CSWR Spring 2022 COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 23 From Foster Care to the Streets: A Call to Support Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ Youth in Foster Care LEE ANN GENUSSA 24 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS ABSTRACT The modern United States (U.S.) foster care system’s history is steeped in racism, violence, and oppression. Today, Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth are overrepresented in the U.S. foster care system and OH]L�MHSSLU�]PJ[PT�[V�P[Z�VWWYLZZP]L�WYHJ[PJLZ��-VY�THU`�THYNPUHSPaLK� youths, running away from foster care is perceived to be a more viable option than continuing to endure discrimination within the system despite the high risks of homelessness, unstable housing, human [YHɉJRPUN��ZL_\HS�L_WSVP[H[PVU��HUK�V[OLY�KHUNLYZ�HZZVJPH[LK�^P[O� elopement. For the purposes of this article the term elopement will be used to refer to runaway behavior. This article seeks to illustrate how the VWWYLZZP]L�SLNHJ`�VM�[OL�MVZ[LY�JHYL�Z`Z[LT�WYLZLY]LZ�[OL�Z[H[\Z�X\V� I`�KPZPU[LNYH[PUN�HUK�YL[YH\TH[PaPUN�)SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��HUK�3.);8�� communities. The author explores the impacts of foster care on the TPJYV�HUK�TLZV�SL]LSZ��JYP[PX\LZ�J\YYLU[�WVSPJ`�WYHJ[PJLZ��HUK�VɈLYZ� alternative perspectives for social workers to create a more just and genuine child welfare system. Keywords: foster care, child welfare, elopement, racism, Black youth, Indigenous youth, LGBTQ+ youth COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 25 LEE ANN GENUSSA T OLYL�HYL�WYLZLU[S`�TVYL�[OHU���������`V\[O�YLZPKPUN�^P[OPU� the U.S. foster care system, which includes non-relative and relative foster homes, group homes, and other residential institutions (Children’s Bureau, 2021). Youth may be placed in foster care arrangements for a variety of reasons, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse and neglect on the part of the youth’s caregivers. Few of these removals are warranted, and data from several states has shown that about half of all removals occur without prior judicial review (Inguanta & Sciolla, 2021; Simon, 2018). With the vulnerability of youth in mind, one might assume that foster care has been designed to create supportive, healthy, stable, and safe environments. Before we make this assumption, however, we must HZR�V\YZLS]LZ�[^V�N\PKPUN�X\LZ[PVUZ!�����^OH[�HYL�[OL�TVZ[�WYVIHISL� outcomes for youth placed in foster care, and (2) which groups does the <�:��JOPSK�^LSMHYL�Z`Z[LT�NLU\PULS`�ILULÄ[& ,HJO�`LHY��HWWYV_PTH[LS`����VM�`V\[O�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL�Y\U�H^H`�MYVT�[OLPY� foster care arrangements (Children’s Bureau, 2021). This leaves 5,000 children and adolescents formerly in foster care without stable housing, care, or resources every year. Youth in foster care constitute a large portion of all runaway youth and are more than twice as likely to elope HZ�JVTWHYLK�[V�ZHTL�HNLK�WLLYZ�UV[�SP]PUN�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL��4VYL^P[a�� 2016). When considering the demographics of children in the welfare system, P[�PZ�JY\JPHS�[V�HJRUV^SLKNL�[OL�ZPNUPÄJHU[�KPZWHYP[PLZ�MHJLK�I`�ZVJPHSS`� THYNPUHSPaLK�NYV\WZ��:[\KPLZ�OH]L�ZOV^U�[OH[�)SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��HUK� LGBTQ+ youth are all disproportionately represented in the foster care system as compared to the general population (Figure 1. Ching-Hsuan, 2012; Harris & Hackett, 2008; McCormick et al., 2017). In order to \UKLYZ[HUK�^O`�[OPZ�PZ�[OL�JHZL��P[�PZ�PTWLYH[P]L�[V�HUHS`aL�[OL�OPZ[VYPJHS� functions of foster care and the current role that social workers play in maintaining its legacy. 26 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX A BRIEF OVERVIEW: THE STATE OF FOSTER CARE PAST AND PRESENT The history of modern foster care extends back to colonial America and its practices of indentured servitude. The American indentured SHIVY�Z`Z[LT�^HZ�VYPNPUHSS`�KLYP]LK�MYVT�[OL�,UNSPZO�,SPaHIL[OHU�7VVY� Law’s concept of parens patriae, the idea that communities had some responsibility in protecting dependent, parentless children (Rymph, 2017). However, this protection was not free: these children were expected to learn and perform labor to fund their own care (Rymph, 2017). By the mid-19th century, shifts in public perceptions of slavery and ZLY]P[\KL��HZ�^LSS�HZ�YHWPK�PUK\Z[YPHSPaH[PVU��NH]L�^H`�[V�PUJYLHZPUNS`� \YIHU�WVW\SH[PVUZ�VM�OVTLSLZZ�`V\[O��6YWOHUHNLZ�ILNHU�[V�YLWSHJL� workhouses and were thought, at the time, to be a more humane and U\Y[\YPUN�HS[LYUH[P]L�[V�PUKLU[\YLK�ZLY]P[\KL��6YWOHUHNLZ�ZL[�Z[YPJ[� criteria for their selection processes and often denied children on the basis of religion, race, and ethnicity (Rymph, 2017). In 1853, theologian Charles Loring Brace established the Children’s (PK�:VJPL[`��*(:��PU�HU�PU[LUKLK�LɈVY[�[V�HTLSPVYH[L�[OL�^VYZLUPUN� JVUKP[PVUZ�VM�\YIHU�SPML�MVY�\UOV\ZLK�`V\[O��;OL�VYNHUPaH[PVU�ILNHU� to send parentless and impoverished youth out west on what would UV[VYPV\ZS`�IL�YLMLYYLK�[V�HZ�¸VYWOHU�[YHPUZ¹�PU�HU�LɈVY[�[V�OH]L� them adopted by rural farmers and their families. The process was KLO\THUPaPUN!�JOPSKYLU�\W�^LYL�SPULK�\W�SPRL�JH[[SL�[V�IL�ZLSLJ[LK�I`� MHYTLYZ�IHZLK�VU�[OLPY�WO`ZPX\L�HUK�HWWHYLU[�WO`ZPJHS�OLHS[O��)LJH\ZL� of an emphasis on placing children out of their biological families, Brace and CAS are often cited as the foundations of modern foster care. By the early 20th century, the Progressive Era led to an array of new federal agencies including the U.S. Children’s Bureau, which remains involved in foster and adoption today (Rymph, 2017). The racist praxis of the child welfare system has been documented MVY�KLJHKLZ��:PUJL�[OL�<�:�»Z�IPY[O��)SHJR�`V\[O�^LYL�\UHISL�[V�ILULÄ[� from child welfare services based on their race. Growing support for integration in the 1950s led to the child welfare system abruptly FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 27 adopting harsh, punitive rules in foster care as a new way to punish Black youth, families, and communities (Cooper, 2013). A similar legacy of state violence perpetrated by the child welfare system haunts Indigenous youth and communities today. For over a century Indigenous children were forcibly taken from their families and sent to boarding ZJOVVSZ�PU�H�K\HS�LɈVY[�[V�HZZPTPSH[L�[OL�JOPSKYLU�[V�^OP[L�(TLYPJHU� culture while continuing the genocide of Indigenous communities (Cooper, 2013). Today, Black youth constitute nearly one third of the total population of MVZ[LY�JHYL�`V\[O�KLZWP[L�JVTWYPZPUN�VUS`�����VM�[OL�NLULYHS�WVW\SH[PVU� (Census Bureau, 2020; Children’s Bureau, 2021). Similarly, LGBTQ+ `V\[O�THRL�\W�HIV\[� ����VM�[OL�NLULYHS�WVW\SH[PVU�JVTWHYLK�[V� ����VM�[OL�MVZ[LY�JHYL�WVW\SH[PVU��>P[O�YLZWLJ[�[V�0UKPNLUV\Z�WLVWSLZ�� ÄN\YLZ�PSS\Z[YH[L�KV\ISL�[OL�WVW\SH[PVU�VM�0UKPNLUV\Z�`V\[O�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL� in comparison to the general population (Figure 2). Given the violent and oppressive history of the child welfare system, we can begin to \UKLYZ[HUK�^O`�JOPSKYLU�HUK�HKVSLZJLU[Z�^P[O�[OLZL�ZVJPHS�PKLU[PÄLYZ� are more likely to run away from foster care compared to white, cisgender, heterosexual youth. In fact, Black youth, especially Black girls, in foster care are almost twice as likely to elope compared to their ^OP[L��ZHTL�HNLK�WLLYZ��>\SJa`U�������� These statistics paint a concerning picture: the modern foster care system is a harmful entity that actively targets Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth and children. For decades, these communities have seen social workers unnecessarily remove Black and Indigenous youth with historical and generational trauma away from their families and place them in culturally incompetent foster care arrangements (Brave /LHY[�L[�HS�������"�*Y\[JOÄLSK�L[�HS�������"�:HT\LSZ� �3H9VZZH����� ��� Likewise, social workers have removed LGBTQ+ youth who have been PU]HSPKH[LK�HUK�KPZV^ULK�I`�[OLPY�MHTPSPLZ��HUK�Z\IZLX\LU[S`�WSHJLK� them in care arrangements that perpetuate the very same invalidation and trauma (McCormick et al., 2017; Mooney, 2017). For many youths, the abuse and neglect experienced before and during foster care are so unbearable that they choose to elope (McCormick L[�HS�������"�9LHT� �-VYNL���������;OL�KL[YPTLU[HS�LɈLJ[Z�[OH[�[OPZ� LEE ANN GENUSSA 28 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX decision can have on youths’ wellbeing are numerous. Youth who elope from foster care are more likely to experience homelessness, sexual L_WSVP[H[PVU��O\THU�[YHɉJRPUN��KY\N�HUK�HSJVOVS�HI\ZL��PU]VS]LTLU[�PU� JYPTPUHS�HJ[P]P[ �̀�HUK�KPɉJ\S[`�MVYTPUN�H[[HJOTLU[�[V�HK\S[Z��*YVZZSHUK� �+\USHW������"�-LYUHUKLZ�(SJHU[HYH������"�3H[aTHU�L[�HS������ ���0[�PZ� PTWLYH[P]L�[OH[�ZVJPHS�^VYRLYZ�X\LZ[PVU�[OL�LɈLJ[P]LULZZ�VM�[OL�MVZ[LY� care system when thousands of Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth are willing to endure so much trauma and violence simply to avoid being in foster care. WHY YOUTH ELOPE Youth in foster care may choose to run away for a myriad of reasons. :VTL�TH`�SLH]L�[V�LZJHWL�HI\ZL�VY�PKLU[P[`�JVUÅPJ[�^P[O�JHYLNP]LYZ�HUK� WLLYZ"�V[OLYZ�TH`�JOVVZL�[V�ÅLL�[V�NHPU�PUKLWLUKLUJL�VY�YL\UP[L�^P[O� biological family and friends. For simplicity’s sake, we can group these driving forces as push and pull factors, respectively (King et al., 2017; 3H[aTHU� �.PIIZ������"�7HNL���������)`�KLÄUP[PVU��W\SS�MHJ[VYZ�PUKPJH[L� the presence of some external force pulling the youth away from their care arrangement, such as the aforementioned desire to reunite with biological family members. In contrast, push factors allude to an internal force driving the youth away from their care arrangement—for example, abusive, authoritarian, homophobic, or racist foster parents and peers. While both factors play an important role in the decision to run away, )SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��HUK�3.);8��`V\[O�HYL�VM[LU�OLH]PS`�PUÅ\LUJLK�I`� W\ZO�YH[OLY�[OHU�W\SS�MHJ[VYZ��2PUN�L[�HS�������"�3H[aTHU� �.PIIZ������"� Page, 2017). Discrimination and abuse faced by LGBTQ+ youth in foster care have been well documented (McCormick et al., 2017). Prior to being placed, it is not uncommon for LGBTQ+ youth to encounter social workers who lack an appropriate degree of cultural humility. As such, even before entering the foster care system many LGBTQ+ youths are met ^P[O�HK\S[Z�^OV�MHPS�[V�\UKLYZ[HUK�[OLT�HUK�WYV]PKL�HKLX\H[L�Z\WWVY[� and resources. If that were not damaging enough, without incurring repercussions, foster parents may legally refuse to house LGBTQ+ youth �4J*VYTPJR�L[�HS����������6UJL�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL��3.);8��`V\[O�LUJV\U[LY� FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 29 varied, usually deleterious, experiences. Isolation, harassment, physical and sexual abuse, forced conversion, double standards in rules for straight peers, and a lack of acceptance are all common experiences for LGBTQ+ youth living in foster care on the basis of their gender identities and sexualities (Harris & Hackett, 2008; McCormick et al., 2017; Rymph, �������0U�MHJ[��H�ZPNUPÄJHU[�WVY[PVU�VM�3.);8��`V\[O�OH]L�YLWVY[LK�[OH[� they feel safer on the streets with their chosen family than in foster care �9LHT� �-VYNL�������� 3PRL^PZL��)SHJR��HUK�0UKPNLUV\Z�`V\[O�OH]L�SVUN�YLWVY[LK�[YH\TH[PaPUN� experiences with peers, caregivers, and social workers in foster care who lack an appropriate degree of cultural humility and/or are outwardly racist. For instance, research has shown that Indigenous youth in foster care are more likely to experience recurrent emotional, physical, sexual, and spiritual abuse when compared to their white peers, especially when they are assigned to white caregivers (Landers et al., 2021). Similar studies have revealed that Black youth in foster care placements are disproportionately exposed to maltreatment compared to their white peers (Scott et al., 2011). In fact, Black boys in foster care experience J\S[\YHSS`�PUJVTWL[LU[�ZVJPHS�^VYRLYZ�MYLX\LU[S`�LUV\NO�[OH[�THU`�VM� these individuals depart from the child welfare system as young men with an even deeper distrust of mental health care providers than when they entered the system (Scott et al., 2011). These trends suggest that the foster care system is failing Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth I`�JVU[YPI\[PUN�[V��YH[OLY�[OHU�HTLSPVYH[PUN��[OL�[YH\TH�PUÅPJ[LK�\WVU� [OLZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�`V\[O� RISKS AND IMPACTS OF ELOPEMENT THE MICRO LEVEL According to Bowlby and Ainsworth’s attachment theory, children rely on a caring, intimate, and undisrupted relationship with their adult caregivers in order to grow up mentally healthy (Bretherton, 1992). With this in mind, it is natural to surmise that Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth who run away from foster care are unlikely to have formed healthy attachments with either their biological parents or foster parents. LEE ANN GENUSSA 30 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX Coupled with the trauma that precedes and endures through the foster care experience, Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth are subjected to HU�HZZVY[TLU[�VM�KHUNLYZ�\WVU�ÅLLPUN�MYVT�[OL�Z`Z[LT��9\UH^H`�`V\[O� TH`�Z[Y\NNSL�[V�ÄUK�HKLX\H[L�OV\ZPUN�HUK�HYL�TVYL�SPRLS`�[V�LUNHNL� in risky behaviors such as substance use and unprotected commercial sexual contact for survival (Fernandes-Alcantara, 2018). Additionally, youth who repeatedly run away face further risks of detachment from adult bonding, involvement in criminal and gang activity, and lack of LK\JH[PVU��*YVZZSHUK� �+\USHW���������(YN\HIS`�TVZ[�JVUJLYUPUN�PZ� [OL�YPZR�VM�O\THU�[YHɉJRPUN��@V\[O�^OV�Y\U�H^H`�MYVT�MVZ[LY�JHYL�OH]L� H�OLPNO[LULK�YPZR�VM�ILPUN�[HYNL[LK�I`�O\THU�[YHɉJRLYZ�HUK�ZVSK�PU[V� ZL_\HS�IVUKHNL��3H[aTHU�L[�HS������ ���0U�MHJ[��Z[\KPLZ�OH]L�ZOV^U�[OH[� HZ�THU`�HZ�����VM�]PJ[PTZ�VM�ZL_�[YHɉJRPUN�^LYL�PU�MVZ[LY�JHYL�H[�VUL� point (Dank et al., 2017). Because many of these behaviors are labeled as criminal by the state, [OLZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�`V\[O�NYV\WZ�HSZV�MHJL�OLPNO[LULK�YPZR�VM�LU[LYPUN� the juvenile legal system. Statistics show that the majority of youth who spend time in detention facilities will be arrested, convicted, HUK�PUJHYJLYH[LK�^P[OPU�[OL�ÄYZ[�ZL]LYHS�`LHYZ�MVSSV^PUN�YLSLHZL��6UL� longitudinal study of 2,500 youth who were incarcerated in a juvenile KL[LU[PVU�MHJPSP[`�ZOV^LK�[OH[�YV\NOS`�����VM�WHY[PJPWHU[Z�^LYL� YLHYYLZ[LK�PU�[OL�ÄYZ[�Ä]L�`LHYZ�MVSSV^PUN�[OLPY�YLSLHZL��(IYHTZ�������� In addition to setting youth up for adult incarceration, the juvenile legal Z`Z[LT�HSZV�JVU[YPI\[LZ�[V�[OL�[YH\TH[PaH[PVU�HUK�YL�[YH\TH[PaH[PVU�VM� Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth. Reports of abuse, violence, and substandard care are common in juvenile detention facilities, particularly for Black and Indigenous youth who are both overrepresented in the juvenile legal system (Abrams, 2013). Moreover, studies have shown that, like foster care, spending time in the juvenile legal system further deteriorates youths’ mental health and impedes opportunities for educational attainment (Abrams, 2013). THE MESO LEVEL Impacted communities also feel the reverberations of elopement in MVZ[LY�`V\[O��5V[�VUS`�KV�Q\]LUPSL�KL[LU[PVU�MHJPSP[PLZ�[YH\TH[PaL�`V\[O� FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 31 and increase their likelihood of adult incarceration, but they also pose H�[YLTLUKV\Z�ÄUHUJPHS�PTWHJ[�[V�THYNPUHSPaLK�JVTT\UP[PLZ�[OH[�HYL� already underfunded and under-resourced. Juvenile incarceration costs an average of $200,000 per child per year, with some states spending more than half a million annually to incarcerate a single youth (Justice Policy Institute, 2020). With more than 50,000 youth incarcerated, the U.S. may be spending more than $10 billion annually on juvenile incarceration (Sawyer & Wagner, 2020). In comparison, the federal I\KNL[�WYVWVZHS�MVY�ÄZJHS�`LHY������YLX\LZ[Z�VUS`������TPSSPVU�MVY� kinship guardianship assistance—a $17 million cut from the year prior (Congressional Research Service, 2021). Transferring even a fraction of juvenile incarceration spending to kinship assistance programs for Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth could massively improve outcomes for youth while keeping families, and thereby communities, connected. It is also critical to consider the impacts that foster care and elopement have on the families of children who are in the system. In its current state, we have seen that the U.S. foster care system does little more than tear families apart. Biological parents of children in state custody experience disproportionate rates of mental illness, particularly complex post traumatic stress disorder (Suomi et al., 2021). Studies have ZOV^U�[OH[�[OL�YLTV]HS�VM�H�JOPSK�I`�Z[H[L�VɉJPHSZ�PZ�VUL�VM�[OL�TVZ[� traumatic life experiences that one can endure and is often compared to experiencing the death of a child (Askren & Bloom, 1999; Masson & Dickens, 2015). Following the removal, parents are often subjected to worsening symptoms of preexisting mental health conditions, which M\Y[OLY�OLPNO[LUZ�[OL�YPZR�VM�Z\IZLX\LU[�YLTV]HSZ��:\VTP�L[�HS���������� This cycle of violence illustrates how the racist foster care system impacts Black and Indigenous parents and communities just as much as their children. By removing new generations of Black and Indigenous youth from their cultures, the foster care system continues the nation’s legacy of punishment and genocide, thus preserving the race, gender, and class-based hierarchies that have served the nation since its advent (Roberts, 2012). In order to further understand the experience VM�[OLZL�MHTPSPLZ�HUK�JVTT\UP[PLZ��P[�PZ�PTWVY[HU[�[V�HUHS`aL�[OL�^H`Z� [OH[�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�SLNPZSH[PVU�WSH`Z�ZWLJPÄJ�YVSLZ�PU�RLLWPUN�THYNPUHSPaLK� communities disjointed. LEE ANN GENUSSA 32 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX A BRIEF POLICY ANALYSIS THE RUNAWAY AND HOMELESS YOUTH ACT The Runaway and Homeless Youth Act (RHYA), originally titled the 9\UH^H`�@V\[O�(J[��^HZ�LUHJ[LK�I`�*VUNYLZZ�PU�� ���PU�HU�LɈVY[�[V� RLLW�]\SULYHISL�`V\[O�VɈ�[OL�Z[YLL[Z�HTPKZ[�YPZPUN�]PVSLU[�JYPTL�YH[LZ� HJYVZZ�[OL�UH[PVU��.\YY��� �����;OL�9/@(�H\[OVYPaLK�[OL�9\UH^H`� and Homeless Youth (RHY) Program, which provides federal grant M\UKPUN�MVY�[OL�JYLH[PVU�VY�IVSZ[LYPUN�VM�SVJHS�W\ISPJ��UVU�WYVÄ[�JLU[LYZ� dedicated to supporting runaway youth and their families. There are three main programs within the RHY Program: the Basic Center Program �)*7���[OL�;YHUZP[PVUHS�3P]PUN�7YVNYHT��;37���HUK�[OL�:VJPHS�6\[YLHJO� 7YVNYHT��:67���(KKP[PVUHS�WYVNYHTZ�PUJS\KL�[OL�4H[LYUP[`�.YV\W�/VTL� Project and the 1-800-RUNAWAY hotline (Family & Youth Services Bureau, 2018). Based on survey data collected from youth after service provision, each of the three main programs, in addition to the 1-800-RUNAWAY OV[SPUL��HWWLHY�[V�IL�LɈLJ[P]L�PU�Z\WWVY[PUN�`V\[O��;HISL�����0U������� ���VM�`V\[O�^OV�WHY[PJPWH[LK�PU�[OL�)*7�Z\JJLZZM\SS`�[YHUZP[PVULK�[V� H�Z[HISL�SP]PUN�HYYHUNLTLU[��^OPSL�����VM�`V\[O�^LYL�YL\UP[LK�^P[O�[OLPY� families (Administration for Children and Families, 2015). In the same `LHY��:67�Z[HɈ�HUK�]VS\U[LLYZ�THKL�V]LY���������JVU[HJ[Z�^P[O�Z[YLL[� youth which resulted in 21,000 transitions to shelters for the evening. Additionally, self-report surveys illustrated that the 1-800-RUNAWAY OV[SPUL�^HZ�OPNOS`�LɈLJ[P]L�PU�Z\WWVY[PUN�`V\[O�^OV�^LYL�JVU[LTWSH[PUN� Y\UUPUN�H^H �̀�0U������������VM�`V\[O�YLWVY[LK�[OH[�[OL`�^V\SK�JHSS� again in the future for additional support (Administration for Children & Families, 2015). CRITIQUE AND CONSIDERATIONS Although the RHYA has provided support to thousands of youth since P[Z�JVUJLW[PVU��P[�PZ�LX\HSS`�PTWVY[HU[�[V�HJRUV^SLKNL�[OL�WP[MHSSZ�VM�[OL� legislation. Youth in foster care constitute a large portion of runaways, `L[�UV^OLYL�PU�[OL�WYVNYHT�SLNPZSH[PVU�HYL�[OLZL�`V\[O�PKLU[PÄLK�HZ� ILPUN�LZWLJPHSS`�]\SULYHISL�HUK�PU�ULLK�VM�Z\WWVY[��4VYL�ZWLJPÄJHSS �̀� the legislation makes no mention of Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 33 foster youth even though they are disproportionately impacted by MVZ[LY�JHYL�HUK�TVYL�SPRLS`�[V�Y\U�H^H �̀�;OPZ�SHJR�VM�MVJ\Z�PZ�YLÅLJ[LK� in data collected from the program. For example, virtually no data was collected on LGBTQ+ youth who received services from the program (Administration for Children & Families, 2015). Data collection accounted only for transgender youth, neglecting to assess for how many youths served were lesbian, gay, bisexual, nonbinary, gender non-conforming, L[J���KLZWP[L�HU�LZ[PTH[LK�����VM�`V\[O�PKLU[PM`PUN�HZ�3.);8�� (Furguson & Maccio, 2015). Another important consideration is the legislation’s emphasis on education and job training. There is widespread acceptance that a JVU[PU\V\Z�HUK�X\HSP[`�LK\JH[PVU�PZ�LZZLU[PHS�MVY�`V\[O�[V�NYV^�\W� mentally healthy. Quality education and job training provide important educational, developmental, and social milestones for children and `V\[O��0[�PZ�LZWLJPHSS`�PTWVY[HU[�[V�JVUZPKLY�[OL�PTWHJ[Z�VM�WYPVYP[PaPUN� a future-focused mentality surrounding job training over youths’ immediate safety and wellbeing. Experiencing homelessness in youth PZ�[YH\TH[PaPUN��LZWLJPHSS`�^OLU�P[�PU]VS]LZ�LSVWLTLU[�MYVT�H�JHYLNP]LY�� By providing youth with stable housing, we can help to halt the cyclical pattern of poverty and incarceration, improve mental health outcomes, and empower youth with a sense of agency (Naccarato et al., 2008). (JJLZZ�[V�JVUZPZ[LU[��X\HSP[`�PUKP]PK\HS�JV\UZLSPUN�OHZ�HSZV�ILLU�WYV]LU� [V�ZPNUPÄJHU[S`�PTWYV]L�TLU[HS�OLHS[O�HUK�KLJYLHZL�Z\IZ[HUJL�HI\ZL�PU� runaway and homeless youth (Slesnick et al., 2008). For these reasons, P[�JV\SK�IL�TVYL�ILULÄJPHS�[V�ZOPM[�YLZV\YJLZ�H^H`�MYVT�QVI�[YHPUPUN�HUK� toward counseling and housing. FOSTERING CONNECTIONS TO SUCCESS AND INCREASING ADOPTIONS ACT More recently, in 2008, the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act (Fostering Connections Act) was passed in an LɈVY[�[V�TVKLYUPaL�[OL�MVZ[LY�JHYL�Z`Z[LT�I`�WYVTV[PUN�RPUZOPW�MVZ[LY� WSHJLTLU[Z�HUK�HKVW[PVUZ��PTWYV]PUN�HJJLZZ�[V�X\HSP[`�OLHS[OJHYL�� HUK�Z\WWVY[PUN�LK\JH[PVUHS�JVUZPZ[LUJ �̀�;OL�SLNPZSH[PVU�JVUZPZ[Z�VM�Ä]L� sections that focus on connecting and supporting kinship caregivers, improving outcomes for youth in foster care, improving access to foster LEE ANN GENUSSA 34 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX care and adoption within Indigenous communities, improving incentives MVY�HKVW[PVU��HUK�JSHYPM`PUN�H�\UPMVYT�KLÄUP[PVU�VM�[OL�[LYT�¸JOPSK�¹�HZ� well as other provisions (Fostering Connections Act, 2008). Some of the most prominent alterations in child welfare that have resulted from [OPZ�SLNPZSH[PVU�PUJS\KL�L_[LUKPUN�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�ILULÄ[Z�[V�`V\[O�\W�[V� the age of 21 as well as heightening the focus on transition planning for youth who are aging out. The logic is that by encouraging kinship foster care and providing welfare services until the age of 21, youth will have a more supportive and protracted transition into independent living (Day & Preston, 2013). In terms of implementation, varying degrees of intervention success can be seen on a state-to-state basis. The majority of U.S. states, including [OL�+PZ[YPJ[�VM�*VS\TIPH��OH]L�\WKH[LK�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�SLNPZSH[PVU�[V�YLÅLJ[� LSLTLU[Z�VM�[OL�-VZ[LYPUN�*VUULJ[PVUZ�(J[��ZWLJPÄJHSS`�PU�[LYTZ�VM� educational stability, services to support said stability, and transition coordination. Despite these successes, many jurisdictions have failed to HKLX\H[LS`�PUJVYWVYH[L�HSS�JVTWVULU[Z�VM�[OL�MLKLYHS�SLNPZSH[PVU�LX\HSS �̀� particularly elements such as educational services (Perfect et al., 2013). CRITIQUE AND CONSIDERATIONS Like the RHYA, the Fostering Connections Act places a strong emphasis on job training and readiness to enter the workforce. This focus within the legislation highlights the inherent neoliberalism within U.S. law, based as it is on the idea that youth are responsible for IV[O�[OLPY�PUKP]PK\HS�JPYJ\TZ[HUJLZ�HUK�ÄUKPUN�H�TLHUZ�V\[�VM�[OVZL� circumstances by becoming a productive member of the workforce (Schelbe, 2011). Again, like the RHYA, the Fostering Connections (J[�JV\SK�ILULÄ[�MYVT�[HRPUN�H�Z[LW�H^H`�MYVT�[OLZL�UV[PVUZ�VM� personal responsibility and job training, and instead focus on housing WYVJ\YLTLU[�HUK�JVUZPZ[LU[��X\HSP[`�JV\UZLSPUN��5HJJHYH[V�L[�HS��� 2008; Slesink et al., 2008). The legislation is also inconsistent with its promotion of kinship care. Although the core of the legislation is based on the idea that kinship care promotes improved outcomes, the SLNPZSH[PVU�MHPSZ�[V�YLX\PYL�OLPNO[LULK�ILULÄ[Z��Z\WWVY[��HUK�HJJLZZ�[V� resources for kinship caregivers (Koh et al., 2021). FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 35 STRUCTURAL AND CULTURAL CHANGES The Fostering Connections Act has brought about meaningful change by promoting kinship foster care. Yet social workers will play an important role in advocating for further amendments to current legislation which will be crucial to providing Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ runaway foster youth with the support that they so vitally need and deserve. It is also important to acknowledge that any legislation is inherently a band- HPK�ZVS\[PVU��>L�JHUUV[�L_WLJ[�HS[LYH[PVUZ�PU�SLNPZSH[PVU�[V�IL�LɈLJ[P]L� until social workers collectively advocate for and implement large-scale shifts in the deeply rooted cultural norms and values within the U.S. When moving toward large-scale, structural changes, it is important for social workers to reconsider how the American patriarchal nuclear family structure has contributed to the creation of such an oppressive foster care system. Decades of research suggest that the myth of the nuclear family is inappropriate, misleading, and detrimental to our understanding of family dynamics and appropriate therapeutic PU[LY]LU[PVUZ��OPSL�[OL�LɉJHJ`�VM�JVSSLJ[P]PZT�OHZ�ILLU�WYV]LU��[OPZ�Z[`SL�VM� JHYLNP]PUN�PZ�VM[LU�JSHZZPÄLK�HZ�WHYLU[HS�ULNSLJ[�^P[OPU�H�>LZ[LYU� JVUJLW[\HSPaH[PVU�VM�JOPSK�YLHYPUN��[O\Z�SLHKPUN�[V�[OL�KPZWYVWVY[PVUH[L� removal of Black and Indigenous children from their families (Hobfoll et al., 2002). For instance, studies have shown that youth placed in kinship LEE ANN GENUSSA 36 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX foster arrangements—most often with women of color—have similar physical, mental, and behavioral health outcomes to youth placed in non-kinship arrangements. This is true despite the fact that kinship foster parents are, on average, older, lower income, less healthy, and receive fewer services and lower payments from child welfare agencies JVTWHYLK�[V�UVU�RPUZOPW�MVZ[LY�WHYLU[Z��)LYYPJR�L[�HS���� �"�2VO�L[�HS��� 2021). In other words, women of color in a kinship foster parent role produce similar outcomes for youth compared to white, non-kinship foster parents even though they are given fewer resources by child welfare agencies. In applying a collectivist approach to child-rearing, we may be able to create better outcomes for youth and their families by keeping families united and supported. IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Social workers have an important role in transforming the foster care system. With our code of ethics in mind, it is imperative that we continue to advocate for cultural changes that abandon the three pillars of capitalist oppression: white supremacy, colonialism, and hetero- patriarchy. While social workers should strive to eliminate the need for runaway, homeless, and foster care youth services through large-scale J\S[\YHS�ZOPM[Z�HUK�HK]VJHJ �̀�P[�PZ�LX\HSS`�PTWVY[HU[�[V�JVUZPKLY�OV^� we can help youth who are already navigating through these systems right now. From a clinical perspective, it is crucial that social workers who serve )SHJR��0UKPNLUV\Z��3.);8���HUK�V[OLY^PZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�`V\[O�IV[O�PU� and outside of the child welfare system begin to operate from cultural humility, trauma-informed, and social justice lenses. The patterns of racism and oppression in the child welfare system are deeply woven into [OL�MHIYPJ�VM�[OL�<�:��HUK�^PSS�YLX\PYL�H�NYLH[�KLHS�VM�LɈVY[�[V�[LHY�V\[�� ;OPZ�JHUUV[�IL�KVUL�ZPTWS`�I`�^VYRPUN�MVY�THYNPUHSPaLK�JVTT\UP[PLZ�� but rather working in tandem with them to provide resources and to LUJV\YHNL�VYNHUPaH[PVU��\UP[ �̀�HUK�LTWV^LYTLU[�HTVUN�[OL�UH[PVU»Z� most historically oppressed and abused communities. FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 37 CONCLUSION ;OL�PU[LNYH[PVU�VM�KLJHKLZ�VM�YLZLHYJO�PU[V�[OL�ÄLSK�VM�JOPSK�^LSMHYL�OHZ� elucidated that the current U.S. foster care system has not strayed far from its oppressive origins. The foster care experience is commonly not a positive one for Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth. Racism, OVTVWOVIPH��HUK�[YHUZWOVIPH�PUÅPJ[LK�I`�WLLYZ��MVZ[LY�WHYLU[Z��HUK� even social workers are common experiences for youth with these ZVJPHS�PKLU[PÄLYZ��;OL�WO`ZPJHS��LTV[PVUHS��HUK�ZL_\HS�HI\ZL�[OH[�[OLZL� `V\[O�HYL�Z\IQLJ[LK�[V�HYL�VM[LU�ZV�KLO\THUPaPUN�[OH[�[OL`�HYL�^PSSPUN� to risk further abuse, exploitation, trauma, and homelessness just to avoid their caregivers. Instead of meeting the crucially important social HUK�LTV[PVUHS�ULLKZ�VM�`V\[O��MVZ[LY�JHYL�ZLY]LZ�HU�LU[PYLS`�KPɈLYLU[� function for Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ youth: to continue the U.S.’s legacy of punishment and genocide. Healing racial and cultural trauma in Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ communities is often KVUL�TVZ[�LɈLJ[P]LS`�^OLU�P[�OHWWLUZ�JVSSLJ[P]LS`��6Y[LNH�>PSSPHTZ� et al., 2021). By separating families and alienating LGBTQ+ youth, the U.S. continues to prevent collective healing, ultimately keeping [OLZL�THYNPUHSPaLK�WLVWSL�^P[OPU�[OL�JVUÄULZ�VM�Z[H[L�VWWYLZZPVU�� Elopement from foster care may be a much deeper, more meaningful behavior than we think it is. Perhaps youth elope not just to escape the VWWYLZZP]L��[YH\TH[PaPUN�JVUKP[PVUZ�VM�MVZ[LY�JHYL��I\[�[V�YL[\YU�IHJR�[V� the communities that birthed them and initiate collective healing. Black, Indigenous, and LGBTQ+ communities are resilient, but they should not OH]L�[V�IL��>L�JHUUV[�OLSW�[V�SPILYH[L�[OLZL�JVTT\UP[PLZ�^P[OV\[�ÄYZ[� helping to free their future, the youth. REFERENCES (IYHTZ��3����������1\]LUPSL�Q\Z[PJL�H[�H�JYVZZYVHKZ!�:JPLUJL��L]PKLUJL��HUK�[^LU[`�ÄYZ[� century reform. 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State implementation of the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act: Exploratory study on kinship care. Advances in LEE ANN GENUSSA 40 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX Social Work������������ ��O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN������������ �� Landers, A. L., Danes, S. M., Campbell, A. R., & White Hawk, S. (2021). Abuse after abuse: The recurrent maltreatment of American Indian children in foster care and adoption. Child Abuse & Neglect���������������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN���������Q�JOPHI\������������ 3H[aTHU��5��,��� �.PIIZ��+��(����������Examining the link: Foster care runaway episodes HUK�O\THU�[YHɉJRPUN. RTI International. https://www.rti.org/publication/examining-link 3H[aTHU��5��,���.PIIZ��+��(���-LPUILYN��9���2S\JRTHU��4��5��� �(IV\S�/VZU��:�� ���� ���/\THU�[YHɉJRPUN�]PJ[PTPaH[PVU�HTVUN�`V\[O�^OV�Y\U�H^H`�MYVT�MVZ[LY� care. Children and Youth Services Review�� ������������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN���������Q� childyouth.2018.12.022 Masson, J., & Dickens, J. (2015). 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An integrated historical trauma and posttraumatic growth framework: A cross- cultural exploration. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation,������������������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN� 10.1080/15299732.2020.1869106 Page, M. (2017). Forgotten youth: Homeless LGBT youth of color and the Runaway and Homeless Youth Act. Northwestern Journal of Law & Social Policy����������������O[[WZ!�� scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njlsp/vol12/iss2/2/ Perfect, M. M., Stoll, K. A., Thompson, K. C., & Scott, R. E. (2013). Analysis of state laws and policies following the implementation of the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act. School Psychology Forum��������������� 9LHT��.��� �-VYNL��5����������/VTLSLZZ�SLZIPHU��NH �̀�IPZL_\HS��HUK�[YHUZNLUKLY��3.);�� `V\[O�PU�5L^�@VYR�*P[`!�0UZPNO[Z�MYVT�[OL�ÄLSK��Child Welfare, 93(2), 7–22. FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 41 Roberts, D. (2012). Prison, foster care, and the systemic punishment of Black mothers. UCLA Law Review��� ����������������O[[WZ!��^^ �̂\JSHSH^YL]PL �̂VYN�WKM�� �����WKM Rymph, C. E. (2017). Raising government children: A history of foster care and the American welfare state. University of North Carolina Press. Samuels, G. M., & LaRossa, R. (2009). “Being raised by white people”: Navigating racial KPɈLYLUJLZ�HTVUN�HKVW[LK�T\S[PYHJPHS�HK\S[Z��Journal of Marriage and Family, 71(1), 80- ���O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN���������Q����������������������_ Sawyer, W., & Wager, P. (2020). Mass incarceration: The whole pie 2020. Prison Policy Initiative. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2020.html Schelbe, L. A. (2011). Policy analysis of Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 21(5), ���������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN����������� ���� ������������� Scott, L. D., McCoy, H., Munson, M. R., Snowden, L. R., & McMillen, J. C. (2011). Cultural mistrust of mental health professionals among Black males transitioning from foster care. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 605-613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826- ���� ����a� :PTVU��2��)����������*H[HS`aPUN�[OL�ZLWHYH[PVU�VM�)SHJR�MHTPSPLZ!�(�JYP[PX\L�VM�MVZ[LY�JHYL� placements without prior judicial review. Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems, ������������� � Slesnick, N., Ju Kand, M., Bonomi, A. E., & Prestopnik, J. L. (2002). Six- and twelve-month outcomes among homeless youth accessing therapy and case management services through an urban drop-in center. Health Services Research,�������������� ��O[[WZ!��KVP� VYN���������Q����������������������_� St. Vil, N. M., St. Vil, C., & Fairfax, C. N. (2019). Posttraumatic slave syndrome, the patriarchal nuclear family, structure, and African American male-female relationships. Social Work,���������� ������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN������ ��Z^�Z^a���� Suomi, A., Bolton, S., & Pasalich, D. (2021). The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder in birth parents in child protective services: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 0(0), 1-15. https://doi. VYN�������������������������� \SJa`U��-����������9HJL�L[OUPJP[`�HUK�Y\UUPUN�H^H`�MYVT�MVZ[LY�JHYL��Children and Youth Services Review���� �����������O[[WZ!��KVP�VYN���������Q�JOPSK`V\[O������������ LEE ANN GENUSSA 42 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX FIGURE 1 FOSTER CARE AND GENERAL POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS BY RACE Percent of Youth Under 18 in the General and Foster Care Populations 0 10 Pe rc en t o f P op ul at io n (% ) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 White Black or African American AIAN Asian Hispanic or Latino 76.3 44 13.4 23 1.3 5.9 2 1 18.5 21 General Population Foster Care Note. The percentage of youth under age 18 in the general and foster care populations are compared across race and ethnicity. Data collected on Indigenous Americans is labeled “AIAN,” meaning American Indian and Alaskan Natives (Census Bureau, 2020; Children’s Bureau, 2021). FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 43 FIGURE 2 LGBTQ+ YOUTH IN THE FOSTER CARE AND GENERAL POPULATIONS Percentage of LGBT Youth in the General and Foster Care Populations 0 5 Pe rc en t o f P op ul at io n (% ) 10 15 20 25 30 35 Foster Care General Population 30.4 9.54 Note. The percentage of youth in the general and foster care populations are compared (Census Bureau, 2020; Children’s Bureau 2021; Conron, 202). LEE ANN GENUSSA 44 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX ;HISL��!�,ɉJHJ`�VM�9/@(�7YVNYHTTPUN Funding ($) Grantees Females (%) Males (%) Black Youth (%) Indigenous Youth (%) LGBTQ+ Youth (%) Basic Center Program 53 mil. 296 52 �� 32 3 ~<1 Transitional Living Program ���TPS� 200 60 39 39 5 ~<1 Street Out- reach Program 17 mil. 101 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Note. Funding, number of grantees, and percentage of youth served relating to gender and race are JVTWHYLK�HJYVZZ�9/@(�WYVNYHTTPUN��0U�VYKLY�[V�WYV[LJ[�JVUÄKLU[PHSP[ �̀�:67�HK]VJH[LZ�KV�UV[�JVSSLJ[� demographic data from youth served (Administration for Children & Families, 2015). FROM FOSTER CARE TO THE STREETS COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 45 LEE ANN GENUSSA