CET vol 99


 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                                                                                                                                 DOI: 10.3303/CET2399094 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Paper Received: 30 November 2022; Revised: 24 March 2023; Accepted: 30 April 2023 
Please cite this article as: Matos Maldonado H., Benites-Alfaro E., 2023, Controlled Hydrodynamic Cavitation for Reduction of Toxic Metals in 
Metallurgical Residual Effluents, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 99, 559-564  DOI:10.3303/CET2399094 
  

 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS  
 

VOL.  99, 2023 

A publication of 

 

The Italian Association 
of Chemical Engineering 
Online at www.cetjournal.it 

Guest Editors: Sauro Pierucci, Flavio Manenti 

Copyright © 2023, AIDIC Servizi S.r.l. 

ISBN 978-88-95608-98-3; ISSN 2283-9216 

Controlled Hydrodynamic Cavitation for Reduction of Toxic 

Metals in Metallurgical Residual Effluents 

Harold Matos Maldonadoa,*, Elmer Benites-Alfarob 

aUniversidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, UPG FIGMMG, Av. Venezuela S/N, San Miguel, Lima Perú Perú  
b Universidad César Vallejo, Fac. de Ingeniería, Escuela de Ing. Ambiental, Av. Alfredo Mendiola 6232 Lima 15314, Perú  

 harold.matos@unmsm.edu.pe 

Wastewater must be treated before being disposed in receiving bodies, in order not to cause negative impacts 

on the environment. The goal of this research was to determine the effectiveness of treating metallurgical 

industry wastewater with controlled hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) in terms of removing metals, total suspended 

solids, and sulphates. A sample of wastewater was collected from a polymetallic (lead, coper and zinc) mineral 

processing facility in Peru and treated using a cavitation system. The system controlled flow, time, and pressure 

for 1.5 hours at 5 and 9 bars of pressure and temperatures between 22 and 64.4 ºC. The results showed that 

hydrodynamic cavitation effectively reduced the levels of metals, total suspended solids, and sulphates, with 

the best results achieved between 60 and 90 minutes of treatment at 9 bars of pressure. With an average 

removal of 73.6 %. for metals, 52.1 % for total solids in suspension, 3.9 % for sulphates and pH reduction of 

14.7 %. This indicates that hydrodynamic cavitation is one of the sustainable technologies for wastewater 

treatment and low cost of operation and maintenance. 

1. Introduction 

The development of wastewater treatment techniques resulting from the discharge of polymetallic sulfide 

minerals (copper, zinc, silver, lead and derivatives) in discharge plants, is one of the most critical operational, 

environmental and economic processes for a mining company (Carrillo and Guillen, 2018). Its actions are 

associated with the goal of generating the smallest ecological footprint (Lamana and Aja, 2010), significantly 

improving the water-energy nexus (Golam and Bikash, 2016), the reuse of industrial effluent, the reuse and 

recycling of water, which are necessary processes due to reasons related to water scarcity, proper management 

of effluent discharge to tailings, and water supply management (Araya et al., 2021).  

In Peru, there is no precedent for controlled Hydrodynamic Cavitation (HC) research for wastewater from 

metallurgical effluent, so this exploration is of special interest to evaluate the behaviour and performance of HC 

in the removal or reduction of metal contaminants from polymetallic mineral treatments (concentrates of lead, 

copper, zinc and others); the literature reports cavitation techniques in the forms of hydrodynamic, acoustic or 

ultrasonic, optical and particle (Gutiérrez-Mosquera et al., 2019). Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) has become a 

promising new non-traditional technology for the (Wan et al., 2021), treatment of different products, by-products, 

agro-industrial residues and elimination of heavy metals from wastewater (Yuequn et al., 2016), (Sun et al, 

2021), (Wan et al., 2021),  (Baowei et al., 2021), (Pugazhenthiran et al., 2016), based on the generation of a 

large number of bubbles in the fluid that favors chemical and/or physical modifications in the system, have an 

adequate scaling potential and have a high degree of associated technological development (Agarkoti, 

Thanekar and Gogate, 2021), validated by comparison experiments of the effectiveness of acoustic and 

hydrodynamic cavitation in combined treatment schemes for degradation of dye wastewater carried out by 

Gogate and Bhosale (2013); for their part, Carpenter et al., (2017), claims greater energy efficiency for the 

treatment of various bio refractory and metal contaminants present in aqueous effluents. Pandit et al., (2021), 

also indicates that hydrodynamic cavitation events create extreme conditions in a localized "bubble collapse" 

region, causing the water to break down and Hydroxyl (OH) and Hydrogen (H) free radicals to emerge (Dular et 

al., 2016), highly reactive by dissociation of the molecule, thus breaking down solid substances (heavy metals) 

through shock waves and high-speed microscopic jets that are useful for many chemical and physical 

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transformation processes; that is, the HC process involves the formation, growth, implosion and subsequent 

collapse of cavities, which takes place in a very short period of time and releases large amounts of energy 

(Mancuso et al., 2020). The performance of HC is influenced by parameters such as: the physico-chemical 

properties (Dindar.2016) referred to pH, initial metal concentration, temperature, etc., pump inlet pressure (Patil 

and Gogate, 2012), flow rate and time (Benito and Arrojo, 2006), to the design of the reactor to obtain high 

energy efficiency, proper operation and facilities for industrial scaling (Tao et al., 2016).The statistics of the 

National Water Authority (ANA) in Peru, on authorized industrial wastewater discharge for 2020 reached a total 

of 624,001,728.00 m3 (Carhuavilca and Sanchez, 2021), of which 24% (150,618,573.00 m3) corresponded to 

the mining sector, not specifying how much of these waters come from old mining drainage, mine drainage, 

flotation plants, cyanidation, smelting-refining, etc. The described volume has an upward trend, as for the year 

2022, according to the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM), 63 projects were underway in 17 regions of the 

country and involved an investment of US$586 million (Palacios et al., 2022). Given this perspective, the 

objective of the research was to use HC to reduce the metal concentrations of polymetallic mining wastewater 

and the suspended solids that cause mud in the flotation processes, seeking to convert industrial waste into 

usable resources as they have recoverable elements, such as clean water, energy, and materials (Castañeda 

and Rodriguez, 2017). As a result, it would generate environmentally sustainable mining to help the industry 

comply with the environmental regulations established in D.S. 010-MINAM, Maximum Permissible Limits (LMP) 

for the discharge of liquid effluents from Mining-Metallurgical Activities), which is rigorously audited by the 

Environmental Assessment and Regulation Organism - OEFA (Cerna, 2021)  

2. Methodology 

2.1 Wastewater sample 

For the research, 271 L of wastewater were used obtained with simple random sampling with a homogeneous 

population, where each sample has an equal probability of being chosen (Hernández and Escobar, 2019) from 

the discharge pipes of the concentrating plant to the tailing’s deposits with a composition of 35 % solids and 65 

% water. Information was obtained that the average head grades with which the mine mineral entered the 

processing plant was 7.4 oz Ag, 0.97 % Pb, 0.8 % Zn, and their metallurgical balances showed recoveries of 

92.5 % for Ag, 85.7 % for Pb and 73.6 % for Zn; the residual effluent after being processed by differential flotation 

showed grades in the tailings of 0.308 oz of Ag, 0.1 % Pb and 0.09 % Zn, but the presence levels of other 

metals, sulfates or oxides accompanying polymetallic minerals are unknown. 

2.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation System 

For the wastewater treatment tests, a prototype hydrodynamic cavitation system was used with main 

components: a 10 m3/h and 10 bar pressure multi-stage centrifugal pump, a rectangular stainless steel Venturi 

cavitation device, a multiple-hole stainless steel orifice plate cavitation device, an ozone generator, a digital pH 

meter, a cooling system, a 25-liter stainless steel tank whose function is to dampen the turbulence of the 

process, a 25-liter enchased stainless steel tank for cooling and temperature, flow rate and pressure control 

devices. 

2.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 

Figure 1 shows the hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) process, which involves the formation, expansion and collapse 

and implosion of bubbles that occurs in periods of milliseconds or microseconds, releasing a large amount of 

energy in a minimum period of time (Schmid and Friedl, 2016). The high temperatures and pressures that are 

produced as a result of the hot spot, combined with the pressure jets of liquid that arise as a mechanical 

consequence of the implosion (Gutiérrez et al., 2019), directly destroy some contaminants (Dindar, 2016). In 

the figure, it can be appreciated from the formation of bubbles as the pressure decreases, the rupture of the 

bubble at the weakest point, the entry of water into the space occupied by the vapor and the subsequent micro-

jet that breaks the remains of the bubble. 

 
source: Graphic Adapted Cavitation - Easily explained, IET Institute for Energy Technology 

Figure 1: Hydrodynamic cavitation, bubble formation process and implosion. 

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2.4 Treatment parameters 

Flow: The wastewater was driven by an electric pump at a constant flow rate of 80 lt/min towards the cavitation 

chamber. 

Pressure: The minimum outlet pressure was between 0.4 and 0.5 bar (which corresponds to the pressure drop 

below the vapor pressure) which allows the presence of cavities, as it affects the amount of cavity nuclei formed 

and the maximum size reached by each one. This parameter depends on the fluid velocity in the throttling 

device, which in turn is a function of the throat design and the liquid, volumetric flow (Arrojo and Benito, 2008). 

Time: The monitored time periods were at 0, 30, 60, and 90 minutes. Low pressures are achieved in the throat 

of the cavitating device (figure 2). By the principle of Bernoulli's equation, the high velocity in the throat (>45 

m/s) allows a pressure drop below the vapor pressure of water to be obtained, as can be seen in figure graph 

No. 3. 

 
Source: Capocelli et al., (2014)  

Figure 2: diagram, cavitation system           

 

 
Source: Moholkar et al., (1999). 

Figure 3: Mechanism of pressure recovery across an orifice 

2.5 Analysis of treated samples 

Wastewater from polymetallic mining was introduced into the HC system, and samples of this wastewater were 

collected during the HC process at various times. These samples were analyzed for total suspended solids 

(TSS), pH, SO4, and total metals, according to laboratory testing methods (SGS - Inacal DA, 2021). 

3. Results and Discussion 

3.1 Metal Removal Efficiencies 

Table 1 shows the initial values of the metals before treatment with HC in columns E1 and E2 and the 

concentrations of the metals throughout the treatment process in columns S2-30, S2-60, and S2-90 for the 

treatment of metallurgical effluent subjected to HC for 30, 60, and 90 minutes respectively. Pyrite (FeS2) is the 

most impactful mineral in generating sulphide drainage due to its high acidification potential when it reacts with 

water under oxidizing conditions (Grieco et al, 2021). 

Table 1: Metal concentration (ppm) at 9 and 5 bar 

 

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The removal of metal concentration, at pressures of 5 bar, reached greater efficiency at 90 minutes of HC, 

highlighting Cr (51 %), Ag (49.5 %), Cd (39.7 %) and Co (38.6 %), Zn (38.2 %) and in a lower percentage Si, 

Mn, Hg, As, Cu, Ni, Fe, Al. Lead, which remains unchanged (20 ppm) at 30, 60, and 90 minutes. 

When subjected to 9 bar of pressure, metallurgical effluents had a removal efficiency in Cu (90.1 %), Zn (84.3 

%), Ag (83.9 %) and Mn (83.9 %), Cd (85 %), As (81.1 %), Co (81.5 %) Fe (80.3 %), Ni (74 %), Pb (72.3 %), Si 

41.7 %, among the most important. 

The results evidence the effects that hydrodynamic cavitation causes on the degradation of various metal 

substances in metallurgical wastewater, it is a product of this non-traditional technology that causes the water 

to break down and in turn generates free radicals of hydroxyl and hydrogen that act on solid sulfide molecules 

(heavy metals) causing a reduction in the metal concentration through shock waves and high-speed microscopic 

jets that oxidize the unwanted compounds (Carpenter et al., 2017), in general, HC combined with oxidation 

processes seem to be an effective treatment strategy that can be successfully implemented at an industrial 

scale. The energy released during the cavitation phenomenon has several applications and, in particular, can 

be used to activate persulfate (PS) and peroximonosulfate (PMS) (Fedorov et al., 2021), HC was also applied 

for the extraction of chromium ions (Bolne et al., 2021), cobalt from wastewater (Parbat et al., 2020), and HC 

has even been used for the synthesis of nanoparticles with successful results. 

3.2 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)  

The residual effluents collected in the field were previously filtered through Tyler No. 325 mesh (0.043 mm) to 

retain and separate the particulate matter. After the HC treatment, the removal efficiencies of the TSS were 16 

% at 5 bar (15810 +/- 3544 mg/l to 13280 +/- 3054 mg/l) and 52.1 % at 9 bars (15640 +/- 3597 mg/l to 7490 +/- 

1723 mg/l). The finely dispersed air bubbles with hydroxide-air aggregate formation allow for effective 

elimination of hydroxide ions in the sediment (Viduetskiy et al., 2017).  

3.3 Oxygen Potential (pH) 

The input analysis of the metallurgical effluent before treatment indicated a degree of alkalinity with a pH of 

9.96. Then, after being subjected to HC processes for 60 minutes, the alkalinity was reduced to 8.5, that is, it 

improved towards neutrality with a reduction of 14.7 %. This is probably due to there being no significant 

changes in dissolved oxygen, sulphates, flow, chlorides, alkalinity, and oils (García et al., 2019). This result is 

similar to research on the application of hydrodynamic cavitation in reducing the physical, chemical, and 

microbiological parameters of effluent from the textile and tanning industries, where a pH variation of 17.96 % 

and 18.6 % was achieved, respectively (Nieto, 2019). In this way, it is demonstrated that HC has effects on 

reducing alkalinity not only in metallurgical effluents but also in various industrial effluents. Furthermore, HC in 

a combined mode with other oxidation processes gave good results in reducing chemical oxygen demand (COD) 

(Thanekar and Gogate, 2019). 

3.4 Sulfates (SO4) 

The presence of sulphates was determined by the presence of inorganic anions by ion chromatography in the 

samples after the HC treatment (Trujillo et al., 2009). Sulphates are directly related to the acidity generated by 

sulphide minerals (H2SO4) and are highly soluble because they have a high concentration of carbonates, 

bicarbonates and hydroxides (OH) (Foundation Chile, 2015). In Peru, in environmental regulations, the sulphate 

ion is not considered LMP for the discharge of effluents to receiving bodies. 

At 5 bar of pressure the concentration of sulphates from 579.53 +/- 69.57 mg/l was reduced to 555.55 +/- 66.67 

mg/l (3.9 % removal efficiency), while at 9 bar the concentration of sulphates was reduced from 557.08 +/- 66.85 

to 530.51 +/- 64.38 mg/l with a removal efficiency of 1.7 %. 

3.5 Advantages and importance of the HC method 

Hydrodynamic cavitation processes do not require any kind of catalyst, as it is the water vapor itself that 

generates radicals, making it a non-complex technology with lower operating costs. The devastating impacts 

generated by metallurgical residual effluents on the environment or ecosystem could be mitigated by HC 

treatments in an efficient, effective, and innovative way, as one of its main benefits is a reduction in the 

concentration of heavy metals at lower operating costs than conventional technologies. Additionally, it does not 

use additional chemicals, does not require the help of ozone generators, and could have a positive impact on 

the reuse of mining wastewater, converting it from waste to resources in a circular economy context. Mining-

metallurgical activities could be sustained over time as HC is a versatile method. For example, it can improve 

the physic-chemical parameters of effluents in the leather tanning industry, where, taking into account the 

cavitating element (orifice plate), there was a maximum removal of 32.6 % of the initial sulfur concentration 

without applying any chemical reagents (Agudelo Valencia et al., 2019I. 

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4. Conclusion 

The reduction in metal concentration in metallurgical residual effluents is efficient by up to 90% for copper metal, 

using the controlled hydrodynamic cavitation process at 9 bar. Also, the physic-chemical properties of the 

metallurgical residual effluents vary in their metal concentration after the controlled HC process (pH, SST, 

conductivity), improving the environmental quality of the effluent. For example, reducing SST improves 

sedimentation and therefore takes up less volume in tailings deposits, extending their life and reducing their 

operating and maintenance costs. The HC was not efficient in removing SO4, only achieving removal of between 

1.7 % and 3.9 % at 9 and 5 bar, respectively. All results indicate that the use of HC has advantageous prospects 

in the treatment of mining wastewater, with a positive impact on the receiving bodies where this type of water is 

dumped, within an economically and environmentally sustainable process. 

Acknowledgments 

The authors thank Eng. Chemist Carlos Gamarra and the Company Promec Ingenieros S.A.C for providing the 

infrastructure and hydrodynamic cavitation equipment.   

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