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COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX | 45 

PLAY THERAPY AND YOUTH EXPERIENCING 
HOMELESSNESS

RACHEL WISKIND 

Youth experiencing homelessness suffer both short-term and long-
term negative effects: the rate of mental health problems in the United 
States (U.S.) seems to be higher for youth experiencing homelessness 
than for the general population (Baggerly, 2004), and twenty percent 
of adults experiencing homelessness were homeless as children 
(National Coalition for the Homeless, 1999). Child-centered play 
therapy (CCPT) has been shown to offer positive short-term effects 
on self-esteem, developmental delays, and other socio-emotional 
delays of U.S. youth (Leblanc & Ritchie, 2001). While CCPT shows 
promise, the benefits of CCPT for youth experiencing homelessness 
are underexplored. It is imperative that social workers study the 
potential longitudinal benefits of CCPT specifically for youth 
experiencing homelessness so that they can continue to provide the 
most effective therapies to their clients in the short and long terms.

INTRODUCTION
Homelessness is an increasingly prevalent social issue in the United 

States (U.S.). According to the National Coalition for the Homeless 
(NCH) (2016), in January 2016, over 500,000 individuals experienced 
homelessness on a single night. Between approximately 500,000 and 2.5 
million youth experience homelessness in the United States each year 
(Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs, 2010). According to the 
Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs (2010), youth experiencing 
homelessness have higher rates of truancy, involvement in the juvenile 
justice system, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and substance use 
than the rest of the population. Reducing rates of homelessness could 
benefit society by decreasing rates of incarceration, substance abuse, STIs, 
and other concerns. The pathways to homelessness include declines in 
availability of public assistance, lack of affordable healthcare, domestic 
violence, mental illness, addiction, and complex interactions between 
these issues (Baggerly, 2003). 

When looking at ways to serve this population, child-centered play 
therapy (CCPT) is an option due to its efficacy with children (Leblanc & 
Ritchie, 2001). However, the long-term effects of CCPT on youth experiencing 
homelessness are not known. Can CCPT improve the mental health of 
youth experiencing homelessness and decrease the likelihood that they 
will become homeless as adults? As homelessness grows to epidemic 
proportions in New York City, social workers must look at how they can 
best help youth experiencing homelessness now to avoid the generational 
impact of also experiencing homelessness in adulthood (NCH, 2016).



46 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX 

PLAY THERAPY AND YOUTH EXPERIENCING HOMELESSNESS

CURRENT ISSUES
Regardless of the circumstances, homelessness has many negative 

effects on children’s mental health, causing deficiencies in self-concept, 
depression, and anxiety (Baggerly, 2004). The lack of research surrounding 
these issues and youth homelessness as a whole is a disservice to 
youth experiencing homelessness. Twenty percent of homeless adults 
experienced homelessness as children youth (NCH, 1999). Current youth 
experiencing homelessness could potentially benefit from therapies 
to promote improved mental health and a decrease their likelihood of 
being homeless as adults. CCPT, one such therapy, has been shown to 
improve the subject’s perception of their own competence, possibly 
as a result of CCPT procedures such as encouragement, self-esteem 
building, and responsibility (Baggerly, 2004). Competence is key for 
many forms of achievement in the U.S., including academic, social, and 
career achievement (Bandura, 1977). Therefore, social workers and other 
mental health providers in the U.S. must work to improve a sense of worth 
and competence in youth experiencing homelessness in order to lay the 
groundwork for these children to have the tools to grow into adults who are 
not homeless (Baggerly, 2004).

According to the National Association of Social Workers (2017) Code of 
Ethics, social workers are obligated to commit to their clients and promote 
their well-being. Social workers’ commitment to the welfare of youth 
experiencing homelessness often means providing short-term therapeutic 
interventions and working to ensure the youths’ long-term success. Thus, 
further research into long-term efficacy of CCPT as a strategy for working 
with youth experiencing homelessness is imperative.

HISTORY
By understanding how the U.S. has dealt with youth experiencing 

homelessness in the past, social workers can work towards more sound 
programs for these youth in the future. The U.S. has a history of pushing 
children who are homeless aside and has historically treated them 
as a burden and a nuisance, to be sent away and dealt with outside of 
mainstream society (Hansan, 2011). As social workers, our obligation is to 
provide services for youth experiencing homelessness that can help these 
individuals overcome the stigma of homelessness, work to improve their 
mental health, and work through trauma. 

Current U.S. homeless policy has roots in the establishment of 
workhouses. Workhouses, based on the 16th and 17th century Elizabethan 
Poor Laws in England, classified the poor into two categories: the worthy 
poor and the unworthy poor (The Workhouse, 2017). Generally, the worthy 
poor, such as orphans, the handicapped, and the elderly, were considered to 
be poor through no fault of their own, while the unworthy poor consisted 



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX | 47 

RACHEL WISKIND

of people policymakers and government officials considered at fault 
for their poverty due to defects of virtue or character (Hansan, 2011). 
Children, therefore, were considered worthy, while homeless adults were 
often considered unworthy (Hansan, 2011). Workhouses were meant to 
be places where poor, able-bodied individuals could work and live in a 
state- or locally-run facility. However, many workhouses ended up housing 
populations who were unable to work but had no one else to care for them: 
the sick, disabled, elderly, and youth experiencing homelessness (Hansan, 
2011).Workhouses spread to the U.S. in the 19th century (The Workhouse, 
2017). In 1935, the U.S. passed the Social Security Act, which decreased the 
use of workhouses in the U.S. (New World Encyclopedia, 2013). Instead, 
separate institutions, including homeless shelters and a more developed 
foster care system, were formed in the U.S. (New World Encyclopedia,  2013). 

RELEVANCE TO SOCIAL WORK
Much of the available research on the efficacy of CCPT and youth 

experiencing homelessness is not generalizable to the entirety of homeless 
youth populations in the U.S. because of several common study limitations. 
Some studies were conducted with small groups of youth experiencing 
homelessness all residing in the same community, even the same shelter, 
or did not have a control group due to ethical concerns (Baggerly, 2004; 
Baggerly & Jenkins, 2009; Muro et al., 2006). For example, in Baggerly’s 
(2004) study, researchers changed the original study design from a 
comparison between a treatment group that received play therapy and a 
control group that did not to a design that did not include a control group 
and instead provided therapy to all study participants because the families 
moved frequently and the dropout rate of the study was high. Since the play 
therapy services were highly desired by teachers and parents and since 
researchers had sufficient financial funds to include additional children, 
they chose to provide therapy for all participants rather than having a 
control group and excluding some children (Baggerly, 2004). Baggerly & 
Jenkins (2009) experienced similar design challenges, including a shorter-
than-anticipated therapy duration and lack of a valid control group due to 
participant recidivism. However, these research findings can still offer 
some insight into providing services for youth experiencing homelessness, 
even if they are not generalizable to the population as a whole, because 
findings still showed improvements for those receiving treatment (Rubin 
& Babbie, 2017). 

Greater research into this subject would increase researchers’ and 
mental health providers’ knowledge about the long-term benefits of CCPT, 
as well as the effects of CCPT on larger and different populations than 
just youth experiencing homelessness. Conversely, failing to research 
further into this area could negatively affect macro-level social work 



48 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX 

PLAY THERAPY AND YOUTH EXPERIENCING HOMELESSNESS

because future policy would be blind to potentially beneficial treatments, 
and unresearched treatments might not be funded on a larger scale. Many 
programs in schools, shelters, and community-based organizations attempt 
to serve homeless populations and communities by supporting individuals 
experiencing homelessness, healthcare, food security, job training, and 
other vital services. Social workers who are better informed about the 
efficacy of interventions can streamline these programs to provide more 
effective and equitable support to this vulnerable population.

THEORY
CCPT falls under the umbrella of Experiential Play Therapy in that it 

uses the principles of dynamic and somatic experience, but it is conducted 
through a child-led model (Baggerly, 2003). Experiential Play Therapy 
Theory is based on the belief that children 
interact with the world experientially 
rather than cognitively (Schaefer & 
Kaduson, 2006). Instead of thinking about 
what they encounter, children use their 
senses to take in information. As children 
develop and continue to move through 
the world, these experiences serve to create a developmental framework 
that is used to interpret future encounters. One tenet of this theory is that 
Experiential Play Therapy can be used to help children resolve trauma 
(Schaefer & Kaduson, 2006). This aspect of the theory is of particular 
interest to the research question at hand. Experiential Play Therapy 
allows children to work through trauma, the memory of which is a somatic 
experience, by giving them the ability to move around and use their bodies 
(Schaefer & Kaduson, 2006). Play therapy can help youth experiencing 

homelessness to work through trauma and 
regain a sense of safety, dignity, and control; 
further research is necessary to apply this 
therapy to this specific population and 
determine the positive effects.

In Teaching to Transgress, bell hooks 
(1994) reminds the reader that “theory 
is not inherently healing, liberatory, 
or revolutionary” (hooks, 1994, p. 61). 
It is not enough for researchers and 

practitioners to consider and write about Experiential Play Therapy 
Theory as potentially healing for youth experiencing homelessness. Social 
workers must continue to do the work of asking questions and searching 
for answers, but it is equally important to take what knowledge they do 
have and apply it to populations they serve, while continuing to name 

“Play therapy can help 
youth experiencing 
homelessness to work 
through trauma and 
regain a sense of safety, 
dignity, and control.”

“There is much more to 
learn about its efficacy 
and potential long-term 
effects on improving 
mental health and 
reducing the likelihood 
that youth experiencing 
homelessness become 
homeless adults.”



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX | 49 

RACHEL WISKIND

injustices and using that knowledge to fight them. It is imperative that 
social workers and other professionals working to serve the population of 
youth experiencing homelessness in New York City continue to explore 
CCPT. There is much more to learn about its efficacy and potential long-
term effects on improving mental health and reducing the likelihood that 
youth experiencing homelessness become homeless adults.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Youth experiencing homelessness face greater problems, most notably 

in school, than children who are appropriately domiciled—whose housing 
is fixed, regular, and adequate (McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act, 
1987; Baggerly, 2004). According to Baggerly (2004), youth experiencing 
homelessness seem to experience mental health problems at a higher rate 
than the rest of the general population. 
Baggerly (2003) also noted that youth 
experiencing homelessness experience 
psychological, social, and emotional 
difficulties due to their greater exposure 
to stressful life events. Due to the 
greater incidence of mental health 
problems among youth experiencing 
homelessness, more attention must 
be paid to this specific population 
in order to improve their well-being 
and life achievement through the 
implementation of targeted services and 
interventions. Further research into the 
benefits of CCPT for youth experiencing homelessness in New York City 
can help inform future play therapy interventions for improving emotional 
health in members of this population.

It is important to consider the efficacy of play therapy generally before 
applying it to populations of youth experiencing homelessness. In 2001, 
Leblanc & Ritchie completed a meta-analysis of play therapy outcomes. 
Overall, the study concludes that, compared to non-play therapies, CCPT 
seems to be equally effective with children. Leblanc & Ritchie (2001) point 
out that CCPT has become widely accepted for use with children who are 
struggling with developmental delays, abuse, and other socio-emotional 
issues. Youth experiencing homelessness frequently experience these 
issues as well as other psychological, social, and emotional difficulties 
(Baggerly, 2003). Since CCPT is just as effective as non-play therapies, 
it is a useful alternative for children who do not respond to talk-oriented 
therapy, including children who have experienced trauma (Leblanc & 
Ritchie, 2001). Leblanc and Ritchie (2001) consider abuse and behavioral 
difficulties in general but do not specifically discuss youth experiencing 

“Due to the greater 
incidence of mental 
health problems among 
youth experiencing 
homelessness, more 
attention must be paid to 
this specific population 
in order to improve 
their well-being and life 
achievement through 
the implementation of 
targeted services and 
interventions.”



50 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX 

PLAY THERAPY AND YOUTH EXPERIENCING HOMELESSNESS

homelessness and the potential benefits CCPT can offer this population. 
Nevertheless, play therapy has potential use for youth experiencing 
homelessness, as youth experiencing homelessness may often display 
many of the behaviors stated above.

There is some conversation in the literature regarding the potential 
cognitive and behavioral deficits in youth experiencing homelessness as a 
result of life circumstances and the efficacy of various therapies to combat 
such negative effects. Two studies by Baggerly (2004, 2009) address play 
therapy efficacy in youth experiencing homelessness. Several articles 
address play therapy outcomes in general, sibling play therapy with 
homeless children, and play therapy with homeless children (Hunter, 1993; 
Leblanc & Ritchie, 2001; Baggerly, 2003).

Baggerly’s (2004) first study measured the effects of child-centered 
group play therapy on self-concept, depression, and anxiety in 42 children 
who resided at a homeless shelter. Compared to the general population, 
researchers found that youth experiencing homelessness suffered from 
higher rates of mental health problems (Baggerly, 2004). They also found 
that group play therapy appeared to have positive effects on the children’s 
self-concept, depression, and anxiety (Baggerly, 2004). Researchers 
acknowledged that there is a need to continue to examine how effective, 
if at all, play therapy can be in helping to improve behavior and academic 
progress among youth experiencing homelessness (Baggerly, 2004).

Baggerly (2003) details the mental health impact of homelessness 
and the prevalence and causes of homelessness in order to help the 
reader develop an understanding of play therapy with youth experiencing 
homelessness. Baggerly (2003) makes two conclusions: that there is a great 
need for play therapists to work with youth experiencing homelessness 
in addition to other clients, and that it is imperative that practitioners 
conduct more research on the topic of play therapy and youth experiencing 
homelessness. In 2009, Baggerly conducted another study that examined 
the efficacy of CCPT on classroom learning processes. Researchers found 
that youth experiencing homelessness who received this therapy showed 
an improved ability to internalize controls and otherwise succeed in the 
classroom (Baggerly, 2009). Both of these studies show potential positive 
applications of CCPT for youth experiencing homelessness and their 
mental health, but leave room for future study on long-term positive effects 
for youth experiencing homelessness. 

An article by Muro, Ray, Schottelkorb, Smith, and Blanco (2006) 
examines the effects of long-term CCPT, but by the researchers’ definition, 
long-term was considered to be 32 sessions of CCPT in one school year. 
Muro et al. (2006) found that 32 weeks of CCPT for their sample of 23 
children ages pre-kindergarten through 5th grade did serve to significantly 
improve behavior and the child-teacher relationship. These results are 
promising for the positive effects of CCPT. However, this article does 
not discuss youth experiencing homelessness and their specific social, 



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX | 51 

RACHEL WISKIND

emotional, and behavioral needs. Not only that, but there is room in the 
empirical conversation for research around the effects of CCPT far into the 
future, such as positive outcomes in middle school, high school, and adulthood. 

While play therapy and partuclarly CCPT have been studied, it is 
necessary for more extensive research to specifically and longitudinally 
measure the benefits of CCPT for youth experiencing homelessness, 
months and years after the therapy is received. Previous research indicates 
that youth experiencing homelessness suffer from mental health problems 
and that CCPT can help with mental and emotional health and behavioral 
deficits in general (Baggerly, 2003; Leblanc & Ritchie, 2001). Other 
research has shown some positive effects of long-term CCPT, but long-
term for Muro et al. (2006) was operationalized as 32 weeks of therapy, 
and that long-term therapy was not conducted with youth experiencing 
homelessness. It is important for future research to focus on the benefits of 
CCPT for years after the therapy is conducted to follow up on the youth who 
receive the therapy to see if benefits for their mental health remain past 32 
weeks. In addition, youth experiencing homelessness have specific needs 
when it comes to their mental health and dealing with trauma (Baggerly, 
2003). Therefore, it is imperative to examine the effects of CCPT for youth 
experiencing homelessness and not assume that therapies that work for 
the general population will also work for youth experiencing homelessness. 
Finally, no studies were located that examine the effect CCPT can have on 
whether youth experiencing homelessness are also homeless as adults 
– the future research must look at this specific long-term effect of CCPT 
for youth experiencing homelessness. Since 20% of adults experiencing 
homelessness were homeless as children (NCH, 1999), researchers must 
examine if interventions such as CCPT can have an impact on decreasing 
this number and helping youth experiencing homelessness to avoid 
homelessness in years to come.

ETHICS
The National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics mandates 

that social workers practice the most effective therapies for the vulnerable 
populations they serve. By becoming competent in new therapies for 
targeted populations that have the potential to be effective, social workers 
can implement the most successful and beneficial therapies available to 
intervene effectively in the lives of youth experiencing homelessness. 
In order to improve their mental health in the short-term and decrease 
their chances of experiencing homelessness as adults in the long-term, 
it is ethically imperative to research these options further. While youth 
homelessness impacts affected youth and their loved ones, the lack of 
research about therapeutic techniques for this population is also a problem 
for social work practitioners who wish to implement programs to assist 



52 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX 

PLAY THERAPY AND YOUTH EXPERIENCING HOMELESSNESS

youth experiencing homelessness but have limited knowledge regarding 
the efficacy of different interventions. Central to the practice of social work 
is the obligation to practice within areas of competence and to work to 
enhance professional knowledge when it is lacking (Code of Ethics, 2017). 
Further research is necessary so that practitioners can be competent in 
potentially effective therapies for youth experiencing homelessness and 
work in an ethical way.

CONCLUSION

A longitudinal panel study would be the best approach for future 
research. According to Rubin and Babbie (2017), longitudinal studies are 
the best option for observing processes over time. Panel studies observe the 
same set of people over time, which allows researchers to obtain the most 
comprehensive data on changes within individuals in that group over time 
(Rubin & Babbie, 2017). There are two main disadvantages of longitudinal 
panel studies that could affect future research: lack of resources and panel 
attrition. Longitudinal studies require a great deal of money and time 
on the part of researchers, which make these types of studies difficult to 
carry out. Secondly, panel attrition, when people who participated in 
the beginning of a study drop out or otherwise do not participate in the 
later stages, is especially common in studies with homeless populations, 
as these individuals tend to move around frequently, making follow-up 
more difficult. Despite these challenges, a longitudinal panel study is best 
in order to carry out future research on CCPT and youth experiencing 
homelessness and follow up with youth experiencing homelessness who 
participate in CCPT to check in on their mental health and living situations 
in the future.

Future research should examine CCPT’s efficacy in both improving the 
mental health of youth experiencing homelessness and in decreasing the 
likelihood that the youth experience homelessness as adults. Despite potential 
challenges and concerns, a longitudinal study is the best way to examine 
the long-term effects of CCPT on mental health among youth experiencing 
homelessness, as well as the potential that CCPT may have in helping youth 
experiencing homelessness to be adequately domiciled as adults. 



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX | 53 

RACHEL WISKIND

REFERENCES
Baggerly, J. (2003). Child-centered play therapy with children who are homeless: 

perspective and procedures. International Journal of Play Therapy, 12(2), 
87-106.

Baggerly, J. (2004). The effects of child-centered group play therapy on self-
concept, depression, and anxiety of children who are homeless. International 
Journal of Play Therapy, 13(2), 31-51.

Baggerly, J., & Jenkins, W. W. (2009). The effectiveness of child-centered play 
therapy on developmental and diagnostic factors in children who are 
homeless. International Journal of Play Therapy, 18(1), 45-55.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. 
Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.

Hansan, J.E. (2011). Poor relief in early America. Retrieved from https://
socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/poor-relief-early-amer

hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. 
Routledge: NY.

Hunter, L. B. (1993). Sibling play therapy with homeless children: An opportunity 
in the crisis. Child Welfare: Journal of Policy, Practice, and Program, 72(1), 
65-75.

Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs. (2010). Homelessness and 
Runaway. Retrieved from https://youth.gov/youth-topics/runaway-and-
homeless-youth

Leblanc, M., & Ritchie, M. (2001). A meta-analysis of play therapy outcomes. 
Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 14(2), 149-163.

McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act. 42 U.S.C. § 1103 et seq. (1987).
Muro, J., Ray, D., Schottelkorb, A., Smith, M. R., & Blanco, P. J. (2006). Quantitative 

analysis of long-term child-centered play therapy. International Journal of 
Play Therapy, 15(2), 35-58.

National Association of Social Workers. (2017). NASW Code of Ethics. 
Washington, DC: NASW.

National Coalition for the Homeless. (1999). Who is homeless? NCH Fact Sheet 
#2. Retrieved October 4, 2017 from http://www.nationalhomeless.org/facts.
html

National Coalition for the Homeless. (2016). Homelessness in America. Retrieved 
from http://nationalhomeless.org/about-homelessness

New World Encyclopedia. (2013). Workhouse. Retrieved from http://www.
newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Workhouse

Rubin, A. & Babbie, E. R. (2017). Research methods for social work. Boston, MA: 
Cengage.

Schaefer, C. E. & Kaduson, H. G. (2006). Contemporary play therapy: Theory, 
research, and practice. New York, NY: Guildford Press.

The Workhouse: The Story of an Institution. (2017). Introduction. Retrieved from 
http://www.workhouses.org.uk/intro



54 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. IX 

PLAY THERAPY AND YOUTH EXPERIENCING HOMELESSNESS

RACHEL WISKIND is a first year Masters of Science in Social Work  
student at Columbia School of Social Work (CSSW). Rachel’s current field 
placement is at Community School 44, an elementary school in the Bronx, 
where her responsibilities include supporting students and families who 
live in temporary housing with counseling, behavioral supports, faculty 
training, and connection to resources. Before attending CSSW, Rachel 
worked as the Director of Youth Engagement at a large Reform synagogue 
where she ran an informal youth program for 300+ youth from kindergarten 
through 12th grade and their families. Rachel is from New York and earned 
her B.S. in Psychology at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts. 


