






































Type of the Paper (Article


 

  

 

 
Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 http://clujveterinaryjournal.ro 

Case report 

Splenic hematoma and pelvic bladder in a spayed German 

shepherd mongrel bitch (Canis lupus familiaris). A case report. 

Iosif Vasiu1,*, †, Valentin Nicuşor Oros1, †, Andreea Niculina Aştilean1, Iulia Melega1, Andreea Rusu2, Robert 

Purdoiu3, Flaviu Tăbăran4, Mariana Vasiu5, Emanuel Mihai Mocanu6, and Ciprian Andrei Ober1 

1Department of Anaesthesiology and Surgery, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary 

Medicine, 3-5 Mănăştur Street, Cluj-Napoca, 400372, Romania iosif.vasiu@usamvcluj.ro; nicusor-valentin.oros@usamvcluj.ro; an-

dreea-niculina.astilean@usamvcluj.ro; iulia.melega@usamvcluj.ro; ciprian.ober@usamvcluj.ro 
2Small Animals Emergency Hospital, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 3-5 

Mănăştur Street, Cluj-Napoca, 400372; andreearusu@yahoo.com 
3 Department of Imagistics and Internal Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary 

Medicine, 3-5 Mănăştur Street, Cluj-Napoca, 400372 robert.purdoiu@usamvcluj.ro 
4Department of Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 3-5 Mănăştur 

Street, Cluj-Napoca, 400372, Romania flaviutabaran@gmail.com;  
5Bioclinica, 10 Ştrandului Street, Sibiu, 550068, Romania mariannavasiu@yahoo.com 
6Fia Vet, 1 Fragilor Street Sibiu, 550246, Romania mihai_vetmocanu@yahoo.com 

 

*  Correspondence: iosif.vasiu@usamvcluj.ro 
†  These authors contributed equally to the article. 

 

Abstract: Splenic hematomas represent the most encountered splenic benign masses in dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and they are 

usually secondary to splenic nodular hyperplasia. In most spayed bitches with urinary incontinence (UI), pelvic bladders are a 

common finding. In addition, ovariohysterectomy (OHE), hormonal imbalances, and various anatomical anomalies are responsible 

for the onset of urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence (USMI). This case report highlights the aggravating aspect caused by a 

splenic hematoma to develop a pelvic bladder in a mongrel bitch, that was sterilized seven years ago. A 14-years-old spayed Ger-

man shepherd was presented to the Emergency Veterinary Hospital in Cluj-Napoca, with a history of apathy, incontinence, and foul 

kennel smell, for several months. The diagnostic was based on anamnesis, medical history, imagistic, and routine laboratory assays. 

The main findings were the presence of a pelvic bladder, splenic hematoma, and chronic cholecystitis. The bitch was admitted for 14 

days. Surgical intervention was required, so a splenectomy was performed. Besides the surgical management and the supportive 

care, the bitch also received treatment for UI with phenylpropanolamine (PPA; Propalin 5%; 1.2 mg/kg 12h PO prn). Three days after 

surgery and treatment, the bitch recovered the urinary tonus, and UI was absent. The bitch was discharged two weeks after the 

surgical intervention. Splenic hematomas can precipitate the development of UI by partially translocating the urinary bladder into 

the pelvic cavity (i.e., pelvic bladder), especially in old spayed bitches. 

Keywords: Canis lupus familiaris; splenic hematoma; pelvic bladder; OHE; UI; USMI.  

 

1. Introduction 

Urinary incontinence represents an uncontrolled or involuntary urine leakage dur-

ing the storage phase of micturition [1,2]. It is a common pathology in both intact (i.e., 

02-0.3%) and spayed bitches (i.e., 20%) [2]. Usually, females with acquired UI suffer from 

USMI [3,4]. However, the pathophysiology is multifactorial but incompletely elucidated, 

with OHE, weight, breed, age, and anatomical anomalies as primary contributing factors 

[5,6]. Nevertheless, the condition comprises hormonal, structural, and functional de-

rangements [2].  

Neurogenic factors comprise low and upper motor neuron disorders; detrusor ure-

thral dyssynergia, dysautonomia, and primary bladder atony. Non-neurogenic urinary 

incontinence (i.e., USMI) includes congenital disorders, detrusor hyperreflexia, anatom-

Received: 21 February 2022 

Accepted: 22 March 2022 

Published: 28 June 2022 

DOI:10.52331/cvj.v27i1.36 

 

 

Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. 

Submitted for possible open access 

publication under the terms and 

conditions of the Creative Commons 

Attribution (CC BY) license 

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses

/by/4.0/). 



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 11  
 

ical or functional urethral obstruction leading to secondary bladder atony, and bladder 

atony due to muscle weakness or medications [2]. Usually, all females suffer from ac-

quired USMI. In addition, USMI and anatomical anomalies may coexist [7]. 

Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia (NLH) and hematomas are benign, non-neoplastic 

focal masses [8,9] commonly encountered as splenic or hepatic lesions in older dogs, with 

a reported incidence between 38-59% and account for most focal canine splenic masses 

[10,11]. They can also be associated with other splenic or hepatic nodules [12].  

Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia is cytologically characterized as a mixed lymphoid 

population with medium to small lymphocytes, lymphoblasts, few plasma cells, and 

other cells with no signs of malignancy on smears [8].  

Splenic hematomas are blood collections within the tissue, mainly in lymphoid fol-

licular hyperplasia areas with lymphoid aggregates. The coexistence of splenic hemato-

mas and hyperplasia is common in dogs. Usually, splenic hematomas result from NLH 

since it disrupts local blood flow, causing blood pooling, hypoxia, bleeding, and necrosis. 

Usually, dogs with splenic hematomas survive the postoperative period and have an 

excellent outcome [10,12–14].  

In the present case, we highlight the potential of splenic masses to increase ab-

dominal pressure on urinary bladders, causing USMI-derived UI by partially translo-

cating the bladder into the pelvic cavity in a sterilized 14-years-old mixed German 

shepherd bitch. 

 

2. Materials and Methods 

 

2.1. Case description 

A 22 kg, nulliparous 14-year-old spayed German shepherd mixed breed female was 

presented to the Small Animal Emergency Hospital in Cluj-Napoca with a history of 

apathy, weakness, polyuria (PU), and foul urinary smell kennel for several months. In 

addition, the owner noticed the dog urinating while sitting or sleeping on the kennel 

floor, and the hindlimbs were always soaked in urine. The bitch was presented to the 

same hospital seven years ago for sterilization. At the same time, the bitch was diag-

nosed with recurrent bilateral otitis (i.e., Pseudomonas aeruginosa) due to a food allergy. 

Besides the treatment received for the food allergy (Posatex, Vet Pharma Friesoythe, 

Germany; Enrofloxacin; Baytril, USA; and Hypoallergenic food, Royal Canin, France) 

and the vets' regular visits for deworming and vaccination, the bitch had no other 

medical history.  

During the check-up, the bitch was panting (R=100), presented bilateral senile cata-

ract, enlarged mandibular and popliteal lymph nodes, a distended and sensitive abdo-

men, and vulval scalding. The bitch showed normal lung and heart sounds, pink muco-

sae membranes, and other vital signs within the physiological limits (P=100; T=39.20C; 

TRC=1 "). From the cephalic vena, blood was collected for total solids (TS) (Element RC, 

Scil, Germany), a complete blood count (CBC) (VetScan, Abaxis, UK), and blood gases 

(Prime VET, Nova Biomedical, USA) assays.  

An abdominal splenic space-occupying lesion was discovered on ultrasound 

(MyLabDeltaVet, Esaote, Italy); a computed tomography (CT) was recommended. In 

addition, an echo-guided urine sample was obtained aseptically from the urinary blad-

der, and a stool sample was collected for coproparasitological evaluation. The specimens 

were sent to the Microbiology, Pathology, and Parasitology Departments (University of 

Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca) for culture, sensitivity, 

sediment, cytology, and stool interpretation, respectively.  

 

2.2. Anesthetic and CT protocol 

A 20G safety IV catheter (B. Braun Melsungen, Germany) was placed on the anterior 

right limb, and a lactated Ringer's solution (Ringer-Lactat, B. Braun Melsungen, Germa-

ny; 10 ml/kg/h IV) was administered. The bitch was premedicated with midazolam 



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 12  
 

(Dormicum 0.1%, F. Hoffmann-LA Roche Ltd., Switzerland; 0.2 mg/kg IV) and ketamine 

(Narkamon Bio 10%, Bioveta, Czech Republic; 1.5 mg/kg IV). Next, the dog was induced 

with propofol (Propofol-Lipuro 1%, B. Braun Melsungen, Germany; 3 mg/kg IV) and 

maintained with isoflurane/oxygen (Isoflutek 1000 mg/g, Laboratorios Karizoo S.A., 

Spain) after endotracheal intubation using a 9.0 mm endotracheal tube (Well Lead Med-

ical Co. Ltd., China). Finally, an abdominal and thoracic contrast CT scan (SOMATOM 

Scope, Siemens, Germany) with iohexol (Omnipaque 35%, GE Healthcare AS, Norway; 2 

ml/kg IV) was performed under general anesthesia. 

 

2.3. Anesthetic and surgery protocol 

After the imagistic evaluation, it was decided to perform an exploratory laparotomy 

on the same day. The bitch was premedicated with pethidine (Mialgin 5%, Zentiva, Ro-

mania; 4 mg/kg IM in one dose) and midazolam (0.3 mg/ kg IV). Anesthesia was induced 

with ketamine (2 mg/kg IV) and propofol (2-4mg/kg IV) and was maintained with 

isoflurane and oxygen mixture (MAC=0.9%-1%). The dog received during the surgery a 

constant rate infusion (CRI) of lidocaine (Xilină 2%, Zentiva S.A., Romania; 2.4 mg/kg/h, 

24h IV) and ketamine (0.6 mg/kg/h, 24h IV), in Ringer's perfusion. 

Next, the bitch was placed in dorsal recumbency and was aseptically prepped on the 

ventral aspect of the abdomen with chlorhexidine 2% (Lifo-Scrub 2%, B. Braun Mel-

sungen, Germany) and isopropyl alcohol (Alcool Sanitar 70%, Dual Prod, Romania). In 

addition, a midline abdominal anesthetic blocage was also performed with bupivacaine 

on the linea alba (Bupivacaină 0.5%, Infomed Fluids SRL, Romania; 1 mg/kg SC). During 

the surgical intervention, all the vital signs, including pulse oximetry, ECG, and capno-

graphy, were evaluated with a noninvasive multi-parameter monitor (Life Vet 8c, 

Eickemeyer, Germany).  

A ventral midline abdominal incision was performed from xiphoid to pubis for 

complete abdominal exploration. The edges of the incision were protected with ab-

dominal pads. Approximately 100 ml of hemorrhagic fluid was present in the abdominal 

cavity. The spleen was exteriorized and appeared larger in volume, with macroscopic 

structures in the parenchyma (Figure S1). The capsule was not intact. The liver also pre-

sented small reddish nodules on the surface. After the abdominal cavity was explored, 

the spleen was removed, and a hepatic biopsy was collected. Both specimens were 

rushed to the Pathology Department for further histopathological evaluation.  

The blood vessels were double ligated and transected with 3-0 Polidioxanone mon-

ofilament absorbable (PDO; BioSintex, Ilfov, Romania) suture material at the splenic hi-

lus. Next, the abdominal wall was closed in three layers. First, the aponeurosis of the 

rectus abdominis muscle was sutured with a simple interrupted pattern with 2-0 PDO 

(BioSintex, Ilfov, Romania) suture material; the subcutaneous connective tissue was su-

tured in a continuous surjet and tied with an Aberdeen knot with 2-0 PDO (BioSintex, 

Ilfov, Romania) suture material. Finally, the skin suture was performed with a simple “X" 

pattern with a 2-0 nylon (BioSintex, Ilfov, Romania) suture material. The surgical pro-

cedure lasted 45 minutes, and no complications occurred. 

 

2.4. Treatment plan 

The lidocaine and ketamine CRI was continued for 24h, and the post-op protocol 

consisted of administration of ceftriaxone (Cefort 100%, Antibiotice, Romania; 22 mg/kg 

12h IV for 10 days), metamizole (Novasul 50%, Richter Pharma, Austria; 25 mg/kg 12h 

IV for 3 days), gabapentin (Grimodin 300 mg/tb, Egis Pharmaceuticals PLC, Hungary; 

300 mg/ administration 24h PO for 10 days), pantoprazole (Controloc 40 mg/tb, Takeda 

GmbH, Germany; 1 mg/kg 24h PO for 14 days), and PPA (Propalin 5%, Vetquinol, 

France; 1.2 mg/kg 12h PO for 14 days). After 3 days of treatment, metamizole was 

changed with meloxicam (Meloxidolor 2%, Le Vet Pharma, Holland; 0.2 mg/kg 24h SC 

for 7 more days). 

 

 



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 13  
 

3. Results 

3.1. Imagistic results 

Computed Tomographic findings were consistent with a large, cavitated hypoat-

tenuating splenic space-occupying mass with a heterogenic structure with multiple 

fluid attenuating areas (Figure 1a,d).  

The liver also had multiple hypoattenuating areas with a cyst-like structure. The 

gall bladder was mildly distended with hypoattenuating content (Figure 1b,e). The 

urinary bladder was in semi plentitude and presented with normal contrast uptake due 

to urine filtration and displaced caudally into the pelvic region (Figure 1c,f).  

The gastrointestinal tract, alongside both kidneys, presented no pathological al-

terations.  

  

  
(a) (b) 

  
(c) (d) 

  
(e) (f) 

Figure 1. CT evaluation of the abdomen a, b, c: Sagittal view of the thorax and abdomen; d,e,f: axial view of the ab-

domen and pelvis. The reconstruction is made at different levels. 



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 14  
 

 

3.2. Laboratory results 

Hematological assays showed the presence of hypochromic and microcytic anemia 

with anisocytosis and thrombocytosis. Folded levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), , 

and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) confirmed the presence of cholecystitis. Cho-

lesterol (CHOL) and lactate levels (LAC) were also folded (Supplementary Tables S1 

and S2). The microbiological assays were negative; the urine sample was sterile, with no 

sediment or urinary cytology alterations, and the stool sample was negative. 

After surgery, the anemia was accentuated, but the platelets (PLT) returned to the 

physiological levels, and except for ALP, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and the 

globulins, all the other biochemical parameters returned within the physiological limits, 

including the LAC level (Supplementary Tables S1 and S2).  

The histopathological evaluation confirmed the presence of splenic nodular hyper-

plasia (lymphoid), associated with extensive, acute splenic hematoma. The splenic mass 

was nodular, poorly demarcated, unencapsulated, elevating the capsule, and consisting 

of large blood-filled spaces (without an endothelial demarcation). The blood-filled 

spaces were separated by the preexistent splenic parenchyma and were focally admixed 

with discrete aggregates of lymphocytes organized in distinct follicular-like structures 

separated by a few stromal cells (occasionally demarcated by hyalinized collagen). The 

follicular-like structures showed typical germinal centers and consisted of a regular, 

stratified mixture of small and large lymphocytes with mantle and marginal zone 

morphologic features. Mitoses were not observed.  

Within the liver, hepatic nodular hyperplasia was diagnosed. The nodular mass was 

well-demarcated unencapsulated, replacing the preexistent hepatic parenchyma focally 

and consisting of compact sheets and cords (uniform-cell hepatic plates, ≤ 4 hepatocytes 

thick) of hepatocytes separated by a delicate, fibrous stroma. Few foci of necrosis and 

extramedullary hematopoiesis (multilineage) were present. Portal spaces and mitotic 

figures were not observed.  

 

3.3. Post-op results 

At 12 h after surgery, the bitch was bright and alert and presented a good appetite. 

It received small amounts of commercially canned food. Water was provided ad libitum. 

The bitch was leashed and walked 4/5 times daily with no discomfort during the walk-

overs. 

After three days of treatment with PPA, the UI ceased, and the bitch was no longer 

wet on her hindlimbs. The sutures were removed 14 days after the surgical intervention, 

and the bitch was discharged from the hospital. The owner was instructed to continue 

the oral administration of PPA, following the same posological protocol, for life. The 

owner was also asked to give monthly feedback for the rest of the treatment, sooner if 

needed. A prescription for ursodeoxycholic acid (Ursofalk, Dr. Falk Pharma GmbH, 

Germany; 250 mg/tb, 10 mg/kg, 24h PO for 14 days) was released to treat the cholecys-

titis, and a hepatic diet was also recommended.   

 

4. Discussion 

In this case, we postulate that the presence of a splenic mass in a nulliparous steri-

lized 14-year-old German Shepherd bitch led to an increase in abdominal pressure, par-

tially causing the urinary bladder to move from its abdominal topography into the pelvic 

cavity, facilitating the onset of USMI derived UI similar to the mechanism acknowledge 

in women where the increasing pressure of the enlarged uterus and fetal weight on the 

pelvic floor muscle (PFM) and the bladder throughout pregnancy [15], together with 

pregnancy-related hormonal changes, may lead to reduced PFM strength and their 

supportive and sphincteric function. In addition, these changes cause bladder, neck, and 

urethra mobility, leading to urethral sphincter incompetence [16–18].  



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 15  
 

In dogs, USMI is the most common cause of acquired UI (i.e., 3-5%). The frequency is 

influenced by gender, breed, body size, weight, docking, gonadectomy, urethral length, 

urethral tone, and bladder neck positioning, without any known breed predisposition 

[2,4,19]. 

Ovariectomy or OHE does not result in different continence rates; however, the risk 

of USMI developing increases with large breed dogs; although mixed young to mid-

dle-aged spayed females weighing more than 15 kg are typically affected, the risk de-

creasing every month the sterilization is postponed in the first year. However, spaying 

females before the onset of the first heat cycle is less likely to develop UI than those ster-

ilized later in life. In contrast, dogs weighing less than 15 kg are less prone to develop this 

condition [3,5,20–22]. 

In adult females, USMI is the leading cause of UI [3], while in young bitches, the 

leading causes are various congenital abnormalities, especially ureteral ectopia [3,23]. In 

some breeds, including German Shepherds, USMI is encountered in juveniles and adult 

females [3]. In the present case, the bitch was a German Shepherd crossbreed and pre-

sented with UI about seven years after spaying intervention. To date, there is no clear 

correlation between the presence of USMI and the spaying age of the bitches; however, it 

is reported equally in both males and females [5,6,20,21].  

Some reports suggest that about 89-90%% of the spayed bitches may develop USMI 

[3,22]; moreover, UI can occur immediately after sterilization, with the majority of the 

females developing USMI in the first year after OHE; however, USMI can develop even 

after ten years after OHE. About 75% of bitches develop USMI within three years of 

gonadectomy [3,6,7,20,21,24].  

Urinary incontinence may be permanent or intermittent [3,7]. The exact patho-

physiology of USMI is mainly unknown; however, it is multifactorial [21]. The impact of 

OHE on urinary tract receptor expression is controversial. There is a decrease in urethral 

closure pressure within one year of OHE, even in continent individuals. If the urethral 

closure pressure drops below a certain threshold, the sphincter becomes incompetent, 

and UI develops [21,25].  

Moreover, about 75% of the spayed bitches that acquired subsequent USMI had at 

least one oestrus, and 78% presented pelvic bladders [3,26]. Interestingly, one report 

showed that UI was present in a bitch when oestrus would have been expected, even 

though the bitch was spayed [3]. Moreover, compared with continent bitches, which 

usually show an intraabdominal bladder neck, incontinent bitches have a shorter and 

dilated urethra [3,22,26]. In the current case, a pelvic bladder was also identified on the 

CT.  

In bitches with intrapelvic bladder neck, an increase in the intrabdominal pressure 

will be transmitted only to the bladder. Furthermore, the intravesical pressure will rise. If 

the urethral resistance is poor, urine leakage can occur, as in bitches with USMI, which 

tend to be more incontinent whenever the intra-abdominal pressure increases [26]. Gen-

erally, UI worsens in sleeping dogs or during increased abdominal pressure episodes 

while barking, coughing, jumping in the owner's car, or recumbency [3,21,24]. In the 

present case, the owner reported that the bitch was leaking urine, especially while sleep-

ing or laying in the kennel. 

Hormonal abnormalities, mainly estrogen deficiency, may also impact sphincter 

incompetence; however, since not all incontinent dogs improve with estrogen supple-

mentation, it is unlikely that estrogens alone are solely responsible for the development 

of USMI [21]. Urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence may also predispose to uri-

nary tract infections [1]; however, treatment and presence of concurrent urinary pathol-

ogies, including urinary tract infections, do not influence the degree of incontinence 

[3,22]. 

There are no specific physical findings to USMI, but clinicians should pay attention 

to the bladder size, tone, and location. The CBC and TS are usually unaltered; however, 

they should be performed to rule out other concurrent pathologies. In animals with in-

appropriate urination, urinalysis and uroculture via cystocentesis for occult infections 



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 16  
 

like cystitis or endocrinology problems like diabetes, liver failure, or other metabolic 

disorders, especially when dogs present PU and polydipsia (PD), are recommended. The 

differential diagnostic should also assess the behavior causes of inappropriate urination. 

Imagistics are usually normal in dogs with USMI; however, abdominal imagistic is very 

important to rule out neoplastic or urinary tract calculi. If all the investigations are nega-

tive, a trial of medical therapy is acceptable for diagnostic and therapeutic. Cystometro-

grams and urethral pressure profiles measuring pressure along the length of the urethra 

are required to document decreased urethral tone [1,6,21,24,26].  

Imagistics revealed the presence of cholecystitis, a splenic mass, and a pelvic blad-

der in the present case. The elevated PAL and GGT levels are consistent with cholecysti-

tis. Besides the anemia and thrombocytosis, biochemistry, hematology, and urinalysis 

showed no other signs of occulted infections before the splenectomy. Moreover, after the 

surgery, the folded hepatic enzymes were caused by the hepatic biopsy. 

The long-term well-being of owners and pets is affected by USMI as its etiology is 

multifactorial and complicated. Therefore, treatment comprises a conservative approach 

followed by surgical management if needed. However, irrespective of the treatment 

protocol, life-long management of USMI is required [21]. 

Sympathomimetic alpha-adrenergic agents (i.e., PPA, Ephedrine, or pseudoephed-

rine) and hormonal-based drugs (i.e., estrogens, testosterone, or gonadotropin-releasing 

hormone; GnRH) are used to treat USMI. The first category of medical substances direct 

stimulates the smooth muscles of the internal urethral sphincter and bladder neck, lead-

ing to an increased sphincter tone and a subsequent alleviation of UI. As urethral 

sphincter tone increases, UI and vulvar scalding decrease over time [1,2,4,21,25].  

Usually, before surgery, most females are conservatively treated, mainly with PPA 

[22]. This choice is the frontline treatment of USMI and is intended for the life-long 

management of USMI-derived UI. Therapeutic dosages are effective between 1.5-2 mg/kg 

SID or BID, reaching long-term continence in bitches suffering from USMI; however, the 

treatment with PPA is also effective at a 1 mg/kg TID dose [1]. 

The clinical effect is observed in the first month of treatment. Furthermore, PPA ef-

fectively maintains continence between 90-97% of the treated bitches [1,2,21,24]. In the 

present case, the condition was alleviated after the first three days of PPA administration. 

Concurrently, the splenectomy might have also played an essential part in the liquidation 

of the USMI since the extra pressure exercised by the splenic mass on the urinary bladder 

was suppressed. 

The main side effects of PPA are diarrhea and vomiting; however, cardiovascular, 

neurologic, and behavioral changes like anxiety, excitement, and aggressiveness may 

also be present secondary to an increased sympathetic tone [1,4,21]. In the present case, 

no such side effects were reported; however, one month after the beginning of the PPA 

treatment, the owner reported that the bitch presented a healthy appetite, a shiny coat, 

and a substantial improvement in mentation and alertness. These positive effects could 

be partially explained by the increased sympathetic tone and the liquidation of the ane-

mia. 

Ephedrine or pseudoephedrine can also be of aid. However, these medical sub-

stances have an efficacy of only 25-75% and may show adverse effects such as panting, 

hyporexia, and lethargy [1,21].  

Oestrogens (i.e., Estriol) alone or combined with alpha-adrenergic drugs may be 

necessary to reach continence in some affected females. However, estrogens are not 

side-effect-free since vulvar hyperplasia, vaginal discharge, and even pyometra are re-

ported [1,21,25]. A combination of GnRH analogs and PPA are also used; however, the 

treatment is effective for no more than six months [1].  

In male dogs, testosterone may be considered if they do not respond favorably to 

the PPA treatment; however, side effects are also reported in this category of drugs 

[1,21,25]. Moreover, the use of methyltestosterone (0.32-1.27 mg/kg PO SID twice a week 

or eod) in spayed bitches, may be more effective than in castrated male dogs, with excel-



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 17  
 

lent responses between 2 to 4 weeks; however, it seems that the tapper off the testos-

terone dose has a negative impact on incontinence [27].  

The main reasons owners decide to start surgical treatment are represented by poor 

response to medication (i.e., 17%), progressive unresponsiveness to PPA administration 

(i.e., 48%), presence of side effects associated with PPA therapy, and owner preference for 

surgical treatment rather than medical approach (i.e., 29%) [22]. 

In refractory patients, the following treatment options are mainly surgical and in-

clude minimally invasive urethral occluders, urethral bulking, urethropexy, cys-

tourethropexy, and colposuspension, or surgically inserting a hydraulic artificial urethral 

sphincter (HAUS) [2,7,21,28].  

The HAUS placement represents a relatively novel approach. It is implemented in 

animals where medical management or other surgical approaches are ineffective. To 

date, the HAUS system is believed to provide the best long-term results for the surgical 

treatment of bitches with refractory UI, with most dogs achieving complete continence 

with few reported complications and no other medical treatments needed [5,6,28]. Nev-

ertheless, the overall prognosis for USMI is typically good with long-term therapy [21]. 

The nonmalignant splenic masses are usually identified in 7-14 years dogs; howev-

er, nonmalignant and malignant splenic masses can coexist in the same individual [10]. In 

affected dogs, 17-50% of splenic masses are hematomas and account for the majority (i.e., 

46%) of the benign splenic masses [9,29–31]. In comparison, splenic and hepatic nodular 

hyperplasia is accounted for with a prevalence of about 44% and 38%, respectively [9].  

Usually, in dogs, splenic hematomas are secondary to underlying splenic disorders, 

such as NLH, and are less commonly a consequence of trauma [10,12,13]. For example, in 

a case series, a fall on the stairs is the only trauma-related splenic hematoma event re-

ported in dogs; however, whether a splenic mass existed prior to the traumatic event or 

not is unknown [14]. In the current case, the hematoma was identified in a 14-year-old 

spayed bitch, and the owner reported no trauma. 

Grossly splenic hemangiosarcomas and hematomas are indistinguishable during 

clinical examination, during surgery [10,14,32], and to some extent, even imagistic eval-

uation poses limitations [10,12,13]; moreover, it is possible that what initially is thought 

to be a splenic hematoma may be cancer. Thus histologic diagnosis is mandatory since 

the risk of misdiagnosis is high (i.e., 11%) [14]. The histological evaluation of the speci-

mens sent to the Pathology Department confirmed the presence of NLH.  

The most affected dogs are the German shepherds (i.e., 11.3%) and Labrador re-

trievers (i.e., 6%), with splenic NLH, with or without hematomas, as the most diagnosed 

benign splenic mass (i.e., 86%); moreover, 46% of the animals being spayed bitches, with 

a mean age at the time of splenic removal of ten years [14,33].  

Interestingly, about 7.6% of dogs with splenic masses die in the perioperative win-

dow. However, only 1% of these dogs die during hospitalization [31]. The leading un-

derlying causes of death are uncontrolled hemorrhage (i.e., 24.4%), Portal system 

thrombosis (PST; i.e., 22%), Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE; i.e., 9.8%), pneumonia 

(i.e., 9.8%, each) or, Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC; i.e., 7.3%) [31]. 

Gender, splenic mass volume, elevated ALP levels, hemorrhagic peritoneal effusion, 

anemia, body weight, transfusion coagulopathy, palpable masse, and metastasis are the 

main parameters evaluated for the survival of dogs diagnosed with splenic hematomas 

[14]. In addition, marked preoperative thrombocytopenia, anemia, and the development 

of intraoperative ventricular arrhythmias are risk factors for perioperative death in dogs 

with splenic masses [31]. However, besides the presence of a distended and sensitive 

abdomen, increased ALP levels, and anemia, no other risk factors had been identified in 

the perioperative window in the current case. 

Prompt surgical interventions increase life expectancy after splenectomy in dogs 

with benign splenic masses [29,30]. In cases with splenic hematomas, the overall median 

survival is 647 days after surgery, up to 3287 days (i.e., 2-9 years) [14]. To date, at 219 

days after splenectomy, the owner reports positive feedback. In addition, the health sta-

tus of the bitch had much improved, with no reported side effects whatsoever.  



Cluj Vet J 2022, 27, 1 18  
 

To the author's knowledge, this is the first case report where a pelvic bladder, and 

consecutive USMI, are associated with a splenic hematoma in a nulliparous sterilized 

mixed German Shepherd bitch. Therefore, splenic masses should be considered predis-

posing factors for UI development, consecutive to USMI, especially in old, spayed bitches. 

Supplementary Materials: Figure S1: The gross aspect of the splenic hematoma in a 14-years old spayed 

mixed German Shepherd bitch, after splenectomy, Table S1: Pre-operatory and post-operatory biochemi-

cal and hematological values, Table S2: Pre-operatory and post-operatory blood gases values (i.e., venous 

blood). 

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, data curation, writing, review, and editing IV; Patient moni-

toring, anesthesia, surgery, CAO, ANA, VNO, and IM; Imagistics RP, AR; Post-op treatment AR, MV, 

EMM, and IV; Histopathologic examination and interpretation FT. All authors have read and agreed to the 

published version of the manuscript. 

Funding: The publication was supported by funds from the National Research Development Projects to 

finance excellence (PFE)-14 (ID 546) granted by the Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation, and Dig-

italization. 

Institutional Review Board Statement: This research was conducted according to the national (Legea 43 

din 2014) and European (Directiva EU 63/2010) legislation regulations regarding animal protection and 

welfare for scientific purposes. The owner was informed that the outcomes of this case report would be 

published and gave its verbal consent for publication. Accordingly, ethical review and approval were 

waived for this study, as standard procedures were implied. 

Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge the entire Academic Veterinary Hospital staff for their 

unconditional involvement in the treatment and well-being of all patients treated in our Faculty of Veter-

inary Medicine. 

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. 

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