quite wide and are not limited only to the familiar problems of 
the English-language tradition and Western philosophy as a whole. So in his last 
for today book he refers to the diversity of world intellectual traditions. Baggini 
describes his approach as “philosophical journalism” (Baggini, 2018, p. 14). 

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His first two books are, in fact, collections of interviews with famous contemporary 
English-speaking philosophers (Baggini & Stangroom, 2002, 2003).

Although most people do not articulate their beliefs about the nature of 
personality, the possible sources of our knowledge, ethical issues as philosophical 
doctrines, these beliefs are deeply rooted in cultures and, as Baggini writes, influence 
our ways of thinking and living. While academic philosophy is usually presented in 
textual form “folk” philosophy – in preliterate cultures especially – existed mostly 
in non-systematic and non-textual forms. Sedimentation, a notion borrowed from 
the French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty, refers to this implicit process of 
assimilation of meanings: “Just as a riverbed builds up sediment comprised of that 
which washes through it, values and beliefs become ‘edimented’ in cultures. In turn, 
those values and beliefs begin to sediment in the minds of the people who inhabit 
those cultures from birth, so that we mistakenly take the build-up for an immutable 
riverbed” (Baggini, 2018, p. XIV). Inarticulate philosophical attitudes “create the 
rhetorical space in which cultures think, explain and justify” (Baggini, 2018, p. XVI). 
Baggini rejects, though, cultural essentialism, highlights the importance of various 
kinds of gaps, and ruptures in the history of philosophy.

One has to avoid both extremes in comparing different philosophical traditions, 
neither we should overestimate similarity nor overemphasize difference. In his 
opinion, our “shared humanity” and perennial philosophical problems allow us to 
appreciate ideas and experiences of other peoples and cultures. Baggini’s main 
task is a study of diversity of world philosophical thought in order to “dig up” the 
hidden foundations of how the world today thinks. In a prologue “Historical Review: 
From Axial to the Information Age” Baggini examines the diversity of philosophical 
traditions in world history, he notes that recent ideas about philosophy were 
developed during the period of the Western dominance. This, in particular, led 
to the spread of the Greek word “philosophy” or its variants in other languages, 
although in many cultures for a long time there was no special term to denote this 
kind of speculative thinking. Along with classical texts and philosophical schools, 
there are also oral traditions in many parts of the world. Baggini proposes using 
L. Wittgenstein’s notion of “family resemblance” to indicate typical features 
of various intellectual traditions. According to Baggini, people are engaged in 
philosophy, “whenever they set their minds to a systematic investigation of the 
nature of the world, selfhood, language, logic, value, the human good, the sources 
and justifications of knowledge, the nature and limits of human reason” (Baggini, 
2018, p. XXX). Although boundaries between philosophy, religion, and folklore are 
not clear, they might be distinguished. Complicated relations between philosophy 
and religion are important for Baggini:

We must acknowledge that the strict secularization of philosophy is itself a 
philosophical position that requires justification. To simply stipulate that faith 
separates you from philosophy is as deeply unphilosophical as stipulating that a 
sacred text must have the last word. Both positions need to be argued for as part 
of a shared philosophical enterprise (Baggini, 2018, p. 51).

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544 Andrei Yu. Dudchik

The main body of the book is divided into five parts, covering one of the main 
areas of philosophical knowledge: “How the World knows” – epistemology, “How the 
world is” – ontology, “Who in the world are we?” – anthropology, “How the world lives” – 
ethics) as they are presented in different cultural traditions; the fifth part contains 
conclusions of a more general character.

Baggini, in the second part, observes that many positivists and science 
methodologists insist on a decline or even the end of traditional metaphysics with 
its speculative explanations of what the world is. Although natural sciences now 
successfully resolve problems, which previously pertained to the domain of philosophy, 
there remains a large number of problems that cannot be subject to the expertise 
of positive scientific research. Even if one abandons the idea that metaphysics can 
explain the world as it is, it still continues to study the human experience of interaction 
with the world. Baggini calls this kind of research a “phenomenological metaphysics”. 
It will continue to be relevant even when the objective world is explained by positive 
sciences. Such understanding of metaphysics, as Baggini believes, could be 
not only recognized as relevant for contemporary texts, but is partially applicable 
to the metaphysical systems of the past, which can be understood in terms of a 

“phenomenological” rather than traditional “scientific” metaphysics.
In the third part, Baggini analyses three theories of the self in various 

philosophical traditions: the idea of the lacking self (no-self), present in Hinduism, 
Buddhism, and modern analytical versions of the philosophy of consciousness; 
the relational ideas of the self, exemplified in Japanese and Chinese systems, and 
in African folk philosophy, which Baggini describes as “pro-social”; the idea of 
atomized, self-sufficient personality in the European philosophy. Relational and 
atomistic views on the self are clarified by the categories of Th. Kazulis: “intimacy” 
and “integrity”. Imbalance or even dominance of either of these characteristics, 
according to Baggini, can lead a cultural crisis. The latter is familiar in contemporary 
Western societies, where “much of the rise of populism and nationalism in the 
West is a backlash against the gradual erosion of belonging” (Baggini, 2018, p. 215). 
Baggini addressed the lack of integrity in previous works, and, in particular, the 
essay “In Defence of Hierarchy” that was written in collaboration with S. C. Angle, 
K. A. Appiah, D. Bell and other intellectuals (Angle et al., 2017).

The fourth part discusses the cross-cultural study of values from a philosophical 
perspective. Baggini uses the mixing desk metaphor: “In the studio, producers record 
each instrument as an individual track, playing them back through separate channels… 
The moral mixing desk works in much the same way. Almost everywhere in the world 
you’ll find the same channels: impartiality, rules, consequences, virtue, God, society, 
autonomy, actions, intentions, harmony, community, belonging and so on” (Baggini, 
2018, p. 314). The main values, thus, in some variants could be found in almost all 
cultures, but the difference is in their relation to each other and the overall synthesis. 
Such understanding of cultural values, according to Baggini, allows to emphasize moral 
pluralism. Moral pluralism, however, does not mean relativism that is based on the 
principle of non-interference (“laissez-faire relativism”), but it proceeds from the concept 
of a harmonious combination of different values within a unified vision of a particular 



Changing Societies & Personalities, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 542–547 545

culture. Baggini proposes to distinguish pluralism and relativism. In Isaiah Berlin’s 
approach, objective variety of values cannot be reduced to the predominance of any 
one of them and to the rejection of all others as false (Berlin, 2000, pp. 14–17). At the 
same time in philosophy comparison and criticism of various systems is possible:

Real dialogue requires careful listening but also mutual examination and 
questioning. I would go so far as to say that to refuse to criticise in all circumstances 
is in itself disrespectful, since it treats “other” philosophies as more fragile and 
less able to stand up to scrutiny than our own. Criticism and disagreement 
are only disrespectful when they come from a combination of arrogance and 
ignorance (Baggini, 2018, p. 234).

In the final part, Baggini summarizes his survey of world philosophical traditions 
and offers his understanding of the major regional traditions of philosophical thought. 
He begins with the East Asia, which includes China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. The 
main virtue here is harmony, which requires constant self-improvement through 
various types of practical activities. This region is characterised by dominance 
of “metaphysical agnosticism”, which does not entail a complete understanding of 
reality. An important role is played by the “correlative” concepts of the self, as well 
as the concepts of emptiness and inconstancy with a certain ontological meaning. 
For Indian thought, which possesses a highly developed arsenal of philosophical 
knowledge, as Baggini notes, a focus on tradition and authority as sources of 
knowledge is widespread. Its key philosophical characteristic is a “soteriological 
focus” that suggests a profound difference between the genuine and external 
aspects of reality and corresponds to “ethics of detachment”. The philosophy in 
Islamic cultures (the Arab world, North Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast 
Asia) is characterised by a close relationship with theological doctrines and religious 
tradition in general, which deals with the most diverse aspects of everyday life. 
Moreover, historically, Islamic philosophy has been characterised by significant role 
of interpretative practices, which sets a certain impulse for the culture of Islamic 
countries as a whole. Western countries occupied a dominant position in the field of 
philosophy over the centuries “for reasons noble and ignoble”. The most important 
features of the Western tradition as a whole include the following: the search for truth 
(“truth-seeking” orientation as opposed to traditions focused more on “way-seeking”); 
interest to issues of cosmogony, to the structure of the world as a whole; value of 
truth and knowledge as such; a desire to resolve contradictions; an interest in the 
study of laws and principles; a desire for impartiality as a moral virtue and a cognitive 
imperative. Baggini explores the intellectual practices of “traditional societies” that 
are available today on the basis of the reconstruction of oral folk traditions – “folk 
philosophy”. In particular, the author analyses fundamental connections between 
the nature and the people who inhabit it, and this connection seems so deep that 
it is often not possible to separate one from the other. Such cultures, as a rule, do 
not consider the individuals in isolation from the community to which they belongs, 
which sets their “communitarian ethos”. Baggini writes that Russian philosophy as 

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546 Andrei Yu. Dudchik

a special intellectual tradition is characterised by criticism of the Cartesian concept 
of the self-sufficient person, different from the Orthodox ideal of “kenosis”, which 
implies a consciously humble relation to the believer’s self. In contrast to the Western 
European rationality, in Russian philosophy, intuition is prioritized in epistemology, 
it leads to a convergence of philosophy and literary and poetic creativity, as well as 
a difference in the concepts of truth as istina and pravda as an intuitive and morally 
coloured cognitive value. In social thought, Baggini highlights the Russian ideal of 
obshchina (commune) as a harmonious voluntary community.

At least since the 19th century attempts to analyse world history of philosophy 
including various periods and regions existed, but today we have much more factual 
knowledge about various philosophical traditions and some new methodologies of 
qualitative as well as quantitative analysis. Such a new approach in the history of 
philosophy could be a part of a broader study of the social and cultural context of the 
development and transfer of philosophical knowledge. The use of “global history” is 
growing in history and other fields, which merited some attempts to conceptualise 
it (Conrad, 2017; Stanziani, 2018). But Baggini’s book is a rare example of “global” 
history of philosophy. Another example might be found in “The Idea of a Global 
History of Philosophy”, presented by a Norwegian philosopher Gunnar Skirbekk at the 
24th World Congress of Philosophy in Beijing in 2018. Later its extended version was 
published (Skirbekk, 2018).

According to Baggini himself, one of the impulses to write the book was the 
discussion about the nature and role of comparative research in contemporary 
philosophy. In particular, the question is whether comparing philosophical systems 
is just studying diverse cultures through a comparison of ideas from different 
philosophical traditions, or could it give a new knowledge on the basis of comparison, 
striving to develop “hard-core philosophy” (Chakrabarti & Weber, 2015, p. 10). Baggini 
identifies at least three aspects, in which comparative research can have a heuristic 
effect in philosophy. Firstly, a combination of different perspectives allows us to get 
a better view than any particular approach could offer: an example is the famous 
Indian parable about blind men exploring an elephant and exchanging their particular 
impressions. Baggini uses an analogy with Cubist painting, which combines different 
perspectives. He calls this aspect of his study a “Cubist perspective”. Secondly, 
different philosophical concepts add new theoretical problems and problematize 
existing ideas. As Baggini writes,

This is the best way to think about the question of what it means to be a person 
or a self. It is easy to think there is a single question here. In fact, it disguises 
myriad questions, such as: What is the self made of? Is the self permanent? How 
do relations to others fashion the self? What gives us our sense of identity? In 
different traditions “the problem” of the self is likely to involve only one or some of 
these questions and others are set aside (Baggini, 2018, p. 318).

In various intellectual traditions, a “problem” usually involves only one or at 
the best a few of the possible aspects. The comparative approach, due to the 



Changing Societies & Personalities, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 542–547 547

“disaggregating” perspective, allows to obtain a more “objective” understanding by 
dividing the apparently simple question into more complex parts. Thirdly, multiple 
perspectives show that there is no one legitimate way to understand the world and 
to establish social norms. The division between these three perspectives is not strict, 
but the author intends to demonstrate their potential to enrich our knowledge in the 
general framework of a comparative study of philosophy, while not abandoning the 
desire to search for objective criteria for this knowledge.

References
Angle, S. C., Appiah, K. A., Baggini, J., Bell, D., Berggruen, N., Bevir, M., Wang, R. 

(2017, March 22). In Defense of Hierarchy. Aeon. Retrieved from https://aeon.co/
essays/hierarchies-have-a-place-even-in-societies-built-on-equality 

Baggini, J. (2018). How The World Thinks: A Global History Of Philosophy. 
London: Granta.

Baggini, J., & Stangroom, J. (Eds.). (2002). New British Philosophy: The 
Interviews. London: Routledge.

Baggini, J., & Stangroom, J. (Eds.). (2003). What Philosophers Think. London 
and New York: Continuum.

Berlin, I. (2000). The Power of Ideas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Chakrabarti, A., & Weber, R. (2015). Comparative Philosophy without Borders. 
New York and London: Bloomsbury Academic.

Conrad, S. (2017). What Is Global History? (Reprint edition). Princeton, NJ: 
Princeton University Press.

Kimmerle, H. (2016). Hegel’s Eurocentric Concept of Philosophy. Confluence: 
Journal of World Philosophies, 1. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.iu.edu/
iupjournals/index.php/confluence/article/view/524 

Santinello, G., & Piaia, G. (Eds.). (2011). Models of the History of. Philosophy. 
Volume II: From the Cartesian Age to Brucker. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9507-7 

Stanziani, A. (2018). Eurocentrism and the Politics of Global History. Cham, 
Switzerland: Palgrave Pivot. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94740-2 

Skirbekk, G. (2018, August 14). The Idea of a Global History of 
Philosophy (Revised version of a lecture given at the 24th World Congress of 
Philosophy, Beijing, PRC). Retrieved from https://khrono.no/files/2019/10/09/
theideaofaglobalhistoryofphilosophy.pdf 

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https://aeon.co/essays/hierarchies-have-a-place-even-in-societies-built-on-equality
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/confluence/article/view/524
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