DOI: 10.3303/CET2188052

Paper Received: 13 June 2021; Revised: 26 July 2021; Accepted: 11 October 2021
Please cite this article as: Talero G., Nielsen C.M., Kansha Y., 2021, Identification of Japanese Solid Biowaste for Conversion into Biochemicals
and Energy via Thermochemical Biorefinery, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 88, 313-318 DOI:10.3303/CET2188052

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS

VOL. 88, 2021

A publication of

The Italian Association
of Chemical Engineering
Online at www.cetjournal.it

Guest Editors: Petar S. Varbanov, Yee Van Fan, Jiří J. Klemeš

ISBN 978-88-95608-86-0; ISSN 2283-9216

Identification of Japanese Solid Biowaste for Conversion into
Biochemicals and Energy via Thermochemical Biorefinery

Gabriel Talero, Christina Marie Nielsen, Yasuki Kansha*
Organization for Programs on Environmental Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-
8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
kansha@global.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Japan has one of the best stated and regulated waste management programs worldwide, befitting its shortage
of disposal sites and sheltered resources. While being the 5th largest biomass market worldwide, its efficient
waste management accounted for a biomass recycling ratio near 71 % in 2020. Still, Japan has a substantial
capacity for bioenergy and carbon capture, as its supply chain remains mostly non-renewable-based. A
biorefinery prospect is to foray into biochemical production integrated with bioenergy technologies. However,
detailed insights are scarce in the literature for a thermochemical biorefinery to biochemicals in Japan. This
study aims to clarify the more promising Japanese solid biowastes for thermochemical conversion into
bioproducts and bioenergy. For this, technical and regulatory analysis was deployed to fit the interests of the
Japanese administration. Conversion of biomass to biochemicals (light olefins and BTX) was calculated using
overall rates in the literature. Forest residue (leftover/thinning), rice waste (straw/husk), and cardboard waste
were the most available lignified biowaste in 2018. The work forecasted a theoretical substitution near 21 % of
the Japanese petrochemical olefins or BTX produced in 2018. The current research precedes a more
comprehensive study that deploys the simulation and optimization of thermochemical pathways, assessing the
environmental impact and techno-economic feasibility.

1. Introduction

Almost 20 years have passed since the resolution from the Japanese Cabinet on the “Comprehensive Biomass
Nippon Strategy”, the first inter-ministerial policy that promotes biomass utilization as a national project
(Kuzuhara, 2005). This establishment to prevent global warming through a "biomass-based circular economy"
has been materialized since 2002 by enacting sustainable and nationwide environmental normativity (Honma
and Hu, 2021). Current regulation encourages a "recycling-oriented society", where residual biomass is a
keystone in waste management that accounts for nearly half of the nationwide residues generated (Ministry of
Environment, 2020). Accordingly, the “Comprehensive Biomass Nippon Strategy” envisioned for 2030 that the
biomass utilization increases to 26 Mt-C/y by extending the recycling of waste and unused biomass above 80
% and 25 %, respectively (Minami and Saka, 2005). According to the New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization - NEDO, Japan forecasts by 2030 a Bioenergy generation between 3.7 % and 4.6
% of its energy consumption, and a relevant substitution for petrochemicals above 40 % (Sugie, 2019). The
achievement of former goals entails an extensive insight into conversion pathways, embracing the technologies
scaling up, economic feasibility, and environmental impact.
Japan has a substantial capacity for bioenergy and bioproducts as its supply chain remains mostly non-
renewable-based, ranking the 4th largest consumer of petrochemicals and oil (Wu et al., 2020). A steady rise
in biomass-based plastics production (PE, PP, PET, PTT) reached 174 kt/y in 2018, projecting a market size of
360 billion yen. Life cycle analysis of bioproducts also suggests the mitigation of steam-cracking petrochemicals
promoting bioplastics through biomass-derived ethylene, propylene, and BTX (Kikuchi et al., 2017). In the
framework of a Bioeconomy, an integrated biorefinery enables the production of these compounds (Kikuchi et
al., 2017). Still, most commercial-scale biorefineries are designed to yield biofuels, commonly employing
biochemical conversion of low lignin content biomass (Ubando et al., 2020). A former analysis of bio-residues
in Japan points out a relevant availability of lignified biomass like forest and rice residues, which are hardly

313

converted through biochemical pathways (Mayorga et al., 2020). In this regard, lignified biowaste can be
converted alongside thermochemical pathways that easily decompose lignin. Unfortunately, few studies
evaluate thermochemical conversion of Japanese lignified biowaste, involving the synthesis of biomass-derived
oligomers, aromatics, or resins (Ubando et al., 2020).
This study aims to identify and quantify the current availability of lignified biowaste in Japan for its
thermochemical conversion to added-value products. The last valorization encourages a novel approach for a
diversified waste management beyond conventional energy usage. This work initially examines the national
regulation of waste management to understand the current legislation on biowaste and administration agencies.
In this regard, the presented study focused on official statistics and reports to reliably estimate biowaste
production by each residue type. Hereafter, special attention is paid to sort abundant biowaste using its recycling
ratio, streams for incineration, and landfill disposal. In the second section, the suitable synthesis of bioproducts
from lignified biowaste is evaluated by contrasting and selecting pathways in the literature. The last section
summarizes the theoretical production of bioproducts to substitute steam-cracking petrochemicals like olefins
and aromatics in Japan.

2. Estimation methodology

The present article employed official statistics of waste production reported by the Ministry of Environment and
the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing. Complementary data was also obtained from reports of the
Statistic Bureau of Japan, the NEDO Agency, and the New Energy Industrial Forum. The Annual Report on
Environmental Statistics, issued by the Ministry of Environment, incorporates a national survey conducted by
47 prefectures every five years (Ministry of Environment, 2020). The latest report covers the statistics in 2018
of the production of wastes and 23 sub-treatments (including direct recycling, natural reduction,
commercialization, incineration, and landfill disposal). The last document also classifies biomass in municipal,
industrial, and general, reporting 25 subcategories of biomass effluents.
For the present article, the mass flows of the treatments are merged in recycled stream (�̇�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒), reduced
stream (�̇�𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 ), and landfill disposal flow (�̇�𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 ). �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 consists of direct and indirect recycling, natural
reduction, commercialization, and conversion to feed or fertilizer. �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 accounts for the stream to direct
incineration, weight loss by drying, and conversion to fuel. The matter unused (�̇�𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑,𝑖 ) is calculated with the
sum of �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑖 and �̇�𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑖 . Biowaste is reclassified in “wood and forest residues”, “wastepaper”,
“agricultural residues”, and “non-lignocellulosic biomass”. For this study purpose, the lignified biowastes
correspond to solid waste biomass that presents a lignin content above 15 % g/g on a dry and ash-free basis
(Aristizábal-marulanda et al., 2019). The recycle ratio ( 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜,𝑖 ) and unuse ratio ( 𝑈𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜,𝑖 ) are
calculated with Eq(1) and Eq(2), respectively.

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜,𝑖 = �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒,𝑖 (�̇�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒,𝑖 + �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑖 + �̇�𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑖 )⁄ (1)

𝑈𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜,𝑖 = (�̇�𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑖 + �̇�𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑖 ) (�̇�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔,𝑖 + �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡,𝑖 + �̇�𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙,𝑖 )⁄ (2)

The theoretical bioproduct flows (�̇�𝑗,𝑖 ) for the light olefins (𝑗 = 𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛) and aromatics (𝑗 = 𝐵𝑇𝑋) are calculated
with Eq(3) for each biowaste 𝑖, where the overall ratio of biomass to bioproduct (BTj) for olefins production is
taken from Arvidsson et al. (2016). Likewise, BTj for BTX production is estimated with data of Xiang et al. (2015).
The ratios of biochemical to petrochemical (𝐵𝑖𝑜 𝑃𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜⁄ 𝑗 ,𝑖 ) are calculated with Eq(4) for both olefins and BTX. In
2018, the Japanese petrochemicals production (�̇�𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜,𝑗 ) was 13.33 Mt/y for olefins (𝑗 = 𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛 , including
ethylene and propylene), and 12.85 Mt/y for aromatics (𝑗 = 𝐵𝑇𝑋 , including benzene, toluene, and xylene)
(Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd, 2021).

�̇�𝑗,𝑖 = �̇�𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑,𝑑𝑏,𝑖 × BTj (3)

𝐵𝑖𝑜 𝑃𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜⁄ 𝑗,𝑖 = �̇�𝑗,𝑖 �̇�𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜,𝑗⁄ (4)

The power cogeneration during the thermochemical conversion of Biomass to Olefins – BTO (�̇�𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑇𝑂,𝑖 ) is
estimated with the specific energy output reported in the literature (Arvidsson et al., 2016). Finally, the power
generation using biomass exclusively as fuel ( �̇�𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝑇𝑂,𝑖 ), is calculated assuming a Rankine power
generation cycle with thermodynamic efficiency (𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑔𝑒𝑛) of 30 % (Kuzuhara, 2005). The characterization of the
residues is obtained from the database Phyllis2, developed by the Energy research Centre of the Netherlands
– ECN. The statistic control also includes literature per residue for the contents of moisture (𝑀𝐶𝑎𝑑), Lignin, and
the Lower Heating Value (𝐿𝐻𝑉𝑎𝑑) (Zhou et al., 2014).

314

3. Solid residual biomass in Japan

After the rapid economic growth period and the later expansion of waste incineration capacity, the Japanese
government redirected awareness on waste reduction ascribing the Basic Act for Establishing a Sound Material-
Cycle Society and the 3R scheme in 2000 (Ministry of the Environment, 2014). As a result, major biomass-
related measures from the “Comprehensive Biomass Nippon Strategy” evolved to the foundation of the
"Biomass usage promotion council", “The Fundamental Law of Promoting Usage of Biomass” in 2009, the

“Biomass commercialization strategy” in 2012, and the “New basic plan for biomass usage promotion” in 2016.

Recycling in Japan involves strict regulations based on diverse residue acts (containers and packings, food,
construction, etc.) (Dente et al., 2020). Residues are principally categorized in municipal waste, industrial waste,
and general waste, with a mass sharing near 12 %, 69 %, and 19 %, respectively (Ministry of Environment,
2020). Based on current regulations, the responsibility of biowaste management falls on business operators for
industrial waste and on municipalities and waste-generators for municipal waste. Table 1 presents the
production of wastes in Japan during 2018 per residue type and treatment.

Table 1: Production of wastes in Japan during 2018. Non-lignocellulosic biowaste includes food waste,

livestock manure, and sewage sludge. Other than biomass includes minerals and fossil wastes.

Residue Production �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 �̇�𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 �̇�𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑈𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

Unit Mt/y Mt/y Mt/y Mt/y % g/g % g/g
Total waste production 2018 548 310 223 14 57 43
Biomass residue 297 127 167 2.8 43 57
Wood and forest residue 21.0 13.0 7.8 0.2 62 38

Leftover treetop/branch 5.88 1.41 4.47 0.00 24 76
Wood from thinning 3.92 0.94 2.98 0.00 24 76
Sawmill factories waste 5.32 5.10 0.10 0.12 96 4
Wood chips from construction 5.90 5.57 0.23 0.10 94 6

Wastepaper 22.9 18.3 4.6 0.03 86 14
Cardboard / Paperboard 2.42 0.65 1.78 0.00 27 73
Fine paper, Magazine, sanitary 7.60 4.74 2.82 0.03 62 38
Old newspaper 2.32 2.32 0.00 0.00 100 0
Kraft and corrugated containers 10.58 10.58 0.00 0.00 100 0

Agricultural residue 18.0 11.7 6.2 0.05 65 35
Rice straw 7.93 6.71 1.22 0.00 85 15
Rice husk 1.73 1.51 0.23 0.00 87 13
Wheat straw 1.05 0.77 0.28 0.00 73 27
Others (potato, bamboo, grass) 7.27 2.24 4.48 0.05 36 64

Non-lignocellulosic biowaste 235 84 148 2.5 36 64
Others than biomass 251 183 56 11 73 27

Residual biomass is a cornerstone in waste management that accounted for 54 % of the total residues generated
in 2018. Although the production of solid biowaste has remained mainly constant in the last 20 years, the
recycling ratio has steadily increased from 29 % in 1998 to 43 % in 2018 (Ministry of Environment, 2020). Nearly
52 % of industrial waste and 20 % of municipal waste were recycled in 2018, while 41 % was incinerated and
only 3 % proceeded to landfills. Lignocellulosic biomass represents 20 % of the biomass residues, with a
recycling ratio of 69 % in 2018. Less than 0.5 % of the lignified biomass reached land disposal, and the recycling
ratio in most of the residue was above 90 %. Incineration of biowaste is caused by techno-economic issues for
expensive collection, poor quality of recycled products, or unsuitable processing with current technologies.
While most wood residues like sawmill and construction wood waste report a high utilization ratio, forestry
residues represent a challenge for the administration. Besides forest floor disposal, the logistic and
transportation of treetops and branches are currently expensive. Yoshioka et al. (2006) find the development of
suitable systems for the steep Japanese topography crucial, suggesting an in-forest mobile chipping approach
as the best way to reduce manipulation cost. Other effective measures to reduce this cost are trailers and high-
grade forest roads that directly transport leftovers to the landings of logging sites. Still, the Japanese Forest
Agency plans to improve the recycling ratio above 30 % by 2030. For this effect, the Feed-in Tariff (FIT) impelled
the generation capacity with woody power plants to 16,815 GWh in 2020 (Fushimi, 2021).
Wastepaper is efficiently recycled to produce a wide range of paperboards and printing paper. The recovery of
paper is currently limited because of sanitary paper (incinerated) and waterproof paper (expensive to retreat).
Cardboards and paperboard report the lowest recycling ratio in the paper industry. The excessive recovery of
paperboard reduces the quality of the cellulose due to numerous loops of reuse. Consequently, the production

315

of paper from cardboard is limited because of processing troubles (screen clogging) and poor appearance
(whiteness deterioration). Cardboard presents an interesting potential for its utilization out of the paper industry.
Agricultural residues are mainly disposed to compost, livestock feed, soil replacement, and mulch. Indeed, rice
waste utilization is one of the most important improvements of the waste management reforms, contributing to
28 % of the reduction in the Japanese environmental impact since 1998 (Dente et al., 2020). Unfortunately,
almost 14 % of rice straw and husk are burned in situ to be reincorporated into the soil since their low density
makes transportation expensive without improving profitable usage. While the former approach adds value to
rice straw and husk as fertilizers, the burning of these biowaste contributes to biogenic CO2 emissions that
represented 8 % of the Japanese environmental impact in 2010 (Dente et al., 2020).
Biomass utilization is currently prioritized in Japan with the “Biomass 5F” scheme (Fushimi, 2021), a hierarchical
valorization of the biomass from higher to lower as Food, Fiber (chemicals and materials), Feed, Fertilizer, and
Fuel (biofuels and power generation). The "Biomass 5F" scheme recognizes the diversity of biowaste utilization,
regarding bioenergy and biofuel as large biomass consumption methods that release low-value compared to
other products (such as food, chemicals, or fertilizers) (Fushimi, 2021). Biofuels and bioenergy emerged from
the pressure to mitigate CO2 emissions in the energy industry that values of 43 % in the global breakdown,
blurring the urgency in the chemical industry that only shares 4 %. By fortune, the current developments on
solar, wind, and hydrogen-based power help to spur biomass toward added-value products embedded in a
coherent Bioeconomy (Yadav et al., 2020). The upcoming analysis concerns the production of added-value
chemicals that can store biogenic CO2 through a biorefinery with integrated power generation.

4. Conversion of lignocellulosic biowaste to biochemicals in Japan

This study employs the design methodology proposed by Aristizábal et al., to lay out a biorefinery, defining the
feedstock, products, platforms, and processes (Aristizábal-marulanda et al., 2019). Figure 1 summarizes the
selected pathways from biomass to bioproducts (olefins or BTX) using thermochemical conversion (gasification
or pyrolysis). Table 1 reveals an attractive availability of biowaste in Japan as feedstock, following the
classification of lignocellulosic residues like forest residue, rice waste, and cardboard (accounting for low
recycling ratio or burned in situ). Most commercial-scale lignocellulosic biorefineries employ biochemical
conversion of low lignin content biomass (Ubando et al., 2020). Lignified biowaste can be converted with
thermochemical processes because gasification and pyrolysis ease the thermal decomposition of aromatic
compounds present in lignin (Talero et al., 2019). Consequently, an initial “lignin platform” is selected in terms
of the feedstock, followed by gasification and pyrolysis.

Figure 1: Conversion pathways in a thermochemical biorefinery integrated with power generation and oriented

to produce biochemicals (light olefins and BTX). Mass flows consider average values reported in the literature.

Regarding the biorefinery products, the building block in conventional petrochemistry to produce several
polymers and intermediate chemicals are the steam cracking olefins (mainly ethylene, propylene) and the
catalytic reforming aromatics (benzene, toluene, and xylene) (Kikuchi et al., 2017). The substitution of crude oil-
derived olefins or BTX extends the migration to biochemicals by employing developed polymerization
technologies. For this reason, the present work focuses on light olefins and BTX, excluding the polymerization
process to PE, PET, or others. It is still supposed that biomass-derived olefins and BTX achieve quality
standards for polymers production. Additionally, the production of light olefins is preferred over BTX. Light olefin
is favoured for the carbon-carbon double bonds, allowing a broader application to polymers, or even enabling
the production of BTX via steam cracking.
According to Figure 1, the gasification process leads to a “syngas platform” converted to olefins via methanol
synthesis and catalytic conversion of Methanol to Olefins – MTO. The “methanol platform” and MTO grant a

316

mature technology, as most methanol is commercially produced from natural gas by steam reforming and from
coal by gasification reactions (Kansha et al., 2019). Biomass pyrolysis evolves a “Pyrolytic liquid platform” known
as Bio-oil. The Pyro-gas and Biochar only generate energy for simplification of the study, but the potential for
chemical conversion is proposed for future study. The pre-concentration is performed with water/solvent
extraction to increase the thermal stability of the Bio-oil. These enriched fractions are converted to bio-aromatics
with a catalytic cracking upgrading system using microporous zeolites and metal oxides.
The overall ratio BTolefin is estimated from the literature between 12.7 % and 24.8 % (Xiang et al., 2015).
Likewise, the overall ratio BTBTX is estimated from the literature between 14.1 % and 24.6 % (Yan and Li, 2021).
The specific energy released after the olefins production is reported in the literature between 144 kWh/t and 189
kWh/t, excluded from thermal and electrical auto-demand. Prior yields are used in Table 2 to estimate a
theoretical maximum and minimum production of olefins and BTX from the Japanese lignocellulosic biowaste
in 2018, including only residues that exhibit high availability for a low recycling ratio or field burned.

Table 2: Estimated maximum production of biowaste-based olefin, BTX, and power cogeneration from

Japanese lignocellulosic waste biomass in 2018.

Residue Forest residue (leftovers) Rice waste (straw/husk) Cardboard waste
𝑀𝐶𝑎𝑑 % g/gBM.db 21.8 ± 7.5 9.6 ± 1.2 8.1 ± 1.8
Lignin daf % g/gBM.db 26.9 ± 2.6 24.1 ± 10.5 20 ± 1.0
𝐿𝐻𝑉𝑎𝑑 MJ/kg 16.8 ± 0.9 19.7 ± 1.0 17.1 ± 0.8
�̇�𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑.𝑑𝑏 Mt/y 5.82 1.31 1.63

Light olefin production
�̇�𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛 Mt/y 1.45 - 0.83 0.32 - 0.19 0.41 - 0.23
𝐵𝑖𝑜 𝑃𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜⁄ 𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛

% g/g 12.8 - 7.3 2.9 - 1.6 3.6 - 2.1
BTX production

�̇�𝐵𝑇𝑋 Mt/y 1.43 - 0.82 0.32 - 0.18 0.4 - 0.23
𝐵𝑖𝑜 𝑃𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜⁄ 𝐵𝑇𝑋 % g/g 11.1 - 6.3 2.5 - 1.4 3.1 - 1.8

Energy cogeneration
�̇�𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑇𝑂 MWe 125 - 96 28 - 22 35 - 27
�̇�𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝑇𝑂 MWe 933 245 265
�̇�𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑇𝑂 /�̇�𝑛𝑜 𝐵𝑇𝑂 % MWe/MWe 13.44 8.80 10.30

The conversion of all the highly available biowaste to biochemicals should substitute from 21 % to 17 % of the
Japanese consumption in 2018 of petrochemical olefins or BTX, respectively. The surplus energy during the
production of biochemicals is 90 % below the power generation if biomass is used as fuel. The last approach
forecasts a promising economic scenario since the market price of wood pellets is 250 USD/t compared to the
average value of 1,250 USD/t for ethylene and propylene (Yadav et al., 2020).
Several challenges remain for the integration of thermochemical conversion to biochemicals in Japan. While
former studies point out the importance of a decentralized utilization of biomass in small rural areas with a
capacity of approximately 20 t/h, future studies must identify the most promising locations in Japan (Kuzuhara,
2005). Besides, it is essential to assess the price and demand of process feedstock chemicals in the
international market (Kansha et al., 2019). The direct gasification of biomass also evolves a relevant amount of
condensate matter, reducing the sensibility of olefins. Thus, a comprehensive recognition among conversion
pathways is advised in future studies, assessing recent advances in Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis - CFP, Syngas to
Dimethyl ether to Olefins - DMTO, or direct catalytic Syngas to Olefins - STO. It is outlined that Fischer-Tropsch
to Olefins - FTO yields gasoline over light olefins, adverse to diminishing biomass fuels (Arvidsson et al., 2016).

5. Conclusions

The last analysis has elucidated the potential of a thermochemical biorefinery with Japanese lignified biowaste.
Forest residue, rice waste, and cardboard waste rendered the greatest available biowaste in 2018, accounting
for 57 % of incinerated lignocellulosic biomass. The utilization of forest residues and rice waste represents a
challenge due to expensive and ineffective collection. Cardboard waste emerges as the best residue for
thermochemical conversion, complementing its availability within industrial areas. Although this research
contributes as an introduction to more comprehensive biomass utilization in Japan, additional insights are
recommended for future works regarding detailed simulations and optimization of pathways, the assessment of
environmental impact, or techno-economic feasibility. Moreover, the most promising locations for
thermochemical biorefineries in Japan must be recognized in coming studies, reducing feedstock manipulation
and transport costs. The maximum production of light olefins and BTX is estimated at 2.16 and 2.17 Mt/y with

317

uncoupled gasification and pyrolysis. Still, primary pyrolysis before gasification depicts an alternative to be
evaluated to increase olefins selectivity. This study suggests the production of light olefins over BTX, allowing
broader application to polymers (PE, PET, etc.), intermediate chemicals, or even BTX via steam cracking.

Nomenclature

𝑎𝑑 – as determined basis 𝑑𝑏 – on dry basis
BT – Biomass To (Olefins or BTX) 𝑖 – subindex for each waste biomass
𝐵𝑖𝑜 𝑃𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜⁄ – Biochemical to Petrochemical ratio 𝑗 – subindex for each Olefins or BTX
𝑑𝑎𝑓 – dry and ash free basis 𝐿𝐻𝑉𝑎𝑑 – lower heating value

References

Aristizábal-marulanda V., Alzate C.A.C., 2019, Methods for designing and assessing biorefineries: Review,
Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 13, 789–808.

Arvidsson M., Haro P., Morandin M., Harvey S., 2016, Comparative thermodynamic analysis of biomass
gasification-based light olefin production using methanol or DME as the platform chemical, Chemical
Engineering Research and Design, 115, 182–194.

Dente M.R., Kayo C., Aoki-suzuki C., Tanaka D., 2020, Life cycle environmental impact assessment of biomass
materials in Japan, Journal of Cleaner Production, 257, 120388–120399.

Fushimi C., 2021, Valorization of Biomass Power Generation System: Noble Use of Combustion and Integration
with Energy Storage, Energy & Fuels, 35, 3715–3730.

Honma S., Hu J., 2021, Cost efficiency of recycling and waste disposal in Japan, Journal of Cleaner Production,
284, 125274–12585.

Kansha Y., Ishizuka M., Tsutsumi A., Kambe Y., Yoshihara J., 2019, Simulated Application of Self-Heat
Recuperation and Pressure Swing System to Industrial Methanol Synthesis Process, Journal of Chemical
Engineering of Japan, 52 (7), 650–655.

Kikuchi Y., Oshita Y., Mayumi K., Hirao M., 2017, Greenhouse gas emissions and socioeconomic effects of
biomass-derived products based on structural path and life cycle analyses: A case study of polyethylene and
polypropylene in Japan, Journal of Cleaner Production, 167, 289–305.

Kuzuhara Y., 2005, Biomass Nippon Strategy—Why ‘“Biomass Nippon”’ now?, Biomass and Bioenergy, 29,
331–335.

Mayorga M.A., López M., López C.A., Bonilla J.A., Silva V., Talero G.F., Correa F., Noriega M.A., 2020,
Production of aviation biofuel from palm kernel oil, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 80, 319–324.

Minami E., Saka S., 2005, Biomass resources present in Japan — annual quantities grown, unused and wasted,
Biomass and Bioenergy, 29, 310–320.

Ministry of Environment, 2020, Waste recycling amount Survey, Original version in Japanese
<env.go.jp/recycle/report/h29-10/post_4.html> accessed 25.02.2021.

Ministry of the Environment, 2014, History and Current State of Waste Management in Japan.
<env.go.jp/recycle/circul/venous_industry/en/history.pdf> accessed 25.02.2021.

Sugie W., 2019, NEDO’s Projects Related to Bio-based Chemicals, Materials Technology and Nanotechnology
Department. <nedo.go.jp/content/100890878.pdf> accessed 25.02.2021.

Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd, 2021, Sumitomo Chemical Investors’ Handbook 2021. <sumitomo-
chem.co.jp/english/ir/library/investors_handbook/files/docs/2021handbook.pdf> accessed 25.02.2021.

Talero G., Rincón S., Gómez A., 2019, Torrefaction of oil palm residual biomass: Thermogravimetric
characterization, Fuel, 242, 496–506.

Ubando A.T., Felix C.B., Chen W.H., 2020, Biorefineries in circular bioeconomy: A comprehensive review,
Bioresource Technology, 299, 122585–122603.

Wu W., Hasegawa T., Fujimori S., Takahashi K., Oshiro K., 2020, Assessment of bioenergy potential and
associated costs in Japan for the 21st century, Renewable Energy, 162, 308–321.

Xiang Y., Zhou J., Lin B., Xue X., Tian X., Luo Z., 2015, Exergetic evaluation of renewable light olefins production
from biomass via synthetic methanol, Applied Energy, 157, 499–507.

Yadav V.G., Yadav G.D., Patankar S.C., 2020, The production of fuels and chemicals in the new world: critical
analysis of the choice between crude oil and biomass vis-à-vis sustainability and the environment, Clean
Technologies and Environmental Policy, 22 (9), 1757–1774.

Yan K., Li H., 2021, State of the Art and Perspectives in Catalytic Conversion Mechanism of Biomass to Bio-
aromatics, Energy & Fuels, 35 (1), 45–62.

Yoshioka T., Aruga K., Nitami T., Sakai H., Kobayashi H., 2006, A case study on the costs and the fuel
consumption of harvesting, transporting, and chipping chains for logging residues in Japan, Biomass and
Bioenergy, 30 (4), 342–348.

Zhou H., Meng A., Long Y., Li Q., Zhang Y., 2014, Classification and comparison of municipal solid waste based
on thermochemical characteristics, Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 64 (5), 597–616.

318