


































Children and Teenagers 
ISSN 2576-3709 (Print) ISSN 2576-3717 (Online) 

Vol. 4, No. 1, 2021 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ct 

43 

 

Original Paper 

Improved Intersubjectivity—Does it also Helps to Facilitate the 

Other Learning Acquisitions Skills in Vulnerable Groups of 

Adolescents? 

Lillian Lundstrøm
1
* & Lisbet Øygard

1
 (deceased) 

1 
Dept. of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Christies gate 13, 5015 Bergen, Norway 

* 
Lillian Lundstrøm, Dept. of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Christies gate 13, 5015 

Bergen, Norway 

 

Received: December 30, 2020    Accepted: January 14, 2021    Online Published: February 1, 2021 

doi:10.22158/ct.v4n1p43                            URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ct.v4n1p43 

 

Abstract 

The Alternative School Day (ASD) is a project for adolescents with difficulties in several arenas. Nine 

pupils (14-16 years old), their parents, and teachers were interviewed in autumn and spring. The pupils 

attended ASD one day per week. None of them was coming from academic homes. Bandura’s (1982) 

self-efficacy and social cognitive learning theory were utilized to investigate which kind of learning 

processes seem to be involved in the positive outcome measures found through participation in this 

unique program. This, as well as the concept of intersubjectivity. Do the teachers in the unique 

program (ASD) share another intersubjectivity with the participants, both logically and emotionally? 

The ASD is more unconventional, and each student gets more attention; the atmosphere is more 

unbound and playful. A whole body of research employs the importance of play in children and 

adolescent’s development (Glynn & Webster, 1993; Barnett, 1990, 1991; Basi & Hurwitz, 2012). An 

ongoing debate ought to be whether adapted education should be incorporated within an earlier stage 

through the school curriculum for children and adolescents in the risk zone.  

Keywords 

Alternative School Day (ASD), self-efficacy, social cognitive learning theory, intersubjectivity, adapted 

education 

 

 

 

 



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1. Introduction 

The schools in Norway and Scandinavia have been, and still are, strongly influenced by policy and 

ideology of equality and democracy. The school should be a good place to be and a good place for 

learning and personal growth for everyone. Class, gender, and ethnicity should not influence how the 

pupils experience the school. Although not all students express that they fit into Norwegian schools, it 

has been argued that the school reproduces the differences already existing in society. And eventually, 

in some cases, the gap increases (Nordahl, 2010; Nordahl, 2013). High status in the school is highly 

connected with good marks, which offer opportunities in the educational system and, later, in the labor 

market. Pupils who engage in antisocial behavior are exposed to different forms of adjustment pressure. 

For example, in Norway, 7-12 % of all children aged 10-17 demonstrate such a high degree of 

undesirable behaviors that they can be considered behavioral problems. About 2% of the pupils have 

severe antisocial behavior (Nordahl, Sørlie, Manger & Tveit, 2005). Those regarded as a problem for 

the class, or the school, are often directed toward special treatment options. Earlier, we had B-classes 

for students who were not as “clever” or “adjusted” as those in the A-classes, and more special schools 

existed. Today, many of these special initiatives have been moved into ordinary schools, and the 

initiatives are more directed against the individual with support from the Norwegian Learning Plan 

from 1997 and a strong focus on individual training programs (KUF, 1996). This can include extra 

teachers or assistant resources. As early as 1987, it was decided that students who had problems at 

school should, as a principal rule, get an education within the framework of regular classes. Inclusion 

was formulated as a key value and grounded in the principle of democratic participation (Arnesen, 

2002, p. 55). This aim is a slogan and a statement that can be traced in the Education Act from 2006 

(Opplærings-loven, 2006). Through this paper, we aim to answer the following research questions: 

Does participation in Alternative School Day (ASD) improve the students’ self-efficacy? Research 

question two: May participation in ASD facilitates improved conditions to benefit from the social 

cognitive learning theory? Furthermore, research question three: Do the teachers working at the ASD 

possess better abilities and skills to share a more significant and appropriate intersubjectivity with the 

pupils in comparison to the teachers within the regular school? In the way that communication becomes 

easier and understanding and respect towards the pupils at ASD runs smoother. These are the research 

questions we are aiming to answer through this article. 

 

2. Theoretical Framework 

Adolescence and Marginality. The concept of marginalization is widely used in research and debate in 

social science today, though without any precise definition. The term was originally used in economics 

but was adopted by social science and sociology in the 1870s through Robert Park and the so-called 

Chicago School of the 1920s (Park, 1967). The etymological origin of the concept is found in the Latin 

term margin, which means outskirt or border. In youth studies, marginalization is often tied to 



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employment (Hammer, 1992; Nyyssölän, 1999; ref. in Heggen, 2000). An important contribution to 

youth research shows that youth transition is extended in time, that it is quite likely to include different 

roles and stages such as pupil/student, employee versus unemployed, cohabitant/married, etc. roles 

which may be consecutive or simultaneous, and phases which may have a different sequence from what 

used to be normal. Concerning such lengthy, individual, changeable, and, at times, complex youth 

transitions, there may be good causes to look for criteria of marginalization. Marginalization depends 

not only on the youth’s position in or outside the labor market, but also on their degree of integration or 

isolation concerning several other important arenas, such as schools, family organizations, and groups. 

We talk of marginalization only when a youth has a weak position in several arenas. Such positions 

limit their access to economic, social, and political resources (Heggen, 2000). When it comes to 

children and youths, many researchers have claimed that studying marginalization is more of a process 

than a permanent state. Today, the trend is that adolescents must struggle hard to get a position in 

society. As never before, marks are important for what the future might bring. The conditions were 

considerably different 40-50 years ago since one could terminate school after seven years and begin to 

work. It can be discussed how satisfactory it was to start working so early since many wanted to take 

further education, but economic conditions did not allow it. However, today, normative demands exist 

that one should at least complete high school, and many from the working class and the lower middle 

class get university degrees. Social mobility through educational “class journeys” has increased and 

given youth new possibilities (Solvang, 2002). At the same time, those who do not feel that they belong 

in the school will become even worse off. One challenge is that many pupils consider the school 

meaningless (Nordahl, 2003, 2010, 2013). 

 

3. Intersubjectivity 

Intersubjectivity is an appellation of a common understanding between two or more people. It is a 

concept that problematizes objective knowledge since objectivity as a concept is a rather controversial 

field. Within scientific disciplines, it is common to posit that it is an intersubjective agreement 

concerning something if competent professionals agree that something is valid and correct. Like for 

example, in terms of treating cancer, there seems to be a strong consensus that chemotherapy is the 

most adequate treatment in most cancer care. This is based upon massive research and testing over 

many years, so there seems to be a strong intersubjective agreement that this is the most adequate and 

convenient treatment for cancer among doctors and scientists. However, intersubjectivity is a major 

topic in philosophy. Philosophers have long contemplated the duality of self and others, what it means 

to have an intersubjective experience, and what sort of lessons can be drawn from them. Ethics, for 

example, deals with how one should act and what one does in an intersubjective experience with an 

identifiable other. According to Rommetveit’s point of view, intersubjectivity is a basic assumption 

taken for granted when communicating. Communication takes part in a contemporary shared social 



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world. Therefore, that happens within the space in which communication is created (Helgevold, 2011; 

Helleve, 2008, ref. in Solbue, 2014; Mortimer & Wertsch, 2003). Intersubjectivity can be defined as a 

way to learn to see, hear, be mindful of other people, and strive to be alert and open in a perspective of 

diversity and not of differences. This calls for the recognition and experience of otherness, an 

experience that is acquired and practiced (Abdallah-Pretceille, 2006, p. 478). Nowadays, the human 

mind, language, and action are understood and studied as thoroughly social and intersubjective 

phenomena in many research fields. Simultaneously, human sociality and intersubjectivity per se have 

become topics for multidisciplinary studies. Intersubjectivity can be defined as “the sharing of 

subjective states by two or more individuals” (Scheff, 2006). It refers to shared emotion (attunement), 

shared attention, and intention. The ASD can be described as a temporary shared social reality. In this 

social reality, we find a multitude of different backgrounds that engage in dialogue with each other: a 

class that is a good place to be precisely because the pupils are given more attention, and the teachers 

respect the students more and have positive expectations towards each of them. The subject is also 

more practical-oriented. To our knowledge, the monumental work by Mortimer and Wertch (2009) 

emphasizes that in school, the teachers are not skillful enough to meet the student’s inductive and 

deductive reasoning. Or spelled out in another way, the individual student’s model of the phenomena. 

Often, the teachers see themselves as in charge of the education and don’t show enough refinement in 

adapting to where the individual students are in theirs, for example, inductive reasoning within the 

model of matter in chemistry. Specifically, they are concerned with categorizing abstract semiotic 

objects as “a decontextualized word meaning” (Wertsch, 1985). What emerges in connection with the 

uses of language associated with literacy? As in the syllogistic reasoning studies, the non-schooled 

participants demonstrated an inability or unwillingness to engage in theoretical forms of discourse and 

thinking. The sort of difference we have in mind is reflected in the following dialogue between Luria 

and the non-schooled participants from the experiments. Luria was conducted in Central Asia in the 

1930s (Luria, 1976; ref. in Mortimer & Wertsch, 2009). [The participant is shown drawings of a 

hammer, a saw, a log, and a hatchet, and the experimenter poses the question]: Which of these things 

could you call by one word? “How is that? If you call all three of them a “hammer,” that won’t be right 

either?” Rejects use of a general term. But one fellow picked three things—the hammer, saw, and 

hatchet—all must work together. But the log must be there too!” Reverts to situational [empirical 

thinking]. Why do you think he picked these three things and not the log? “Probably because he’s got 

much firewood, but if we’re left without firewood, we won’t be able to do anything”. True, but a 

hammer, a saw, and a hatched are all tools. “Yes, but even if we have tools, we still need wood- 

otherwise, we can’t build anything”. And using the same words but understanding them differently. 

Nevertheless, when the teacher explicitly suggested that they could leave behind their everyday 

phenomena to think about a general category of matter, the students experienced much more difficulty 

considering the task as something meaningful. Ultimately, they resisted participating in the speech 



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genre proposed by the teachers, a genre concerned with the second reality of abstract objects. Bakhtin 

(1986) emphasizes different utterances in the different speech genres, as well as the active dialogue as 

opposed to the teacher’s monologue. The researcher has demonstrated that the private world students 

bring to science, instructions are often not the same as that introduced by the teacher. However, when 

the teachers asked the students to use a scientific model to explain everyday phenomena (for example, 

gas) for which they had their explanation, they could consider the teacher’s questions authentic and 

make them their own. They could also use particulate models’ general features (Mortimer & Wertsch, 

2009). When asked how they experienced the learning situation, the students said the logical 

explanations were easier to understand during the ASD. Most reported that this was because 

mathematical magnitudes and equations were displayed in more concrete examples. For instance, when 

they learned about phi, they had to draw a circle in the forest and then a line through the circle, 

indicating the diameter. Further, they must write the equation in the ground; a circle’s circumference 

divided by the circle’s diameter gives phi (3,14). This was something that they remembered at a later 

time when they were questioned about the equation. Secondly, the pedagogues at the ASD showed 

more patience if the students could not understand the equation right away, and they also came up with 

more appropriate questions when questioning about a task, leading them in the right direction through 

the conversation with the pupils. However, intersubjectivity was first connected within the study of 

phenomenology and empathy, which is connected to pathos. Edith Stein was a Jewish student who 

studied German literature and history, and in 1913, she was taken up as a scientific assistant by 

Edmund Husserl at the University of Freiburg. And in 1916, she delivered her doctoral dissertation: 

“Zum Problem der Einfühlung. Einwicklung un in Phänomenolgischer Betrachtung”. “On the problem 

of empathy” (1917/1989). Noteworthy, intersubjectivity was mainly connected to the despairing of 

empathy (Meneses & Larkin 2012. Further on, the German psychologist Theodor Lipps, born in 1851, 

is best known for his theory of aesthetics, particularly the concept of Einfühlung, or empathy. He 

elaborated on Stein’s work and proclaimed that empathy is projecting oneself into the object of 

perception. For Stein, empathy (German spelling) understanding is an experiential, intuitive knowing of 

someone else’s present experience that is not lived as a personal, sympathetic, or intellectual form of 

social understanding. Interpersonal understanding is a natural everyday form of relating to others and 

their experiences. Recently, there has been a revived interest in Stein’s phenomenological claims about 

the nature of empathy, principally in phenomenological and phenomenology-informed theories. Then, 

the field of empathy would surely benefit from some conceptual revision and clarity. There may be an 

alternative route for interpersonal understandings that might deserve to be empirically investigated, 

firstly qualitatively, to gather evidence of its presence in people’s experiences of their social 

understandings and then also from within experimental and neuropsychological paradigms so that the 

underlying processes may be tested. As Garmin (2007), we propose that “Stein’s phenomenological 

approach can offer neurologists a comprehensive account of empathy that will aid them in so far as 



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they “reflect’ on scientific explanations” (p. 100) and that its implications have the potential to extend 

some way beyond this. In the ASD, the students reported feeling like they were respected and 

understood to a greater extent than in the normal school arrangement. This could be a sign of the better 

employment of intersubjectivity and empathy among the pedagogues at the ASD. The students said that 

they felt their well-being was important to the teachers in the ASD. They had time to talk to them, and 

it also seemed that they were interested in finding out if the pupils were not thriving at the ASD. 

Eventually, what could be done to make them feel better at school and in other areas? This greatly 

contrasts with how they were treated in the normal school; some of the pupils said they just felt that 

they were in the way. It was because they were not clever, so the teachers did not bother to pay 

attention to them. Further, we are aiming to explain which learning procedures take place in a normal 

school arrangement and how they can be enhanced and promoted through participation in ASD.  

 

4. Social Cognitive Learning Theory 

Children are normally like sponges, sucking up knowledge, both from parents, peers, and teachers. 

Albert Bandura’s theory does not decline the stimuli-respond- learning, but he integrates more concepts 

like, for example, expectation, which belongs to cognitivism (Imsen, 2005). Learning becomes a result 

of the interaction between three factors: behavior, the condition within the person (cognitive, emotional, 

and biological) (Krumsvik & Säljø, 2013, p 156), and social circumstances (Imsen, 2005). Bandura 

called this interaction for reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1997, in Krumsvik, Saljø, 2013, p. 156). 

The social cognitive learning theory contains elements from the theory about self-efficacy, or 

expectation regarding one’s ability to master a specific task.  

4.1 Self-efficacy 

Self-efficacy has been defined as “judgments of how well one can execute courses of action required to 

deal with the prospective situations” (Bandura, 1982). Further, Bandura has suggested that self-efficacy 

varies along the dimensions of magnitude, generality, and strength (1986). Kok et al. (1991) suggested 

that if one measures a person’s perceived ability to perform a behavior due to several different 

situations, one captures both strength and magnitude. Further on, self-efficacy is shown to be the most 

significant variable affecting academic performance (cf. Multon et al., 1991; Schunk & Pajares, 2005, 

cited in Manger et al., 2013, p. 247). The teacher has, therefore, an important role in increasing the 

mastery expectation of the student. Individuals with high self-efficacy seem to choose performances 

with more challenging tasks. They set higher goals and stick to them (Locke & Latham, 1990). Actions 

are pre-shaped in thought, and people anticipate either optimistic or pessimistic scenarios in line with 

their level of self-efficacy. Once an action has been taken, highly self-efficacious people invest more 

effort and persist for longer than those with low self-efficacy. When setbacks occur, the former recover 

more quickly and maintain commitment to their goals. Positive self-efficacy allows people to select 

more challenging settings, explore their environments, or create new situations. A sense of competence 



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can be acquired by mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, or physiological 

feedback (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy is not the same as positive illusion or unrealistic optimism 

since it is based on experience and does not lead to unreasonable risk-taking. Instead, it leads to 

venturesome behavior that is within the reach of one’s capabilities. Self-efficacy makes a difference in 

how people feel, think, and act. In terms of feelings, a low sense of self-efficacy is associated with 

depression, anxiety, and helplessness. 

4.2 Model Learning 

Much of what we do is learned through model learning from our parents, trainers, and teachers. Like 

for example, “Why do you make the white sauce in this way? Yes, this is because my mother taught me 

to do it like this,” “And how do you know how to repair a bicycle wheel? I do it this way because this 

is how my dad taught me to do it.” Humans can remember and recall earlier experiences. Observation, 

imitation: The child can remember what he has seen, then accomplish the imitation, and do what he has 

observed himself. Secondly, the child must be motivated to do it. The child must feel that he has 

something to benefit from, which means a positive result (Imsen, 2005).  

4.3 Self-regulating and Reflexive 

The theory has changed from social learning theory to social cognitive learning theory. The theory has 

also changed its outfit in planning, executing action, and forming expectations; one continuously 

evaluates, regulates, and appraises one’s own behavior. If negative anticipations are expected from 

others, it isn’t easy to keep up with positive expectations. What seems so crucial is that these 

expectations are rather fragile and easy to destroy during the early years (Therefore, we have been 

questioning whether the principal within ASD should be implemented during an earlier phase in the 

school curriculum for some of the students to prevent such a negative outcome seen in some of the 

students.).  

4.4 Internal Control or Controlled by Others? 

Bandura postulated that motivation is characterized by what the individual believes they can manage, 

not what is objective. This is significant in his theory. He emphasized personal expectations concerning 

coping and English self-efficacy (Krumsvik & Säljö, 2013, p. 156; Imsen, 2005, p. 456). He 

differentiates between two types of expectations concerning coping: efficacy expectations, which are 

our expectations about what is needed to solve a certain task, and outcome expectations, which are 

expectations about the result of what one has achieved from a pedagogic perspective. These two 

expectancies are crucial whether a student dares to do an assignment (Imsen, 2005, p. 466; Krumsvik & 

Sälö, 2013, p. 158). The expectation of mastery is developed in the students based on four factors. The 

first one is authentic coping experiences. The student becomes motivated to solve a specific assignment 

if he previously has managed to solve a similar task. He will expect to cope with the task, work harder, 

and perform better (Krumsvik & Säljö, p. 156; Manger et al., 2013, p. 251). Secondly, vicarious 

experiences happen when the pupils observe others, in which they can compare themselves and cope 



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with a field or problem area. On some occasions, some pupils have few previous experiences with 

similar tasks, are unsure, and learn from others (Krumsvik & Säljö, 2013, p 157; Imsen, 2005, p. 466). 

The third factor is verbal/ social persuasion, which involves support others can give the pupil. To 

function, such support must be realistic. Is it within an area where the student will master? (Krumsvik 

& Säljö, 2013, p. 157; Manger et al., 2013, p. 255). The fourth factor is a somatic and emotional 

condition like, for instance, anxiety, shivering, and stress. In the case of a high emotional reaction, will 

the level of performance be impaired? This will again lead to negative thoughts and low self-efficacy 

(Krumsvik & Saljo, 2013, p. 158; Imsen, 2005). People learn through observing others’ behavior, 

attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors (Bandura, 1977). “Most human behavior is learned 

observationally, through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are 

performed, and on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action” (Bandura, 1986). 

Social learning theory explains how human behavior can develop in terms of continuous reciprocal 

interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Bandura believed in 

“reciprocal determinism,” which means that the world and a person’s behavior cause each other. 

Meanwhile, behaviorism states that one’s environment causes behavior (Bandura, 1986). Bandura, who 

was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic. Therefore, he suggested that behavior 

also affects the environment (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961). Later, Bandura considered personality an 

interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and psychological processes (one’s 

ability to retain images in mind and language). Social cognitive learning theory is sometimes called a 

bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, 

and motivation. The theory is related to Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory and Wenger and 

Lave’s Situated Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social learning (1991). The ASD 

offered a different learning situation, contributing to extended well-being, better self-esteem, and 

learning outcomes. However, we have chosen that situational learning to be out of the scope of this 

specific article. 

 

5. The Context 

Eight boys and one girl, their parents, and teachers were interviewed about several topics connected to 

ASD. The pupils were interviewed twice, during autumn (T1) and spring (T2). In this program, the 

emphasis is to make the tasks more concrete. In that way, it can be easier to visualize mathematical 

magnitudes. Likewise, the pupils and teachers play pool, and this playful and competitive activity 

forms a positive experience that creates a positive atmosphere that might transcend the whole learning 

environment. Therefore, elements from situated learning are incorporated into the pedagogic setting. 

Since children and teenagers are like sponges, they easily benefit from this positive experience and gain 

self-confidence and assertiveness, which can have a positive spillover effect on other learning domains. 

Further on, the teacher shows how much 10 dl of milk, and 600 grams of butter is during the school 



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kitchen session. As shown in the school kitchen session with, for instance, the milk carton and the 

butter (with cl versus gram), the student can then make a logical decision between the two different 

measuring methods. When all the senses are activated, learning is in all senses. The students find more 

options to remember, as shown in the experiment by multi-dimensional learning. From there, the 

students can find more options for remembering what they have learned. 

 

6. Method 

The qualitative interview is defined as a dialogue to obtain descriptions of the life world of informants 

concerning their interpretation of important phenomena (Kvaale & Brinkmann, 2009). The interview 

form is a semi-structured interview; it has a sequence of themes to be covered and suggested questions. 

At the same time, it is open to changes in sequence and forms of questions to follow up on the answers 

given and the stories told by the subjects, and the method at use is inductive reasoning. The interview 

has the advantage of covering deeper essential meaning compared to more quantitative approaches. In 

this study, meaning condensation or an abridgment of the meanings expressed by the interviewees into 

shorter formulations was utilized. For example, several teachers formulated, “he does not understand 

anything regarding theoretical subjects, but he is very clever in gymnastics and mechanical subjects”. 

This statement was condensed to “he is very weak in theoretical subjects, but he manages quite well in 

practical subjects”. Regarding trustworthiness. There was a relatively strong correspondence between 

what the pupils, parents, and teachers reported. However, it must be noted that regarding school 

problems, the students and their parents often meant that the teachers or the school represented the 

challenge. In contrast, the teachers, on the other hand, looked upon the students as problematic. Further, 

it is possible that the questions were not always adequate since it was common for the students to 

answer, “I don’t know” or “I have not thought about this”. So, probably, the intersubjective validity 

wasn’t so well formulated/relevant through this study. 

6.1 The Interview 

Guides At both T1 and T2, three interview guides were constructed. These contain questions for the 

pupils, their parents, and teachers. The first interview with the pupils covers the school situation, 

relationships with parents and friends, and their leisure time. At T2, it was focused on possible changes 

since T1, for example, if the students shirked school, if their relationships with parents and teachers had 

changed, and if they had changed themselves in any way. Questions directed to parents at T1 involved 

whether they thought their children would benefit from participating in the ASD and the conditions 

regarding their children’s school and family situation. They were also asked about what their children 

did in their leisure time. The questions to teachers at T1 involved what kind of influence they think 

ASD will have on the students, social competencies, school subject management, and shirking. 

Additionally, they were asked if they had been involved in mockery and if they conflicted with teachers 

and other pupils. At T2, questions primarily focused on potential changes in the students’ lives since T1 



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from the perspectives of parents and teachers.  

6.2 The Data Analysis 

At T1, all the pupils were interviewed face-to-face in an ASD location. At T2, five were interviewed at 

the same place, one at home and three by telephone because they had traveled away on summer 

vacation. The teachers received the question via e-mail before they were interviewed. Because a tape 

recorder may distract the respondents, it was decided to do the notetaking on the spot. The interviews 

were transcribed, and the written texts became the materials for subsequent interpretation. By 

transcribing the interviews from an oral to a written mode, we make the interview conversation more 

amenable for closer analysis. Structuring the material into text facilitates an overview and comprises a 

preliminary analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The pupils were split into three groups over three days. 

As mentioned, there was one girl in the sample. This represented an anonymity problem, and the 

solution was that all the pupils acquired boy names. All the students had a working-class background. 

None of the students came from families with academic backgrounds. 

 

7. The Participants 

The pupils were divided into three tentative groups: The marginalized (M-group), the twilight zone 

(T-group), and the integrated (I-group). This was one way to structure the material. Some of the pupils 

were easy to place while others were not. Two students could, for example, be referred to as 

marginalized but were placed under the twilight zone because they were better off in some areas. The 

integrated students were easier to place. However, all the students had two factors in common. First, 

they did not cope with the theoretical subjects at school, and second, they did not feel at home in the 

regular school environment. 

7.1 The Marginalized 

Joachim, Jonas, and Tom showed negative development during the school year. Joachim and Jonas had 

quit school, and Tom had attended a special school. Heggen and colleagues (2003) found that 

marginalized adolescents who had problematic relationships with their parents developed close 

relationships with friends. Tom resided with both parents, while Joachim and Jonas cohabited with their 

mothers. Among friends, they got confirmation of themselves, and such positive experiences were 

important regarding the adolescents’ sense of belonging and identity. All three had a bad relationship 

with their parents. This was not the case for Tom and Joachim. They gave the impression that 

friendships were unimportant; they seemed to have problems establishing close relationships with 

friends and adults. Further, they were depressed and seldom took the initiative themselves. The distant 

relationship between Tom and his parents might have been the reason that he found excitement in a 

drug-taking company and worsened an already bad relationship. For Jonas, the situation was somewhat 

different. His mother had psychiatric problems, and they were poor. Additionally, he seldom met his 

father. Jonas was also into drugs, but he had friends outside this milieu as well. He was conflicted with 



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his mother, but they had contact, and he often brought friends to his home. Tom chose another strategy; 

he seldom went home to avoid quarreling and fussing. Tom and Jonas had been in contact with the 

police several times. Tom was arrested for drug use and Jonas for stealing. All three boys had 

withdrawn from family and school, which might be interpreted as an attempt to avoid social control in 

important areas for adolescents’ social integration. 

7.2 The Twilight Zone 

Lars and Adrian quit school. Lars started to work, and Adrian attended a special school. Even though 

they were no longer at the ordinary school, they were better off in other arenas than the marginalized. 

This was the case, especially about their relationship with their parents. Lars and Adrian reported that 

they had a close and good relationship with their parents. Lars lived with both parents, while Adrian 

resided with his father. It was common that the students had most contact with their mothers, so the 

bond between Adrian and his father was an exception. Lars played football, which meant a lot to him, 

although he had few friends in this group. 

7.3 The Integrated 

Andy, Sam, Martin, and Tony were still at the ordinary school, and they did not work hard but 

sometimes came late to school. All four showed positive development during the year. Moreover, all 

were engaged in sports activities that meant a lot to them, and they had friends in these milieus. They 

had relatively good contact with their parents but felt more attached to their mothers. All of them, 

except for Andy, reported quarrels with their parents. Andy was the only one who did not reside with 

both parents. They also had good relationships with other students and a relatively good connection to 

the teachers. This changed from T1 to T2, which will be discussed later. 

 

Table 1. Overview of the Pupils Participating 

Marginalized Twilight Integrated 

Joachim, Jonas and Tom Lars and Adrian Andy, Sam, Martin and Tony 

 

8. Reflexivity 

The second researcher conducted the interviews and transcribed them. Her background was as a 

sociologist, and she invited me to participate in the project to gain a more psychological understanding 

of the research field. We have had close cooperation. And during the interviews, she told me about the 

different informants daily. Unfortunately, she is deceived now. As a sociologist, I would assume that 

she was affected by her theoretical background, with discourses like the agency-structure perspective. I 

found this absorbing because of my background as a psychologist, where I was trained within a 

tradition preoccupied with looking after pathology and putting up diagnoses on people. 

 

 



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9. Findings 

The social interaction during the participation in ASD was characterized by a joyful and light 

atmosphere, with a respectful and reciprocal interaction. This greatly contrasted how the pupils 

experienced the feedback within the regular school. Secondly, the subjects were extensively more 

practical oriented. For instance, during the school kitchen session, the teachers showed how much 250 

grams of butter, and five dl of milk there are while baking a cake. In this way, getting a visual picture of 

the unit at the task is easier. According to the behavioral perspective on learning, the interaction during 

the sessions is more rewarding and characterized by an open, respectful, and nurturing interaction 

between pupils and teachers (cf. Rosenthal, 1968). The expectations are important here; the teachers 

have positive expectations towards these earlier neglected and overseen students, and the positive 

expectation tends to be mutually reinforced by the pupil. These seem to contrast greatly with how the 

student experienced the normal school. For instance, the M-group and Adrian had a relatively high 

status in the class because they did not follow the rules. All of them had resigned; they did not 

participate and did not want to have any contact with the teachers within the regular school setting. The 

teachers, especially one of them, treat us differently. The clever ones are never criticized, but I have 

never been treated well (Joachim, T1). I feel comfortable with my classmates, but the teachers are very 

annoying. They don’t treat us equally; I am scolded when the guilty ones are not. I think it’s because 

they are much cleverer than I am. If I am in trouble with the teachers, I can’t do anything because they 

don’t care (Martin, T1). These statements illustrate that some pupils feel unequally treated because they 

are not clever and think the teachers favor skillful ones. The teachers do not treat me respectfully. I am 

dissatisfied with everything at school, especially the teachers. I’m continually in conflict with them 

(Tom T1). I have a bad relationship with all the teachers. They don’t like me, and I don’t like them 

(Adrian, T1). He nags about nothing and criticizes the teachers but has a good relationship with his 

mates. But when we are alone, he is very kind (Tom’s teacher, T1). Because the pedagogues at the ASD 

treated them respectfully, which was the opposite of the teachers in the ordinary school. They also play 

substantially better role models than in the normal school arrangement. The tasks were more oriented 

towards a more practical reality, and these two factors seem to facilitate an extensive environment 

where a positive learning model can take place. Many of the students reported that the school was 

boring. This boredom may happen when the pupil withdraws from teaching in an ordinary classroom. 

This boringness might also reflect the fact that the teachers are not skillful enough to share pupils’ 

intersubjectivity. Theorists have proclaimed that when one can share nourishing intersubjectivity, this 

will lead to other motivation in the pupils because they feel they are taken seriously in the pedagogic 

setting (Mortimer & Wertsch, 2003). This aligns with Paulo Freire (2011), who claimed that all learning 

is dialogic. And true dialogue depends on love, humility, faith, and mutual trust. According to Giroux 

(2001), in the behavior of subordinate groups and marginalized youths, there are moments of cultural 

and creative expressions informed by a different logic, whether existential, religious, or otherwise. 



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Moreover, looking at oppositional behavior in school, Giroux argues that there is a need to reformulate 

the relationship between ideology, culture, and hegemony to make clear how these categories can 

enhance the understanding of oppositional behavior, as well as how such concepts can form the 

theoretical basis for a radical pedagogy that takes human agency seriously. Regarding self-efficacy with 

school subjects, the results seem somewhat different. For the pupils in the M-group, it seems like the 

intervention was coming a bit late. An exception was for Tom because changes appeared after he 

attended special education at school. Tom’s new teacher says that he copes much better with his anger 

and is more persevering in new situations. The teacher says that this can be primarily interpreted 

because of the ASD. Because at ASD he felt comfortable there, but he also thinks that this is because 

Tom gets special education at school. For Joachim, Jonas, and Lars, ASD’s influence on the school 

situation has had minimal effects. However, his father reported that one student (Adrian) who started to 

participate in a special school learned more in that school year than he did during all the other school 

years. However, the ASD seems to have a positive effect on the I-group. All four have got better marks, 

do not shirk school anymore, and function better socially. Their teachers are very positive when 

discussing ASD and its meaning for the students. Andy’s teacher says that he has become more 

motivated to work with different subjects, and she relates this to his role at the ASD: He says that at the 

ASD, he’s a resource and an important person. He feels he is very clever there, which is very different 

from what he feels at the regular school. Tom (marginalized) and Adrian (twilight), who moved to a 

special school, reported being incredibly satisfied with this. Finally, they felt that they did something 

meaningful. Life had become much easier for Lars, who had begun to work. Surprisingly, only four out 

of nine adolescents were still in normal school at the end of the school year. While we reviewed our 

data, we debated whether participation in the special pedagogic program was coming too late. For some, 

it seems like a pattern has been made, so we have been questioning whether these interventions should 

have been intervening earlier to become more effective. Over time, the pupil may become associated 

with social roles that are unbearable not only for themselves but also for others. It may create a need for 

escaping from the school to a milieu where one can achieve minimal approval. Since only four students 

are left in the ordinary school, this may have happened here. The social cognitive theory emphasizes 

self-efficacy beliefs, which seem to be the greatest predictor of school results. During the earliest years 

in school, these expectations are fragile and must be built up step by step. When pupils have been able 

to build up positive learning expectations and anticipations, they also build internal control over their 

learning acquisitions and start to feel like they can influence their learning process. When these 

learning conditions occur, the pupils also start to reflect positively about their own learning abilities and 

skills. The students may start believing that they can master even difficult tasks if they just put enough 

effort into it. If this happens, the learning process may become self-rewarding, which means that the 

pupils feel like they are receiving a reward when they learn new things and get good grades. The 

opposite is that some pupils do not have the motivation and lack positive outcomes expectations; again, 



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this will affect them and make them not try so hard. These students are deliberately more dependent 

upon support and guidance from their teachers, external motivation, and much positive appraisal from 

others when they achieve positive results. These students have had setbacks and negative experiences 

within ordinary schools for years. This pattern seems difficult to change after years of failures, setbacks, 

and disappointments during the school curriculum. Therefore, an ongoing debate ought to be whether 

this special pedagogic program should be implemented earlier in the school curriculum so that the 

students can benefit from it. Other researchers have empathized that intervention at an earlier stage 

might play an important role in correcting a negative school development and later preventing dropouts 

from high school (Hardy-Fortin, 2012). Many years of defeat and failure are not easy to change; 

therefore, early interventions seem essential in terms of building internal beliefs regarding self-efficacy 

and internal motivation in contrast to external ones. 

 

10. Limitation Connected to the Study 

One limitation in this investigation was that only students coming from non-academic homes 

participated in this study. Therefore, it is impossible to say anything about how students from academic 

homes experience the school. Many students from academic families also experience school as boring 

and may have problems in different areas. Further, the individual under investigation has problems in 

one or several areas, which means they are not representative of pupils from non-academic homes. 

Another limitation of this study is that “intersubjectivity” doesn’t seem well enough to be 

operationalized. Because some of the students claimed: I have not thought about that domain, or I do 

not know. When questioned about that field… 

 

11. Conclusion 

As we have seen, most of the participants in this study have had a problematic relationship with school 

for many years. The school years have become a project without meaning. None of the students coped 

with the theoretical subjects. In some cases, this results in shirking school for long periods, where they 

are only physically present when at school, and they do not pay any attention during the lessons. 

Self-efficacy is also formed and developed during the early years at school. The pupils in the ASD did 

not have so good self-efficacy due to many negative experiences in the ordinary school. Even though 

others can influence expectations and efforts, we refer hereby to the well-known Rosenthal—effect, 

described and discovered by Robert Rosenthal (1968). Some students became smarter and had higher 

IQs after a year in school when the teachers thought these children were extraordinarily gifted. The 

extended positive expectation from the pedagogues at the ASD can describe some of the positive 

outcome variables found through this study. However, during the school year, five students quit while 

studying was going on, and only four are still in regular school. This may be due to pupils’ reaction to a 

school system that does not arrange for a school environment that doesn’t meet their needs, abilities, 



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and interests (Christie, 1973). Tom and Tony, who have attended a special school, are satisfied. Finally, 

they feel that they do something meaningful. For Lars, who has begun working, life has become much 

easier. One of the pedagogues in the ASD said: We must confess we can’t help all the students, but for 

most of them, I think we can prevent further negative development. The school is foreign for the 

students in this study; it represents a “detour”. The students cope “relatively well” socially, but this is 

insufficient. Since the credibility and ideals are middle-class based, theoretics like (Bourdieu, 1993) 

proclaim that pupils with another habitus will always struggle uphill. The “equality for all” principle 

that should ideally exist in Norwegian schools seems to be malfunctioning. Some are “more equal than 

others,” and this may concern, first and foremost, children coming from academic backgrounds. They 

possibly adjust to school because they largely feel at home there. Ogden claims that “the student’s 

failure also is the school’s failure when it can’t give a qualitative good offered and adjusted education” 

(1998). Therefore, the public eye should be directed towards the ordinary school as a problem so that 

the complicated relationship between “the ordinary” and “the special” can be challenged. Brown and 

Duguid (1996) used the evocative phrase “stolen knowledge” to refer to all knowledge that learners 

glean from teachers beyond or despite their pedagogical intentions. The ASD seem to change their look 

on themselves because their teachers now invest more in them, and they now start to feel like important 

pupils and that their efforts matter. Therefore, we can hypothesize that the pupils get another “stolen 

knowledge” through participation. They do not feel like losers to the same extent as they did within the 

regular school. In the ASD, they participated in joy- and playful activities, like kayaking paddling, 

playing darts, and pool. Research has shown that participating in playful, joyful, and challenging 

activities develops cognitive, social, and physical learning and self-esteem (Hurwitz, 2002/2003). 

Further, researchers have proposed that for children to be Successful, let them Play! This is because 

there is much interpersonal learning in play. For example, turn-taking, empathy, and cognitive and 

physical learning develop through play (Glynn & Webster, 1990; Barnett, 1990). The ASD has had a 

positive effect on most of this study. It is primarily close contact with the adults who spend time with 

them and who are engaged in them that is important. Through this, the ASD manages to make them 

believe that they can manage and that they can learn. Furthermore, ASD offers them concrete coping 

experiences, and this has affected their self-esteem positively. At the same time, ASD has some serious 

weaknesses. Since the ambition is integration, it is alarming that five have quit school after they 

attended the ASD. The ASD can thus maybe have increased these pupils’ aversion towards the school. 

Conversely, the schools eliminate a problem less, i.e., lodging them. This situation can thus be a pretext 

for doing nothing. On one side, the ASD’s ghetto-resembling feature increases, and on the other side, 

schools get reasons to avoid carrying out serious integration work. It is difficult for schools to find 

resources, and the teachers reported that ASD is a unique offer for the pupils and the classes because 

the teaching functions better when those pupils are absent. One may, therefore, ask if projects like the 

ASD legitimate the status quo in the schools. That the ASD can be characterized as a ghetto, or a 



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“renewing oasis” is not necessarily a problem. As a middle-class arena, the school has, and will still 

have, huge problems with offering “difficult” fundamental support to pupils. If this is the case, students 

exposing antisocial behavior will be those who need ASD the most as protection. The problem is, 

however, that this protection is too weak. The ASD should, therefore, develop into a more 

comprehensive project, for example, through a full-time arrangement. Or be implemented within a 

much earlier phase through the pupils’ school curriculum. Due to many defeats and failures during 

those early and vulnerable school years, two of the students with ASD started to attend a special school 

and were very satisfied with this solution. For the others, especially those in the I-group, the ASD 

functions very well. However, the integration work could function better for these students if ASD was 

included in the schools. On this basis, it would be interesting if the ASD develops a both- and offer, i.e., 

a full-time educational offer for those who do not fit into the school and an arrangement in the schools 

for those who will benefit from integration. However, establishing a full-time offer represents a 

considerable challenge economically because the professional pedagogical arrangement must be 

changed significantly compared to the existing praxis. Alternatively, could an earlier implementation of 

the ASD contribute to a better and more ancillary effect of the program to build up good self-efficacy 

beliefs earlier? 

 

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