CSWR Spring 2022 COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 109 Transracial Adoption as Continued Oppression: Modern Practice in Context ANISA JOY LEONARD 110 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION AS OPPRESSION ABSTRACT Transracial adoption has existed as a mode of forced displacement and oppression throughout the history of the United States. Starting ^P[O�0[HSPHU�JOPSKYLU��^OV�^LYL�VUJL�YHJPHSPaLK�HZ�UVU�^OP[L��UVU�^OP[L� children in the United States have undergone systemic oppression resulting in forced separation from their biological parents. The displaced children have typically been placed with white parents ^OV�OH]L�UV[�ILLU�HKLX\H[LS`�WYLWHYLK�[V�WYV]PKL�[OL�J\S[\YHSS`� competent, trauma-informed care that the children need. As a result, transracially adopted children have historically struggled to form a sense of identity and have faced a wide range of physical and mental health vulnerabilities. Part I of this paper will present an overview of how transracial adoption has been implemented throughout U.S. OPZ[VY �̀�KPZJ\ZZPUN�IV[O�WHZ[�TVKLSZ��Z\JO�HZ�[OL�6YWOHU�;YHPU��HUK� contemporary models (such as the foster care system, domestic private adoptions, and the global adoption industry). Part II will draw connections between past and present implementations of transracial adoption, illustrating that the phenomenon is best understood as a continuation of previous forms of oppression. Part III will propose a number of recommendations for social workers to facilitate better outcomes for transracial adoptees. COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 111 ANISA JOY LEONARD I n order to understand the current landscape of transracial adoption, P[�PZ�PTWVY[HU[�[V�\UKLYZ[HUK�[OL�OPZ[VYPJHS�JVU[L_[�VM�[OL�6YWOHU� ;YHPU��^OPJO�WYV]PKLK�VUL�VM�[OL�ÄYZ[�L_HTWSLZ�VM�YLN\SH[LK�� systemic transracial adoption. At the beginning of the 19th century, [OL�OLU�Z\JO�WSHJLTLU[Z�HYL�UV[�WVZZPISL��IP�J\S[\YHSPZT�VɈLYZ�HU� HS[LYUH[P]L�HWWYVHJO�[V�YHJPHS�L[OUPJ�ZVJPHSPaH[PVU��)P�J\S[\YHSPZT��PU� which the culture(s) of adopted children are integrated into the adoptive household, leads to the development of ecological competence both in white and non-white environments for the non-white child. Similarly, Deberry et al. (2003) found that transracial adoptees whose adoptive parents fostered connection to their birth culture had better psychological adjustment and positive experiences regarding the process of developing their racial and ethnic identities. Though white adoptive parents have begun to shift away from LTWOHZPaPUN�HZZPTPSH[PVU�HUK�JVSVYISPUKULZZ��PUZ[LHK�HJRUV^SLKNPUN� the importance of racial identity formation, there is still much to be concerned about (Barn, 2013; Lee, 2003). Adoption is a fundamentally traumatic experience. Verrier (1993) stated that separation has a detrimental impact on adoptees’ relationships throughout their lives. Adoptees are also four times more likely to attempt to take their life than their non-adopted counterparts (Keyes et al., 2013). Possible suicide risk factors impacting adoptees include mental illness, substance use, trauma experienced by biological parents, trauma experienced by the adoptee early in their life, and decreased sense of belonging (Keyes et al., 2013). A decreased sense of belonging contributes to depression and increases the risk of suicide (Fisher et al., 2015). Adoption has a long history of shame and secrecy, and transracial adoption is the most visible form of adoption (Lee, 2003). Transracial adoptees face many challenges in regards to racial identity formation, HUK�THU`�Z[Y\NNSL�[V�ÄUK�ILSVUNPUN��(UK\QV��� ���MV\UK�H�KPYLJ[� JVYYLSH[PVU�IL[^LLU�[OL�HKVW[LL�Z�WVZP[P]L�ZLUZL�VM�ZLSM�HUK�[OL�LɈVY[Z� [OLPY�HKVW[P]L�WHYLU[Z�[VVR�[V�MHJPSP[H[L�ZVJPHSPaH[PVU�^P[O�PUKP]PK\HSZ� from the adoptee's own racial or ethnic group. Deberry et al. (1996) found a positive correlation between connection to birth culture and ANISA JOY LEONARD 118 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX psychological wellbeing when studying African-American transracial adoptees. Similarly, Yoon (2000) found that in Korean-born adoptees, parental support of the adoptee’s racial ethnic identity development predicted more positive psychological adjustment of the adoptee. 9LJLU[�Z[\KPLZ�]HSPKH[L�[OLZL�ÄUKPUNZ��HZ�4VU[NVTLY`�HUK�1VYKHU� (2018) found in their systematic research synthesis. Ultimately, racial- L[OUPJ�ZVJPHSPaH[PVU�WYHJ[PJLZ�[OH[�JLSLIYH[L�KPɈLYLUJLZ��WYLWHYL�JOPSKYLU� to navigate racial discrimination, and encourage building relationships with one’s birth culture are linked to healthy adoptee outcomes (Montgomery & Jordan, 2018). It is this understanding of the nature of adoption that underscores the importance of the third mandate of MEPA. ;OL�[OPYK�HUK�ÄUHS�THUKH[L�VM�4,7(�YLX\PYLZ�HNLUJPLZ�[V�YLJY\P[�YHJPHSS`� KP]LYZL�WYVZWLJ[P]L�WHYLU[Z��YLÅLJ[PUN�[OL�KLTVNYHWOPJZ�VM�JOPSKYLU� in care (Barn, 2013; Quadagno, 1996). In order to become licensed care providers, prospective parents must have strong references and must meet standards regarding income, health status, and legal history (Raleigh, 2018). As the NABSW pointed out several decades HNV��Z`Z[LTPJ�YHJPHS�IHYYPLYZ�SPRL�ZVJPV�LJVUVTPJ�PULX\HSP[`�HUK�THZZ� incarceration, coupled with fears of surveillance and outright racial discrimination from agencies, continue to deter or prevent Black and 0UKPNLUV\Z�7LYZVUZ�VM�*VSVY��)076*��MYVT�ILJVTPUN�MVYTHS�MVZ[LY� or adoptive parents (National Association of Black Social Workers, 1972; Woodward, 2016). Despite this, informal kinship networks within JVTT\UP[PLZ��HZ�HU�HS[LYUH[P]L�[V�[YHUZYHJPHS�HKVW[PVU��JVU[PU\L�[V�VɈLY� transracially adopted children a means to mature and be cared for within their own cultural contexts (McGowen, 2010). PT II: PARALLELS BETWEEN PAST AND PRESENT MODELS Despite changes to the way transracial adoption is implemented, the historic harms of the adoption process continue to be perpetuated. Transracial adoption today serves as an institution that continues the MVYJLK�HZZPTPSH[PVU�HUK�J\S[\YHS�NLUVJPKL�VM�THYNPUHSPaLK�NYV\WZ��HZ�P[� severs all legal and cultural ties children may have to their birth families and culture. The following section will draw connections between the [YH\THZ�PUÅPJ[LK�PU�OPZ[VYPJ�HUK�J\YYLU[�TVKLZ�VM�HKVW[PVU� TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION AS OPPRESSION COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 119 MEETING PARENTS’ INTERESTS The core purpose of adoption should be to provide displaced children with safe and loving homes. Yet, adoption historically and currently has ILLU�W\ISPJPaLK�HZ�H�^H`�MVY�WV[LU[PHS�WHYLU[Z�[V�ILULÄ[��-VY�L_HTWSL�� during Midwest labor shortages in the 1860s, adoption was advertised HZ�H�^H`�MVY�MHTPSPLZ�[V�HJX\PYL�HKKP[PVUHS�HZZPZ[HUJL�VU�[OLPY�MHYTZ� (Graham & Gray, 1995). Adoption has always been advertised as a way for parents to have children, without always encouraging understanding of the traumatic circumstances that led to children experiencing separation from their birth families. 6UL�TVKLYU�KL]LSVWTLU[�PU�[OPZ�YLNHYK�PZ�[OL�,]HUNLSPJHS�6YWOHU� Care Movement, which started in 2000. This movement is rooted in the New Testament passage James 1:7, which advocates for adoption HZ�[OL�KP]PULS`�THUKH[LK�ZVS\[PVU�[V�[OL�NSVIHS� 6YWOHU�*YPZPZ� �@L[� ironically, out of the eight million children currently living in orphanages, P[�PZ�LZ[PTH[LK�[OH[� ���OH]L�H[�SLHZ[�VUL�SP]PUN�WHYLU[��=HU�+VVYL�� �������;OLYL�HYL�JVUZPKLYHISL�[OLVSVNPJHS�JYP[PX\LZ�VM�[OPZ�]PL �̂�WLYOHWZ� TVZ[�ZPNUPÄJHU[S`�[OH[�PU�JVU[YHZ[�[V�[OL�SLNHS�HKVW[PVU�Z`Z[LT�PU� the United States, in Biblical narratives of adoption, the adoptee's biological connection to their lineage is maintained (Smolin, 2012). Regardless, the evangelical movement’s impact has been undeniable HUK�[OL�*OYPZ[PHU�(SSPHUJL�MVY�6YWOHUZ��^OPJO�WHY[ULYZ�^P[O�V]LY� [^V�O\UKYLK�VYNHUPaH[PVUZ��YLWVY[LK�MHJPSP[H[PUN�HUK�PTWHJ[PUN�[OL� formation of “foster, adoption and orphan care ministries” at over 800 JO\YJOLZ�PU�������*OYPZ[PHU�(SSPHUJL�MVY�6YWOHUZ���������LSSLY� �/VZLR���������:PTPSHY�Z[VYPLZ�JHU� be found around the globe, where medical bills or fraud may be used to JVLYJL�TV[OLYZ�PU[V�NP]PUN�\W�[OLPY�JOPSKYLU��.YHɈ���������;OPZ�JVLYJPVU�� similar to that experienced by impoverished parents whose children ^LYL�ZLU[�VU�6YWOHU�;YHPUZ��PZ�HSS�[VV�JVTTVU� COMMODIFICATION To this day, Black children remain the cheapest children to adopt, as ^LSS�HZ�[OL�TVZ[�HI\UKHU[�PU�[OL�MVZ[LY�JHYL�Z`Z[LT��8\PYVa������"� Woodward, 2016). Surveys of white parents indicate hesitation to adopt Black children, as some view the divide between Black and white too vast. In response, white parents have opted to domestically adopt “multicultural” children or to adopt non-white children from Asia or South and Central America (Sweeney, 2013; Woodward, 2016). Kubo (2010) suggested that adoptive parents may view adoption of foreign children as “baggage free,” and that their foreignness allows adoptive parents to incorrectly perceive them as raceless and thus closer to whiteness (p. 269). White adoptive parents desiring children who are WYV_PTHS�[V�^OP[LULZZ�PZ�IV[O�H�WLYWL[\H[PVU�HUK�H�JVUZLX\LUJL�VM�H� racial hierarchy that posits Blackness at the bottom (Sweeney, 2013). Numerous adoption agencies even list percentages of the child’s racial and ethnic makeup to pander to a growing preference for multiracial children, in the process clearly distinguishing multiracial from Black �:^LLUL �̀�����"�>VVK^HYK���������:\JO�SPZ[PUNZ�HUK�ÄUHUJPHS�PUJLU[P]LZ� TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION AS OPPRESSION COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 121 not only commodify children in a manner eerily similar to the auction ISVJR��I\[�[OL`�HSZV�WYV]PKL�H�JVUJYL[L�]PZ\HSPaH[PVU�VM�JVU[PU\LK�YHJPHS� KPZWHYP[PLZ�KPZYLNHYKPUN�[OH[�HSS�TLU�HYL�JYLH[LK�LX\HS��HUK�PSS\Z[YH[L�OV^� the domestic and international adoption system caters to white interests (Raleigh, 2012). International transracial adoptive placements grew in popularity after the Vietnam War, during which U.S imperialism led not only to ^PKLZWYLHK�KLZ[HIPSPaH[PVU�I\[�HSZV�[OL�VYWOHUPUN�VM�U\TLYV\Z�JOPSKYLU� who were to eventually become international transracial adoptees (Barn, 2013). Widespread adoption of Asian-born children, alongside the civil rights movement, shifted societal views of what families could look like. Concurrently, domestic adoptions involving Indigenous and African-American Black children began to become more commonplace (Lee, 2003). Despite mixed-race families becoming more common, there remains a strong demand among prospective adoptive parents for white infants (Woodward, 2016). Since unmarried motherhood has become more socially acceptable in the United States, the amount of adoptable white babies has dramatically decreased and prospective parents seeking infants continue to turn abroad to adopt (International Adoption Rate in U.S. Doubled in the 1990s, 2003). However, international adoptions have been declining in the last ten years, due in part to concerns about the ethics of the practice, including the creation of “paper orphans,” children forcibly taken and sold to orphanages in order to satisfy demand for babies (Van Doore, 2016). PT. III RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE As families are formed and are constantly changing, so too must our rhetoric and practices regarding transracial adoption change. To start, within social work education there must be explicit recognition VM�[OL�ÄLSK�Z�OPZ[VYPJ�HUK�JVU[PU\LK�JVTWSPJP[`�PU�HUK�WLYWL[\H[PVU�VM� the oppression of children and families of color through surveillance, JVTTVKPÄJH[PVU��MVYJLK�KPZWSHJLTLU[�HUK�YLTV]HS��HUK�MHPS\YL�[V� JVUZPKLY�[OL�ZVJPV�LTV[PVUHS�YHTPÄJH[PVUZ�VM�[YHUZYHJPHS�WSHJLTLU[� �+L[[SHɈ�L[�HS����������-VY�MHY�[VV�SVUN��[OL�Z\IQLJ[P]L�IPHZLZ�VM� service providers have impacted the experiences of families of color coming into contact with the family regulation system, leading to ANISA JOY LEONARD 122 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX disproportionate removals and devaluing the importance of biological human relationships, thus disregarding social work core values (Harris & Hackett, 2008). Social workers must work to unlearn and unpack their biases as well as to critically interrogate their role in the adoption process, from the removal of children to placement. Much has been written about the lack of culturally competent services available to parents of color struggling with substance use or mental health problems. Many scholars have touted family preservation services as a means to decrease the amount of children in need of out of home care (Harris & Hackett, 2008). Unfortunately, service providers OH]L�MHPSLK�[V�LTWV^LY�HUK�LX\PW�)076*�MVSRZ�[V�JHYL�MVY�TLTILYZ�VM� their own communities in need. In fact, many have done the opposite, JH\ZPUN�OHYT�HUK�HK]LYZL�LɈLJ[Z�[V�[OLZL�JVTT\UP[PLZ��9VILY[Z�� �������6UL�T\Z[�IL�JVNUPaHU[�VM�[OL�MHJ[�[OH[�[OL�JHYJLYHS�Z\Y]LPSSHU[� nature of the family regulation system poses a real threat to the safety VM�HSS�)076*�MVSRZ�^OV�JVTL�PU�JVU[HJ[�^P[O�P[��L]LU�WYVZWLJ[P]L�MVZ[LY� or adoptive parents. The fact of the matter is that there remains a ZPNUPÄJHU[�U\TILY�VM�)076*�JOPSKYLU�PU�ULLK�VM�JHYL��+L[[SHɈ�L[�HS��� 2020). Social workers and other service providers should then work not VUS`�[V�M\SÄSS�[OL�[OPYK�THUKH[L�VM�4,7(��I\[�HSZV�[V�^VYR�[V�LSPTPUH[L� the previously named racial barriers through abolition of the prison industrial system and major economic overhaul through the expansion VM�ZHML[`�UL[Z��+L[[SHɈ�L[�HS���������� In regards to placement, social workers must reject colorblindness and attitudes of racial ambivalence which act as a form of violent erasure (American Psychological Association, 2017). Instead, social workers ZOV\SK�HJRUV^SLKNL�[OL�HK]LYZL�LɈLJ[Z�VM�[YHUZYHJPHS�WSHJLTLU[�VU� racial ethnic identity formation. When transracial placements do occur, ZVJPHS�^VYRLYZ�OH]L�H�K\[`�[V�LX\PW�^OP[L�WHYLU[Z�[V�TVYL�LɈLJ[P]LS`� adopt attitudes of biculturalism and underscore the importance of active anti-racist and trauma-informed parenting. Social workers, as current IYVRLYZ�VM�WSHJLTLU[Z�HUK�HKVW[PVUZ��HYL�\UPX\LS`�WVZP[PVULK�[V�OLSW� white parents deconstruct attitudes of white saviorism and unlearn racist behaviors (Raleigh, 2018). Transracially placed and adopted children are not responsible for their white parents’ education. Transracially placed adopted children, like all children, are deserving of safety and security. TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION AS OPPRESSION COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX | 123 Social workers are often held as “experts'' in the child welfare and HKVW[PVU�ÄLSK�I`�[OL�NLULYHS�W\ISPJ��/V^L]LY��[OL�WYVMLZZPVU�Z�YLSPHUJL� on academia can lead to discounting the true experts of adoption: adoptees. This is not to ignore the vital impact of abolitionist scholars such as Roberts in the discourse regarding child-welfare and transracial WSHJLTLU[Z��UVY�[V�PNUVYL�[OL�V\[JVTLZ�VM�HK]VJHJ`�MYVT�VYNHUPaH[PVUZ� like the upEND Movement that seek to abolish the family regulation system, but rather to say that the common narrative around transracial HKVW[PVU�T\Z[�IL�ZOHWLK�ÄYZ[�HUK�MVYLTVZ[�I`�[OVZL�^OV�OH]L� L_WLYPLUJLK�[YHUZYHJPHS�HKVW[PVU��+L[[SHɈ�L[�HS�������"�9VILY[Z��������� Social workers must actively look outside the ivory tower, and elevate the voices and wisdom of transracial adoptees themselves. The lived experiences of adoptees have long served as sources of entertainment; however these popular narratives tend to focus on the NVVK�MLLSPUN�WHY[Z�VM�HKVW[PVU�HUK�ZLSKVT�PZ�JYP[PX\L�NP]LU�[V�[OL� circumstances leading to initial separations (McKee, 2019). Similarly, adoptees themselves must constantly mitigate and negotiate their own understanding of their lived experiences and origins, due to a lack of information regarding their own histories (McKee, 2019; Wills, 2015). However, through the creation of self0narratives, such as life-writings— that is, the recordings of memories and experiences—adoptees can ¸KL�LZZLU[PHSPaL�[Y\[O�JSHPTZ�¹�^OPJO�PZ�ULJLZZHY`�MVY�ULNV[PH[PUN�[OLPY� understanding of self in the absence of factual knowledge of their origins (Wills, 2015). The creation of Zines, a form of participatory media, can also facilitate development of personal and collective agency and deepen identity formation. A recent example is You Are Holding This, an ¸HIVSP[PVUPZ[�aPUL�MVY�HUK�I`�HKVW[LK�HUK�MVZ[LYLK�WLVWSL¹��4HY[PU������"� Artes et al., 2021). In addition to reclaiming narratives for themselves through the written word and artistic expression, adoptees also have taken to social media platforms to express their feelings and seek belonging and community. Adoptees can be found speaking out under hashtags such as #adopteevoices and #adopteevisibility. Suh (2021) found Korean adoptees used Instagram to refocus adoption narratives on their own agency, as well as to reclaim that agency for themselves. The same can ANISA JOY LEONARD 124 | COLUMBIA SOCIAL WORK REVIEW, VOL. XIX be said for transracial adoptees of other races, especially after years of intense racial justice movements in response to anti-Black police violence and anti-immigrant rhetoric, as evidenced in viral articles in SLHKPUN�<�:��UL^ZWHWLYZ��/H[aPWHUHNVZ�������� CONCLUSION Children of color end up in white families in numerous ways: placement through a private domestic adoption agency, adoption out of foster care, or adoption internationally. In each case, adoption is trauma (Verrier, 1993). Understanding the impact of adoption trauma and focusing on the survivors of this trauma–-adoptees—is crucial to reshaping and KLJVSVUPaPUN�[OL�UHYYH[P]LZ�VM�[YHUZYHJPHS�HKVW[PVU��(Z�SVUN�HZ�HKVW[PVU� remains a multimillion dollar industry driven by predominantly white couples of higher socioeconomic status and impacted by foreign and domestic policies, the practice of transracial adoption is impossible to separate from cultural genocide, forced assimilation, and imperialism (Raleigh, 2018; Lee, 2003). Transracial adoption must be understood as a continuation of historical modes of oppression. REFERENCES American Psychological Association. (2017). Multicultural Guidelines: An Ecological Approach to Context, Identity, and Intersectionality. http://www.apa.org/about/policy/ multicultural-guidelines.pdf Andujo, E. (1988). Ethnic identity of transethnically adopted hispanic adolescents. 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