Characterization and Application of Nanomaterials (2022) Volume 5 Issue 2 doi:10.24294/can.v5i2.1480 1 Review Article Nanotechnology and the application in the food industry Gonzalo Adrián Ojeda, Adriana María Arias Gorman, Sonia Cecilia Sgroppo* Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Av. Libertad 5450. 3400. Corrientes, Argentina. E-mail: sonia.sgroppo@unne.edu.ar, sonia.sgroppo@hotmail.com ang.ac.kr ABSTRACT The application of nanotechnology in the food industry enables prioritization of consumers’ needs. Nanotechnology has the ability to provide new forms of control on food structure; therefore, this technology has higher industrial value. This paper briefly introduces the main concepts of nanotechnology and its correlation with size reduction performance. This paper also introduces the main nanobjects and their potential applications in food, and summarizes various studies and their applications in food industry. Keywords: Nanomaterials; Nanocomposites; Nanoemulsion; Packaging; Composition ARTICLE INFO Received: 13 March 2022 Accepted: 9 May 2022 Available online: 8 June 2022 COPYRIGHT Copyright © 2022 Gonzalo Adrián Ojeda, et al. EnPress Publisher LLC. This work is li- censed under the Creative Commons Attribu- tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International Li- cense (CC BY-NC 4.0). https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc/4.0/ 1. Introduction Nanoscience and nanotechnology is expected to become one of the most innovative fields. Nanotechnology allows the control and modifi- cation of substances and systems at the nano scale, which enables sig- nificant change to their properties relative to those observed at the macro scale. The nano size ranges from about 1 to 100 nm[1], and size is a key parameter for identifying nanomaterials (NMs). The prefix “nano” orig- inated from Greek, meaning “short” and “small.” It is used to represent the coefficient of 10–9 (1 nm = 1 × 10–9 m) in the international system of units. The European Commission recommends that nanomaterials should be categorized as natural, incidental or man-made substances, with 50% or more of the particle sizes between 1 and 100 nm[2]. ISO defines it as a material with nanoscale external dimensions (nanobject or nanoscale internal or surface structures (nanostructured materials)[1]. Therefore, NMS is different from reference materials in physical, chem- ical or biological aspects. These changes are due to its small volume, combined with the surface energy, which gives the number of atoms on the outer surface and the number of atoms inside the material. On the other hand, the electrons in materials are distributed at different energy levels, resulting in different electronic structures, quantum phenomena and different electrical, optical and magnetic properties of the system. Nanoparticles (NPs) are nanobjects in only external nano sizes, with which the lengths of the long axis and the short axis are not signif- icantly different from each other. They can self-assemble and have dif- ferent reaction activity, hardness, conductivity, solubility, absorption rate and bioavailability compared with large particles. These characte- 2 ristics of NPs produce new ingredients and other meth- ods to produce foods with different structures and char- acteristics, which increase or improve their functions, thereby elevating their commercial values. Nanotechnology provides important opportunities for the development of innovative products and is ap- plied in food production, processing, pre-processing and packaging. The availability of nanotechnology-de- rived food has increased significantly. According to Food and Agricultural Organization[3], 183 “nano” and “food” patents were published from 2009 to 2011, in- cluding 47 related to packaging or coating, 19 related to nano additives, and 10 related to nanotechnology de- tection methods. In addition, developing countries are particularly interested in nanotechnology because it is a productive and economic activity with low require- ments for its implementation (e.g., land, maintenance, energy and material availability). Aguilera suggests that there are two interrelated basic dimensions or axes in the current and future food industry[4]: 1) The center of the “food chain” starts from the production of raw materials to the packaging and distribution of products. 2) The axis of “consumers” must be considered comprehensively. At present, consumers are interested not only in the contribution and bioavailability of nutrients, but also in the positive effects of diet (satiety, weight con- trol, gastronomical experience, health, etc.). These re- quirements are the result of social changes in recent years. In this society, consumers have more opportuni- ties to obtain information and are on a constant pursuit for better quality of life. NMs used in food are divided into three different groups[5] (Table 1): 1) Organic NMs include lipids, proteins and polysaccharides, which are used to wrap vit- amins, antioxidants, dyes, condiments and preservatives to form micelles, liposomes or nanospheres. They have the advantages of in- creasing intake, absorption, biocompatibility and stability. 2) Organic/inorganic bound NMs are called sur- face functionalized NMs and are added to the matrix through specific functions (antibacte- rial agents, antioxidants, permeability and stiffness regulators). 3) Inorganic NMs are metals and metal oxides, NPs of silver, iron, selenium and TiO2, which are used as additives, food additives or pack- aging materials. Table 1. Classification of NMS in food Nanomaterials for food and food contact Organic Organic/inorganic combination Inorganic Micelle and re- lease system Polymers, com- pounds and emul- sions Clay surface mod- ification Surface modifica- tion of metal or metalloid Clay Metals and metal- loids Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes Source: Authors’ elaboration, adapted from Peters R[5]. Nanocomposites are formed by adding a low per- centage (<5%) of NPs into the polymer matrix, which is reinforced by these nanofillers with higher rigidity and strength. In addition, the addition of NPs will lead to the circuitous flow of gas in nanocompounds, so as to regulate the gas exchange between packaging mate- rials and the environment. The main polymers used can be natural or synthetic, chitosan, cellulose, carra- geenan, polyvinyl alcohol, polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, polyethylene, polyamide, polyvinyl chloride, etc. As fillers, inorganic or organic NPs, clay, silicate, Cu, Ti, cellulose, carbon, etc. with different geometries (spheres, flakes, nanotubes, fibers, etc.) are used. These fillers can be bonded to the matrix in the form of inter- layer or delamination[6] and extrusion or coating meth- ods. In the process of adding materials, the quantity and dispersion of NPs, their interaction with matrix and possible aggregate should be controlled. Nanoemulsion is a dispersion of two incompatible liquids, such as oil and water. It is stabilized by surfac- tant molecules that form an interfacial layer. The aver- age diameter of each drop is between 20 and 200 nm. If the drop diameter is less than 40 nm, it is suitable for transparent food. They have a large surface area and 3 slow release of bioactive substances, which avoid the deposition or precipitation of cream caused by Brown- ian motion. In addition, they will improve the texture, flavor and color of food and act as an appropriate sys- tem to release less water-soluble compounds by in- creasing the dispersion and stability of drops[7]. The composition and structure of nanoemulsion can be properly designed to protect the compound and achieve the expected performance in vivo. In addition, the abil- ity of nanoemulsion to form gel allows the design of foods with different textures. Oil/water nanoemulsion can be used to encapsu- late hydrophobic compounds (vitamins, minerals, sap- onin components, antioxidants, carotenoids), while wa- ter/oil/water nanoemulsion can be used to encapsulate water-soluble bioactive substances embedded in aque- ous heart. The bioavailability of compounds contained in droplets is inversely proportional to the size of drop- lets, which may be due to increased enzyme activity, prolonged contact with mucosa, direct transport through epithelium, and increased water solubility of hydrophobic components. In order to be used in industry, nanoemulsion must be prepared with generally recognized as safe (GRAS)1 ingredients and allow industrial production in operation and economy. In addition, because nanodroplets can increase their bioavailability, in vivo evaluation must be carried out. Nanoencapsulation may also improve the solubil- ity, stability and bioavailability of food and prevent ad- verse interactions between components. Nanolipo- somes and nanochelates are the main carriers of bioactive substances, which help to control and re- lease nutrients, enzymes, vitamins, antimicrobial drugs and additives. Nanochelates stabilize micronutrients and improve the nutritional value of processed foods[8]. 2. Food improvement and innova- tion Nanotechnology can be used to prepare innovative foods and add new ingredients and additives with spe- cific functions, such as antibacterial agents, antioxi- dants, texture enhancers and flavor enhancers. In 1Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) refers to a rule that requires a chemical designated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or a substance added to food, which is considered safe by experts and is addition, it can also be used to design foods with spe- cific nutritional characteristics to meet individual nutri- tional and health needs (e.g. allergies, chronic diseases) or preferences, or to produce interactive foods that re- lease color and taste according to consumer needs. At present, the formula of dietary supplements used in nutrition, sports and health food market con- tains mineral NPs (SiO2, Mg, CA, etc.). In Australia, Nanocapsular provides omega-3 oil, which is only re- leased into the stomach to avoid unpleasant taste. In Ar- gentina, liposomes are made of lecithin with stable structure and resistance to gastric digestion. Nanoen- capsulated iron and omega-3 can increase the absorp- tion of minerals and avoid intestinal discomfort caused by intake (htpps://www.fan.org.ar/potfo- lios/nutranova-la-linea-de-suplementosdietarios-de-li- pomize). Unilever has developed ice cream, mayon- naise, and low-fat, low-calorie cream that tastes like cream, while Nestle has developed a quick thawing nanoemulsion. Aquanova has developed micelles to improve the stability, effectiveness and bioavailability of components (vitamins C, E and fatty acids). Novaso- lare provides nanocapsules of bioactive compounds (DL-α-tocopherol; coenzyme Q10, ω-3 fatty acids and vitamins A, D, D3, E and K) and natural dyes (apocaro Tenal, β-carotene, turmeric, chlorophyll, lutein). Nu- tralease also provides bioactive compounds (lutein, ly- copene, vitamin A, D3, E, Q10, phytosterols and isofla- vones) for use in a variety of foods and beverages, or nanoemulsions to protect flavor components[9]. At the same time, many scientific papers related to this subject have been published, which are still subject to further evaluation and validation because of their ef- fectiveness. Ha et al. showed that by preparing lyco- pene nanoemulsion added to tomato extract, the in vitro bioavailability of bioactive substances was en- hanced, stable in aqueous medium, and poor in oxida- tion[10]. Ban et al. achieved similar results in the oral bi- oavailability of oil/water nanoemulsified flavonoids[11]. On the other hand, Akbas et al. prepared a transparent capsaicin nanoemulsion with inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli[12], which is suitable for functional food, edible coatings or therefore not subject to the tolerance requirements of food additives un- der the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). 4 packaging. Meanwhile, Lane et al. developed omega-3 linseed oil and seaweed nanoemulsion to make fortified food[13]. Silva et al. prepared a stable double emulsion composed of olive oil, flax oil and fish oil[14]. Quercetin and gallic acid were added to the internal and external aqueous phases as a substitute for fat in food formula. On the other hand, by adding nanoencapsulated quercetin prepared from a mixture of soybean oil and water to chicken legs, the lipid oxidation of the product was prevented, and a sensory acceptable product was obtained[15]. The treatment of rainbow trout with nanoemulsion of sunflower seed oil/water and Eupato- rium multiflorum essential oil has similar results[16]. Gani and Benjakul pointed out that adding coconut oil/sodium caseinate nanoemulsion to surimi gel not only improved the whiteness of the gel, but also im- proved the texture and appearance of the gel[17]. For isotonic beverages, Bovi et al. developed Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa L.) oil nanoemulsion[18], which contains high content of steroids and provides stable natural colorants for these drinks. Wang et al. prepared a functional dehydrated beverage including salt, lipophilic and hydrophilic vitamins through pep- permint oil nanoemulsification process and pectinas nanoencapsulated sodium caseinate[19]. Meanwhile, Ghosh et al. obtained a eugenol nanoemulsion contain- ing sesame oil/tween 80-20/water[20], which extended the shelf life of orange juice by inhibiting the growth of S. aureus and controlling the local flora during storage at 4 °C. 3. Food packaging The main purpose of packaging is to ensure the protection and preservation of food quality from pro- duction to consumers. Container is a kind of goods con- tainer, which is convenient for transportation and han- dling. Similarly, a well-designed package must be attractive and easy to use to the consumers, and is able to promote the products (marketing) and provide infor- mation about products. At present, the application of nanodevices in pack- aging aims to improve its function by using nanocom- posites as packaging materials or coatings. In this way, gas exchange, temperature, humidity, flexibility, me- chanical strength and thermal strength can be con- trolled. Generally speaking, nanocomposites will not change the density or fluidity of the film, nor change its transparency, and have the advantages of recyclability, thus reducing environmental pollution. They allow the synergy of antibacterial compounds, antioxidants, oxy- gen absorbers and water vapor, and detect and provide information about food (freshness, temperature abuse, etc.). Montmorillonite layer (Mx(A14- xMgx)Si8O20(OH)4) is the most commonly used clay filler. It can improve the mechanical and physicochem- ical properties of polymer composites by improving the gas barrier performance. Some companies have devel- oped nanocomposites based on montmorillonite-added nylon polymer matrix and provided them as particles, and used Durethan RKU2-2601, (Nanocor TM)[21] for packaging flavored alcoholic beverages (Honeywell In- ternational) or PET bottles, and multilayer nanocompo- sites for beer and carbonated beverages[22]. Picouet et al. studied the addition of nanoclay to polyamide 6 (PA6) matrix of vacuum-packed beef loin, and verified the increased rigidity of the packaging and the barrier performance against oxygen and ultraviolet light[23]. At the same time, montmorillonite nano anti- fungal column was prepared by simple intercalation method with pomegranate residue extract (Punica granatum), and the efficacy of apple gray mold was tested in vitro and in vivo[24]. On the other hand, metal/metal oxide NPs can also be effectively used as antibacterial agents because they produce reactive oxygen species that can destroy cells and change their structure or function through in- teraction with metal ions. It must be remembered that one of the most critical aspects of the food chain is the deterioration caused by microbes. NPs and nanocomposites of silver are widely used in industry because of their antibacterial properties in fruit, herbal medicine, bread, cheese, soup and meat packaging, and are offered under the name of Fresher LongerTM, Bags Fresher LongerTM (USA). They are also added to food trays and sold as nanosilver food containers (Korea), zeomic (Japan), nanosilver food (China)[20]. To date, some studies have shown that nanocomposites do not or begin to migrate from con- tainers or model systems in contact with food[25,26]. When packaging meat, cheese, lettuce, apples and eggs with ethyl vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and AgNPs, 5 Martinez Abad et al. found a decrease in Salmonella and monocytic E. coli[27]. On the other hand, when Lorette et al. put cellulose AgNPs adsorption pads in chopped meat, kiwi fruit and melon sample containers to determine that the antibacterial activity depends on the food matrix[28]. Montmorillonite AgNPs was also prepared by replacing Na+ ions in clay and applying it to fruit salad. By inhibiting changed microorganisms, products with good sensory quality and long shelf life were obtained[29]. In addition, films were made from a mixture of binary agar and banana powder and en- hanced with AgNPs, which proved to have a strong ef- fect on pathogens and Gram-negative bacteria[30]. Other films based on agar and NPs Ag-Cu have strong inhib- itory activity against monocytic proliferative E. coli and Salmonella Typhimurium, and can be used as pack- aging materials[31]. In order to preserve freshly cut apples, Li et al. prepared polyvinyl chloride bags containing ZnO NPs (200–400 nm) and determined their effectiveness in controlling product degradation, reducing respiratory activity and browning[32]. Luo et al. found similar re- sults in freshly cut sweet potato packaged with nano CaCo3 low density polyethylene (LDPE), and discov- ered that the browning rate decreased due to the de- crease of oxidase activity[33]. Marra et al. found that the mechanical properties of the colorless NPs of ZnO-a bi- odegradable polylactic acid film were improved and the gas permeability was low[34], while Zhang et al. found that the mechanical properties of the film were im- proved, and were effective against E. coli and S. au- reus[35]. Other authors added NPs of CuO (1%) to LDPE film and applied it to cheese ultrafiltration to ver- ify the control of coliform during storage[36]. In addi- tion, benzoic acid and vanillin nico NPs in polylactic acid, ethanol polylactic acid and polyethylene gly- col biopolymers also inhibit the growth of Salmonella Typhimurium, E. coli O157:H7 and mononucleosis in raw and cooked chicken[37]. TiO2 has the effect of light and enhanced antibac- terial properties. It is used to increase the bleaching ca- pability and luster of toothpaste, candy and mayonnaise, and prevent product agglomeration. By adding TiO2 NPs into polyethylene, Xing et al. observed the inhibi- tory effect on S. aureus and E. coli, which increased af- ter ultraviolet irradiation[38]. At the same time, Cozmuta et al. prepared a nanocomposite with Ag-TiO2 and pol- yethylene for packaging fresh bread, thus extending the shelf life of the product[39]. On the other hand, Dias et al. applied carbon nano- tube (CNT) - allyl isothiocyanate film to chicken chop to verify their safety and antioxidant capacity[40]. Simi- lar results were observed by Zimoch Korzycka and Jar- moluk[41] and Dehnad et al.[42] who used chitosan coat- ing on meat or formed nanocomposites with cellulose. The application of chitosan together with cellulose nanocrystals to whole pears (Pyrus communis L.) re- sulted in delayed ripening and the appearance of post- harvest deterioration symptoms[43]. On the other hand, Kim et al. applied carnauba wax/montgras nanoemul- sified oil on grapes (Vitis labruscana Bailey) and ob- served the inhibition of pathogens while avoiding mass loss[44]. Similarly, fresh strawberries coated with algi- nate and limonene liposomes can also prolong their shelf life after harvest[45]. Pectin/turmeric/cinnamon oil nanoemulsion coat- ings were also tested on chicken slices, which were ef- fective for microbial control and slow degradation[46]. In low-fat cheese, nanoemulsion was prepared with so- dium alginate orange fiber and oregano oil, Artiga-Ar- tigas et al. determined its effectiveness and appearance retention against S. aureus and native flora[47]. In meat, Amna et al. found that packaging materials containing ZnO olive oil nanofibers were effective against S. au- reus and Salmonella Typhimurium[48], and Khan et al. found the same situation was in CNTs-containing nisin[49]. 4. Nanosensor Nanosensor can be an electrode or active layer of nanostructure, as well as an electronic data processor, which is used to convert the detected signal (the pres- ence of light, gas or organic matter) into electronic sig- nal. It has the advantage of being a non-destructive method, with high sensitivity, fast response and recov- ery. Nanosensors can be used as indicators, labels or coatings to add intelligent functions to containers to de- tect changes in pH, gas composition, components re- leased due to deterioration, container integrity, temper- ature, time, or microbial safety. In addition, they can be integrated with equipment during processing or storage in gondola or refrigerator to avoid NPs from direct 6 contact with food. They are widely used in the field of food safety to detect pathogens, mycotoxins or aller- gens. They can also be used for environmental moni- toring and agriculture to detect pesticides in fruits and water. Kraft Foods has developed an electronic language, which is included in the package. The language consists of a series of nanosensors that are very sensitive to the gas released by spoiled food. These sensors produce a sensitive freshness signal showing color changes[21]. The application of electronic nose and electronic tongue in beer fermentation and the detection of fungal pollution in grain were introduced through examples. Biosensors use various nanotargets, nanofibers, NPs and quantum dots to fix antibodies, DNA, enzymes, etc. Portable devices using nanowires and antibodies are also provided, which can quickly detect, identify and quantify pathogens, interfering substances and al- lergens. Some nanosensors can detect gold NPs con- taining antibodies and can detect and recognize patho- gens in milk, apple juice and meat[50], or have immobilized xanthine oxidase, which can be used as an indicator of the freshness of canned tuna[51]. Abargues et al. designed a chip containing gold NPs to monitor changes in chicken[52], and Liu et al. developed a chem- ically resistant CNT detector modified by Co and me- dium arylmorpholine complex to detect biogenic amines and monitor changes in meat and fish[53]. Sen- sors with NPs quantum dots were also used to detect Salmonella Typhi[54] or E. coli O157:H7 in various meats[55]. Due to its photosensitivity, TiO2 NPs are used to prepare oxygen sensors, as is SnO2 NPs[56]. Biode- gradable nanosensors are also being developed to mon- itor temperature and humidity and to monitor these pa- rameters during transportation and storage of packaged food. Recently, a large number of sensors have been de- signed for different purposes, particularly in line with consumers’ demand for safer and more natural food, which has spawned a series of scientific progress and industrial development. 5. Final considerations Nanotechnology has a tremendous potential in the food sector, which enables the prioritization of consumers’ needs. At present, many products contain- ing NMs in the market, especially additives and food contact materials, are usually consumed and ignored. A major safety concern is the ignorance of the ef- fects of NMs entry and accumulation in the body. NPs can be ingested directly and intentionally released into food as additives, supplements, pesticide residues or put in contact with packaging materials. Although NPs have special characteristics of affecting microbial cells or improving the bioavailability of bioactive substances, they may be cytotoxic to human cells or cause inflam- matory processes due to oxidative stress. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the toxicity risk of the NMs to be used and develop a specific legislative framework to manage this technol- ogy. Finally, nanotechnology can control food structure, thereby elevating food functionality and value. The ap- plication and proper regulation of this technology in the food industry can continue to expand in a very promis- ing way. Conflict of interest The authors declared no conflict of interest. References 1. ISO/TS 80004-2:2015. 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