

































COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   23   

Digital Exclusion, 
Gender Oppression, 
and How Social 
Workers can 
Advocate for Digital 
Feminism in China

CHENXI YANG



24  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA

ABSTRACT

For the past decade, the pace of China’s digital and technological 
development has been rapidly increasing. While this growth creates 
economic opportunities, it has negative impacts for Chinese women 
who are marginalized at the intersections of gender, class, and 
geographic location. This paper adopts an intersectional feminist lens 
to examine how Chinese women experience digital exclusion and 
gender oppression in the digital era. To do so, it discusses (1) existing 
[LJOUVSVNPLZ�[OH[�YLÅLJ[�HUK�WLYWL[\H[L�NLUKLY�Z[LYLV[`WLZ�[OYV\NO�
gendered technology design, (2) digital spaces and media censorship 
that disenfranchise women, and (3) AI surveillance and unfair labor 
practices that oppress women.

This paper calls for social work practices in digital feminism at the micro, 
TLaaV��HUK�THJYV�SL]LSZ��ZWLJPÄJHSS`�PU�WYVTV[PUN�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�PU�
training and design, leading feminist initiatives, and promoting digital 
accessibility and data protection.

Keywords: digital feminism, feminism, digital age, gender, social work, 
intersectionality



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   25   

CHENXI YANG

As new technologies, digital innovations, online platforms, 
and technology companies emerge in China, women face 
increasing challenges and exclusions, such as the digital 
divide, barriers to access, underrepresentation in tech-related 

ÄLSKZ��[LJOUVSVN`�LUHISLK�]PVSLUJL��HUK�WYP]HJ`�JVUJLYUZ��<5,:*6�L[�
al., 2022). Given that China is ranked 102 out of 146 countries in gender 
PULX\HSP[`��>VYSK�,JVUVTPJ�-VY\T���������ZVJPHS�^VYRLYZ�^OV�HK]VJH[L�
for social and gender justice must take action to advocate for women in 
China who are excluded and oppressed in the digital age. This entails 
rethinking technologies and digital spaces and understanding patriarchy 
and other forces of oppression exacerbated by the digital age. 

This paper applies an intersectional feminist lens to examine how 
women in China experience digital exclusion and social oppression in 
the digital era and proposes social work practice interventions. Legal 
[OLVYPZ[�2PTILYSL�*YLUZOH^�ÄYZ[�JVPULK�[OL�[LYT�¸PU[LYZLJ[PVUHSP[ �̀¹�
which explores discrimination based on race, gender, and other markers 
of identity. An intersectional framework acknowledges that people 
experience varying degrees of marginalization due to their multiple 
intersecting identities (Bowleg, 2021). 

;OPZ�WHWLY�^PSS�\ZL�U\TLYV\Z�YLMLYLUJLZ�[V�[LJOUPJHS�KLÄUP[PVUZ��-PYZ[��
digital exclusion describes a lack of access to the information and 
JVTT\UPJH[PVU�[LJOUVSVN`�YLX\PYLK�MVY�M\SS�WHY[PJPWH[PVU�PU�ZVJPL[`�
(Sanders, 2020), and it also refers to being marginalized by the design of 
technologies. Second, feminism��HZ�KLÄULK�I`�+»0NUHaPV�HUK�2SLPU��PZ�H�
term for “the diverse and wide-ranging projects that name and challenge 
sexism and other forces of oppression, as well as those which seek 
[V�JYLH[L�TVYL�Q\Z[��LX\P[HISL��HUK�SP]HISL�M\[\YLZ¹��������W������;OPYK��
oppression includes “systematic mistreatment of certain groups of 
WLVWSL�I`�V[OLY�NYV\WZ¹�[OH[�VJJ\YZ�ILJH\ZL�VM�HU�\ULX\HS�KPZ[YPI\[PVU�
of power wherein one group controls the 



26  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

institutions of “law, education, and culture, and uses its power to 
systematically exclude other groups” (D’Ignazio & Klein, 2020, p. 8).

;OL�ÄYZ[�WHY[�VM�[OPZ�WHWLY�^PSS�KLZJYPIL�[OL�^H`Z�PU�^OPJO�[LJOUVSVN`�
KL]LSVWTLU[�PU�*OPUH�OHZ�OHK�ULNH[P]L�LɈLJ[Z�VU�*OPULZL�^VTLU��
PUJS\KPUN�H�KPZJ\ZZPVU�VU�OV^�[LJOUVSVNPLZ�YLÅLJ[��WLYWL[\H[L��HUK�
create gender oppression. The second part of the paper advocates 
for digital feminism, which means applying feminism in the digital 
context to combat patriarchy and other forms of oppression. This part 
also delineates how to lead feminist actions in digital technologies 
HUK�Z[YP]L�MVY�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�HUK�ZVJPHS�PUJS\ZPVU�HUK�V\[SPULZ�^H`Z�
in which social workers can help to empower women and challenge 
technological oppression.

HOW DO WOMEN EXPERIENCE GENDER OPPRESSION  
AND DIGITAL EXCLUSION?
Gender biases in new technologies are likely the result of the male-
dominated technology design industry in China (UNESCO et al., 2019). 
;OL�IPHZLZ�YLÅLJ[LK�PU�[OLZL�[LJOUVSVNPLZ�OHYT�^VTLU�I`�WLYWL[\H[PUN�
gender norms. As one example, a proliferation of voice assistants (VAs) 
designed by Chinese technology companies such as Alibaba, Baidu, 
and Xiaomi have dominated Asian markets (Kinsella, 2019). VA speakers 
are designed for spoken interactions with users and mimic natural 
human speech on a day-to-day basis. Baidu and Xiaomi’s VAs, which 
are projected as female both in name and sound of voice, interact with 
users in a cooperative and submissive manner (UNESCO et al., 2019). 
The feminization of VAs is designed to cater to the needs of consumers 
who want to “be the bosses of it” and are therefore more likely to “opt 
for a female interface” (Hempel, 2015, para. 9). VAs further perpetuate 
discriminatory gender norms by sending a signal that women are 
“obliging, docile and eager-to-please helpers” and are “available at 
the touch of a button or with a blunt voice command like ‘hey’ or ‘OK’” 
(UNESCO et al., 2019, p. 106-107). This reinforces the cultural norm 
that women are tolerant of poor treatment and should be placed in a 
subordinated service position.

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   27   

ONLINE SEXUAL HARASSMENT AND MEDIA CENSORSHIP 
DISENFRANCHISING WOMEN

In addition to technologies that perpetuate undesirable gender 
norms, online sexual harassment and media censorship greatly harm 
women. According to a 2017 survey with 1,277 Chinese college 
student respondents, about 33.2% experienced some form of online 
sexual harassment, such as sexualized messages or non-consensual 
pornographic images; among these sexual harassment survivors, about 
������PKLU[PÄLK�HZ�^VTLU��ZOV^PUN�OV^�[OL�KPNP[HS�HNL�PUJYLHZLZ�[OL�
gendered risk of being sexually harassed (Ye et al., 2018). Additionally, 
the circulation of inappropriate content, such as AI-generated 
“deepfakes,” has been used to threaten, blackmail, and abuse women, 
in addition to harming their careers (Lucas, 2022). Numerous sellers 
on online platforms like Baidu have developed e-commerce chains 
[OH[�VɈLY�WLYZVUHSPaLK�KLLWMHRLZ�I`�Z^HWWPUN�[OL�MHJLZ�VM�MLTHSL�
JLSLIYP[PLZ�VY�WYP]H[L�JP]PSPHUZ�PU�WVYUVNYHWOPJ�TV]PLZ�H[�HɈVYKHISL�
prices (Chen, 2019). Ninety-six percent of deepfake videos in the survey 
contained non-consensual pornographic images, and one hundred 
percent of these videos were of women (Ajder et al., 2019).

Remote employment and digital platforms for coworker interactions 
have also increased incidents of sexual harassment toward women 
(UNESCO et al., 2022). In a survey titled Sexual Harassment Experienced 
by Female Journalists��5$������������VM�[OL�^VTLU�Z\Y]L`LK�
experienced gender-based harassment online, and 18.2% experienced 
P[�TVYL�[OHU�Ä]L�[PTLZ�PU�[OL�YLTV[L�^VYRWSHJL��4H��������

AI MAKES WOMEN VULNERABLE IN THE WORKPLACE 

The use of AI in the workplace contributes to a culture that does not 
consider workers’ personal data as separate from their professional 
SP]LZ��(KKP[PVUHSS �̀�P[�Z[YH[PÄLZ�LTWSV`LLZ�HUK�LTWSV`LYZ�HZ�[OL�SH[[LY�
group uses AI to track workplace permanence and make decisions 
about wages, promotions, and dismissals (Bales & Stone, 2020). These 

CHENXI YANG



28  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

employer-employee power dynamics further marginalize workers, and 
women in particular are the most vulnerable. Although the Civil Code 
of the People's Republic of China�YLX\PYLZ�LTWSV`LYZ�[V�PTWSLTLU[�
informed consent of the collection and processing of employees’ 
personal data, workers hardly reject unfair labor practices for fear of 
retaliation (Tang, 2021). Retaliation from employers, which includes 
demotion or even termination from current work, further marginalizes 
vulnerable employees. 

In these situations, women may have the most to lose by challenging 
their employers. As previously mentioned, Chinese women workers earn 
lower wages, receive less educational training, and are less likely to be 
promoted than men (World Economic Forum, 2022). This means women 
bear the devastating risks of retaliation more heavily and are more 
likely to accept unfair labor practices, including risks of personal data 
invasion. As a result of AI, women workers are especially vulnerable to 
[OL�LɈLJ[Z�VM�Z[YH[PÄJH[PVU�

HOW DO SOCIAL WORKERS ADVOCATE FOR DIGITAL 
FEMINISM?
Although digital technologies can increase an individual’s independence 
WVSP[PJHSS �̀�ZVJPHSS �̀�HUK�ÄUHUJPHSS �̀�[OPZ�JHU�VUS`�OHWWLU�^OLU�[OL`�
are able to use technology autonomously (UNESCO et al., 2019). 
Unfortunately, technologies, media, digital devices, and innovations 
in the digital age, which are rooted in an oppressive social structure, 
widen the power divide between men and women, government and 
citizens, urban people and rural people, and employers and employees. 
As previously stated, women who are marginalized at the intersections 
of gender, class, and geographic location are the most vulnerable in 
the digital age. They are negatively impacted by stereotypical gender 
norms coded into technologies, online sexual harassment and media 
censorship, the urban-rural digital divide, and AI surveillance. In these 
conditions, digital development reinforces patriarchal norms and 
perpetuates power asymmetry.

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   29   

According to the code of ethics for social workers in China, social 
workers accept responsibility for advancing social justice and 
protecting human rights (Zhu & Wen, 2006). Thus, social workers are 
encouraged to think from an intersectional feminist perspective in order 
[V�HKKYLZZ�[OL�YVV[�JH\ZLZ�VM�PZZ\LZ�PU�[OL�KPNP[HS�LYH!�WH[YPHYJO`�HUK�
other oppressive forces created by culture, government, and society. 
Social work interventions call for schools, corporations, NGOs, and 
policy institutions in China to advocate for women’s representation in 
all spaces and to develop social welfare programs (Fan, 2019; Lu & 
Bao, 2022). In the digital age, social workers should stand by women 
to challenge oppressive power and adopt digital feminist practices. 
Strategies for digital feminism inside and outside digital spaces 
PUJS\KL�JVUK\J[PUN�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�[YHPUPUN��WYVTV[PUN�KLZPNU�Q\Z[PJL�
in technologies, leading online initiatives, bridging the digital gap, and 
promoting personal data protection.

LIMITATIONS SOCIAL WORKERS MAY FACE IN 
CHALLENGING DIGITAL OPPRESSION 

GOVERNMENT CENSORSHIP

Feminist activists in China have taken the initiative to challenge gender 
oppression through social media (Ma, 2022). For example, since 2018, 
*OPULZL�^VTLU�OH]L�LUNHNLK�PU�[OL�
4L;VV�4V]LTLU[��H�OHZO[HN�
campaign to challenge sexual violence, patriarchy, rape culture, and 
male-dominated values (Han, 2018; Yin & Sun, 2021). The narratives of 
their experiences went viral on social media. In 2018, more than 36,000 
VUSPUL�HY[PJSLZ�YLSH[LK�[V�[OL�
4L;VV�4V]LTLU[�^LYL�W\ISPZOLK�VU�
Chinese social media (Ma, 2022).

However, Chinese authorities silenced the voices of survivors and 
activists before the movement was able to reach a wider audience. 
Authorities became intolerant of the public outcry, which criticized 
[OLPY�SHJR�VM�LɈLJ[P]L�YLZWVUZL�[V�ZL_\HS�]PVSLUJL��HUK�MLHYLK�¸ZVJPHS�
\UYLZ[¹�VY�[OH[�[OL�W\ISPJ�^V\SK�X\LZ[PVU�[OLPY�SLNP[PTHJ �̀�*VUZLX\LU[S �̀�
H\[OVYP[PLZ�YL[HPULK�[PNO[�JVU[YVS�V]LY�[OL�ÅV^�VM�PUMVYTH[PVU�VU�ZVJPHS�

CHENXI YANG



30  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

media platforms (Ma, 2022) by blocking and removing “MeToo” and 
“sexual assault” -related posts and closing activists’ social media 
accounts as a way to silence supporters (Fileborn & Loney-Howes, 
��� ���(Z�H�YLZ\S[��Z\Y]P]VYZ�HUK�HJ[P]PZ[Z�Z\ɈLYLK�MYVT�H�SHJR�VM�
institutional and legal support (Yin & Sun, 2021).

THE URBAN-RURAL DIGITAL DIVIDE

The digital divide between urban and rural China has widened over the 
years, given that the rural population only represents 28% of Chinese 
Internet users (CNNIC, 2022).  This divide is pronounced for rural 
Chinese women, who are more underprivileged and disenfranchised 
than urban middle-class women. In the digital age, rural women face 
increasingly more barriers to accessing information and communications 
technology due to poor infrastructure in technology, connection costs, 
PUJYLHZPUN�LJVUVTPJ�PULX\HSP[ �̀�KPNP[HS�SP[LYHJ`�PZZ\LZ��UVYTZ� 
of perceived female inferiority, and a long history of rural-urban  
disparity (Yang & Du, 2021). The digital divide accelerates urban-rural 
NLUKLY�PULX\HSP[ �̀

The “gendered digital divide” and digital exclusion, which varies 
substantially between urban and rural areas, prevent rural women from 
ILULÄ[PUN�MYVT�KPNP[HS�PUUV]H[PVUZ��@HUN�
�+\��������W����������*OPUH»Z�
major digital payment services and innovations have supported millions 
of small businesses and entrepreneurs in China. Some examples  
include Ant Financial, a lender for small businesses that supports low-
PUJVTL�LHYULYZ��HUK�(SPWH �̀�^OPJO�VɈLYZ�H�SV^�YPZR�TVUL`�HJJV\U[�[V�
provide investment for individuals (OECD, 2018). However, rural women 
without digital outlets are unable to access online loans and investments 
to support their businesses. Without digital access, rural women will  
not be able to access these services, and as a result, urban-rural  
NLUKLY�PULX\HSP[`�PU�YLZV\YJLZ��VWWVY[\UP[ �̀�HUK�JHWHIPSP[`�^PSS�JVU[PU\L�
to widen.

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   31   

GENDER EQUALITY IN TRAINING AND DESIGN 

This section suggests three digital feminist interventions to increase 
^VTLU»Z�YLWYLZLU[H[PVU�PU�:;,4��(0��HUK�JVKPUN�WYVNYHTTPUN��^OPJO�
PUJS\KL�����WYV]PKPUN�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�[YHPUPUN�[OH[�HKKYLZZLZ�NLUKLY�
stereotypes, (2) increasing women employees’ skill sets and readiness 
MVY�[OL�(0�ÄLSK��HUK�����LUOHUJPUN�^VTLU»Z�YVSLZ�PU�[OL�[LJOUVSVN`�ÄLSK�
[OYV\NO�YLJY\P[TLU[��LX\HS�^HNL��HUK�WYVTV[PVU�VWWVY[\UP[PLZ�

MICRO PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS
GENDER EQUALITY EDUCATION

Gender norms suggesting that women are subordinate to men hinder 
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[OH[�[OL�:;,4�ÄLSK�VWWVZLZ�[OLZL�NLUKLY�YVSLZ��;HUKYH`LU�9HNVVI\Y�

�.VR\SZPUN��������HUK�WLYWL[\H[L�[OL�PKLH�[OH[�^VTLU�ZOV\SK�ÄUK�
secure jobs with regular working hours rather than working in high-
PU[LUZP[`�LU]PYVUTLU[Z�[OH[�YLX\PYL�HK]HUJLK�[LJOUPJHS�ZRPSSZ��?\��
2020). Furthermore, Chinese higher education hardly provides courses 
addressing gender norms; these institutions overlook the importance of 
NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�LK\JH[PVU��ZPUJL�[OL�WVZ[�NYHK\H[PVU�LTWSV`TLU[�YH[L�
PZ�JVUZPKLYLK�[OL�KL�MHJ[V�PUKPJH[VY�VM�H�\UP]LYZP[`»Z�LK\JH[PVUHS�X\HSP[`�
and outcome (Zhang, 2020).

:JOVVS�ZVJPHS�^VYRLYZ�T\Z[�PU[LY]LUL�I`�JYLH[PUN�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�
training and advocating for institutions to include this type of training, 
^OPJO�^V\SK�[YPJRSL�PU[V�:;,4�ÄLSKZ��.LUKLY�LX\HSP[`�[YHPUPUN�ZOV\SK�UV[�
just be held in urban areas, but also in rural settings, given that gender 
norms are most detrimental in rural China (Li, Y., 2021). Research has 
ZOV^U�[OH[�WYV]PKPUN�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�[YHPUPUN�PZ�LɈLJ[P]L�PU�JOHUNPUN�
students’ attitudes toward STEM (Ikkatai et al., 2021). School social 
workers should also help school curriculum decision-makers and 
LK\JH[PVU�KLWHY[TLU[Z�\UKLYZ[HUK�OV^�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�[YHPUPUN�
can improve female students’ competitiveness and interest in STEM 
WYVMLZZPVUZ�HUK�[O\Z�PTWYV]L�[OL�ZJOVVSZ»�X\HSP[`�VM�LK\JH[PVU�HUK�

CHENXI YANG



32  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

WYLZ[PNL��;OL�W\YWVZL�VM�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�[YHPUPUN�PZ�[V�OLSW�Z[\KLU[Z�
have a better understanding of gender norms as well as the importance 
of education and careers for women. Additionally, conducting gender 
LX\HSP[`�[YHPUPUN�MVY�[LHJOLYZ�JHU�THRL�[LHJOLYZ�H^HYL�VM�[OLPY�V^U�
subconscious biases and prevent them from perpetuating traditional 
gender stereotypes and sustaining the patriarchy. 

While STEM education can increase students’ readiness and 
JVTWL[P[P]LULZZ�PU�(0�ÄLSKZ��0RRH[HP�L[�HS����������L_WVZ\YL�[V�:;,4�
careers can grow interest in pursuing careers involving technology and 
engineering (Blotnicky et al., 2018). Therefore, social workers should 
advocate for increasing STEM educational resources in the form of 
JV\YZL^VYR��[LHJOPUN�Z[HɈ��HUK�JHYLLY�JV\UZLSVYZ��;OPZ�HWWYVHJO�^PSS�
inspire more women students to challenge patriarchy and increase their 
competitiveness and interest in entering the technology industry.

PROMOTING DESIGN JUSTICE

Social workers can disrupt the male-dominated technology market by 
promoting design justice in technologies. Design justice “rethinks design 
processes, centers people who are normally marginalized by design, 
and uses collaborative, creative practices to address the deepest 
challenges our communities face” (Design Justice Network, 2018,  
para. 2).

With a trained background in gender justice, data justice, and social 
inclusiveness, social workers can participate in software design. 
Desmond U. Patton (2019), a professor at Columbia 

University School of Social Work, calls for bringing social work scholars 
to the AI table, and explains that AI designers need “community support 
and buy-in” (para. 5). Social work scholars can utilize knowledge 
learned from social work school, such as understanding a person within 
a community context and uncovering any biases members may have 
toward that community (Patton, 2019). Social workers should also 
encourage companies to re-examine the gender biases encoded in 

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   33   

[LJOUVSVNPLZ��;OL`�JV\SK�KV�[OPZ�[OYV\NO�^VYRZOVWZ�VU�ZWLJPÄJ�[VWPJZ�
such as “gender norms reinforced by technologies” or by promoting 
accessible, gender-friendly technologies for diverse and inclusive 
communities.

In addition to allowing social workers to participate in design, inviting 
women to the table is another form of digital feminism for enterprise 
social workers. Voices should be heard not only from female scholars, 
engineers, and designers, but also from women who come from 
underprivileged, low-resourced communities. Enterprise social workers 
collaborating with women helps empower and center the voices of 
women who have been directly impacted by the outcomes of the design 
process and helps them seek liberation from the oppressive patriarchal 
system (Costanza-Chock, 2018).

MEZZO PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS
AI TRAINING FOR WOMEN

9HWPK�KPNP[HS�KL]LSVWTLU[�YLX\PYLZ�[OH[�LTWSV`LLZ�IL�LX\PWWLK�^P[O�
updated technical skills. Therefore, those who do not receive technical 
[YHPUPUN�HYL�HK]LYZLS`�HɈLJ[LK��;OLYL�PZ�HSYLHK`�H�SHYNL�NLUKLY�NHW�PU�
AI skills training (Li, J., 2021). On top of this, technology companies do 
UV[�WYV]PKL�LX\HS�(0�[YHPUPUN�MVY�^VTLU��YLZ\S[PUN�PU�H�NLUKLY�NHW�PU�
promotions, positions, and roles. Data from LinkedIn (2020) suggests 
[OH[�[OL�(0�ZRPSSZ�WLUL[YH[PVU�YH[L�MVY�^VTLU�[V�TLU��^OPJO�YLÅLJ[Z�[OL�
“prevalence of AI skills across occupations,” is about 0.85 to 1.02 in 
China (Zhang et al., 2021, p. 218). A study conducted in manufacturing 
companies in 

Shanghai, China discovered that the AI skills training per season for men 
[V�^VTLU�PZ�HIV\[������[V�������OPNOSPNO[PUN�OV^�ÄYTZ�PUKPJH[L�H�NLUKLY�
WYLMLYLUJL�PU�Z[HɈ�[YHPUPUN��3P��1����������3HJR�VM�[YHPUPUN�PZ�H�IHYYPLY�MVY�
women, as fewer women trained in AI means fewer women are eligible 
MVY�WYVTV[PVU�PU�[LJO�ÄYTZ��;OPZ�WLYWL[\H[LZ�THSL�KVTPUH[PVU�VM�[OL�
tech industry as women are underrepresented and continue to hold less 
vital roles (UNESCO et al., 2022).

CHENXI YANG



34  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

Digital feminist practice includes intervening in the male-dominant 
industry by providing 

[OL�YLX\PYLK�[YHPUPUN�MVY�^VTLU�THYNPUHSPaLK�PU�[OL�^VYRWSHJL�HUK�
underemployed due to lack of training or formal education. Social 
workers from NGOs and NPOs can seek partnerships with educational 
institutions that have expertise as one solution. They can provide 
training in diverse subjects, such as AI, software skills, management, 
and human resources. They can also assist women in earning 
WYVMLZZPVUHS�JLY[PÄJH[PVUZ�PU�PUMVYTH[PVU�[LJOUVSVN`�HUK�THUHNLTLU[��
such as System Architect, Information System Project Manager, and 
Project Management Professional��[V�PUJYLHZL�^VTLU»Z�X\HSPÄJH[PVUZ�
for vital roles in companies. This training can be provided “after hours” 
to meet the needs of domestic housewives or women who work during 
business hours.

INCREASE WOMEN’S REPRESENTATION IN THE AI  
JOB MARKET 

Due to long-standing gender stereotypes in the male-dominant tech 
PUK\Z[Y �̀�PUJYLHZPUN�^VTLU»Z�(0�ZRPSSZ�JHUUV[�WYVTPZL�NLUKLY�LX\HS�
OPYPUN�V\[JVTLZ��;OL�[VW����*OPULZL�0U[LYUL[�JVTWHUPLZ»�W\ISPJ�ÄN\YLZ�
indicate that their ideal employees are as young, able-bodied males (Li, 
C., 2021). To increase women’s representation in tech companies, social 
workers need to work in human resources to recruit women for senior 
roles and advocate for higher working conditions and opportunities for 
women.

Social workers can also help to correct gender bias during the hiring 
process, enhance implementation of anti-discrimination policies in 
the workplace, and advocate for increasing representation of female 
employees in areas of employment, leadership, management, and 
engineering. Social workers not only support women in recruitment, 
but also advocate for better wages, working conditions, and promotion 
VWWVY[\UP[PLZ�HZ�H�^H`�[V�WYVTV[L�NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�HUK�PUJS\ZP]LULZZ�PU�
the workplace.

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   35   

FEMINIST ACTIVISM 
MICRO PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS

9LNHYKSLZZ�VM�[OL�
4L;VV�4V]LTLU[�ILPUN�ISVJRLK�VU�ZVJPHS�TLKPH�I`�
the government, social workers can still lead strategic digital feminist 
PUP[PH[P]LZ�[V�JYLH[L�HUK�Z\Z[HPU�H�TVYL�LX\P[HISL�LU]PYVUTLU[�[V�LUK�
gender and power-based violence. They can do this through disrupting 
algorithms, online advocacy and prevention, and workplace innovation 
and regulation.

DISRUPTING THE ALGORITHM

Social workers are encouraged to come up with innovative ideas that 
allow more survivors of sexual abuse and activists’ voices to be heard 
in the digital space. One method is to embolden supporters of the 

4L;VV�4V]LTLU[�[V�KPZY\W[�[OL�HSNVYP[OT��4H��������Z\NNLZ[Z�^H`Z�
to avoid government surveillance tools by rotating the images of certain 
JLUZVYLK�
4L;VV�JHZLZ�[V�[YPJR�VUSPUL�WSH[MVYTZ»�KL[LJ[PVU�HSNVYP[OTZ��
putting censored content on a blockchain, and using open-source 
repository hosting services, like GitHub. These innovations were helpful 
in circumventing censorship and thus supporting feminist movements 
(Ma, 2022).

ONLINE ADVOCACY AND PREVENTION

Social workers should especially reach out to sexual violence survivors 
who lack access to digital outlets due to media censorship. Social 
workers can support these survivors by creating advocacy projects that 
challenge forms of patriarchal and institutional oppression. They can 
also provide online service options such as virtual crisis and mental 
health counseling, 

intervention programs, support groups, and legal assistance. 
Additionally, social workers should train survivor advocates and 
volunteer peer educators to respond to individuals who are experiencing 
sexual, intimate partner, and gender-based violence. Trained advocates 

CHENXI YANG



36  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

will then assist survivors by safeguarding their rights and exploring 
]HYPV\Z�VW[PVUZ�[V�PKLU[PM`�[OLPY�\UPX\L�ULLKZ��;OLZL�[YHPULK�HK]VJH[LZ�
can also accompany individuals to report to law enforcement and guide 
them through the legal process.

In addition, social workers can play a role in digital harm reduction. 
:VJPHS�^VYRLYZ�HUK�[YHPULK�Z[HɈ�JHU�OVZ[�]PY[\HS�ZL_\HS�]PVSLUJL�
response prevention programs, such as sexual assault awareness and 
relationship violence awareness events, prevention-focused training, 
and education workshops. The purpose of these programs would be 
to help resist the power of abuse and educate the community about 
healthy relationships and sexual health in an honest and judgment-free 
way (Columbia Health). Social workers should also educate women 
HIV\[�KPɈLYLU[�MVYTZ�VM�ZL_\HS�]PVSLUJL�PU�VYKLY�[V�OLSW�IYLHR�[OL�ZVJPHS�
stigma around rape culture.

MEZZO PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS 
WORKPLACE INNOVATION AND REGULATION

As previously discussed, increasing remote work exposes women to 
higher risks of online sexual harassment. This is further exacerbated 
by the lack of actions and policies against online sexual harassment in 
Chinese companies (Ma, 2022). 

Enterprise social workers are needed to develop digital innovations and 
write policies addressing the new risks of online sexual harassment. 
Enterprise social workers can encourage companies to adopt AI 
systems that detect and track abusive, harassing language in company 
documents, emails, chats, texts, and comments. Referring to practices 
from other countries, such as Brazil-based Think Eva, an AI and human 
interaction combination that was designed to monitor and address 
harassment, and Canada-based Botler AI, which utilizes deep learning 
to provide free and accessible support to survivors, could be helpful for 
Chinese companies in selecting an AI system to combat harassment 
(Das, 2020). Enterprise social workers can also encourage companies to 

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   37   

develop apps such as Callisto and AllVoice, which allow employees to 
report harassment (Das, 2020).

MACRO PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS 
POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR GRIEVANCES

Enterprise social workers can write new policies and procedures, 
including reporting and grievance mechanisms, in order to support 
employees to take appropriate action, reassure survivors, accuse and 
punish perpetrators, and help prevent future online harassment.

DIGITAL ACCESSIBILITY AND DATA PROTECTION
MICRO PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS

CONNECTING LOCAL COMMUNITIES TO DIGITAL RESOURCES

Community social workers should connect low-income communities 
and individuals to local libraries which can expand electronic check-
out services and technology learning courses. Supporting individuals 
through technology training will help social workers engage with these 
populations. Gibson et al. (2020) suggest that people will be more willing 
to use new technologies if they receive some type of formal training.

DIGITAL LITERACY WORKSHOP AND INTERNET SAFETY 
TRAINING FOR WOMEN

Community social workers should hold digital literacy workshops in 
community centers to teach women and other vulnerable groups how 
to navigate digital devices and use social media platforms. In addition, 
social workers must teach individuals how to protect their privacy and 
LUZ\YL�[OLPY�ZHML[`�IV[O�VUSPUL�HUK�VɊPUL��6UL�L_HTWSL�VM�[OPZ�[`WL�
of training material is called The Empowering Internet Safety Guide for 
Women, produced by vpnMentor, which lists multiple ways to protect 
VUL�Z�WYP]HJ`�HUK�ZHML[`�^OPSL�UH]PNH[PUN�ZVJPHS�TLKPH�WSH[MVYTZ��VUSPUL�
dating sites, and ride-sharing apps (Levavi-Eilat, 2018).

CHENXI YANG



38  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI 

MACRO PRACTICE INTERVENTIONS

Social work scholars should advocate for high-speed, low-cost internet 
and accessible technological devices in rural areas for digitally excluded 
communities. NGOs and NPOs should collaborate with large technology 
companies to provide discounted technology devices to rural women. 
9LZLHYJO�OHZ�ZOV^U�[OH[�0U[LYUL[�\ZL�OHZ�H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�PTWHJ[�VU�
accessing employment opportunities and reducing poverty in rural 
China (Yang et al., 2021).

DATA PROTECTION

Policy social workers and enterprise social workers should protect 
workers’ personal data through regulation and education in the labor 
market. Policy social workers and social work scholars should refer to 
the case of )ȋYI\SLZJ\�]��9VTHUPH (2016), a milestone in the pursuit of 
protection for employees’ privacy, which established that an individual 
has a “reasonable expectation of privacy.” As another example, the U.S. 
Constitution guarantees workers’ rights to the protection of intimate, 
private, and family life (Article 26) as well as private correspondence 
(Article 28). While employers have the right to monitor how employees 
complete professional tasks, employers have a responsibility to 
N\HYHU[LL�[OL�JVUÄKLU[PHSP[`�VM�LTWSV`LLZ»�WLYZVUHS�KH[H��7LYZVUHS�KH[H�
may only be processed “if the person concerned consented to it and it 
sets out a list of exceptions when consent is not necessary” ()ȋYI\SLZJ\�
v. Romania, 2016, para.16). Advocates should refer to these countries’ 
WVSPJPLZ�YLNHYKPUN�^VYRLYZ��WLYZVUHS�KH[H�WYV[LJ[PVU�HZ�H�N\PKL�[V�
promoting inclusive and safe laws in Chinese institutions. 

POLICY ADVOCACY FOR DATA PROTECTION

Meanwhile, enterprise social workers should play an important role 
in regulating AI usage and data protection in workplaces. Enterprise 
social workers can do this by setting up ethical guidelines for employers 
who use employees’ social media data, supervising companies’ data 

DIGITAL EXCLUSION, GENDER OPPRESSION, AND HOW SOCIAL WORKERS CAN ADVOCATE FOR 
DIGITAL FEMINISM IN CHINA



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XXI  |   39   

JVSSLJ[PVU�WYVJLZZ�HUK�KPZZLTPUH[PVU�LɈVY[Z��HUK�HɉYTPUN�^VYRLYZ»�
reasonable expectations of privacy in the workplace.

In addition to regulation, enterprise social workers need to educate 
both employers and employees about the importance of ethical usage 
of employees’ data monitoring. Employees need to understand the 
importance of informed consent, the negative impact of personal 
data being misused or abused, and whether their companies have a 
legitimate reason to monitor their activities.

CONCLUSION

Women marginalized at the intersections of gender, class, and 
geographic locations are the most vulnerable to digital exclusion and 
gender oppression in the digital age. Even though social workers face 
barriers in addressing digital exclusion and gender oppression issues in 
the patriarchal and political contexts in China, they can still advocate for 
human rights and digital feminism in creative ways. Through promoting 
NLUKLY�LX\HSP[`�PU�[YHPUPUN�HUK�KLZPNU��SLHKPUN�MLTPUPZ[�PUP[PH[P]LZ��HUK�
promoting digital accessibility and data protection, social workers can 
HK]VJH[L�MVY�H�TVYL�NLUKLY�LX\HS�HUK�NLUKLY�PUJS\ZP]L�ZVJPL[`�PU�*OPUH�

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