





































A Social Exclusion Perspective on Social 
Work in Latin America

andrea laura baCher

This paper explores the relationship between social work and social 
exclusion within the context of poverty as capability deprivation. It 
suggests that a social exclusion perspective could be relevant and 
useful to social work theory and practice in Latin America. The Chile 
Solidario Program is used as an example of a social program that in-
corporates a social exclusion perspective and in which social workers 
play a vital role in promoting social inclusion. 

A Context of Exclusion

In LatIn amerIca1, 44% of the popuLatIon LIve In poverty, 60% of children 
live below the poverty line, and nearly 20% of young people 

are unemployed (Kliksberg, 2005; Inter-American Development 
Bank [IADB], 2008). A major cause of poverty is inequality. While the 
richest 10% possess 48% of the regional income, the poorest 10% 
possess 1.6% (Kliksberg, 2005; IADB, 2008; IADB, 2003). Latin America 
has the most unequal income distribution in the world, and these 
inequalities are exacerbated by the exclusion of minority groups that 
are discriminated against on the basis of ethnicity, socioeconomic 
status, race, gender, physical disability, and geographic location. 
In spite of the variations across Latin American countries, many 
actual problems of deprivation are widely shared across the region. 
Latin America has great economic potential, and is ethnically, 
racially, and culturally diverse; a diversity that could be a major 
asset in the process of constructing an inclusive society. However, 
the entire region must overcome a long history of exclusion that 
has left societies unequal, divided, and blind to diversity’s riches.

  The 1980s and 1990s were periods of profound transformation 
in Latin America. Neoliberal reforms applied in most countries in the 

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region changed the existing “intervening” states into “minimal” states. 
Active strategies to downsize the state caused accelerated privatiza-
tion policies, elimination of public institutions, and reductions of per-
sonnel in the public sector2 (Carlson & Paine, 2002). One of the conse-
quences of these policies was the deterioration of the notion of state 
as representative of collective action (O’Donnell, 1993). These policies 
also had a huge impact on many economies in the region and wors-
ened poverty and inequality. As Stiglitz described it, “growth under 
liberalizations is just over half of what it was under the old pre-form 
regime…Where growth has occurred, the benefits have accrued to 
those at the upper part of the income distribution...” (2003, p. 230). 
As a result of the policies implemented in the region during the 
1980s and 1990s, the salaries, working conditions, and career pros-
pects of social workers have deteriorated (O’Donnell & Tokman, 1998). 
         The professional identity of social workers in Latin America start-
ed as health workers (Velez, 2003; Alayon, 2005). The first school of 
social work, the School of Social Service, was established in Santiago, 
Chile in 1925 by the physician Alejandro del Rio. The second school 
of social work in the region was founded in Argentina in the early 
1930s. It was connected to the School of Medicine at the University 
of Buenos Aires, and it followed the European idea of using “hygiene 
visitors” as auxiliaries for doctors. Since then, the social work pro-
fession in Latin America underwent various paradigm changes that 
weakened its identity. First it was influenced by a philanthropic and 
moralizing tone; then, it was focused on integrating social science 
epistemology, and after that, it went through a re-conceptualization 
process. The profession has been struggling to find a place for itself 
since 1925 (Parada, 2007; Velez, 2003; Alayon, 2005; Healy, 2001). Pres-
ently, there is a need for social workers in Latin America to renegoti-
ate the profession’s position and its specific role through the use of 
new frameworks or perspectives that can inform both the theory and 
practice of social work.
         This paper suggests that a social exclusion perspective could be 
valuable in analyzing and influencing social work theory and practice 
in Latin America. It explores the relationship between social exclu-
sion placed in a broader context of the idea of poverty as capability 
deprivation3 and social work. The emphasis is on the relevance and 
usefulness of a social exclusion perspective for social work theory and 
practice. 

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A Social Exclusion Definition 

     The present debate on social policy in Latin America hinges 
on the issue of social inclusion and exclusion. According to the 
last IADB Report on Economic and Social Progress (2008), so-
cial exclusion is the most dangerous threat facing democracy 
in Latin America. Politicians and policy analysts mention the 
fight against social exclusion as the main objective of develop-
ment and substantive democratization in the region (IADB, 2008). 
          The term social exclusion was first coined in France in 1974 by Rene 
Lenoir to identify and refer to the “excluded”, including the “mentally 
and physically handicapped, suicidal people, aged invalids, abused 
children, substance abusers, delinquents, single parents, multi-prob-
lem households, marginal, asocial persons, and other social misfits.” 
Since Lenoir, there have been major advances in the literature on so-
cial exclusion, and the concept has acquired various definitions. This 
paper uses Amartya Sen’s definition of social exclusion, which consid-
ers social exclusion by placing it in a broader context of the idea of 
poverty as capability deprivation (2000). This definition is particularly 
suitable for Latin America because there is general agreement that so-
cial exclusion contributes mainly to the analysis of poverty and mar-
ginality (Faria, 1995; Rodgers et al., 1995). Faria (1995) argues that social 
exclusion’s usefulness stems from its potential as a way of integrating 
poverty, deprivation, and lack of access to goods or assets into a single 
framework. Sen examines the term by placing it in the broader context 
of poverty understood as the lack of capability to live a minimally de-
cent life. He defines social exclusion as “…constitutively a part of capa-
bility deprivation as well as instrumentally a cause of diverse capability 
failures” (Sen, 2000).

Social Work and Social Exclusion

       Previous authors who have analyzed the relationship between 
social work and social exclusion have focused on the strong and nat-
ural intuitive appeal of the idea that a concern with social exclusion 
is embedded in the guiding principles of the social work profession 
(Sheppard, 2006; Smale, Tuson, & Statham, 2000). In a broad sense, so-
cial work’s mission is to increase opportunities for excluded popula-
tions. Social work is arguably founded on notions of social exclusion 
and inclusion. In spite of its recent origin, the term social exclusion can 

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give expression to some of the major issues, which have been, and 
continue to be, of concern to social workers. But what is the specific 
aspect of social exclusion that is useful for social work? Is social exclu-
sion merely a relabeling of already known notions and concepts?
       Social exclusion theory is adaptable, and it may be tempting to 
characterize every deprivation as a case of social exclusion. Does the con-
cept add anything that we would not know or recognize without a social 
exclusion perspective? What is the specific relevance or new insight 
provided by  the idea of social exclusion for the social work profes-
sion? What aspects or characteristics of a social exclusion perspective 
may be considered relevant for social work? Does it contribute to our 
understanding of the nature of poverty, or in identifying causes of 
poverty that may otherwise be neglected? 
        Described in this paper are the characteristics of the social exclu-
sion approach which, placed in the context of poverty as capability 
deprivation, make it a valuable and useful concept for social work. One 
of the main characteristics of the social exclusion approach lies on its 
specific emphasis on the relational features in the deprivation of ca-
pability or lack of freedom to lead the life an individual values. Follow-
ing Sen, the main attribute is that social exclusion literature provides 
a central role to relational connections. This feature is applicable for 
social workers in informing the theory and practice around relational 
connections and more fully understanding the person-in-environ-
ment transactions taking place at various systems levels that lead to ca-
pability deprivation. The relational aspect of social exclusion can also 
shed light on the multidimensionality of the experience of poverty. 

   Social exclusion is constitutively a part of capability deprivation. 
This is relevant in the sense that being excluded can sometimes be 
a deprivation, and it can be of intrinsic importance on its own. For 
example, not taking part in a community, not being able to relate to 
others, and not having social connections, can directly impoverish a 
person’s life (Sen, 2000). These are losses on their own, independent 
of whatever further deprivation they may generate. Social work has 
an important role in understanding social exclusion as constitutive of 
capability deprivation and in presenting possible ways in which it can 
be addressed. The profession recognizes the importance of the dignity 
and worth of all members of society and their equality as humans, as 
well as the right of every individual to participate in the community. 
Being excluded from society can affect people’s well-being in several 
respects, including mental health and ability to feel empowered. 

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Working in the different fields of practice and with different methods 
of intervention, social work has the knowledge-base to recognize 
and address the intrinsic importance of social exclusion and its 
effects, as well as recognizing external factors leading to exclusion 
and working to change them.

   Social exclusion is also an instrumental cause of capability failures 
(Sen, 2000). Exclusion from social relations results in other deprivations, 
which further limit opportunities. When a deprivation has instrumental 
causes, it is useful to use the perspective of social exclusion to analyze 
whether the causal process can be better understood by invoking 
the idea of exclusion. For example, to be excluded from the formal 
labor market, which is not intrinsically damaging, can effect the 
opportunity of having social protection, which may lead to insecurity, 
poor health, or income poverty. This example has particular relevance 
for Latin America, where social protection is inconsistent, and where 
many informal-sector workers do not have health protection, which 
causes wide-spread feelings of insecurity (Tokman, 2007). Entry 
into the formal employment sector can open the door to social and 
economic citizenship, which in turn, is a prerequisite for belonging 
and being integrated in society. Understanding the causal processes 
leading to capability deprivation is relevant for social work to analyze 
the dynamics and interplay of the different factors affecting the 
interaction of the individual and the environment, and it can also 
inform policy decisions to improve the conditions of excluded groups.   
          A social exclusion perspective can enrich the practice and theory 
of social work at various levels. A vital interest in the issue of social ex-
clusion for social workers must be focused on policy issues and on re-
search which can lead to taking action. The challenge for social work-
ers includes not only gaining a better understanding of the diverse 
phenomena of deprivation and poverty but also improving the condi-
tions of clients; enhancing developmental, problem-solving, and cop-
ing capacities; contributing to the development and shape of social 
policy; and responding to the levels of social exclusion by introducing 
change and promoting social inclusion. 

Strengthening Social Policies and Programs: A Role for Social Work?

 Some governments in Latin American countries are making 
important efforts to implement innovative programs to promote social 
inclusion and the integration of excluded peoples, and have placed 

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the issue of confronting social exclusion at the top of their priorities4. 
Such programs include Zero Hunger in Brazil, Heads of Households 
in Argentina, National Front Against Hunger in Guatemala, and 
Chile Solidario in Chile. Now there is an unprecedented opportunity 
for Latin American social workers to contribute to the design and 
implementation of social policies and programs aimed at fostering 
social inclusion. This does not mean, as Parada (2007) states, that social 
work will be “…simply a discipline in charge of the operationalization 
of implementation of state policies” (p. 566), but rather, it is an 
opportunity for social workers to both engage in a process prioritizing 
social issues that can bring change and provide their knowledge 
in understanding social exclusion and working toward an inclusive 
society.

Chile Solidario: An Illustration 

Established by the Chilean government in 2002, Chile Solidario 
is a program of social protections for families in extreme poverty 
that combines aid and skills development in an integrated 
approach3(Ministerio de Planificación Nacional y Política Económica 
[MIDEPLAN], 2002). The program acknowledges the distinction 
between the constitutive and instrumental aspects of social 
exclusion, which is evident in that its main objective is achieving 
social inclusion of poor families by integrating them into the public 
network of social services. The goal of this system was so that families 
would be integrated into their local surroundings and into existing 
social networks with an income above the line of extreme poverty 
(World Bank, 2004). The current aid approach of the program is to 
offer cash benefits and cash subsidies  for participating families, as 
well as personalized psychosocial support for two years through the 
Puente Program as an effort toward social inclusion.
        The program also takes into account the instrumental aspects of 
exclusion, by recognizing that exclusion from active citizenship can lead 
to other deprivations, further limiting opportunities for employment 
and access to education. For this, the program provides psychosocial 
support and participants also gain access to social promotion 
programs, including educational vouchers and labor benefits. Chile 
Solidario is innovative in understanding social protection as a central 
part of development and as an important instrument for freedom.

 Social workers are presently playing a crucial role in this program 
(Saracostti, 2008). Using a social exclusion perspective, social workers 
are involved in direct practice, community intervention, and macro 

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policy practice. Social workers go door to door and invite poor families 
to participate in the program. If the family chooses to participate, 
the social worker helps them to identify their health, education, 
employment, housing, income, family life, and identification needs. The 
household and the social worker create a strategy for how these needs 
will be met and how progress will be monitored. At the community-
intervention level, social workers are involved in coordinating an 
action network that supports the work of each family. At the macro 
level, social workers are involved with the Ministry of Social Planning 
in overseeing the program’s progress and its design. Social workers 
and Latin American policy makers can be encouraged by this example 
and consider the role of the social worker as strategic in understanding 
social exclusion while also relating this understanding to their 
knowledge and skills in promoting social inclusion. 

Conclusion

  A social exclusion perspective is both relevant and useful for social 
work theory and practice. At present in Latin America, there is a need 
to fill the important role of implementing active and efficient social 
policies and programs which can alleviate poverty and exclusion. Latin 
American social workers could be involved in strengthening these 
actions by contributing and engaging in a process aimed at social 
renewal and the attainment of inclusive societies, states, and countries.  

 Social workers can play a vital role in Latin America using a 
social exclusion perspective to understand the relational features in 
the experience of poverty, the intrinsic importance of exclusion, and 
the nature of social exclusion as an instrumental cause of capability 
failures. Relating this understanding with their knowledge, social 
workers would improve the community work, research, and influence 
policy issues at the macro level. In this sense, social workers can make 
significant and valuable contributions to social change and build more 
inclusive, stable, safe, and accepting societies that respect diversity 
and equality  of opportunity for all.

Notes
1      In this paper I define Latin America to include the parts of the American continent 
where  Spanish or Portuguese is the main national language (that is, Mexico, Central, 
and South  America, including some countries in the Caribbean).  
2     The capability approach is a framework for evaluating and assessing social 
arrangements,  standards of living, inequality, poverty, justice, quality of life, and 
well-being. According  to Nobel laureate Amartya Sen, poverty must be seen as 
“the deprivation of basic capabilities rather than merely as lowness of income.” The 
capabilities a person has according to Sen are,  “the substantive freedoms he or she 

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enjoys to lead the kind of life she or he has reason to  value” (1999, p. 87). Sen argues 
that a person’s freedom to live in the way one would like has  intrinsic value and is 
therefore constitutive of the person’s being. The individuals’ capability of choosing 
and discriminating among possible livings is as valuable as the achieved  functionings 
(“doings” and “beings”). 
3    For more detailed information on the program, see Palma, J. and Urzua, R. (2005). 
Anti-poverty Policies and Citizenry: The Chile Solidario Experience. UNESCO Policy 
Papers/12.  Management of Social Transformations; MIDEPLAN. Sistema Chile Solidario. 
Gobierno de Chile, MInisterio de Planificacion y Cooperacion. Julio, 2002.
4     Subsidio Único Familiar to minors below 18 years old, subject to school assistance; 
Pension  Asistencial for people over 65 years of age, subject to periodic health controls, 
Pension Asistencial for disabled persons who are heads of households, subject to 
periodical health  controls, Pension Asistencial for people with mental disabilities , 
Subsidio al Consumo de Agua Potable, covering 100 percent of water bills for up to 15 
cubic meters of monthly consumption for connected families.

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