166

ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library 
Websites

Yan Quan Liu, Arlene Bielefield, and Jennifer Beckwith*

Studying ADA accessibility at library websites of top universities selected from the 
U.S. News and World Report, the authors used WAVE and AChecker to assess data in 
compliance with WCAG 2.0 standards. Almost 8 out of 10 public university academic 
libraries reported accessibility errors as one of the major findings. Low color contrast 
was becoming a more commonly occurring accessibility issue, making it difficult for 
people with vision impairments to perceive the color of the image. The outcomes of 
the study suggest that academic libraries around the world should continue improv-
ing their website accessibility.

Introduction 
We are embarking upon the 2020s with assistive and accessible websites continuing to elude 
many public academic library websites. This became more evident when we faced a global 
pandemic beginning in 2020. It included a lockdown that shut down schools, universities, 
and many public libraries, forcing students of all ages and abilities to learn from home via the 
internet. Digital accessibility (or the lack thereof) became more evident during this time since 
the most adversely affected students were those with disabilities. Inaccessibility and incompat-
ibility in educational software, hardware, and websites became increasingly apparent when 
the students had to use varied devices and internet services to learn. 

Under Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), public universities must 
provide equal access to services and programs including activities and architectural changes 
to physical facilities,1 yet digital accommodations and access still face legal scrutiny. Common 
inaccessibility errors and noncompliance issues include but are not limited to improper text 
size, missing alt text in images, missing labels for input text types, anchor links with no text, 
incorrect H1 or header tag placement, and images with low-contrast text.2

In determining the level of accessibility for individuals with disabilities accessing academic 
library websites at public universities, this study collected data starting in 2019 and continued 
through the global pandemic in 2020 and 2021. The intent is to demonstrate the importance of 
digitally accessible library websites for students and others with disabilities. 

*  Yan Quan Liu is Professor of Library and Information Science at Southern Connecticut State University, email: 
liuy1@southernct.edu; Arlene Bielefield is Associate Professor of Library and Information Science at Southern 
Connecticut State University, email: Bielefielda1@southernct.edu; Jennifer Beckwith is an MLIS Graduate of 
Southern Connecticut State University and a Children’s Librarian at Guilford Free Library, email: 406jenn@
gmail.com. ©2024 Yan Quan Liu, Arlene Bielefield, and Jennifer Beckwith, Attribution-NonCommercial (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) CC BY-NC.

mailto:liuy1@southernct.edu
mailto:Bielefielda1@southernct.edu
mailto:406jenn@gmail.com
mailto:406jenn@gmail.com
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/


ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  167

Literature Review
Research on the accessibility of websites can be found everywhere in the world. Website inac-
cessibility errors significantly affect users with disabilities. In their 2018 study, Acosta-Vargas, 
Acosta, and Lujan-Mora3 used the Web Accessibility Evaluation Tool, WAVE4 to study Latin 
American University websites and found that many of them lack accessibility in one key 
area—alternative image text. 

In a 2019 qualitative study conducted by Mulliken,5 eighteen blind library users tested 
an academic website using screen readers, a common assistive technology.6 One of the results 
from the study demonstrated that screen readers significantly increase the amount of time 
needed for disabled students to access information. A task that would take a few minutes 
for the nondisabled person to complete took upwards of 20 to 30 minutes7 for an individual 
with disabilities to complete. Even with a screen reader, a student with a degree of low vi-
sion would need much more time to complete something as simple as an essay question and 
could quickly fall behind.

Cassner, Maxey-Harris, and Anaya8 reviewed public academic library websites for us-
ability with people with disabilities as the end users. Focusing specifically on the topic of 
accessibility, the topics they explored were the library services offered or which should be 
offered for easily locatable services or items from library websites. Their recommended general 
guidelines of accessibility were: ease of website navigation, a friendly welcoming website, 
and a site that is designed with accessibility for end users versus staff.9

Liu, Bielefield, and McKay in their 2018 study examined 122 library homepages of Urban 
Library Council [ULC] members and found that only 7 homepages presented as error free when 
tested for compliance with the Section 508 standards.10 Following this examination, Liu led 
another team probing private colleges in 2020.11 This evaluation indicated that although errors 
described as missing form label still occur on these websites, other known accessibility errors 
and issues have been significantly improved compared to the results found five years earlier.

Susan B. Asselin stressed the importance of knowledge in the area of learning/assistive 
technologies for the success of students with disabilities.12 She believes that the accessibility 
of these technologies gives the student necessary flexibility and addresses their unique needs 
to successfully learn in the ever-growing digital academic environment.13

Relevant studies and articles indicate recommendations for improving digital accessibility 
through training and updated information. Library staff members must be better informed 
through training sessions to understand the updates of ADA law and assistive technology 
advancements. For web designers, ADA accessibility should be included in the development 
of websites. Accessibility, usability, and inclusion must be considered with the current and 
well-established guidelines such as WCAG. Deque University14 offers accessibility training 
and certification on their website, www.dequeuniversity.com. Professional organizations such 
as International Association of Accessibility Professionals (IAAP) are also leading the way for 
certifications including resources, membership, and international chapters.15 

The related literature shows accessibility is never over and done with; it is a constantly evolv-
ing responsibility. In light of the global pandemic, critical work, along with continued improve-
ments in technology and employee training, should provide greater digital accessibility for all. 

Legal Implications
Disabilities are not just physical but can also be mental. An individual with a disability can 

http://www.dequeuniversity.com


168  College & Research Libraries March 2024

be defined as a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one 
or more major life activities; has a record of such impairment; and/or is regarded as having 
such impairment. Being disabled, one can acquire employable skills and tools, but without 
accessible places of employment, it can be a struggle to support oneself and gain personal 
independence. The inception of the ADA made way for individuals with disabilities to lead 
independent lives that would not segregate them from working, living, and accessing the 
physical world along with their nondisabled peers.16

Until recently, many plaintiffs with disabilities had a difficult time gaining access to most 
websites.17 Even now, despite the uptick of litigation and the requests for clarification, there is 
no clear legal resolution to the issue of cyberspace being a public place of accommodation.18 
Websites and online communications based on the fundamentals of availability ought to appear 
accessible to all.19 In 2019 there was some movement in the legal discussion of digital space as 
a public arena of accommodation. At that time, however, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to 
hear an appeal from Domino’s Pizza Inc. [Domino’s Pizza v. Robles] over its website and mobile 
app and whether they were required to comply with federal disability law.20 In short, it was 
deemed that all websites with physical public locations must be accessible to disabled citizens.

During the inception of the ADA in 1990, Section 508 was written without digital ac-
cessibility in mind. Given the current digital world, an update was needed. The “Refresh of 
2018” began in January 2017 when revisions and court interpretations gave way to updated 
requirements for information and technology to Section 508.21 The Refresh became effective on 
January 18, 2018.22 The major requirements included in the Refresh were: the functionality of 
the web page, accessibility for individuals with disabilities, and keeping pace with advances 
in technology.23 The Refresh also included how software, operating systems, and the equip-
ment interact with assistive technologies.24 

The Internet does not have geographic borders and can be accessed globally. With global 
accessibility in mind, the Refresh of 2018 incorporated the global standards from the Web 
Content Accessibility Guidelines under the federal guidelines. These global standards are more 
commonly known as WCAG 2.0 under the W3C. Section 508 was now using recognized and 
accepted global standards of practice for accessibility, including giving clarity on the use of 
assistive technologies, and creating and displaying accessible content on the web.25

Research Design and Methodologies
As a continuing effort from earlier studies of the ADA and digital accessibility on ivy league 
library websites26 and urban public libraries websites,27 this study combined quantitative and 
qualitative content analysis to examine the library websites of 100 Top Ranked U.S. Public 
Universities and Colleges from U.S. News and World Reports.28

A population sample this size would allow for the review of a broad range of colleges 
and universities with various student body sizes from across the United States, plus be large 
enough to examine trends and patterns within the results. In this way, the results of the study 
would impact a larger number of students. 

Globally recognized website evaluators, WAVE & AChecker, evaluate a website’s accessi-
bility by checking its HTML and XML codes. Both WAVE and AChecker aim to check websites 
against Section 508 standards and WCAG 2.0 guidelines. Studies that successfully identify 
website accessibility issues using WAVE can be seen in Challenges to Assess Accessibility in Higher 
Education Websites: A Comparative Study of Latin American Universities29 and Evidence of Our Values: 



ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  169

Disability Inclusion on Library Instruction Websites in 2018.30 A recent study using AChecker to 
evaluate website accessibility can be found in Journal of King Saud University—Computer and 
Information Sciences titled Accessibility of Indian Universities’ Homepages: An Exploratory Study 
written by Ismail and Kuppusamy.31 Data collection occurred over an extended period from 
2000 to 2015 in a review of digital accessibility at universities in India.32

In this study, each library’s home webpage was put into the WAVE and AChecker tools 
and outcomes for the number of total accessibility errors were recorded. After the data was 
collected, Excel spreadsheets were used to record precise data in a custom-designed code-
book. Each of these randomly selected errors was recorded, calculated, and reviewed, with 
recommended options to fix them. The objectives were to identify errors using Web Content 
Accessibility Guidelines along with human evaluation and observation of web content, and 
then pinpoint them into these categories: reported errors, contrast errors, alerts, features, and 
structural elements. 

WAVE and AChecker found errors that were labeled differently; in WAVE as reported errors 
and in AChecker as known problems. For the simplicity of this research study and limitation 
of time, data from the tabs reported errors and known problems were compiled and the specific 
errors: missing form label and low contrast under WAVE and img element missing alt attribute and 
id attribute were not unique under AChecker were randomly selected and quantified.

FIGURE 1
Overall Errors of University Library Websites reported by Website Evaluators

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170  College & Research Libraries March 2024

Research Findings
Samples of accessibility errors were reviewed, tabulated, and analyzed in this study indicating 
there are continued obstacles to accessibility despite the Refresh of 2018. Accessibility errors 
continue to be a major issue on most university library websites. While WAVE and AChecker 
report issues differently, the online tools give out a similar percentage of the overall error-free 
count. Both evaluators employ the global WCAG standards to run their error reports with 
independent algorithms and programming parameters, but both reach similar conclusions. 

Overall error reporting results from WAVE and AChecker indicated that 80 percent and 
81 percent of public university academic libraries had accessibility errors under WCAG 2.0 
(Level A) guidelines [See Figure 1] and conversely 20 percent and 19 percent respectively were 
error-free. Software overlap in error-free data was found in two universities: Montclair State 
University and University of Wyoming.

Top Major Error
In WAVE, the missing form label error means “a form control does not have a corresponding 
label.”33 In Section 508, missing form label is defined as a text label for a form control is missing 
or hidden.34 Form labels provide important descriptions for screen readers and help disabled 

users navigate around a page 
and perform simple tasks 
like searches and data input. 
If there is no associated text 
label, screen readers will not 
read what is on the screen and 
disabled users will be unable 
to input information. The 
missing form label error repre-
sents a failure of basic website 
accessibility and creates a 
deterrent to academic success 
and independent learning for 
individuals with disabilities.

Statistics from the data set 
analyzed by WAVE indicated 
that 38 percent of schools had 
the missing form label error and 
62 percent did not. Figure 2 
displays the percentage of 
the webpages with errors in 
ascending order. The reported 
errors ranged from less than 1 
percent to 10.71 percent as the 
highest.

In terms of the mean, it 
was 1.12 of missing form labels 
per school; in terms of num-

FIGURE 2
Missing Form Label Percentage in Ascending Order



ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  171

bers, the lowest count was 1 and the highest individual count at 12 was the University of 
Pittsburgh.

WAVE’s recommendation to correct or avoid the missing form label error is: “If a text label 
for a form control is visible, use the <label> element to associate it with its respective form 
control. If there is no visible label, either provide an associated label, add a descriptive title 
attribute to the form control, or reference the label(s) using aria-labelled (sic) by. Labels are 
not required for image, submit, reset, button, or hidden form controls.”35 This study recom-
mends that when labels are hidden (implicit) visually, then the website developers need to 
provide code that is supported by assistive technology.

Additional Errors
Low Contrast
The low contrast error per WAVE occurs when there is little color difference or contrast between 
foreground and background colors.36 This error can affect (but is not limited to) color blind 
and low vision individuals. Many individuals with colorblindness have specific shades or 
color frequencies that are difficult to distinguish in both digital and non-digital environments. 
One example of a low contrast error would be a white font on a yellow background. 

Of the 100 academic library websites reviewed with WAVE, 94 percent reported low contrast 
errors. Purdue University-West Lafayette had the largest sum of reported errors per school, 
with 111 low contrast errors. Only 6 percent of universities had error-free presentations: Ari-
zona State University-Tempe, Temple University, University of Connecticut-Storrs, University 
of Maryland-College Park, University of Virginia, and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 
The mean was 4.01 errors; the adjusted mean removing the skew of 111 contrast problems 
from Purdue University, went down to 2.90 errors.

When text and images of texts are utilized, contrast ratios must be 4.5:1 according to 
WCAG 2.0 (Level AA) Distinguishable rule 1.4.3.37 When utilizing larger text, a minimum of 

FIGURE 3
Example of Low Contrast of Screen View38



172  College & Research Libraries March 2024

18 point should be used.39 The minimum font size for smaller content is 14 points, with a bold 
font size of 14. A contrast ratio of at least 3:135 is required for both text sizes.40

A screen view sample of the low contrast error from the University of Pittsburgh (www.
library.pitt.edu/) is shown in Figure 3. The lighter lettering appears to be difficult to read on 
the white background. The recommended fix would be to use a larger, black font. This would 
correspond with the WAVE guideline for enhanced contrast.

Id Attribute is Not Unique 
The id attribute is not unique error resulted in a roughly 50/50 split between schools with and 
without the error. Forty-four percent of the 100 data points had an id attribute that is not unique 
error, while 56 percent did not. With assistive technology at the heart of ADA accessibility, 
this finding is highly disheartening since the need for unique identifiers while using assistive 
technologies is essential for disabled users.

This data shows that over half of the public universities studied do not acknowledge or 
accommodate assistive devices. A student with a disability attending a state institution may 
have a tough time navigating their college library website with this kind of oversight. Failure 
to accommodate disabled users significantly limits college options for students with disabili-
ties who may already face financial challenges, whether they choose to live away from home 
or stay close to home. Because not all universities provide the same programs or the same 
level of accessibility with those programs, disabled students end up limiting their career or 
life aspirations.

The University of California System provides a good example of assistive technology 
incompatibility. Because several schools appeared on the sample set, they were regarded as 
a good sample within the data set demonstrating this error. The error computations were a 
statistical inverse of the overall data set, which was an intriguing side note. Nonetheless, they 
revealed how many universities within a single state were adversely affected. More than half of 
California public colleges’ academic libraries lacked software or hardware that made websites 
accessible to people with disabilities. In comparison 
to the entire data, the compatibility vs incompatibility 
of assistive technology accessibility is almost 50/50. 
When looking for schools in California, students with 
disabilities may find it difficult to believe that less 
than half of the California university library websites 
recognize their assistive technology. Table 1 shows 
compatibility and incompatibility among the Cali-
fornia Public Universities.

Img Element Missing Alt Attribute 
The img element missing alt attribute is an ongoing 
source of frustration for people with disabilities. Miss-
ing image alternative text and attributes, or the img 
element missing alt attribute, was found in 19 percent of 
the surveyed institutions, with the total error count of 
382 and a mean of 3.82. Skewed data occurred from 
two universities with very high counts of this error: 

TABLE 1
California Public Universities 

Assistive Technology 
Compatibility Results

Compatible

Davis

Los Angeles

Santa Barbara

San Diego

Incompatible

Berkeley

Irvine

Merced

Riverside

Santa Cruz

http://www.library.pitt.edu/
http://www.library.pitt.edu/


ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  173

University of Maryland-Baltimore 
County (135) and Temple Univer-
sity (144). When removed from the 
mean for skewness; the adjusted 
mean went down to 1.05 errors per 
university. The data indicated that 
there is often only one error per 
full webpage, which is somewhat 
encouraging, but means there is 
still work to do. Figure 4 illustrates 
19 schools with the percentage img 
element missing alt attribute error 
per academic library website; the 
remaining 81 schools had a zero 
count. The percentages ranged 
from 0.26 percent to 37.70 percent.

Individuals with auditory 
and visual disabilities are most 
affected by the img element missing 
alt attribute, which as stated in the 
WCAG 2.0 (Level A) guideline 1.1 
requires that organizations pro-
vide a text equivalent for every 
non-text element on a webpage. 
In the same way that the missing form label hampered academic achievement, the img element 
missing alt attribute hampered digital access, academic performance, and autonomous learning 
at the post-secondary level. According to the reasoning of this study, individuals with visual 
disabilities can use alternate text to substitute for the image they can’t see, while those with 
auditory disabilities can read.

For any image or video on a page, there needs to be alternate text and/or closed captioning 
(CC). When using CC, it is important to review and edit it, as errors in automatic transcription 
from audio software may occur. When observed on the University of Pittsburgh’s website 
(www.library.pitt.edu), the label “GIVE NOW” had no explanation, audio, or alternate text 
of its purpose. When using assistive technology, the user would hover over the box with their 
assistive technology, with no alternate attribute of the image to what is the box’s function. A 
study recommendation: place a tag next to the “GIVE NOW” with a simple explanation and 
label for those using screen readers or similar tools. 

Conclusion and Future Study Perspectives
According to “WCAG Guideline 1.3. Adaptable,” to be adaptable for individuals with dis-
abilities, content should be presented in accessible layouts that don’t lose the content or struc-
ture of the webpage and make it easier for disabled users to operate and navigate content. 
At the very least, website designers should supply alt text for images so there are detailed 
descriptions of what an image is. A bigger fix would be to run their pages through WAVE or 
AChecker and correct all the errors they can.

FIGURE 4
Img Element Missing Alt Attribute in Ascending Order

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174  College & Research Libraries March 2024

Section 508 was updated in 2018 with technological and legal improvements, includ-
ing the adoption of WCAG standards that are universally acknowledged. Many parents, 
educators, and researchers were reminded by the ongoing epidemic that a lack of academic 
accessibility for people with disabilities was becoming more obvious than ever. According to 
the findings of this and other studies, there is a dearth of substantial support for digital ac-
cessibility in the United States, especially assistive technology detection. When students are 
looking for post-secondary institutions, a lack of accessibility may obstruct or interfere with 
their college choices, academic achievement, as well as life goals such as independent living 
and future earning potential. 

Additional longitudinal studies revisiting the same data set in the future would be valu-
able and advantageous by comparing data from the studies in a quantitative way over time. 
The argument for using the same data set is that collecting error data and using the same error 
samples would disclose a lot of important information for suggestions on how to improve 
accessibility and/or make modifications, as well as how to design more error-free websites. 
This study’s findings confirm and reinforce the necessity of digital accessibility in today’s 
ever-changing digital ecosystem, where it is required, achievable, and possible. 

Acknowledgments
The research study covered in this article was funded by a Faculty Research Grant from the 
American Association of University Professors (CSU-AAUP) for the 2019–2020 academic year. 
The survey was conducted and the report was written by Jennifer Beckwith in accordance with 
Dr. Yan Quan Liu’s directions. The study topic was proposed by Dr. Arlene C. Bielefield, who 
also edited the manuscript. The research was overseen by Dr. Yan Quan Liu, who finalized 
the draft of the paper for publication.



ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  175

Appendix A. Table of Relevant Studies 
Alphabetical by author.

SOURCE KEY POINTS
Acosta-Vargas, P.; Acosta, T; Lujan-
Mora, S. (2018) Challenges to Assess 
Accessibility in Higher Education 
Websites: A Comparative Study of Latin 
America Universities

Study on web accessibility at Latin American universities. The 
universities had a lack of alternative text on images. WCAG and 
WCAG-EM were used as benchmarks and WAVE was used as a 
research and evaluation tool.

Carter, C.J. (2004)
Providing Services for Students with 
Disabilities in an Academic Library

Study delved into bibliographic instruction, web page design, 
and staff training. Focus was on students with disabilities, yet 
all students could benefit from the different learning styles and 
develop sensitivity to those different from themselves.

Cassner, M.; Maxey-Harris, C.; Anaya, 
T. (2011)
Differently Able: A Review of Academic 
Library Websites for People with 
Disabilities

Study on academic library websites for individuals with 
disabilities. Topics included services offered, services that 
should be offered, and ease of access of library homepage for 
disabled users. Recommendation by the authors included: ease 
of navigation, positive tone to create a welcoming website, and 
cater website to end users instead of staff. 

DeLancey, L.; Ostergaard, K. (2016)
Accessibility for Electronic Resources 
Librarians

Study explained how to make resources electronically 
accessible and how universities can create strategies in initiating 
accessibility. WCAG was discussed.

Fulton, C. (2011)
Web Accessibility, Libraries, and the 
Law

Article details background federal laws and how the states use 
the ADA law; discusses how and why librarians are “gatekeepers 
of information and research resources and should be on the 
forefront of making information ‘unrestricted and unhindered.’” 

Graves, S.; German, E. (2018)
Evidence of Our Values: Disability 
Inclusion on Library Instruction 
Websites

Study looked for visible evidence of inclusive practices in library 
instruction programs; content analysis of library instruction 
websites and accessibility language was studied. WAVE was used 
as a web accessibility tool for library content.  

Hackett, S.; Parmanto, B. (2005)
A Longitudinal Evaluation of 
Accessibility: Higher Education Web 
Sites

Websites were viewed from 1997–2002. The findings in the 
study were that the more complex a website became, the more 
inaccessible it was. At the time of the study, there were limited 
longitudinal studies to explore study subject matter. 

Jaeger, P.T. (2002)
Section 508 Goes to the Library: 
Complying with Federal Legal 
Standards to Produce Accessible 
Electronic and Information Technology 
in Libraries

Discusses the active role librarians can take to make their 
website technology accessible using vendors and manufacturers 
of software. It should not be considered a matter of cost and 
complexity but a matter of accessibility and usability.

Mullican, A. (2019)
Eighteen Blind Library Users’ 
Experiences with Library Websites and 
Search Tools in U.S. Academic Libraries: 
A Qualitative Study

A qualitative study with blind academic library users. The users 
found the first time using the website that navigation was time- 
consuming. Each human subject used screen readers, a common 
adaptive technology. Some subjects found it took them upwards 
of 20 to 30 minutes versus a few minutes for sighted user to use the 
website; the constant time constraint would add more pressure to 
keep up with academic course load than their sighted peers.  

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176  College & Research Libraries March 2024

SOURCE KEY POINTS
Stitz, T.; Blundell, S. (2018) Evaluating 
the Accessibility of Online Library 
Guides at an Academic Library

Reviewed 18 online library resource guides against a rubric of 
14 criteria from WCAG 2.0. Study showed that the library guides 
failed against seven of the rubric criteria.  

Thompson, T.; Burgstahler, S.; 
Comden, B. (2006) Research on Web 
Accessibility in Higher Education

Bobby was used as an evaluation tool. Viewed the sample 
universities’ websites such as university home page, campus 
directory, course listings, and employment home page. Bobby 
had limitations in testing accessibility yet still pulled some 
valuable data. Stressed the importance of informing faculty, 
administration, and web designers of accessibility needs.

Wentz, B.; Jaeger, P.T.; Lazar, J. (2011)
Retrofitting Accessibility: The Legal 
Inequality of After-the-Fact Online 
Access for Persons with Disabilities in 
the United States (2011)

Various industries have a poor history of ADA compliance. Sites 
are not designed with accessibility in mind.



ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  177

Appendix B. Data Set

College Name Library Website
Arizona State University-Tempe https://lib.asu.edu/
Auburn University https://www.lib.auburn.edu/
Ball State University https://www.bsu.edu/academics/libraries
Binghamton University-SUNY https://www.binghamton.edu/libraries/
Clemson University https://libraries.clemson.edu/
College of William and Mary https://libraries.wm.edu/
Colorado School of Mines https://www.mines.edu/library/
Colorado State University https://lib.colostate.edu/
Florida International University https://library.fiu.edu/
Florida State University https://www.lib.fsu.edu/
George Mason University https://library.gmu.edu/
Georgia Institute of Technology https://www.library.gatech.edu/
Illinois State University https://library.illinoisstate.edu/
Indiana University-Bloomington https://libraries.indiana.edu/
Iowa State University https://www.lib.iastate.edu/
Kansas State University https://www.lib.k-state.edu/
Louisiana State University-Baton Rouge https://www.lib.lsu.edu/
Miami University-Oxford http://www.lib.miamioh.edu/
Michigan State University https://lib.msu.edu/
Michigan Technological Institute https://www.mtu.edu/library/
Missouri University of Science and Technology https://library.mst.edu/
Montclair State University https://www.montclair.edu/library/
New Jersey Institute of Technology http://library.njit.edu/
North Carolina University-Raleigh https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/huntlibrary
Ohio State University-Columbus https://library.osu.edu/
Ohio University https://www.library.ohio.edu/
Oklahoma State University https://library.okstate.edu/
Oregon State University https://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/
Pennsylvania State University-University Park https://libraries.psu.edu/directory
Purdue University-West Lafayette https://www.lib.purdue.edu/
Rowan University https://www.lib.rowan.edu/
Rutgers University-New Brunswick https://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/
Rutgers University-Newark https://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/dana
San Diego State University https://library.sdsu.edu/
Stony Brook University-SUNY http://www.library.stonybrook.edu/
SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry https://www.esf.edu/moonlib/
Temple University https://library.temple.edu/
Texas A&M University-College Station https://library.tamu.edu/
Texas Tech University https://www.depts.ttu.edu/library/

https://lib.asu.edu/
https://www.lib.auburn.edu/
https://www.bsu.edu/academics/libraries
https://www.binghamton.edu/libraries/
https://libraries.clemson.edu/
https://libraries.wm.edu/
https://www.mines.edu/library/
https://lib.colostate.edu/
https://library.fiu.edu/
https://www.lib.fsu.edu/
https://library.gmu.edu/
https://www.library.gatech.edu/
https://library.illinoisstate.edu/
https://libraries.indiana.edu/
https://www.lib.iastate.edu/
https://www.lib.k-state.edu/
https://www.lib.lsu.edu/
http://www.lib.miamioh.edu/
https://lib.msu.edu/
https://www.mtu.edu/library/
https://library.mst.edu/
https://www.montclair.edu/library/
http://library.njit.edu/
https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/huntlibrary
https://library.osu.edu/
https://www.library.ohio.edu/
https://library.okstate.edu/
https://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/
https://libraries.psu.edu/directory
https://www.lib.purdue.edu/
https://www.lib.rowan.edu/
https://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/
https://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/dana
https://library.sdsu.edu/
http://www.library.stonybrook.edu/
https://www.esf.edu/moonlib/
https://library.temple.edu/
https://library.tamu.edu/
https://www.depts.ttu.edu/library/


178  College & Research Libraries March 2024

College Name Library Website
University at Albany-SUNY https://library.albany.edu/
University at Buffalo-SUNY https://library.buffalo.edu/
University of Alabama https://www.lib.ua.edu/#/home
University of Alabama-Birmingham https://library.uab.edu/
University of Arizona https://new.library.arizona.edu/
University of Arkansas https://libraries.uark.edu
University of California -Los Angeles https://www.library.ucla.edu/
University of California-Berkeley http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/
University of California-Davis https://www.library.ucdavis.edu/
University of California-Irvine https://lib.uci.edu/
University of California-Merced http://library.ucmerced.edu/
University of California-Riverside https://library.ucr.edu/
University of California-San Diego https://library.ucsd.edu/
University of California-Santa Barbara https://www.library.ucsb.edu/
University of California-Santa Cruz https://library.ucsc.edu/
University of Central Florida https://library.ucf.edu/
University of Cincinnati https://libraries.uc.edu/
University of Colorado-Boulder https://www.colorado.edu/libraries/
University of Connecticut-Storrs https://lib.uconn.edu/
University of Delaware https://library.udel.edu/
University of Florida http://www.uflib.ufl.edu/books.html
University of George https://www.libs.uga.edu/
University of Hawaii-Manoa http://manoa.hawaii.edu/library/
University of Houston https://libraries.uh.edu/
University of Idaho https://www.lib.uidaho.edu/
University of Illinois-Chicago https://library.uic.edu/
University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign https://www.library.illinois.edu/
University of Iowa https://www.lib.uiowa.edu/
University of Kansas https://lib.ku.edu/
University of Kentucky http://libraries.uky.edu/
University of Louisville http://library.louisville.edu/home
University of Maine https://library.umaine.edu/
University of Maryland-Baltimore County https://library.umbc.edu/
University of Maryland-College Park https://www.lib.umd.edu/
University of Massachusetts-Amherst https://www.library.umass.edu/
University of Massachusetts-Lowell https://www.uml.edu/library/
University of Michigan-Ann Arbor  https://www.lib.umich.edu/
University of Minnesota-Twin Cities https://www.lib.umn.edu/
University of Mississippi https://libraries.olemiss.edu/
University of Missouri http://library.missouri.edu/
University of Nebraska-Lincoln https://libraries.unl.edu/

https://library.albany.edu/
https://library.buffalo.edu/
https://www.lib.ua.edu/#/home
https://library.uab.edu/
https://new.library.arizona.edu/
https://libraries.uark.edu
https://www.library.ucla.edu/
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/
https://www.library.ucdavis.edu/
https://lib.uci.edu/
http://library.ucmerced.edu/
https://library.ucr.edu/
https://library.ucsd.edu/
https://www.library.ucsb.edu/
https://library.ucsc.edu/
https://library.ucf.edu/
https://libraries.uc.edu/
https://www.colorado.edu/libraries/
https://lib.uconn.edu/
https://library.udel.edu/
http://www.uflib.ufl.edu/books.html
https://www.libs.uga.edu/
http://manoa.hawaii.edu/library/
https://libraries.uh.edu/
https://www.lib.uidaho.edu/
https://library.uic.edu/
https://www.library.illinois.edu/
https://www.lib.uiowa.edu/
https://lib.ku.edu/
http://libraries.uky.edu/
http://library.louisville.edu/home
https://library.umaine.edu/
https://library.umbc.edu/
https://www.lib.umd.edu/
https://www.library.umass.edu/
https://www.uml.edu/library/
https://www.lib.umich.edu/
https://www.lib.umn.edu/
https://libraries.olemiss.edu/
http://library.missouri.edu/
https://libraries.unl.edu/


ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  179

College Name Library Website
University of New Hampshire https://www.library.unh.edu/
University of New Mexico https://library.unm.edu/
University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill https://library.unc.edu/
University of Oregon https://library.uoregon.edu/
University of Pittsburgh https://www.library.pitt.edu/
University of Rhode Island https://web.uri.edu/library/
University of South Carolina https://sc.edu/about/offices_and_divisions/

university_libraries/
University of South Florida https://www.lib.usf.edu/
University of Tennessee https://www.lib.utk.edu/
University of Texas-Austin https://www.lib.utexas.edu/
University of Texas-Dallas https://www.utdallas.edu/library/
University of Utah https://lib.utah.edu/
University of Vermont https://library.uvm.edu/
University of Virginia https://search.lib.virginia.edu/
University of Washington https://www.lib.washington.edu/
University of Wisconsin-Madison https://www.library.wisc.edu/
University of Wyoming http://www.uwyo.edu/libraries/
Virginia Commonwealth University https://www.library.vcu.edu/
Virginia Tech https://lib.vt.edu/
Washington State University https://libraries.wsu.edu/
n=100 
Source: U.S. News and World Reports

https://www.library.unh.edu/
https://library.unm.edu/
https://library.unc.edu/
https://library.uoregon.edu/
https://www.library.pitt.edu/
https://web.uri.edu/library/
https://sc.edu/about/offices_and_divisions/university_libraries/
https://sc.edu/about/offices_and_divisions/university_libraries/
https://www.lib.usf.edu/
https://www.lib.utk.edu/
https://www.lib.utexas.edu/
https://www.utdallas.edu/library/
https://lib.utah.edu/
https://library.uvm.edu/
https://search.lib.virginia.edu/
https://www.lib.washington.edu/
https://www.library.wisc.edu/
http://www.uwyo.edu/libraries/
https://www.library.vcu.edu/
https://lib.vt.edu/
https://libraries.wsu.edu/


180  College & Research Libraries March 2024

Appendix C. Overall Error Counts for Wave
Totals in descending order

College Name Quantity 
Error

Error Y=1, 
N=0

Error Free 
Y=1, N=0

University of New Hampshire 84 1
University of Pittsburgh 42 1
University of South Florida 34 1
University of California-Davis 29 1
Ohio State University-Columbus 26 1
University of Kentucky 25 1
University of California-Santa Cruz 24 1
University of Texas-Austin 23 1
Iowa State University 22 1
Pennsylvania State University-University Park 22 1
University of California-Santa Barbara 21 1
University at Albany-SUNY 20 1
Illinois State University 18 1
University of Texas-Dallas 17 1
University of California-Merced 16 1
University of Maryland-Baltimore County 16 1
University of Massachusetts-Amherst 16 1
Ohio University 14 1
University of Mississippi 12 1
University of New Mexico 12 1
Rowan University 11 1
University of Colorado-Boulder 11 1
University of Illinois-Chicago 11 1
Florida International University 9 1
New Jersey Institute of Technology 9 1
Purdue University-West Lafayette 9 1
Texas Tech University 9 1
University of Connecticut-Storrs 9 1
University of Delaware 9 1
Virginia Tech 9 1
University of Alabama-Birmingham 8 1
University of Utah 8 1
Clemson University 7 1
Michigan Technological Institute 7 1
University of Maine 7 1
University of Tennessee 7 1
Kansas State University 6 1



ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  181

College Name Quantity 
Error

Error Y=1, 
N=0

Error Free 
Y=1, N=0

Miami University-Oxford 6 1
Missouri University of Science and Technology 6 1
San Diego State University 6 1
University of California-Los Angeles 6 1
University of Hawaii-Manoa 6 1
University of Minnesota-Twin Cities 6 1
Virginia Commonwealth University 6 1
University of Georgia 5 1
University of Michigan-Ann Arbor 5 1
Arizona State University-Tempe 4 1
Colorado School of Mines 4 1
Florida State University 4 1
Oregon State University 4 1
Temple University 4 1
University of Arizona 3 1
University of California-San Diego 3 1
University of Central Florida 3 1
University of Houston 3 1
University of Maryland-College Park 3 1
Binghamton University-SUNY 2 1
SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry 2 1
University of Arkansas 2 1
University of California-Berkeley 2 1
University of Iowa 2 1
University of Louisville 2 1
University of Missouri 2 1
University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill 2 1
Washington State University 2 1
Ball State University 1 1
College of William and Mary 1 1
Colorado State University 1 1
George Mason University 1 1
Louisiana State University-Baton Rouge 1 1
North Carolina University-Raleigh 1 1
Oklahoma State University 1 1
Texas A&M University-College Station 1 1
University of California-Irvine 1 1
University of Florida 1 1
University of Idaho 1 1



182  College & Research Libraries March 2024

College Name Quantity 
Error

Error Y=1, 
N=0

Error Free 
Y=1, N=0

University of Nebraska-Lincoln 1 1
University of Rhode Island 1 1
University of Wisconsin-Madison 1 1
Auburn University 0 0 1
Georgia Institute of Technology 0 0 1
Indiana University-Bloomington 0 0 1
Michigan State University 0 0 1
Montclair State University 0 0 1
Rutgers University-New Brunswick 0 0 1
Rutgers University-Newark 0 0 1
Stony Brook University-SUNY 0 0 1
University at Buffalo-SUNY 0 0 1
University of Alabama 0 0 1
University of California-Riverside 0 0 1
University of Cincinnati 0 0 1
University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign 0 0 1
University of Kansas 0 0 1
University of Massachusetts-Lowell 0 0 1
University of Oregon 0 0 1
University of South Carolina 0 0 1
University of Vermont 0 0 1
University of Virginia 0 0 1
University of Washington 0 0 1
University of Wyoming 0 0 1
TOTALS 758 79 21

7.58 79.00% 21.00%
mean percent percent



ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  183

Appendix D. Total Known Errors with AChecker
This table is in descending order.

College Name Quantity 
Error

Error Y=1, 
N=0

Error Free 
Y=1, N=0

Stony Brook University-SUNY 106 1
Montclair State University 94 1
Colorado State University 72 1
Florida State University 69 1
North Carolina University-Raleigh 49 1
University of Nebraska-Lincoln 48 1
Purdue University-West Lafayette 43 1
Binghamton University-SUNY 43 1
Pennsylvania State University-University Park 35 1
University of New Mexico 27 1
Texas A&M University-College Station 26 1
University of California -Los Angeles 25 1
University of Alabama-Birmingham 25 1
San Diego State University 23 1
Kansas State University 23 1
Illinois State University 23 1
Florida International University 23 1
University of Oregon 22 1
Washington State University 21 1
University of Colorado-Boulder 21 1
University of California-San Diego 21 1
University of California-Riverside 20 1
University of Washington 18 1
Miami University-Oxford 17 1
University of California-Davis 15 1
University of California-Irvine 12 1
University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill 11 1
University of Minnesota-Twin Cities 11 1
University of Central Florida 11 1
University of California-Berkeley 11 1
Ohio State University-Columbus 11 1
Louisiana State University-Baton Rouge 11 1
University of Virginia 10 1
University of Idaho 10 1
University of Alabama 9 1
Auburn University 9 1
University of Missouri 8 1



184  College & Research Libraries March 2024

College Name Quantity 
Error

Error Y=1, 
N=0

Error Free 
Y=1, N=0

University of California-Santa Barbara 8 1
Rowan University 8 1
Colorado School of Mines 7 1
Ball State University 7 1
Arizona State University-Tempe 7 1
University of Maine 6 1
Missouri University of Science and Technology 6 1
Michigan State University 6 1
University of New Hampshire 5 1
University of Georgia 5 1
University of Florida 5 1
University of Arizona 5 1
Temple University 5 1
University of Mississippi 4 1
University of Massachusetts-Lowell 4 1
University of Iowa 4 1
University of California-Santa Cruz 4 1
New Jersey Institute of Technology 4 1
Michigan Technological Institute 4 1
Indiana University-Bloomington 4 1
Clemson University 4 1
Virginia Tech 3 1
University of Kansas 3 1
University of Houston 3 1
Georgia Institute of Technology 3 1
College of William and Mary 3 1
University of Wyoming 2 1
University of Rhode Island 2 1
University of Pittsburgh 2 1
University of Michigan-Ann Arbor 2 1
University of Massachusetts-Amherst 2 1
University of Maryland-Baltimore County 2 1
University of Delaware 2 1
University of Arkansas 2 1
University of Texas-Dallas 1 1
University of Tennessee 1 1
University of South Florida 1 1
University of Maryland-College Park 1 1
University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign 1 1
University of Cincinnati 1 1



ADA Digital Accessibility on Academic Library Websites  185

Notes
 1. ADA Network, “What Are the Public or Private College-University’s Responsibilities to Students with 

Disabilities?” https://adata.org/faq/what-are-public-or-private-college-universitys-responsibilities-students-
disabilities. 

 2. Mike Cristancho, “How to Make Your Site ADA Compliant,” Medium, August 18, 2017, https://medium.
com/gauge-interactive/how-to-make-your-site-ada-compliant-74eb2a92ff3f. 

 3. Patricia Acosta-Vargas, Tania Acosta, Sergio Lujan-Mora, “Challenges to Assess Accessibility in Higher 
Education Websites: A Comparative Study of Latin American Universities,” IEEE Access, vol. 6 (2018), https://
ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8388714.

 4. WAVE, Web Accessibility Evaluation Tool, “Site-Wide WAVE Tools,”  http://wave.webaim.org/sitewide.
 5. Adina Mulliken, “Eighteen Blind Library Users’ Experiences with Library Websites and Search Tools in 

U.S. Academic Libraries: A Qualitative Study,” College and Research Libraries, vol 80, no. 2 (2019), https://crl.acrl.
org/index.php/crl/article/view/16947/19428.

 6. Ibid.
 7. Ibid.
 8. Mary Cassner, Charlene Maxey-Harris, Toni Anaya, “Differently Able: A Review of Academic Library 

College Name Quantity 
Error

Error Y=1, 
N=0

Error Free 
Y=1, N=0

University at Albany-SUNY 1 1
Rutgers University-Newark 1 1
Rutgers University-New Brunswick 1 1
Oregon State University 1 1
Virginia Commonwealth University 0 0 1
University of Wisconsin-Madison 0 0 1
University of Vermont 0 0 1
University of Utah 0 0 1
University of Texas-Austin 0 0 1
University of South Carolina 0 0 1
University of Louisville 0 0 1
University of Kentucky 0 0 1
University of Illinois-Chicago 0 0 1
University of Hawaii-Manoa 0 0 1
University of Connecticut-Storrs 0 0 1
University of California-Merced 0 0 1
University at Buffalo-SUNY 0 0 1
Texas Tech University 0 0 1
SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry 0 0 1
Oklahoma State University 0 0 1
Ohio University 0 0 1
Iowa State University 0 0 1
George Mason University 0 0 1
TOTALS 1,186 81 19

11.86 81.00% 19.00%
mean percent percent

https://adata.org/faq/what-are-public-or-private-college-universitys-responsibilities-students-disabilities
https://adata.org/faq/what-are-public-or-private-college-universitys-responsibilities-students-disabilities
https://medium.com/gauge-interactive/how-to-make-your-site-ada-compliant-74eb2a92ff3f
https://medium.com/gauge-interactive/how-to-make-your-site-ada-compliant-74eb2a92ff3f
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8388714
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8388714
http://wave.webaim.org/sitewide
https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/view/16947/19428
https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/view/16947/19428


186  College & Research Libraries March 2024

Websites for People with Disabilities” Behavioral & Social Sciences Librarian, vol. 30, no. 1, (March 2011): 33–51, 
https://tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01639269.2011.548722.

 9. Ibid.
10. Wenfang Yang, Bin Zhao, Yan Quan Liu, and Arlene Bielefield “Are Ivy League Libraries’ Websites ADA 

Compliant?” Information Technology and Libraries, vol. 39, no. 2 (2020); https://doi.org/10.6017/ital.v39i2.11577.
11. Yan Quan Liu, Arlene Bielefield, and Peter McKay, “Are Urban Public Libraries’ Websites Accessible to 

Americans with Disabilities?” Universal Access in the Information Society 18 (2019): 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10209-017-0571-7.

12. Susan B. Asselin, “Learning and Assistive Technologies for College Transition,” Journal of Vocational 
Rehabilitation, vol. 40, no. 3 (January 2014): 223–230, https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-vocational-
rehabilitation/jvr687.

13. Ibid.
14. Deque University, “Become an Accessibility Expert” (May 25, 2021), www.dequeuniversity.com.
15. International Association of Accessibility Professionals (IAAP), “About IAAP,” https://www.accessibil-

ityassociation.org/s/about.
16. Arlene Mayerson, “The History of the Americans with Disabilities Act, A Movement Perspective,” Dis-

ability Rights Education and Defense Fund [DREDF] (1992) https://dredf.org/about-us/publications/the-history-of-
the-ada/.

17. Trevor Crowley, “Wheelchair Ramps in Cyberspace: Bringing the Americans with Disabilities Act into 
the 21st Century” Brigham Young University Law Review, vol. 2013 issue 3, no. 11, (2013): 651–690, https://digitalc-
ommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2013/iss3/11/.

18. Kimberlieanne Podlas, “Website Accessibility and the Americans with Disabilities Act” Journal of Internet 
Law, vol 19 no. 5 (2015): 3–16.

19. Ibid.
20. Amanda Robert, “Disability Law, SCOTUS Rejects Pizza Delivery Company’s Appeal Over Web and 

Mobile App Accessibility,” ABA Journal. American Bar Association (October 7, 2019), http://www.abajournal.com/
news/article/supreme-court-rejects-dominos-appeal-over-web-and-app-accessibility.

21. Martin LaGrow, “The Section 508 Refresh and What It Means for Higher Education” Educause Review 
(December 4, 2017), https://er.educause.edu/articles/2017/12/the-section-508-refresh-and-what-it-means-for-higher-
education.

22. Ibid.
23. U.S. General Services Administration [USGSA], “2017 Accessibility Refresh Fact Sheet,” https://assets.

section508.gov/files/2017_508-Refresh-Fact-sheet-updated.pdf 
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Yang, Zhao, and Liu, “Are Ivy League Libraries’ Websites ADA Compliant?”
27. Liu, Bielefield & McKay, “Are Urban Public Libraries’ Websites Accessible to Americans with Disabilities?”
28. U.S. News & World Report. Top Public Schools, National Universities [2019], Data released and published 

Fall 2018.
29. Acosta-Vargas, Acosta, and Lujan-Mora, “Challenges to Assess Accessibility in Higher Education Websites: 

A Comparative Study of Latin American Universities.”
30. Stephanie J. Graves and Elizabeth German, “Evidence of Our Values: Disability Inclusion on Library 

Instruction Websites,” portal: Libraries and the Academy 18 no. 3 (July 2018): 559–574 https://doi.org/10.1353/
pla.2018.0033.

31. Abid Ismail, K.S. Kuppusamy, “Accessibility of Indian Universities’ Homepages: An Exploratory Study,” 
Journal of King Saud University—Computer and Information Sciences, vol. 30, no. 2 (April 2018): 268–278, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2016.06.006.

32. Ibid.
33. WAVE, “Site-Wide WAVE Tools.”
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. W3C, “Web Standards,” https://www.w3.org/standards/.
38. Screen view taken from University of Pittsburgh, www.library.pitt.edu retrieved in September 2022. 
39. W3C, “Web Standards,” https://www.w3.org/standards/.
40. Ibid.

https://tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01639269.2011.548722
https://doi.org/10.6017/ital.v39i2.11577
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-017-0571-7
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-017-0571-7
https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-vocational-rehabilitation/jvr687
https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-vocational-rehabilitation/jvr687
http://www.dequeuniversity.com/
https://www.accessibilityassociation.org/s/about
https://www.accessibilityassociation.org/s/about
https://dredf.org/about-us/publications/the-history-of-the-ada/
https://dredf.org/about-us/publications/the-history-of-the-ada/
https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2013/iss3/11/
https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2013/iss3/11/
http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/supreme-court-rejects-dominos-appeal-over-web-and-app-accessibility
http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/supreme-court-rejects-dominos-appeal-over-web-and-app-accessibility
https://er.educause.edu/articles/2017/12/the-section-508-refresh-and-what-it-means-for-higher-education
https://er.educause.edu/articles/2017/12/the-section-508-refresh-and-what-it-means-for-higher-education
https://www.section508.gov/sites/default/files/2017_508-Refresh-Fact-sheet-updated.pdf
https://www.section508.gov/sites/default/files/2017_508-Refresh-Fact-sheet-updated.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2018.0033
https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2018.0033
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13191578
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13191578
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13191578/30/2
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2016.06.006
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2016.06.006
https://www.w3.org/standards/
http://www.library.pitt.edu/
https://www.w3.org/standards/