CET Volume 86
DOI: 10.3303/CET2186122
Paper Received: 9 September 2020; Revised: 15 March 2021; Accepted: 12 April 2021
Please cite this article as: Costa A.F., Aragao J.V., Duarte A.D., Macedo J.S., Galdino Jr. C.J., Milanez V.F., Silva G.L., Sarubbo L.A., 2021,
Analysis of the Environmental Life Cycle of Dyeing in Textiles, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 86, 727-732 DOI:10.3303/CET2186122
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS
VOL. 86, 2021
A publication of
The Italian Association
of Chemical Engineering
Online at www.cetjournal.it
Guest Editors: Sauro Pierucci, Jiří Jaromír Klemeš
Copyright © 2021, AIDIC Servizi S.r.l.
ISBN 978-88-95608-84-6; ISSN 2283-9216
Analysis of the Environmental Life Cycle of Dyeing in Textiles
Andréa F. S. Costaa*, José V. S. Aragãoa, Armando D. Duartea, Jacqueline S.
Macêdob, Claudio J. S. Galdino Jr.c, Victória F. A. Milaneza, Gilson L. Silvaa,
Leonie A. Sarubboc,d
aAgreste Region Academic Centre, Federal University of Pernambuco, Campina Grande Avenue, s/n, Nova Caruaru, Zip
Code: 50670-90, Caruaru, Pernambuco, Brazil.
bPRODEMA, Federal University of Pernambuco, Cidade Universitária, s/n, zip code: 50740-540, Recife, Brazil.
cNortheast Biotechnology Network (RENORBIO), Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Rua Dom Manuel de Medeiros,
Dois Irmãos, Recife, Pernambuco, CEP: 52171-900, Brazil
dScience and Technology Center, Catholic University of Pernambuco, Rua do Príncipe, n. 526, Boa Vista, Recife,
Pernambuco CEP: 50050‑900, Brazil
eAdvanced Institute of Technology and Inovation (IATI), Rua Joaquim de Brito, n. 216, Boa Vista, Recife, Pernambuco CEP:
50070‑280, Brazil
andreafscosta@hotmail.com
Dyeing is an important type of processing in the textile industry. Manufactures seeks to use this since is a
good fit for two of their main demands: aesthetics and sustainability. This work aims to present a comparison
of the dyeing process in textile samples, using SimaPro® software for evaluation of the Life Cycle Analysis
(LCA). For the development of this work, a comparison was made between the two dyeing processes,
synthetic and natural in 500g of samples of 100% cotton fabric benefited, through the analysis method ReCiPe
2016 Endpoint (I) V1.04. Water, chemicals, and energy involved in the process were considered as input
parameters. Natural dyeing according to the life cycle analysis (LCA) showed a considerable reduction of
environmental impacts. It is well know that synthetic dyeing causes greater damage in the environment and to
the human health.
Keywords: Dyeing, Reactive synthetic dye, Natural dye, Life Cycle Analysis
1. Introduction
The textile process involves all stages of the production chain of fabrics and clothing. It starts in spinning,
where the fibers are transformed into threads that go, most of the time, to the weaving where the weft and
warp threads are interwoven perpendicularly to produce the flat fabrics or interwoven by a set of needles in
the knitting process. To check or improve the sensory and aesthetic characteristics of the fabric surface
finishes such as bleaching, dyeing, printing and others are applied to textiles (FEREIRA, 2009).
Dyeing is the stage where dyes and pigments are added to the fabrics. It originated in antiquity with natural
dyes extracted from plants or animals (SALEM, 2010). Currently, this practice is common, however, synthetic
dyes dominate the market. Synthetics have lower prices, volume and easy access. However, it has a huge
impact on the environment due to the chemical composition that carries many toxic compounds (SAMANTA;
AGARWAL, 2009 apud SILVA, 2013).
In the fashion industry, the color of the textile is relevant in the purchase process, as the consumer / user
seeks an aesthetic and symbolic relationship with the repertoire of the environment they live in. Color
sensorial awakens the relationship between the consumer and the product, as it impacts the vision at the time
of purchase. Rezend and Lopes (2019) stated that, checking and maintaining the quality of color, in fabrics
and products with fashion value is fundamental for the fashion industry.
The dyes used in the textile industry must have an affinity with the fibers used in the production of the textile.
A good dyeing depends especially on the connections made between the chemical structures of the fiber and
dye, chemical-physical properties, application method, impregnation, process time, temperature, pH, water
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quality (FERREIRA, 2019). The affinity of the dye to the fiber becomes effective when the dye substance
penetrates into the fiber and chemically binds the fiber molecules after the dyeing process, presenting the
color with the maximized colorimetric variables (ALCÂNTARA; DALTIN, 1996).
Cotton fiber is one of the most used raw materials in the textile industries and is used in the production of
textiles with varied composition or 100% cotton.
Reactive synthetic dyes are the most suitable, as they have a high affinity with cellulosic fibers. After dyeing
cotton in reactive dye, the result is a textile that has high gloss, excellent solidity and good color reflection
(FERREIRA, 2009; SALEM, 2010; FERREIRA, 2019). The reactive dye is produced by the chemical synthesis
of several synthetic compounds that allows high solubility in water, intense color, ability to penetrate inside the
fiber, formation of covalent bonds with cellulose and excellent color fixation. However, they are chemicals that
have high toxicity, carcinogenicity and allergenic potential.
Thus, it is necessary to know the clothing segment that the textiles will be destined for and what types of
remediation are carried out on the effluents that are generated in the dyeing stage to reduce product usability
problems and minimize environmental impacts (REZEND; LOPES, 2019, MACHADO; STULP, 2013).
Natural dyeing is presented in contemporary times as an alternative. They can be extracted from natural
inputs such as roots, leaves, flowers and fruits. They have a reduced impact on the environment and low
allergenic potential. A natural dye can reflect different colors or form an interesting color palette that,
depending on: extraction method, mordant choices, pH variation, temperature, exposure time (GIACOMINI et
al., 2016; REZENDE; LOPES, 2019).
Assessing the impact caused to the environment during the dyeing processes of textile products is necessary.
Arvanitoyannis, 2008 and Passuello et al., 2014 present Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) as a tool used to build an
inventory of inputs (inputs and raw materials) and outputs (final product) to identify sustainable solutions to
minimize impacts to the environment during all stages of production and product life.
SimaPro® - PRé Consultants is a software capable of performing Life Cycle Analysis Analysis, which,
following ISO 14040 recommendations, contains a database used to model and compare study scenarios in
the calculation of environmental impacts and emissions generated by the scenarios that are being studied.
According to Aragão et al. (2020) the LCA is a tool that assesses environmental aspects caused by humanity
interventions. Able to define the objective and scope, inventory analysis, impact assessment and
interpretation. This analysis process includes environmental LCA (ELCA), social LCA (S-LCA) and life cycle
sustainability assessment (LCS A) (Brasil, 2009; Ferreira, 2009).
The purpose of the study was to compare the dyeing process in textile samples, using the SimaPro® software
to assess Life Cycle Analysis (LCA).
2. Methodology
The experiments using synthetic reactive dye and natural dye were carried out at the Textile Technology
Laboratory - Fibers, Yarns and Fabrics of the Federal University of Pernambuco (LTT-FFT / UFPE) Campus
Caruaru/PE.
The fabric used in the experiments had a 100% cotton composition (ready to dye). A mass of approximately
500 g was separated for dyeing using synthetic dye and 500 g for natural dye. The fabrics were washed with
synthetic detergent for 30 minutes in a Dye and Wash Machine - model MTP - Mathins - BR (Figure 1 A).
Step 1 - Standardization, preparation and dyeing of fabric
The textile samples were standardized and cut to size 40 x 40 cm so that the experiments could be carried out
in triplicate. And all stages of the dyeing processes (purging, dyeing, fixing and softening) were performed on
a Wash Test-WT - Mathis BR machine (Figure 1B).
• in the purging process, the samples were submerged in a 1% NaOH solution; 1% Caraicol PR
(polyacrylamide-derived polymer) and 1.5% Caravan TAK for 15 minutes at 80 ° C and then rinsed in
distilled water.
• The dyeings of the textile samples used a bath solution:
- for the reactive synthetic dye, the guidelines presented in the dye technical sheet were followed
under the recommendation of the company CORATEX Ltda, Brazil. Where a bath solution 30% of the salt
(sodium chloride + ferrocyanide), Pantone 16-0945 TCX (Pqvirk-BR) was prepared 1.5% of the BFH YELLOW
dye 0.01% of RED 3B 0.024% BLACK B, 50 % Na₂CO₃,the samples were submerged 40 min at 60 ° C, then
rinsed in distilled water.
- for the vegetable extract (natural dye), 250 g of Allium cepa (white onions) peels and 5 L water at
room temperature were used for 12 hours. The tissue samples were immersed in a mordant solution
containing 8% C14H27Fe3O18 and 15% NaCl for 10 minutes and then submerged in the extract containing
the natural dye 70 ° C for 10 minutes.
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The samples were subjected to fixation and softener in a 1/10 bath ratio where they were submerged in a
detergent solution containing 1% TAK and finally submerged in 3% softener, 70 ° C for 10 minutes. The
process was completed by performing 2 rinses under running water and then they were kept for 5 minutes in a
solution containing 3% softener for another 10 minutes. The samples were dried at room temperature.
Step 2 - Evaluation of the dyeing quality using the methodology for forming pilling, loss of mass and color
migration:
• Following technical standards, NBR ISO 105-A01, 2006 adapted. In duplicates of each color of the
dyed samples, 40 samples were sewn to a control fabric, all in measurements (10 x 10 cm). The
samples were immersed in a solution of R.B 1:10 of water, and neutral soap 5g / L, transferred to the
stainless steel mugs the entire volume of the calculated solution and closed them hermetically.
Placed in the Wash Tester-WT device, programmed to keep under agitation for 30 minutes at 30ºC.
Taken out of the machine, they were rinsed under running water until all the soap was removed and
set to dry at room temperature. The evaluation is to compare the tested red substrate together with
the non-red one and, through the gray scale, assign a score for the color transfer according to the
evaluation evaluation instructions.
• Following technical standards, ASTM D 4970 / ABNT NBR 14672 and ISO 12945-2, method of
resistance testing and adapted pilling. They were cut into duplicates of samples of each color, with a
diameter of 40 mm, to be placed in the upper sample holder as a control tissue and six other samples
with a diameter of 140 mm dyed. Placed on the base / bottom table of the Martindale MAD-BMathis
Ltda. To check the pilling effect, the friction test is carried out between two pieces of the same tissue
sample under pressure of 9 kPA. In order to define the number of movements required to perform the
test, the Martindale abrasion apparatus (Figure 1C) was programmed by the standard in the table of
ISO 12945-2 (MATHIS LTDA, 2011). The test occurred using category 2 specific to the flat fabric.
The test followed the total number of 5,000 cycles with intervals every 1,000 cycles for the evaluation
of color transfer and fiber loss in addition to the formation of pilling.
• Following technical standards, ASTM D 4966 / ABNT NBR 14581 (ISO 12947) and ISO12945-2. Six
pairs of samples were cut, one of which was 41 mm in diameter to be placed in the upper sample
holder as a control tissue and the other sample of 140 mm in diameter was placed on the base /
lower table of the dyed samples. Using the Martindale MAD-B- Mathis Ltda. The samples received a
pressure of 12 kPA according to the request of the test / norm in question. The Martindale Apparatus
was programmed by the standard of the table of ISO 12945-2, category 2, up to 5,000 cycles with
intervals every 1,000, recording the number of 41 cycles until you know how many cycles are
necessary to wear out the sample in question and evaluate the weight loss and color transfer
assessed with the naked eye.
Figure 1 - Dyeing and washing machine - MTP model - Mathins - BR (A), Wash Test-WT - Mathis BR (B) and
Martindale - Mathis BR (C)
Step 3 - Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) for dyeing using reactive and natural synthetic dye
The Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) was performed using the Simapro® software and the analysis method the
ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (I) V1.04 / World (2010) analyzed the damage to human health and damage to the
diversity of ecosystems.
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3. Results
The 100% tissue samples showed yellow when used with dyeing, reactive and natural synthetic extracted
from the vegetable Allium cepa (white onion). The textiles showed a satisfactory result when observed
sensorially with the naked eye. In a tone similar to Pantone 16-0945 TCX after the process is carried out hot.
To evaluate the dyeings performed with the naked eye and synthetic dye, it showed very good fixation during
the solidity test (Figure 2A) whereas, there was an intense color migration to the control fabric when the
natural dye Allium cepa (white onion) was used, observed in Figure 2B. All of this these, confirmed by Amorim
et al. (2020) in the study with the vegetable extract of Curcuma longa (turmeric) and the reactive synthetic dye
Pantone 12-0643 TPX when performing tests with the naked eye and also using the escala gray scale (ABNT
NBR ISO 105- A02 and 5).
Figure 2. Samples of 100% cotton fabric dyed yellow using the dyes: synthetic (A) and natural (B)
Over time and the advancement of technology, natural dyes have been replaced by synthetics because they
have specific properties and effects, including good washing strength (PEZZOLO, 2007;
LADCHUMANANANDASIVAN, 2008). At the end of the pilling formation test (1,000 rubs) for samples dyed
with synthetic and natural dye, a naked eye assessment was carried out to identify color migration and loss of
mass due to fiber breakage (standard in the table in ISO 12945-2) satisfactory results. There was little pilling
formation in the specimen dried at room temperature (Figures 2 A and 2B) and there was only about 3% loss
of mass due to fiber breakage.
Figure 2. Evaluation of quality for forming pilling in fabrics dyed with dyes: synthetic reactive (A) and natural
(B)
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Reactive dyeing has a better yellow fixation than natural dyeing, however, when damage to human health and
damage to ecosystem diversity were analyzed, the resources of the ReCiPe Endpoint method identified
serious problems in industrial processes using products obtained chemical synthesis and elevated
temperatures (Piekarski et al., 2012).
The ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (I) V1.04 / World (2010) method was used when in possession of the dyeing
results. It was noticed that artificial dyeing presented itself as the most harmful to the environment, in the
categories chosen: Freshwater ecotoxicity (in species.year), Ozone formation, human health (in DALY -
disability adjusted life year) and Human carcinogenic toxicity, also in the same unit. These categories were
chosen due to the impact of the functional unit of 500g of fabric with the improvement. The results after
modeling are shown in Table 1. Observing that, in the Ozone formation category, there is a small difference
between the impacts, while in the other categories this impact is relevant.
Table 1: Emissions by impact category
Impact category Unity Artificial
dyeing
Natural
dyeing
Freshwater ecotoxicity Species.yr 1.110E-11 4.015E-12
Ozone formation, human health DALY 4.463E-10 4.371E-10
Human carcinogenic toxicity DALY 3.233E-06 1.676E-06
When a general assessment of the damage caused to human health and ecosystems is made, artificial dyeing
has greater impacts when compared to artificial dyeing.
Table 2: Damage assessment
4. Conclusion
The dyeing process that uses reactive synthetic dyes, presents itself as the most harmful for the environment
and for human health. Although the dyeing tests were performed on 100% cotton fabrics, the study allows
testing on other textiles that have a composition or combination of cellulosic and / or protein fibers and
chemical fibers. The LCA for natural dye presents a type of dyeing process using vegetable as a sustainable
alternative for the textile industry.
Improving human health and minimizing the environmental impacts identified by LCA must be crucial points in
processes carried out in the textile industries and in future research.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Grupo de Gestão Ambiental Avançada (Advanced Environmental
Management Group) - GAMA and the Textile Technology Laboratory - Yarns, Fibbers and Fabrics of the
Agreste Academic Centre of the Federal University of Pernambuco, located in Brazil and the Advanced
Institute of Technology and Innovation (IATI).
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