CET 97
DOI: 10.3303/CET2297024
Paper Received: 31 May 2022; Revised: 10 August 2022; Accepted: 1 September 2022
Please cite this article as: Tran C., Le T.M., Pham C.D., Duong Y., Le P.T.K., Tran T.V., 2022, Valorization of Black Soldier Flies at Different
Life Cycle Stages, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 97, 139-144 DOI:10.3303/CET2297024
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS
VOL. 97, 2022
A publication of
The Italian Association
of Chemical Engineering
Online at www.cetjournal.it
Guest Editors: Jeng Shiun Lim, Nor Alafiza Yunus, Jiří Jaromír Klemeš
Copyright © 2022, AIDIC Servizi S.r.l.
ISBN 978-88-95608-96-9; ISSN 2283-9216
Valorization of Black Soldier Flies at Different Life Cycle
Stages
Chi Trana,b, Tan M. Lea,b, Co Dang Phama,b, Yen Duonga,b, Phung Thi Kim Lea,b, Tan
Viet Trana,b,*
aFaculty of Chemical Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong Kiet Street, District
10, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
bVietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
trantanviet@hcmut.edu.vn
Solid waste treatment is a major concern all around the world, especially in developing countries. Unlike plastic
and metals, organic waste is invaluable and requires a high cost for treatment. Black Soldier Fly (BSF) is a novel
option since not only provides waste treatment solutions but also converts organic waste into high-economic
products. An in-depth understanding of this species must be required for researchers who are looking for
alternative processes as well as scaling up for larger plants or commercial purposes. In this review, the
valorization of BSF at different life stages has been successfully developed. After treating organic waste, the
frass of BSF has been seen as an organic fertilizer. Due to the highest lipid content (47.65 %) in prepupae
stages, they are used for biodiesel production. The protein content is highest in the larva stage, so it is a lower-
cost replacement for conventional animal feed. Since the chitin content in BSF’s cuticles makes up to 40 %,
prepupae and cocoons can be seen as promising sources of chitin.
1. Introduction
Due to the rapid population growth, organic waste is always a difficult problem in many countries. According to
FAO’s report, the food waste estimate in 2019 for total urban in Australia was 120 kg/capita (Zhongming et al.,
2021). About 30 – 40 % of food production was discharged and did not use (Schader et al., 2014). This
phenomenon normally occurred in the post-harvested period, during the storing and transporting stages which
leads to the growth of greenhouse gases (GHGs). In India, the agricultural post-harvest loss is around 92 million
t and the GHGs emitted were about 3.3 M t/y. There is nearly 750 BUSD loss due to food wastage every year
(Surendra et al., 2016). Organic waste treatments like landfill, anaerobic digestion, and composting is not only
high cost but also contaminate the ground and surface water environment (Surendra et al., 2015).
Insect-based food waste treatment is becoming more widely acknowledged as a cost-effective and ecologically
responsible way to recycle resource. Numerous insect species convert organic wastes including food waste,
animal byproducts, and agricultural waste at high rates. Many studies have indicated that the yellow mealworm,
house fly, and black army fly are very suitable for biodegrading organic waste (Shaboon et al., 2022). Compared
to mealworm-like insects, grasshoppers and crickets are far more expensive to breed because they require a
lot more room to produce. Houseflies pose a risk of escape, illness transmission, and significant annoyance.
Among these insects, BSF (Hermetia illucens) used to remediate food waste is gaining popularity. BSF is an
insect normally found in tropical, subtropical, and warm zone of America (Surendra et al., 2016). The BSF larvae
can treat a wide range of waste items quickly while reducing bacterial growth and odor. They also compete with
the housefly (Musca domestica), a primary illness mediator, and may decrease it (Kim et al., 2021). BSF larvae
transform organic waste into protein, chitin, and fat-rich biomass throughout the treatment process. Each stage
of BSF's life cycle has unique components that allow it to serve a variety of purposes. Determination of the
appropriate stages for each application was not much research although the properties of BSF are complex. In
this article, a review of the lifecycle characteristics of the BSF has been carried out. The applications of BSF
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were highlighted and discussed based on their life cycle. This study can be a prime for determination of the
appropriate application of BSF follow their life stages for lowering the negative effects of their properties.
2. The life cycle of BSF and waste processing
BSF the black and slim flies whose length is 15 to 20 mm, are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical
areas, the western hemisphere, and nutrient-rich ecosystems (Müller et al., 2017). The life cycle of BSF has 5
main stages including eggs, larvae, prepupae, pupae, and adult flies (Smets et al., 2020). The composition of
the 5 major stages of BSF was shown in Figure 1. A mature BSF has a life span of around 8 – 9 d and in this
stage, the chitin content of BSF can reach up to 40 % in cuticles. The female flies deposit eggs (500 to 1,000
eggs) and they spend 4 d to 3 weeks incubation those eggs (Oliveira et al., 2015). Larva after hatching has 5-
19 mm in length and high lipid and protein content of 38.86 % and 40.96 %. The larvae store a large of lipid and
protein in their body for use in later stages due to the lack of chewing part of BSF adults. The BSF larvae spent
10 – 52 d developing into prepupae with six times molting. Through several stages of prepupae, larvae grow to
pupae within the formation of chitin and melanin. The adult emerges from the prepupae after approximately two
weeks, although it can take up to five months in poor climatic circumstances (Purkayastha and Sarkar, 2021).
Figure 1: The composition of BSF in different life cycle stages
In waste processing, sorting organic and inorganic trash must be done as the first step. Although BSF larvae
are typically quite tolerant of eating different organic wastes, it is still crucial to determine whether the facility's
organic waste is fit for larval consumption. According to (Müller et al., 2017), larvae and bacteria reduced 43 %
nitrogen and 67 % phosphorus in cow manure. Larvae ingest animal fences and convert 50 % of them into
valuable larval biomass. In 14 d, 24 kg of swine manure will be consumed by 45,000 larvae. Larvae have the
potential ability to convert chicken manure to 42 % protein and 35 % fat (Oliveira et al., 2015). Climate conditions
had a noticeable impact on BSF performance in waste processing. The ideal temperature was in the range of
24 °C to 30 °C. Over 30 °C, BSF larvae could find a cooler place for feeding, while the temperature lower 24 °C
make larvae eating less because their metabolism would slow down. The second component was a shaded
area because if exposed to light, larvae may travel to the deeper layer of food. The ideal situation that was most
conducive to digestion was a food-water content of 60 to 90 %. The key element was also the nutrient-dense
meal. For the larva, a food supply with a high protein and carbohydrate content would be ideal. Waste that has
been decomposed by bacteria or fungus was more likely to be readily absorbed by the larva. Performance of
the larva would be impacted by food particle size. Nutrients will be absorbed more readily if the substrate is in
the form of tiny particles, liquid, or slurry due to the inability to chew (Kastolani, 2019).
3. The valorization of BSF at different life cycle stages
Depending on life stages, BSF had different applications because its composition varies, which leads to the
various applications of BSF. The valorization of BSF based on the life cycle was shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. The valorization of BSF at different life stages
3.1 BSF frass as an organic fertilizer
The BSF larvae frass was considered an organic fertilizer with many applications. Compared to the production
of other fertilizers, the BSF larval frass exhibited lower environmental impacts in terms of water use, energy use,
global warming potential, and other categories (Smetana et al., 2019). The frass produced by BSF larvae was
also emphasized as one of the process' key outputs, and it may be used to substitute traditional Nitrogen
fertilizers, lessening the global warming potential associated with the usage of any conventional Nitrogen
fertilizer (Salomone et al., 2017). According to Agustiyani et al. (2021), when using BSF frass, statistics related
to plant height, number of leaves, wet weight of the upper plant (canopy), and root weight of Pakchoi plant were
higher compared to NPK treatment. However, depending on the feed substrates, the physicochemical
characteristics of the frass have significant changes (Table 1). Besides, post-treatment of BSF larvae frass
should be carried out to increase its stability. International Platform of Insects for Food and Feed published a
guideline document in 2021 that creates a prime for the development of the standard of EU-wide insect frass.
Based on this document, there are modifications in EU Regulation 142/2011, classified insect frass as "insect
excrements" and required that frass used as fertilizer be heat treated at 70 °C for 60 min (Lopes et al., 2022).
Although the number of studies on BSF frass is growing, more research is needed to improve the quality of frass
as an organic fertilizer and make it a better alternative to chemical fertilizers for plant development.
Table 1: The chemical composition of BSF frass in various feed substances
Waste
Chemical composition
Ref
C N P K
Chicken manure 23.6 2.3 1.1 1.8 (Tao Liu et al., 2019)
Brewery spent grain 35.2 2.1 1.2 0.2 (Beesigamukama et al., 2020)
Pig manure 26.8 2.4 2.1 1.0 (Tao Liu et al., 2019)
Household waste 35.8 2.2 0.5 0.7 (Kawasaki et al., 2020)
Fresh Okara 37.1 5.1 0.3 1.9 (Chiam et al., 2021)
Commercial Fertilizer 45.1 3.0 1.23 1.49 (Beesigamukama et al., 2020)
3.2 BSF as a distinct chitinous biomass
Chitin, an abundant and valuable natural material, has seen desired application in various fields including the
biomedical, pharmaceutical, agricultural, textile, and food industries (Smets et al., 2020). Because chitin and its
derivatives content in BSF cuticles make up to 40 % (Khayrova et al., 2020), the pupae and cocoons are a
promising source of chitin as shown in Figure 2. Chitin in black soldier fly is α-chitin like shrimp chitin compared
to β-chitin in squid pen (Soetemans et al., 2020). Because of the variation in the amount of chitin and
physicochemical characteristics in crustacean waste, chitin in insects is considered an alternative source in
industries (Smets et al., 2020). At earlier stages, including 5th instar larvae, the black soldier fly contains pure
chitin, afterward, melanin is formed and linked with chitin by a strong covalent bond and creates chitin-melanin
complexes, which is different from various chitin sources as crustaceans (Khayrova et al., 2020). Melanin which
is a heterogeneous polymer from the oxidation and polymerization of phenols and intermediate phenols is
divided into three main types: eumelanin, pheomelanin, and allomelanin (Basturk et al., 2021). The color of
eumelanin and allomelanin are black to brown compared to yellow to red pigment of pheomelanin (Pralea et al.,
2019). Eumelanin, which is a special type of insect melanin, is through deacetylated amino groups bound to
chitin (Sugumaran, 1998). Although having an intricate linkage with chitin, the melanin can still remove to obtain
141
the pure chitin by using hydrogen peroxide for degrading melanin (Basturk et al., 2021). Besides, the presence
of both chitin- and chitin-melanin complexes in BSF creates a novel polymer with various applications such as
radionuclide sorbents (Bakulin et al., 2011), and antioxidant material (Ushakova et al., 2019).
3.3 BSF as lipid and protein source for biodiesel production, animal feed, and personal care
Besides the benefits of organic waste processing, the BSL is also a huge lipid and protein source with various
applications. The levels of lipids between different developmental stages that always remained at high levels
varied considerably. The content of lipids was highest in the prepupae stages (47.65 %) and declined in the
pupae (39.85 %) stage because a metamorphosis process used lipids as an energy source (Xiu Liu et al., 2017).
BSF larvae and prepupae with high fatty acid content are valuable feedstock for biodiesel production (Hong et
al., 2018). In China, (Zheng et al., 2012) produced 43.8 g of biodiesel from 2000 BSF larvae that met the
standard EN 12214 of the European Committee for Standardization. (Li et al., 2011) was verified the fat from
BSF can be utilized as biodiesel. (Nguyen et al., 2018) was reported optimal condition of transesterification of
BSF larvae which gave biodiesel yield of 94.14 %. The properties of biodiesel met the EN 14214 standard. The
time expenditure for biodiesel production from BSF is lower than the one of palm oil or sugar cane while the
quality of BSF-derived biodiesel is higher (Siddiqui et al., 2022). These studies demonstrated the potential to
produce biodiesel from BSF larvae.
With the high fat and protein content, BSF larvae are good nutrition sources for animal feed. In comparison with
conventional animal feed, using BSF prepupae give a lower cost for investment. BSF larvae contain a large
amount of protein (37 to 63 % dry matter) and lipid (7 – 39 % dry matter). BSF larva could be seen as an
alternative to replace meat and soybean proteins (Kumar et al., 2022). According to (Onsongo et al., 2018), 25
% better return on investment and 16 % higher cost-benefit ratio when replacing the soybean fish meal of broiler
chicken with 42 and 55.5 % BSF prepupae in the starter and the finisher diet. (Kawasaki et al., 2019) also using
BSF larvae and prepupae fed by household wastes to replace soybean meal and oil in the diet of chicken. The
results demonstrate that when prepupae was used as a feed, the egg weight and eggshell thickness were
higher. There are many studies on using in the diet of many fish and swine species as African catfish (Fawole
et al., 2020), Atlantic salmon (Bruni et al., 2020), and finishing pigs (Crosbie et al., 2021). Although there are
several advantages to utilizing BSF as animal feed, its practicality in the animal feed business should be
evaluated in comparison to other feed sources owing to its composition changes when mixed with diverse
organic waste. As a result, a standardized technique for the mass production of insects is required.
In cosmetics, palm kernel and coconut oil for the saponification process can be replaced by fat extracted from
BSF (Verheyen et al., 2018). In addition, the extracted lipids are considered a new type of feedstock for
oleochemicals procedure, namely surface-active components (Smets et al., 2020). Because of the high
quantities of lauric acid (>60 %) in their fatty acid profile, they were determined to be less appropriate than locust
or cricket oils. To boost their marketability, all of the bug oils studied (BSFL, locust, and cricket) required odor,
color, phospholipid, and free fatty acid removal.
4. Conclusion and future direction
Food waste treatment using BSF has gained great attention due to its advantages such as sustainability and
the possible application of BSF-derived resources. In this study, the characteristic of BSF was summarised by
establishing the life cycle. The applications of the larvae, prepupae, pupae, and adult BSF were also proposed.
Although the formation of the chitin – melanin complex is a barrier to the isolation of chitin, pupae and BSF
cocoons are still an appropriate source for the synthesis of chitin. Further, the unique structure of the chitin –
melanin complex also created more advanced applications. BSF larvae and prepupae, a rich lipid and protein
biomass can be used as a source of biodiesel, animal feed, and even in the cosmetics industry. There are many
challenges in using BSF that need to be taken into consideration to estimate its true potential. The BSF breeding
at a larger scale should be carried out due to the significant difference between bench and industrial scale. The
implementation of BSF could require high feed substrate content, so the suitable feedstock or using a mixture
of different substrates should be evaluated to find the fit for each application. Simultaneously, the feasibility of
rearing techniques is also needed to conduct by life cycle assessment, techno-economy. Due to the differences
in BSF larvae composition in various feed substances, the utilization of BSF larvae for animal feed or its fat for
biodiesel production should be more studied in the future. The standard procedure for the isolation of lipids and
proteins should be set up to ensure the quality of products for improving their application. More research is
needed in the future to develop procedures for extracting high-value compounds such as lauric acid, chitin, and
nanochitin. The use of BSF frass as a fertilizer might be a viable alternative to traditional fertilizers. As a result,
greater research into frass treatment is recommended, as opposed to commercial composting, to improve the
quality of frass and its fertilizing benefits.
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Acknowledgments
This research is funded by Vietnam National University HoChiMinh city (VNU-HCM) under grant number C2021-
20-28. We acknowledge the support of time and facilities from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
(HCMUT), VNU-HCM for this study.
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Valorization of Black Soldier Flies at Different Life Cycle Stages