CSWR Spring 2022 COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 3 Law Enforcement and Restorative Circles: Impacts on Educational Achievement GABRIEL BAUTISTA CAITLIN E. MELLO JENNIFER SONG RICHARD A. UNITE 4 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS ABSTRACT Connections have been observed between police involvement in school KPZJPWSPUL�HUK�[OL�\[PSPaH[PVU�VM�Z\ZWLUZPVUZ�HZ�W\UPZOTLU[��>OPSL� proponents of school surveillance believe that police are necessary [V�WYV]PKL�ZHML[`�PU�ZJOVVSZ��LK\JH[PVU�HK]VJH[LZ�X\LZ[PVU�Z[\KLU[Z»� WLYJLW[PVU�VM�ZHML[`�HUK�P[Z�LɈLJ[Z�VU�LK\JH[PVUHS�V\[JVTLZ��;OPZ� HY[PJSL�L_HTPULZ�[OL�YLSH[PVUZOPW�IL[^LLU�WVSPJL�VɉJLY�WYLZLUJL�HUK� certain educational outcomes, including student attendance, access to OPNOLY�LK\JH[PVU��Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��HUK�Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[LZ��(SZV� included in this analysis is an exploration of the relationships between these variables and classroom restorative circles used to manage JVUÅPJ[�HUK�ÄUK�HS[LYUH[P]L�ZVS\[PVUZ�[V�ZHML[ �̀�+VLZ�WVSPJL�WYLZLUJL� OH]L�H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�PTWHJ[�\WVU�H[[LUKHUJL��HJJLZZ�[V�OPNOLY�LK\JH[PVU�� Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��HUK�Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[LZ�MVY�Z[\KLU[Z&�+VLZ�[OL� use of restorative circles at school, an alternative to traditional student KPZJPWSPUL��OH]L�H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�PTWHJ[�\WVU�H[[LUKHUJL��HJJLZZ�[V�OPNOLY� LK\JH[PVU��Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��HUK�Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[LZ�MVY�Z[\KLU[Z&� ;V�HKKYLZZ�[OLZL�PUX\PYPLZ��HU�6YKPUHY`�3LHZ[�:X\HYLZ��63:��YLNYLZZPVU� analysis is used on both predictors with the School Survey on Crime and :HML[`�JVSSLJ[LK�I`�[OL�<�:��+LWHY[TLU[�VM�,K\JH[PVU��+6,���9LZ\S[Z� KLTVUZ[YH[L�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[�YLSH[PVUZOPW�IL[^LLU�WVSPJL�VɉJLY� presence and suspensions. Restorative circle use in schools has a ZPNUPÄJHU[�PTWHJ[�\WVU�KLJYLHZLK�ZJOVVS�Z\ZWLUZPVUZ�HUK�PUJYLHZLK� Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��;V�JVUJS\KL�[OL�WHWLY��YLHS�^VYSK�PTWSPJH[PVUZ� on school policy development are discussed. Keywords: police in schools, suspension rates, educational outcomes, restorative justice circles, standardized test scores COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 5 GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE S chool surveillance and the presence of law enforcement in schools contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline, a JVUULJ[PVU�VM�Z`Z[LTZ�TLHU[�[V�JYPTPUHSPaL�WYLKVTPUHU[S`� Black and Latine students at an early age (Nance, 2016). By removing students from the classroom through suspension or arrests, students' academic performance and chances of graduating are severely impacted, ultimately causing complications in other life domains (Nance, 2016). Education advocates propose restorative circles and social-emotional learning (SEL) as alternative solutions to promoting school safety and better educational outcomes (Hulvershorn & Mulholland, 2018). Researchers have explored the relationship between school safety practices and student academic performance in order to understand better the possible impact of school surveillance HUK�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSLZ��;OPZ�WHWLY�HUHS`aLZ�YLSL]HU[�KH[H�[V�L_WSVYL� this correlation and inform policy addressing academic performance and safety for students, especially Black, Indigenous, and people of JVSVY��)076*��Z[\KLU[Z�KPZWYVWVY[PVUH[LS`�HɈLJ[LK�I`�Z\JO�KPZJPWSPUHY`� practices. REVIEW OF EXTANT LITERATURE SCHOOL POLICING AND PUNISHMENT Police have had a presence in U.S. public schools since the 1950s, but gained prominence following several school shootings in the 1990s. >P[O�PUJYLHZLK�M\UKPUN�MYVT�[OL��+LWHY[TLU[�VM�1\Z[PJL��+61���THU`� ZJOVVSZ�OH]L�OPYLK�HKKP[PVUHS�WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ�[V�THPU[HPU�VYKLY�HUK� protect students within classrooms (Coon & Travis, 2012; Weiler & Cray, 2011). Many schools associate student safety with increased policing and the use of punishment to enforce school policy. While this method is prevalent, it does not always ensure student safety—especially when ¸ZHML[`¹�PZ�KLÄULK�HZ�MYLL�VM�JHYJLYHS�MVYJL·HUK�P[�JHU�OH]L�ZPNUPÄJHU[� academic repercussions. (�ZPKL�LɈLJ[�VM�PUJYLHZLK�WVSPJL�WYLZLUJL�PZ�PUJYLHZLK�UVU]PVSLU[� VɈLUZLZ�HUK�L_JS\ZPVUHY`�W\UPZOTLU[��(������Z[\K`�I`�.V[[MYLKZVU�L[� 6 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX al. observed 33 public California middle and high schools that increased [OLPY�WVSPJL�WYLZLUJL�I`�OPYPUN�VɉJLYZ�[OYV\NO�[OL�+61»Z�*VTT\UP[`� 6YPLU[LK�7VSPJPUN�:LY]PJLZ�/PYPUN�7YVNYHT��0U�[OPZ�SVUNP[\KPUHS�HUHS`ZPZ�� the 33 schools were compared to 72 matched public schools within the state based on similar school characteristics, such as metropolitan status, percentage of students on free or reduced-priced lunch, and YH[L�VM�Z\ZWLUZPVUZ�MVY�[OL�`LHY�WYPVY�[V�HU�PUJYLHZL�PU�:96�Z[HɈ�� ;OPZ�Z[\K`�\[PSPaLK�TVU[OS`�KH[H�[V�L]HS\H[L�[OL�PTWHJ[�VM�PUJYLHZLK� WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ�VU�[OL�ZJOVVS�LU]PYVUTLU[�V]LY�[OYLL�TVU[OZ��-PUKPUNZ� demonstrated a correlation between expanded police presence and PUJYLHZLK�PKLU[PÄLK�KY\N�HUK�^LHWVUZ�YLSH[LK�VɈLUZLZ�JVTWHYLK�[V� ZJOVVSZ�[OH[�KPK�UV[�PUJYLHZL�WVSPJL�Z[HɈ��;OL�Z[\K`�HSZV�MV\UK�H�YPZL� in disciplinary action within schools that had increased police presence (Gottfredson et al., 2020). With increased policing, students were more SPRLS`�[V�IL�YLMLYYLK�[V�SH^�LUMVYJLTLU[�MVY�UVU]PVSLU[�VɈLUZLZ��(Z�H� YLZ\S[��W\UPZOLK�Z[\KLU[Z�OHK�WV[LU[PHS�SLNHS�Z`Z[LT�JVUZLX\LUJLZ� at a younger age, increasing the risk of entering the school-to-prison pipeline. Furthermore, it is essential to acknowledge that punishments involving removal from school settings impact academic achievement (Tucker & Vance, 2016). POLICING'S DISPROPORTIONATE IMPACT ON BLACK AND LATINE STUDENTS While this study does not address race due to data set limitations, the implications of increased policing and school punishment cannot be ignored when it comes to young students of color, particularly Black and Latine students. Schools that primarily serve students of color are more likely to use strict surveillance measures than other schools, creating disproportionate suspension rates and arrests for students of color JVTWHYLK�[V�[OLPY�^OP[L�JSHZZTH[LZ��+6,���������;OL�<�:��+LWHY[TLU[� VM�,K\JH[PVU�KH[H�ZUHWZOV[�VM�ZJOVVS�KPZJPWSPUL�PU������YLWVY[LK�[OH[� “Black students are suspended and expelled at a rate three times NYLH[LY�[OHU�^OP[L�Z[\KLU[Z����+6,���������(�OPNOLY�Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[L� for students of color could cause a direct negative impact on their academic achievement. Tucker and Vance (2016) found that “school suspensions have been linked with academic disengagement, LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 7 KLSPUX\LUJ �̀�HUK�ZJOVVS�KYVWV\[Z¹��W�������0UJYLHZPUN�WVSPJL�WYLZLUJL� PU�ZJOVVSZ�LX\H[LZ�[V�HU�PUJYLHZL�PU�W\UP[P]L�TLHZ\YLZ�Z\JO�HZ� suspension, and could contribute to disparate impacts on Black and Latine students in U.S. public schools. Perceptions of safety are also important to consider, especially for Z[\KLU[Z�VM�JVSVY��1VOUZVU�L[�HS���������Z\Y]L`LK��������Z[\KLU[Z� from 98 middle and high schools in Maryland to determine whether a correlation existed between observed security measures in school and Z[\KLU[Z»�WLYJLW[PVUZ�VM�ZHML[ �̀�LX\P[ �̀�HUK�Z\WWVY[��:LJ\YP[`�TLHZ\YLZ� included the addition of both internal and external surveillance cameras, HZ�^LSS�HZ�WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ�PU�ZJOVVSZ��;OPZ�Z[\K`�MV\UK�[OH[�)SHJR�HUK� Latine students felt less safe than their white counterparts in schools ^P[O�TVYL�WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ"�OV^L]LY��HSS�Z[\KLU[Z�Z[PSS�OHK�HU�V]LYHSS�OPNOLY� perception of school safety. Perceived school safety was low in schools with high numbers of low-income students of color, especially Black students (Johnson et al., 2018). Even student perception regarding police presences was disparate, as it did not always make Black and Latine students feel safer in school. Therefore, a new alternative for safety should be made that includes the safety of all students of color. SCHOOL SAFETY AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE *OHV[PJ�VY�\UZHML�ZJOVVS�LU]PYVUTLU[Z�Z[YVUNS`�PUÅ\LUJL�[Y\HUJ`� �.HZL�L[�HS����������(Z�WYL]PV\ZS`�UV[LK��[OL�KLÄUP[PVU�VM�H�ZHML�ZJOVVS� environment varies from student to student, and can be dependent on students’ identities. Students might feel unsafe if they consider school policies to be violating their right to privacy or perceive school surveillance as having disciplinary motives. Research has proven over the last twenty years that attendance in class and lectures correlates ^P[O�OPNOLY�OPNO�ZJOVVS�.7(Z��Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��HUK�L]LU� ÄUHS�NYHKLZ�PU�JVSSLNL��.\TW������"�9LUKSLTLU���������)HZLK�VU�[OPZ� research, it can be presumed that suspensions often lead to lower NYHKLZ�ILJH\ZL�[OL`�YLZ\S[�PU�ZPNUPÄJHU[�TPZZLK�JSHZZ�[PTL� Furthermore, Tanner-Smith and Fisher (2016) highlight the impact of visible school security measures, such as security guards, metal detectors, and cameras, on academic performance, attendance, and GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE 8 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX postsecondary aspirations. The data for this study came from the following two extensive national surveys: the School Crime Supplement [V�[OL�5H[PVUHS�*YPTL�=PJ[PTPaH[PVU�:\Y]L`��5�$��������Z[\KLU[Z"����� THSL������^OP[L��(NL�$��������HUK�[OL�:JOVVS�:\Y]L`�VU�*YPTL�HUK� :HML[`��5�$��������ZJOVVSZ"�����THSL������^OP[L���9LZ\S[Z�PUKPJH[LK� UV�JVUZPZ[LU[�ILULÄJPHS�LɈLJ[Z�VM�ZLJ\YP[`�TLHZ\YLZ�VU�HJHKLTPJ� outcomes. Trends showed heavy surveillance had a moderately harmful impact on academic success in a small sample of high schools that contain a large low-income student population; however, visible security measures such as fences or cameras did not have any substantial WVZP[P]L�VY�ULNH[P]L�LɈLJ[�VU�T\S[PWSL�LK\JH[PVU�V\[JVTLZ��;HUULY� Smith & Fisher, 2016). RESTORATIVE PRACTICE IN SCHOOL SETTINGS: AN ALTERNATIVE Restorative justice, an alternative to the deeply rooted colonialism and white supremacy present in carcerality, has roots in indigenous cultures around the world and encourages reparation and accountability for wrongdoing in a non-punitive way (Wachtel, 2016). Schools are ILNPUUPUN�[V�\[PSPaL�[OPZ�WYHJ[PJL�PUZ[LHK�VM�Z\ZWLUZPVUZ�HUK�KL[LU[PVUZ�� which remove students from the classroom. Restorative circles provide space for students and teachers to develop relationships, build JVTT\UP[ �̀�HUK�THUHNL�JVUÅPJ[�[OYV\NO�OVULZ[�HUK�JVUZ[Y\J[P]L� JVTT\UPJH[PVU��6Y[LNH�L[�HS����������(�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSL�PZ�H�TLL[PUN� between a student who has caused harm and individuals impacted by the student’s actions. Such circles are facilitated by a moderator and can include teachers, school administrators, parents, and classmates. Members of the circle take turns sharing how they felt harmed by the Z[\KLU[»Z�ILOH]PVY��;OL�Z[\KLU[�^OVZL�HJ[PVUZ�HYL�PU�X\LZ[PVU�PZ�NP]LU�H� chance to discuss their decision-making, mitigate the harm they caused by taking accountability, and commit to changing their behavior to better meet the needs of their community. When performed in a group setting with a trained counselor, the restorative alternative enables everyone to be heard and has been used “to address truancy, bullying, disciplinary PZZ\LZ��HUK�PU[LYWLYZVUHS�JVUÅPJ[¹��6Y[LNH�L[�HS���������� LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 9 0U�[OLPY�Z[\K �̀�6Y[LNH�L[�HS���������L_WSVYLK�[OL�TP[PNH[PUN�V\[JVTLZ�VM� restorative circles on high school student and teacher experiences. This Z[\K`�PUJS\KLK����Z[\KLU[Z�HUK����ZJOVVS�Z[HɈ�HUK�HKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ�MYVT� a large city in the southeastern United States. Restorative circles were MHJPSP[H[LK�PU�YLZWVUZL�[V�HK]LYZL�ILOH]PVY�HUK�X\HSP[H[P]L�PU[LY]PL^Z� ^LYL�JVUK\J[LK�^P[O����VWLU�LUKLK�X\LZ[PVUZ�H[�[OL�PTTLKPH[L�LUK�VM� LHJO�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSL��0U[LY]PL^�X\LZ[PVUZ�MVJ\ZLK�IV[O�VU�[OL�JVUÅPJ[� HUK�[OL�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSL�L_WLYPLUJL�MVY�Z[\KLU[Z�HUK�ZJOVVS�Z[HɈ��;OPZ� study produced the following favorable themes: supporting students in taking ownership and engaging with the reconciliation process, improving relationships, engaging in meaningful dialogue, preventing KLZ[Y\J[P]L�^H`Z�VM�LUNHNPUN�JVUÅPJ[��`PLSKPUN�IL[[LY�HJHKLTPJ�HUK� social achievement, and interrupting the school-to-prison pipeline. There were two unfavorable outcomes discovered in the study, however: student frustration with the process and disappointment due to the inability for some students to be vulnerable in those spaces. The adults in this study believe comfort and trust could have been established PM�[OLYL�^HZ�¸[PTL�[V�I\PSK�YLSH[PVUZOPWZ�^P[O�[OL�MHJPSP[H[VYZ¹��6Y[LNH� et al., 2016). Despite this, the overall impact implies that less punitive TL[OVKZ��Z\JO�HZ�\ZPUN�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSLZ�[V�UH]PNH[L�JVUÅPJ[Z�HUK� ILOH]PVYHS�WYVISLTZ��LɈLJ[P]LS`�YLK\JL�ILOH]PVYHS�PZZ\LZ�HTVUN� students. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS 6\Y�YLZLHYJO�X\LZ[PVUZ�PUX\PYLK�^OL[OLY�[OLYL�PZ�H�ULNH[P]L�JVYYLSH[PVU� IL[^LLU�[OL�WYLZLUJL�VM�ZJOVVS�ZLJ\YP[`�VɉJLYZ�PU�ZJOVVSZ�HUK�Z[\KLU[� HJHKLTPJ�HJOPL]LTLU[��:WLJPÄJHSS �̀�[OLZL�PUX\PYPLZ�L_HTPULK�^OL[OLY� WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ�PU�ZJOVVSZ�OH]L�H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�PTWHJ[�\WVU�H[[LUKHUJL�� Z[\KLU[Z»�HJJLZZ�[V�OPNOLY�LK\JH[PVU��Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��HUK� suspension rates. This analysis also sought to determine whether [OL�\ZL�VM�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSLZ�PU�ZJOVVSZ�OHZ�H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�PTWHJ[�\WVU� H[[LUKHUJL��HJJLZZ�[V�OPNOLY�LK\JH[PVU��Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��HUK� suspension rates for students. Finally, this statistical study explored implications for disciplinary alternatives that could prevent students from becoming involved in the criminal legal system and increase their access to the safety net of education. GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE 10 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A regression model was used to identify and explore the relationship IL[^LLU�ZJOVVS�Z\Y]LPSSHUJL�HUK�JVUÅPJ[�TLKPH[PVU��HUK�IL[^LLU� Z[\KLU[�HJHKLTPJ�WLYMVYTHUJL�HUK�Z\ZWLUZPVU��6UL�PUKLWLUKLU[� ]HYPHISL�L_HTPULK�PZ�[OL�WYLZLUJL�VM�WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ�PU�ZJOVVS�� statistically controlling for crime at the school’s location and whether the school is in a metropolitan area. Student involvement in restorative JPYJSLZ�PZ�[OL�ZLJVUK�WYLKPJ[VY�HUHS`aLK��HM[LY�JVU[YVSSPUN�MVY�Z^VYU� SH^�LUMVYJLTLU[�VɉJPHSZ»�WHY[PJPWH[PVU�PU�KPZJPWSPUL��[LHJOLY�JYPZPZ� intervention training, and student SEL. Dependent variables include the average percentage of (1) daily attendance, (2) students likely to attend higher education after high school, (3) students who score below the ��[O�WLYJLU[PSL�VU�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[Z��HUK�����Z[\KLU[Z�YLJLP]PUN�V\[�VM� school suspension with no continuing school services provided for the remainder of the punishment. Exploring these relationships will allow for better understanding of the connection between discipline and student performance. HYPOTHESES (M[LY�HUHS`aPUN�SP[LYH[\YL�HKKYLZZPUN�[^V�KPZJPWSPUHY`�VW[PVUZ�MVY�ZJOVVSZ� and establishing the variables being tested, two hypotheses were MVYT\SH[LK��-PYZ[��WVSPJL�VɉJLY�WYLZLUJL�KVLZ�UV[�ZPNUPÄJHU[S`�YLSH[L� directly to testing scores and access to higher education, but does have H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�ULNH[P]L�YLSH[PVUZOPW�^P[O�H[[LUKHUJL�HUK�Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[LZ�� :LJVUK��[OL�\ZL�VM�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSLZ�PU�ZJOVVS�OHZ�H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�WVZP[P]L� relationship with attendance, access to higher education, test scores, and a decrease in suspension rates. METHOD DATA SOURCE AND SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS This study used the National Center for Education Statistics’ (NCES) :JOVVS�:\Y]L`�VU�*YPTL�HUK�:HML[`��::6*:���H�UH[PVUHSS`�YLWYLZLU[H[P]L� cross-sectional survey on U.S. K-12 public schools (Padgett et al., �������;OL�::6*:�L_HTPULZ�ZJOVVS�JYPTL�HUK�ZHML[`�PZZ\LZ��PUJS\KPUN� school policies and programs, disciplinary practices, parent/community LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 11 PU]VS]LTLU[��ZJOVVS�ZLJ\YP[`�WYLZLUJL��HUK�Z[HɈ�[YHPUPUN��OLU�KLUZLS`�WVW\SH[LK�JP[PLZ�HYL�HSZV� the reference group, students living in towns and rural communities were SLZZ�SPRLS`�[V�W\YZ\L�H�OPNOLY�LK\JH[PVU��^P[O�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[� negative correlation (p<.001). ;HISL���PSS\Z[YH[LZ�[OH[�ZJOVVSZ�^P[O�WVSPJL�VɉJLY�WYLZLUJL�LHYULK���� � �������OPNOLY�VU�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��VU�H]LYHNL��HM[LY�JVU[YVSSPUN� for crime rates at the school’s location and the school setting’s WVW\SH[PVU�KLUZP[ �̀�;OL�]HYPHUJL�VM��������PU�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ� ^HZ�L_WSHPULK�I`�WVSPJL�VɉJLY�WYLZLUJL�PU�ZJOVVS�ZL[[PUNZ��YH[L�VM�JYPTL� PU�[OL�HYLH��HUK�ZJOVVS�ULPNOIVYOVVK�WVW\SH[PVU�KLUZP[ �̀�:[HUKHYKPaLK� [LZ[�ZJVYLZ�HUK�VɉJLY�WYLZLUJL�PU�ZJOVVS�OHK�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�UVU� ZPNUPÄJHU[�JVYYLSH[PVU��/PNOLY�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ�OHK�H�Z[YVUN�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`� ZPNUPÄJHU[�ULNH[P]L�JVYYLSH[PVU�^P[O�SV^�HUK�TVKLYH[L�JYPTL�SL]LSZ�PU�[OL� school neighborhood (p<.001) when high crime rates were the reference group. With metropolitan cities as the reference group, suburbs and Y\YHS�JVTT\UP[PLZ�OHK�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[�ULNH[P]L�JVYYLSH[PVU�^P[O� [OL�SPRLSPOVVK�VM�OH]PUN�OPNOLY�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��W#������� After controlling for school crime rates and population density, there ^LYL�������������TVYL�Z\ZWLUZPVUZ�^OLU�H�WVSPJL�VɉJLY�^HZ�WYLZLU[� PU�ZJOVVS��7VSPJL�VɉJLY�WYLZLUJL�PU�[OL�ZJOVVS��JYPTL�YH[L�PU�[OL�HYLH�� HUK�WVW\SH[PVU�KLUZP[`�VM�[OL�ZJOVVS�ULPNOIVYOVVK�L_WSHPULK� ���VM� the variance in suspension rates. As shown in Table 2, the number of Z\ZWLUZPVUZ�HUK�[OL�WYLZLUJL�VM�VɉJLYZ�H[�ZJOVVS�YL]LHSLK�H�Z[YVUN�� Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[�WVZP[P]L�JVYYLSH[PVU���W#������>OLU�TL[YVWVSP[HU� cities were the reference group, suspension rates were positively correlated with towns and rural communities, with a strong statistical ZPNUPÄJHUJL��W#������ RESTORATIVE CIRCLES 9LNHYKPUN�YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSLZ��[LHJOLY�[YHPUPUN��Z[\KLU[�:,3��HUK�VɉJLY� LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 13 involvement in discipline, school attendance, could be determined with H�������]HYPHUJL��0U�;HISL����YLZ[VYH[P]L�Q\Z[PJL�\ZL�OHK�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`� UVU�ZPNUPÄJHU[�JVYYLSH[PVU�VM��������������^P[O�ZJOVVS�H[[LUKHUJL�� 9LZ[VYH[P]L�Q\Z[PJL�\ZL�OHK�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�PUZPNUPÄJHU[�WVZP[P]L�JVYYLSH[PVU� with higher education attainment, as seen in Table 3. Teacher training PU�JYPZPZ�PU[LY]LU[PVU�HUK�WYL]LU[PVU�OHK�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[� WVZP[P]L�YLSH[PVUZOPW�VM�������������^P[O�OPNOLY�LK\JH[PVU�H[[LUKHUJL� �W#������:[\KLU[�:,3�HSZV�OHK�H�Z[YVUN�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[�WVZP[P]L� YLSH[PVUZOPW�VM���������� ��^P[O�OPNOLY�LK\JH[PVU�H[[HPUTLU[�HJYVZZ�[OL� ZJOVVS��W#�������7VSPJL�VɉJLYZ�PU]VS]LK�PU�Z[\KLU[�KPZJPWSPUL�OHK�H� Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[�ULNH[P]L�JVYYLSH[PVU�VM��������������^P[O�OPNOLY� education rates (p<.05). When examining interventions of restorative justice use, teacher [YHPUPUN��Z[\KLU[�:,3��HUK�VɉJLY�PU]VS]LTLU[�PU�KPZJPWSPUL�[V�KL[LYTPUL� Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��[OLYL�^HZ�H�������]HYPHUJL��9LZ[VYH[P]L� Q\Z[PJL�\ZL�OHK�H�Z[YVUN��Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[�WVZP[P]L�JVYYLSH[PVU�VM� ������������^P[O�OPNOLY�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��W#�������9LJLU[�[LHJOLY� [YHPUPUN�PU�JYPZPZ�PU[LY]LU[PVU�HUK�WYL]LU[PVU�OHK�H�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[� ULNH[P]L�YLSH[PVUZOPW�VM���������� ���^P[O�OPNOLY�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ� (p<.05). When changing the predictor and controls to restorative justice use, [LHJOLY�[YHPUPUN��Z[\KLU[�:,3��HUK�VɉJLY�PU]VS]LTLU[�PU�KPZJPWSPUL�� [OL�Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[LZ»�]HYPHUJL�^HZ��������(Z�ZOV^U�PU�;HISL����^OLU� JVU[YVSSPUN�MVY�[LHJOLY�[YHPUPUN��Z[\KLU[�:,3��HUK�VɉJLY�PU]VS]LTLU[�� YLZ[VYH[P]L�JPYJSLZ�PU�[OL�JSHZZYVVT�OHK�H�^LHR��Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`�ZPNUPÄJHU[� negative relationship of -0.05 (0.02) with high suspension rates (p<.05). :[\KLU[�:,3�HUK�VɉJLY�PU]VS]LTLU[�PU�KPZJPWSPUL�HSZV�OHK�Z[H[PZ[PJHSS`� ZPNUPÄJHU[�YLSH[PVUZOPWZ�^P[O�Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[LZ��W#������4VYL�Z[\KLU[� :,3�TLHU[��������������ML^LY�Z\ZWLUZPVUZ��>OLU�VɉJLYZ�^LYL�PU]VS]LK� in discipline, suspension rates increased by 0.05 (0.02). DISCUSSION ;OL�WYLZLUJL�VM�WVSPJL�PU�2����W\ISPJ�ZJOVVSZ�ÄYZ[�ILNHU�PU�[OL�� ��Z� HUK�OHZ�YPZLU�Z[LHKPS`�ZPUJL�[OL�:HML�:JOVVS�(J[�VM�� ���)YV^U������"� Coon & Travis, 2012). The authors are not aware of existing literature GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE 14 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX L_HTPUPUN�[OL�SPRLSPOVVK�VM�WHY[PJ\SHY�ZJOVVSZ�OPYPUN�WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ"� however, information on the demographics, prior disciplinary practices, and socio-economic statuses of schools most likely to incorporate law enforcement would be useful for future research. Police presence in school is predictive of greater odds of suspension, which can push students through the school-to-prison pipeline (McKenna & White, 2017). Alternatives to traditional discipline, such as YLZ[VYH[P]L�Q\Z[PJL�JPYJSLZ��JHU�TP[PNH[L�[OL�LɈLJ[Z�[OH[�SLHK�Z[\KLU[Z�[V� entering this pipeline. This paper’s analysis demonstrates that the use of restorative justice, teacher training, and student SEL had a positive correlation with higher education attainment and attendance and decreased suspension rates. -\Y[OLYTVYL��WVSPJ`THRLYZ��WVSPJL�KLWHY[TLU[Z��HUK�ZJOVVS�VɉJPHSZ� JVU[PU\L�[V�L_WHUK�WVSPJPUN�WYVNYHTZ�Z\JO�HZ�[OL�+61��*VTT\UP[`� 6YPLU[LK�7VSPJPUN�:LY]PJLZ�WYVNYHT��*67:���HUK�TVYL��4J2LUUH� � 7L[YVZPUV���������*67:��^OPJO�PZ�WHY[�VM�[OL�=PVSLU[�*YPTL�*VU[YVS�HUK� 3H^�,UMVYJLTLU[�(J[�VM�� ���OPYLZ�HUK�[YHPUZ�JVTT\UP[`�WVSPJPUN� professionals through government funded grants (McKenna & Petrosino, 2022). This money could potentially have been used instead to fund YLZLHYJO�Z\WWVY[LK�WYVNYHTZ�SPRL�:,3��6]LYHSS��VU�H�Z`Z[LTPJ�SL]LS�� [OL�<�:��MLKLYHS�NV]LYUTLU[�PZ�MHPSPUN�[V�WYV]PKL�HKLX\H[L�YLZV\YJLZ�[V� schools to properly educate the growing population of students with KPɈLYPUN�ILOH]PVYHS�ULLKZ��+HYSPUN�/HTTVUK�������� Investing millions of dollars in law enforcement programs may contribute to increasing student chances of criminal legal system involvement �.V[[MYLKZVU�L[�HS����������;OL�ZHTL�M\UKPUN�JV\SK�IL�\[PSPaLK�[V�WYVTV[L� restorative justice and alternative means of discipline that keep students PU�ZJOVVS��0[�PZ�JY\JPHS�[V�YLJVNUPaL�TVYL�WLKHNVNPJHSS`�ZV\UK�WYHJ[PJLZ� [V�HKKYLZZ�ZJOVVS�]PVSLUJL�HUK�OLSW�Z[\KLU[Z�TH_PTPaL�[OLPY�LK\JH[PVUHS� opportunities, such as restorative circles, which were shown to decrease Z\ZWLUZPVU�YH[LZ�HUK�PUJYLHZL�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ��7VSPJ`THRLYZ� should enact legislation to provide students with counseling services, mental health services, and SEL programs that promote anger- THUHNLTLU[�Z[YH[LNPLZ�HUK�JVUÅPJ[�YLZVS\[PVU��0TWYV]PUN�[OL�X\HSP[`� and strength of teaching approaches and classroom management skills LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 15 OH]L�WYV]LU�[V�IL�HTVUN�[OL�TVZ[�LɈLJ[P]L�^H`Z�[V�LUOHUJL�ZJOVVS� safety (Nickerson et al., 2021). This paper’s analysis demonstrates that suspensions decrease when schools implement crisis prevention and intervention training, restorative Q\Z[PJL�WYHJ[PJLZ��HUK�:,3�WYVNYHTZ��(KKP[PVUHSS �̀�[OL�ÄUKPUNZ�PUKPJH[L� [OH[�YLZ[VYH[P]L�Q\Z[PJL�WYHJ[PJLZ�OH]L�H�WVZP[P]L�PTWHJ[�VU�Z[HUKHYKPaLK� test scores. This reinforces themes presented in previous literature, such HZ�[OL�JVUULJ[PVUZ�IL[^LLU�PUJYLHZLK�Z\ZWLUZPVU��ZJOVVS�WVSPJL�VɉJLY� presence, and decreased access to higher education (Petrosino et al., 2012; Weisburst, 2019). This paper contributes to existing literature by TLHZ\YPUN�[OL�PTWHJ[�VM�ZJOVVS�WVSPJL�VɉJLY�WYLZLUJL�HUK�YLZ[VYH[P]L� Q\Z[PJL�JPYJSLZ�VU�H[[LUKHUJL�HUK�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[�ZJVYLZ�� LIMITATIONS Police presence and restorative circles in schools were examined to build on existing literature addressing the school-to-prison pipeline and its disproportionately negative impact on students of color. Unfortunately, student demographics were not available within the data set used, making it impossible to determine potential relationships outside of the area’s crime level and population density. The dataset KPK�UV[�PUKPJH[L�[OL�Z[\KLU[�[V�ZJOVVS�WVSPJL�VɉJLY�YH[PV�VY�HU`�V[OLY� PUKPJH[PVU�VM�ZJOVVS�JOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZ�[OH[�OPYLK�ZJOVVS�WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ�PU� percentages. The dataset only provided the number of public schools tabulated into school characteristics such as neighborhood crime level, ZJOVVS�ZPaL��KP]LYZP[ �̀�HUK�Z[\KLU[�HWWYV_PTH[L�OV\ZLOVSK�PUJVTL� SL]LS��(KKP[PVUHS�SPTP[H[PVUZ�PUJS\KL�[OL�]HY`PUN�X\HSP[`�VM�YLZ[VYH[P]L� justice circles across schools that participated in the survey, potentially HɈLJ[PUN�[OL�YLNYLZZPVU�V\[JVTL�ZPUJL�MHJPSP[H[VY�JVTWL[LUJ`�JV\SK� shift the outcome of the restorative justice circles. CONCLUSION ;OL�YVSL�WVSPJL�VɉJLYZ�WSH`�PU�ZJOVVSZ�ULNH[P]LS`�PTWHJ[Z�Z[\KLU[� SLHYUPUN��[OLYLI`�HɈLJ[PUN�[OLPY�M\[\YL�LK\JH[PVUHS��LTWSV`TLU[��HUK� criminal legal involvement. It is crucial to understand better ways to hold students accountable for their decisions, address school violence, and GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE 16 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX meet student needs. In order to engage students without perpetuating pathways to the juvenile legal system, schools need to provide SEL WYVNYHTZ�HUK�YLN\SHY�[YHPUPUN�[V�[LHJOLYZ��WYPUJPWHSZ��HUK�Z[HɈ�[V� support positive behavior. This analysis has shown that restorative Q\Z[PJL�\ZL�^HZ�[PLK�[V�OPNOLY�Z[HUKHYKPaLK�[LZ[PUN�ZJVYLZ�HUK�OHZ�[OL� ability to mitigate the impacts of suspension rates. Considering the impact that the school-to-prison pipeline can have on youth, changes must be made to transition to pedagogically sound practices that are proven to improve academic outcomes. REFERENCES )YV^U��)����������O`�3H[PU_�L&�O[[WZ!��LSJLU[YV�JVSVZ[H[L�LK\�HIV\[�^O`� latinx Coon, J. K., & Travis III, L. F. (2012). The role of police in public schools: A comparison of principal and police reports of activities in schools. Police Practice and Research, 13(1), 15-30. +HYSPUN�/HTTVUK��3����������9HJL��PULX\HSP[`�HUK�LK\JH[PVUHS�HJJV\U[HIPSP[`!�;OL�PYVU`� of ‘No Child Left Behind.’ Race Ethnicity and Education������������������O[[WZ!��KVP� org/10.1080/13613320701503207 Gase, L. N., DeFosset, A., Perry, R., & Kuo, T. (2016). Youths' perspectives on the reasons underlying school truancy and opportunities to improve school attendance. The Qualitative Report���������� ��O[[WZ!��ZLHYJO�WYVX\LZ[�JVT� VWLU]PL^��K�L�����H�HK�K���K H��K�J�JLɈ����&WX�VYPNZP[L$NZJOVSHY JIS$����� Gottfredson, D. C., Crosse, S., Tang, Z., Bauer, E. L., Harmon, M. A., Hagen, C. A., �.YLLUL��(��+����������,ɈLJ[Z�VM�ZJOVVS�YLZV\YJL�VɉJLYZ�VU�ZJOVVS�JYPTL�HUK� responses to school crime. Criminology & Public Policy��� ����� ��� ����O[[WZ!��KVP� VYN�������������� ���������� Gump, S. (2005). The cost of cutting class: Attendance as a predictor of student success. College Teaching, 53(1), 21-26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27559212 Hulvershorn, K., & Mulholland, S. (2018). Restorative practices and the integration of social emotional learning as a path to positive school climates. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning. LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 17 Johnson, S. L., Bottiani, J. H., Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. (2018). Surveillance or ZHMLRLLWPUN&�/V^�ZJOVVS�ZLJ\YP[`�VɉJLY�HUK�JHTLYH�WYLZLUJL�PUÅ\LUJL�Z[\KLU[Z�� WLYJLW[PVUZ�VM�ZHML[ �̀�LX\P[ �̀�HUK�Z\WWVY[��;OL�1V\YUHS�VM�(KVSLZJLU[�/LHS[O!�6ɉJPHS� Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 63(6), 732-738. https://www.science KPYLJ[�JVT�ZJPLUJL�HY[PJSL�WPP�:������ ?�������� McKenna, J. M., & Petrosino, A. (2022). School policing programs: Where we have been and where we need to go next. National Institute of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/ WKɉSLZ��UPQ����� ��WKM McKenna, J. M., & White, S. R. (2017). Examining the use of police in schools: How roles may impact responses to student misconduct. American Journal of Criminal Justice, ����������¶�����O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN���������Z���������� ����� 5HUJL��1��7����������:[\KLU[�Z\Y]LPSSHUJL��YHJPHS�PULX\HSP[PLZ��HUK�PTWSPJP[�YHJPHS�IPHZ��Emory Law Journal��������������������O[[WZ!��ZZYU�JVT�HIZ[YHJ[$������� Nickerson, A. B., Randa, R., Jimerson, S., & Guerra, N. G. (2021). Safe places to learn: Advances in school safety research and practice. School Psychology Review, 50(2-3), ���������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN������������� ��?���������� �� 6Y[LNH��3���3`\IHUZR �̀�4���5L[[SLZ��:��� �,ZWLSHNL��+��3����������6\[JVTLZ�VM�H�YLZ[VYH[P]L� circles program in a high school setting. Psychology of Violence���������� ¶�����O[[WZ!�� KVP�VYN���������]PV������� Padgett, Z., Jackson, M., Correa, S., Kemp, J., Gilary, A., Meier, A., Gbondo-Tugbawa, K., and McClure, T. (2020). School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2017–18 Public-Use Data [Data set]. National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch Petrosino, A., Guckenberg, S., & Fronius, T. (2012). ‘Policing schools’ strategies: A review of the evaluation evidence. Journal of MultiDisciplinary Evaluation, 8, 80–101. 9LUKSLTHU��*��4����������+V�H[[LUKHUJL�WVSPJPLZ�PTWYV]L�Z[\KLU[�WLYMVYTHUJL&�;OL� relationship among attendance, class policies, and grades. NACTA Journal,������������ �� ��O[[WZ!��^^ �̂QZ[VY�VYN�Z[HISL� ������� Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Fisher, B.W. (2017). Visible school security measures and student academic performance, attendance, and postsecondary aspirations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence���������� �������O[[W!��KVP�VYN���������Z�� ������������� Tucker, J. W., & Vance, A. (2016). School surveillance: The consequences for equity and privacy��5H[PVUHS�(ZZVJPH[PVU�VM�:[H[L�)VHYKZ�VM�,K\JH[PVU��O[[WZ!��ÄSLZ�LYPJ�LK�NV]�� fulltext/ED582102.pdf GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE 18 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX <�:��+LWHY[TLU[�VM�,K\JH[PVU��+6,�����������Data snapshot: School discipline. https:// ocrdata. ed.gov/assets/downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf Wachtel, T. (2016). +LÄUPUN�YLZ[VYH[P]L!�/PZ[VY �̀ International Institute for Restorative 7YHJ[PJLZ��O[[WZ!��^^ �̂PPYW�LK\�KLÄUPUN�YLZ[VYH[P]L�OPZ[VY` Weiler, S. C., & Cray, M. (2011). Police at school: A brief history and current status of ZJOVVS�YLZV\YJL�VɉJLYZ��The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas������������������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN������������ ������������� �� Weisburst, E. K. (2019). Patrolling public schools: The impact of funding for school police on student discipline and long-term education outcomes. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 38(2), 338-365. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22116 LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 19 APPENDIX A Table 1: Descriptive Statistics VARIABLES Total School Resource 6ɉJLYZ� Participate in Discipline No School Resource 6ɉJLYZ� Participate in Discipline Student Involvement in Restorative Circles No Student Involvement in Restorative Circles Attendance 93.156 93.123 93.225 93.110 93.196 Higher Education 62.693 62.276 63.550 63.900 61.922 Standardized Tests 18.263 ������ 18.137 20.318 ��� � Suspension Rates ���� 0.508 ����� ����� 0.522 Observations 2,762 1,859 903 1,077 1,685 GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE 20 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX APPENDIX B Table 2: Law Enforcement and Academic Achievement VARIABLES Attendance Higher Education Standardized Tests Suspension Rates Sworn law enforcement participate in discipline -0.16 -1.69 0.79 0.06** (0.31) (0.93) (0.67) (0.02) Moderate crime level 1.35+ 9.56*** -12.29*** 0.00 (0.69) (2.07) ���� � (0.05) Low crime level 2.51*** 21.70*** -20.85*** 0.01 (0.65) (1.96) ������ ������ Suburb locale ���� 1.51 �������� 0.00 (0.38) (1.15) (0.83) (0.03) Town locale -0.01 -12.95*** -2.10+ 0.10** ���� � ���� � (1.07) (0.03) Rural locale 0.19 ��������� �������� 0.08** ������ (1.31) ��� �� (0.03) Constant 90.95*** � ������ 38.22*** ������� ������ (1.93) (1.39) ������ Observations 2,762 2,762 2,762 2,762 R-squared 0.01 0.12 0.13 0.01 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05, + p<0.10 LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RESTORATIVE CIRCLES IN SCHOOLS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 21 APPENDIX C Table 3: Restorative Circles and Academic Achievement VARIABLES Attendance Higher Education Standardized Tests Suspension Rates Restorative Circles ����� 1.38 ������� -0.05* (0.33) (1.16) (0.85) (0.02) Teacher Training -0.38 ����� -2.12* -0.05+ (0.38) (1.32) (0.97) (0.03) Student SEL -0.32 ������ 0.81 -0.08* ������ (1.59) (1.16) (0.03) Sworn Law Enforcement ����� ������ 0.75 0.05* (0.32) (1.11) (0.81) (0.02) Constant �� ���� 57.19*** �������� 0.66*** ���� � (1.70) ������ ������ Observations 1,859 1,859 1,859 1,859 R-squared 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 Standard errors in parentheses *** p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05, + p<0.10 GABRIEL BAUTISTA, CAITLIN E. MELLO, JENNIFER SONG, AND RICHARD A. UNITE