





































Commonwealth: A Journal of Political Science  Volume 15, Number 1  May 2009

Policy Issue on Emergency Management  2009 PPSA/LORL, PA House of Reps. ISSN 0890-2410

Utilization of Private Resources to Supplement
Government Resources in Case of Emergency

Christopher J. Moran, BA, MPIA
University of Pittsburgh

Summary of the Issue

In a post 9/11 and Hurricane Katrina atmosphere and mindset,
emergency management officials understand that government resources
alone are not capable of serving the needs of a given population,
depending upon the magnitude of the disaster. In the aftermath of 9/11,
the resources of New York City were stretched not only by the disaster
itself but also by the loss of first responders and emergency crews as they
attempted to remove people from the towers. In New Orleans there was a
delayed response due in part to communication failures, but also because
government resources were unable to cope with the scope of the disaster
in terms of sheer numbers and were not available in terms of deployment
for a considerable amount of time.

Understanding this issue is vital as the state of Pennsylvania prepares
to respond to threats, both natural and human-caused, that face us.
Response to these emergencies takes on even greater significance when
viewed through the prism of the War on Terror. The death and
destruction created by a terrorist attack is a secondary goal when a
terrorist attack occurs. Terrorists’ primary goal is to frighten the
population by making people feel vulnerable. This feeling of
vulnerability is intensified when those charged with response and
mitigation are unable to accomplish these tasks effectively.

Pennsylvania has many potential target cities for terrorist attacks.
Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and Pittsburgh are all possible targets.
Philadelphia has much of our national heritage within its boundaries.
Pittsburgh has many bridges and tunnels, which are part of major access
points to the city itself. The potential for massive disruption of services
into and out of Pittsburgh is extremely high. In the aftermath of the
Oklahoma City bombing, every state capitol has to be considered a
potential target. Finally, Harrisburg has already been specifically targeted
by terrorists for an Oklahoma City-style bombing on the federal building



6 UTILIZATION OF PRIVATE RESOURCES TO SUPPLEMENT GOVERNMENT
RESOURCES IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY

in the downtown area. Pennsylvania must consider itself to have a higher
than average probability of being attacked than most other states.

As we face these situations it is incumbent upon us to take inventory
of what we in government can accomplish with the tools and resources at
our disposal. When these allocations are not enough, we have a
responsibility to take advantage of nontraditional resources within our
state.

Background

There are many programs which have already been developed in
response to this issue that may help illuminate the path forward toward
more effective preparation and quicker responses.

The Community Emergency Response Team, or CERT, was
originally developed by the Los Angeles Fire Department in 1985. It was
then developed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
at the national level. CERT is designed to train members of the
community to be their own first responders. Hurricane Katrina made it
clear that individuals and community organizations need to view
themselves as their own first responders. The CERT program trains
people to do just that and can be built out of a school, daycare center,
nursing home, or any type of community group, business, or organization
that chooses to take part in the program. Training is offered in such
aspects of emergency preparation as first aid and communications. Other
training might include how to respond to the different Weapons of Mass
Destruction (WMD) attacks, including chemical, biological, radiological,
or nuclear. The importance of CERT cannot be overstated. Individuals
are their own first responders. This fact is usually understated, and the
usefulness of individual human capital is underutilized. People believe
that government is going to come and save them, but as we have seen
time and time again, this is just not the case. This program empowers
individuals, organizations, and communities to better serve themselves.

In 1952, the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES) was
established. The primary mission of this program is to mobilize amateur
radio broadcasters for communication purposes when a disaster of some
type has broken the normal avenues of communication. FEMA has
provided organizational planning and technical assistance for the
establishment of this program at state and local levels. The Federal



Christopher J. Moran 7

Communications Commission (FCC) regulates RACES operations and
Pennsylvania uses the program at the local and state levels.

FEMA has also developed a national program called Voluntary
Organizations Active in Disasters (VOAD), which is implemented by the
Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency (PEMA) for
Pennsylvania. VOAD is not a directive organization since it has no
controlling authority over the voluntary organizations from which it is
made. Instead, its focus is primarily one of coordination and
communication. Organizations involved are defined by their mission and
capabilities. Some examples of this are:

Adventist Community Services

Collects food and distributes it to disaster victims

Collects clothing and distributes it to disaster victims

Collects hygiene products and distributes them to disaster victims

Provides counseling

Provides overnight shelter in some churches

Provides personnel for mass feeding, if necessary

American Baptist Men

Collects hygiene products and delivers them to disaster victim

Provides materials and logistical assistance

Provides mass feeding

Rebuilds, repairs, and offers cleanup operations

Provides volunteer personnel

VOAD’s programs can be at a community, county, or regional level.
The program is extremely important at these sub-state levels of
government because they are the first responders to all emergencies and
understand the special needs of their own communities.

Another program worth highlighting is the Logistical Civil
Augmentation Program or LOGCAP. A number of wings of the military
have developed their own programs based on LOGCAP, but LOGCAP
was the first. It is a U.S. Army initiative that uses civilian contractors to
enhance military non-combat capabilities. The military has always used
civilian contractors in military support roles dating back to the
Revolutionary War. After the Vietnam War, the U.S. Army realized that
a system was needed to expedite the mobilization of contractors on the



8 UTILIZATION OF PRIVATE RESOURCES TO SUPPLEMENT GOVERNMENT
RESOURCES IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY

battlefield. LOGCAP was established in 1985 by the publication of AR
700-137. During the Persian Gulf War, hundreds of different contractors
were hired under as many different contracts with results that were less
than satisfactory. The different contracts led to unclear mission
statements and requirements. The resulting inefficiencies led to shoddy
work and unsatisfied clients. This state of affairs led to a revision and
expansion of LOGCAP in order to deal with any situation requiring
military intervention that might arise, whether foreign or domestic. The
first LOGCAP contract was awarded to the corporate precursor to
Halliburton in 1992 for services and support in Somalia.

Since 1992, LOGCAP contracts have been used over a dozen times
and currently are used in Iraq and Afghanistan. This program has
supported hospitals and public health in the past. Some examples are:

The LOGCAP office administered the contractor operated Madeleine
Albright Medical Clinic in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, from January 2000
through February 2001. The purpose of the clinic was to augment the
Embassy medical staff in support of Embassy and United Nations (UN)
staff personnel and their families. The clinic operated as a trauma unit
with helicopter/vehicular paramedic's evacuation capabilities. The clinic
was closed when the UN departed from Haiti. It was containerized and
stored while an appropriate non-government organization was identified
to take ownership.

Tempo Brave (June 2000 and October 2000) was a Combined Joint
Task Force (CJTF) exercise for Consequence Management (CM) in the
Pacific Theater, held at Fort Lewis, Washington, near 1st CORPS
Headquarters. HQ 1 Corps assumed command and control of all CM
operations as a JTF HQ within the U.S. Pacific Comment (PACOM)
Area of Operations (AO) and was the lead agency, mitigating the effects
and assisting in the remediation of the affected operational environment
within a Joint Operational Area (JOA). This also tested the menu for the
CM Plan written by the contractor. This was a CM exercise and planning
development for a Statement of Work (SOW) used in the Pacific Theater.

These examples not only show the usefulness of such a program in
supporting hospital and public health capabilities, but also show its
versatility. From physical and administrative support to planning, this
program can be adapted to fit the specific needs of many situations.



Christopher J. Moran 9

Problem Definition

How can obligations and responsibilities to the communities be
served with limited resources and little ability to know the size, scope,
and nature of emergencies likely faced? How can resources found
outside of government be used in the state’s communities in a way that is
rapid, efficient, organized, cost effective, and flexible for any given
situation?

These are some of the key problems faced in emergency
management today. Emergency management personnel have the
responsibility and the authority, but not the resources or ability, to fulfill
their responsibilities. There are a number of options for dealing with the
dilemma. This section offers pro and con arguments for each option
listed below:

1. Increase resources by allocating more funding for emergency
management

2. Maintain current resource levels (status quo)

3. Increase resource availability through means other than
increased funding allocations

1. Increase Resources by Allocating More Funding for Emergency
Management

Pros

 Increased funding means that the resources developed from that
funding would be under the direct control of emergency
management.

 Resources would be able to be quantified. We would know exactly
what we have and what we don’t.

 Those resources could be organized and allocated by emergency
management service standards.

 The need for coordinating with other agencies or groups would be
minimized so responses would be more efficient.

Cons

 It would be too expensive. Increasing funding to buy resources for
preparations that may never be needed is inefficient and takes
funding from other areas that may have more immediate needs.



10 UTILIZATION OF PRIVATE RESOURCES TO SUPPLEMENT GOVERNMENT
RESOURCES IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY

 No amount of funding could ever prepare for every potential
emergency. All funding is finite. It eventually comes to an end.
Emergency management has to plan and prepare for as many
emergency situations that both nature and humanity can come up
with. There are individual emergency situations, such as a pandemic,
that would be nearly impossible to have enough funding to prepare
for, let alone all situations.

2. Maintain Current Resource Levels (Status Quo)

Pros

 It is inexpensive. The current level of resource availability has
sufficiently handled all emergencies to this point.

 Funding can be used in other areas that impact the community
immediately and not at some future time which may or may not
come.

 Emergencies that outstrip the resources currently available probably
won’t happen so why do anything differently.

Cons

 Emergencies by their very nature are unexpected so when one comes
that outstrips available resources we will have failed at managing
that emergency.

 When inadequacies are known to exist, it is irresponsible and
unacceptable to maintain the status quo and not address those
inadequacies. It will be seen as such by the public who is
underserved by this course of action.

3. Increase Resource Availability Through as of Yet Untapped
Areas

Pros

 It is inexpensive. There is little need for reallocations of funding.

 There would be expanded capabilities. Capabilities can expand into
areas that would be beyond the capabilities of any amount of funding
to maintain.

 There is no need to maintain equipment and other resources which
may never be used.



Christopher J. Moran 11

Cons

 We may not have direct control of resources. Our ability to access
resources may increase, but the resources themselves may not be
under direct government control.

 Some sort of oversight would be required to maintain the availability
of those resources.

 Many community resources have already been tapped. We need to
explore new avenues for expanded resource capabilities.

Factors Affecting the Options

As the various options are assessed, there are various factors that
must be addressed. The first option of increasing the funding allocation
for emergency management would need to be sold politically and to
special interest groups. As stated earlier, there are no guarantees that
preparations that increased funding would make possible would ever be
needed. The funding would have to be taken from somewhere and those
groups affected by this reallocation of funding would have concerns that
need to be addressed. In addition, depending on where funding is
allocated from, there may be racial or socio-economical issues brought
up by special interest groups.

The second option has similar factors affecting its feasibility. First,
politically, if an emergency occurs that might have been avoided if
resource availability had been changed, the political fallout would be
serious. Second, taking Hurricane Katrina as an example, when resources
are not enough or are distributed incorrectly and disaster strikes,
accusations of racism, socio-economic disregard, and incompetence
surface.

The third option does not take resources away from the existing
budget. However, the only area of resources not currently being accessed
is private industry. There are already programs that coordinate and
exercise nonprofit organizations, volunteer groups, and even individual
citizens. The private sector remains largely untapped and yet that is
where most of the resources are located. Private industry has a stake in
emergency response and mitigation. Fear and disruption of daily life are
bad for communities and business. This option does however need to be
sold politically and administered fairly. There are groups who might see



12 UTILIZATION OF PRIVATE RESOURCES TO SUPPLEMENT GOVERNMENT
RESOURCES IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY

this option as being unfairly beneficial to businesses with ties to
government officials. There are programs like this at the federal level
that have come under fire regarding this very issue.

Recommendations

The third option is in need of exploration. How do we tap into the
private sector effectively? There are programs at the federal level that
may offer the state a blueprint to follow. The Logistical Civil
Augmentation Program (LOGCAP) is particularly noteworthy as a
model. This is not a case for the use of military programs in domestic
emergency management. Instead, as explained earlier, LOGCAP is a
U.S. Army initiative which uses civilian contractors to enhance military
non-combat capabilities. While the military has used civilian contractors
in military support roles since the Revolutionary War, it wasn’t until
after the Vietnam War that the U.S. Army realized that a system was
needed to expedite the mobilization of contractors on the battlefield and
LOGCAP was established in 1985. During the Persian Gulf War,
hundreds of different contractors were hired under as many different
contracts with results that were less than satisfactory since many
contracts had unclear mission statements and requirements. The resulting
inefficiencies led to shoddy work and unsatisfied clients and LOGCAP
was revised and expanded to deal with any situation requiring military
intervention that might arise, both foreign and domestic. The first
LOGCAP contract was awarded to the corporate precursor to Halliburton
in 1992 for services and support in Somalia. Since 1992, LOGCAP
contracts have been used over a dozen times and are currently being used
in Iraq and Afghanistan.

This program has supported hospitals and public health in the past.
Proposed here is that civilian contracting be used at the state and possibly
regional levels to enhance response capabilities of emergency services.
The recommendation is based on several basic considerations:

1. Efficient. In the event that an emergency outstrips emergency
management resources, private companies will likely have the
equipment, expertise, and incentive, including financial, and the desire to
help victims in their own region or state. If contracts already exist and
only need to be activated, companies are able to begin quickly the actual
work that is needed rather than working out the red tape involved. If



Christopher J. Moran 13

contracts already exist, then there will be no lag time in deciding who
should be called in to do the work.

2. Cost Effective. This program would require very little in the way of
budget allocation or personnel resources. It could be administrated by
relatively few people either at the state or in the case of Pennsylvania,
within the regional system of nine counterterrorism task forces. There
would be little or no waste of resources in that the contracts remain
dormant except in the event of an emergency that requires their use.
There would be no additional storage requirements for equipment. There
would be no need to train additional personnel.

3. Economically Beneficial. When a disaster occurs, communities,
regions, and states are hurt economically. If this program were instituted
much of the federal emergency relief funding that would come into the
area would stay in the area with local contractors. Out of state or even
out of region companies would be limited to the needs that could not be
supplied by local businesses.

4. Provides Organization for Private Sector Response. During 9/11 and
Hurricane Katrina responses, many businesses took part in the relief
efforts. However, there were many instances where because of a lack of
organization, much needed supplies arrived swiftly and then were not
distributed. An example is the case of Wal-Mart. The company was very
good at moving the supplies (food, water, paper products, etc.) into
disaster areas, but had nowhere to take them and no way to distribute
them upon arrival. The program proposed here would allow for the
organization of the private sector response, allowing them to do what
they do best.

5. Avoids the Pitfalls. While there could be opposition to this option, the
concerns involved could be reduced through oversight processes imposed
on the program. One particular issue that needs to be addressed is one of
fairness in bidding and contract development process. There have been
many questions and accusations concerning the awarding of LOGCAP
contracts to the company Halliburton in particular due to Vice President
Dick Cheney’s relationship with that company. To avoid these types of
situations and perceptions there are two safeguards that need to be in
place:

1. Oversight Committee: An oversight committee either bipartisan
or independent needs to be formed to oversee the program. This
committee would be responsible for awarding the contracts after



14 UTILIZATION OF PRIVATE RESOURCES TO SUPPLEMENT GOVERNMENT
RESOURCES IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY

whatever process that is in place has been followed. The
committee would not only have the power to award contracts,
but would also be accountable for misuse of this power.

2. Transparency: The process and documentation of this process
should be transparent and open to public scrutiny. Transparency
keeps the process honest and fair. Committees can be lobbied
and influenced in ways that the public in general cannot. An
open process allows the people to be the ultimate judge as to the
fairness of the process.

Conclusion

It is imperative to understand that emergency management by its
very nature cannot ever be fully funded. If government sources can’t
supply enough resources we must look elsewhere to make up the
difference. Volunteer organizations and nonprofits have already been
tapped into and organized through VOAD. Individual citizens and small
community groups are already being trained to be first responders
through CERT. The private sector holds the majority of resources in the
United States and has been largely ignored as a partner in emergency
management. It would be irresponsible to continue to accept response
and mitigation shortcomings when it is unnecessary. There is an
opportunity to create a strong partner with little effort and we should take
hold of it and develop that relationship to its fullest.

Relevant Legislation

Existing legislation must be examined and revised to utilize the
LOGCAP model. At the state level, this includes the Counterterrorism
Planning, Preparedness and Response Act, which provides for
counterterrorism planning, preparedness, and response by imposing
powers and duties on the Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency,
the Department of Health, counties and municipalities; and provides for
the organization of various response teams. At the federal level, the
relevant legislation includes, especially, the Disaster Mitigation Act of
2000, the Hazard Mitigation and Relocation Assistance Act of 1993, the
Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of
1988, and the Volunteer Protection Act of 1997. The Stafford Act is



Christopher J. Moran 15

particularly important in that it includes the promotion of the interests of
social service program beneficiaries and taxpayers and sustains the
availability of programs, nonprofit organizations, and governmental
entities that depend on volunteer contributions by reforming the laws to
provide certain protections from liability abuses related to volunteers
serving nonprofit organizations and governmental entities.

Bibliography

Allegheny County Community Emergency Response Training Program. Mission
Statement. http://www.county.allegheny.pa.us/emerserv/cert.asp.

Citizen Corp Community Emergency Response Training. Mission Statement.
http://www.citizencorps.gov/cert/.

Counterterrorism Planning, Preparedness, and Response Act. http://www.pema.state.
pa.us/pema/lib/pema/act227.pdf.

Logistical Civil Augmentation Program. http://www.amc.army.mil/logcap/.

National Volunteer Organizations Active in Disasters. Mission Statement.
http://www.nvoad.org/.

Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency. Volunteer Organizations Active in
Disasters. Mission Statement. http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/browse.asp?
A=200&BMDRN=2000&BCOB=0&C=35195.

Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency. Volunteer Organizations Active in
Disasters. Overview Matrix. http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A=
200&Q=248419.

Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency. Volunteer Organizations Active in
Disasters. Overview Notes. http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A=
200&Q=237996.

Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency. Volunteer Organizations Active in
Disasters. Organizational List. http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A=
200&Q=247173.

Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service. Mission Statement http://www.races.net/
what.html.

Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service. Federal Communication Commission Rules for
RACES. http://www.races.net/fcc.html.

Voluntary Protection Act. http://www.races.net/voluntr.html.

http://www.county.allegheny.pa.us/emerserv/cert.asp
http://www.citizencorps.gov/cert/
http://www.pema.state. pa.us/pema/lib/pema/act227.pdf
http://www.pema.state. pa.us/pema/lib/pema/act227.pdf
http://www.amc.army.mil/logcap/
http://www.nvoad.org/
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/browse.asp? A=200&BMDRN=2000&BCOB=0&C=35195
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/browse.asp? A=200&BMDRN=2000&BCOB=0&C=35195
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A= 200&Q=248419
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A= 200&Q=248419
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A= 200&Q=237996
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A= 200&Q=237996
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A= 200&Q=247173
http://www.pema.state.pa.us/pema/cwp/view.asp?A= 200&Q=247173
http://www.races.net/ what.html
http://www.races.net/ what.html
http://www.races.net/fcc.html
http://www.races.net/voluntr.html

