ACRL News Issue (B) of College & Research Libraries 105 librarianship. If elected, my first priority will be to w ork closely w ith all ACRL un its, o th e r ALA units, an d higher ed u catio n groups to address jointly the challenges facing libraries and higher education. E d ito r’s note: Thomas Kirk is the librarian o f Berea College, K entucky. Hannelore Rader is director o f the Library/Learning Center at the University of Wisconsin, Parkside. ■ ■ RESEARCH FORUM Structured observation: H ow it works By Jack Glazier Research Assistant and Lecturer University o f Missouri-Columbia The project described in this article was origi­ nally reported at the ALA L ibrary Research Round Table’s Research Forum in Dallas and again at the College and University L ibraries Section of the Kansas L ibrary Association in Topeka in October 1984. The research project1 itself was designed and im plem ented by Robert Grover, dean of the School of L ibrary and Inform ation M anagem ent, Em po­ ria (Kansas) State University, and this author. The project was planned 1) to test structured observa­ tion as a research methodology which can be used for research in schools preparing library and infor­ m ation professionals, and 2) to determ ine the in­ form ation use patterns of a specific target group as a study of inform ation transfer theory. Information flow G reer has developed a m odel2 in w hich th e transfer of inform ation assumes identifiable p a t­ terns influenced by the environm ent encompassing the social roles of the individual inform ation user. R o b e rt Grover and Jack Glazier, “Inform ation T ransfer in C ity G o v ern m en t,” Public Library Quarterly 5 (W inter 1984): 9-27. 2Roger C. Greer, “Inform ation Transfer: A Con­ ceptual Model for Librarianship, Inform ation Sci­ ence and Inform ation M anagem ent w ith Im plica­ tio n s fo r L ib r a r y E d u c a t i o n ,” G re a t P lains Libraries 20(1982):2-15. T h at environm ent includes patterns of inform ation generation, dissemination, and utilization, as well as a specialized vocabulary, and pertinent names and places singular to the individual’s subsociety. Although G reer’s inform ation transfer model provided a theoretical sup rastru ctu re, research was still needed to detail more clearly the patterns of inform ation transfer for various subsocieties. A ppropriate and innovative methodologies are es­ sential for research of this type. Consequently, one early objective was the development of a m ethod­ ology for research designed to m ap the patterns of inform ation transfer for specific subsocieties th a t w ould be as workable for graduate students and faculty as for practitioners in the field. Structured observation The prim ary methodology selected was struc­ tu re d observation. S tru c tu re d observation is a qualitative research methodology th a t has been used by the social sciences for several years. It is a methodology in which an event or series of events is observed in its n atural setting and recorded by an in d e p e n d e n t researcher. T he observations are structured in the sense th a t pre-determ ined catego­ ries are used to guide the recording process. It is a methodology th a t, although not used to our knowl­ edge for library research in this country before, seemed to us to be particularly well suited for infor­ m ation transfer research as we had envisioned it. As a qualitative research methodology, struc­ tu red observation was desirable for the study of in ­ form ation transfer theory for several reasons, espe­ cially its flexibility th a t allowed us to change the length of the observation periods from w h at others had previously used. Structured observation could yield specific types of d a ta from an unfam iliar and unrehearsed sequence of activities. S tru ctu red observation is also system atic and com prehensive, allow ing an observer to record d ata in predeterm ined increm ents during a speci­ fied period of tim e. A final consideration for our se­ lection was th a t structured observation had been recently utilized in a research project by Hale in the field of public adm inistration3 to investigate city m anagers in C alifornia as interactive inform ation agents. The subjects The subsociety selected for our investigation was also city m anagers. W e chose them in p a rt because of their role in the H ale study, w hich employed the same basic m ethodology th a t we intended to use. Although our study was not to be an exact replica­ tion of the Hale study, we believed th a t there w ere enough similarities th a t we w ould be able to use it to help validate our version of structured observa­ tion. Another m ore pragm atic reason for our selec­ tion was the accessibility of the group. There were cities em ploying the city m anager/city commission form of governm ent geographically close enough to make travel feasible on our lim ited budget. Two consultants who w ere acknowledged ex­ perts in the area of public adm inistration helped in the actual process of selecting the subjects. Both w ere asked to subm it a ranked list of successful city m anagers working in Kansas. The consultants rec­ o m m en d ed a to ta l of te n pro sp ectiv e subjects. Their recom m endations were then m erged in rank order and the prospective subjects w ere contacted by letter and phone. For this study w e needed five subjects w illing to com m it themselves, their staffs, their offices, and their tim e to our project. W e decided to contact subjects one after another until we w ere able to find five w illing to m ake this investment. Only in three instances w ere we unable to use a recom ­ m ended subject. Tim e involvement was the reason most often given by subjects not wishing to p artici­ p ate in the study. After they had consented to take p a rt in the proj­ ect, we visited and interview ed each of the five m anagers and their staffs prior to beginning the ob­ servation sessions. At the meetings we explained m ore fully the project and its methodology, asked them for candid answers, and conducted a p re­ 3M a rth a L. H ale, A S tru c tu re d O bservation Study o f the N ature o f C ity Managers (Ph.D. dis­ s e rta tio n , U n iv e rsity of S o u th e rn C a lifo rn ia , 1983). study interview regarding their perceived inform a­ tion sources. W e also scheduled an interview w ith the m anager’s secretary at this tim e, and requested additional d a ta such as the m anager’s vitae, a copy of his work calendar for the past m onth, and a copy of the city’s organizational chart. In each instance, m anagers w ere assured th a t the focus of the study was the job, not the individual; the basic sim ilari­ ties in inform ation use, not the differences; and the actual processes involved in inform ation use in re­ lation to everyday on-the-job activities. Finally, we set times and dates for the actual observation sessions. The sessions Initially there were to be five observation ses­ sions, each four hours in length. Sessions w ere p la n n ed for consecutive w ork days, a lte rn a tin g mornings and and afternoons. However, as the ob­ servations proceeded we varied the design of the methodology. Occasionally unforeseen situations w ould arise involving the m anager’s schedule th a t w ould require alterations in the tim e fram e. For example, if a m anager was unable to be in his office for a m orning session, the session could often be re­ scheduled for the afternoon, even though it m ight m ean m ore afternoon sessions th a n w ere originally planned. In one instance, the m anager had a late m orning m eeting th a t extended into the afternoon resulting in an observation session of six hours in­ stead of four. After looking at the d ata gathered from these sessions we found th a t these changes did not appear to affect seriously the continuity of the data. This led us to design variation into future ob­ servations as a further test of the m ethodology from the standpoint of both the tools and the actual ob­ server. In fact w h at we found was th a t although the tools held up fine, it was the observer th a t suffered. The longer days and back-to-back sessions, coupled w ith the stress of travel, m ade concentration diffi­ cult for the observer at the end of a long day. Varia- tions in the length of the observation sessions ap ­ p e a re d to a ffe c t th e d a ta q u a n tita tiv e ly , n o t qualitatively. For the actual observations the only tools th a t w ere taken into the sessions were tw o m echanical pencils, a w atch, a clipboard, and the recording forms. Two types of forms w ere employed. The first, called a chronological form , was used to rec­ ord the m om ent by m om ent activities of the sub­ ject. Its design was based on a com m unication m odel involving sender, receiver, and message. Categories for recording the d ata included: tim e of the activity; description of the activity (meeting, phone, conversation, etc.); the m edium of com ­ m unication (telephone, direct personal com m uni­ cation, etc.); description of the ap p aren t purposes and issues of the com m unication (this was often verified w ith the city m anager during quiet times); and the location of the com m unication (this cate­ gory was necessary because not all com m unication 106 107 took place in the m anager’s office). The second form was similar to the chronologi­ cal form, but with the addition of a category for re­ cording the attention given a particular item (skim­ med, read, studied, etc.) and one th a t gave some in dication of th e disposition of a specific item (filed, sent on, discarded, etc.). The forms were de­ signed to aid in taking notes th at were as accurate and efficient as possible. For structured observation to yield valid results, the observer has to be cautious not to affect the be­ havior of the subject. We operated on the principle th a t the more inconspicuous the observer, the less effect his presence would have. We found several ways th at seemed to work in making an observer less obtrusive. One way was for the observer to limit eye contact w ith the sub­ jects as much as possible during meetings or con­ versations. By not establishing eye contact from the start, the subjects soon becam e involved in the business at hand and forgot about the observer’s presence. Another method was for the observer to keep his head down with attention directed strictly on the forms. W hen I used this technique in our ob­ servations it helped in several ways. It took care of the problem of eye contact and in effect took me out of the meetings. In addition, by concentrating solely on notes during meetings, my attention was easier to control and my notes were more detailed and complete. Another aspect central to controlling the observ­ er’s im pact on the subject and the environment was positioning the observer in the m anager’s office. We found th at the best location for the observer was behind and slightly to the right of the subject. This location allowed the observer a clear view of the subject’s desk as well as the entire room. It also placed the observer close enough to the subject to be able to hear and note phone conversations. Permission had been given for the observer to have access to the subject’s phone calls and mail. Provisions were made for the observer to leave the room if the manager felt the subject being discussed was sensitive. This only happened once and then only for a few minutes. On two occasions the ob­ server was asked not to divulge the specifics of a conversation. In each case the conversation in­ volved the recruitm ent of new businesses to the community. W ith these few exceptions, the ob­ server was able to log detailed and comprehensive data. One problem faced by the observer was long pe­ riods of inactivity on the p art of the subject. M ain­ taining attention and yet remaining as inobtrusive as possible during these periods was difficult. On one occasion a manager spent nearly two hours preparing a presentation for the city commission meeting. A majority of the time was spent w riting w ith an occasional recourse to a reference book lo­ cated on his desk. As the observer in this case, I found rem aining alert and attentive w ithout shuf­ fling papers or shifting positions for two hours a formidable task. This experience led us to conclude th a t data gathering in similar situations would be best accomplished using an alternative methodol­ ogy such as interviews. Conversely, a subject th a t is overly active can also present problems for the researcher. Subjects who are constantly on the move or involved in a la rg e n u m b e r of im p ro m p tu in fo rm a tio n ex- Overly active subjects may present problems for the observer. changes presented difficulties in accurately record­ ing data. One manager we observed spent a large am ount of time visiting departm ent heads in their offices. Often this manager would meet individuals in the hallways while moving from one office to an­ other. The ensuing conversations were often short in duration but substantive in content. Note-taking while accompanying a subject along a hallway was difficult. The result was th a t the observer would have extremely sketchy notes on an encounter th at in some instances was a significant aspect of a sub­ ject’s information transfer pattern. In this situation a solution might be for the observer to carry and use a tape recorder. Another instance where a high degree of activity became a problem was in meetings. Meetings in­ volving several participants created difficulties for the observer because of the am ount of data and the rate at which it was generated. In an effort to deal with this type of situation we tested the use of two observers. W e found this worked very well. By p u t­ ting the notes together we had a complete record of a fast-moving, complex meeting. Another alterna­ tive would be to tape record or videotape the meet­ ing if only one observer were available for the ses­ sion. W hen problems arose during observations the observer made a note of the situation so th a t it could be discussed during a debriefing session. De­ briefing sessions were held as soon as possible after each session. They were initially designed for the two principals in the project (Robert Grover and myself) to discuss difficulties encountered during an observation and to make necessary adjustments. W e also review ed highlights of the day w hile checking observation notes for clarity. Summary O u r analysis of th e stru c tu re d ob serv atio n method showed th at it perm itted the researcher to gather complete data on complex inform ation in­ teractions. It yielded data w ith sufficient context to rem ain fresh, thus allowing researchers more time 108 for analysis. In most instances the data was gath­ ered w ith relationships intact, resulting in clearer explanations. The data clearly defined the infor­ m ation transfer patterns of a specific subsociety— city managers. The success of this project relied to a large degree on the flexibility of the methodology. Today not only m ust academ ic librarians be aw are of a wide range of research methodologies to support the research being done by students and faculty, but they also are finding th a t research and publication have become necessary prerequisites for professional advancement. Unfortunately li­ brarians must deal w ith time constraints which limit research opportunities. One consequence of this project is th a t it vali­ dated a methodology th a t is responsive to the re­ search needs of p ractitio n ers. Specifically, we found th a t structured observation is appropriate for use by academic librarians, when used in con­ junction w ith interviews or other data gathering techniques, to determ ine the inform ation behavior and needs of specific client groups. It is particularly effective for gathering d ata about client groups for which little is known. However, for academic librarians the strength of structured observation is its adaptability to re­ strictive tim e limitations as well as its wide range of applications. It is a methodology well suited for ob­ serving classroom instruction, faculty meetings, curriculum meetings, and the individual work of specific client groups. ■ ■ ACRL actions, January 1985 Highlights of the Midwinter meetings of the ACRL Board of Directors. T he Board of Directors of the Association of Col- lege and Research Libraries m et twice during the ALA M idwinter Meeting in W ashington, D .C .: on Sunday, January 6,1985, and Tuesday, January 8, 1985. Activity Sections/Board relationship The Board voted for the second time to restruc­ ture itself to allow for greater representation by ac­ tivity sections and chapter nominees (see C &R L News, September 1984, p.393, for details). The proposal will be listed on the ALA ballot this spring for ACRL membership approval. ALA/ACRL The Board received the report of the Task Force on ALA/ACRL and referred it to the Planning C om m ittee to analyze and refer to appropriate ACRL units. Sharon Rogers and Joan Gotwals