March 2020 145 C&RL News

Science is an essential social institution and a building block in advancing human
societies. At the core of scientific discovery
and problem solving is innovation to improve
the human condition, within and beyond the
institutions of higher education that shape sci-
entific minds. Research in any field, beginning
in undergraduate education, is fundamentally
about information—finding, understanding,
generating, discussing, influencing, contradict-
ing, contextualizing, disproving, and communi-
cating it; the ability to do so generally referred
to as information literacy.1 Parallel to this,
everyday life increasingly requires navigating
an overwhelming amount of complex scientific
information, and misinformation.

There has been a long-standing assump-
tion by professors that many students enter
into college tech-savvy, and, adjacent to
those skills, there is an assumption they are
able to navigate information seeking in the
same way.2,3 Similarly students are overcon-
fident in their abilities to find information,
which has often been experienced by us
hearing students say, “We’ll just Google it”
as a benchmark for how they find what they
perceive as good information. Parallel to this,
in the applied sciences, like engineering, we
have experienced a disconnect in perception
around what we understand as necessary
foundational information to practice, and
what students perceive research necessary
to make decisions.4

When students begin college in science
disciplines, they often arrive without mean-

ingful experience finding or using primary
scientific literature and with engrained, yet
underdeveloped, information-seeking be-
haviors built from prior experiences in high
school classrooms and daily life.5 Many
engineering students are focused on their
professional future, and therefore do not
understand the need to learn to research,
since their goal is not to be an academic. Ef-
fective communication around professional
responsibilities of finding and using informa-
tion is equally important to communicating
information literacy skills.

Training STEM students to properly
navigate the current information landscape
is foundational to their academic and profes-
sional success. The social and academic role
of information seeking in science education
is often taken for granted, and frequent as-
sumptions are made around how, when, and
where science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) students are finding
scientific information. Receiving even less
consideration is the learning required to ac-
curately contextualize information within the
current environment of overload, saturation,

Kathryn Mercer, Kari D. Weaver, Rachel Figueiredo, and Caitlin Carter

Critical appraisal
The key to unlocking information literacy in the STEM disciplines

Kathryn Mercer is science and engineering librarian,
email: k mercer@uwaterloo.ca, K ari D. Weaver is
learning, teaching and instructional design librarian,
email: kdweaver@uwaterloo.ca, Rachel Figueiredo is
engineering and entrepreneurship librarian, email:
rachel.figueiredo@uwaterloo.ca, and Caitlin Carter is
pharmacy librarian, email: c8carter@uwaterloo.ca, at
the University of Waterloo

mailto:kmercer%40uwaterloo.ca?subject=
mailto:kdweaver%40uwaterloo.ca?subject=
mailto:rachel.figueiredo%40uwaterloo.ca?subject=
mailto:c8carter%40uwaterloo.ca?subject=

C&RL News March 2020 146

and misinformation. Professors often think
about teaching the specific subject of their
discipline, and often teaching students ten-
ants around information-seeking and literacy
is left out of traditional science courses.6

Information literacy, though a term used
widely in the library context, has failed to
effectively resonate within the academic
discourse in the STEM fields.7,8 Within STEM,
there is an abundance of terms used for the
concept ranging from science communica-
tion and data information literacy9 to sci-
ence media education10 and STEM literacy
for learning.11 This indicates that while the
ideals of information literacy are important to
the STEM fields, the lack of consensus around
terminology limits effective discussion and
educational intervention. This absence of
consensus is compounded by the concern
that information literacy rarely resonates
with STEM faculty, a gap STEM librarians
face with communicating and supporting
science faculties due to less than 30% of
STEM librarians having a subject-specific
degree, and the implicit connection of the
term literacy exclusively with books.12 Sci-
ence faculty members and students often
come from academic cultures that rely heavily
on in-lab or personal networks and profes-
sional associations for much of their own
information seeking.13,14,15 Finding the right
terminology to connect with faculty helps
open the conversation to the library’s value
in supporting STEM research by placing our
skills within the scientific scope.

In the health disciplines, the use of in-
formation for clinical decision-making is
core to professional practice and research.
Called critical appraisal, health fields use
a systematic process to delineate strengths
and weaknesses of research while ascer-
taining the applicability and validity of the
content to the research or clinical task.16
Critical appraisal at its core is the process of
systematically assessing scientific evidence
to judge its trustworthiness, value, and rel-
evance.17 Traditional critical appraisal tools
evaluate information by asking “Does the
study address a clear question? Does it use

valid methods? Are they applicable to the
population in question?”18 Readers are further
encouraged to examine whether the research
question is important, analysis is appropriate,
and conflicts of interest are transparent. This
question-based evaluation approach aligns
closely with information evaluation models
used in information literacy instruction,
such as RADAR19 or CRAAP.20,21 The process
asks individuals to probe evidence using a
questioning approach, including the need to
establish the relevance of any information
consulted to the task at hand, an issue that
Michael J. Carlozzi22 establishes as lacking in
student information synthesis.

Critical appraisal is taught to students in
healthcare professions through curriculums
that incorporate evidence-based practice.23

As an example, first-year pharmacy students
at the University of Waterloo complete a
required drug information fundamentals
course, cotaught by the librarian and pro-
fessor, dedicated to finding, interpreting,
evaluating, and applying health research.
This course was developed through librarian
and faculty collaboration, and favors the use
of the term critical appraisal versus the term
information literacy, as the course places
emphasis on the importance of acquiring
the skills necessary to assess the validity of
information found on the Internet and in the
published research. In addition to critiquing
the published research, students are tasked
with critically evaluating the credibility of a
website related to opioid prescribing, draw-
ing from the RADAR24 approach.

Using the pharmacy course as a guide-
line, in 2017, engineering librarians at the
University of Waterloo adapted key elements
from this course into a single lesson for a
required first-year engineering communica-
tions course, followed in 2018 with a similar
course for first-year science students led by
the science librarians. Likewise, the focus
of these two lessons was on giving students
tools to acquire the skills they need to assess
the validity of information they find, regard-
less of the source. Through field-specific
examples, we have successfully approached

March 2020 147 C&RL News

contextualizing research within the context
of being a professional engineer, aligning it
with expectations of engineering professional
practice to find, use, and share ethically sound
information. For the science students, the librar-
ians focus on the students becoming effective
scientists—you need to be able to understand
not only the lab-based experiments, but also to
understand the process through which scientific
discovery has happened.

In the engineering courses, we introduce
students to critical appraisal, through the RA-
DAR framework and use this approach to eval-
uate both an online source and an academic
article that they find, around an engineering
topic of their choosing. In the science courses,
framing the topic as critical appraisal gives
students a framework for finding and contex-
tualizing information as part of building their
understanding of science. With this in mind,
we introduce these skills through interactive
lecture and discussion and then reinforce them
through a RADAR activity, where students must
appraise a librarian-provided peer-reviewed
article. Both of the activities focus on critiqu-
ing the information students are using to
demonstrate that ease of availability does not
equate accuracy or credibility, while offering
opportunity for the approach to be scaffolded
throughout the curriculum. For example, in
one of the engineering programs, the librarian
works with professors through each year on
increasing levels of critical appraisal through
design projects in the curriculum.

As interventions are further developed,
within one program we see significant po-
tential to implement broadly across other
programs, and is currently being adapted for
mathematics students. By using the term criti-
cal appraisal and having students draw their
own conclusions when working through the
RADAR framework, we have seen some suc-
cess in navigating students away from online
search engines and towards scholarly materials
with a more open mind.

Moreover, this strategy has been extremely
effective in working with STEM faculty to
integrate into the curriculum. It has opened
conversations around the role and importance

of the librarian and the value of active assess-
ment of resources used by students. Because
critical appraisal at its core is a process, it is
readily adaptable for nonacademic literature
that must be evaluated for use in the design
process for engineering fields and technical
documentation prevalent in science and tech-
nology. Furthermore, because the method of
evaluation aligns with existing approaches
used in the library field, there is a significant
body of resources that can help librarians
make the shift to critical appraisal without
radically redesigning classroom activities and
approaches.

For education to be effective, it must meet
individuals where they are and build from
their existing knowledge base. Using the
terminology critical appraisal allows librar-
ians, particularly those who support STEM
disciplines, to more effectively open discus-
sions around information literacy. Though
seemingly insignificant, changing our rhetoric
from information literacy to critical appraisal
has had a huge impact on our ability to con-
nect with STEM faculty and students. Using an
established process that is validated in health
research (and therefore aligns with the scien-
tific method) moves STEM students away from
literacy and its connotation with their ability
to read books, and towards a critical mindset
around information. As librarians seek to ef-
fectively communicate value in the modern
academic landscape, we must align our efforts
with established processes and perceptions of
science faculty and learners to foster innova-
tion and drive scientific discovery.

Notes
1. L. E. Briggs and Skidmore, “Beyond

the blended librarians: Creating full partner-
ships with faculty to embed information
literacy in online learning systems” in Using
Technology to Teach Information Literacy,
edited by T. P. Mackey and T. E. Jacobson
(New York, NY: Neal-Schuman, 2008),
87–109.

2. S. F. McEuen, “How Fluent with In-
formation Technology Are Our Students?”
Educause Quarterly 24, no.4 (2001): 8–17.

C&RL News March 2020 148

3. Leah Thompson and Lisa Ann Blankin-
ship, “Teaching Information Literacy Skills to
Sophomore-Level Biology Majors,” Journal
of Microbology and Biology Education 16,
no. 1 (2015): 29–33, accessed December 12,
2019, http://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.818.

4. Kathryn Mercer, Ariel Stables-Kennedy,
and Kari D. Weaver, “Understanding Under-
graduate Engineering Student Information
Access and Needs: Results from a Scoping
Review,” paper presented at ASEE Annual
Conference, Tampa, Florida, June 2019.

5. Heather Brodie Perry, “Information
Literacy in the Sciences: Faculty Perception
of Undergraduate Student Skill,” College &
Research Libraries 78, no. 7 (2017): 964–977,
accessed December 16, 2019, https://doi.
org/10.5860/crl.78.7.964.

6. K. Bain, What the Best College Teach-
ers Do (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press), 2004.

7. Thomas P. Mackey and Trudi E. Ja-
cobson, “Reframing Information Literacy as
a Metaliteracy,” College & Research Libraries
72, no. 1 (2011): 62–78.

8. Loanne Snavely and Natasha Cooper,
“The Information Literacy Debate,” The
Journal of Academic Librarianship 23, no.
1 (1997): 9–14.

9. Jacob Carlson, Michael Fosmire, C. C.
Miller, and Megan Sapp Nelson, “Determin-
ing Data Information Literacy Needs: A Study
of Students and Research Faculty,” portal:
Libraries and the Academy 11, no. 2 (2011):
629–657.

10. Hans C. Schmidt, “Media Literacy
Education from Kindergarten to College:
A Comparison of How Media Literacy is
Addressed across the Educational System,”
Journal of Media Literacy Education 5, no.
1 (2013): 3.

11. Alan Zollman, “Learning for STEM
Literacy: STEM literacy for learning,” School
Science and Mathematics 112, no. 1 (2012):
12–19.

12. Marc Songini, “STEM Librarians
Face Gap With Science Audiences, Survey
Indicates,” Jove (Blog), August 10, 2018,
accessed December 11, 2019, https://www.

jove.com/blog/librarian-blog/librarians
-career-advancement/stem-librarians-face
-gap-with-audiences-survey-indicates/.

13. Gloria J. Leckie and Anne Fuller-
ton, “Information Literacy in Science and
Engineering Undergraduate Education:
Faculty Attitudes and Pedagogical Prac-
tices,” College & Research Libraries 60, no.
1 (1999): 9–29.

14. J. Edmund Maynard, “A Case Study
of Faculty Attitudes Toward Library Instruc-
tion: The Citadel Experience,” Reference
Services Review 18, no. 2 (1990): 67–76.

15. L e s l i e Wa r d a n d M i s e o n
Kim,“Faculty Perception of Information
Literacy at Queensborough Community Col-
lege,” Community & Junior College Libraries
23.1-2 (2017): 13–27.

16. Jane M. Young and Michael J. Solo-
mon, “How to Critically Appraise an Article,”
Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatol-
ogy 6, no. 2 (2009): 82.

17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. andalois, “RADAR: An Approach

for Helping Student Evaluate Internet Sourc-
es,” Journal of Information Science 39, no.
4 (2013): 470–478.

20. Sarah Blakeslee, “The CRAAP test,”
LOEX Quarterly 31, no. 3 (2004): 4.

21. Dawn Emsellem Wichowski and
Laura E. Kohl, “Establishing Credibility in
the Information Jungle: Blogs, Microblogs,
and the CRAAP Test,” in Online Credibility
and Digital Ethos: Evaluating Computer-
Mediated Communication, pp. 229-251. IGI
Global, 2013.

22. Michael J. Carlozzi, “They Found
It—Now Do They Bother? An Analysis of
First-Year Synthesis,” College & Research
Libraries 79, no. 5 (2018): 659.

23. Paul Glasziou, Amanda Burls, and
Ruth Gilbert, “Evidence Based Medicine and
the Medical Curriculum,” BMJ 337:a1253
(2008), accessed December 9, 2019, https://
doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a1253.

24. Songini, “STEM Librarians Face
Gap With Science Audiences, Survey Indi-
cates.”

http://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.818
https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.78.7.964
https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.78.7.964
https://www.jove.com/blog/librarian-blog/librarians-career-advancement/stem-librarians-face-gap-with-audiences-survey-indicates/
https://www.jove.com/blog/librarian-blog/librarians-career-advancement/stem-librarians-face-gap-with-audiences-survey-indicates/
https://www.jove.com/blog/librarian-blog/librarians-career-advancement/stem-librarians-face-gap-with-audiences-survey-indicates/
https://www.jove.com/blog/librarian-blog/librarians-career-advancement/stem-librarians-face-gap-with-audiences-survey-indicates/
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a1253
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a1253