Microsoft Word - 1murphy.docx CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS VOL. 58, 2017 A publication of The Italian Association of Chemical Engineering Online at www.aidic.it/cet Guest Editors: Remigio Berruto, Pietro Catania, Mariangela Vallone Copyright © 2017, AIDIC Servizi S.r.l. ISBN 978-88-95608-52-5; ISSN 2283-9216 Total CO2-equivalent GHG Emissions from Agricultural Human Labour in Turkey Beran Adaya,Can Ertekin*a, Fatih Evrendilekb a Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept. of Farm Machinery and Technologies Engineering, Antalya, TURKEY b Abant Izzet Baysal University, Faculty of Engineering, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Bolu, TURKEY ertekin@akdeniz.edu.tr Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the most important greenhouse gases (GHG) whose increased emissions have significantly enhanced greenhouse effect, thus changing global climate. To keep up with the rising growth rates of human population and consumption in spite of decreasing agricultural human labour, finding ways to boost sustainable agricultural production through mechanization has gained importance instead of relying solely on human efforts. The present study aims at the quantification of total CO2-equivalent GHG emissions (CO2eq) from agricultural human labour required in tillage, cultivation, maintenance, harvesting, and transportation for 58 agricultural crops cultivated in Turkey. Our quantification was based on minimum and maximum values of human labour energy reported in related literature and the coefficient of 0.36 kg CO2eq per MJ. Our results showed that GHG emissions varied between 49.41 and 1232.66 Gg CO2eq for wheat, 1.44 and 72.68 Gg CO2eq for chickpea, and 49.50 and 154.43 Gg CO2eq for tomatoes. There is a pressing need for agricultural GHG emissions from human efforts and mechanization to be reduced and balanced. 1. Introduction What has mattered to the socio-economic development and health of all societies has been the quantity of energy resources in particular, fossil fuels. However more recently, the importance of the type of energy resources; that is, the use of renewable energy resources and technologies instead of fossil fuels has come to the forefront due to the release to the atmosphere of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with the burning of fossil fuels. The present atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration is 40% more than the levels before the industrial revolution (about 387 ppm) and is expected to rise to the range of 500 to 900 ppm by the end of the twenty first century (Karl, et al., 2009). The general circulation model results show that the doubling of the current atmospheric CO2 level will cause an average global temperature rise of 1.5 to 4.5 o in 2050 (Ozturk, et al., 2016). Among all the GHGs, CO2 accounts for 58.8% of all the GHG emissions. Predictions and analyzes of CO2 emissions suggest that energy consumption and economic growth are the most important components of clean energy economics (Pao, et al., 2012). Globally, energy-related CO2 emissions are projected to increase from 30.2 billion metric tons (t) in 2008 to 35.2 billion t in 2020 and 43.2 billion t in 2035 by a 43% increase due to the strong dependence of economic growth on fossil fuels (Altıntaş, 2013). The top agricultural energy inputs for both establishment and postplanting harvest years are seed, human labour, machinery, diesel and oil, fertilizer, chemicals, water or seedbed preparation, seeding, fertilization hoeing, irrigation, spraying, harvesting and transportation. For example, herbicides (33%), diesel fuel (29%), and seed (23%) during the establishment year as well as nitrogen fertilizer (67%), diesel fuel (18%), and herbicides (8%) during the postplanting harvest years accounted for the majority of agricultural energy inputs in the northern Great Plains of USA (Schemer, et al., 2008). The agricultural energy input/output analyses over Turkey for different crops were also conducted (Barut, et al., 2011; Bilgili, et al., 2015; Aday, et al., 2016; Ozkan, et. al., 2004; Hatirli, et. al., 2005). In the present study, human labour energy used for the production of 58 different agricultural crops in 81 cities of Turkey was derived from related literature and converted to minimum and maximum values of total CO2eq GHG emissions which in turn were interpolated on a national scale using an empirical Bayesian kriging method. DOI: 10.3303/CET1758007 Please cite this article as: Adaya B., Ertekin C., Evrendilek F., 2017, Co2 production by human labour in agriculture over turkey, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 58, 37-42 DOI: 10.3303/CET1758007 37 2. Materials And Methods Data about the amount and area of agricultural production were obtained from Turkey Statistics Institution (TUIK) for 58 different crops in 2015 from 81 cities across Turkey. Site-specific minimum and maximum values of human labour use (h.ha-1) were derived from related literature (Table 1). These data covers the agricultural processes of tillage, maintenance, harvesting and transportation.The minimum and maximum values were converted to the human labour energy and than total CO2eq emission values by multiplying with the coefficients of 1.96 MJ.ha-1 and 0.36 kg CO2.MJ -1, respectively (Houshyar, et al., 2015a; Houshyar, et al., 2015b). Using the interpolation method of the empirical Bayesian kriging, total CO2eq GHG emissions were mapped at the national scale. More detailed information about kriging method can be found in Evrendilek and Ertekin, 2008 and Ertekin and Evrendilek, 2007. Table 1. Minimum and maximum values of human labour use per hectare in production of 58 agricultural crops (Koral, et al., 1998). Crops Tillage (h.ha -1 ) Maintenance (h.ha -1 ) Harvesting and transportation (h.ha -1 ) Min Max Min Max Min Max Wheat 5.7 12.6 1 43.9 2.2 165.19 Barley 5.6 13.6 0 12.7 2.8 141.4 Maize 10.9 18.5 69.6 339.1 4.2 332.3 Paddy 38.6 222.5 100.8 1164 9.6 300 Haricot bean 8.9 62.1 108.7 362.8 82.6 263.9 Chickpea 5.7 9.8 0 138.6 0 138.3 Lentil 5 8.4 0 125.5 108 167.1 Soybean 12.4 14 111.9 139.4 2.5 140.5 Sugar-beet 8.9 25.7 420.5 655.2 313 600.2 Sunflower 4.5 14.6 46.3 210.5 2.2 279.1 Cotton 10.4 21.7 277.1 676.6 411.4 721.6 Tobacco 129.9 671.9 166.3 711.5 422.1 2133.6 Poppy 13.3 16.6 387 607.9 434.5 650.7 Aniseed 24 65 159 444.4 28.3 273 Cummin 6.5 6.5 1.4 1.4 88.1 88.1 Hemp 21.5 21.5 324.5 324.5 1152.5 1152.5 Heather 13 13.2 111.8 140 242.8 299.1 Rose 0 370 219 241 0 831.6 Tea 0 2886 102.5 592.5 0 277.1 Potato 43.2 153.6 197.8 419.5 233.5 418.2 Onion 13 398.8 89.2 756.5 289.8 842.9 Garlic 198.8 528 222.7 696.5 357.9 1007.5 Alfalfa 0 186.2 29.1 216.6 0 433 Vetch 8.3 9.7 0 26.2 58.1 75.65 Sainfoin 0 10.65 39.7 41.2 80.7 95 Tomato 100.3 200.4 243.5 1112.9 390.9 978.6 Pepper 91.6 269.3 276.5 762.2 353.4 1014.5 Eggplant 92.3 255 167.8 823.2 142.7 918.8 Cucumber 93.2 255.4 303.1 505.3 416.2 2085.8 Watermelon 51.8 103.8 126.4 290 0 200.3 Melon 11.4 100.7 97.3 236.8 0 202.3 Green bean 99.8 332.8 492.3 736.1 499.4 921.1 Lettuce 13.6 13.9 5 52.7 880.5 1867.3 White-cabbage 118.3 194.97 219.1 562.91 166.3 168.37 Red-cabbage 179.2 179.2 353.4 353.4 248.2 248.2 Black-cabbage 260.2 260.2 17.4 17.4 316.1 316.1 Radish 10.1 10.1 37.4 37.4 874 874 Spinach 15.3 15.3 8 8 714.7 714.7 Leek 327.2 327.2 471.1 471.1 867.1 867.1 Carrot 14.1 72.7 410.4 668.5 870.1 1640.6 Pumpkin 8 12 122 194.8 69 101.6 Apple 0 322 84.5 366.5 0 499.5 Quince 0 0 378.9 378.9 423.6 423.6 Apricot 0 81.6 74.1 439.2 0 599.7 Cherry 0 308.8 216.9 387.9 0 2078.8 38 Table 1. Minimum and maximum values of human labour use per hectare in production of 58 agricultural crops (Koral, et al., 1998). Sour cherry 0 0 261.5 261.5 1079.6 1079.6 Peach 0 290.5 166 913 0 1543.4 Mandarin 0 209.8 212.27 558.7 0 1823.7 Orange 0 0 432.8 432.8 1094.6 1094.6 Lemon 0 0 524.1 524.1 1031.7 1031.7 Grape 0 0 151.5 614.8 110.8 441.6 Fig 0 355 40 125.3 0 637.8 Hazelnut 0 1270 68 523 0 306.7 Pomegranate 0 140 433.33 646.8 0 946.8 Loqua 0 241.3 152.2 431.9 0 1604.2 Pistachio 0 138.6 0 84.1 0 163.5 Olive 0 395 11.26 206.2 0 251.5 Banana 0 0 5106.6 5106.6 441.1 441.1 3. Results The biggest share of agricultural production in Turkey belongs to grains. Human labour use in wheat production ranged from 5.7 to 12.6 h.ha-1 for tillage, 1.0 to 43.9 h.ha-1for maintenance work, 2.2 to 165.19 h.ha-1 for harvesting and transportation. CO2eq GHG emissions of the total agricultural human labour varied between 49.41 and 1232.66 Gg. These values were lower for barley, maize and paddy (Figure 1). In the growing leguminosae crops, CO2eq emissions ranged from 1.44 to 72.68 Gg for chickpea, 17.85 to 47.54 Gg for lentil, 3.29 to 7.62 Gg for soybean and 13.22 to 45.48 Gg for haricot bean for human labour use. (Figure 2). Figure. 1. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour use for growing grains in Turkey. (kt = 106 kg = Gg) Figure. 2. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour use for growing legumes in Turkey. Maximum CO2eq GHG emissions from grains were followed by industrial, tuberous and feed crops. In particular, for alfalfa, sunflower, tobacco, onion and tea productions, minimum and maximum CO2eq GHG emissions differed significantly due to different practices adopted during the growing season (Figures 3 and 4). Figure. 3. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour used for growing industrial, tuberous and feed crops in Turkey 0,00 500,00 1000,00 1500,00 Wheat Barley Maize Paddy G g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 0,00 50,00 100,00 Chickpea Lentil Soybean Haricot Bean G g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 0,00 100,00 200,00 300,00 400,00 500,00 G g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 39 Figure. 4. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour used for growing industrial, tuberous and feed crops in Turkey. Human labour use was the highest for tomato production among the vegetables considered. Thus, CO2eq GHG emissions from human labour for the production of vegetables varied between 2.38 and 154.43 Gg (Figures 5 and 6). Figure. 5. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour use for growing vegetables in Turkey. Figure. 6. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour used for growing vegetables in Turkey. The total CO2eq GHG emissions ranged between 0.01 and 1040.96 Gg for pistachio, olive and grape (Figures 7 and 8). Figure. 7. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour use for growing fruits in Turkey. 0,00 100,00 200,00 300,00 Sainfoin Aniseed Cumin Hemp Healter Tea Onion Garlic G g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 0,00 50,00 100,00 150,00 200,00 G g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00 20,00 White - Cabbage Red - Cabbage Black - Cabbage Spinach Leek Carrot Pumpkin RadishG g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 0,00 500,00 1000,00 1500,00 G g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 40 Figure. 8. CO2-equivalent GHG emissions from human labour use for growing fruits in Turkey. Total minimum and maximum values of CO2eq GHG emissions from human labour use for the production of the 58 crops during the growing season were interpolated based on the empirical Bayesian kriging method and presented in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. Figure. 9. National map of minimum total CO2-equivalent GHG emissions (kt = 10 6 kg = Gg) from human labour use for agricultural production of 58 crops in 2015, based on the interpolation method of empirical Bayesian kriging. Figure. 10. National map of maximum total CO2-equivalent GHG emissions (kt = 10 6 kg = Gg) from human labour use for agricultural production of 58 crops in 2015, based on the interpolation method of empirical Bayesian kriging. 0,00 50,00 100,00 150,00 200,00 Apple Quince Apricot Cherry Peach Mandarin Orange Loquat Sour Cherry G g C O 2 e q u iv a le n t Min Max 41 4. Conclusion In agriculture, human labour is applied to different activities such as tillage, maintenance, harvesting and transport. Total CO2eq GHG emissions from total agricultural human labour use were estimated to vary between 1261.97 and 7553.72 thousand t. 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