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How long musT THey be alone?: The exPerience of 
unaccoMPanied Minors and iMPlicaTions for social Work 
PracTice

Unaccompanied minors often face severe trauma during their preflight 
lives as well as during the course of their migration. These traumatic experi-
ences can have negative psychosocial impacts on the minors, and hostile re-
ception policies in destination countries exacerbate their hardships. Though 
social work services are traditionally undervalued in the areas of asylum and 
resettlement, the discipline has much to offer in terms of practice, program-
ming, and policy. The complexity of circumstances in which children become 
unaccompanied, as well as the diverse needs of the children themselves, mean 
that no single country, discipline, or agency can solve the problem individually. 
Complementary skills should be coordinated and international mandates must 
be established in a concerted effort to respond to this issue. There is a need for 
more research to determine the psychosocial issues of unaccompanied minors 
and identify best practices for social workers in destination countries to provide 
direct services and advocacy for this population.

    naccompanied minors are strong, resourceful, and resilient. However, 
these qualities are often challenged by circumstances beyond their control, such 
as violent conflict, oppression, persecution, trafficking, and severe deprivation. 
Unaccompanied minors are separated from their parents and family members 
as a result of multiple deaths and chaotic circumstances during flight. At times 
they are pushed away for their own safety and well-being. Their experiences 
during flight can often be as harrowing as what they experienced in their pre-
flight lives. Following these traumatic experiences, unaccompanied minors ar-
rive to host countries and are often treated with hostility and encounter harsh, 
punitive policies. As such, these children are deprived of universal human rights 
as well as rights specific to children that were agreed upon in the United Nations 
Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC).

The increase in the phenomenon of unaccompanied minors is fueled by 
globalization. James Midgley (1997) describes globalization as “a process of 
global integration in which diverse peoples, economies, cultures and political 
processes are increasingly subjected to international influences” (p. xi). The ef-

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fects of global interdependence are given wide recognition in economic and en-
vironmental spheres; however, global interdependence is not as well understood 
as a force impacting social work practice (Healy, 2001). With the increase in 
globalization and greater access to international transportation and communica-
tion, forced migration continues to cause individuals to leave the turmoil of their 
home countries and seek refuge in foreign lands.  Many of those displaced are 
children, defined as human beings below the age of eighteen years (United Na-
tions, 1989). Unaccompanied minors who reach Western nations generally arrive 
alone, or sometimes in sibling groups, from various distant parts of the world 
(Kohli, 2007). Amongst them are children who are trafficked and others who 
are trying to flee from the collapse of civil order and extreme poverty in their 
nations of origin. Unaccompanied minors are often separated from their parents 
due to emergency and conflict. They experience numerous atrocities and human 
rights violations in their home countries and then experience further distress 
during their flight. When children seeking asylum attempt to resettle in a foreign 
country, they seek a stable life of balance and peace (Kohli, 2007). This is a com-
plex process, and children often need someone to guide them through difficult 
circumstances. Unaccompanied children need social workers to provide them 
with care and protection that will help them with resettlement in new territories 
and assist them in their efforts to reach their full potential. While social workers 
are traditionally undervalued in the arena of asylum and resettlement services, 
their professional background provides significant knowledge and skills to help 
the unaccompanied minor population.

Definition of Unaccompanied Minors

According to the definition of the United Nations High Commission for 
Refugees (UNHCR, 1994), unaccompanied minors are those separated from 
both parents and are not being cared for by an adult who, by law or custom, is 
responsible to do so. Unaccompanied asylum seeking children are young people 
below 18 years old who have applied for asylum and who have gained temporary 
admission to the host country while their claim is considered. These definitions 
are frequently conflated. For the purposes of this paper, the term ‘unaccompa-
nied minors’ will be used primarily, and the term ‘unaccompanied asylum seek-
ing children’ will be used specifically when referring to youth who have arrived 
in a destination country and are requesting asylum status.  

The Experiences of Unaccompanied Minors

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The displacement of children across borders has occurred for several de-
cades, sometimes to countries located at great distance from their homelands.  
The phenomenon of displaced children increased dramatically during the social 
upheaval associated with World War II and has continued to persist during sub-
sequent violent conflicts.  International migration patterns demonstrate that wars 
in particular generate great numbers of displaced children.  The majority of these 
children move to neighboring countries (Kohli, 2007), and many minors are dis-
placed within their own countries.  Although this paper focuses on unaccompa-
nied minors who seek asylum in Western countries, the backgrounds of minors 
who seek asylum in Western countries and those who are displaced internally or 
to neighboring developing countries are similar. 

Unaccompanied minors are exposed to myriad risks. They arrive in the 
asylum country alone for various reasons. Perhaps their parents were killed or 
separated from them during flight or their families sent them away to avoid mili-
tary recruitment and seek a better life (Seugling, 2004). The primary reasons un-
accompanied minors leave their countries of origin include experiencing or wit-
nessing violence, rape or other sexual violence, forced military recruitment, war, 
persecution, political instability, and trafficking (Thomas, Nafees, & Bhugra, 
2004). Exposure to these atrocities and subsequent ordeals can create significant 
developmental problems for children. While some youth have shown their resil-
ience (Geltman et al., 2005), there is a lack of longitudinal research regarding the 
outcome of former unaccompanied minors during adulthood.

Case Study of an Unaccompanied Minor

The experiences of Fauziya Kassindja, an unaccompanied minor, are docu-
mented in the novel Do They Hear You When You Cry? (Kassindja & Bashir, 
1998). Fauziya’s idyllic childhood in Togo, West Africa ended with the death of 
her father. Forced into an arranged marriage to an older man when she was 17 
years old, Fauziya was informed that she must undergo the tribal ritual of female 
genital mutilation (FGM). Instead of adhering to the cultural practice that had 
killed and maimed many other young females, Fauziya fled Togo in fear only 
hours before the ritual was scheduled to take place. Through the financial sup-
port of some of her female family members, Fauziya escaped to Germany for a 
brief period before traveling to the United States to seek asylum.  

Upon her arrival to Newark International Airport in New Jersey, Fauziya 
informed the immigration officers that she traveled with a false passport and was 

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seeking political asylum (Kassindja & Bashir, 1998). The officers immediately 
interrogated Fauziya about her story and expressed their disbelief. They instructed 
Fauziya to remove her clothes while she was searched, then she was handcuffed 
and transported to Esmor Detention Facility in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Fauziya 
was treated like a criminal and suffered insults and indignities throughout the 
16-month stay in detention centers and jail. The frequent ordeal of strip searches 
and the inability to cover her nudity was a violation of her beliefs as a Muslim. 
She suffered loneliness, depression, injustice, humiliation, and deterioration of 
her mental state through a system that is often hostile and unsympathetic to those 
who are fleeing adversity and seeking asylum. During much of her time in deten-
tion, Fauziya was still a minor, but she was locked in facilities with adult women, 
some of whom were incarcerated for committing crimes.

After a long and tumultuous 16 months, Fauziya attained asylum status 
(Kassindja & Bashir, 1998). Fauziya’s cousin who was living in the United States 
hired an attorney to represent Fauziya in her asylum hearing. With the support of 
a team of lawyers, Fauziya received political asylum, and her case served as the 
precedent to recognize FGM and other such gender based violence acts as quali-
fying criteria for female asylum. While Fauziya’s story is one of many, it speaks 
to the mechanical process through which most unaccompanied minors seeking 
asylum endure. The range of experiences to which unaccompanied minors are 
exposed is wide and varied. Those who are not as fortunate as Fauziya often lack 
adequate legal representation and support systems. Unaccompanied minors fre-
quently undergo expedited removal, returning them to the dangerous situations 
from which they came without receiving an opportunity to speak with anyone in 
the asylum country aside from immigration officers.

Psychosocial Impact

Of the estimated 18 million refugees around the world, approximately half 
are children (Sourander, 1998). Minors without parents are especially disadvan-
taged because they must endure traumatic events without the support of parental 
protection and guidance. Goodman (2004) points out that parents often serve as 
buffers to mediate the effects of negative experiences in a child’s life, and the 
presence of family and community support are seen as requisite for the success-
ful coping of children who have been traumatized by war or violence. Goodman 
also states that several reports have indicated a high incidence of behavioral 
problems, depression, somatization, and suicide attempts among unaccompa-
nied asylum seeking children. While research demonstrates the psychosocial 

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needs of the unaccompanied minor population, such an evaluation has not been 
made standard protocol by all governments regarding the reception of minors.  

Sourander (1998) performed a study that examined the traumatic events 
and behavior symptoms of 46 unaccompanied minors who were awaiting place-
ment in an asylum center in Finland. He evaluated the children through their 
completion of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and found that they had 
experienced multiple losses, separations, persecution and threats. His study evi-
denced that younger age was associated with increased psychiatric symptoms, 
as younger children are more vulnerable to emotional distress and have less es-
tablished coping strategies than older youth. The most common symptoms of 
the population were related to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depres-
sion, and anxiety. When interviewed, most of the children reported somatic com-
plaints and uncertainty about their future, and some expressed suicidal thoughts. 
Exposure to multiple stressors greatly decreases a child’s ability to cope suc-
cessfully. Despite evidence of the occurrence of severe symptoms, all minors do 
not receive psychosocial services given the absence of a formalized evaluation 
component in some circumstances.

Unaccompanied minors have the capacity to recover and adjust to life after 
arrival in a Western country (Kohli, 2007). Promoting the psychosocial well-
being of unaccompanied minors involves finding ways to regenerate a lost sense 
of belonging and volition in their own lives (Kohli & Mather, 2003). Detaining 
the unaccompanied minors in jail-like settings where they are removed from the 
community abolishes any sense of agency in their own lives. Detention without 
access to mental health services further exacerbates psychosocial difficulties.

Hostile Reception Policies

After facing traumatic life events, most unaccompanied minors arrive in 
their destination countries suffering from tremendous stress as they strive to sur-
vive. They subsequently encounter immigration officials at ports of entry who 
often treat them with hostility (Reijneveld, De Boer, Bean, & Korfker, 2005). 
Western nations have become increasingly punitive with their treatment of unac-
companied asylum seeking children (Cemlyn & Briskman, 2003). Upon arrival 
in the United States or other destination countries, many of these young people 
are detained. They frequently remain in detention throughout the long process of 
waiting for hearings. It is not uncommon for the period of detention to extend be-
yond a year. Studies show that unaccompanied asylum seeking children who are 
placed in restrictive settings report more emotional problems than minors who 

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are placed in settings where they are allowed greater autonomy (Reijneveld, De 
Boer, Bean, & Korfker, 2005). Those children who are suffering from symptoms 
of PTSD, particularly those who have been victims of torture, and other mental 
health issues need access to psychological services (Sourander, 1998). Placed in 
detention facilities, these minors are often confined in secure environments for 
administrative purposes and live alongside others who are incarcerated for com-
mitting crimes. In addition, many are stigmatized and face serious discrimina-
tion in the new host country (Christie, 2003).

Currently there is no international protocol mandating how governments 
should serve the unaccompanied minor population aside from vague guide-
lines developed by the UNHCR. Western countries develop their own policies 
for dealing with these minors, and the policies often vary by locality within a 
country (Mitchell, 2003). Though governments claim to apply the principle of 
the child’s best interest concerning treatment of unaccompanied minors, Enge-
brigtsen (2003) points out that most decisions are made in the interest of the 
country. DeGruijter and Rijkschroeff (2005) describe an effective program for 
unaccompanied minors in The Netherlands called ‘Choices and Opportunities’ 
which encourages community integration. This program focuses on the strengths 
and capacities of the youth rather than on their problems, and aims to involve 
unaccompanied minors with recreation and service activities in their community 
in order to develop the support networks they lack. However, the method of en-
couraging community participation among unaccompanied minors is rare, and 
the majority experience social isolation in foreign countries.

Most Western countries have legal proceedings that are administrative and 
adversarial, bringing children with limited skills in the local language to hear-
ings against trained trial lawyers (Nugent, 2005). The majority of children are 
unrepresented in removal hearings due to a dearth of pro bono or government-
appointed attorneys. Unlike citizens, unaccompanied asylum seeking children 
are not automatically appointed attorneys to represent them at their hearings 
(Nugent, 2005). These children rarely have anyone to speak on their behalf, and 
are treated as detainees first and children second. The systems dealing with unac-
companied minors tend to be punitive rather than protective, and therefore fail to 
address the needs of this population. Hostile reception policies are detrimental 
to the well-being of unaccompanied minors.

In recent years the United States has made some efforts to improve the 
treatment of unaccompanied minors. Section 462 of H.R. 5710, the Homeland 
Security Act of 2002 transferred responsibility for the care of unaccompanied 
foreign-born children from the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) 

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within the Department of Justice to the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) 
within the Department of Health and Human Services (National Conference of 
State Legislatures, 2005). This transfer removed the fundamental conflict of in-
terest when the INS served as both jailer and caretaker of unaccompanied mi-
nors. While this transfer of responsibility is a positive step in providing effective 
care for unaccompanied minors, many more steps need to be taken to ensure 
more compassionate treatment for this population. According to the National 
Conference of State Legislatures (2005), each year over 80,000 unaccompanied 
minors seek entry into the United States, but only a fraction of those children 
remain in the country. Most are deported back to their country of origin, typi-
cally within 72 hours. In 2004, 6,200 unaccompanied minors entered into federal 
custody in the United States through the ORR, and this number is expected to 
increase in future years. More efforts should be undertaken within and across 
destination and sending countries to create policies that promote the well-being 
of these children.

Human Rights Framework

The notion of human rights is one of the most powerful in contemporary 
social discourse. Human rights are particularly important in the context of social 
workers and others in human services professions (Ife, 2001). Rayner (2004) 
asserts that every society should have policies in accordance with human rights. 
She states that detention is intended to be a punishment for convicted criminals 
and not an administrative method of handling a class of people. Rayner also 
discusses the reality that few nations have thoroughly implemented the UNCRC 
(United Nations, 1989). The United States and Somalia are the only two member 
nations that have not yet ratified this treaty. The Convention spells out the basic 
human rights of children: the right to survival; to develop to the fullest; to have 
protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and to participate 
fully in family, cultural and social life. The four core principles of the Conven-
tion are: non-discrimination; devotion to the best interests of the child; the right 
to life, survival, and development; and respect for the views of the child. Policies 
pertaining to unaccompanied minors should uphold these principles as children 
are among the most vulnerable victims of human rights violations, and unaccom-
panied minors are particularly at risk for abuses. Article 22 of the Convention 
(United Nations, 1989) asserts that special protection shall be granted to a refu-
gee child or to a child seeking refugee status. This special protection is absent in 
the policies of Western asylum countries.

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Maloney (2002) describes efforts made at the Transatlantic Workshop on 
Unaccompanied/Separated Children, convened by Georgetown University’s In-
stitute for the Study of International Migration, which focused on identification 
of the nature of migration and creation of appropriate policies and international 
frameworks to protect these children. Conferences such as this one should be 
replicated and expanded. The increasing numbers of unaccompanied minors and 
the research indicating the detrimental effects of hostile reception policies sup-
port the need for an international protocol of established procedures and prac-
tices to support the needs of unaccompanied minors. All countries have a respon-
sibility to develop and enforce national and international policies that are based 
on a human rights framework and respect the universal rights of each individual 
and child.

Social Work with Unaccompanied Minors

Under the National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics (NASW, 
1996), social workers have an ethical responsibility to their clients that includes 
recognizing and understanding culture and its effect on human behaviors and so-
cieties. Social workers should be prepared to understand the reality of social di-
versity and the nature of oppression and persecution. Through understanding the 
connection between the ethics of the social work profession and the human rights 
framework, social workers can apply human rights to the profession through 
ethical principles (Reichert, 2003). The internationally recognized and accepted 
perspective of human rights is able to supply more power to the application of 
social work ethics.

Further research must be undertaken to determine the most effective inter-
ventions and placements for unaccompanied minors. There is a particular need 
for longitudinal studies that follow groups of unaccompanied minors through 
adulthood to observe how different environments influence their internal and ex-
ternal functioning. Each study that has been completed to examine the treatment 
of unaccompanied minors supports less restrictive settings, and host countries 
must heed these findings. The body of research should include studies of various 
placements, such as foster care, group homes, and return to country of origin. 
In addition, attention should be given to cultural phenomena that could aid or 
impede resilience in these youth (Geltman et al., 2005).  

Social workers have important roles to play in ameliorating the treatment 
of unaccompanied minors and thereby improving their mental health. Social 

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work education should provide training on effective strategies for working with 
unaccompanied minors and in recognizing issues relevant to their development 
(Cemlyn & Briskman, 2003). Social workers are increasingly placed in posi-
tions where they work directly with the unaccompanied minor population, par-
ticularly in group home settings and establishing foster care or other residential 
placements for the minors. Social work professionals should be prepared for this 
responsibility and demonstrate their effectiveness in assisting unaccompanied 
minors in order to be given more opportunities to work with this population. 
Social workers have the opportunity to guide the minors through the process of 
seeking asylum and resettling in a foreign land, and are more adept at meeting 
the needs of these minors than the immigration officials who historically have 
been responsible for this population.

Unaccompanied minors are often hesitant to talk to mental health practi-
tioners about their experiences. This reluctance to disclose personal information 
may arise out of an association of social workers with other authority figures 
whom they fear (Kohli, 2006). They remain silent due to a lack of trust developed 
through persecution as well as a resistance to discuss experiences filled with pain 
and guilt (Kohli, 2006). Such obstacles to communication can be overcome by a 
social worker making efforts to establish a warm, empathetic relationship with 
the minor (Sourander, 1998). According to Kohli (2006), an unaccompanied mi-
nor’s choice to remain silent can be viewed as part of healing and managing hurt, 
and as such, the process is both burdensome and protective for the child. When 
unaccompanied minors talk, they often do so reluctantly and tell ‘thin stories’ 
that are constructed as an acceptable entry mechanism in compliance with inter-
national conventions related to the status of asylum. Through building a thera-
peutic relationship, the young people feel safer to tell more detailed stories.

Unaccompanied minors have experienced multiple losses, and their most 
common symptoms are related to PTSD, depression and anxiety (Sourander, 
1998). Exposure to multiple traumatic stressors greatly decreases a child’s abil-
ity to cope effectively. Social work services for unaccompanied children should 
be child-centered and culturally sensitive. Younger children are particularly at 
risk and in need of psychosocial services. Lustig et al. (2004) assert that unac-
companied minors’ reactions to stressors may be mediated by the presence of 
coping strategies, belief systems and social relations. They determined that more 
research needs to be undertaken relating to interventions with the unaccompa-
nied minor population, specifically taking into account effectiveness and cultural 
relevance.

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Social workers are accustomed to complexity in providing services to meet 
the needs of clients. Due to their concentration on a variety of service levels, 
social workers are in a position to move closer to a multi-dimensional under-
standing of the complicated needs of unaccompanied minors. However, social 
work skills are often undervalued in the context of providing resettlement ser-
vices and other services to youth and adult asylum seekers (Kohli, 2007). Social 
work practitioners are able to show a depth of understanding about the reasons 
children flee their homes and seek asylum. They can also strategize about how 
policies can be organized to maximize the chances of positive outcomes for un-
accompanied minors. Social workers must advocate for unaccompanied minors 
on the macro level in addition to providing interventions for their specific indi-
vidual needs. Only by providing a voice for the rights of unaccompanied minors 
can they be prevented from slipping through the cracks of an unjust system.

Conclusion

Globalization has created new relationships within and between countries. 
Interactions are increasingly determined by mobility rather than inhibited by 
national borders. The advent of globalization has literally changed the way in 
which the international community operates. While globalization has helped to 
facilitate the exchange of information and thereby advanced many societies, it 
has also exacerbated the plight of the world’s most vulnerable. Social workers 
increasingly should be prepared to work with individuals and groups who have 
diverse identities. The complex needs of unaccompanied minors that arise from 
the circumstances of their mobility require social workers to expand their range 
of tasks and services (Christie, 2003). Since national policies treat asylum seek-
ing children less favorably than native children, social workers also need to sup-
port unaccompanied minors on the macro level. Cemlyn and Briskman (2003) 
maintain that too often social workers focus on managing the current system 
instead of challenging it. The complexity of circumstances in which children 
become unaccompanied, as well as the diverse needs of the children themselves, 
mean that no single country, discipline, or agency can solve the problem indi-
vidually. Efforts to assist the population of unaccompanied minors must be co-
ordinated among those in different countries, disciplines and agencies to provide 
them with an opportunity to overcome the atrocities of their past and to develop 
brighter futures.

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International organizations, governments, agencies and service providers 
should adhere to the following recommendations in order to improve the well-
being of unaccompanied minors:

•   Establish and enforce internationally accepted policies for aiding unac-
companied minors that are in accordance with the perspective of human rights 
and the rights of the child as per the UNCRC.  

•   Unaccompanied minors should be provided with care in a safe residen-
tial setting that includes access to health, mental health, educational and legal 
services.

•   Countries should appoint legal counsel as well as guardians ad litem 
for unaccompanied asylum seeking children. Age determinations should be un-
dertaken more carefully in order to avoid the frequent errors when minors are 
mistaken as adults and wrongfully detained.

•   Countries need to learn from each other about how to manage issues 
of prevention, protection and durable solutions. International attention must be 
given to using best practices to assist unaccompanied minors.

•   Social work education should emphasize the impacts of globalization 
and the ethical responsibility for cultural competency.

•   Social workers should view the phenomenon of forced migration and 
its consequences, such as the prevalence of unaccompanied minors, on micro, 
mezzo and macro levels.

•   Social workers should align themselves with non-governmental organi-
zations and other child protection organizations to advocate for the development 
of progressive policies in relation to asylum seeking children.

•   Social workers should gain more holistic knowledge of policies and 
systems and embrace a global analysis in order to help unaccompanied minors 
through a human rights perspective.  

•   Social workers should also build alliances with other activist groups so 
that they can work together to create change on the macro level as well as im-
prove lives for individual unaccompanied minors.

•   Continued longitudinal research should be undertaken to determine best 
practices in providing services to unaccompanied minors that will most improve 
their life trajectories as well as improving policies to decrease the phenomenon 
of their migration.

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Journal of sTudenT 
social Work, Vol. Vi     

United Nations High Commission for Refugees (1994). Refugee children: 
Guidelines for protection and care. Geneva: UNHCR.

Ellen Olsen is a second year master’s student at CUSSW within the Ad-

vanced Generalist Practice and Programming Method, in the International 

Social Welfare and Services to Immigrants and Refugees field of practice. She 

hold’s a bachelor’s degree in English and Sociology from the University of 

Virginia. She is currently an intern at the International Rescue Committee in 

New York Refugee Resettlement Office’s Youth Department. Her e-mail address 

is efp2107@columbia.edu. 

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