


































CSWR Spring 2022 




COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   23   

From Foster Care 
to the Streets:  
A Call to Support 
Black, Indigenous, 
and LGBTQ+
Youth in Foster 
Care

LEE ANN GENUSSA



24  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS

ABSTRACT

The modern United States (U.S.) foster care system’s history is steeped 
in racism, violence, and oppression. Today, Black, Indigenous, and 
LGBTQ+ youth are overrepresented in the U.S. foster care system and 
OH]L�MHSSLU�]PJ[PT�[V�P[Z�VWWYLZZP]L�WYHJ[PJLZ��-VY�THU`�THYNPUHSPaLK�
youths, running away from foster care is perceived to be a more viable 
option than continuing to endure discrimination within the system 
despite the high risks of homelessness, unstable housing, human 
[YHɉJRPUN��ZL_\HS�L_WSVP[H[PVU��HUK�V[OLY�KHUNLYZ�HZZVJPH[LK�^P[O�
elopement. For the purposes of this article the term elopement will be 
used to refer to runaway behavior. This article seeks to illustrate how the 
VWWYLZZP]L�SLNHJ`�VM�[OL�MVZ[LY�JHYL�Z`Z[LT�WYLZLY]LZ�[OL�Z[H[\Z�X\V�
I`�KPZPU[LNYH[PUN�HUK�YL[YH\TH[PaPUN�)SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��HUK�3.);8��
communities. The author explores the impacts of foster care on the 
TPJYV�HUK�TLZV�SL]LSZ��JYP[PX\LZ�J\YYLU[�WVSPJ`�WYHJ[PJLZ��HUK�VɈLYZ�
alternative perspectives for social workers to create a more just and 
genuine child welfare system.

Keywords: foster care, child welfare, elopement, racism, Black youth, 
Indigenous youth, LGBTQ+ youth



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   25   

LEE ANN GENUSSA

T
OLYL�HYL�WYLZLU[S`�TVYL�[OHU���������`V\[O�YLZPKPUN�^P[OPU�
the U.S. foster care system, which includes non-relative and 
relative foster homes, group homes, and other residential 
institutions (Children’s Bureau, 2021). Youth may be 

placed in foster care arrangements for a variety of reasons, including 
physical, emotional, and sexual abuse and neglect on the part of the 
youth’s caregivers. Few of these removals are warranted, and data 
from several states has shown that about half of all removals occur 
without prior judicial review (Inguanta & Sciolla, 2021; Simon, 2018). 
With the vulnerability of youth in mind, one might assume that foster 
care has been designed to create supportive, healthy, stable, and safe 
environments. Before we make this assumption, however, we must 
HZR�V\YZLS]LZ�[^V�N\PKPUN�X\LZ[PVUZ!�����^OH[�HYL�[OL�TVZ[�WYVIHISL�
outcomes for youth placed in foster care, and (2) which groups does the 
<�:��JOPSK�^LSMHYL�Z`Z[LT�NLU\PULS`�ILULÄ[&

,HJO�`LHY��HWWYV_PTH[LS`����VM�`V\[O�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL�Y\U�H^H`�MYVT�[OLPY�
foster care arrangements (Children’s Bureau, 2021). This leaves 5,000 
children and adolescents formerly in foster care without stable housing, 
care, or resources every year. Youth in foster care constitute a large 
portion of all runaway youth and are more than twice as likely to elope 
HZ�JVTWHYLK�[V�ZHTL�HNLK�WLLYZ�UV[�SP]PUN�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL��4VYL^P[a��
2016).

When considering the demographics of children in the welfare system, 
P[�PZ�JY\JPHS�[V�HJRUV^SLKNL�[OL�ZPNUPÄJHU[�KPZWHYP[PLZ�MHJLK�I`�ZVJPHSS`�
THYNPUHSPaLK�NYV\WZ��:[\KPLZ�OH]L�ZOV^U�[OH[�)SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��HUK�
LGBTQ+ youth are all disproportionately represented in the foster care 
system as compared to the general population (Figure 1. Ching-Hsuan, 
2012; Harris & Hackett, 2008; McCormick et al., 2017). In order to 
\UKLYZ[HUK�^O`�[OPZ�PZ�[OL�JHZL��P[�PZ�PTWLYH[P]L�[V�HUHS`aL�[OL�OPZ[VYPJHS�
functions of foster care and the current role that social workers play in 
maintaining its legacy. 



26  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

A BRIEF OVERVIEW: THE STATE OF FOSTER CARE PAST 
AND PRESENT

The history of modern foster care extends back to colonial America 
and its practices of indentured servitude. The American indentured 
SHIVY�Z`Z[LT�^HZ�VYPNPUHSS`�KLYP]LK�MYVT�[OL�,UNSPZO�,SPaHIL[OHU�7VVY�
Law’s concept of parens patriae, the idea that communities had some 
responsibility in protecting dependent, parentless children (Rymph, 
2017). However, this protection was not free: these children were 
expected to learn and perform labor to fund their own care (Rymph, 
2017).

By the mid-19th century, shifts in public perceptions of slavery and 
ZLY]P[\KL��HZ�^LSS�HZ�YHWPK�PUK\Z[YPHSPaH[PVU��NH]L�^H`�[V�PUJYLHZPUNS`�
\YIHU�WVW\SH[PVUZ�VM�OVTLSLZZ�`V\[O��6YWOHUHNLZ�ILNHU�[V�YLWSHJL�
workhouses and were thought, at the time, to be a more humane and 
U\Y[\YPUN�HS[LYUH[P]L�[V�PUKLU[\YLK�ZLY]P[\KL��6YWOHUHNLZ�ZL[�Z[YPJ[�
criteria for their selection processes and often denied children on the 
basis of religion, race, and ethnicity (Rymph, 2017).

In 1853, theologian Charles Loring Brace established the Children’s 
(PK�:VJPL[`��*(:��PU�HU�PU[LUKLK�LɈVY[�[V�HTLSPVYH[L�[OL�^VYZLUPUN�
JVUKP[PVUZ�VM�\YIHU�SPML�MVY�\UOV\ZLK�`V\[O��;OL�VYNHUPaH[PVU�ILNHU�
to send parentless and impoverished youth out west on what would 
UV[VYPV\ZS`�IL�YLMLYYLK�[V�HZ�¸VYWOHU�[YHPUZ¹�PU�HU�LɈVY[�[V�OH]L�
them adopted by rural farmers and their families. The process was 
KLO\THUPaPUN!�JOPSKYLU�\W�^LYL�SPULK�\W�SPRL�JH[[SL�[V�IL�ZLSLJ[LK�I`�
MHYTLYZ�IHZLK�VU�[OLPY�WO`ZPX\L�HUK�HWWHYLU[�WO`ZPJHS�OLHS[O��)LJH\ZL�
of an emphasis on placing children out of their biological families, Brace 
and CAS are often cited as the foundations of modern foster care. By 
the early 20th century, the Progressive Era led to an array of new federal 
agencies including the U.S. Children’s Bureau, which remains involved in 
foster and adoption today (Rymph, 2017). 

The racist praxis of the child welfare system has been documented 
MVY�KLJHKLZ��:PUJL�[OL�<�:�»Z�IPY[O��)SHJR�`V\[O�^LYL�\UHISL�[V�ILULÄ[�
from child welfare services based on their race. Growing support 
for integration in the 1950s led to the child welfare system abruptly 

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   27   

adopting harsh, punitive rules in foster care as a new way to punish 
Black youth, families, and communities (Cooper, 2013). A similar 
legacy of state violence perpetrated by the child welfare system haunts 
Indigenous youth and communities today. For over a century Indigenous 
children were forcibly taken from their families and sent to boarding 
ZJOVVSZ�PU�H�K\HS�LɈVY[�[V�HZZPTPSH[L�[OL�JOPSKYLU�[V�^OP[L�(TLYPJHU�
culture while continuing the genocide of Indigenous communities 
(Cooper, 2013). 

Today, Black youth constitute nearly one third of the total population of 
MVZ[LY�JHYL�`V\[O�KLZWP[L�JVTWYPZPUN�VUS`�����VM�[OL�NLULYHS�WVW\SH[PVU�
(Census Bureau, 2020; Children’s Bureau, 2021). Similarly, LGBTQ+ 
`V\[O�THRL�\W�HIV\[� ����VM�[OL�NLULYHS�WVW\SH[PVU�JVTWHYLK�[V�
����VM�[OL�MVZ[LY�JHYL�WVW\SH[PVU��>P[O�YLZWLJ[�[V�0UKPNLUV\Z�WLVWSLZ��
ÄN\YLZ�PSS\Z[YH[L�KV\ISL�[OL�WVW\SH[PVU�VM�0UKPNLUV\Z�`V\[O�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL�
in comparison to the general population (Figure 2). Given the violent 
and oppressive history of the child welfare system, we can begin to 
\UKLYZ[HUK�^O`�JOPSKYLU�HUK�HKVSLZJLU[Z�^P[O�[OLZL�ZVJPHS�PKLU[PÄLYZ�
are more likely to run away from foster care compared to white, 
cisgender, heterosexual youth. In fact, Black youth, especially Black 
girls, in foster care are almost twice as likely to elope compared to their 
^OP[L��ZHTL�HNLK�WLLYZ��>\SJa`U��������

These statistics paint a concerning picture: the modern foster care 
system is a harmful entity that actively targets Black, Indigenous, and 
LGBTQ+ youth and children. For decades, these communities have 
seen social workers unnecessarily remove Black and Indigenous youth 
with historical and generational trauma away from their families and 
place them in culturally incompetent foster care arrangements (Brave 
/LHY[�L[�HS�������"�*Y\[JOÄLSK�L[�HS�������"�:HT\LSZ�
�3H9VZZH����� ���
Likewise, social workers have removed LGBTQ+ youth who have been 
PU]HSPKH[LK�HUK�KPZV^ULK�I`�[OLPY�MHTPSPLZ��HUK�Z\IZLX\LU[S`�WSHJLK�
them in care arrangements that perpetuate the very same invalidation 
and trauma (McCormick et al., 2017; Mooney, 2017).

For many youths, the abuse and neglect experienced before and during 
foster care are so unbearable that they choose to elope (McCormick 
L[�HS�������"�9LHT�
�-VYNL���������;OL�KL[YPTLU[HS�LɈLJ[Z�[OH[�[OPZ�

LEE ANN GENUSSA



28  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

decision can have on youths’ wellbeing are numerous. Youth who elope 
from foster care are more likely to experience homelessness, sexual 
L_WSVP[H[PVU��O\THU�[YHɉJRPUN��KY\N�HUK�HSJVOVS�HI\ZL��PU]VS]LTLU[�PU�
JYPTPUHS�HJ[P]P[ �̀�HUK�KPɉJ\S[`�MVYTPUN�H[[HJOTLU[�[V�HK\S[Z��*YVZZSHUK�

�+\USHW������"�-LYUHUKLZ�(SJHU[HYH������"�3H[aTHU�L[�HS������ ���0[�PZ�
PTWLYH[P]L�[OH[�ZVJPHS�^VYRLYZ�X\LZ[PVU�[OL�LɈLJ[P]LULZZ�VM�[OL�MVZ[LY�
care system when thousands of Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth 
are willing to endure so much trauma and violence simply to avoid being 
in foster care.

WHY YOUTH ELOPE

Youth in foster care may choose to run away for a myriad of reasons. 
:VTL�TH`�SLH]L�[V�LZJHWL�HI\ZL�VY�PKLU[P[`�JVUÅPJ[�^P[O�JHYLNP]LYZ�HUK�
WLLYZ"�V[OLYZ�TH`�JOVVZL�[V�ÅLL�[V�NHPU�PUKLWLUKLUJL�VY�YL\UP[L�^P[O�
biological family and friends. For simplicity’s sake, we can group these 
driving forces as push and pull factors, respectively (King et al., 2017; 
3H[aTHU�
�.PIIZ������"�7HNL���������)`�KLÄUP[PVU��W\SS�MHJ[VYZ�PUKPJH[L�
the presence of some external force pulling the youth away from their 
care arrangement, such as the aforementioned desire to reunite with 
biological family members. In contrast, push factors allude to an internal 
force driving the youth away from their care arrangement—for example, 
abusive, authoritarian, homophobic, or racist foster parents and peers. 
While both factors play an important role in the decision to run away, 
)SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��HUK�3.);8��`V\[O�HYL�VM[LU�OLH]PS`�PUÅ\LUJLK�I`�
W\ZO�YH[OLY�[OHU�W\SS�MHJ[VYZ��2PUN�L[�HS�������"�3H[aTHU�
�.PIIZ������"�
Page, 2017).

Discrimination and abuse faced by LGBTQ+ youth in foster care have 
been well documented (McCormick et al., 2017). Prior to being placed, 
it is not uncommon for LGBTQ+ youth to encounter social workers 
who lack an appropriate degree of cultural humility. As such, even 
before entering the foster care system many LGBTQ+ youths are met 
^P[O�HK\S[Z�^OV�MHPS�[V�\UKLYZ[HUK�[OLT�HUK�WYV]PKL�HKLX\H[L�Z\WWVY[�
and resources. If that were not damaging enough, without incurring 
repercussions, foster parents may legally refuse to house LGBTQ+ youth 
�4J*VYTPJR�L[�HS����������6UJL�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL��3.);8��`V\[O�LUJV\U[LY�

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   29   

varied, usually deleterious, experiences. Isolation, harassment, physical 
and sexual abuse, forced conversion, double standards in rules for 
straight peers, and a lack of acceptance are all common experiences for 
LGBTQ+ youth living in foster care on the basis of their gender identities 
and sexualities (Harris & Hackett, 2008; McCormick et al., 2017; Rymph, 
�������0U�MHJ[��H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�WVY[PVU�VM�3.);8��`V\[O�OH]L�YLWVY[LK�[OH[�
they feel safer on the streets with their chosen family than in foster care 
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�-VYNL��������

3PRL^PZL��)SHJR��HUK�0UKPNLUV\Z�`V\[O�OH]L�SVUN�YLWVY[LK�[YH\TH[PaPUN�
experiences with peers, caregivers, and social workers in foster care 
who lack an appropriate degree of cultural humility and/or are outwardly 
racist. For instance, research has shown that Indigenous youth in foster 
care are more likely to experience recurrent emotional, physical, sexual, 
and spiritual abuse when compared to their white peers, especially 
when they are assigned to white caregivers (Landers et al., 2021). 
Similar studies have revealed that Black youth in foster care placements 
are disproportionately exposed to maltreatment compared to their white 
peers (Scott et al., 2011). In fact, Black boys in foster care experience 
J\S[\YHSS`�PUJVTWL[LU[�ZVJPHS�^VYRLYZ�MYLX\LU[S`�LUV\NO�[OH[�THU`�VM�
these individuals depart from the child welfare system as young men 
with an even deeper distrust of mental health care providers than when 
they entered the system (Scott et al., 2011). These trends suggest that 
the foster care system is failing Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth 
I`�JVU[YPI\[PUN�[V��YH[OLY�[OHU�HTLSPVYH[PUN��[OL�[YH\TH�PUÅPJ[LK�\WVU�
[OLZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�`V\[O�

RISKS AND IMPACTS OF ELOPEMENT
THE MICRO LEVEL

According to Bowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment theory, children rely 
on a caring, intimate, and undisrupted relationship with their adult 
caregivers in order to grow up mentally healthy (Bretherton, 1992). With 
this in mind, it is natural to surmise that Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ 
youth who run away from foster care are unlikely to have formed healthy 
attachments with either their biological parents or foster parents. 

LEE ANN GENUSSA



30  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

Coupled with the trauma that precedes and endures through the foster 
care experience, Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth are subjected to 
HU�HZZVY[TLU[�VM�KHUNLYZ�\WVU�ÅLLPUN�MYVT�[OL�Z`Z[LT��9\UH^H`�`V\[O�
TH`�Z[Y\NNSL�[V�ÄUK�HKLX\H[L�OV\ZPUN�HUK�HYL�TVYL�SPRLS`�[V�LUNHNL�
in risky behaviors such as substance use and unprotected commercial 
sexual contact for survival (Fernandes-Alcantara, 2018). Additionally, 
youth who repeatedly run away face further risks of detachment from 
adult bonding, involvement in criminal and gang activity, and lack of 
LK\JH[PVU��*YVZZSHUK�
�+\USHW���������(YN\HIS`�TVZ[�JVUJLYUPUN�PZ�
[OL�YPZR�VM�O\THU�[YHɉJRPUN��@V\[O�^OV�Y\U�H^H`�MYVT�MVZ[LY�JHYL�OH]L�
H�OLPNO[LULK�YPZR�VM�ILPUN�[HYNL[LK�I`�O\THU�[YHɉJRLYZ�HUK�ZVSK�PU[V�
ZL_\HS�IVUKHNL��3H[aTHU�L[�HS������ ���0U�MHJ[��Z[\KPLZ�OH]L�ZOV^U�[OH[�
HZ�THU`�HZ�����VM�]PJ[PTZ�VM�ZL_�[YHɉJRPUN�^LYL�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL�H[�VUL�
point (Dank et al., 2017).

Because many of these behaviors are labeled as criminal by the state, 
[OLZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�`V\[O�NYV\WZ�HSZV�MHJL�OLPNO[LULK�YPZR�VM�LU[LYPUN�
the juvenile legal system. Statistics show that the majority of youth 
who spend time in detention facilities will be arrested, convicted, 
HUK�PUJHYJLYH[LK�^P[OPU�[OL�ÄYZ[�ZL]LYHS�`LHYZ�MVSSV^PUN�YLSLHZL��6UL�
longitudinal study of 2,500 youth who were incarcerated in a juvenile 
KL[LU[PVU�MHJPSP[`�ZOV^LK�[OH[�YV\NOS`�����VM�WHY[PJPWHU[Z�^LYL�
YLHYYLZ[LK�PU�[OL�ÄYZ[�Ä]L�`LHYZ�MVSSV^PUN�[OLPY�YLSLHZL��(IYHTZ��������

In addition to setting youth up for adult incarceration, the juvenile legal 
Z`Z[LT�HSZV�JVU[YPI\[LZ�[V�[OL�[YH\TH[PaH[PVU�HUK�YL�[YH\TH[PaH[PVU�VM�
Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth. Reports of abuse, violence, and 
substandard care are common in juvenile detention facilities, particularly 
for Black and Indigenous youth who are both overrepresented in the 
juvenile legal system (Abrams, 2013). Moreover, studies have shown 
that, like foster care, spending time in the juvenile legal system further 
deteriorates youths’ mental health and impedes opportunities for 
educational attainment (Abrams, 2013).

THE MESO LEVEL

Impacted communities also feel the reverberations of elopement in 
MVZ[LY�`V\[O��5V[�VUS`�KV�Q\]LUPSL�KL[LU[PVU�MHJPSP[PLZ�[YH\TH[PaL�`V\[O�

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   31   

and increase their likelihood of adult incarceration, but they also pose 
H�[YLTLUKV\Z�ÄUHUJPHS�PTWHJ[�[V�THYNPUHSPaLK�JVTT\UP[PLZ�[OH[�HYL�
already underfunded and under-resourced. Juvenile incarceration costs 
an average of $200,000 per child per year, with some states spending 
more than half a million annually to incarcerate a single youth (Justice 
Policy Institute, 2020). With more than 50,000 youth incarcerated, 
the U.S. may be spending more than $10 billion annually on juvenile 
incarceration (Sawyer & Wagner, 2020). In comparison, the federal 
I\KNL[�WYVWVZHS�MVY�ÄZJHS�`LHY������YLX\LZ[Z�VUS`������TPSSPVU�MVY�
kinship guardianship assistance—a $17 million cut from the year 
prior (Congressional Research Service, 2021). Transferring even 
a fraction of juvenile incarceration spending to kinship assistance 
programs for Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth could massively 
improve outcomes for youth while keeping families, and thereby 
communities, connected. 

It is also critical to consider the impacts that foster care and elopement 
have on the families of children who are in the system. In its current 
state, we have seen that the U.S. foster care system does little more 
than tear families apart. Biological parents of children in state custody 
experience disproportionate rates of mental illness, particularly complex 
post traumatic stress disorder (Suomi et al., 2021). Studies have 
ZOV^U�[OH[�[OL�YLTV]HS�VM�H�JOPSK�I`�Z[H[L�VɉJPHSZ�PZ�VUL�VM�[OL�TVZ[�
traumatic life experiences that one can endure and is often compared 
to experiencing the death of a child (Askren & Bloom, 1999; Masson & 
Dickens, 2015). Following the removal, parents are often subjected to 
worsening symptoms of preexisting mental health conditions, which 
M\Y[OLY�OLPNO[LUZ�[OL�YPZR�VM�Z\IZLX\LU[�YLTV]HSZ��:\VTP�L[�HS����������
This cycle of violence illustrates how the racist foster care system 
impacts Black and Indigenous parents and communities just as much 
as their children. By removing new generations of Black and Indigenous 
youth from their cultures, the foster care system continues the nation’s 
legacy of punishment and genocide, thus preserving the race, gender, 
and class-based hierarchies that have served the nation since its 
advent (Roberts, 2012). In order to further understand the experience 
VM�[OLZL�MHTPSPLZ�HUK�JVTT\UP[PLZ��P[�PZ�PTWVY[HU[�[V�HUHS`aL�[OL�^H`Z�
[OH[�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�SLNPZSH[PVU�WSH`Z�ZWLJPÄJ�YVSLZ�PU�RLLWPUN�THYNPUHSPaLK�
communities disjointed.

LEE ANN GENUSSA



32  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

A BRIEF POLICY ANALYSIS
THE RUNAWAY AND HOMELESS YOUTH ACT

The Runaway and Homeless Youth Act (RHYA), originally titled the 
9\UH^H`�@V\[O�(J[��^HZ�LUHJ[LK�I`�*VUNYLZZ�PU�� ���PU�HU�LɈVY[�[V�
RLLW�]\SULYHISL�`V\[O�VɈ�[OL�Z[YLL[Z�HTPKZ[�YPZPUN�]PVSLU[�JYPTL�YH[LZ�
HJYVZZ�[OL�UH[PVU��.\YY��� �����;OL�9/@(�H\[OVYPaLK�[OL�9\UH^H`�
and Homeless Youth (RHY) Program, which provides federal grant 
M\UKPUN�MVY�[OL�JYLH[PVU�VY�IVSZ[LYPUN�VM�SVJHS�W\ISPJ��UVU�WYVÄ[�JLU[LYZ�
dedicated to supporting runaway youth and their families. There are 
three main programs within the RHY Program: the Basic Center Program 
�)*7���[OL�;YHUZP[PVUHS�3P]PUN�7YVNYHT��;37���HUK�[OL�:VJPHS�6\[YLHJO�
7YVNYHT��:67���(KKP[PVUHS�WYVNYHTZ�PUJS\KL�[OL�4H[LYUP[`�.YV\W�/VTL�
Project and the 1-800-RUNAWAY hotline (Family & Youth Services 
Bureau, 2018).

Based on survey data collected from youth after service provision, 
each of the three main programs, in addition to the 1-800-RUNAWAY 
OV[SPUL��HWWLHY�[V�IL�LɈLJ[P]L�PU�Z\WWVY[PUN�`V\[O��;HISL�����0U�������
 ���VM�`V\[O�^OV�WHY[PJPWH[LK�PU�[OL�)*7�Z\JJLZZM\SS`�[YHUZP[PVULK�[V�
H�Z[HISL�SP]PUN�HYYHUNLTLU[��^OPSL�����VM�`V\[O�^LYL�YL\UP[LK�^P[O�[OLPY�
families (Administration for Children and Families, 2015). In the same 
`LHY��:67�Z[HɈ�HUK�]VS\U[LLYZ�THKL�V]LY���������JVU[HJ[Z�^P[O�Z[YLL[�
youth which resulted in 21,000 transitions to shelters for the evening. 
Additionally, self-report surveys illustrated that the 1-800-RUNAWAY 
OV[SPUL�^HZ�OPNOS`�LɈLJ[P]L�PU�Z\WWVY[PUN�`V\[O�^OV�^LYL�JVU[LTWSH[PUN�
Y\UUPUN�H^H �̀�0U������������VM�`V\[O�YLWVY[LK�[OH[�[OL`�^V\SK�JHSS�
again in the future for additional support (Administration for Children & 
Families, 2015).

CRITIQUE AND CONSIDERATIONS

Although the RHYA has provided support to thousands of youth since 
P[Z�JVUJLW[PVU��P[�PZ�LX\HSS`�PTWVY[HU[�[V�HJRUV^SLKNL�[OL�WP[MHSSZ�VM�[OL�
legislation. Youth in foster care constitute a large portion of runaways, 
`L[�UV^OLYL�PU�[OL�WYVNYHT�SLNPZSH[PVU�HYL�[OLZL�`V\[O�PKLU[PÄLK�HZ�
ILPUN�LZWLJPHSS`�]\SULYHISL�HUK�PU�ULLK�VM�Z\WWVY[��4VYL�ZWLJPÄJHSS �̀�
the legislation makes no mention of Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ 

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   33   

foster youth even though they are disproportionately impacted by 
MVZ[LY�JHYL�HUK�TVYL�SPRLS`�[V�Y\U�H^H �̀�;OPZ�SHJR�VM�MVJ\Z�PZ�YLÅLJ[LK�
in data collected from the program. For example, virtually no data was 
collected on LGBTQ+ youth who received services from the program 
(Administration for Children & Families, 2015). Data collection accounted 
only for transgender youth, neglecting to assess for how many youths 
served were lesbian, gay, bisexual, nonbinary, gender non-conforming, 
L[J���KLZWP[L�HU�LZ[PTH[LK�����VM�`V\[O�PKLU[PM`PUN�HZ�3.);8��
(Furguson & Maccio, 2015).

Another important consideration is the legislation’s emphasis on 
education and job training. There is widespread acceptance that a 
JVU[PU\V\Z�HUK�X\HSP[`�LK\JH[PVU�PZ�LZZLU[PHS�MVY�`V\[O�[V�NYV^�\W�
mentally healthy. Quality education and job training provide important 
educational, developmental, and social milestones for children and 
`V\[O��0[�PZ�LZWLJPHSS`�PTWVY[HU[�[V�JVUZPKLY�[OL�PTWHJ[Z�VM�WYPVYP[PaPUN�
a future-focused mentality surrounding job training over youths’ 
immediate safety and wellbeing. Experiencing homelessness in youth 
PZ�[YH\TH[PaPUN��LZWLJPHSS`�^OLU�P[�PU]VS]LZ�LSVWLTLU[�MYVT�H�JHYLNP]LY��
By providing youth with stable housing, we can help to halt the cyclical 
pattern of poverty and incarceration, improve mental health outcomes, 
and empower youth with a sense of agency (Naccarato et al., 2008). 
(JJLZZ�[V�JVUZPZ[LU[��X\HSP[`�PUKP]PK\HS�JV\UZLSPUN�OHZ�HSZV�ILLU�WYV]LU�
[V�ZPNUPÄJHU[S`�PTWYV]L�TLU[HS�OLHS[O�HUK�KLJYLHZL�Z\IZ[HUJL�HI\ZL�PU�
runaway and homeless youth (Slesnick et al., 2008). For these reasons, 
P[�JV\SK�IL�TVYL�ILULÄJPHS�[V�ZOPM[�YLZV\YJLZ�H^H`�MYVT�QVI�[YHPUPUN�HUK�
toward counseling and housing. 

FOSTERING CONNECTIONS TO SUCCESS AND INCREASING 
ADOPTIONS ACT 

More recently, in 2008, the Fostering Connections to Success and 
Increasing Adoptions Act (Fostering Connections Act) was passed in an 
LɈVY[�[V�TVKLYUPaL�[OL�MVZ[LY�JHYL�Z`Z[LT�I`�WYVTV[PUN�RPUZOPW�MVZ[LY�
WSHJLTLU[Z�HUK�HKVW[PVUZ��PTWYV]PUN�HJJLZZ�[V�X\HSP[`�OLHS[OJHYL��
HUK�Z\WWVY[PUN�LK\JH[PVUHS�JVUZPZ[LUJ �̀�;OL�SLNPZSH[PVU�JVUZPZ[Z�VM�Ä]L�
sections that focus on connecting and supporting kinship caregivers, 
improving outcomes for youth in foster care, improving access to foster 

LEE ANN GENUSSA



34  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

care and adoption within Indigenous communities, improving incentives 
MVY�HKVW[PVU��HUK�JSHYPM`PUN�H�\UPMVYT�KLÄUP[PVU�VM�[OL�[LYT�¸JOPSK�¹�HZ�
well as other provisions (Fostering Connections Act, 2008). Some of 
the most prominent alterations in child welfare that have resulted from 
[OPZ�SLNPZSH[PVU�PUJS\KL�L_[LUKPUN�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�ILULÄ[Z�[V�`V\[O�\W�[V�
the age of 21 as well as heightening the focus on transition planning for 
youth who are aging out. The logic is that by encouraging kinship foster 
care and providing welfare services until the age of 21, youth will have a 
more supportive and protracted transition into independent living (Day & 
Preston, 2013).

In terms of implementation, varying degrees of intervention success can 
be seen on a state-to-state basis. The majority of U.S. states, including 
[OL�+PZ[YPJ[�VM�*VS\TIPH��OH]L�\WKH[LK�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�SLNPZSH[PVU�[V�YLÅLJ[�
LSLTLU[Z�VM�[OL�-VZ[LYPUN�*VUULJ[PVUZ�(J[��ZWLJPÄJHSS`�PU�[LYTZ�VM�
educational stability, services to support said stability, and transition 
coordination. Despite these successes, many jurisdictions have failed to 
HKLX\H[LS`�PUJVYWVYH[L�HSS�JVTWVULU[Z�VM�[OL�MLKLYHS�SLNPZSH[PVU�LX\HSS �̀�
particularly elements such as educational services (Perfect et al., 2013). 

CRITIQUE AND CONSIDERATIONS

Like the RHYA, the Fostering Connections Act places a strong 
emphasis on job training and readiness to enter the workforce. This 
focus within the legislation highlights the inherent neoliberalism within 
U.S. law, based as it is on the idea that youth are responsible for 
IV[O�[OLPY�PUKP]PK\HS�JPYJ\TZ[HUJLZ�HUK�ÄUKPUN�H�TLHUZ�V\[�VM�[OVZL�
circumstances by becoming a productive member of the workforce 
(Schelbe, 2011). Again, like the RHYA, the Fostering Connections 
(J[�JV\SK�ILULÄ[�MYVT�[HRPUN�H�Z[LW�H^H`�MYVT�[OLZL�UV[PVUZ�VM�
personal responsibility and job training, and instead focus on housing 
WYVJ\YLTLU[�HUK�JVUZPZ[LU[��X\HSP[`�JV\UZLSPUN��5HJJHYH[V�L[�HS���
2008; Slesink et al., 2008). The legislation is also inconsistent with 
its promotion of kinship care. Although the core of the legislation is 
based on the idea that kinship care promotes improved outcomes, the 
SLNPZSH[PVU�MHPSZ�[V�YLX\PYL�OLPNO[LULK�ILULÄ[Z��Z\WWVY[��HUK�HJJLZZ�[V�
resources for kinship caregivers (Koh et al., 2021). 

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   35   

STRUCTURAL AND CULTURAL CHANGES

The Fostering Connections Act has brought about meaningful change by 
promoting kinship foster care. Yet social workers will play an important 
role in advocating for further amendments to current legislation which 
will be crucial to providing Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ runaway 
foster youth with the support that they so vitally need and deserve. It is 
also important to acknowledge that any legislation is inherently a band-
HPK�ZVS\[PVU��>L�JHUUV[�L_WLJ[�HS[LYH[PVUZ�PU�SLNPZSH[PVU�[V�IL�LɈLJ[P]L�
until social workers collectively advocate for and implement large-scale 
shifts in the deeply rooted cultural norms and values within the U.S. 

When moving toward large-scale, structural changes, it is important 
for social workers to reconsider how the American patriarchal nuclear 
family structure has contributed to the creation of such an oppressive 
foster care system. Decades of research suggest that the myth of 
the nuclear family is inappropriate, misleading, and detrimental to 
our understanding of family dynamics and appropriate therapeutic 
PU[LY]LU[PVUZ��<aVRH��� � ���;OPZ�TVKLS�VM�MHTPS`�Z[Y\J[\YL�PZ�PUOLYLU[S`�
homophobic and misogynistic. It suggests that anything other than a 
cisgender, heterosexual marriage does not constitute a valid family unit, 
while reinforcing traditional gender roles: the husband as the provider, 
protector, and decision maker, and the wife as the domestic servant 
and childrearer (St. Vil et al., 2019). In contrast to the patriarchal nuclear 
family structure, Black and Indigenous communities have historically 
placed a strong emphasis on communal mastery to promote positive 
outcomes in child-rearing (Hobfoll et al., 2002). Even today it is common 
MVY�JOPSKYLHYPUN�[V�IL�H�JVTT\UHS��MHTPS`�LɈVY[�PU�[OLZL�JVTT\UP[PLZ��
This is primarily due to the mechanisms of mass incarceration which 
remove parents from their children's lives and heighten caregiver 
responsibilities for the co-parent and their relatives (The Annie E. Casey 
Foundation, 2016; St. Vil et al., 2019). 

>OPSL�[OL�LɉJHJ`�VM�JVSSLJ[P]PZT�OHZ�ILLU�WYV]LU��[OPZ�Z[`SL�VM�
JHYLNP]PUN�PZ�VM[LU�JSHZZPÄLK�HZ�WHYLU[HS�ULNSLJ[�^P[OPU�H�>LZ[LYU�
JVUJLW[\HSPaH[PVU�VM�JOPSK�YLHYPUN��[O\Z�SLHKPUN�[V�[OL�KPZWYVWVY[PVUH[L�
removal of Black and Indigenous children from their families (Hobfoll et 
al., 2002). For instance, studies have shown that youth placed in kinship 

LEE ANN GENUSSA



36  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

foster arrangements—most often with women of color—have similar 
physical, mental, and behavioral health outcomes to youth placed in 
non-kinship arrangements. This is true despite the fact that kinship 
foster parents are, on average, older, lower income, less healthy, and 
receive fewer services and lower payments from child welfare agencies 
JVTWHYLK�[V�UVU�RPUZOPW�MVZ[LY�WHYLU[Z��)LYYPJR�L[�HS����  �"�2VO�L[�HS���
2021). In other words, women of color in a kinship foster parent role 
produce similar outcomes for youth compared to white, non-kinship 
foster parents even though they are given fewer resources by child 
welfare agencies. In applying a collectivist approach to child-rearing, we 
may be able to create better outcomes for youth and their families by 
keeping families united and supported. 

IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE        

Social workers have an important role in transforming the foster 
care system. With our code of ethics in mind, it is imperative that we 
continue to advocate for cultural changes that abandon the three pillars 
of capitalist oppression: white supremacy, colonialism, and hetero-
patriarchy. While social workers should strive to eliminate the need for 
runaway, homeless, and foster care youth services through large-scale 
J\S[\YHS�ZOPM[Z�HUK�HK]VJHJ �̀�P[�PZ�LX\HSS`�PTWVY[HU[�[V�JVUZPKLY�OV^� 
we can help youth who are already navigating through these systems 
right now.

From a clinical perspective, it is crucial that social workers who serve 
)SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��3.);8���HUK�V[OLY^PZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�`V\[O�IV[O�PU�
and outside of the child welfare system begin to operate from cultural 
humility, trauma-informed, and social justice lenses. The patterns of 
racism and oppression in the child welfare system are deeply woven into 
[OL�MHIYPJ�VM�[OL�<�:��HUK�^PSS�YLX\PYL�H�NYLH[�KLHS�VM�LɈVY[�[V�[LHY�V\[��
;OPZ�JHUUV[�IL�KVUL�ZPTWS`�I`�^VYRPUN�MVY�THYNPUHSPaLK�JVTT\UP[PLZ��
but rather working in tandem with them to provide resources and to 
LUJV\YHNL�VYNHUPaH[PVU��\UP[ �̀�HUK�LTWV^LYTLU[�HTVUN�[OL�UH[PVU»Z�
most historically oppressed and abused communities.

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   37   

CONCLUSION

;OL�PU[LNYH[PVU�VM�KLJHKLZ�VM�YLZLHYJO�PU[V�[OL�ÄLSK�VM�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�OHZ�
elucidated that the current U.S. foster care system has not strayed far 
from its oppressive origins. The foster care experience is commonly 
not a positive one for Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth. Racism, 
OVTVWOVIPH��HUK�[YHUZWOVIPH�PUÅPJ[LK�I`�WLLYZ��MVZ[LY�WHYLU[Z��HUK�
even social workers are common experiences for youth with these 
ZVJPHS�PKLU[PÄLYZ��;OL�WO`ZPJHS��LTV[PVUHS��HUK�ZL_\HS�HI\ZL�[OH[�[OLZL�
`V\[O�HYL�Z\IQLJ[LK�[V�HYL�VM[LU�ZV�KLO\THUPaPUN�[OH[�[OL`�HYL�^PSSPUN�
to risk further abuse, exploitation, trauma, and homelessness just to 
avoid their caregivers. Instead of meeting the crucially important social 
HUK�LTV[PVUHS�ULLKZ�VM�`V\[O��MVZ[LY�JHYL�ZLY]LZ�HU�LU[PYLS`�KPɈLYLU[�
function for Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth: to continue the 
U.S.’s legacy of punishment and genocide. Healing racial and cultural 
trauma in Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ communities is often 
KVUL�TVZ[�LɈLJ[P]LS`�^OLU�P[�OHWWLUZ�JVSSLJ[P]LS`��6Y[LNH�>PSSPHTZ�
et al., 2021). By separating families and alienating LGBTQ+ youth, 
the U.S. continues to prevent collective healing, ultimately keeping 
[OLZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�WLVWSL�^P[OPU�[OL�JVUÄULZ�VM�Z[H[L�VWWYLZZPVU��
Elopement from foster care may be a much deeper, more meaningful 
behavior than we think it is. Perhaps youth elope not just to escape the 
VWWYLZZP]L��[YH\TH[PaPUN�JVUKP[PVUZ�VM�MVZ[LY�JHYL��I\[�[V�YL[\YU�IHJR�[V�
the communities that birthed them and initiate collective healing. Black, 
Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ communities are resilient, but they should not 
OH]L�[V�IL��>L�JHUUV[�OLSW�[V�SPILYH[L�[OLZL�JVTT\UP[PLZ�^P[OV\[�ÄYZ[�
helping to free their future, the youth.

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LEE ANN GENUSSA



42  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

FIGURE 1
FOSTER CARE AND GENERAL POPULATION  
DEMOGRAPHICS BY RACE

Percent of Youth Under 18 in the General and Foster Care Populations

0

10

Pe
rc

en
t o

f P
op

ul
at

io
n 

(%
)

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

White Black or African 
American

AIAN Asian Hispanic or 
Latino

76.3

44

13.4

23

1.3
5.9

2 1

18.5
21

General Population Foster Care

Note. The percentage of youth under age 18 in the general and foster care populations are compared 
across race and ethnicity. Data collected on Indigenous Americans is labeled “AIAN,” meaning 
American Indian and Alaskan Natives (Census Bureau, 2020; Children’s Bureau, 2021). 

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   43   

FIGURE 2
LGBTQ+ YOUTH IN THE FOSTER CARE AND  
GENERAL POPULATIONS

Percentage of LGBT Youth in the General and Foster Care Populations

0

5

Pe
rc

en
t o

f P
op

ul
at

io
n 

(%
)

10

15

20

25

30

35

Foster Care General Population

30.4

9.54

Note. The percentage of youth in the general and foster care populations are compared (Census 
Bureau, 2020; Children’s Bureau 2021; Conron, 202). 

LEE ANN GENUSSA



44  |  COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  

;HISL��!�,ɉJHJ`�VM�9/@(�7YVNYHTTPUN

Funding 
($)

Grantees Females 
(%)

Males 
(%)

Black  
Youth (%)

Indigenous 
Youth (%)

LGBTQ+ 
Youth (%)

Basic Center  
Program

53 mil. 296 52 �� 32 3 ~<1

Transitional  
Living Program

���TPS� 200 60 39 39 5 ~<1

Street Out-
reach Program

17 mil. 101 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Note. Funding, number of grantees, and percentage of youth served relating to gender and race are 
JVTWHYLK�HJYVZZ�9/@(�WYVNYHTTPUN��0U�VYKLY�[V�WYV[LJ[�JVUÄKLU[PHSP[ �̀�:67�HK]VJH[LZ�KV�UV[�JVSSLJ[�
demographic data from youth served (Administration for Children & Families, 2015).

FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS



COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX  |   45   

LEE ANN GENUSSA


