DOI: 10.3303/CET24111035 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Paper Received: 19 February 2024; Revised: 8 May 2024; Accepted: 21 July 2024 
Please cite this article as: Rusconi C., Madonna M., Ricciardi L., Tonti A., Vicini C., 2024, Education and Training to Enhance Risk Perception 
and Safety Culture in High-risk Plant, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 111, 205-210  DOI:10.3303/CET24111035 
  

 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS  
 

VOL. 111, 2024 

A publication of 

 

The Italian Association 
of Chemical Engineering 
Online at www.cetjournal.it 

Guest Editors: Valerio Cozzani, Bruno Fabiano, Genserik Reniers 

Copyright © 2024, AIDIC Servizi S.r.l. 

ISBN 979-12-81206-11-3; ISSN 2283-9216 

Education and Training to Enhance Risk Perception and 

Safety Culture in High-Risk Plant  

Carlo Rusconia, Marianna Madonna*b, Loriana Ricciardic, Andrea Tontic, Carlo 

Vicinia 

a Sogin S.p.A., Via Marsala, 51/c, 00185 Roma, Italy. 
b INAIL, Unità Operativa Territoriale di Certificazione Verifica e Ricerca di Napoli, Via Nuova Poggioreale, 80143 Napoli, Italy. 
c INAIL, Dipartimento Innovazione Tecnologica e Sicurezza degli Impianti, Prodotti e Insediamenti Antropici, Via Roberto 

Ferruzzi, 38, 00143 Roma, Italy. 

m.madonna@inail.it 

The growing technological complexity, due to the advent of Industry 4.0, allows high-risk plants to be designed 

with safer operation thanks to intelligent control and supervision systems. However, to seize the opportunities 

that intelligent technologies offer in terms of risk reduction, efforts must be directed towards increasingly human-

centered design and an evolution of organizational models. The environment surrounding the worker is 

increasingly interconnected and integrated with intelligent systems, so that risk scenarios are changing and 

consequently the skills of the user who will interact with them. In this innovative and interconnected context, in 

fact, the worker’s skills profile is also changing in order to allow him/her to act in dynamic and unexpected 

situations safely also thanks to advanced technologies. This new complexity of intelligent environments and 

systems requires new educational and training interventions. These interventions should be aimed at enhancing 

worker’s ability to perceive and identify elements of context, which could represent risk sources not only for their 

intrinsic hazards (e.g. hot surfaces, cutting edges, chemicals etc.) but also for their capacity to modify risk 

scenarios related, for example, to potential impact of their mechanisms on human operators or other 

technological equipment. 

A sound approach for providing workers the necessary skills to face this challenge is based on innovative 

education and training methodologies where operators live an immersive experience of the interconnected 

context through simulation tools and realistic interaction with context elements and agents in order to test and 

become aware of hidden dynamics related to socio-technological systems evolution. 

1. Introduction 

After Three Mile Island accident in 1979, several methodologies for Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) have 

been developed in order to have a tool for comparing the human error probability with failure probability of 

technological systems and integrate these results within the conceptual frame of Safety Analysis methodologies 

such as Fault Tree and Event Tree (Foster et al., 2006) (Kolaczkowski, 2005).  

Most of the HRA methodologies represent the context where workers act in terms of parameters that modify 

failure probability distributions (Chandler et al., 2006). Each one of these parameters refers to context 

dimensions as Human-Machine Interface (HMI), available time, crew quality and so on. Measure of these items 

is often very difficult, because they have an intrinsically complex and qualitative nature. 

Bhopal chemical disaster in 1984 and Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986 showed unequivocally the leading 

role of organizational culture regarding safety and security issues in high-risk industrial plants. Indeed, no 

standard safety and security analysis, as much as accurate and exhaustive it could be, would have been able 

to foresee the scenario of Bhopal, where somebody, in a chemical plant in decommissioning, introduced half 

ton of water in MIC (Methyl Isocyanate) tank while safety systems were out of service or the scenario of 

Chernobyl where operators were demanded to test a working nuclear power plant violating several safety 

procedures. In both cases, only a deep assessment of hidden dynamics among Individuals, Technology and 

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Organization (ITO) could have given some hints about the real risks related to managing those industrial plants. 

For this reason, interactive methodologies for education and training developed in the nuclear field to enhance 

risk perception and safety culture fit very well also in high-risk industrial plants management. 

In this contribution the authors want to highlight how the educational and training process, taking place on a 

complex socio-technical system, is difficult to design as the interrelationships between the factors that influence 

it are complex and often hidden. The authors propose a framework of a virtuous educational and training process 

that highlights the main exogenous and endogenous factors that influence it. According to the state of the art, it 

is difficult to act on the individual’s endogenous factors to calibrate the training process, the framework therefore 

allows it to be improved, through effective methods of training evaluation, with a feedback mechanism on 

exogenous factors. Moreover, the authors want to show how the methodology proposed by Rusconi (Rusconi, 

2016) is well suited to the proposed framework, as it allows, through the simulation and the high commitment of 

participants, to increase the culture of safety within the organization and to increase their perception of risk. 

1.1 Educational and training needs in high-risk plants 

High-risk plants are those that typically use equipment, machinery or facilities that pose a significant risk to 

health, safety or the environment if not managed properly. These plants are considered high risk because they 

use dangerous processes or substances or equipment that can cause accidents, injuries or significant 

environmental damage if they are not managed and maintained in strict compliance with safety protocols. 

Examples of high-risk facilities include oil refineries, nuclear power plants, or other chemical and storage 

facilities that handle toxic, flammable, or explosive substances or use machinery that is dangerous due to 

operating conditions. The management of these systems requires rigorous safety procedures, regular checks 

and inspections and careful education and training of operators, as well as requiring the constant maintenance 

of rigorous adherence to safety regulations. Knowledge of work and safety procedures are essential to minimize 

the likelihood of accidents and to protect workers, the community and the environment from potential harm. To 

this end, education and training on workplace safety become fundamental elements to contribute to the creation 

of a safer working environment. 

Education is a teaching process through which the knowledge and skills necessary to carry out work safely are 

transferred to workers, while training is an activity aimed at teaching workers the correct use of equipment, 

machines, systems, devices and execution of work procedures. The training therefore has a more operational 

focus and can be carried out in different ways, real and virtual, in the classroom and directly on the plant. 

Therefore, training allows the worker to put into practice the knowledge and skills acquired through specific and 

specialized education process.  While training in the correct use of prevention and protection devices and 

emergency equipment is aimed at protecting the worker from risks, in the case of machinery and equipment, for 

which specific competencies and skills are required, training is provided not only to ensure the operator’s safety 

but also for the correct execution of the work activity. Another type of training is that aimed at the correct and 

safe execution of work and emergency procedures. 

The introduction of intelligent systems in the management of high-risk plants requires new educational and 

training interventions. Education and training should make workers aware of the risks associated with their 

specific tasks and should aim to improve the worker’s ability to perceive and identify sources of risk not only for 

their intrinsic hazards (e.g., hot surfaces, sharp objects, chemicals, etc.), but also for their capacity to modify 

risk scenarios related, for example, to the potential impact of their mechanisms on human operators or other 

technological equipment. 

In general, training and education are more effective when the topics covered and the exercises performed are 

in line with the tasks really performed by the worker and with the potential accident scenarios related to his role. 

Therefore, for each training activity to be provided, it is necessary to appropriately calibrate the methods and 

timing of the courses. Furthermore, to promote effective training, taking into account the complexity of the 

working environment and tasks, communication channels must be clear and in a language accessible to all 

workers regardless of their nationality and cultural level. 

A valid approach to provide workers with the skills necessary to face this challenge, is based on innovative 

teaching and training methodologies in which operators experience an immersive understanding of the working 

context through simulation tools and realistic interaction with elements and agents of the environment. In this 

way, workers could test and become aware of the hidden dynamics that characterize the complexity of socio-

technical systems. 

Innovative education and training methodologies should aim to increase risk perception also through the aid of 

virtual and augmented reality in the identification of hazards and the simulation of accident scenarios. Studies 

in the literature, in fact, highlight that the perception of risk is higher in individuals who have experienced 

accidents (Xie et al., 2021). This approach allows employees to practice decision-making under pressure and 

strengthens risk perception skills in a controlled environment. However, these new types of training should be 

complemented by other training activities. Indeed, it is necessary to ensure that employees receive 

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comprehensive training on regulations, standards and best practices related to safety and risk management. 

Compliance training helps employees understand their legal obligations and reinforces the importance of 

adhering to safety guidelines. Employees need to be educated on the importance of conducting thorough root 

cause analyses (RCA) following safety incidents or near-misses. Training on root cause analysis techniques 

helps employees understand the factors contributing to incidents or errors, enabling the implementation of 

effective preventive measures. 

To increase the safety culture, leadership from executives and managers is important. The management, 

through virtuous behavior that respects workplace safety procedures and requirements, demonstrates that 

safety is a priority at all levels of the organization. This context includes the contribution of workers who must 

be encouraged to share the critical issues identified and to propose strategies and solutions to improve safety. 

In addition to training on work procedures, in high-risk installations, operational training on emergency 

management is required, which includes simulations of evacuation systems and first aid procedures. These 

simulations are aimed at verifying the correct response to emergencies, also with reference to the effectiveness 

of communication strategies during them. By incorporating these educational and training initiatives into their 

operations, organizations can improve risk perceptions and cultivate a strong safety culture, ultimately reducing 

the likelihood of accidents and promoting a safer work environment for all stakeholders. 

2. Framework of a virtuous educational and training process 

Educational and training interventions are influenced by the socio-technical system in which they are developed 

and implemented. According to the systemic approach to safety of the International Atomic Energy Agency 

(IAEA), a sociotechnical system is characterized by the complexity and non-linearity of interactions between all 

individual, technical and organizational (ITO) factors (Smetnik & Murlis, 2016). 

In the perspective of the IAEA’s vision, at the basis of this complex socio-technical system there is the safety 

culture, which is not one variable among others but rather “something inherent in all aspects of the organisation”. 

A strong safety culture, which refers to the shared values, beliefs, and norms that guide behavior within an 

organization can enhance employee motivation, engagement and commitment, leading to improved 

performance (Fitriana et al., 2021). 

In this work, the authors have shown the factors that affect the education and training process in the framework 

in figure 1. These factors have been divided into exogenous and endogenous to the individual. 

Endogenous factors are those closely linked to the individual cognitive process and to his/her risk perception, 

which in turn is a function of previous experience linked to accidents, his/her pre-training skill levels, culture and 

value system. Exogenous factors concern technology, organization, work environment, processes and 

procedures, communication and training times, methods and tools used. These factors are the result of 

organizational and physical characteristics of the work environment (Di Nardo et al., 2015). 

As shown in figure 1, the exogenous factors could influence the success of the training process, for example 

the management’s commitment to motivational and communication activities with workers could influence the 

final results on the goals and objectives of the training. The influence of the individual characteristics of the 

trainees on the effectiveness of the training process is difficult to determine, but according to the authors’ point 

of view it is possible to intervene on exogenous factors. In fact, a strong safety culture underlying the 

organisation could influence how trainees view the training program in terms of improving their job performance. 

It is important to provide employees with regular training and development opportunities that focus on enhancing 

their skills and knowledge related to safety (Orikpete & Ewim, 2024). 

The literature offers many training methods, but the main reviews have highlighted that the level of engagement 

of training has an impact on health and safety outcomes. These methods range from information-based 

techniques to computer based and to performance-based techniques (Burke et al., 2006). 

Lectures, videos, pamphlets and other types of written materials, are the least engaging methods of safety and 

health training, are commonly used to present health- and safety-related information. Methods of moderately 

engaging training incorporate knowledge of results, for example feedback interventions in which performance 

information is provided in small groups, allowing trainees to correct their mistakes. Feedback is also a 

characteristic of computer-based interactive instruction. The most engaging methods of safety and health 

training include hands-on demonstrations combined with behavioral simulations, which require the trainee’s 

active participation. In the case of behavioral simulations and hands-on training, interactions between trainees 

and trainers often go beyond one-way feedback to engage trainees in a dialogue regarding knowledge gained 

or actions taken. This dialogue, both in a virtual and real context, is important because it aims to improve the 

quality of reflection (thinking) with respect to the actions undertaken. 

 

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Figure 1: Virtuous educational and training process 

 

Today worker training program have evolved to meet also the challenges of Industry 4.0 enabling technologies, 

such as virtual or augmented reality that could be considered one of the most engaging method. 

Overall, literature reviews showed that the more engagement in the training, the more training impacts on 

reduction of negative safety and health outcomes. 

The recent development of virtual environment techniques represents an opportunity to obtain highly engaging 

training. These technologies can be used for safety training by offering significant benefits due to immersive but 

risk-free learning. (Rey-Becerra et al., 2021). Conventionally, training occurs in physical facilities such as 

classrooms and laboratory spaces through presentations and hands-on exercises. To date, Virtual Reality (VR) 

technology allows to provide effective and engaging training through virtual environments. Virtual environments 

are used to train users to perform real-world tasks and procedures more safely with minimal exposure to 

dangerous situations. (Xie et al., 2021). Compared to navigating fully immersed VR scenes, augmented reality 

(AR) overlays real-world objects with a layer of virtual objects or information. This gives users more control over 

the physical world when using AR devices (e.g., AR-supported headsets and smartphones). An example of AR 

are labels and indicators added to machinery during training and maintenance that guide the operator in carrying 

out the task in a guided and safe manner. 

2.1 Safety training assessment 

Both endogenous and exogenous factors are linked together by complex relationships, often hidden and 

therefore difficult to determine. Due to the complexity of the interplays among all factors that could influence the 

outcomes of a proper educational and training program, it is difficult to define a priori on what factors intervene 

to improve it. Therefore, the effectiveness of the training process is better to be evaluated a posteriori in the 

training evaluation. Recently, an increasing attention is paid on training evaluation, and it is due both to 

mandatory laws and to the fact that many companies have started to perceive it as an investment in terms of 

less injuries and less productivity loss (Vignoli et al., 2014).  

Training is considered effective when trainees achieve the training goals (Burke et al., 2006) and these could 

be evaluated through outcome criteria. There are many different tools to assess the effectiveness of training 

interventions. In order to evaluate whether there are changes in work performance after a training experience, 

many methods collect data on three different times: before the training start (pre), after the training (post), after 

some months (follow-up) (Blume et al., 2010). 

One of the most widespread tools for learning assessment is the questionnaire which helps to understand the 

knowledge acquired by individual workers but does not provide feedback on the worker’s level of commitment 

and the training in general (for example, whether it worked or not). The questionnaire can be proposed at 

different times (pre, post and follow up) to investigate different variables. 

Another tool to better understand how training activities are effective is the interview. The workers interviewed 

on satisfaction and usefulness of the training perceived by the participant, knowledge acquisition and its impact 

on individual and organizational outcomes and safety climate. 

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Focus group discussion is a method that involves a focus on specific issues, with a predetermined group of 

people, participating in an interactive discussion. A trained moderator who facilitates the discussion to gain 

depth from participants’ responses leads the group. Questions asked by moderators are carefully designed to 

stimulate discussion. A permissive, non-threatening group environment is essential so that participants feel 

comfortable to share their views without the fear of judgment from others (Hennink, 2013). 

From data collected from classroom observations and learning assessments, it is possible to evaluate the 

effectiveness of the educational process and to detect critical issues emerged, so through a feedback 

mechanism on exogenous factors, we could calibrate the training interventions. The feedback mechanism also 

allows us to intervene on those endogenous factors that strengthen the safety culture and which indirectly affect 

the individual’s endogenous factors. 

3. Proposed methodology for improving risk perception and safety culture 

The authors want to show how the training methodology proposed by Rusconi (Rusconi, 2016), within the IAEA, 

combines well with the virtuous training process framework as shown in the figure 1. 

The proposed methodology has changed the initial “classic” concept, where most of the time teachers explain 

the main topics and verify learning through questions and exercises, into a dynamic one based on an interactive 

approach. Teachers become coordinators of brainstorming sessions during which students, divided into work 

groups, participate in simulations aimed at making players aware of their roles in improving the organization’s 

safety culture. Main features of this methodology are represented by a continuous counterpoint between 

exposure of contents, focused on fundamental concepts about complex systems and theory of organization 

(e.g. opened and closed systems, non-linear dynamics and feed-back, network structures and information flow, 

cognitive models) and simulations of Safety Culture Evaluation regarding organizations which have been 

involved in transportation and industrial accidents (Kletz, 2007). 

Thus, players are ready to deal with the case-study by simulating an investigation on the immediate and root 

causes of one of the most severe industrial accidents: Bhopal. 

After a presentation by the coordinators on the sequence of events and on the socio-technological context in 

which the accident occurred, students are asked to identify root causes and their inter-dependencies. 

Participants are then divided into heterogeneous groups to highlight the potentiality of brainstorming approaches 

and critical thinking and to show how important it is to correctly compare and integrate different points of view 

and backgrounds. After the analysis session, the coordinator starts a collective brainstorming session, during 

which each group shares results and observations with the other groups to reach a joint conclusion. At the end 

of the brainstorming session, class outcomes are compared with the outcomes of experts that have carried out 

in-depth analyses of the Bhopal accident (Kalelkar & Little, 1988), (Sriramachari, 2004). 

Of course, this simulation does not claim to be a thorough assessment, but it is worth noting that the class 

generally identifies and classifies several causes and connections recognized by international experts. 

This simulation highlights the potentiality of brainstorming approaches and critical thinking and shows how 

important it is to correctly compare and integrate different points of view and backgrounds. As a result of these 

activities, participants learn to recognize the hidden causes that determine severe accidents, for example, lack 

of clear leadership and accountability, communication problems etc. During simulations and role-plays, 

participants learn that accident dynamics are not comparable if you look at them merely from a technical point 

of view. Nuclear facilities are very different from chemical plants and industrial factories are very different from 

aerospace or railway systems, but things change if you apply Root Cause Analysis and consider the Safety 

Culture of the organizations involved. They learn to search for unexpected analogies and common causes 

related to human and organizational factors. For this reason, the course is focused on developing skills to look 

in depth at events that highlight the need to have a deeper and wider vision of safety, grasping the explicit and 

implicit connections among technological, social, human and organizational features. In a nutshell: a systemic 

vision. At the end of the course, students take part in a collective discussion in which each of them expresses 

his/her feelings and opinions about simulations, role-playing and interactions with the other participants and the 

actions he/she is thinking of taking to contribute to the improvement of his/her organization’s safety culture. 

4. Conclusions 

Safety and health training remains a fundamental element in workplace to reduce occupational risk of injury and 

disease. This paper showed the factors underlying safety education, which is characterized by organizational 

and technological factors and by characteristics of human factors and safety culture that generates an 

environment suitable for learning. An effective training intervention aims to generate behaviors that reduce level 

of risks and create a safety culture to improve risk-oriented thinking (Aleksandrova et al., 2016). A framework of 

a virtuous educational process based on the training assessment results is presented. Thanks to a feedback 

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system on exogenous factors, the training interventions could be calibrated in a cyclical process to achieve 

learning continuous improvement. The methodology proposed by Rusconi fits well into the framework illustrated 

above. Participants are encouraged to look for the root causes that lead to an incident event promoting trainees’ 

engagement, motivation and commitment. This methodology, developed in the nuclear field, is well suited to be 

implemented even in high-risk plants where the safety culture has to be inherent in all aspects of the health and 

safety management system. 

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