Changing Societies & Personalities, 2018
Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 225–231

http://dx.doi.org/10.15826/csp.2018.2.3.038

EDITORIAL 

The Politics and Pedagogy of Religion Education: 
Policies, Syllabi and Future Prospects1

Abdulkader Tayob
University of Cape Town, South Africa

The articles in this special issue emerged from a conference organised at 
the University of Cape Town in March 2018, through the generous support 
of the National Research Foundation of South Africa. The initial aim of the 
conference was to further develop the understanding of Religion Education 
(RE) in South Africa since it was promulgated in a policy published in 2003. 
RE has been introduced into the curriculum in two ways. In a general sense, 
the teaching about religion was integrated in compulsory subjects called Life 
Skills and Life Orientation. Here, learners were appropriately introduced to the 
diversity of religions in the country and the world. Secondly, a special subject 
was developed at the senior level called Religion Studies. This subject was 
an elective and devoted to the study of religions in history and contemporary 
societies, using the methods and theories developed in the modern study of 
religions. In recent years, more and more schools were offering this subject 
for senior learners in the most populous provinces in the country: Gauteng, 
KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape. 

The conference was designed to bring together researchers in Southern 
Africa to discuss on what had been achieved so far, and how to further develop 
the subject. As a special feature of the conference, teachers and subject advisers 
were also invited to present their experiences of introducing the subject into 
schools. The conference and the papers assembled here demonstrate a model 
of partnership between teachers and researchers. But RE cannot be appreciated 
in South Africa without a good understanding of what other countries have done 
with the subject and the kind of opportunities and challenges that they were 
facing. It was decided to specifically invite researchers from countries in the 

1 This article is based on the research supported in part by the National Research Foundation 
of South Africa (Reference number (UID) 85397). The opinions, findings and conclusions or 
recommendations expressed are that of the author, and the NRF accepts no liability whatsoever in 
this regard.

Received 2 September 2018 © 2018 Abdulkader Tayob
Published online 30 September 2018 abdulkader.tayob@uct.ac.za 

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226 Abdulkader Tayob

South to promote a South – South discussion and dialogue on RE. But this discussion 
would not completely ignore developments in Europe and America, so the meeting 
was also open to some reflection on RE taking place there as well (Jackson et al., 
2007). The conference and the proceedings are a testimony to a global discussion on 
RE, even though it does not lose its focus on the subject and its future in South Africa. 

From the second half of the 20th century, RE has become a norm in many 
different regions and countries. A few examples illustrate the trend. Sweden, 
Norway, Denmark and the United Kingdom (England in particular) witnessed early 
developments in RE in the 1950s. The teaching of religions beyond confessionalism 
was contemplated in the context of greater democratisation and secularisation. 
While the dominance of one religion has not completely disappeared in these 
countries, its teaching as exclusive dogma has progressively waned. As a result of 
secularisation, religion was no longer considered the main source of identity and 
values. Moreover, the pluralisation of Western societies from the 1970s by way of 
immigration further confirmed the need for RE that was not focussed on one religion. 
In the United States, a court decision in 1963 paved the way for teaching religions in 
schools and universities in a non-confessional way (Moore, 2007, p. 4). But RE was 
introduced in policies much later: England (1988), Ontario, Canada (1990), Sweden 
(1994), and Norway (1997) (Skeie, 2015; Berglund, 2014; Jackson and O’Grady, 
2007; van Arragon, 2015). Since the events of 9/11, many Western countries have 
renewed their commitment to RE for what are perceived as present and future culture 
wars (Wright, 2004; Jackson, 2010). Diversity in society and school seems to be the 
main driver for RE. It is not surprising, therefore, to see several experiments in Africa 
after decolonisation. Zambia attempted to introduce such a policy in 1977, while 
Zimbabwe has considered introducing RE in schools in the 21st century (Ndlovu, 
2014; Mwale and Chita, 2017). Nigeria and Kenya have addressed religious diversity 
in the classroom by introducing separate programmes for Christians and Muslims 
(Hackett, 1999). 

Researchers were invited to present papers on RE interventions and 
programmes in various countries. Papers in this volume offer reflections on 
RE policies and syllabuses prepared for teachers, focussing on their histories, 
challenges and implementation. The papers and discussions covered South 
Africa, Zambia, India, Russia and England. Four themes appear repeatedly in the 
conference and in these papers: values; the politics of RE; the definition of religion; 
and methods through which religion may be introduced in schools. The themes are 
closely related, but they may be analysed separately for greater clarity and ideas for 
further research. 

The importance of values flow through all the papers in this volume. More 
specifically, Ahmed Bhayat has focussed on its transformative role in schools in 
South Africa. Where schools and societies were segregated in the past, RE now 
offers lessons and insights on all religions in one classroom. I would like to identify 
at least three ways that values are manifested in these papers in particular, and 
the field of RE in general. The most elementary value that is promoted by RE as 
a subject qua subject is greater inclusivity in a school district, region or country. 



Changing Societies & Personalities, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 225–231 227

Inclusivity is probably one of the key motivations for introducing RE in countries. In 
whatever form RE is introduced or hotly debated, it usually aims to replace mono-
religious education as in South Africa, or to re-introduce religion in education as a 
fundamental aspect of social life once ignored as in Russia (this volume, Stepanova). 
This gesture, which is often initiated through a public or policy discussion, manifests 
the value of recognising diversity in every society and its schools. Sensitive and 
conscientious teachers find it untenable and unacceptable to teach one religion 
in a classroom with learners from diverse backgrounds. Confessional or dogmatic 
education becomes even more problematic when the laws and constitutions declare 
that learners have a right to religious freedom.

The persistence of religion in public life provides another opportunity for 
developing and manifesting values. RE plays an equally important role in promoting 
the values of respect and mutual dignity among adherents of different religious 
groups. Such respect might not necessarily need the development of a special 
curriculum, but RE offers a deeper foundation for such social and civic values. It 
exposes learners to the beliefs, practices and narratives that inspire fellow learners 
and future national and global co-citizens. This deep knowledge and familiarity of 
religious traditions that share a social space offer a firm ground for living in peace 
and harmony in a world of diversity and distinction.

There is a third dimension of values that pertains to RE which is often 
overlooked. In a world in which relations among religious groups are dominated 
by perceptions of conflict and mutual hostility, it is often forgotten that religions 
may also be studied for the resources they offer on how to live by values, and 
which values are important for social and individual well-being. The history of 
religions offers detailed accounts of how, when and where, and which values are 
founded, debated and embodied. The pursuit of the good life, in its many different 
permutations, represents one of the key dimensions of religious life. There are, 
then, three ways in which values are central to RE: the value of inclusivity that 
inspires the introduction of RE; the values that support inter-religious relations 
based on knowledge of the other; and the values that are embraced by religions.

I began with the theme of values because I believe that they are the prime 
motivation for scholars and teachers working in RE. But values and religions are 
located in political societies, which are inevitability messier in practice than on paper 
or in the hearts of learners, teachers and researchers. The histories of RE reveal the 
politics of introducing the subject in various countries. The papers of Manisha Sethi 
and Elena Stepanova in this volume show this phenomenon most clearly in India and 
Russia respectively. They offer valuable case studies on debates about which religions 
are emphasised, which included and which exclude in RE. There are currently two 
theoretical models that are helpful for thinking about the politics of RE. At the state 
level, Talal Asad has put forward a compelling thesis that the secular and religious 
are like Siamese twins tied at the hip. In his view, modern states engage in a process 
of religion making through secularisation policies (Asad, 2003). According to Asad’s 
theory, the state would see RE as an ideal opportunity through which to regulate 
religion. The state does not only make it possible to believe and practice religions, but 

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228 Abdulkader Tayob

also judiciously guides such beliefs and practices. From this perspective, then, which 
religions are emphasised, included or excluded stand at the centre of state interests. 

Asad presents an alternative model to the one that emphasises the separation 
of religion and politics. Here religion and secular states occupy different spheres, and 
are bound to oppose each other as they compete over the same interests. Both state 
and religion want to control and guide populations to the good life. Religions in recent 
times, according to Lincoln, thrive in the face of weakening states (Lincoln, 1998). 
According to this model, RE guarantees freedom of religion and also from religious 
domination. Lincoln’s model may inform the state to be wary of any religion becoming 
dominant, and jeopardise its political and social projects. Whichever theory one finds 
more appropriate, both suggest that a transformation of RE in a country would lead to 
competition or conflict between religions, and between states and religions. 

A discussion of the politics of RE cannot ignore the role of religion in public 
life. RE is located in schools but prepares learners and students for public life. Lee 
Scharnick-Udemans’ paper on the representation of religion in state media brings 
attention to this question. Following Asad’s thesis, Scharnick-Udemans shows that 
the teaching of religion on public television is not innocent of the goals of the state. 
But one may take a different approach to religion in public life by paying attention 
to the work of José Casanova (Casanova, 1994). Against Asad, Casanova argues 
that religion may offer valuable insights and values for public and political life. His 
model is deeply rooted in the European history of religions, but may be an inspiration 
for thinking about religion in public life in general. Following Casanova, we may 
recognise an independent or critical role for religion in public life in general, and RE 
in particular. Maitumeleng Nthontho’s paper in this volume calls for mediation skills 
for teachers and principals to negotiate this difficult terrain in schools.

The third related theme in RE concerns the nature and definition of religion. 
The study of religions finds itself between an earlier theological and confessional 
approach which it rejects, and a postmodernist attack that challenges its foundations. 
RE, like the study of religions in general, rejects a theological approach that would 
describe its “religion” as “truth”, while others as “false”, “heresies”, “Satanism” or 

“witchcraft”. From an inside theological perspective, there is nothing to compare 
between the true and the false. In contrast, RE uses the category of religion to 
distance itself from this position, arguing that religions are comparable, and that 
they have as many common elements and functions as they have differences. 
Postmodernists in the study of religions have questioned this assumption, and 
argued that the category of religion is not as coherent and stable as it appears. The 
teaching of multiple religions in a classroom makes a fundamental assumption that 
is often overlooked. RE assumes that one may compare and contrast the beliefs, 
practices and values of African Traditional Religions, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, 
Hinduism, Buddhism, and New Religious Movements. It is said that these very 
different traditions with divergent histories are forced into comparative analysis (for 
a discussion of postmodern in RE, see Wright, 2004; Raschke, 2012). Against this 
postmodernist criticism, RE must take the responsibility to identify what religions 
are in general and how they may be studied. This has not been easy, but there is 



Changing Societies & Personalities, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 225–231 229

a significant intellectual legacy in the study of religions that offers some answers. 
L. Philip Barnes’ paper in this volume puts the issue into perspective, showing how 
the history of RE in England has engaged with this legacy. 

RE in schools seems to work best when it adopts clear models for thinking 
about religions so that they can be studied together. If religion is regarded as a social 
value, then religions would be studied from the perspective of how communities are 
formed around sacred events, how some are excluded and others included, and 
how new challenges are mediated. This model is derived from the work of Emile 
Durkheim who laid the theoretical foundations for studying religions in the 19th 
century (Pickering, 1975). Developing Durkheim’s ideas, Mircea Eliade focussed on 
the experience of the divine that he considered central to the meaning of religions. 
Like Durkheim, he also worked with the sacred and profane as the building blocks 
for all religions, but focussed on the special religious experience that was produced 
in relation to the sacred (Eliade, 1959). Another approach has been promoted by 
Talal Asad in arguing that religions work like languages which provide adherents the 
means to think, talk and debate about values and society, but also about power and 
ideas of the past and the future (Asad, 1993). This is only a glimpse of how the study 
of religions offers useful insights on how religion works with symbols, practices 
and narratives. A working model may offer a useful platform for teachers entering 
the field, caught between the variety of religions on the one hand, and the multiple 
theories competing for space in universities, colleges and training centres.

The fourth theme at the conference and in these papers concerns practical 
methods for presenting RE in the classroom and school. We heard several 
contributions from teachers at the conference who were working with textbooks and 
various media. The papers of Sibusiso Mgenge and Lee Scharnick-Udemans in this 
collection offer a glimpse of the opportunities available for teachers, and also the 
challenges that they face. Media in the form of posters, films and documentaries can 
bring the subject closer to learners. They can represent religions in a tangible and 
accessible way. One important way of thinking about media is to recognise its role 
in the practice of religion. Media are not merely a means to represent religions, but 
very much part of religions. The materials of religion, from the clothes worn every day 
or on special occasions, to the food consumed, occupy a central place in religions. 
In RE, they offer opportunities to discuss and interact with the subject at a concrete 
level. Where possible, learners may be encouraged to share personal materials that 
they have at home. A visit to a nearby religious site may open rich opportunities to 
get close to religions for further reflection and study. In my discussions with teachers, 
good textbooks and media remain a challenge for making the subject accessible and 
learner-friendly in South Africa. In this area, we hope that the conference and these 
proceedings will offer further opportunities for collaboration.

The following papers, then, offer a glimpse into the deep discussion at the 
conference in 2018 in Cape Town. In this introduction, I have identified four themes 
that emerged at the meeting and in these papers. And these themes are present in 
local and global debates on RE. Values occupy an important foundational role for RE, 
and might be further discussed and debated in specific contexts. The politics of RE 

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230 Abdulkader Tayob

cannot be ignored, as it often occupies a large space in public and political debates 
that confront the implementation of RE. The politics of RE threatens to dominate, 
and suppress the fundamental values that may be developed through the subject. 
The definition or model of religion might seem like a highly theoretical subject left to 
specialists, but it can provide an anchor for textbooks, classrooms and projects. And 
finally, in our highly saturated mediascapes, RE may offer an opportunity to appreciate 
how media works in religions and in life in general. 

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Acknowledgements

We wish to thank all the participants for taking the time to join our meeting in Cape 
Town, and then those who contributed with revised papers. A special word of 
appreciation and gratitude is due to Danika Driesen who helped enormously with 
the collection, collation and copy-editing of this special issue.

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