communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 1 communication across borders: translation & interpreting www.jhkpress.com volume 01, issue 01, issn: 2766-791x identity and cultural resistance: a case study of fansubbing from a cross-cultural communication perspective xiaowei zou1 wuhan, china xiaowei2639@126.com abstract: in this study, a chinese fansub group qaf was selected as the research object, and the online observation method was adopted to establish a long-term trusting relationship with the fansub group members. the researcher observed the activities of members in the group, and conducted in-depth interviews with group members to study how they construct their own identity in a virtual community, and how the textual reproduction behavior in fan culture context reflects the characteristics of “affective play”. the research shows that the concept of “affective play” is embodied in the textual reproduction process of the members of the fansub group, and the emotional factor is an important factor that affects the textual reproduction behavior of the members. keywords: fansub group, affective play, identity 1. introduction a fansub group is a community group that adds subtitles in their native language to audio-visual works and publishes them on file-sharing websites free of charge. as a new phenomenon of the subculture, the fansub group provides its members with a lifestyle different from the dominant culture and orthodox culture. as an intellectual group, the fansub group reconstructs its understanding and criticism of the world through deconstructing the video clip. they try to reconcile the contradictions between social life and media environment through their strength. their appearance has become an opportunity for the audience to reject the strong discourse symbols of mainstream media and establish self-identity to some extent. the fansub group embodies the most fundamental characteristics of the internet, bearing the selfless and volunteering mentality, promoting a spirit of freedom, openness and sharing, and bringing a new style of sub-culture. this research explores the concepts of identity and affective play through a case study of the chinese gay fansub group qaf. 1the author’s contact information in chinese(作者): 邹晓威 http://www.jhkpress.com/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 2 2. an interview with the group leader “queer as folk fansub group” (qaf) is a chinese fansub group specializing in gaythemed film and television translation. in recent years, the group has translated nearly 1,000 gay films and tv series. in 2011, danlan.org, a famous gay website, interviewed xiao p, one of the leaders of the group and the interview transcription was published on qaf’s website (danlan, 2011). this research analyzed the transcription and the relevant data about the group. the group qaf is named after the american tv show queer as folk. the original intention of the group was to provide a communication and video exchange platform for chinese fans of the show. after the tv show ended, the group’s enthusiasm about the show did not decrease. the group hoped to gain access to additional similar shows, so they started to collect and subtitle film and television works, either gaythemed or containing a gay sub-plot. due to censorship in china, no gay film and television works have been officially introduced. with the official channels being blocked, the qaf group acts as a bridge: qaf selects a batch of excellent foreign gay movies and tv shows, translates them, adds relevant background annotations, and then presents them to the gay communities in china through the internet. though it is now china’s largest gay film and television production and publishing website, qaf did not intend to become so. qaf still hopes the chinese radio and television censorship system can be more lenient and tolerant, and can provide an official channel for the import of gay-themed audio-visual works. from september 2004 when the group was established to 2011, the qaf fansub group has established a library with more than 400 films and television programs. currently, they translate 2 ~ 3 new films or videos every week. the weekly workload was set, in consideration of group members’ internet bandwidth, energy, time, as well as the fansub quality. from planning a subtitling project to the final product, the subtitling processes include the first translation draft, proofreading, second proofreading, timing check and quick double-check, then finally video-subtitles merging. by regulating the weekly work quota, qaf can make good use of time and fully guarantee the production quality, which is a key factor in qaf’s success of becoming a large film and television fansub group in china. around 2011, qaf started translating and transmitting chinese gay films online. according to xiao p, some chinese directors entrusted qaf to translate their films for export. qaf stated they would implement any decisions made by the film director. moreover, qaf hopes to refine and retranslate the rushed translations of the classic old films they completed so fans could add the works to their collection. qaf started its operation translating queer as folk, one of the many popular american dramas available for chinese online audiences. nevertheless, according to xiao p, qaf will not blindly follow or translate every popular drama. rather, they plan to concentrate on gay-themed tv shows and films. according to qaf’s observation, mainstream american tv channels control and reduce the gay elements in their shows to ensure drama ratings. also, cable tv channels lack financial support, which makes it difficult for them to guarantee the quality of gay-themed dramas, so some qaf members turn to dramas containing gay sub-plots. many popular american dramas with gay sub-plots, communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 3 such as glee and modern family, are not “pure” gay dramas in their eyes. qaf believes that a fansub production team’s energy and time are always limited, and complementary division of labor improves efficiency. they think that there is no need to re-translate completed works since many other fansub groups have already subtitled popular american drama, so qaf tends to devote their energy to the production of pure gay or gay-themed dramas. 3. meaning-giving text reconstruction and cultural communication fans of popular culture generally only stay on the level of appreciating and commenting on texts, while these fanatical cultural fans are active, enthusiastic and participatory in their input to texts. they reconstruct the text, delve deep into the meaning behind the text, and then disseminate to larger audiences. the internet provides a broad platform for the general public to obtain information and share resources, and the class attribute of the general public became blurred in the virtual internet community. people’s participation in the cultural industry and their choice of cultural products are mostly determined by their cultural interests, spiritual satisfaction and the need to realize self-worth, rather than by their regarding the cultural products as unique cultural resources of a particular class (gauntlett, 2000). that contributes to the borderless nature of cultural communication in the online world. abandoning class essentialism, the participants of mass culture, especially the fanatical fans, will devote more time and energy to text reconstruction and cultural communication, which is a process that transcends the dualistic opposition of suppression and resistance, elitism and populism simplification. most members of the online fansub group have received higher education. take the qaf fansub group as an example. this fansub group, with a history of nearly 20 years, is mainly engaged in the translation of gay film and television dramas. at present, it has more than 100 members, covering people born between the 1960s and 1980s, including chinese students from high schools and universities inside and outside china, white-collar workers, and overseas chinese. they have plenty of time for computer use, and their foreign language proficiency is very high. such a group, with different social identities and backgrounds, has an idealistic spirit of sharing and dedication, which can be regarded as the spiritual satisfaction and self-worth realization of the fan group. 4. affective play embodied in the textual reproduction chinese internet users joined the group out of their interests and work voluntarily under high pressure. these fansub group members do subtitle translation as their part-time work, but they gained self-identity in that online internet space. the audience’s recognition of fansub groups is an affirmation of their values or beliefs. there is competition among different fansub groups, and subtitles updated earlier can get more downloads. the return of voluntary labor has nothing to do with the profits, but it can strengthen the self-identity of fansub group members. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 4 the fansub group members are first the audience of film and television dramas, but the chinese and english subtitles they produce are products viewed by chinese audiences. therefore, when they watch film and television dramas as audience members, they begin to develop narcissism and regard themselves as performers. their process of multiple decoding and encoding, recoding and decoding of subtitles, shows the attitude of the fansub group as the audience interpreting the text. the interaction of dual identities has helped fansub groups transmit information effectively in small groups. through the observation of activities of fans in the gay fansub group, and in-depth interviews with the group members, the study discovered that the fansub members constructed their own identity in the virtual community, and their textual reproduction behavior in fan culture context reflects the characteristics of “affective play”. the notion of affective play, according to hills (2002), is that space where the fan fiction writers can experience, feel and live playfully within the texts that are the subjects of their fandom. this research shows that the concept of “affective play” is embodied in the textual reproduction process of the members of the gay fansub group, and the emotional factor is important because it affects the textual reproduction behavior of the members. it is because of the emotional attachment of gay fansub group volunteers who joined the fansub group to reproduce the text. in the reproduction process, the original meaning expression of the tv or film text was eliminated, and a new set of texts with emotional identity were created by attaching to the original text with imaginative means. besides, members of the gay fansub group construct their own identity through the role-playing of “foreground” and “background”. “role-playing” mainly refers to identity construction through the roles of “manager”, “chief translator” and “opinion leader” in the virtual internet community. meanwhile, in the context of fan culture, fans of the gay fansub group also gain “identity” through “affective play”. affect plays a vital role in distinguishing groups with multiple boundaries, because it constantly constructs the possibility of differences and constructs a way to highlight specific differences. the gay fansub group skillfully integrates their own cultures with foreign cultures to achieve localization through text and cultural reproduction, especially within the environment of new media technology, showing great initiative and creativity. as communicators, the gay fansub group effectively controls the second wave of transmitting gay culture in chinese-speaking areas in the process of secondary coding and implanted some localized elements and chinese culture, which promoted the new trend of cultural exchange to some extent. 5. constructing an identity through media use behavior from two aspects of self-identity and group identity, this paper examines how the gay fansub group constructs identity through media use behavior. identity is accomplished by self-examination and exploration of one’s relationship with others. first, although each fan is an individual, his or her self-identity construction cannot be separated from selfreflection and interaction with others. the author divides the study of self-identity into two parts. on the one hand, from the stage when the individual’s ideal self appears, the fan realizes the unity of “real self” and “ideal self” through a series of self-reflective communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 5 activities. on the other hand, from the perspective of the relationship between individuals and others, without the reference function of others, the self is meaningless, and the evaluation and affirmation of others play a vital role in the construction of individual identity. in this paper, through the classification of fan types, the author discovered that these fansub group members received the affirmation, praise and recognition of others through their media use by playing different roles, such as group managers, opinion leaders and fansub group members, and building their identity from the specific media use behavior. self-identity is to solve the problem of “who am i”, and the development of individuals can never be separated from the nourishment of the group. so, “who are we?” is the new question if we broaden the research scope from a gay fan to the gay fansub group. these questions involve group identity. the development of new media, especially the flourishing of the internet, is the motive of identity construction of the gay fansub group. meanwhile, the fansub group’s media use behavior can promote the establishment of identity labels. in the 1980s, scholars including fiske demonstrated the initiative and creativity of mass culture. instead of adopting ideological analysis methods, they argued that the masses were not just passively controlled objects; there is a kind of active and independent power hidden in mass culture (fiske, 2010). the audience’s subjectivity in popular cultures such as film and television dramas is particularly obvious. as a member of popular culture, the members of the fansub group are, in a sense, acts of text reconstruction in the translation of texts, which is the outward release and embodiment of the receiver’s subjectivity. this culture of online downloading is also a kind of acquiescence to piracy. that makes this group appear marginalized. subsequently, the interpretation of the causes, behaviors and participating groups of the fansub group entails the complexity of the cultural game. fan culture is a participatory culture, and the interpretation of existing texts may lead to new texts, new cultures and new communities. 6. fansubbers’ social identity in modern society gofman’s dramaturgical sociology holds that life is a performance, society is a stage, and the process of interpersonal communication is the process of people performing “self”, but this “self” is not the real self, but the “self” disguised by symbols (goffman, 1978). fansub groups have their own identities and roles in real life. these “selves” are often carefully decorated and play a regular role in front of others. the fixity and standardization in daily life, as well as the standardized living space, cause fan social self-alienation. fans are more likely to regard the online community as a platform for self-presentation and extension so that they can more actively show themselves and vent their emotions in fan activities such as text reconstruction. almost all online fansub groups volunteer to translate american tv drama resources without pay and regard subtitle translation as intervention and participation in modern life, as recognition and realization of self-worth. meanwhile, the incompleteness and fragmentation of modern society also breeds the incomplete and fragmented self. for these online fansub groups active behind the scenes, the identity of fans is, in a sense, a psychological compensation for this atomized and communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 6 isolated modern life (giddens, 1991). fans can prove the value of individual existence by participating in the dissemination or reconstruction of their favorite cultural and industrial products. the seemingly mysterious communication between fans can be seen as experiencing an illusory sense of community. in this virtual environment, fan imagination and creativity are stimulated, and they also incorporate more self-emotion and creativity in the process of text reconstruction, thus forming a new consumption of cultural industrial products. corresponding to the official culture, the fan culture of the online fansub group belongs to folk culture in a sense, which has a unique set of cultural paradigm and power, sometimes showing amazing creativity in reconstruction and cultural communication, but sometimes also restricted and constrained by ideology. the fansub group, wandering on the edge of social norms in the traditional sense, is controversial and complex. the government intends to filter the cultural resources people receive, by controlling popular cultural products, but this stimulates piracy. the prosperity of internet downloading, though decreasing dvd piracy, has become another type of piracy. in the virtual community, the members of the fansub group have the cultural rights and channels that are difficult to obtain in real life. therefore, this is a kind of self-awakening and recovery of cultural cognition and ideology brought about by life in the information age. the mainstream cultural concept can easily regard the fansub group as a marginal group. they are regarded as being easily incited and sometimes blind. however, fans have formed another society that is contrary to mainstream society and formed a relatively open space where there is a confrontation between democracy and freedom. in reality, the members of the fansub group may not get such a channel to realize self-culture, and it is difficult to communicate with others due to ideological differences. in the online fansub community, it is easier to realize cultural rights and resonate with others’ thoughts, which adds a romantic color to the interpretation and reconstruction of the text. 7. conclusion within a fansub group, fansub members build their identity from the specific media use behavior. in the context of fan culture, fans in the gay fansub group also gain “identity” through “affective play”. affect plays a vital role in distinguishing from groups with multiple boundaries, because it constantly constructs the possibility of differences and constructs the way to highlight specific differences. as research on lgbtq culture in china is limited, the author hopes to provide some valuable information for the study of online gay fansub groups through this study. references danlan. (2011). exclusive interview with danlan.org: qaf chinese fansub group (in chinese) [淡蓝网独家专访：同志亦凡人中文字幕组]. from http://www.qafone.co/viewthread.php?tid=140549 http://www.qafone.co/viewthread.php?tid=140549 communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 7 fiske, j. (2010). understanding popular culture: routledge. gauntlett, d. (2000). web. studies: rewiring media studies for the digital age: edward arnold, ltd. giddens, a. (1991). modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age: stanford university press. goffman, e. (1978). the presentation of self in everyday life: harmondsworth london. hills, m. (2002). fan cultures: psychology press. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 1 communication across borders: translation & interpreting www.jhkpress.com volume 01, issue 01, 2021, issn: 2766-791x the translation’s role in chinese film entering the western market zhimei zhu1 wuxi canal experimental middle school, jiangsu, china 11694503@qq.com abstract: based on data retrieved from different databases and interviews with chinese film translators, this research reviews the translation’s role in chinese films entering the western markets, especially the american market. to increase the understanding of chinese film translation involved in the film industry, the translation economics theory was applied in this paper. it is recommended that film translators bear in mind nida’s functional equivalence standard to produce a translation conducive to film profitability. keywords: chinese films, american market, film translation 1. chinese film export since 1980 in its broad sense, the 1980s was an era of the rise of chinese language movies. waves of movies from hong kong, then taiwan and china, were brought to overseas chinese communities in southeast asia and other regions, becoming a new force in the international film industry. among the films produced in china, the works produced by the “fifth generation” directors (i.e. graduates from the beijing film academy in the 1980s) and animation movies produced by shanghai animation film studio were first imported by european cinemas and tv stations. however, even in this unprecedented golden age, few commercial films produced in hong kong were able to enter the submarket of europe and america in the mode of “trade circulation”, while chinese movies were only “exotic” artworks appreciated by the western intellectual class. they were not parts of the mainstream consumer culture like hollywood movies in the united states or animation and video games in japan. previously, the state-owned china film import & export corporation had exclusive export privileges. when private studios gained the rights to export chinese movies, china film import & export corporation’s export 1 author’s contact information in chinese (作者): 朱志梅, 江苏无锡运河实验中学 http://www.jhkpress.com/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 2 business shrank much. most of the overseas distribution of work by the “fifth generation” was undertaken by hong kong, taiwan and japanese investors. in recent years, a new generation of chinese film directors and producers have shown their strength and international insight. high-quality films that have grossed over hundreds of millions of dollars at the chinese box office have been distributed in european and american markets, bringing increasingly great profits. among them, crouching tiger, hidden dragon grossed us$ 128 million in the usa, 60% of the worldwide total, topping the chart of chinese films released overseas (box office mojo, 2000). nevertheless, crouching tiger, hidden dragon is a rare case generating high profits in america. most chinese movies yielded less than one million dollars in the usa, with a few grossing several million. due to the huge cultural differences between china and the west, chinese films are not well recognized or appreciated by audiences in europe and america. for example, the chinese epic war film red cliff was only distributed in asian markets. the cultural references in red cliff are very exotic to american audiences so it is difficult for them to understand. the total box office of red cliff (parts 1 & 2, 2018) worldwide was 250 million us dollars, while its american version grossed only $627,047 in 2019, less than 0.5% of the international total (box office mojo, 2019). these box office receipts mainly come from china and asian markets. this paper intends to answer the following research questions: when will chinese films have the opportunity to win coveted oscars? when will chinese movies join the overseas ten-million-dollar box office club? when can chinese movies take on the responsibility of cultural communication between china and the world? to answer those questions, this research examines the mechanism for the chinese film translation industry, identifies its shortcomings and proposes solutions. 2. film translation cost the film transmits information through languages of picture and sound. the importance of translation cannot be overstressed for a chinese film to be understood in englishspeaking countries, but translation has not been valued highly by the chinese film industry. to better understand the film translation industry in china, a professional film translator’s online journal (j. dong, 2020) was analyzed and relevant movie data analyzed. the translator, dong jing, is the founder of beijing erdongxuan translation studio. the studio has participated in the translation of famous film and television programs such as wandering earth (2019), crazy alien (2019) and sheep without a shepherd (2019). through the analysis, it is found that translators of chinese films have not been given full credit. for example, in 2019, dong jing, the translator mentioned above, checked three films translated by his team and discovered that only in one movie, his name and his studio’s logo were included. from 2010 to 2020, dong jing has been involved in the communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 3 translation of dozens of films, and eight out of the ten clients considered his prices for translation were too high. dong jing described how his translation studio gave quotes. a complete movie script usually has 30,000-50,000 words, and the subtitles are about 9,000-15,000 words. the translation price quoted is less than 100,000 yuan (15, 313 usd) for the translation of both the script and subtitles by native english speakers. most customers considered that price too high. in sharp contrast, these film production companies are usually willing to invest more than 200,000 yuan on the production of one second of special effects. the market outlook for tv programs translators is not strong either. for example, for the translation of a tv series, with about 8,000 words in one episode, the customer budget maybe only 1000 yuan, and needs to be completed within one day. according to dong jing, his company’s experienced chinese translators with more than 10 years' experience usually can only complete 2,000 3,000 words of translation from chinese to english per day, and even translators who are bilingual in english and chinese can only translate up to 5,000 words a day. the price 150 yuan (23 usd) for the english translation of one thousand chinese characters to be completed within one day is extremely low. to cut the cost and complete such a project within the expected time, a translator can use machine translation (e.g. google), then post-edit it. though the deadline may be met, the translation quality is low. as michael sinterniklaas, an american dubbing actor and founder of nyav post recording studio suggested, chinese film companies should invest no less money in translation than the cost of filming and promoting movies, to ensure the movie’s success in the western market. currently, to release a chinese film in overseas markets, the first step is to send the english version of the script outline to overseas partners and publishers; the second step is to ensure that the reviewers from different countries in each film festival can understand and like the script; the third step is for the foreign audience to read the subtitles (usually disappearing quickly on the screen) and understand the story and feelings of the characters. in each step, the corresponding script outline (including story brief and biographies), script and subtitles all contribute to the audience's perception of the whole movie. a chinese movie may create more than 2 billion yuan (306 million usd) of profit in the chinese market but only less than 1 million dollars at the overseas box office. the cultural barrier may be the main contributing factor of the low profit overseas, but the ineffective translation produced by chinese translators (non-native english speakers) can be another major factor. as native english speakers are a portion of the expected audience, it is suggested that professional native english speaker translators produce and evaluate the translation. the english spoken by native english speakers is the most dominant language among all the languages used by different audience groups, so their use of the language is the most acceptable and practical in film translation. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 4 3. film translation quality control influenced by the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” (aka xindaya) theory prevalent in china, many producers believe that chinese-english translation must also embody faithfulness and elegance. however, the translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is inapplicable in the film translation. as translation clients or patrons, the film production company may misuse the standards choosing translation service providers. the standards applied by these translation amateurs to evaluate translation professionals are unreliable. as dong revealed, rather than hiring native english speakers to translate a film or evaluate a film translation, chinese film producers often ask a chinese staff member proficient in english to check the translation quality using the translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. even if the original script is not literary (or “elegant”), these translation gatekeepers (quality control) still expect the translation to be “high-class and elegant” and “beautifully written”. however, these chinese translators hired are non-native english speakers and may produce “elegant” translation that contains grammar and word usage errors. the film production crew members judging the translation are usually not qualified in this matter, as their english level is often not sufficient. furthermore, these translation gatekeepers may have only been exposed to the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” standard, unaware of other translation theories. the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” standard, proposed by the famous translator yan fu, is not a systemic theory (huang, 2003). it remains to be well expounded and improved. compared with the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” standard, eugene nida's “functional equivalence” theory is more applicable for the translation of commercial films which stress profitability. in translation academia, nida's “functional equivalence” theory has received wide and attention. according to nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (nida, 1969:12), and “there should be a high degree of equivalence of response, or the translation will have failed to accomplish its purpose” (nida, 1969:24). by nida’s “functional equivalence” standard, the meaning is the most important, followed by linguistic form. in other words, it is necessary to avoid mechanical translation in the process of switching between two languages and achieve functional equivalence in the transfer of meaning between the two languages. it can be seen that translation is the reproduction of the form and meaning of the source language in the target language, and the form may hinder the reader's understanding of the meaning. the purpose of film translation is to help the target language audience receive the amount of entertainment similar to that of the source language audience. therefore, without an understanding of the meaning conveyed in the film, the audience will not be able to enjoy the film fully, and the film production company or distributor will suffer a loss of revenue. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 5 by using the “functional equivalence” translation standard, film translation is expected to be the most functional one that is often (though not always) colloquial and easy to understand. as zhou tiedong, a famous translation reviewer of china film group corporation argued in the interview, from the perspective of producers, screenwriters and directors, the chinese films for export should overcome the tendency of one-way personal expression; movies are a product, so they should be audience-oriented and the market should be considered (k. dong, 2011). in that sense, chinese film translation should tell a chinese story in a way that foreign audience can understand. 4. balancing between time and quality the expectations of film and television translation customers are always that the translation should be both “fast” and “good”, but they create a dilemma for the translator as they usually need adequate time to produce a high-quality translation. many film and television producers have not recognized that translating scripts is, just like writing scripts, art that requires time. a high-quality translation requires close cooperation between film producers and translators. for example, in the summer of 2016, film translator dong jing and his team translated the script of wandering earth from chinese into english. the producer of wandering earth gave them a very detailed glossary at the beginning, which was very helpful in increasing work efficiency. at that time, dong jing led two translators and translated more than 20,000 words in seven days. with the original english script for reference, dong jing clarified the basic elements of script translation, such as format, tense and style. to complete the translation in a short time, the producer of wandering earth found more than one translation team, and dong jing’s team only did part of the translation project. another example illustrating the importance of cooperation between the translators and the film production company is translating crazy alien (2019). in the early stage of crazy alien, dong jing’s team was the only translation team outside of the film production crew, and they raced against the clock to ensure the quality. however, the crew still hoped that the translation team could complete the translation within one week or update the script within two or three days. crazy alien had numerous versions of the script. while they were translating between chinese and english, the chinese and american screenwriters were also revising the scripts. it took the translation team around four months to complete the work. errors occurring in english subtitles of chinese movies are mostly because the film production company does not provide translators with the actual film. for the sake of confidentiality, the company only provides some lines or subtitles. when a scene changes greatly, it is often difficult for translators to understand the connections between two scenarios so they can only guess what happened. another difficulty translators often encounter in film and television translation is the frequent changes in the original text. after finishing the first edition of chinese and communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 6 english subtitles, movies are often edited and modified more than once, which means that the translation and subtitle timing should be changed too. if the changes are not communicated to the translator in time, then mistranslation or misplacement of subtitles will occur. the advantage of teamwork is that the project can be completed quickly, and the disadvantage is that it is difficult and time-consuming to unify different team members’ translation styles and quality. the ideal method to translate a film or a television program is to use only one translator to translate a script from beginning to end, which is most conducive to maintaining a consistent terminology and style. if it is chinese-english translation, it is recommended to have native english translators involved in translation or proofreading. in china, film translation for export is often completed by chinese translators who are not native english speakers. that is mostly due to the high cost of using native english speaker translators. film translation customers are often skeptical about native english speaker translators’ chinese proficiency as in their impression, very few native english speakers can speak chinese. however, as dong jing stated, american translators that they have cooperated with for a long time have not only high proficiency in chinese but also more than ten years’ experience in translating literary works and publishing translated books. nevertheless, the price of native english speakers is considered high for most customers. so it is important to caution them that the lack of native english speaker translators may lead to the failure of the english translation. 5. dubbing, an expensive but effective translation mode due to its high labor cost and longtime requirement, dubbing is an expensive translation option for a small-budget film distribution company. nevertheless, it may be an investment risk that is worth taking. for example, after ne zha grossed over 700 million us dollars in china, ranking no. 2 on the box office chart for all films screened on the chinese mainland in 2019, the film entered overseas markets, equipped with the english dubbing aiming to eliminate the cultural barrier. in august 2019, ne zha (english dubbed version) was screened in north american cinemas. the english subtitles and dubbing were produced professionally in the united states and helped the film yield over 3 million dollars in the american market. chinese films are usually subtitled and rarely dubbed in the usa. in comparison, most hollywood films entering the chinese market are dubbed in chinese. compared with subtitling, dubbing is more time consuming and the cost is more than ten times higher. so the film distribution company has a difficult decision to make in terms of producing a dubbed version for the film. when a chinese film’s overseas box office is expected to be $500,000, the $100,000 budget for the subtitle translation may be too high. however, if the box office is expected to be $10 million, it will be a cost-effective option to spend $2 million on english dubbing. although it costs more than subtitling, the dubbing produced by native english speakers and voice actors allows the audience to understand the communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 7 dialogue without relying on subtitles. compared with english subtitles, english dubbing is an easier way for english-speaking audiences of all ages and different cultural levels to appreciate chinese movies. 6. conclusion to further promote the “going out” of chinese films and television programs, more private enterprises should be encouraged to participate in the distribution overseas as the overseas distribution monopoly by china film group has been broken. to promote chinese culture overseas, it is suggested that film translation, along with the artistry and technicality of films, should be improved to win over the audience. for a chinese film to be exported is a product for profit, film translation should be conducted and judged by the “functional equivalence” rather than the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” standard. if the budget allows, native english speaker translators should be employed for the film translation work; and dubbing (rather than subtitling) should be used to maximize the profit. references box office mojo. (2000). crouching tiger, hidden dragon. from https://www.boxofficemojo.com/release/rl2739766785/ box office mojo. (2019). red cliff, a two-part story centered on a battle fought in china's three kingdoms period (220-280 a.d.). from https://www.boxofficemojo.com/release/rl2003666433/weekend/ dong, j. (2020). the inner monologue of a film and television translation practitioner (in chinese) [一位影视翻译从业者的内心独白], sohu news. retrieved from https://www.sohu.com/a/372940528_120474495 dong, k. (2011). chinese film export intensified (in chinese) [中国电影出口上演"欧美 总动员" ], china economy. retrieved from http://www.ce.cn/culture/whcyk/gundong/201101/24/t20110124_22165683.shtml huang, k.-w. (2003). the reception of yan fu in twentieth-century china. cindy yik-yi chu, ricardo ks mak, china reconstructs, lanham, md: university press of america, 25-44. nida, e. a. t., charles r. . (1969). the theory and practice of translation: leiden: e. j. brill. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/release/rl2739766785/ http://www.boxofficemojo.com/release/rl2003666433/weekend/ http://www.sohu.com/a/372940528_120474495 http://www.ce.cn/culture/whcyk/gundong/201101/24/t20110124_22165683.shtml communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 1 communication across borders: translation & interpreting www.jhkpress.com volume 01, issue 01, 2021, issn: 2766-791x professionalization of medical interpretation in the usa and its implications for china stewart grant meford, oregon, usa stugrant12@hotmail.com abstract: professionalization of medical interpretation is a social process by which the interpretation transforms itself into a true profession of the highest integrity and competence. for almost 30 years, medical interpretation has experienced all aspects of the professionalization process in the united states, and the industry has been growing quickly. china's economic prosperity in recent years and the influx of foreign populations have created a huge demand for medical interpretation. this paper reviews the professionalization of medical interpretation in the usa and assesses the prospect of professionalization in china. keywords: medical interpretation; professionalization; usa; china 1. introduction the history of medical interpretation can be traced to the beginning of human migration. in the early days, immigrants who could speak two languages often acted as “intermediaries” to assist in communication. nowadays, this kind of “natural interpretation” by bilingual users who have not received strict professional training can still be seen everywhere. when foreigners in china or chinese with limited english proficiency in america go to hospitals or clinics for medical treatment, they need a professional translator. the patient feels that each word spoken by the doctor is important, so they will feel uneasy if they miss any words or sentences the doctor speaks due to their limited language proficiency. compared with conference interpretation and liaison and escort interpretation, the research on medical interpretation in china is still rare and limited. the author used the keyword “医疗口译” (medical interpretation) to search for papers concerning medical interpretation, in cnki, the largest chinese journals database in the world. subsequently, only two related papers were found. in contrast, in recent years, the research on medical interpretation in the united states has been increasing. this paper explores the rise and development of medical interpretation in the united states and assesses the prospect of the professionalization of medical interpretation in china. http://www.jhkpress.com/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 2 2. characteristics of medical interpretation the interpreter builds a bridge of language and culture between doctors and patients and serves those in need with their accurate translation and professional knowledge. specialized training is an important aspect of professionalization. as a profession, either full-time or part-time, interpreters must have special skills required by the profession. bilingual ability is not equal to interpreting ability. the following can only be acquired through professional training: the interpreter’s knowledge of their own identity, familiarity with professional standards, and skills needed for professional interpretation, such as recognizing doctors’ handwriting, understanding euphemisms, and dialects when patients describe their illness, and mastering a large number of medical terms. compared with general interpretation, medical interpretation is more challenging. patients suffering from illness, psychological anxiety, infectious diseases, will inevitably affect the interpreter, causing the interpreter’s failure in completing the task. therefore, medical interpreters must have psychological endurance more than ordinary people. the practice has proved that necessary pre-translation preparation and basic medical knowledge are still necessary. one of the difficulties in medical interpretation is that the interpreter may encounter ethics-challenging matters, such as a patient asking the interpreter how their illness can be cured. if the interpreter does not handle it well, they may violate the professional ethics of medical interpreters and may receive warnings from the translation association or the employer. interpreters may encounter disturbing situations such as a patient dying during the interpretation process, or patients are in severe pain in the icu unit. these occasions can test the interpreter’s psychological ability. after experiencing such occasions, interpreters are recommended to receive psychological counseling from social workers. medical interpretation is the bridge of communication between doctors and patients. for patients whose mother tongue is not english, the medical interpreter translates what the medical staff said to the patient, and then translates the patient’s words to the medical staff. if there are cultural differences, the medical interpreter explains these cultural differences to both doctors and patients, so that they can fully understand and communicate with each other. however, the medical interpreter is only responsible for translation, and cannot answer patients’ questions or make any decisions for the patients. medical interpretation is in great demand in two countries with many immigrants, the united states and canada. more and more foreigners and new immigrants are seeking medical treatment, which promotes the increasing demand for medical translation in america, especially chinese translation. for example, the provincial language services (pls) in british columbia, and non-profit organizations such as mosaic and success recruit interpreters of various languages every year. after signing contracts with the interpreters, these organizations allocate jobs to them as contract workers. pls is regarded as one of the largest interpretation service providers, and mandarin and cantonese are the two languages with the largest number of demand and recruits. telephone interpretation and video interpretation in the united states have developed rapidly. telephone interpretation companies recruit interpreters all over the world, and their clients call to have a three-way telephone or video call, and the interpreters provide interpretation for both parties on the phone or video. with flexible working hours, communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 3 medical translation has gradually become the new favorite career choice for some chinese. as a large immigrant country, more than 25 million residents in the united states have limited english proficiency and are regarded as lep people (zong & jeanne, 2015). according to medical providers, 80% of hospitals in the usa often encounter lep patients, 81% of physicians often receive lep patients, and 84% of federally certified health centers provide outpatient services for lep patients every day (nachc, 2008). however, data shows that the adverse medical events encountered by lep patients due to language barriers are twice as many as those under normal conditions (jacobs, shepard, suaya, & stone, 2004). for a long time, the main translation service for lep patients still was the “natural interpretation” by bilingual speakers, including bilingual medical staff, family members and friends of patients, and even minor children. mistakes made by untrained “natural interpreters” are hidden dangers leading to various medical accidents, even loss of life. eliminating the language barrier is the necessary way for lep clients to enjoy medical services equally. 3. professionalization of medical interpretation in america title vi of the civil rights act of 1964 stipulates that discrimination against lep clients by federal-funded institutions or projects is prohibited. in august 2000, executive order no.413166 of the united states further declared that lep patients enjoy the services provided by various institutions equally. in the same year, the department of health of human services of the united states stipulated that lep people must be provided with federal financial assistance for language translation services. patients whose mother tongue is not english have the right to apply to hospitals for medical translation services when visiting a doctor in the united states, and this service is free in some states (such as california). in 2003, the employment rules of interpreters and standards for qualified interpreters were put forward. since then, occupational medical interpretation in the field of health care has been gradually rising in the united states. besides being able to speak both chinese and english, medical interpreters need professional training. medical interpretation involves cultural differences, specific etiquette, and specialized skills, so “natural interpretation” is not adequate. professional interpreters should have professional quality, abide by professional norms, and master professional skills. medical english has a large amount of specialized vocabulary. even native english speakers are not familiar with all the items in the medical vocabulary. medical interpretation practitioners who have obtained the qualification certificate are more favored in the market than those who have not, and their income is higher. however, due to the shortage of medical translation talents, the current translation threshold is not high. currently, the requirements for entering the medical translation field are generally just fluency in chinese and english, quick response, and shorthand ability. there are many translation companies of different sizes in the market, and the larger ones are languageline and cyracom. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 4 3.1 professional standards in the field of medical interpretation professional medical interpretation denotes interpreters have received professional training, strictly follow professional ethics, master complex medical terms, and can accurately and completely converse between two languages. they aim to help medical practitioners and patients with limited english proficiency communicate effectively and improve the quality of medical services. until now, although the united states has made great progress in providing language services for lep patients, the shortage of qualified medical interpreters is still an important reason why those people cannot get effective health care services. to provide medical interpreters with a code of ethics to follow, the american department of health and human services, california healthcare interpreters association (chia), national council on interpreting in health care (ncihc), and international medical interpreters association (imia) have respectively formulated and gradually improved their professional standards. specific standards were given, concerning how interpreters should deal with the issues of language, culture, ethics, morality, and belief when they perform their tasks, and how they should help achieve the ultimate goal of medical interpretation, which is to promote smooth communication between doctors and patients and ensure the effect of diagnosis and treatment. the introduction of the guidelines also guides vocational training, interpreter recruitment, and quality supervision. there are specified professional ethics standards for medical interpreters in the usa. in addition to the two most basic requirements of “accuracy and completeness”, there are many other requirements, such as keeping the patient’s privacy confidential and not doing anything other than interpretation. before the official translation begins, the medical interpreter first indicates to both doctors and patients that the content of the interpretation will be kept confidential to everyone except the medical team. many interpreters may feel that with their years of experience in interpreting and the knowledge they have learned, they can give some medical advice to patients in private. this is not allowed. interpreters are not doctors and the line is not to be crossed. however, due to legal or ethical needs, if the patient has the intention to murder, mistreat children and the elderly, or other domestic violence, the interpreter is obliged to inform the doctor. the interpreter is expected to guide and encourage direct communication between doctors and patients. interpreters shall not make suggestions, show partiality, discriminate, or make negative body gestures such as shrugging and rolling eyes. meanwhile, they should not conceal their relationship with the patient and avoid occasions where the patient is the interpreter’s family member or friends. if the relationship with the patient may cause embarrassment and discomfort to the interpreter or the patient, which may lead to unsmooth communication, the interpreter should request for withdrawal from the scene. however, if there is no substitute interpreter, the interpreter must overcome psychological discomfort and complete the interpretation task. the relationship between the interpreter, doctors, and patients is equal. this relationship does not change due to differences in gender, race, religion, belief, culture, social status, and political views. if tension between doctors and patients has developed, interpreters should help defuse it. interpreters do not try to influence patients’ decisions and choices with their judgment, respecting patients’ space, and visual privacy needs. the key role of communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 5 medical interpretation is to help lep patients communicate with doctors for timely diagnosis and treatment. although the interpreter has no obligation to be the “spokesperson” of the patient, from an ethical point of view, if the interpreter perceives that the doctor is discriminating against the patient, they should intervene in time. in an ideal interpreting situation, an interpreter is an invisible person and a mouthpiece. however, the scene context is complex and changeable. to achieve smooth communication, interpreters must assume their multiple identities, and ensure that patients receive effective medical services before, during, and after translation. interpreters are expected to be honest, reject bribery, and refuse to accept tasks for which they are not competent. they should be proficient in bilingual conversion and interpreting skills, receive continuous training, and improve professional standards. 3.2 qualification certification in october 2009, the national board of certification for medical interpreters (nbcmi) conducted a pilot test and started the formal test on april 28, 2010. in june, it produced the first batch of certified medical interpreters in history. on october 18, 2010, the first medical interpretation certification test sponsored by certification commission for healthcare interpreters (cchi) was also launched nationwide. although nbcmi and cchi are relatively independent certification bodies, their designs for the tests are very similar, and they delimit the boundaries and scope in terms of candidates’ registration qualifications and examination contents. currently, to become certified, one can opt for either nbcmi or cchi’s test. the two tests, similar in their difficulty, are both computer-based. they require that the test taker has fluency in both chinese and english and a good command of professional medical vocabulary. the focus of the two exams is slightly different. cchi’s exam includes consecutive interpretation, simultaneous interpretation, and visual translation, while nbcmi’s exam does not have simultaneous interpretation, focusing on visual translation and consecutive interpretation. before taking the medical interpretation qualification examination, test takers must have received 40 hours of medical interpretation training or practical experience including the time spent attending academic seminars related to interpretation or engaging in other fields such as law and community translation. cchi, the american association of medical interpreters certification, has two certification examinations: core chi (core certification healthcare interpreter) and chi (certified healthcare interpreter), namely subject 1 & subject 2. candidates can only apply for the second one after passing the first. subject one, corechi, is a computer test, knowledge test, two hours, 100 multiple-choice questions, all in english. subject 2 chi is also a computer test, oral test, one hour, you have to choose a specific language. chimandarin is the choice for chinese interpreters. both certification exam full scores are out of 600, and a score of 450 means passing the exam. before registering for the exam, candidates should first complete 40 hours of training. cchi's official website provided a list of training institutions. there are on-site lectures and online courses. the training price is generally around $600. for example, there are two training institutions: alta language services and medical interpreting training school (mits). no study/work background in the medical industry is required to register for the exam and there is no communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 6 need for translation/interpretation experience. candidates are required to provide proof of proficiency in a second language. it can be a transcript of a language exam or a certificate of obtaining a degree in a relevant country, for example, china or taiwan. subject 1 corechi exam (computer-based, knowledge test, two hours, 100 multiplechoice questions, all english questions) includes: professional responsibility and interpreter ethics (22%); manage the interpreting encounter (22%); healthcare terminology (22%); u. s. healthcare system (15%); cultural responsiveness (19%); subject 2 chi exam (computer-based, one hour, seven different scenarios, spoken chinese and english) includes: consecutive interpreting (75%); simultaneous interpret (14%); sight translation (9%); translate healthcare documents (2%)。 one a person obtains the medical interpreter certificate, it means they are qualified to provide the related services. nevertheless, a medical interpreter needs not only certain training before the exam but also long-term training after entering the workplace. even the best and most experienced interpreters cannot guarantee to finish every task well. new interpreters need to continue their education, ask experts to supervise and guide them, and listen to the feedback from doctors and patients, to improve their professional quality day by day. trade associations are non-profit and self-disciplined organizations voluntarily organized by enterprises in the same industry, which mainly balance and coordinate the interests of the members within the organization, communicate information, maintain order, and conduct self-discipline management. the main function of medical interpretation association is to formulate professional standards, ethics, and training standards; hold regular seminars and publish periodical newsletters to convey the voice of translators; develop and improve the professional status of medical interpreters, and ensure good working conditions and salary of interpreters; establish an interpreter database to help clients obtain effective medical services. almost every state in the united states has its medical interpretation associations. some of these associations are organized by interpreters themselves, while others are affiliated with universities, community hospitals, or clinics. the influential ones include national imia and ncihc and chia in california. there are also special sign language translation associations in america, such as the registry of interpreters for the deaf. like other industries, the knowledge in the field of medical interpretation, especially medical vocabulary, is constantly updated. under the guidance of an effective and credible qualification examination, interpreters should adhere to “lifelong learning” for the well-being of patients and the improvement of their professional accomplishment. nbcmi stipulates that after certification, the certificate holder should receive at least three continuing education units (equivalent to 30 hours) every five years, and relevant seminars and training courses will be attended to expand terminology reserves and enhance memory. otherwise, the certificate will be revoked and the certificate holder will have to take the exam again. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 7 4. the development of medical interpretation in china china is not a traditional immigrant country. however, in the past 30 years, with the rapid development of the economy and the expanding contacts with the world, more and more foreigners have come to china for short-term and long-term residence due to work, study, or travel. according to the official document of the chinese finance department (2019), in 2018, 30.54 million foreigners entered china. in 2016, more than 900,000 foreigners came to work in the chinese mainland (xu & zhou, 2017). peking union medical college hospital, established as early as 1921, provided medical services in english without using interpreters. instead, english-speaking medical staff communicated directly with foreign patients. this situation still exists today. seeing a doctor has become a source of anxiety for many foreign guests because of the language barrier. it is undeniable that the research on medical interpretation in china has just started. especially, as a profession, medical interpretation has only attracted the attention of a very small number of individual researchers in the field of interpretation. when a chinese hospital has a demand for interpreters, it finds a staff member who can speak some english and does not ensure the interpretation quality. even if some large hospitals in china have reception rooms for foreign guests, they only use a limited number of english-speaking medical staff members, and the medical service may not be satisfactory. the development of medical interpretation in the united states fully shows that in consideration of china’s situation today, it is necessary and urgent to train specialized medical interpreters and conduct scientific research. the specialization process of medical interpretation in the usa can give china a good reference. medical interpretation has a high market demand in china and has attracted the attention of translation experts and scholars. the author searched for “medical interpretation” with the search engine baidu, and the search results include the recruitment of medical interpretation talents by translation companies, medical interpretation training programs provided by training institutions, and “medical interpretation vocabulary” of interpretation learning websites. the results show that medical interpretation has begun to have a market in china. professionalization of interpretation includes the professionalization of interpreters. it should be emphasized that it is a trend that englishspeaking experts and scholars engaged in humanities, science, and engineering fields join the interpreting team. interpretation training should be aimed at a wider range of people, which is the guarantee for comprehensively improving the quality of the interpreting team. accordingly, the voice of establishing professional interpretation qualification certification is getting louder. 5. implications for china china’s current medical interpretation is like a virgin land waiting to be reclaimed, and the market demand determines the development prospect of this industry. based on the history of the professionalization of medical interpretation in the united states, medical interpretation in china is predicted to go through several stages: forming trade associations, formulating ethics codes, perfecting qualification certification, and providing professional training. imia, the earliest professional association of medical interpretation in the united states, was founded in 1986. by june 2010, it finally completed the first national medical interpretation qualification certification in history, communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 8 more than 20 years since its foundation. according to the specific market, china should formulate professional standards and certification evaluation systems in line with china’s national conditions. this will be a long-term process that requires the joint efforts of a large number of “like-minded people”. the author hopes that more and more people will join this team, conduct theoretical and empirical research, establish a scientific training system, and train qualified medical interpreters. the development of medical interpretation in china is inseparable from the research on the training of medical interpreters, while the training system of medical interpreters is rarely discussed in depth in china. because of this, the author puts forward the following thoughts, hoping to give some inspiration to the academic circles. (1) the establishment of medical interpretation courses. in the curriculum of american medical interpretation training institutions, medical terminology appears most frequently. there are two main reasons: first, it is determined by the basic characteristics of medical interpretation. secondly, the most obvious problem in medical interpretation and translation lies in the use of technical terms. therefore, it is necessary to set up medical terminology courses systematically, and learn from the professional standards of foreign qualification certification institutions, the role of interpreters, the basic skills of interpretation, cultural and ethical issues, and communicative skills. (2) the training of medical interpreters. medical interpreters should have a solid bilingual foundation and interpreting ability, basic medical knowledge, mastery of medical terms, the ability to deal with language, culture, ethics, morality, beliefs, and other problems in diagnosis and treatment. furthermore, they should know how to promote smooth communication between doctors and patients and ensure the effect of diagnosis and treatment. in 2009, china’s ministry of education issued document no.1 to comprehensively promote the master’s degree training program and train advanced applied talents, including the pathways of translation and interpretation (moe, 2009). it is recommended medical colleges and foreign language colleges cooperate to offer translation masters’ programs. translation master’s programs have high-quality teachers and strong scientific research support, which can strengthen interpreters’ bilingual language ability and carry out relevant scientific research to ensure the scientific training of interpreters. medical colleges have abundant medical resources and can provide a teaching platform for medical interpreters’ medical expertise and medical terminology teaching. meanwhile, their affiliated hospitals can also provide medical interpreters with internships and even practice venues. (3) the professionalization of medical interpreting. the social recognition degree of medical interpretation in china is lower than that of conference interpretation. the lack of social cognition is one factor. the main reason is that the professionalization process of medical interpretation lags behind other specialized interpretations. currently, there are no unified professional standards, and the market is in disorderly competition. the development of medical interpretation in the united states has gone through a process from non-standardization to standardization, from disorder to order. some scholars suggest that the professionalization of medical interpretation in china should draw lessons from the professional system of medical interpretation in the united states. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 9 meanwhile, combined with the specific market, china should work out the professional standards and certification evaluation system in line with its national conditions. 6. conclusion with the rapid development of china’s economy and the increasing status in the international arena, the exchanges between domestic and foreign personnel will be continuously strengthened, and medical interpretation will have more and more market and training needs. at present, developing the discipline of medical interpretation and its personnel training can expand the scope of china’s interpretation research, improve the level of interpretation research, and enrich the connotation of interpretation research. it is hoped that academic research on medical interpretation will attract enough attention and more “people of insight” to join further research on medical interpretation. references finance department. (2019). the basic situation of the tourism market in 2018 (in chinese) [2018 年旅游市场基本情况]. from http://zwgk.mct.gov.cn/zfxxgkml/tjxx/202012/t20201204_906481.html jacobs, e. a., shepard, d. s., suaya, j. a., & stone, e.-l. (2004). overcoming language barriers in health care: costs and benefits of interpreter services. american journal of public health, 94(5), 866-869. moe. (2009). several opinions of the ministry of education about advancing the cultivation of full-time master degree graduate students (in chinese) [教育部 关于做好全日制硕士专业学位研究生培养工作的若干意见]. retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/a22/moe_826/200903/t20090319_82629.html. nachc. (2008). serving patients with limited english proficiency: results of a community health center survey from http://www.nachc.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/06/lepreport.pdf xu, b., & zhou, k. (2017). over 900,000 foreigners have worked in mainland china since 2016 (in chinese) [2016 年来中国大陆工作的外国人员超 90 万人次]. from http://www.gov.cn/shuju/2017-04/16/content_5186221.htm zong, j., & jeanne, b. (2015). the limited english proficient population in the united states in 2013. from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/limited-englishproficient-population-united-states-2013 this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. http://zwgk.mct.gov.cn/zfxxgkml/tjxx/202012/t20201204_906481.html http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/a22/moe_826/200903/t20090319_82629.html http://www.nachc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/lepreport.pdf http://www.nachc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/lepreport.pdf http://www.gov.cn/shuju/2017-04/16/content_5186221.htm http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/limited-english-proficient-population-united-states-2013 http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/limited-english-proficient-population-united-states-2013 communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 1 communication across borders: translation & interpreting www.jhkpress.com volume 01, issue 01, 2021, issn: 2766-791x the english translation and cultural dissemination of chinese web novels lin zhao1 shiyuan college of nanning normal university, guangxi, china 63370688@qq.com abstract: in the digital age, chinese web novels, distinguished from the traditional paper-based novels, have become an important genre of chinese literature. the paper reviews the history of chinese web novels, and their spread to the world through amateur and professional translation and online publication. from the perspective of cultural dominance and communication, this research examines the translation and proposes different translation strategies for different translation purposes. it concludes that chinese web novels have a niche market in the west, and domestication is the norm of translation of these web novels targeting the dominating english culture. keywords: chinese web novels, english translation, culture 1. development and overseas promotion of chinese web novels chinese web novels, started at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, keeping pace with the first wave of internet development in china. especially, one type of chinese web novels, xianxia or xuanhuan novel, based on chinese traditional mythology and martial arts literature (y. wang, 2017), has just become popular in recent years after they had been long ignored by the mainstream for a long time due the conservative attitude of the mainstream literature in china. web novel creators, unfamiliar with the mainstream literary norms, discovered that the internet is their ideal kingdom. they do not have to follow the old path of newcomers in traditional literature, that is, being forced to accept the rules of the system, genre and ideological trend. in 2003, qidian.com, china’s web novel base camp, established a vip charging system in which readers are required to pay for access to the updates of certain popular novels (qidian, 2020). from then on, authors could gain financial rewards within that website, and did not have to go to traditional publishers to sell their creations. these 1 the author’s contact information in chinese (作者): 赵琳 南宁师范大学师园学院 http://www.jhkpress.com/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 2 writers, mostly born in the 1980s or 1990s, gained their writing inspirations from chinese classical literature and acg (animation, comic, game) culture in europe, america, japan, and south korea (rong, 2017). in recent years, chinese electronic literature (or web novel) has been translated and published online for the world to read, so its scale and influence have been further expanded outside of china. according to the white paper on the development of electronic literature going overseas in 2020, the overseas market scale of chinese electronic literature reached 460 million yuan in 2019, and the number of chinese electronic literature users outside china reached 31.935 million; by 2019, china exported more than 10,000 online works overseas, covering more than 40 countries and regions (shanghai observer, 2020). as early as the beginning of 2015, chinese web novels spread fast in north america. in 2016, there were about 20 active chinese-to-english web novel translation groups including wuxiaworld and volaretranslations. most of the members were “overseas chinese” or chinese language learners from all over the world, especially north america and southeast asia (mo & chen, 2016). most translation groups had their own websites to publish their translations. the largest group wuxiaworld, established in december 2014, has chinese web novels translated by electronic literature fans. wuxiaworld’s works are mostly translated from qidian.com’s originals — amateurs translate the novels in exchange for fan donations (l. wang, 2016). wuxiaworld.com has a large readership, receiving numerous visits every day. according to the alexa website ranking, on 1 november, 2020, wuxiaworld ranked 2,473 in global internet traffic and engagement over the past 90 days. in the global comprehensive ranking, it even surpassed qidian. wuxiaworld’s readers come from more than 100 countries and regions around the world, and the top five countries with the number of readers are the united states, the philippines, canada, indonesia and the united kingdom. according to wuxiaworld’s “about” page, the website now has 46 translators in 2020. the mechanism of wuxiaworld’s content output is that the group first finds suitable translators, and then translators choose works for translation. in the process of translation, translators usually form a team with two editors (wuxiaworld, 2020). in 2017, wuxiaworld signed a 10-year cooperation agreement on translation and electronic publishing with webnovel.com (aka qidian international). webnovel.com, an overseas portal of china literature (yuewen), is one of the important sources of electronic literature for export, and has expanded its footprint all over the world (xu, 2019). wuxiaworld’s previous translations have always been in the gray area in the copyrights laws. the founder rwx (aka jingping lai) negotiated with qidian for several months, and finally gave the latter the authorization for publishing the english translation of 20 web novels. webnovel.com now owns more than 400 english translations of chinese electronic literature, and more than 44,000 original english works created by over 30,000 overseas writers, with nearly 40 million visitors (xu, 2019). chinese electronic literature has experienced many stages: (1) works were authorized for publication; (2) the overseas portal website webnovel.com owned by china literature group was established; (3) chinese electronic literature was translated and exported on a large scale, and finally, (4) authors outside china were encouraged to create original communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 3 works. thus, the operation mode of chinese electronic literature has been brought overseas, and more overseas local high-quality authors have been discovered. the legalization of electronic literature translation means that it has entered the commercial mechanism, and thus has been formally incorporated into china’s official grand plan of cultural export. it is reported that china literature group will also continue to increase investment and promotion efforts in overseas markets, including arranging overseas exchange trips of well-known authors and the export of film and television dramas, games, and animation. 2. overseas readers’ acceptance of chinese web novels chinese web novels have been discovered by english-speaking readers, mainly due to the active translation and dissemination by young chinese readers. rwx, the founder of wuxiaworld, revealed that their fans of chinese web novels originally came from an english language forum website spcent, where internet users discussed and translated chinese martial arts movies and novels. most of these people are overseas chinese from america and southeast asia who are very interested in chinese culture. according to rwx, for overseas readers, the most important thing at present is a novelty. these martial arts fantasy novels in china are quite new to foreign readers, the concept of becoming immortals through cultivation does not exist in the west. the translation works by rwx and wuxiaworld gradually received acceptance by certain groups of overseas readers, just like the acceptance of japanese culture by americans, which started from subcultures such as comics and games. the recognition of chinese web novels by foreign readers comes from the universal reading “pleasure” of human beings. the pleasure brought by reading electronic literature can be “produced”. for example, xianxia, a typical web novel genre, utilizes a set of writing rules and story development patterns according to humans’ desire mode, thinking mode and reading mode. the storyline is usually predictable: at a certain point, the hero and heroine inevitably “encounter”; then, the two have misunderstandings; at a certain point, the enemy is bound to make trouble. this writing, also called “patterned literature”, has the “iron law” like that of hollywood commercial films, which ensures the arousal of readers’ emotions. when readers’ pleasure in reading is mobilized by the mature narrative structure, it is very common for them to become addicted. so, even if a web novel contains layers of routines and nothing interesting to read, its fans will still not abandon it, and will wait anxiously for anything new to be produced. compared with classic chinese martial arts novels such as the magic blade (tiānyá míngyuè dā), chinese web novels are better received by western readers, as they are not so “chinese”. according to translator rwx, the reason behind that is the fact that there is a bigger cultural gap between traditional chinese martial arts novels and western readers. there are numerous chinese historical allusions in traditional chinese martial arts novels, much more than those in chinese web novels. novels with fewer chinese historical allusions tend to be more popular in the western market. nowadays, many chinese fantasy novels have incorporated western cultural elements, especially those of game culture, which are familiar to younger people. for example, the popular web novel communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 4 coiling dragon’s character names and story settings are all western. in comparison, another web novel i shall seal the heavens (wǒ yù fēng tiān) is not as western, so new foreign readers are recommended to read coiling dragon first, then progress into i shall seal the heavens which is considered as an upgraded version from the first one in terms of cultural familiarity. 3. translation of chinese web novels translators have played an important role in promoting web novel. since 2015, overseas fan communities have spontaneously read and translated chinese electronic literature. the translation of chinese web novels includes both manual translation and so-called artificial intelligence (ai) machine translation. in 2019, webnovel.com started to use ai technology to translate some web content, so translation efficiency has been greatly improved (mei, 2019). readers can edit and correct the ai translation during their reading, and the revisions will help the translation model to continuously optimize the effect. the reader-participation translation mode is revolutionary in the translation industry, and its influence is yet to be reviewed in future studies. for translators of chinese fantasy novels, it is also a big challenge to accurately and properly translate the terms and proper nouns with chinese cultural characteristics. according to web novel translators, two things need to be dealt with carefully to produce high-quality readable translation: (1) linguistic form transformation between different languages, and (2) cross-cultural communication. it is always a great challenge for translators to find a balance between conveying the original meaning of chinese and making translation easy for readers to understand. at present, the translation level of overseas electronic literature is uneven. some translation contains problems such as missing meanings, inaccurate translation, and even using machine translation without post-editing. most online translators are in the primary stage, that is, they translate word by word without adapting their translation to the target language context. that kind of translation is not going to meet readers’ higher requirements for translation aesthetics as these readers are evolving. 3.1 translators and their elevated status hundreds of translators have been translating chinese web novels into different languages, mostly english. taking webnovel.com as an example, there are currently more than 200 translators and translator groups distributed around the world, especially in north america and southeast asia, and more than 200 english translation works have been launched, with a cumulative number of words exceeding 200 million (liu, 2018). these translators are mainly foreigners (non-chinese citizens) and often have three characteristics: they are familiar with the culture of english-speaking countries, chinese tradition and contemporary culture, and electronic literature. one famous translator on webnovel.com is cktalon (aka hongwen wen), a singaporean research engineer who graduated as a physics major in an american university. cktalon has been translating chinese web novels in his spare time since 2015. as a star translator of webnovel.com, cktalon translated a large number of electronic literature works in his spare time, totaling communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 5 more than four million words. his representative translations include path of soaring sword (fēi jiàn wèn dào) and true martial world (zhēnwǔ shìjiè). when he was a child, hongwen wen learned chinese from his mother. in november, 2015, hongwen wen started the chinese-english translation of the chinese fantasy work true martial world. since then, he translated works in different genres, such as the second dimension, the city, and xianxia (literally, immortal heroes). the translation reward system adopted by webnovel.com and wuxiaworld is actually quite controversial: the money given by the reader goes to the translator, not the author. according to wuxiaworld’s website, most of the translations had actually received translation authorization from the author, so it appears reasonable that the translator receives financial enumeration since the translator has worked. nevertheless, the biggest controversy in this matter is that copyright holders (authors) do not get any financial benefits from their foreign readers. wuxiaworld even puts the name of the translator at the top of the introduction of the works. what’s more, even many foreign readers have become fans of translators. therefore, the translator has gained a higher status than before, and the original author has become invisible in this case. 3.2 innovations in translating words with chinese cultural references to help readers understand words with chinese cultural references, translators add annotations to the words. with the online platform, annotations are hidden but can be easily accessed with a click of the mouse. according to the translator hongwen wen, the aim of translation, is to assist in smooth cultural communication and exchange, so it is necessary to ensure the translation’s readability and fluency when transcoding electronic literature (liu, 2018). one of the major difficulties of translation lies in the accurate translation of “oriental words” such as jīn dān, yuán shén, and shénxiān. wen remembered that when he first started translating true martial world, he spent nearly two hours on the translation of each chapter, much longer than he expected. he stated he did not know how to handle those idioms and sayings. then he discovered the twopronged approach: translation + annotation. he reviewed a large number of documents, selecting the word with the highest accuracy and acceptance, and then explained it in his translation to help readers understand the story and cultural meanings behind the word. the website allows the translator to annotate a word or sentence on their back end platform, and when it is displayed on the front end, a small gray mark will appear on the right side of the word, and the reader can click it to see the complete explanation. that does not affect the reading experience. rather, it helps the reader access the annotations. in addition to textual annotation, many translators also use illustrations or videos to make reading more interesting. for example, next to the word “tàijí quán”, a video of an old man practicing tai chi is accessible for readers. the multimedia usage in translation text is unconventional compared with the traditional book printing. besides conveying the original meanings, translators also attempt to transfer the “aesthetic feeling and artistic conception of words” (liu, 2018). to achieve that, translators may use words containing greek or latin prefixes, suffixes, and roots to translate certain chinese or buddhist concepts. for example, for the buddhist term communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 6 sānqiān dà shìjiè, translator wen decided not to use the colloquial version “3000 great worlds” preferred by many other translators. rather, wen translated it as ‘trichiliocosm’, a combination of tri+ chilia+ ancient greek κόσμος ("world"). for another example, concerning the english transliteration of chinese words hòutiān and xiāntiān, wen argued that on the one hand those translations are difficult for english readers to understand, and on the other hand, they lack the concepts of ‘before birth’ and ‘after birth’. so wen used ‘postnatal’ and ‘connate’, formal words containing prefix “post” and “con” and the latin root “nat” meaning “born”. the translation of electronic literature, different from traditional publishing, requires a suitable content production mechanism to improve its production efficiency. in order to effectively avoid the confusion of translation, after some exploration, qidian international set up a full-platform vocabulary database and sorted out more than 700 specialized terms. by content, the terminology can be divided into three categories: oriental fantasy, xianxia, and city; by type, it can be divided into common words, proverbs, and idioms. in order to standardize and optimize the translation of electronic literature, hongwen wen and his translator team established a bilingual glossary for the translation of fantasy works. that is especially necessary, as a web novel is usually very long, containing around 1,000 chapters. a term base will help translators keep their term use and the translation of character names consistent. meanwhile, on the online forum, there is a special section to introduce the basic concepts of taoism, for both readers and translators. 3.3 cultural differences certain social values embodied in the chinese web novels may be considered offensive if they are translated directly without alteration. to ensure the survival of translation, translators may be required to omit or blur those cultural references. for example, derogatory remarks against japan and south korea pejorative terms such as “bàngzi” for korean people and “xiǎo rìběn” for japanese were found in the novels. due to the historical conflicts between china and its neighboring countries, chinese writers may often use those terms in their novels, nevertheless, they are considered racist in the west. in addition, in the novels, there are main characters who are male chauvinists discriminating against women. that also violates the moral values of western readers. in 2020, as the racial tension and class conflicts became more intense in the us, chinesestyle web novels have gradually been resisted by more american readers who perceived sexism and racism in the web novels. the translator may need to alter or edit those parts, so as to keep the new texts in line with the target language readers’ values. according to etvolare, the founder of volaretranslations (wu, 2020), many translators she knew were forced to resign from their original companies because the chinese web novels they were translating aroused strong opposition from western readers, and many platforms and translation groups are under considerable pressure (wu, 2020). to get a foothold in the western market, some adjustments and changes in writing or translation may be required. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 7 4. conclusion compared to chinese classics like journey to the west and dream of the red chamber, chinese electronic literature has a better chance to reach foreign audiences. though studied much in academia by asian studies scholars, those classics have a little market or commercial values in the united states (l. wang, 2016). chinese electronic literature has a small market share in the us, that is, it is a niche market, rather than mainstream. for instance, in 2016, translator rwx gained his fame in china, and was interviewed by chinese media every week for half a year, but he was never interviewed by the american media. apart from the fans of chinese martial arts novels, quite a percentage of western fans did not discover chinese web novels directly; rather, these readers interested in asian culture first read japanese light novels, then they turned to chinese web novels. currently, these electronic literary translation works are discovered through word of mouth. hoping to gain recognition of mainstream american readership, rwx planned to use advertising to expand the influence of wuxiaworld to the west. in an interview with mo and chen (2016), rwx stated that people unfamiliar with oriental culture are not interested in chinese electronic literature; after all, they have abundant locally published readings available to them. china's electronic literature has not reached the influence and dissemination level like that of japanese animation, american hollywood blockbusters, and korean idol dramas. as the earliest cultural product exported from asia, japanese animation has accumulated a considerable number of fans in europe and america. comparatively speaking, chinese electronic literature is a new player, trying to attract a larger audience. it is believed by translator hongwen wen that it is necessary to localize translations of chinese web novels. that is, for readers from different regions and countries, chinese web novels can be adapted so that they can be better understood. translation works that have value resonance and cultural resonance for the target language readers may become more popular than those that do not. namely, a translation that is target-culture-oriented survives and prospers better. the translation and spread of chinese electronic literature may provide a reference for the dissemination of other types of cultural works. when the chinese web novels are translated into another language and spread overseas for the “mass culture industry”, some elements are discounted in cross-cultural communication. that is to say, “chinese cultural elements” are lost to a large extent and whatever remains in the translation is absorbed by readers selectively. the “chinese culture’s going abroad” is not as much as what most chinese people expected. currently, the translation strategy domestication is recommended and preferred in the translation of chinese web novels targeted at english speaking countries. it has become a norm of chinese electronic literature in english. domestication, a concept proposed by the italian-american scholar lawrence venuti (1995:21), aims to eliminate differences between different languages and cultures so as to ensure target language fluency and smooth reading. if the main goal of the chinese web novel translation is to disseminate chinese culture, then foreignization, also called resistancy, is recommended, as this communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 8 translation strategy challenges the target-language culture and exerts its “ethnocentric violence” on the english text (lawrence, 1995:24). references lawrence, v. (1995). the translator’s invisibility: a history of translation. london and new york: routledge. liu, c. (2018). web novels need to be both mysterious but also "entertaining" enough, so they can be popular with foreigners (in chinese) [不但神秘而且够“爽”，这 样的网文才有老外看], nanfang daily. retrieved from http://www.chinawriter.com.cn/n1/2018/1017/c404023-30346868.html mei, s. (2019). china literature and caiyun technology jointly launch the ai translation works to accelerate exportation [阅文与彩云科技合作上线 ai翻译作品 加速出 海步伐 ], tech 163. retrieved from https://tech.163.com/19/1225/11/f186pc3l00097u7r.html mo, q., & chen, s. (2016). chinese electronic literature super popular overseas: the "folk translation groups" behind the curtain (in chinese) [中国网文在海外：爆 款网文背后的“民间翻译组”们], the paper. qidian. (2020). a brief introduction of qidian (in chinese) [起点简介] from https://www.qidian.com/about/intro rong, z. (2017). fantasy fiction: an alternative "cultural communication" facing the english-speaking world (in chinese) [玄幻小说：面向英语世界的另类“文化 传播”], south reviews ( nánfēng chuāng). retrieved from https://www.nfcmag.com/article/7233.html?version=pc shanghai observer. (2020). world electronic literature “made in china”, shanghai observer. retrieved from https://k.sina.cn/article_3844617568_e528356002001w8qk.html?from=cul wang, l. (2016). chinese online novels find foreign fans. retrieved october 10, 2020, from https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1685/chinese-online-novels-findforeign-fans wang, y. (2017). globalization of chinese online literature: understanding transnational reading of chinese xuanhuan novels among english readers. inquiries journal, 9(12). wu, y. (2020). foreign netizens also love "xiuxian (cultivating to immortals)"? (in chinese) 外国网友也爱“修仙”？ qq. retrieved from https://new.qq.com/omn/20200807/20200807a0o8ro00.html http://www.chinawriter.com.cn/n1/2018/1017/c404023-30346868.html http://www.qidian.com/about/intro http://www.nfcmag.com/article/7233.html?version=pc http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1685/chinese-online-novels-find-foreign-fans http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1685/chinese-online-novels-find-foreign-fans communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 9 wuxiaworld. (2020). about wuxiaworld(™). from https://www.wuxiaworld.com/page/about xu, y. (2019). rather than being dropped into a foreign land, chinese electronic literature attracted numerous fans. how did it do it? (in chinese) [比起简单的作 品落地，“网文出海”如何升级圈粉？], wenhui. retrieved from https://wenhui.whb.cn/third/yidian/201910/22/296070.html this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. http://www.wuxiaworld.com/page/about communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 1 communication across borders: translation & interpreting www.jhkpress.com volume 01, issue 01, 2021, issn: 2766-791x reviewing the translation of the chinese animation film ne zha: birth of the demon child in north america from the perspective of eco-translatology maren mcdonald tampa, florida, usa marenmcd76@aol.com abstract: the chinese film ne zha: birth of the demon child entered the north american market, with english subtitles and dubbing versions. this paper compares the two, analyzes the differences from the perspective of eco-translatology, and discusses the possibility of enriching the concept of communicative dimension of eco-translatology with translation economics and nida's functional equivalence theory. through comparison of the two versions, this paper finds that the dubbing version of the film has greater deviation from the chinese subtitles, and is generally closer to the three dimensions of the target language (english): linguistic, cultural and communicative. in terms of swear word translation in the cultural and communicative dimensions, the subtitle version used literal translation, while the dubbing removed all the swear words. in terms of readability, the dubbed english version is more colloquial and idiomatic, which makes the language easier to understand and suitable for children. the dubbing version fully demonstrates the translator’s consideration of the audience demographics; meanwhile, its low-cost dubbing production also reflects the distributor's consideration of market and economic benefits. keywords: ne zha; cultural symbols; readability; viewing experience 1. eco-translatology perspective/theory discussion eco-translatology utilizes darwin's theory of evolution, and integrates ecology into translation studies. eco-translatology examines the whole translation ecology. from the perspective of translation ecological environment, it explains the translation process, describes the relationship between the translator as the subject and the translation ecological environment, and discusses the survival and development of translators and translation products. the translation ecological environment in eco-translatology is a world in which the original text, source language and target language are combined, and an interactive whole is composed of interrelated languages, cultures and society, as well http://www.jhkpress.com/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 2 as the original author, translator, client and readers (audience). translation ecological environment is a collection of factors that restrict translators' optimal adaptations and choices (hu, 2008). translation is an activity that needs to adapt to not only the ecological environment of the source language, but also the ecological environment of the target language, in order to survive and take effect (hu, 2004). to achieve this goal, translators need to transform in the following three dimensions to make selective adaptation and adaptive choices: linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension (hu, 2013:114). the success of a translation is determined by the translator's degree of transformation in these three dimensions. the higher the degree of “three-dimensional transformation”, that is, the higher the degree of holistic adaptation and selection, the better the quality of the translation (hu, 2013:114). specifically, in the process of translation, translators are expected to respect the language expression habits of the target language, balance the cultural output of the source language and the audience's acceptance of the target language, and strive to make the communicative function of the source language reappear in the target language. in the transformation of linguistic dimension, the translator should consider the influence of the source language form and style on the target language. if the target language’s form is too close to that of the source language, it may affect the understanding of the reader, and the text is not suitable for survival in the target language ecological environment. in the cultural dimension, there are cultural differences between the source language and the target language. when working on the transformation, the translator should consider the audience's acceptance of the target language and deal with it properly to avoid the overload of foreign cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding or incomprehension of the audience. in terms of communicative dimension, attention should be paid to ensuring that the target language achieves the communicative purpose similar to that in the original language. in the case of the translation of commercial films, translators need to produce their translation for the communicative purpose of entertainment. translation, like any other actions, always has an aim (vermeer hans, 1989:221). ne zha: birth of the demon child (hereinafter referred to as ne zha) is a commercial animation film. different from art films and documentary films, it aims at maximizing box office revenue and caters to mass entertainment. the overseas market expansion of ne zha not only creates economic income for the production company and distributors but also plays the role of overseas publicity for china. ne zha draws on chinese mythology and was not produced by the mainstream western film industry. according to the statistics of box office mojo, a website tracking box office revenue, the box office in china is $720 million, while the box office in north america is relatively small, with $3.7 million (box office mojo, 2020). it is a niche film in north america, and its audience characteristics are different from mainstream audiences. subtitle translation and dubbing were produced for the film’s distribution abroad. subtitles and dubbing in movie translation are subject to different media transmission conditions and expected audiences, so there may be differences in the text content of the communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 3 two translation versions. foreign language subtitles mainly transform the auditory content of the source language into the text visual symbols of the target language, while dubbing transforms the auditory content of the source language into the speech auditory symbols of the target language. these two types of signs and symbols need to be synchronized with the image content (such as the beginning and end of the actor's speech and the mouth movements) to achieve the best viewing effect. subtitles and dubbing have their advantages and disadvantages. foreign language subtitles convert the speech of the source language into the text of the target language and present it to the audience. when watching it, the audience has a visual burden, which means they have to look at the pictures and read the subtitles. during that process, they often miss the important pictures, especially the facial expressions of the characters. while dubbing does not increase the visual burden of the audience and allow them to concentrate on the picture and plot, it lacks the touch (e.g. intonation) of the original voice. from the perspective of the three-dimensional transformation of eco-translatology, the key duty of subtitle and dubbing translation is to transform the source language of movies into the target language ecology in three dimensions: linguistic dimension, culture dimension and communicative dimension, to conform to the source language ecology as much as possible. in the process of transforming from the chinese context to english context, due to the influence of different factors such as translator, commercial operation and economic cost, the film content and emotion conveyed by subtitles and dubbing will be different. film is not only a cultural carrier, but also a commodity, and film translation can help the commodity create value in overseas markets. the difference between commercial film translation and other translations, such as science and technology translation, lies in its different functions, which have both active cultural transmission and entertainment functions. two different small translation ecosystems are derived from different audiences. for example, subtitle translation audience of ne zha is mainly fans who love chinese culture, while the small ecological participants of english dubbing translation are those who emphasize entertainment. these two small ecological audiences may also overlap. in terms of the communicative dimension, they all aim to achieve communication effect and commercial value, but the translation processes and forms are different. in different translation ecological environments, translators use different degrees of transformation from the source language to target language to adapt to the different translation ecological environments. 2. the film the distribution channels of the movie ne zha in north america include cinemas, dvd and the streaming media netflix. the american netflix version of ne zha is covered by the tv content rating system, and its tv-14 rating implies the program contains content that parents or adult guardians think is not suitable for children under 14 years old. there are two translation versions of the movie provided by netflix in america: a subtitle and dubbing version. the film was distributed in north america by the company “well go usa”. according to its official website, the company focuses on introducing movies from all over the world to north america and other places for distribution. in an communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 4 interview with xinhua news agency, annie walker, the chairman of the company, stated: “ne zha is an attractive animation film. we bring the english dub to north america because we hope to share the film with not only overseas chinese but also audiences from other ethnic groups. it's certainly a chance for a mainstream audience in north america to know more about chinese film and chinese culture.” it can be seen from that interview that the purpose of adding dubbing to movies is to cater to the mainstream, not just the minority fans of asian culture. this research randomly selected 30 english language films (released between 2000 and 2020) and compared their chinese subtitles and dubbing versions. it is found that there are few differences between those two versions. the few differences lie in certain words and phrases. the main reason for the differences is that dubbing is expected to match the mouth movement of the characters. the echoes what xiuyan jia, a famous film translator in china, said in an interview conducted by zhang (2020): “in cinema blockbusters, subtitles are expected to be the same as the dialogues, while dubbing texts should match the mouth movements. the textual differences between subtitles and dubbing arise because dubbing is supposed to match the mouth movements of characters.” after examining five other chinese films released overseas between 2015 and 2020, it is found that there is very little difference between the dubbed and subtitled versions. in comparison, there is a big difference between the subtitled and dubbed version of ne zha. the following is a detailed analysis of the differences between the subtitled version and the dubbing version of ne zha in three dimensions: linguistic dimension, culture dimension and communicative dimension. although this paper lists three dimensions for discussion, sometimes the two versions are converted in two or three dimensions at the same time, so the analysis of these dimensions is not strictly separated during the discussion. 3. three-dimensional analysis 3.1 the linguistic dimension by comparison, it is found that the text conciseness of subtitle and dubbing versions is very similar. first of all, the author uses antconc corpus software and microsoft word software to count the number of words and finds that the dubbing version contain slightly more words. the english spelling of the subtitle version is ne zha with a space in the middle, while the dubbing version uses “nezha”, with no space. to reflect the actual number of words more truly, the researcher changed all the english spellings of “ne zha” in the two versions into nezha and compared the number of words. after this processing, it is found that the number of types and tokens in the dubbing version is 2.7% more than that in the subtitle version, with the difference being small. according to the calculation made by microsoft word, the number of words in the dubbing version is 1.7% more than that in the subtitle version. antconc treats words with apostrophes such as “won't” as two separate words, so the number of figures counted is more than that counted by word. by comparing the word frequency lists, it is found that the top ten words in the list are almost equivalent in the two versions, which shows that the basic vocabulary usage of the two communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 5 versions is similar. when the list was examined further down, it is found that the dubbing version contains 71 “huh?”, but the subtitle version does not have this word. this shows the difference between the subtitles and dubbing, that is, dubbing can express questions or rhetorical questions through voice intonation, to achieve the purpose of conveying information. table 1: comparison between the subtitled version and the dubbing version types (antconc) tokens (antconc) words (ms) the top ten words on the frequency list subtitle 1418 7687 7385 you, the, i, to, ’t, a, it, is, of, and, dubbing 1456 7894 7505 you, i, the, ’s, to, it, and, ’t, a, that after carefully comparing the two versions sentence by sentence, great differences were found in the textual content of the two versions. the dubbing version is more colloquial, while the subtitling version is larger and more difficult. the definition of big and difficult words means that these words appear less frequently in english. the following is an example showing the difference of vocabulary use between the subtitle and dubbing versions. example 1 chinese: shīfu pài wǒ hé shīdì qián qù shōufú (02:03:62) subtitles: my master sent me and a fellow discipline to subordinate it. dubbing: so my master, the supreme lord of heaven, sent my brother and i to put a stop to the chaos. in the above example, for the translation of the original chinese word “shōufú”, the subtitle version uses the formal word subdue, while the dubbing version uses “put a stop”, an informal colloquial phrase. also, the dubbing version adds explanatory information “the supreme lord of heaven”, to the translation of “master”, so that the audience can better understand the master's status and why the master can send them to complete tasks. in the cultural dimension, this information is added to the translation to adapt to the cultural environment of the target language. the author invited a native english speaker (british, adult, male, numbered: nativee) and a near-native english speaker (chinese, adult, male, numbered: nearn) to compare the predicate verbs of the corresponding sentences in the two versions one by one, and calculated the number of large words and small words in the two versions. the list is as follows. the chi-square test of these 87 samples with spss shows that the corresponding significance p-value is 0.000 (close to 0)<0.05, which indicates that the frequency of using large and small words in these two versions is different and statistically significant. in the linguistic dimension, the dubbing language is colloquial and easy to understand. from the perspective of communication, dubbing emphasizes communication, namely, communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 6 entertainment, focusing on helping the audience understand the dialogues and making them laugh. table 2: use of large vocabulary in two translated versions from the above data analysis, it can be seen that the big-word style in subtitle translation is more in line with the linguistic dimension of the original chinese, while the dubbed small word style is more suitable for the linguistic dimension of the english target language targeting the children audience. the subtitle translation of ne zha retains the language style of chinese as much as possible and adapts to the language style of the target language to a limited extent. this shows that translators made adaptive choices of the language forms in the process of translation. that is to say, in subtitle translation, the language features of chinese are fully transferred in english subtitles; however, dubbing translation is more suitable for the ecological environment of the target language, and it is more flexible in the linguistic dimension. 3.2 the cultural dimension the translation of movie dialogues is a communicative action across cultural differences. as a part of the film, film dialogues are also the carrier of culture. due to cultural differences, if the translation works do not effectively transmit cultural meanings, the works will not adapt to the cultural system of the target language translation ecological environment, which may lead to a communication failure. in the translation of swear words, the subtitle version uses literal translation, while the dubbing version tones down or omits those words. for example, in the mandarin version of the movie, there are such rude words as “niǎo mìng”,”qù sǐ ba”,”bài gè pì”, and”gǒupì”, and in the english subtitle version, they were translated as similar swear words: “screw you”, “go to hell with that” and “bull shit”. in the dubbing version, all these rude words are omitted, while the feelings or opinions expressed in the rude words are translated in non-taboo language. for example (see below), “screw you” in the subtitle version is a very impolite phrase in english, which expresses the attitude of “not accepting fate”, while the dubbing version directly expresses this attitude of “not accepting fate” without swearing. example 2: chinese: qù nǐ gè niǎo mìng subtitle: screw you! dubbing: 'cause it is not the boss of me. version large voc. frequency small voc. frequency total number nativee nearn nativee nearn subtitles 81 80 6 7 87 dubbing 6 7 81 80 87 communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 7 the core concept discussed in the film is to fight against fate, not fearing other people's judgment. this film is told from the perspective of china and chinese culture. the film’s transmission overseas can help more people understand chinese people and chinese culture. although the animation’s visual effect is on a par with that of the west, the film contains cultures unfamiliar to american audiences. if the audience does not know much about chinese people or mythology, they will not be able to understand cultural-specific jokes and stories. there are many references or lines similar to stephen chow's films in the story, such as “bù zhīdào wǒ néng bùnéng káng dé zhù”,”fàng kāi nàgè nǚhái” and so on. when dealing with these lines, the dubbing version uses free translation, and the meanings are quite different from the original chinese text. the following example illustrates how the line “tāmen jūrán néng káng dào xiànzài,” similar to that in one of stephen chow's movie, was translated. example 3: chinese: tāmen jūrán néng káng dào xiànzài. bù xiǎodé jiā shàng wǒ, dǐng bù dǐng dé zhù. subtitles: i can't believe they're still holding on. if i jump in, i wonder if they'll survive. dubbing: how dare they not invite me to join in... i love a good party. stay strong, you two. in the above example, the subtitle version’s meaning is close to that of the original. in comparison, the dubbing version is more idiomatic and colloquial, conforming to english language habits. its meaning far from the original, but the communicative purpose is similar to that of the chinese original, namely, entertainment. the dubbed version focuses on helping the audience understand the dialogues and making them laugh. from the linguistic dimension, the language is colloquial and easy to understand. 3.3 communicative dimension besides the transformation of linguistic dimension and cultural dimension, ecotranslation also includes the adaptive selection transformation of communicative dimension, that is, adaptive selection and transformation of communicative intention between the source language and target language is needed. in the communicative dimension, the ecological environment of film translation focuses on factors such as the communication effect and commercial value of the source language and the target language. this adaptive choice transformation of communicative dimension requires the translator to “focus the adaptive selection on the communicative level and ensure the communicative intention in the source text is reflected in the target text” in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotation. (hu, 2013:237).” the communicative function of language in commercial movies can be understood as the function of arousing people's reaction, that is, entertainment function. if these different translation methods can be tailored to serve different target audiences, and achieve a communication effect similar to that of the original film, the maximum commercial value can be achieved, that is, the maximum communication function. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 8 to analyze the feedback and viewing needs of the audience, the author collected the comments the audience posted on the website of internet movie database (imdb, 2019). the viewers leaving their comments on imdb.com include both movie theater viewers and netflix viewers. in addition, the author interviewed three american netflix viewers whose native language is english. according to the analysis, it is discovered that the audience of american cinemas is mainly overseas chinese, as well as a minority of english-speaking audience who cannot speak chinese. the dubbed version is more suitable for non-chinese speakers looking for entertainment. the subtitle version is suitable for chinese culture fans, or chinese language learners who can listen to the mandarin audio and read the english subtitles to absorb the contents of the original film as much as possible. for example, a viewer named david m comments: the story is wonderful and the animation is excellent. if you watch it on netflix, even people like me who can't speak mandarin should watch the version with mandarin audio track and english subtitles. english dubbing [quality] is not worthy of such a good film, and it is far from subtitles. according to various comments on imdb, for those who want to learn chinese culture, they generally expect the subtitle version to convey chinese culture as completely as possible. however, the english subtitles of ne zha are fast, and reading those subtitles requires a high level of fast reading. for example, some viewers commented: “the subtitles can pass by very fast and/or get lost against the background, so get ready to read fast.” another viewer commented: “the freaking subtitle will blow your brains out, it's like decoding the entire story from start to finish! feels like your starting to learn english while still in your mom's tummy.” it can be seen that subtitles are not easy to read for every audience member. however, dubbing requires lip-synching, which requires more work for dubbing actors and translators. for example, a viewer commented: “i started watching dubbing, but i hated that the audio track didn't match the character's lips, so i immediately switched to the subtitle version.” it can be seen that the synchronization of audio track and lips is very important for some viewers to watch the dubbing version. therefore, high-quality dubbing production is also very important for film communication. although the dubbing production of the film is flawed in terms of lipsyncing, it was generally praised by the audience. for example, a viewer named westsideschl said: “english voicing, often shaky in asian films, was quite modern western & culturally appropriate.” one netflix viewer interviewed by the author said: “apart from some chinese names such as taiyi zhenren, the dubbed english is very idiomatic. the dubbing can score 9 points out of 10.” in this research, foreignization and literal translation used in the subtitled version, and free translation and communicative translation methods used in the dubbing version, are explained from the perspective of eco-translatology. the translators of the subtitle version chose to work within the constraints of the original text, while the dubbing version overturns its constraints. it can be seen that the translator has made different choices and adopted different translation strategies to adapt to the two small ecological environments. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 9 4. refining eco-translatology the purpose of the english translation of ne zha is to create income, publicize chinese culture and promote the development of the animation industry. based on the analysis, the subtitle and dubbing translations of the movie ne zha have well realized the transformation of linguistic dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, and the translated texts have well adapted to the translation ecological environment. the translation of the film assists in the transmission of the film, thus achieving the functions of entertainment and china's “international communication”, and increasing the audience's positive impression of china. interpreting the differences between english subtitles and dubbing from the perspective of “three-dimensional transformation” in eco-translatology can help us better understand the translation process and results of the film, and provide a great reference for similar cultural communication in the future. according to the eco-translatology viewpoint, translation success is determined by the translator's degree of transformation in these three dimensions. the higher the degree of “three-dimensional transformation”, that is, the higher the degree of “degree of holistic adaptation and selection”, the better the quality of the translation (hu, 2004:214). in the dubbing translation of commercial films, the adaptive choice transformation in the communicative dimension is the key point in three-dimensional transformation. it is especially necessary to ensure that the communicative intention of the original film (that is, entertainment and creating commercial value) is reflected in the translation to create economic benefits. hu gengshen believes that translation should not only minimize the ecological damage of the original text but also best maintain the ecology of the translated text (hu, 2013:240). due to the film rating system in america, the dubbing of ne zha eliminates swearing words, adapts the culture in the source language, and makes a large number of dialogues colloquial, which damages the ecology in the original text to a great extent, but the translation achieves a better effect in the target language context. therefore, to evaluate whether the dubbing translation of ne zha is the best, we should not only look at whether it keeps the original ecology, but more importantly, whether it adapts to the translation ecology. as for the communicative function, hu gengshen did not define it in detail in his book eco-translatology, while nida's exposition discussed it more deeply. hu gengshen translated his term “jiāojì wéi” as “communicative dimension” in glossary, the main terms of eco-translatology in appendix 2 of his book. communication here is the activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people information. and what is communication in commercial movies? what does a film production company want to communicate with the audience? the definition of communication needs to be broadened for the research of film communication. in its broad sense, it is emotional communication through visual and auditory stimulation, arousing audience resonance and entertaining audience. nida maintains that “translation is a kind of communication” and “the meaning and intention of the original text must be clearly reflected” (nida, 1969). nida made a comprehensive analysis of his “functional equivalence” theory from all aspects, and put forward that “translation is communication”. nida included the reader communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 10 response theory, and fully considered the receptive ability of target readers. the author believes that nida's functional equivalence theory can better explain the communicative dimension transformation of english subtitles and dubbing in ne zha. given the commercial nature of the movie ne zha, using the concept of translation economics for reference will help increase the understanding of the translation of ne zha. from the perspective of translation economics, the subtitle and dubbing translation of ne zha is “both an investment and a commodity (xu, 2014:35)”. the cost of dubbing was relatively low because no tv or movie celebrities were invited to do the dubbing. the distributor was cautious and did not allow much additional expense, hoping to get a certain amount of profits with limited investment. in terms of the economic benefits of film translation in north america, the subtitle translation product is more suitable for the cultural needs of the niche market (chinese cultural fans), while the goal of dubbing translation is to meet the needs of the public. ne zha’s box office in the us exceeded three million dollars, while other chinese animations brought to america such as journey to the west: return of the great sage, and white snake: origin, grossed less than one million dollars. so in comparison, ne zha has made great progress in economic profits. although the success of a chinese film in north america is closely related to the quality of the film itself, the role of translation cannot be underestimated. the success of chinese film culture export largely depends on subtitles and dubbing. references box office mojo. (2020). ne zha (2019). from https://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt10627720/?ref_=bo_gr_ti hu, g. (2004). translation adaptation and selection theory (in chinese) [翻译适应选择 论]: hubei education press. hu, g. (2008). examining translation theory from the perspective of terminology: an overview of translation adaptation and selection theory (in chinese) [从术语看译论 ——翻译适应选择论概观]. shanghai translation, 0(2), 1-5. hu, g. (2013). eco-translatology: construction and interpretation. (in chinese). [ 生态 翻译学: 建构与诠释]. beijing: the commercial press imdb. (2019). ne zha. from https://www.imdb.com/title/tt10627720/ nida, e. a. t., charles r. . (1969). the theory and practice of translation: leiden: e. j. brill. vermeer hans, j. (1989). skopos and commission in translational action. the translation studies reader, 221-232. xu, j. (2014). translation economics (chinese) [翻译经济学]: national defense industry press. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/title/tt10627720/?ref_=bo_gr_ti http://www.imdb.com/title/tt10627720/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 11 zhang, y. (2020, 2020-08-29 ). a dialogue with the film translator jia xiuyan (in chinese) [与电影字幕翻译贾秀琰对谈], the paper ((澎湃新闻)). retrieved from https://www.thepaper.cn/newsdetail_forward_8913150 this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. http://www.thepaper.cn/newsdetail_forward_8913150 01.v02issue01.05.2022.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 1 chinese-to-english metaphor translation in ecological discourse from the perspective of relevance theory haihong xie1 1 college of foreign language studies, guilin university of technology, guilin, guangxi, china, e-mail: 853931433@qq.com abstract metaphors in chinese ecological discourses convey the ecological concept, culture, and philosophy with chinese characteristics. this study attempts to explore metaphor english translation strategy and method in terms of the subtitles of an ecological documentary song of life (shēng mìng zhī gē) under the guidance of the relevance theory. it is found that 1) both direct and indirect translation strategies were adopted along with four different metaphor translation methods: metaphor vehicle retention ranking first (most frequently used), followed by metaphor vehicle omission, conversion, and addition in a descending order; 2) these four translation methods in their own context ensure that an optimal relevance between the chinese metaphor and its english translation is achieved in the ostensive-inferential process to help the audience understand the chinese ecological ideas. finally, two suggestions of metaphor english translation are put forward for translators who involve themselves in chinese ecological discourse translations. keywords: relevance theory, optimal relevance, song of life, metaphor translation 1. introduction with the continuous progress of china’s ecological civilization construction, chinese ecological discourse works are bountiful in multi-modal forms. song of life ( / shēng mìng zhī gē ) is a large-scale ecological documentary jointly produced by china central television and yunnan province to welcome the 15th conference of the parties to the united nations convention on biological diversity on november 30, 2021. china’s unique ecological wisdom, the documentary intends to send a message that while china is promoting modernization in the new era, it also pays attention to the construction of ecological civilization. it is worth noting that, as an international documentary film for overseas, its subtitles are full of metaphorical arts. (note 1) subtitle translation is a way of pragmatic communication and cultural transmission; and the english translation of the chinese subtitles aims to transmit chinese culture abroad through pragmatic communication. this documentary produced by china cctv is a crystal of chinese wisdom, showcasing rich and flexible translation strategies and methods of ecological discourse with chinese characteristics, which demonstrates the continuous progress in the translation and dissemination of chinese ecological discourse. by selecting the subtitles of our homeland ( / wǒ mēn dē jiā yuán) in song of life as the research corpus, this paper intends to analyze the strategies and methods of the english translation of subtitle metaphors from the perspective of pragmatic relevance theory. 2. theoretical bases 2.1 relevance theory and translation the most important theoretical research of studying translation from the perspective of pragmatics is relevance theory (xu & liu, 2021). relevance theory was first proposed by sperber &wilson (1995) in relevance: communication and cognition, first developed from the relevance principle in the grice’s cooperative principle, which treats the communicative behavior of language as an “ostensive-inferential” process. this process includes two aspects (speaker and hearer )of communication, involving information processing by the speaker and the hearer. the speaker provides the hearer with certain information through ostensive communication behavior. from the perspective of speaker, communication is an unmistakable signaling process; from the perspective of the hearer, it is an inferential process; that is, the hearer infers the speaker’s communicative intention through the information explicitly provided by him (huang & sun, 2011). the earliest application of relevance theory to translation studies was wilson’s student gutt. he emphasized that the most important principle to grasp in the communicative behavior of translation is to find the optimal relevance (gutt, 2004). relevant translation theory regards translation as a cognitive reasoning act and a communicative behavior involving brain mechanisms. this communicative act consists of two explicit-reasoning processes: (1) the author of the original text communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 2 expresses their communicative intention to the translator, and the translator, as a reader, cognitively obtains the best connection based on the information, logic and encyclopedic knowledge in their own mind; (2) the translator, as a communicator, conveys the author’s explicit and communicative intention to the reader of the translation, while the reader of the translation has to reason according to the information, logic and encyclopedic knowledge in the brain provided by the translation, in order to obtain the best association with minimal reasoning effort (bo & sun, 2007). as for the second ostensive-inferential process, the translator plays the role of expressing rather than inferring, that is, in order to reduce the target reader’s reasoning effort and match his expectations, the translator should make the original translation clear enough (huang & sun, 2011). gutt (2004) also pointed out that the extent of the association is affected by the cognitive reasoning effort and the contextual effect. under the same conditions, a stronger association comes up with better contextual effect and less reasoning effort, and vice versa (xu & liu, 2021). in other words, relevance is proportional to the contextual effect and inversely proportional to the cognitive reasoning effort expended. therefore, what the translator needs to do is to “seek the best correlation from the communicative behaviors expressed by the original communicator, and then pass this correlation to the receptor; that is to say, the translator transmits his own understanding to the receptor” (zhao, 1999). 2.2 metaphor and translation metaphor was first regarded as a rhetorical device; then the publication of the book metaphors we live by by lakoff & johnson in 1980s changed that. metaphor study was then ushered into a newly cognitive field. lakoff & johnson (1980) believe that metaphor is a way of cognition and conceptualization, a dual-domain mapping from the source domain to the target domain, and metaphors are everywhere in people’s life. metaphors not only reflect but also construct reality. furthermore, they influence and construct our perception and understanding of things, and prompt us to act (chen, 2014). metaphor translation has always been the focus of academic circles. gutt (2004) mentioned two main strategies in translation and relevance: cognition and context, direct translation strategy and indirect translation strategy. direct translation depends on the similarity between two languages, keeping both the content and the style of the two languages similar as much as possible; indirect translation is more suitable for a situation that there are a large number of gaps between the source language and the target language. therefore, in the case of retaining the basic literal meaning of the source language, the translator translates appropriately with expressions in the source language. metaphor translation is a crucial part of translation, which tests the translator’s skill of finding the optimal relevance with the author’s ostensive behavior of the source language, and of employing various translation strategies to convey the relevance to the audience. in this process, the translator becomes the subject of ostensive behavior, and the audience the subject of reasoning. the method of metaphor translation has always been under the spotlight of plenty of scholars around the world. for example, newmark (2001) proposed several methods for metaphor translation such as recurrence of metaphorical images, replacement of metaphorical images, conversion of metaphors into similes, omission of metaphors and etc. huang & sun (2011) summed up five metaphor translation methods from the perspective of relevance theory: 1) metaphor -> simile with metaphor ground (wang, 2007); 2) metaphor -> metaphor; 3) metaphor -> metaphor ground; 4) translation with footnotes; 5) non-metaphorical -> metaphorical. lu & chen (2020) explored the translation strategies and methods of chinese political discourse metaphors from keywords to understanding china (china international publishing group & china academy of translation, 2016), and summarized four english translation methods of metaphors: metaphor retention, replacement, omission, and addition in translation. the methods of metaphor translation that used by the scholars mentioned above have been list in table 1, from which it can be sorted out that four kinds of methods of metaphor translation are image (metaphor vehicle) retention, conversion, omission, and addition. (note 2) table 1 methods of metaphor translation used by different researchers lu & chen (2020) huang & sun (2011) newmark (2001) metaphor retention metaphor -> simile with metaphor ground; metaphor -> metaphor (with shared metaphorical culture); translation with footnotes conversion of metaphors into similes; recurrence of metaphorical images metaphor conversion metaphor -> metaphor (without shared metaphorical culture) replacement of metaphorical images; metaphor omission metaphor -> metaphor ground omission of metaphors metaphor addition non-metaphorical -> metaphorical communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 3 metaphor retention of lu & chen is a method that the metaphor vehicle of the source text is saved in translation to help readers’ direct understanding of the source text. the three methods that huang and sun summarized and two methods that newmark summed function the same in essence as metaphor retention to keep the metaphor vehicle staying put. metaphor conversion means replacing the metaphor vehicle in the source text with a familiar one in the target text. it is what huang and sun concluded that the metaphor is converted into another metaphor with a different vehicle. metaphor omission is to discard the metaphor vehicle to explicitly convey the essential meaning of the metaphor expression in case that there is no such metaphor vehicle suitable in the current context. and finally metaphor addition means adding a metaphor vehicle to better explicate the connotation of the original text. such four kinds of methods of metaphor translation are adopted by the translator to maximize the relevance of the reader to the original text, then to minimize the reader’s efforts to associate with the meaning of the original metaphor expression, and finally to help the reader get an utmost accurate understanding of the connotation that the author of the source text wants to express. metaphors exist in all discourses; however, few ecological metaphor discourses have been studied till now. texts or discourses mainly aim for pragmatic communication, which endows ecological metaphor discourse a responsibility of crosscultural communication. therefore, this study, taking an ecological discourse (a documentary) – song of life – as a corpus, attempts to explore what metaphor-translating strategies and methods this documentary deploys and whether those translation methods help build an optimal relevance between the source and target discourses for cultural communication. and finally to better the dissemination of the chinese culture some suggestions for metaphor english translation are provided for an optimal relevance. 3. exemplification of english translation strategies of metaphors in our homeland from the perspective of relevance theory 3.1 statistics on metaphor translation strategies and methods according to gutt (2004), there are two metaphor translation strategies: direct translation and indirect translation, namely literal translation and free translation. and according to the previous studies, metaphor (vehicle) retention, omission, conversion, and addition are the main four metaphor translation methods to achieve the optimal relevance from the perspective of cognitive metaphor as it is mentioned in section 2.2. for the brevity of naming, this study refers to the naming that lu & chen (2020) give to the four metaphor translation methods. with a series of metaphor identification and annotation, the metaphor translation methods used in our homeland were identified, and the results are shown in table 2. after this, a detailed explanation for each category of the four metaphorical translation methods will be exemplified. table 2 statistical table of metaphorical translation strategies and methods in our homeland translation strategy translation method example cases (percentage %) literal translation metaphor retention (lǜ shǔi qīng shān jiù shì jīn shān yín shān): green water and green mountains are golden and silver mountains (bèi yù wéi zhí wù dē nuò yà fāng zhōu) referred to as the noah’s ark of plants 27(61) free translation metaphor omission (rèn shí tā de lú shān zhēn miàn mù) know who they are 14(32) metaphor conversion (chūn tiān dē yǔ lǜ cuī cù zhē chá shù fā chū xīn yá) the dew in spring is an impetus for the tea trees sprout. 2(5) metaphor addition (fǎng fú yǒng héng yì bān dē xún huán wǎng fù) like an eternal cycle 1(2) total 44(100) 3.2 exemplification of english translation strategies of metaphors in the documentary the literal translation of metaphor guarantees the content and form of the source language metaphor consistent, though it is not a word-for-word translation. minor adjustments and revisions can be made to achieve the optimal relevance between the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 4 target audience and the source language author with the minimal effort. the main translation method in metaphor direct translation is metaphor retention. free translation of metaphor is a translation strategy adopted when the source language is metaphorically expressed in the target language culture while the literal translation cannot help convey the metaphorical meaning of the source language or will increase the reader’s reasoning effort. three methods mainly used of the free translation for metaphor include metaphor omission, metaphor conversion, and metaphor addition. 1.2.1 metaphor retention metaphor retention is used firstly when the metaphor is shared by both two cultures; that is, tenor and vehicle in a metaphor can be directly mapped from one domain to the other, and secondly when some certain purpose like underlining the culture difference is needed. it can be seen from table 2 that metaphor retention is the one used most frequently among the four english translation methods for the subtitle metaphor in our homeland. e.g., (note 3) translation example 1. source text: source text romanized: rú jīn bǎi huā lǐng rén cái zhēn zhèng tǐ huì dào lē lǜ shǔi qīng shān jiù shì jīn shān yín shān target text: at present, people who live in baihualing find the true meaning of “the deep meaning of green water and green mountains are golden and silver mountains”. translation example 2. source text: 7.9 source text romanized: zhè lǐ shì zhōng guó xī nán yě shēng shēng wù zhǒng zhì zī yuán kù, 7.9 wàn fèn zhí wù zhǒng zī bèi fēng cún zài zhè lǐ, bèi yù wéi zhí wù dē nuò yà fāng zhōu target text: 79000 plant seeds are sealed here. it is referred to as the noah’s ark of plants. (note 4) the conceptual metaphor in the first example is green water and green mountain is golden and silver mountain. the tenor in the metaphor is “green water and green mountain”, which is likened to the vehicle of “golden and silver mountain”. this metaphor, meaning that protecting nature brings people continuous benefits, comes from the important concept first proposed by the general secretary of the chinese communist party xi jinping when he was the secretary of the zhejiang provincial party committee during his investigation in yucun, anji county, zhejiang province. although this metaphor is an expression with chinese characteristics, the concept words “landscape, gold and silver” shared by chinese and western cultures make their metaphorical meaning easy to understand. translating the chinese metaphor vehicle “ (jīn shān yín shān)” as “golden and silver mountains” directly builds a bridge of connotation with an optimal relevance between the target audience and the original author, and also conveys the cultural characteristics of the source language. moreover, a direct translation of such kind of metaphor conceals an aim of spreading the foreignness of the chinese culture abroad. in the second example, the conceptual metaphor is germplasm bank is noah’s ark. the metaphor vehicle “noah’s ark”, however, is different from that kind of example 1, since the vehicle of noah’s ark originally belongs to western culture. as a symbol of sanctuary, noah’s ark derives from the bible which tells that god assigned noah to build a ship that protects people from flood. in this sentence, the author intends to express that the germplasm bank of wild species in southern china is a hub with abundant plant seeds, which can prevent the extinction of plant species in the world. therefore, this bank is similar to the function of noah’s ark in the bible. since the vehicle of the metaphor in the source language is “noah’s ark”, culturally consistent with the target language, the audience hardly needs any reasoning to understand the source text. so, it is the best choice to save the metaphor vehicle the noah’s ark in the target text to achieve the optimal relevance between the target audience’s reasoning and the source author’s explicit results and to facilitate the readers’ highly-efficient understanding of the chinese metaphor. 1.2.2 metaphor omission metaphor omission is also frequently adopted in the c-e translation of metaphors in the section. this method is mainly used in the case where the metaphor vehicle of the source language culture misses in the target language one, and at the same time there is no synonymous vehicles to replace the source one. or it is deployed purposely to disseminate the metaphorical meaning straightforward. e.g., translation example 3. source text: (note 5) source text romanized: ràng wǒ mēn kàn yī kàn, rèn shí tā de lú shān zhēn miàn mù communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 5 target text: we can have a look at them and know who they are. this metaphor originates from a yunnan villager when he was interviewed after seeing that the asian elephants from afar had eaten his crops. the conceptual metaphor in this example can be inferred as asian elephant is mount lu. "the real face of mount lu ( /lú shān zhēn miàn mù)" is an ancient chinese verse, from su shi’s poem “i don’t know the real look of mount lu because i am over there”( , /bù shí lú shān zhēn miàn mù, zhǐ yuán shēn zài cǐ shān zhōng), which is featured with the unique chinese culture. “true look of mount lu” means the original appearance of something. given a lack of the culture of the metaphor vehicle “lushan” in western culture, it is difficult to find a suitable metaphorical expression corresponding to western culture. besides, this metaphor came from a character’s oral language, so for the purpose of brevity, the metaphor is omitted in the target line to achieve an optimal relevance between the target audience and source author through free translation. 1.2.3 metaphor conversion metaphor conversion refers to the method of conversing a metaphor in the source language into a new metaphor in the target language. this translation method is rarely used in the corpus examined in this study because it has plentiful restrictions when applied. whether the two cultures partially overlap in terms of metaphorical expression is still a question, and even if there is such an overlap, it is not reasonable and appropriate to do metaphor-replacing since the number of metaphors that can be fully consistent across cultures is limited (huang & sun, 2011). there are only two sentences in the documentary taking this translation method, and here is one of them. translation example 4. source text: source text romanized: chūn tiān dē yǔ lǜ cuī cù zhē chá shù fā chū xīn yá target text: the dew in spring is an impetus for the tea trees sprout. at the first glance, it is hard to find out the metaphor vehicle directly in the source text of this example because the vehicle is replaced by the other expression with the quality of the covert metaphor vehicle. however, after inferring, the vehicle can be identified as “people”, and the conceptual metaphor of the original text of this example is dews in spring are people in hurry, which means that all lives in nature are full of vitality in spring. here, the source domain “people” is replaced by the target one “impetus”, which preliminarily is a physical term referring to the driving force. since english culture has the metaphorical expression of "a is an impetus for b", while chinese culture does not, in order to make the meaning stay put, the metaphor in the source language is converted into another metaphorical expression that is familiar to the people who live in the target language culture, so as to shorten the gap for readers to understand and to achieve the optimal relevance with the source language author and understand the source language metaphorical meaning. 1.2.4 metaphor addition finally, metaphor translation can also adopt a reverse translation strategy, that is, adding metaphors in the target language which are missing in the source language. this target-text-oriented strategy is an extension of the source text, helping achieve greater relevance and better contextual effects, and considers more about the target language reader (huang & sun, 2011). however, this method of the english translation is the least used in this corpus, and there is only one case listed as below: translation example 5. source text: source text romanized: shān lù mián mián bù jué, tā fǎng fú yǒng héng yì bān dē xún huán wǎng fù target text: the mountain road is endless, like an eternal cycle. in this example, the conceptual metaphor the mountain road is an eternal cycle hides in this source text. in order to pass the non-metaphorical meaning of “reciprocity” to the target language audience, the translator adds a vivid and explicit new metaphorical vehicle “an eternal cycle” in the target language, helping the audience directly get the idea of what the source text means, which is more acceptable for the target language readers. adding such an explicit metaphor vehicle facilitates the readers to understand the source text quickly and accurately, cutting much effort for the target audience’s reasoning. 4. two implications for the translation of chinese ecological discourse the metaphorical english translation of our homeland provides the following two implications for the translation of chinese ecological discourse: communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 6 first of all, the principle of faithfulness needs to be followed in the english translation of chinese ecological discourse metaphors. it is actually why metaphor omission is applied so frequently that it ranks second among the four translation methods. yan fu, a well-known chinese translation master put forward three standards of translation “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” (wu & jiang, 2021), among which faithfulness as the basic principle requires translation text “faithful” to the connotation and the expression of the source one. connotation faithfulness means that the english translation of metaphors must, first of all, ensure an unchanged meaning of the metaphor. however, the metaphor itself carries much more meaning than its form presents, so that translation of metaphor drains time and energy. to achieve a better effect of the translation, the form of that metaphor will be omitted usually only to save the basic meaning of the metaphor, especially in such case that there is no such expression of the original metaphor. besides, subtitles of the documentary fleets so fast that too many metaphor expressions saved will leave the translation space insufficient. and finally the target-text readers need to put into much more efforts for an optimal relevance from the ostensive behavior of the source language author. so, on such normal occasions, omitting the missing metaphorical expression in the target language makes an optimal relevance between the source text and the target text. second, foreignness has to be guaranteed in english translation of metaphor when metaphor connotation between the source text and the target one gains optimal relevance. song of life, produced to transmit chinese ecological concepts, is an ecological documentary with chinese ecological philosophy,. in this documentary all language expressions including these metaphors carry a different culture from that of countries abroad, aiming for chinese culture transmission. therefore, among these four methods, metaphor retention was deployed most frequently. bhabha (1994) reckoned that the “foreign” element reveals the interstitial…that has to be engaged in creating the conditions through which “newness comes into the world”. the “newness” or “foreignness” of the source language emphasizes its cultural difference from the target one yearning for a cultural realm of the country who speaks that language. to complete the mission of spreading chinese culture internationally, the translator needs the foreignization strategy as a guide during the translation work. this translation strategy is well-advocated by venuti (1995), who considers it to be “an ethnodeviant pressure on [targetlanguage cultural] values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad”. that is to say, the translated text under the guidance of foreignization is responsible for attracting foreign readers’ attention to chinese culture. with both retentions of internal meaning and external form of the metaphor in this documentary, the audience of the english subtitles can link their inference maximally to what the author of the chinese ones; meanwhile, typical chinese ecological concepts underlying in these chinese metaphor expressions can be understood and transmitted to another culture. 5. conclusion the construction of ecological civilization has been highlighted unprecedentedly in state governance and administration since the 18th national congress of the communist party of china (li, 2020). metaphor is not only a cognitive model but also a complex linguistic and cultural phenomenon (huang & sun, 2011). metaphors in chinese ecological discourse reflect unique chinese culture and philosophy. china’s ecological discourse competitiveness in today’s international community needs help foreign translation of discourse. however, metaphorical discourses cannot be simply translated literally to realize sending chinese culture abroad; on the contrary, specific translation strategies and methods should be seriously considered. this study examines the metaphor translation strategies and methods of our homeland in the chinese ecological documentary song of life and explores how these different methods of translating chinese metaphors facilitate an optimal relevance between the target readers and the author of the source subtitles from the perspective of cognitive translation studies. it is found that among the translation methods, metaphor retention is most frequently applied, then metaphor omission, followed by metaphor conversion and addition. this result shows that chinese ecological discourse mainly deploys the translation strategy of foreignization for cultural output. superficially, there is some attenuation of the relevance between the source text and the target one because of the cultural gap. but due to the universality of the ecological expressions to some extent and the similarity of the form of the metaphor, the audience of this documentary can obtain an optimal relevance during their own referential processing. also, despite that translators have achieved the optimal relevance between the target audience and the original author by adopting the different translation methods mentioned above when translating different metaphors, it should be pointed out that these methods cannot be adopted without any conditions. before choosing translation strategies and methods, translators are suggested to first identify necessary factors such as translation purposes, target audiences, text types, and styles; otherwise, the context and relevant effects of the translation will be damaged. references communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 7 bhabha, h. (1994). the location of culture: routledge. bo, z., & sun, y. (2007). research achievements and development trends of related translation in china( ). foreign languages and foreign language teaching( ), 09, 57-59. chen, x. (2014). metaphors as rhetorical discourse: chinese-english differences and translation (in chinese, : ). journal of fuzhou university (philosophy and social sciences edition) ( ( )), 28(02), 85-89. china international publishing group & china academy of translation. (2016). keywords to understanding china (the first series) ( ( )): new world press ( ). gutt, e.-a. (2004). translation and relevance: cognition and context: shanghai foreign language education press. huang, l., & sun, f. (2011). metaphor translation strategies from the perspective of relevance theory( ). guizhou literature and history series( ), 3, 84-88. doi:10.14040/j.cnki.521004/k.2011.03.008. lakoff, g., & johnsen, m. (1980). metaphors we live by: the university of chicago press. li, k. 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(2020). an english translation of the concept of metaphors in museum introductions: taking shaanbo calendar as an example( ). shanghai translation( ), (03), 34-39. venuti, l. (1995). the translator’s invisibility: a history of translation: routledge. wu, g., & jiang, y. (2021). a textual research on the sources of yan fu’s "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" and reinterpretation of its translation significance( “ ” ). chinese translation( ), 42(03), 50-56+191. wang, y. (2007). cognitive linguistics( ): shanghai foreign language education press ( ). xu, y., & liu, y. (2021). a review of translation studies in domestic pragmatics: current situation and trends ( : ). journal of changchun normal university( ), 40(09), 93-100. zhao, y. (1999). the explanatory power of relevance theory for translation( ). modern foreign languages( ), (03), 276-295. notes note 1: the website link of song of life is https://tv.cctv.com/2021/10/22/vide7k8agfejxafwaa6zyf3x211022.shtml. note 2: metaphor ground means the essential same quality between the tenor and the vehicle of a metaphor. note 3: the tenor is the thing being described and the vehicle is the figurative language you use to describe it. note 4: “it” here refers to “the germplasm bank of wild species in southern china”. note 5: “ (tā)” in the source text refers to the asian elephants seen by the villager. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ microsoft word 02issue2021 22 communication across borders: translation & interpreting issn 2766-791x vol. 1 no. 2; 2021 www.jhkpress.com “functional equivalence” cases in e-c translation of long sentences in est text and their implications to translation teaching hu cheng (程虎) school of foreign languages, binzhou university, china e-mail: chenghucn@163.com the research is financed by 1. science and technological development project of binzhou city（滨州市社会科学规划课 题 no.2015zc0118); 2. the art and science project of shandong culture department (山东省艺术科学重点课题 no. zx2015091); 3. key project of social science planning in binzhou (no.16-skzc-7); abstract english for science and technology (est) translation plays an increasingly significant role in the scientific field. compared with the general non-technical english, est is characterized by its extensive use of long sentences containing enormous amounts of information and complex structures. there are great differences in sentence patterns of est and of chinese for science and technology. through case studies, this paper explores the emerging “functional equivalence” cases in chinese translation of long sentences in est by analyzing the text hypotaxis-prominent english sentences, which are compact in structure. in contrast, parataxis-prominent chinese sentences are loose in structure. the paper induces that as the effect of est (one of the information typed texts) on the reader is more univocal than other texts because it aims to convey information to the reader and requires high accuracy. the paper argues that functional equivalence theory can guide the teaching of est translation due to the fact that it emphasizes the target reader’s response. keywords: functional equivalence theory; est long sentence; translation 1. introduction with the reform and opening-up of china, many western translation theories and standards have been introduced into the country. for example, peter newmark, one of the communicative school representatives, has made great contribution, arguing that communicative translation attempts to produce an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. in nida (1986) ’s view, translating activity consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style (hu, 1996). there are complex structures and varied modifiers in est long sentences, so it is more difficult for readers to grasp the meaning of est long sentences. nida put forward functional equivalence theory and held that translation means reproducing resource message by most natural equivalent language from semantics to concept to get a more comprehensive understanding. this theory could act as a standard applied in the translation of est long sentences (he, 1998). in translation activity, it is necessary for translators to learn the function of the texts and understand the differences in expression between the source language and target language to achieve functional equivalence and ensure accuracy and objectivity of translation (gu, 2017). researches abroad and home are mostly based on functional equivalence theory or est long sentences separately and few combines them both. according to huang (2017), when translating est long sentences under the guidance of functional equivalence, these four strategies can be taken into consideration: reference, substitution, omission, and lexical articulation to achieve articulation and coherence in the translation. this paper makes a general description of est and its characteristics from the syntactical level of the long sentence. it represents the application of functional equivalence in the translation of est long sentences and suggests translation methods on the rhetoric level under the guidance of nida’s functional equivalence. 2. functional equivalence theory in the 20th century, translation began to be studied scientifically and systematically. different schools of western translation theories have their own perspectives toward translation. as one of the most well-known translation theorists and linguists, eugene a. nida puts an emphasis on the outcome of what the reader has received. the emphasis on the outcome is more suitable for translating materials requiring higher accuracy. 23 2.1 definition of functional equivalence theory according to nida, in translation “functional equivalence” should be achieved between two languages rather than the rigid correspondence of words. this theory states that translating is a communicating process, and what the reader has received is emphasized. “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the sourcelanguage message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”（nida and taber 1969：12） that is to say, nida believes that the meaning of translation is more important than the form. 2.2 the development of functional equivalence theory the development process of functional equivalence theory can be generalized into three phases (fang, 1989). in the first phase is from 1959-1964, translators emphasized the connection between “dynamic equivalence” and “formal equivalence.” in 1964, his book toward a science of translating first put forward the idea of “dynamic equivalence”, in which one should aim at establishing a dynamic relationship between receptor and message. in other words, dynamic equivalence gives priority to the receptor’s response with less consideration on the form. differently, formal equivalence pays much attention to the form of text. the second phase is from 1969 to 1984. in his book language, culture, and translation, nida (1969) clearly considers “dynamic equivalence” as “the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.” the concept “formal equivalence” was also replaced by the concept of “formal correspondence,” which is opposed to “dynamic equivalence.” the third phase is from 1984 to the present time. in 1986, “dynamic equivalence” was replaced by “functional equivalence” in nida and de waard’s co-authored book from one language to another. he pointed out that what makes “functional equivalence” unique is that it prioritizes the receptor’s response instead of the verbal consistency between the original and the receptor’s language. according to nida’s theory, “the focus of translation should not be the way of displaying, but to be the response of reader to the translated version” (tan, 1999), which should be contrasted with the possible response made by readers to the original text. 2.3 key points of functional equivalence theory there are three aspects in nida’s functional equivalence theory. the first one is lexical equivalence, the second one is syntactical equivalence, and the third one is discourse equivalence. nida (1978) suggests that meaning is the most important, and form comes the second among these three aspects. if the change of form is still not adequate for expressing the semantics and culture of the original text, the translation technique of reinvention can be used to solve the translation issues derived from cultural differences. 3. an introduction of english for science and technology 3.1 the classification of english for science and technology est (english for science and technology) covers a large scope. in english varieties and translation (文体与翻译), liu (1998) briefly described his opinion on est, arguing that est is generally written or spoken english regarding science and technology. he also attempted to classify est into five categories for a better analysis of their characteristics: 1. scientific and technological books, scientific research papers, scientific and technological reports, experimental reports and schemes; 2. all kinds of scientific and technological information and written materials; 3. manuals describing the structure and operation procedures of machines, instruments, meters, machinery, etc.; 4. terminology can be used in talks, meetings and conversations concerning science and technology; 5. oral commentary or written captions are used in scientific and technological films and videos. 3.2 previous research on translation of est it is believed that est first came into being in the 1950s, along with the development of science and technology. during the 1980s, studies on est translation and theory were comprehensively conducted. a large number of papers about est translation study were published in china’s highly influential journal chinese translators (中国翻译), founded in 1979) in order to explore translation theory and to find efficient translating skills. the journal discusses extensively the translation of pragmatic styles. another journal on translation is the chinese science and technology translators journal (中国科技翻 译) founded in 1988. as a leading journal for est, the journal aims to encourage the study of theory and practice of translation, facilitate the study on est translation. est translation study advanced enormously in1980s thanks to the abovementioned journals as a platform. li (2009) believed that the terms, logic, formulas, tables and numbers in est texts should be understood and translated accurately; est translators should express concisely and smoothly and conform to the international standards when rendering style, terms, abbreviations, symbols, formulas and measurements, etc. from a stylistic perspective, fang (1989) 24 pointed out that literal style and technical style are interpenetrated due to translators’ emotional expressions in certain types of est translation. therefore, est translation can be persuasive rather than uncreative and unimaginative. 3.3 syntactic characteristics and long sentences of est compared with literary language, est has remarkable linguistic features, mainly in two aspects: lexical and syntactic. many technical terms can be found in the lexical aspect, which requires translators to consult the relevant professional books to a great extent. words are the basic units of sentences, according to statistical material. in est articles, on average, the number of words in an est sentence is from 20 to 30. est is more academic, containing more words and compound sentences than other types of articles. 3.3.1 the differences between english and chinese long sentences english is hypotaxis-prominent, while chinese is parataxis-prominent. english sentences are well structured, while chinese ones are loosely structured. english is used to putting the main point in the sentence-initial subject, then adding additional elements into it, while chinese is used to stating first and commenting then. a long sentence refers to a simple sentence that contains pretty phrases attributive and adverbial or refers to the subordinate clause that contains various clauses. est long sentence is more flexible in connection mode. nida points out that the accuracy of content should not be judged primarily in terms of “being true” to the author but is not causing misunderstanding of the message by those for whom the translation is intended. therefore, when translating an est long sentence into chinese, one should reorganize the sentence according to chinese means of expression so as to ensure natural translation. 3.3.2 syntactic characteristics of est generally speaking, est sentences are expressed in a well-organized and original structure to achieve a scientific style, objectivity, conciseness and formality. in some cases, one paragraph is even made up of one single sentence. in nida’s theory, functional equivalence translation is defined as “the closest natural equivalent to the source-language message.” in order to accurately understand the meaning of words, context must be taken into consideration. based on the study of est texts, there are several syntactic characteristics of est long sentences, including the wide use of nominalization structure, passive voice and non-finite verbs. 3.3.2.1 nominalization nominalization generally refers to the conversion from a verb or an adjective into a noun or noun phrase grammatically, which essentially conveys an equivalent meaning with its correspondent verb or adjective. considering the priority given to the receptor’s response, the content implied by the nominalization words should be preserved and efficiently communicated by making necessary formal changes that may even depart from the english text. therefore, converting noun phrases into other forms of the phrase will make the translation easier to understand for chinese receptors (see the following examples collected from the practical context). example 1 source text: harmonization of the definition of “producer,” “distributor,” “placing on the market” in all two directives would solve this problem. translation:一旦将两项法规中“生产者”和“分销商”，“投放市场”和“上市”的概念进行统一，这些问题将迎刃而 解。(yīdàn jiāng liǎng xiàng fǎguī zhōng “shēngchǎn zhě” hé “fēnxiāo shāng”, “tóufàng shìchǎng” hé “shàngshì” de gàiniàn jìnxíng tǒngyī, zhèxiē wèntí jiāng yíngrèn'érjiě.) -translation by the author cheng hu, same as below unless specified here in the english version, the nominalization of the verb “harmonize” is to lay stress on the action, thus making it the subject of the original sentence. due to the difference between the linguistic patterns of the two languages, however, english language conveys the same meaning in a way different than chinese. in order to avoid translationese, the translation converted the noun “harmonization” into its verb form “harmonize” and, most importantly, adopted an “if” adverbial clause. although the new sentence structure totally departs from the original text, it effectively reproduces the meaning of the message and is quite acceptable for chinese receptors. 3.3.2.2 passive voice passive voice is extensively used in est to emphasize objective facts and stress the most important information in the sentence. in est texts, most sentences are impersonal ones, because it usually makes a concise and objective description on the object, not emphasizing the behavior conductor. at least one-third of verbs in est texts use passive voice. in this way, the sentences seldom start with “i,” you,” or “the operator to show the subjective attitude of the source language (see the following example). 25 example 2 source text: when the exploration has been completed, all test holes and pits should be carefully filled to prevent human and stock injury and compacted to prevent leaks. translation: 勘察完成后，应仔细填实所有试验孔和实验坑，以防止人员和牲畜受伤，同时应将其压实以防 止泄露。(kān chá wán chéng hòu ，yīng zǐ xì tián shí suǒ yǒu shì yàn kǒng hé shí yàn kēng, yǐ fáng zhǐ rén yuán hé shēng chù shòu shāng , tóng shí yìng jiàng jī yà shí yǐ fáng zhǐ xiè lòu.) in this sentence, “has been completed” is translated as “完成后” (wán chéng hòu) instead of the directly translated version as “被完成,” because est texts focus on objectivity and authenticity of the expression, the translation ought to pay more emphasis on the meaning of the source text instead of linguistic structure. therefore, according to nida’s translation theory, this sentence should be translated using an active voice in chinese and keeping the original subject. 3.3.2.3 non-finite verbs est requires explicit and concise description, so the use of non-finite verbs is more frequent than daily english. infinitive verbs, participle and gerund, are usually adopted to replace the function of the clause (see the following example). example 3 source text: by the time of the montevideo meeting, ninety-eight countries had ratified the pop treaty, committing themselves to remove the “dirty dozen” chemicals from international commerce. translation: 在蒙得维的亚会议上，九十八个国家批准了《持久性有机污染物公约》，致力于将“十二金刚”这 些化学物质驱逐出国际贸易。(zài méng de wéi de yà huì yì shàng, jiǔ shí bā gè guó jiā pī zhǔn le chí jiǔ xìng yǒu jī wū rǎn wù gōng yuē , zhì lì yú jiàng “ shí èr jīn ɡānɡ ” zhè xiē huà xué wù zhì qū zhú chū ɡuó jì mào yì). in this sentence, “committing” is a present participial phrase that served as an adverbial modifier, complementing those ninety-eight countries’ efforts for the treaty. 4. application of functional equivalence theory in the teaching of est long sentence translation each language has its own special features; est is also no exception and has its own terminology, sentence order and patterns, unique discourse structures, etc. in the teaching of translation practice, many translation methods and skills are adopted so as to establish a relationship between the translated text (chinese) and its chinese receptor, which is expected to be substantially the same as the relationship between the original message (in english) and the english receptor. 4.1 the way of testing nida’s theory in est translation in nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translation of est is divided into two steps under the guidance of functional equivalence; that is, the lexical equivalence and the syntactic equivalence. in addition, the discourse equivalence is also highlighted in translation. at the lexical level, for the translator, the beginning of the translation process involves understanding the meaning of the words. scientific articles mainly deal with the science and technology arguments or illustrate some natural laws, scientific principles and phenomena. in order to make the translation more conforming to these professional words in a specialized field, the translator is required to devote more energy to accumulating and understanding more background knowledge. then syntactically, extensive use of passive voice is the most distinctive feature of est. generally speaking, the passive voice always puts more emphasis upon the subject to highlight the important science issues so as to accurately convey the scientific information in all-around aspects as far as possible to make the readers grasp the core points of the texts easily to achieve equivalence in syntactical level. the long and complex english sentence structure is featured with the use of a variety of modifiers, phrases, coordinate components and subordinate clauses; on the contrary, chinese prefer to use short sentences, relying on the inner meaning to express the logical relationship in the sentence. therefore, when translating long and difficult sentences, the translators should first read the whole sentence to grasp the core part of the sentence. that is to say, analyzing and finding out the subject, the predicate and object is the crucial premise to understand the whole sentence. what’s more, much consideration is needed to give the tense, voice and tone of the sentence. finally, appropriate, cohesive words should be selected to translate these difficult sentences. discourse is a specimen of linguistic material displaying structural and semantic coherence, unity and completeness (nida, 1964). as nida put forward, the discourse as a whole plays a role of conveying a message, which is also called the text. the discourse is the essence of grasping the whole text. the equivalence at the textual level is mainly manifested by cohesion and coherence. in order to achieve correspondence in meaning and equivalence in function between source and target texts, it is essential for the translator to attach great importance to the expression of logical relation as well as the reasonable organization of content. 26 on the strength of previous research findings, this paper concludes four methods as follows to apply functional equivalence theory in the teaching of translating est long sentences. 4.2 following the original order when the thought and meaning of est are consistent with those in chinese in the matter of logical thought, sentence structure and spatial-temporal order, it is necessary to follow the original order, which acts as the preferred method when translating est long sentences. syntactically, it is the method to achieve functional equivalence easily because it can reproduce original information both in semantic and style (see example 4). example 4 source text: in this study, we took advantage of the exogenous administration of recombinant rankl as a means of synchronously inducing m-cell differentiation throughout the small intestinal epithelium to identify genes induced during the process of m-cell differentiation (yan, 2000) translation: 在本研究中，我们利用外源添加重组 ranel 作为手段在整个小肠上皮中同步 m 细胞分化，从 而去认定在 m 细胞分化过程中被诱导的基因。(zài běn yán jiū zhòng ， wǒ men lì yòng wài yuán tiān jiā chóng zǔ ranelzuò wéi shǒu duàn zài zhěng gè xiǎo cháng shàng pí zhòng tóng bù m xì bāo fēn huà , cóng ér qù rèn dìnɡ zài m xì bāo fēn huà guò chéng zhòng bèi yòu dǎo de jī yīn ). the above example adopts the sequential method. its expression and logic structure are basically the same as chinese. the main part of the sentence is “we took advantage of...to identify...”, so it ought to put the main part first and then add an object, adverbial clause of purpose, the adverbial clause of manner and temporal adverbial into the sentence. 4.3 inverting the original order even though the translator could follow the original order when translating est long sentences that have similar word order and logic, quite a few est long sentences differ from chinese sentences in time sequence and logic sequence. in this case, translators should invest the original order, ensuring translation is more readable for chinese readers to achieve functional equivalence (see the following example). example 5 source text: it is fully as important that a machine element is made of a material that has properties suitable for the conditions of service as it is for the load and stresses to be accurately determined. translation: 荷载和压力应该计算正确，机器零件应该用性能符合工作条件的材料制造。这两者都是十分重 要的。(hèzǎi hé yālì yīnggāi jìsuàn zhèngquè, jīqì língjiàn yīnggāi yòng xìngnéng fúhé gōngzuò tiáojiàn de cáiliào zhìzào. zhè liǎng zhě dōu shì shí fèn zhòngyào de.) there are three clauses in this sentence; the first one is a subject clause lead by “that,” this subject clause including an attributive clause “that has properties,” the third one is the adverbial clause “as it is for the load.” analyzing the sentence structure clearly and comprehending relation and sequence among sentences would make translation easier to achieve equivalence between original readers and target readers’ responses. 4.4 division method in functional equivalence theory, when form and content run into conflict, content equivalence has priority over form equivalence. in some est long sentences, some phrases or clauses don’t have a really compact connection, and some structures are too complex to be translated as one chinese sentence. under these circumstances, the translator can consider the division method, dividing the source sentence into several independent chinese clauses to make sure translation is more acceptable for chinese readers (see example 6). example 6 source text: ms. jensen found herself in an awkward position: she was u.s. liaison to an agreement her government hadn’t ratified and overseer of a trove of information about chemicals over whose international fate she had no control. translation: 詹森女士发现自己处境尴尬：她虽然担任了此协议的美方联络员，但是她的政府并没有认可此 协议;她虽然监管着这些化学物质的重要信息，但是无法控制这些物质的国际命运。(zhān sēn nǚ shì fà xiàn zì jǐ chǔ jìng gān gà: tā suī rán dān rèn le cǐ xié yì de měi fāng lián luò yuán , dàn shì tā de zhènɡ fǔ bìng méi yǒu rèn kě cǐ xié yì ; tā suī rán jiān guǎn zháo zhè xiē huà xué wù zhì de zhòng yào xìn xī ， dàn shì mó fǎ kòng zhì zhè xiē wù zhì de ɡuó jì mìng yùn). in this sentence, the main clause is “ms. jensen found herself in an awkward position,” the content after the colon is the explanation for the awkward position, and “and” connects two conjunction components. as for “she was u.s. liaison to an agreement”, “her government hadn’t ratified” follows “agreement,” “overseer of a trove of information about chemicals” is 27 also a conjunction component, and “whose” leads the following attributive clause. this long sentence including several meanings; therefore, it can be divided into several short clauses. if the translator translates this long sentence according to the original order and form, the translation would be a rigmarole, and response correspondence can’t be attained. in the process of translation, adding some conjunction words is also an effective method to ensure expression is more fluent. 4.5 combination method when dealing with some est long sentences, using the above methods only may result in difficulty; as nida once said, “sometimes it is not only reasonable but also extremely advisable to reorganize the formal structure of the original text.” example 7 source text: rocket research has confirmed a strange fact which had already been suspected there is a “hightemperature belt” in the atmosphere, with its center roughly thirty miles above the ground. translation: 人们早就怀疑，大气层中有一个“高温带”，其中心在距离地面约三十英里的高空，利用火箭进行 研究后，这一奇异的事实已得到证实。(rén men zǎo jiù huái yí, dà qì céng zhōng yǒu yí ɡè “ gāo wēn dài ”，jī zhōng xīn zài jù lí dì miàn yāo sān shí yīng lǐ de gāo kōng, lì yòng huǒ jiàn jìn xíng yán jiū hòu, zhè yī qí yì de shì shí yǐ dé dào zhèng shí). this sentence can be divided into four parts. “rocket...fact” is the main part of the sentence, “which” introduces an attributive clause, “there is” leads an appositive clause, “with...” acts as s decorative component for “high-temperature belt.” after considering these four parts, the translator can translate the main part solely and combine the rest. based on the above discussion of four est translation methods, no matter whether literal translation or literal translation is employed, those four methods should be considered. one must not translate the message by matching the words or grammatical structure between chinese and english because a translator should strive for equivalence rather than identity. 5. conclusion as a kind of information type text, english for science and technology (est) is characterized by frequent use of nominalization, passive voice and non-finite verb at the syntactic level, and there is no uniform standard to guide the translation work. the translation of est requires high preciseness, accuracy and objectivity. in this respect, functional equivalence theory is adaptive because of its high priority on the reader’s response. nida’s view on language and culture, readers’ response, and science of translation is concisely reviewed in the paper. the paper evaluates nida’s functional equivalence and analyses the syntactical features of est at the pragmatic level based on examples, as well as deals with the teaching of translation practice by selecting the most appropriate translation strategies under the guidance of nida’s functional equivalence theory. admittedly, this paper is general research on the characteristics and translation of est. it is hoped that the understanding and application of functional equivalence theory in the translation of est can inspire readers’ comprehension and accelerate the process of scientific exchanges between china and other countries. references fang, m./方梦之 (1989). 科技英语实用文体 (in chinese) english technical style and its application. shanghai: shanghai foreign education press. gu, f. /谷峰 (2017). 论科技翻译者的专业素养（in chinese）quality of scientific translators. chinese science and technology translation, (1), 20-21. he, g. /何固佳 (1998). 科技英语语言特点(in chinese) language features of english for science and technology. chinese science and technology translation, (4), 8-11. he, s./何善芬(2005). 英汉语言对比研究 (in chinese) a contrastive study of english and chinese translation. shanghai: shanghai foreign trade research. huang, h./黄欢. 功能翻译理论指导下分析科技英语翻译技巧/ analysis of technical english translation skills guided by functional translation theory.. 教育现代化/ education modernization 26(2017):111-113.). li, c./ 李长栓(2009). 非文学翻译理论与实践(in chinese).theory and practice of non-literary translation. beijing: foreign language teaching and research press. liu, m. /刘宓庆 (1998). 文体与翻译(in chinese) stylistics and translation. beijing: china translation and publishing corporation. munday, j. (2001). introducing translation studies. new york, routledge. newmark, p. (1998). a textbook of translation. london: prentice-hall international (u.k.), ltd. nida, e. a. (1964). toward a science of translating. leiden: e. j. brill. nida, e. a. (1969). science of translation. language, 483-498. 28 nida, e.a and taber, c. (1969) the theory and practice of translation. brill, leiden. nida, e.a. (1978). language, culture, and translation. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. nida, e.a. (1986). from one language to another. nashville: thomas nelson publishers. tan, z. /谭载喜 (1999). 新编奈达论翻译(in chinese) a new edition of nida on translation. beijing: beijing foreign translation press. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 7-29-pb(revised)1.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 1 on the linguistic functions of foregrounding language in lawyer's defense statement: a case of wang chengzhong’s defense shuanghua peng1 1guangzhou huashang college, guangzhou, china, email: chaojilecam@foxmail.com funded project: research on the linguistic strategy of understatement in facts construction during trials from the perspective of multimodal narrative (2018wqncx313) abstract: a lawyer’s defense statement (hereinafter referred to as “defense”) is a typical persuasive discourse. this article takes the defense of second instance for the case of wang chengzhong which aroused heated discussions in 2019 as the research subject. the foregrounding language and its linguistic functions will be analyzed to find out how the lawyer tries to persuade others through the defense. it is found that the foregrounding language in the lawyer’s defense is primarily embodied by quantitative and qualitative deviations of language convention, and the latter is more than the former; typically, it realizes three metafunctions proposed by halliday, namely ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction, and textual metafunction. key words: lawyer’s defense, foregrounding language, linguistic function 1. introduction as a special kind of institutional discourse, lawyers’ defense is mainly used to persuade others, which include judicial personnel (such as judges and adjudicators) and the public participating in court trials. its ultimate goal is to maximize the interests of the parties concerned by reasoning and presenting facts. therefore, how to achieve a dynamic balance between effective reasoning and reclamation is a major challenge for lawyers in the process of writing a defense. foregrounding is one of the main concepts in the functional stylistic theory proposed by halliday. influenced by the views of mokarovsky, a famous linguist and literary critic of the prague school, halliday regards style as foregrounding, which however he pinpoints as “motivated prominence” and emphasizes that “a salient feature can only be foregrounding if it is related to the meaning of the text as a whole”. the so-called “prominence” refers to the deviation from the conventional language form, which can be either qualitatively prominent or quantitatively prominent, such as morpheme repetition, word repetition, or structural repetition (halliday, 1971; zhang, 1999) . halliday also believes that we should not distinguish between stylistic and non-stylistic features in the meaning domain of a text, and there is no linguistic area where style does not exist. he believes that linguistic function is the medium connecting linguistic form and situational context (halliday, 1971) . in its systemic functional grammar, the overall functions of language are grouped into three categories: ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction, and textual metafunction. ideational metafunction refers to the use of language to describe human experience, which can be further divided into experiential and logical functions; interpersonal metafunction refers to the use of language to construct relationships with others or society, reflecting the individuality and interaction of language at the same time; textual metafunction implies that language is used to establish and organize discourse sequence and information flow, as well as cohesion and continuity in the process of discourse development (halliday & christian, 2014) . over the past years, most of the research about foregrounding languages has focused on literature and translation (feng & dang, 2019; ma, 2017; wang, 2015; wu, 2016; zhang & liu, 2015) , or had discussions on the theoretical level of stylistics (deng, 1999; ma, 2008; wu, 2004, 2011; xu, 2011; zhang, 1994) , or given a comprehensive analysis of language deviation (gong, 2001) , there is very little analysis of foregrounding language and its functions in applied discourse (zhao & ji, 2009) . for this reason, this article takes the defense of wang chengzhong in the trial of second instance as the object of study, to discuss the foregrounding language and its linguistic functions in the defense of lawyers. 2. forms of foregrounding language in lawyers’ defense on september 3, 2017, judge wang chengzhong of the intermediate people’s court of liaoyuan city, jilin province was under criminal detention on suspicion of civil bending of law in an appeal case concerning a dispute over a forest land transfer agreement. the focus of the case was the transfer price of forest land. in the first instance, the plaintiff believed that it was 6 million yuan, and the defendant argued that it was 600,000 yuan. the first instance supported the plaintiff’s claim, and the defendant lost the case. wang chengzhong’s decision in the second instance remained the same, and the collegial panel agreed to his opinion, thus the second instance upheld the first instance’s verdict. on february 9, 2018, the xi’an district people’s this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 2 court sentenced wang chengzhong to three years in prison for the crime of perverting the law. wang chengzhong refused to accept and appealed. on november 22, 2018, the higher people’s court of jilin province decided to designate wang chengzhong and zhang daqing’s suspected civil law-bending case to be tried by the tonghua intermediate people’s court following the criminal second-instance procedure. (souhu, 2019) wang chengzhong’s defense lawyer xu xin delivered a statement of defense titled “the judge is the lord of the legal empire” during the trial, emphasizing that wang chengzhong as an excellent and just judge, would not bend the law and should not be subject to the penalty of three-year imprisonment. the following paragraphs will analyze how the lawyer’s defense intends to persuade the judicial officers and present audiences through foregrounding language based on quantitative and qualitative deviations from the language conventions. 2.1 quantitative deviation repetition is a typical prominence that quantitatively deviates from the conventions of language. in this defense, there are multiple repetitions of the same words, for example, 1) the 600,000 yuan agreement, although it was filed in the forestry station, the price was too low, which violated social consensus, violated the common sense of rational people, and violated the rule of thumb. (source: http: //www.defenselawyer.cn/article/lawnews/201905/23168.html, translated by the author) this is a typically spaced repetition. in response to the low-priced 600,000 yuan forestry agreement, the lawyer repeatedly used the verb “violate” thrice, indicating that wang chengzhong had no reason to accept the agreement. this not only strengthens the momentum but also highlights that the low-priced forest land transfer agreement is contrary to common sense. another example, 2) wang chengzhong, neither did he bend the law nor did he have any fault; instead, he was an outstanding judge, the first batch of outstanding judges in jilin province and the first outstanding judge in liaoyuan city. “outstanding judge” is also a spaced repetition, which appeared three times in a row, and the sentence structure was progressive. it transcended the conventional language background and formed a prominence, thus attracting the attention of the audience (xu, 2005) . 2.2 qualitative deviation rhetoric is the speaker’s (author’s) deliberate deviation from the language convention, which can form a prominent “foregrounding” language (ding, 2017) . in the defense of wang chengzhong’s case, the author found that the lawyer frequently used rhetorical questions, metaphors, irony, and analogy, which was impressive. 2.2.1 rhetorical question when the speaker breaks the normal thinking pattern and uses different grammatical structures, for example, expressing negation in a positive form, or expressing affirmation in a negative form will highlight the meaning to be expressed. statistically, 23 rhetorical questions were used in the second-instance defense in the wang chengzhong case. a rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question. it is a question that is asked to make a point: it does not need a reply. it will lead the hearer to understand the opposite content of the proposition, and negate the assertion in the affirmative yes/no question (express negation in the positive form), for example, 3) without receiving a penny from the party concerned or being treated to a meal, why did wang chengzhong take the risk of being held accountable for life to bend the law, and “learning from lei feng (doing a good deed) ” just to help li xiaoyan, a stranger, to seek huge profits? 4) looking at the whole case, there is no motive for judge wang chengzhong to deliberately bend the law. can you imagine a perverted judge who doesn't charge a penny? as its definition states, the rhetorical question is used to produce a dramatic effect or to make a point rather than to obtain an answer to the question (oxford, 2022) , the power of discourse is enhanced by this “foregrounding” means of expression, drawing the attention of the audience (or reader) to the point (deng, 1999) wang chengzhong is innocent. 2.2.2 metaphors the metaphor refers to comparing the object of thought with something else. it’s an obvious departure from the norm of language, a typical deviation in quality. 5) even if li xiaoyan defrauded, the facts of the fraud must be finally determined after investigation, review and prosecution, and trials of first instance and second instance, how can one expect that a civil judge is an investigator? the results of post-mortem investigation cannot be used to accuse judges who have previously tried civil cases of constituting crimes, otherwise “no snowflake will be spared”. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 3 “no snowflake is innocent in an avalanche” comes from the famous french thinker voltaire, indicating that when there is an avalanche, no snowflake wants to admit that he is the culprit of the avalanche, but if there is no snowflake, how come the avalanche? the lawyer quotes here to compare every judge as a “snowflake” including wang chengzhong and the judge present. the “distance” and heterogeneity between the signified and the signifier radiate and expand the meaning of the words infinitely; the sliding between the signified and the signifier also forms an unexpected sense of the picture, which is intriguing. 6) such cases and the vague judicial accountability system have become the “sword of damocles” hanging over the judges’ heads, which to a certain extent prompted the resignation of judges and prosecutors. the “sword of damocles” comes from a legend, expressing the danger that exists at all times, and implying caution in the face of serious consequences that may be brought at any time (baidu, 2020) . the lawyer uses this as a metaphor for the “fuzzy judicial accountability system”, which takes the advantage of concrete things to describe the abstract system, highlighting disapproval of china’s current judicial accountability system. 7) the court is the palace of the legal empire, the judge is the lord of the legal empire, and the judges are supposed to enjoy a high status and prestige. in ancient china, when the parties concerned visited the judge, the great master, they often had to kneel. the law as an abstract code of conduct is metaphorically referred to as an empire, the court as its palace, and the judge as its lord. the implied meaning of this is quite obvious, namely, the law is a sacred system, and the judges are the representatives of the implementation of this system with a high status; based upon this, they should be respected and even admired. in reality, wang chengzhong was reduced to a prisoner under the premise of no evidence. through metaphors, the lawyer foregrounds the meaning, alerting and even deafening the listeners. 8) the live broadcast of the trial made the case “a lively open class on the rule of law shared by the people across the country”. in this case, the court trial was open to the public at the strong request of wang chengzhong. the lawyer likened the live broadcast of the trial to an “open class on the rule of law”. the contextual gap between the signified and the signifier allows the combination of them to produce rich residual meaning and intermediate meaning. imperceptibly, the significance of this trial has been raised to the level of public demonstration, and it has created a great psychological constraint on the judge so that the judge has to be cautious of the judgment of this case. it is clear that, in the lawyer’s defense that focuses on facts, the appropriate use of metaphors to implicitly and restrainedly express what is meant will not only avoid direct verbal conflict but also highlight its implicature exceptionally. do what should be done and stop where one should stop. 2.2.3 irony irony refers to a word or sentence in which there is a conflict between the referent (actual meaning) and the signifying meaning (literal meaning) of speech (xing & xu, 2015) . it can be divided into exaggerated narratives, expressing contrary to what one thinks, and so on. 9) in the case being prosecuted today, if zhang chengzhong and li chengzhong were replaced, according to the provisions of the civil law and civil procedure law, they would still judge in this way, and if i were to judge again, i would still keep judging in the same way. according to such accountability, all judges in this district will be pushed to the dock (become defendants) within three years. the trial procedures of the civil cases that wang chengzhong is responsible for are in full compliance with the provisions of the civil law and civil procedure law, and any other person will enter the same judgment. the lawyer used an exaggerated statement, “according to such accountability, all judges will be pushed to the dock within three years”. this is questioning and ironic about the accountability procedures and case handling capabilities of the public prosecutors. although there is a certain risk in this expression, the reinforcement of the lawyer’s point of view cannot be denied. 10) retrieving judicial statistics, there are more than 30,000 retrial cases per year, and 37,598 cases in 2017. according to liaoyuan’s logic of allegation of crimes and conviction based on only one trial, as soon as the case is in a retrial, two levels of presiding judges will be arrested, whereas the number of judges nationwide is less than 120,000, all of them will be arrested in less than a year this way. absurd! similar to example (9), this is another questioning of judicial personnel’s professional logic. to highlight the necessity of procedural justice, the lawyer once again makes use of exaggerated narrative in irony to emphasize it, which is difficult to refute and will perhaps urge judicial personnel to make judgments more cautiously. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 4 2.2.4 analogy analogy refers to the similarity or comparison between two things that have some identical characteristics by which novel or complex situations and problems can be understood in terms of familiar ones. like the above rhetorical devices, it also belongs to the prominence that deviates from the conventional language in quality. 11) as guo changxing said, to help guo yonggui sell forest land on his behalf, there is no need to go through the transfer registration, which is not in line with the general situation of selling on behalf of others. the prosecutor asked me to help sell her house on her behalf. does she have to transfer the house to me first? in this analogy, rhetorical questions are also used to emphasize the non-necessity of helping to sell forest land after transfer registration. 12) do not think that when someone comes to the judge, the judge will bend the law to make a judgment. for example, i visited president zhang taifan and asked him to take care of wang chengzhong, the court finally made a fair judgment. can it be concluded that president zhang accepted xu xin's request? in this example, the people and things in front of the lawyer are used as an analogy to show the irrationality of the prosecutors’ logic of case handling. 3. foregrounding language and its linguistic functions in lawyers’ defense prominent features of stylistic value must be related to the context in which the text is produced. therefore, when discussing the functions of the above foregrounding language, we cannot detach from the discourse itself. according to halliday’s views on contexts of situations, any situation type can be characterized in terms of field, tenor, and mode (halliday & christian, 2014) , in other words, these are the three major contextual elements that form language characteristics. field refers to what’s going on in the situation (the ‘subject matter’ or ‘topic’); tenor refers to who are participants and the relationship among them in the situation; while mode refers to what role is being played by language and other semiotic systems in the situation, whether in written or oral, whether it is an explanation, comment or persuasion (the means of communication) (halliday & christian, 2014) . the subject matter of a lawyer’s defense normally is the crime and punishment of the parties concerned in the court trial; the participants of the trial include lawyers, judicial personnel, and bystanders in a court; and the defense is orally presented, but usually in prepared oral language. as halliday (1978) suggested, field values resonate with ideational meanings, tenor values resonate with interpersonal meanings, and mode values resonate with textual meanings (halliday & christian, 2014) . 3.1 ideational metafunction the representational meaning or ideational meaning of clauses is expressed by transitivity structures: what the clause is about, which is typically some process, with associated participants and circumstances (halliday & christian, 2014) . throughout the defense, more than half of the clauses use a material process, such as (1), (3), (10), and so on. this does not seem difficult to explain, since the subject of the defense is to judge the actions or behaviors of the parties concerned. second is the relational process, mainly intensive relation (x is a) (halliday, 1994) , such as (2), (6), (7). in example (2), wang chengzhong was identified as an excellent judge, and the lawyer tried to amplify this meaning through the language form of repetition, thereby generating another meaning: how does a good judge bend the law? different from (2), (6) and (7) show that it is unreasonable to charge wang chengzhong for perverting the law because of the accountability system and judges’ status. example (6) compares the “fuzzy judicial accountability system” to the “sword of damocles”, by which the lawyer intends to arouse the deep thinking of judicial personnel. (7) is the sublimation of the theme of the defense. judge is the lord of a legal empire, therefore, the judgment of wang chengzhong (a judge) is of great importance. all these are relational clauses of identity (a is the identity of x), as the lawyer tries to assign more value to the party concerned wang chengzhong, the court (judge), and the vague judicial accountability system to draw more attention of the judicial workers. 3.2 interpersonal metafunction as mentioned earlier, tenor values resonate with interpersonal meanings (halliday & christian, 2014) . the interpersonal meanings are expressed by the intonation contour; by the ‘mood’ element, which may be repeated as a tag at the end; and by expressions of modality that may recur throughout the clause (halliday & christian, 2014) . lexicogrammatically, there are mainly three types of moods realizing interpersonal meaning, including declarative mood, imperative mood, and interrogative mood. statistically, more than two-thirds of the foregrounding language in this defense adopts an interrogative tone, as shown in examples (3), (4), (11), (12), and the following. 13) if even the respectable judges are not safe, no one can feel safe, how to talk about the rule of law in china? communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 5 in the courtroom, lawyers read out their defenses to judicial officers. in addition to clearly stating the facts of the case, they are more eager to arouse the emotions of the judicial officers, and communicate with them efficiently through powerful dialogues, especially in rhetorical questions, which can stimulate emotions and highlight the nature of this dialogue (xu, 2011) . 3.3 textual metafunction mode values resonate with textual meanings. the textual meaning of the clause is expressed by what is put first (the theme); by what is phonologically prominent (and tends to be put last – the new, signaled by information focus); and by conjunctions and relatives which if present must occur in initial position (halliday & christian, 2014) . to better demonstrate how the above-mentioned foregrounding language realizes this function, the sixth subsection1 of the defense is excerpted for analysis: to protect and fight for the rights of judges from the cases of mo zhaojun, liu deshan, ma ruizhi and li jian to the case of jilin wang chengzhong and zhang daqing, the urgent need to protect the rights of judges has been put forward, especially the need to establish a system of immunity for judges’ acts of duty. for example, in the wang chengzhong case, it is inappropriate for the discipline inspection commission and the procuratorial organs to hold the judge responsible for the wrongful conviction before the result of the retrial of the civil case. on september 1, it was ruled for a retrial. the judge was arrested on the same day, and the longshan district procuratorate was designated to have jurisdiction. it is terrible to arrest the judge in such a hurry. retrieving judicial statistics, there are more than 30,000 retrial cases per year, and 37,598 cases in 2017; according to liaoyuan’s logic of allegation of crimes and conviction in the first instance, as soon as the case is in a retrial, two levels of presiding judges will be arrested, whereas the number of judges nationwide is less than 120,000, all of them will be arrested in less than a year this way. absurd! in the future, the judge's disciplinary committee should conclude on judges being suspected of a crime under the law before the judge is handed over to the judicial organ for handling. such cases and the vague judicial accountability system have become the “sword of damocles” hanging over the judges’ heads, which to a certain extent prompted the resignation of judges and prosecutors. it is necessary to resolutely investigate the responsibility of judges for breaking the law, and more than that, to have sound and powerful judicial guarantees, including job guarantees, economic guarantees, and especially security guarantees. the live broadcast of the trial of this case must have exceeded 10 million views, and it will become the most concerning case among chinese people, especially judges and prosecutors. the judgment must be made with caution. “the court is the palace of the legal empire, the judge is the lord of the legal empire”, and the judges are supposed to enjoy a high status and prestige. in ancient china, when the parties concerned visited the judge, the great master, they often had to kneel. however, in china, judicial authority is insufficient. judges, like lawyers, face various occupational risks. some incidents violate the occupational safety of judges, and there is also the phenomenon of arbitrarily holding judges accountable. wang chengzhong’s case is a typical one. if even the respectable judges are not safe, no one can feel safe, how to talk about the rule of law in china? the crime of perverting the law in civil judgment requires judicial personnel to deliberately violate the facts and the law to pervert the law. wang chengzhong handled the civil case, based on the rules of evidence, in the light of the facts that could be ascertained, and made a judgment according to law. the result of judgment was correct, the trial procedure was fair, and there was no fault at all, let alone criminal intent, let alone serious circumstances. on the contrary, wang chengzhong is a good judge. the jilin wang chengzhong case has aroused social concern, especially the concern of the judges, with the bizarre way in which the chief judge of the criminal court tried the chief judge of the civil court. it promoted the concept of procedural justice, prompted the popularization of the live broadcast of court trials, and may become the basis for establishing the immunity system of judges’ acts of duty. the wang chengzhong case will surely become a classic precedent for creating the boundaries of judges’ behavior, and a landmark case for safeguarding the professional rights of judges. jilin high people’s court and president xu jiaxin attached great importance to this case. the live broadcast of the trial made this case “a lively open class on the rule of law shared by the people across the country”. 1 for the convenience of analysis, the underlined examples that appear in this passage are renumbered as , which respectively corresponds to the above examples as (10) ( ), (6) ( ), (7) ( ), (8) ( ), (2) ( ), (13) ( ). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 6 i believe the supreme people’s court is also paying close attention to it. i wrote three letters to president zhou qiang. wang chengzhong wrote two blood letters. if the personal rights of the judges cannot be protected under the law in this case, the enthusiasm of the judges may be undermined. dear judge, there is also a judge sitting in the dock. wang chengzhong, neither did he bend the law, nor did he have any fault; instead, he is an outstanding judge, the first batch of outstanding judges in jilin province, and the first outstanding judge in liaoyuan city. the commission for discipline inspection and the procuratorate did not find any problems in the strict investigation. wang chengzhong handled thousands of civil cases, and none of them were appealed for retrial. he has not been removed from office. he is still a judge and the head of a civil court. i should respectfully address him as judge wang chengzhong. however, he has been detained for 606 days so far, and he does not even know that his mother died. it is moving that he is still mentioning his mother during the court debate. i urge you three respected judges to protect the freedom and dignity of fellow judge wang chengzhong by the law and make a fair judgment that can stand the evaluation of hundreds of thousands of judges across the country and the test of history. the opening clause is the explicit starting point of the whole paragraph with a marked theme, namely, an adverbial modifier “from the cases of mo zhaojun... to the case of jilin wang chengzhong and wang daqing”, which provides the context for the whole passage, indicating the non-uniqueness of the case of wang chengzhong; while the focus of the whole sentence is on the rheme “the urgent need to…has been forward, especially the need to…”. this sentence has laid the foundation for the development of the following passage. the first clause makes use of irony, with a marked theme “according to liaoyuan’s logic of allegation of crimes and conviction in the first instance”. as the theme is not the subject of the entire statement, the irony is further intensified. after all, the lawyer could express in a normal statement that “two levels of presiding judges will be arrested as soon as the case is in a retrial, according to liaoyuan’s logic of allegation of crimes and conviction in the first instance …”, which is also a sarcastic questioning of judicial personnel’s professionality. however, in the former way, the whole sentence not only echoes powerfully with the call for the establishment of a system of immunity for judges’ acts of duty at the beginning but also coherently answers the previous “question” why “it is terrible to arrest the judge in such a hurry”. the second clause starts with “such cases and the vague judicial accountability system”, which serves as the subject and the theme, so the theme is unmarked; in the rheme, a metaphor “sword of damocles” is introduced as new information to highlight the implication of the ever-present danger, rather than the other way around. as a result, the risk of a “vague accountability system” is concretized and stressed through the prominent metaphor. furthermore, the metaphor, on the one hand, makes the depiction of the judicial workers’ resignation more natural, on the other hand, creates coherence between “sword of damocles” and the urgency of the establishment of a more sound and powerful judicial safeguard. the third narration contains two clauses, involving three interlocked metaphors (law-empire, court-palace, judge-king). the themes of the two clauses are “the court”, and “the judge” respectively, which are unmarked. in a way similar to the climax, the focal point of the whole narration is “the judge”, who is compared to “the lord”. based on this foregrounding metaphor, there was a contrast in the judges’ status between ancient china and current china. the status of judges has dropped dramatically, so the lawyer raised a rhetorical question naturally and reasonably at last, “how to talk about rule of law in china?” (clause ). as the subject is omitted, “how to” becomes a marked theme. this is not surprising, since the speaker wanted to give more force to the meaning of his words, namely, the judges should have had a sufficient sense of security, so a system of immunity for their duties is badly needed. it is seen that clauses and are combined coherently and cohesively to emphasize that judges are the backbone of the process of china's rule of law, with different foregrounding languages. similar to the structure of clause , clause has an unmarked theme, the live broadcast of the trial. likewise, the rheme introduces new information, “a lively open class on the rule of law shared by the people across the country”. this metaphor emphasizes the high degree of concern and modeling effect in wang chengzhong’s case. discursively speaking, the metaphor in the rheme foregrounded the significance of the trial of wang chengzhong’s case, as it will affect the future trials of similar cases, as it said, it may also corrode “the enthusiasm of the judges”. therefore, one cannot help but think about the necessity of establishing an immunity system for judges’ acts of duty. at last, clause starts with the subject “wang chengzhong”, an unmarked theme. repetitively, the theme is stressed as an “outstanding judge” three times. through the repetition, the lawyer seemed to foreground the excellence of the defendant judge, despite all the above reasoning, to further arouse the present judicial workers’ positive feelings towards wang chengzhong. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 7 from the beginning to the end, the above six clauses, no matter with a marked or unmarked theme, always centers on “the urgency of protecting judges’ rights, namely, establishing a system of immunity for judges’ acts of duty”. the elaboration is done from a variety of perspectives, including the logic of case handling, the harm of the fuzzy judicial accountability system, the status of chinese judges, and the professionality of wang chengzhong as a judge. with the adoption of different foregrounding languages, the lawyer highlighted his viewpoints in a top-down approach with different themes (the logic of allegation of crimes and conviction at the first instance, vague judicial accountability system, the court, the judge, wang chengzhong, etc.); and those languages are echoing with each other, making a cohesive discourse with prominent focus. 4. conclusion foregrounding means “motivated prominence”, and only when prominence has a certain function in the process of communication can it have the features of foregrounding language. through this concept of functional stylistics proposed by halliday, this article has discussed the specific forms of foregrounding language in lawyers’ defense, i.e. the quantitative and qualitative deviations from the language convention, and analyzed its ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. specifically, more than half of the clauses in the analyzed defense use a material process, followed by a relational process. the reasons behind this are two-fold, one, the subject of the defense is to judge the actions or behaviors of the parties concerned; another, the defense lawyer tries to assign more value to the party concerned, the court (judge), the vague judicial accountability system to draw more attention of the judicial workers. besides, according to statistics, more than two-thirds of the foregrounding language in this defense adopts an interrogative tone to express its interpersonal meaning, this is because rhetorical questions can stimulate emotions and highlight the efficiency of the dialogue between the lawyer and the judicial workers. last but not the least, the selected clauses from the sixth subsection of the defense utilize both marked and unmarked themes, with the same focus, “the urgency of protecting judges’ rights, namely, establishing a system of immunity for judges’ acts of duty”. these different themes are adopted in various foregrounding languages to realize the communication intention of the lawyer; further, the foregrounding languages are echoing with each other to make a cohesive and coherent defense. hopefully, it will provide some useful insights into the pragmatic motives behind the lawyer’s defense, as well as a certain stylistic reference for the professionals who write the lawyer’s defense. references baidu, e. 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(2015). an analysis of a gay man's mother under the foregrounding theory (in chinese, ). journal of ocean university of china (social sciences) ( < >) (01), 108-112. zhao, x., & ji, l. (2009). foregrounding of tv advertising language (in chinese, ). modern communication-journal of communication university of china ( ) (02), 68-69. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. v02issue01.05.2022.02.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 35 an evolution of lion dance in hong kong from the perspective of cultural symbols julin xu1, zhengqin liu2, kaiju chen3 1 school of english for international business, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, e-mail:20210320002@gdufs.edu.cn 2 faculty of english language and culture, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, e-mail: 20190100181@gdufs.edu.cn 3center of business culture and philosophy of culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, china; institute of advanced studies, university of chinese academy of social sciences, china corresponding author: kaiju chen, e-mail: 200010931@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract the lion dance is a popular folk custom or living culture in hong kong. it is often performed during major festivals and celebrations. from three dimensions, this article illustrates the change in hong kong people’s attitude toward traditional chinese culture reflected by the lion dance as a set of cultural symbols in the social and historical context of hong kong since the late qing dynasty. specifically, in terms of cultural guarding, before the 1950s, the lion dance deeply reflected traditional chinese culture, that is, warding off evil spirits, guarding, and auspiciousness; in terms of diaspora and subjectivity, from the 1950s to the 1970s, lion dancers strongly exhibited the ideology of resistance and self-awareness as the chinese diaspora in hong kong; in terms of cultural hybridity and innovations, since the early 1980s, with the return of hong kong in 1997 and under the background of globalization and multi-culture, the lion dance is still a set of typical cultural symbols in hong kong, has been constantly innovated in terms of form, performance, communication, and the rest, and integrated into the global lion dance cultural community. keywords: lion dance, cultural guarding, diaspora, cultural hybridity, cultural innovations 1. introduction the lion dance is one of the traditional folk sports in china, with a long history and profound cultural implicature. nowadays lion dance is still a necessary program among the ethnic chinese all over the world on such special days as the chinese spring festival and various opening ceremonies. lions belong to a large powerful animal of the cat family introduced into china from west asia via the silk road (huang, 1936). in ancient times, what lions looked like was based on the gossip the ordinary people heard, except the emperors and families of power and influence had a chance to see these exotic beasts. in addition, due to no struggle for survival between ancient chinese and lions, a good imagination about lions became popular among the people. in comparison with lions, tigers as a native often had conflicts with the chinese people although they are also large powerful animals, thus, the painful experiences such as injuries even death haunted the people. in traditional chinese culture, tigers have either a good image or a bad image, but they are implied more derogatorily, for instance, to be nicknamed “the strong bullying the weak”, to be used to criticize the cruel government, “tyranny is fiercer than a tiger” (see the snake catcher by zongyuan liu, a poet in the tang dynasty), the four-chinese-character idiom “fang hu gui shan”, which means letting the tiger return to the mountain, i.e. to cause calamity for the future. by contrast, ancient chinese have shaped a positive or good image of a lion. after textual research, it is found that in the current academic circle, the origin of the lion dance often comes in various versions. for example, xue and wang (2021) argue that: 1) the lion dance was inspired by the dance of lion tamers from the western regions in the han dynasty. in general, a few lions maybe still alive after a long and arduous journey, and real lions only performed at the royal palace, so folk artists performed lion dances for the ordinary people by employing a papier-mâché lion. 2) in the wei kingdom of the three kingdoms period, the buddha parade was led by the masked people in hides acting as lions on april 4 day of the chinese lunar calendar, the manjushri’s birthday. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 36 3) the prototype of the lion dance was developed in the northern wei dynasty. the notes of buddhist temples in luoyang by yang xuanzhi talked about “lions lead the way to ward off the evil force” to describe the buddha parade in changqiu temple in luoyang. 4) lion dance was closely related to a mythical beast “nian”, who helped people out of plague; or to monster “nian”, who hurt ordinary people and destroyed crops. to sum up, on the one hand, the lion dance emerged and developed with the introduction of buddhism into ancient china, because of the lion as manjushri’s mount; on the other hand, it dated back to the magic rites or myths. since its formation, the lion dance was widely spread across ancient china. furthermore, due to a big difference between the south of china and the north of china in terms of culture, two styles of lion dance were gradually established with their characteristics, i.e., southern-style lion dance and northern-style lion dance. and lion dance in hong kong belongs to the southern style. 2. literature review academic research on the chinese lion dance dated back to the first half of the 20th century, and the early scholars counted the chinese lion dance as a living culture and carried on relevant research from the point of view of the “cultural identity” of the chinese nation (jian, 2021). research perspectives have varied greatly along with time vicissitude. the inheritance and modern development of the lion dance as a folk sport have been explored by different scholars. for instance, q. lei and j. lei (2017) analyzed the internal and external factors of the lion dance’s development in china, including its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, found the existing problems, and put forward the countermeasures for its sustainable development strategy in an attempt to solve them; from the perspective of regional culture, i.e. lingnan culture (referring to the culture of guangdong and guangxi) and qilu culture (referring to the culture of shandong), zheng & zhang, et al. (2020) made an analysis and comparison of the content and characteristics of the lion dance as a folk sport. fan and yuan (2021), on the existing problems of the intangible cultural heritage of lion dance in china, such as lack of protection awareness and young inheritors, some countermeasures are put forward, including developing the platform and brand, expanding financing channels, continuously cultivating inheritors, adapting to the development of sports industry and tourism. in addition, relevant studies from the angle of sociology, communication, and dance have also been carried out, and the most commonly-used approach is to combine field investigation with the folk literature method. for instance, dong and zhu (2020) seek to construct the principles of chinese ethnic aesthetic culture through analyzing local performance techniques and body language of the dance drama “lion awakening”. furthermore, studies concerning lion dance from the perspective of culture are particularly flourishing, and scholars have discussed lion dance at all levels of culture. avaunt (2021), from the feminine point of view, has challenged stereotypes of traditional asian women through interviewing female lion players in boston’s chinatown in the u.s.a. and has argued the physical and mental functions of lion dancing for a rebuilding of the body against racialized and sexualized notions of bodily permeability. ying and chiat (2016) have looked into the concept of 1 malaysia from the angle of ethnic identity and cultural hybridity through analyzing the evolution (survival and change) of the diasporic chinese lion dance in malaysia, involving changes in the musical instruments, melody, and choreography. zhang (2021) attempts to construct ethical norms for the development of the asean dragon and lion dance to realize the goal of establishing an asean cultural community (zhang, 2021). xue and wang (2021) have found the cultural characteristics of guangxi malays, i.e. balanced co-existence between chinese ethnic culture and other ethnic cultures of malaysia, and their cultural identity, through surveying the lion dance troupe of selangor kuala lumpur guangxi association and their rituals, analyzing the political, religious and economic impacts from the anthropological perspective (xue &wang, 2021). to conclude, the previous studies of lion dance have been carried out from various aspects of culture, but scholars seldom systematically look into the evolution of its cultural symbols and explore the social and historical reasons behind it, although they have deemed “lion awakening” as a cultural symbol. hong kong, as a commercial port, gradually became a british colony after the first opium war (1840-1842). after the second world war, hong kong started accelerating its economy and was named one of the “four asian tigers” as the financial, service, and shipping center in asia. from 1842 to 1997, hong kong was playing a unique role in modern chinese history. this article, therefore, will focus on the lion dance in hong kong, and explore the evolution from the perspective of cultural symbols. 3. an evolution of lion dance in hong kong 3.1 guarding chinese traditional culture communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 37 in comparison with a relatively realistic image of the northern-style lion, the southern-style lion in china has a delicate animated image with a horn on its head. the northern-style lion dance in china shows a more fiercely lion and has integrated the movements of acrobatics and martial arts. comparatively speaking, southern-style lion dance is characterized by storytelling and symbolic meanings. according to the collection of chinese ethnic and folk dance (guangdong volume) (1996), during the ming and qing dynasties, the southern-style lion dance particularly prevailed in foshan town as one of four famous towns in ancient china. during the performance of the southern-style lion dance, caiqing is the most important and interesting part. lion dancers perform a series of moves to fetch bunches of lucky greens hung above. all the greens have auspicious meanings when calling their name in cantonese. lettuce, for example, represents “fortune”, celery, “diligence” and chinese spring onions “intelligence”. as the performance draws to a close, lion dancers will receive “lai see” packets, the red envelopes containing money commonly exchanged for bringing good luck and all the good things the greens symbolize. the lion dance inherited and guarded the traditional chinese culture. as above mentioned, the lion dance originated from magic rites or myths, the performers act like a lion by imitating such actions as jumping, scratching, and sniffing. in ancient china, through lion dance dancing, the performers were endowed with the magic or power and were involved in mythical imagination, which implies an action of a belief that ill-willed spirits will be exorcised, an abundant harvest of all crops will arrive in the next year and people will have good luck. it is through such symbolic actions that the lion dancers express their feelings and emotions. according to cassirer’s view, “without symbolism the life of man would be like that of the prisoners in the cave of plato’s famous simile, man’s life would be confined within the limits of his biological needs and his practical interests; it makes man find an access to the “ideal world” which is opened to him from different sides” (cassirer, 1944, p. 62). the prototype of the lion dance was deeply rooted in the agricultural civilization of ancient china, mirroring the feudal society where the emperor dreamed that a powerful lion can make the dream of his empire flourishing and invigorating come true. as barthes notes, “if one wishes to connect a mythical schema to a general history, to explain how it corresponds to the interests of a definite society—in short, to pass from semiology to ideology” (barthes, 1973, p. 138). all cultural symbols as a whole are integrated into the lion dance and the performers themselves. in other words, lion dancing, in some sense, is a folk art image full of the significance of symbol value. during the late qing dynasty, people from all corners of the country gathered in guangdong in order to make a living. far away from their hometown, they had to strive for wider living space and inevitably had conflicts with each other. resorting to violence became one of the most important ways to “solve problems”, so the martial spirit was encouraged here. naturally, only folk performances following martial spirit can survive and become popular, so did the southern-style lion dance. on the other hand, the chinese nation underwent a dramatic transformation at that time, but they still resisted bravely while persistently seeking a way to great rejuvenation. and the chinese nation was counted as a sleeping lion. these codes and signs are not universally given but are historically and socially specific to the particular interests and purposes which lie behind them (strinati, 2005, p.100). that means that symbols could be changed if the surroundings required it. the lion dance as a set of cultural symbols, therefore, had another meaning, attempting to shape a positive image that the chinese were vigorously striving forward instead of a negative image that the chinese looked like the sick and weak man. here cultural meanings of lion dance referred not only to such traditional meanings as guarding, exorcism, and auspiciousness but also to national salvation because no signs or symbols can be divorced from the social conditions where they are to be found. in the national crisis, the chinese national identity was constructed and the lion dance was consequentially deemed as a unique medium of the spirit of those days. undoubtedly, wong fei-hung is a witness to this historical period. wong fei-hung himself is an embodiment of or a cultural symbol of the chinese national spirit. in those days, lion dancing was considered as a necessary stunt for each martial club in guangdong. as the top 1 lion dancer in guangdong, wong feihung made great contributions to the development of southern-style lion dance. facing with gradual loss of independence and autonomy, the chinese people fought back. it was in the historical context that wong fei-hung successfully combined kongfu with the southern-style lion dance (zhang, 2013). here lion dancing was to build up the chinese people’s bodies from the outside and was to reflect the chinese people’s determination to transform the tragic reality from the inside. it can, therefore, be said that lion dance is not only a folk sport but also a symbol of arousing the chinese national consciousness. as seen in the series of wong fei-hung directed by hark tsui, as a master of nan quan (southern-style fist), wong feihung was concerned about his country, the chinese people, and the national future, and was shaped into a national hero, and his lion dancing was the high point of movies. in brief, from its opening as a commercial port in 1841 to around the year of victory of china’s resistance war against japanese aggression, hong kong was gradually developed into a crowded wharf where people generally worked as passers-by from a small fishing village, a barbaric area. at that time, canton, hong kong, and macao were blended into a communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 38 large region. hong kong people shared the same cultural identity with canton, the old name of guangzhou as the provincial capital. since hong kong was strongly affiliated with guangdong, there was no difference between the lion dance in hong kong and in guangdong. during this period, the lion dance in hong kong, to some extent, was still an integral part of southern-style lion dance, advancing with the times while ensuring traditional cultural inheritance. 3.2 diaspora &subjectivity as of the 1950s, a large number of chinese people from all over the country flooded in hong kong to take refuge. after that, the chinese people settling down in hong kong and their descendants have survived ups and downs. as the first generation of chinese immigrants spoke different dialects and had different folk cultures, what the concept of “hometown” or “cultural root” meant was quite peculiar for them. before the return of hong kong to the motherland, besides the chinese, there were the british governing hong kong, the indians from the former british colonies, the pakistanis and the ceylonese (now sri lanka), and those people from europe, the u.s.a., japan and the singapore doing business in hong kong; meanwhile, the chinese people accounted for a large proportion of hong kong’s population, but their influence was far less than the foreign personnel’s (zhou, 2019, chapter 1). in light of the diaspora which is the most distinctive feature of hong kong culture, the first generation of chinese immigrants far from their hometown urgently sought their roots, things relating to their ancestors, and attempted to find a sense of belonging. hence, they recollected and repeated their past experiences, which became a sort of symbolic memory. however, as imagination is an essential factor of true recollection, the meaning of those ancient symbols, in fact, is reconstructed on the ground of hong kong. since ancient times, lion dancing is still one of the most popular, typical, and traditional chinese folk performances, lion dance as a set of cultural symbols necessarily becomes one of the most important identity symbols of the chinese nation in hong kong. at that time, the first generation of chinese immigrants brought their common cultural memory back and found themselves through performing and watching lion dance. as most chinese immigrants came from guangdong, they naturally identify the cantonese culture as their cultural root. in the old days, in the 60s or 70s, there were street gangs and ordinary hong kong often suffered from bullying, so they felt compelled to learn chinese martial arts. because lion dancing itself integrates lots of martial arts, many lion dance troupes were established and various competitions were held among different martial clubs. meanwhile, fierce competition occurred between two styles of lion dance in hong kong, but the southern-style lion dance has prevailed. lion dancers in hong kong, in some sense, were imbued with “an ideology of rebellion” during this period. in the process of seeking the cultural root, the first generation of chinese immigrants and their descendants developed their self-consciousness or subjectivity and changed their identity from refugees to hong kong citizens and chinese citizens step by step (zhou, 2019, chapter 1). hong kong people have created their own local culture, namely, unique popular culture, while reinterpreting chinese cultural staples, which were greatly influenced by the diaspora and post-colonialism. it can be said that hong kong is keeping its chinese core alive, demonstrating chinese cultural traditions with fashion and elegance. as we know, a genuine cultural symbol is not inflexible, uniform but variable and mobile. as a classic cultural symbol, the lion dance in hong kong has developed its unique style. on the one hand, the lion dance firmly sticks to symbolic meanings of traditional chinese culture, for instance, warding off ill-willed spirits, good luck, and good fortune; on the other hand, the lion dance in hong kong creates a more carnival-like atmosphere, so entertaining feature and commercial values are highlighted, which very well reflects hong kong’s unique popular culture. as dancer-choreographer daniel yeung explained in chinadaily.com.cn dated october 19, 2018 (hong kong edition), “the lion dance symbolizes local cultural heritage for me. it is timeless: no matter how much hong kong society has changed, the dance is always there to represent us. 3.3 cultural hybridity& cultural innovations as hong kong is characterized by mass immigration and interracial communications, cultural hybridity becomes salient in hong kong. in the 21st century, hong kong people have changed their criteria of value judgment from hierarchy in social status in the past to freedom and equality at present (zhou, 2019, preface). hong kong gradually formed its own unique local culture, mixing with different cultures from different regions and countries. and lion dance witnesses the historical vicissitude of hong kong and perfectly demonstrates its hybridity--unique popular culture. it is only when we understand that all cultural statements and systems are constructed in this contradictory and ambivalent space of enunciation, that we begin to understand why hierarchical claims to the inherent originality or ‘purity’ of cultures are untenable, even before we resort to empirical historical instances that demonstrate their hybridity (bhabha, 1994, p. 55). as above mentioned, lions are non-indigenous species and were introduced in ancient china via silk road, and most of the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 39 ancient chinese people never saw them with their own eyes but relied on hearsay. after knowing a little bit about lions as a symbol of heterogeneous culture, ancient chinese people poured their own imagination into the symbol of lions, reconstructed the image of lions, created such chinese folk tales as a mythical beast or monster “nian”, and gradually developed different styles of lion dances in the light of regional cultural characteristics. it can be said, therefore, that the origin of lion dance presented the cultural hybridity from the outset. moreover, it is inadvisable to describe lion dance as the symbol of pure chinese culture, although people all over the world have reached a consensus on lion dance as a chinese tradition. in hong kong, lion dance is closely associated with hong kong people’s everyday life, integrating different cultural factors while inheriting traditional chinese culture. one of the most common ways to keep this cultural symbol alive is to participate in the lion dance competitions throughout the world, especially in southeast asian countries, as an international cultural exchange. in a lion dance competition, choreography, acrobatics, dangerous stunts, and intense rhythmic accompaniment become the elements of judging (ying & chiat, 2016). in this way, lion dance troupes from hong kong have learned from other troupes from other regions and countries and bring forth new ideas in all aspects of lion dance, keeping pace with the times. for instance, lion practitioners were all male, because, traditionally, on the one hand, the lion dance demonstrated masculinity, on the other hand, deeply influenced by traditional chinese ethics and the patriarchal clan system, women had no chance to learn lion dance in ancient times. with the improvement of social status and selfawareness, more and more women join lion dance troupes. in terms of management of the lion dance troupe, modern enterprise management system and modern marketing have been introduced, which is a big leap for any traditional lion dance troupe. according to chinanews.com.cn dated february 13, 2016, xiuming ouyang first set out to change the image of the lion dance troupe by means of staff regulations and rules because martial clubs in hong kong were closely related to the gangsterdom before the 1970s, then have studied the programs of business administration. she said, “in the past, the lion troupes thought everything would be all right if lion dancers performed, but now customers pay more attention to casting and service.” in addition, lion practitioners constantly explore a way to innovate lion dance. at the ninth edition of the new vision arts festival (nvaf) on chinadaily.com.cn dated october 19, 2018 (hong kong edition), choreographer and artistic director daniel yeung told a story of a mythical figure from the three kingdoms (220-280 b.c.) period named guan yu’s ride of 1,000 miles, by re-working traditional lion dances and merging with cantonese kung fu, visual and audio creations. he said, “the stories of guan yu led to the poetry in the performance from the purely solid physical works of dance and martial arts to the creative visual and audio multimedia theater.” it was reported on chinanews.com.cn (dated february 19, 2022) that fluorescent fabrics were made into lion costumes, the lion dance “handwork” was developed, and even “hip hop” music and dance were applied to give a new interpretation of lion dance. in the era of information, the transmission mode of lion dance in hong kong as a set of cultural symbols is no longer confined to live performance, and new media has become an indispensable mode. besides, new teaching methods are also adopted to attract young people to learn lion dancing. 4. conclusion nowadays, lion dance is still one of the most popular, characteristic, and traditional performances in hong kong. it has been an integral part of hong kong’s complicated history, witnessing its adversities and also its glories. on the one hand, as a set of cultural symbols, the lion dance has no substantial being. still, it perfectly displays its functional value, namely, representing different meanings at different times, for instance, exorcism, driving out evil spirits, auspiciousness, good fortune, protecting against harmful beings, etc. nevertheless, with the development of lion dance in hong kong, on the other hand, it has played double roles, namely, keeping traditional chinese culture and developing with the times, in order that young people are willing to inherit this cultural tradition and continuously carry it forward. references avaunt, c. 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[lion dancers under the lion rock]. : [chinanews: hong kong and macao news]. http://www.chinanews.com.cn/ga/2022/02-19/9680463.shtml this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. v02issue01.05.2022.02.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 26 domestication and foreignization in english versions of huawei’s new year messages from 2017 to 2022 huiying zhang1, zhanghong xu2, 1 school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, e-mail: 20200310048@gdufs.edu.cn 2 (corresponding author) school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, e-mail: 200311121@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract new year message, an important source for understanding cultural differences, is understudied at present, in particular in the field of translation. based on xiong (2014)’s classification of translation strategies and translation methods, this paper investigates the english versions of huawei’s new year messages delivered from 2017 to 2022 from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. results suggest that (1) three translation methods are employed, namely literal translation, liberal translation, and imitation; (2) literal translation as a foreignization-oriented method fails to communicate the message of the source text in many circumstances and makes it difficult for the target readers to understand the target text since it retains the expressions that are unique in the source language; and (3) liberal translation and imitation as domesticationoriented methods help facilitate target readers’ understanding of the source text. the current study is believed to shed light on further studies on new year messages. keywords: new year message; domestication; foreignization; translation method 1. introduction delivering a new year message at the end of the year or at the very beginning of the next year is now a common practice in china (dong & xiong, 2012; zhu, 2015). new year message (hereinafter referred to briefly as nym), also called new year speech, new year greeting, or new year congratulation, is highly valued, for it shows not only how the speaker reflects on the past year but also how he/she upbeats about the future (zhang et al., 2016; zhang & zhang, 2017; zhu, 2015), thereby helpful in constructing one’s image (zhang, 2015). nym as a text that reflects contemporary thoughts and social change is worthy of being investigated (li & wang, 2014). indeed, since nym is delivered in certain cultural and historical contexts, it should be deemed as an important resource for understanding a specific culture. the nyms of southern weekly, for instance, embody the traditional beliefs in chinese society, namely righteousness, conscience, rationality, and humanity, in the summaries of what happened over the past years (dong & xiong, 2012). traditionally, nym is delivered by national leaders to their people (see e.g., arcimaviciene & jonaitiene, 2015; jiang & yang, 2019; čech, 2014) and publications and journals to their readers (see e.g., li & wang, 2014; peng, 2009; zeng, 2021). recent years, however, have witnessed an increasing number of nyms extended by companies, especially the companies that are influential industrially, nationally, or even internationally. huawei technologies co., ltd (hereinafter referred to as huawei), which operates in over 170 countries and regions and serves more than 3 billion people worldwide, is a case in point. as a leading global provider of information and communications technology infrastructure and smart devices, huawei has attracted the attention of scholars specializing in translation (see e.g., guo, 2020; ouyang, 2021; sun & sheng, 2017). however, relevant studies on the nyms delivered by huawei are in a way scarce although some scholars have studied huawei’s brand name (y. guo, 2020), product instructions (wang & gao, 2019), company profile (li, 2020), chairman’s message in the annual report (ouyang, 2021), and advertisements (sun & sheng, 2017). considering that the nyms of huawei are inevitably characterized by chinese culture in general and the organizational culture of huawei in particular, the current study takes the english versions of huawei’s nyms from 2017 to 2022 as a sample to discuss the translation strategies and methods used. the current study is structured as follows. after introducing the importance of nym, section 2 reviews the notion of domestication and foreignization, as well as relevant studies on nym. section 3 analyzes the domesticating and communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 27 foreignizing strategies in english versions of huawei’s new year messages from 2017 to 2022, followed by concluding remarks in section 4. 2. literature review this section provides an overview of domestication and foreignization, after which relevant studies on nym are summarized. 2.1 overview of domestication and foreignization the notion of domestication and foreignization was proposed by lawrence venuti, a famous american translation theorist, in his book the translator’s invisibility: a history of translation published in 1995. nevertheless, what should be noted is that it was friedrich schleiermacher, a german philosopher and theologian, who first introduced domestication and foreignization as contrasting methods (which were conceptualized as “entfremdung” and “verfremdung” by schleiermacher respectively). schleiermacher believed that translators using entfremdung “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” while the translators employing verfremdung “leaves the author in peace as much as possible and moves the reader towards him” (qtd. venuti, 2008: 28). venuti further developed schleiermacher’s ideas of translation methods. venuti took schleiermacher’s entfremdung as a domesticating strategy (or domestication) and verfremdung as a foreignizing strategy (or foreignization). domestication, as venuti (2008) clarified, involves rewriting the source language and requires the translator to replace the cultural background of the source language with that of the target language. readers of the target text, therefore, should be prioritized and expressions commonly used in the target language should be employed. as a macro-level strategy, domestication narrows the distance between the target readers and the author both linguistically and emotionally. foreignization, on the other hand, places great emphasis on preserving the source language and the national characters presented therein because cultural differences are highlighted. the translator is expected to take the customs and linguistic characteristics into consideration, use the expressions derived from the source language, and convey the ideas of the author as accurately as possible. since foreignization is advocated to demonstrate the distinctive features of a specific culture, understanding the target text will be challenging to the readers. although domestication was popular at that time, venuti himself was inclined to adopt foreignization at the very beginning. venuti counted foreignization as a means for restraining the ethnocentric violence in translation, and for opposing the hegemony of english-speaking countries and their unequal cultural exchanges with other countries as he claimed that “foreignizing translation in english can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations” (venuti, 2008: 16). the translator’s invisibility is a weird self-annihilation, a way of conceiving and practicing translation that undoubtedly reinforces its marginal status because it is partly determined by the individualistic conception of authorship that continues to prevail in angloamerican culture (venuti, 2008). hence, venuti advocated a non-fluent translation with a view to emphasizing the foreign identity of the source text and eliminating the invisibility of translators. although heated debate has been sparked about the use of domestication and foreignization since the notion of the two translation strategies was introduced into china (cf. sun, 2002; cai, 2002), more and more scholars have realized that domestication and foreignization are compatible with each other rather than mutually exclusive (see e.g., guo, 2008; xiong, 2014; yuan, 2010). yuan (2010), for example, advocated a combination of domestication and foreignization based on translation practice in reality. xiong (2014) further discussed such concepts as translation strategies, translation methods, and translation techniques, with a belief that domestication and foreignization merely demonstrated the tendency of the translator. venuti himself also explained in an interview that domestication and foreignization are not necessarily incompatible (guo, 2008; yuan, 2010). 2.2 previous studies on new year message nym, as a text that reflects contemporary thoughts and social change, is worthy of being investigated (li & wang, 2014). studies on nym did not flourish until the recent decades, whereas most of them are focused on the nyms extended by media and national leaders from the perspective of media communication, linguistics, and narratives. scholars specializing in media communication are one of the first that realize the importance of nym, given that nym is naturally connected with media communication. zhang et al. (2016), for example, have explored the topics of the nyms extended by southern weekly from 1997 to 2016 and how the collective memory of it varied with those topics. results suggested that over the past two decades, the role of southern weekly has evolved to be a “mixed” one from enlightener, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 28 recorder/monitor, and interpreter, and that collective memory of the “golden age” of southern weekly has ever been constructed on social media. zhang and zhang (2017) conducted discursive research on how media established authority in media convergence based on the nyms delivered by 48 news outlets in 2016. it was found that the news outlets controlled by the communist party of china (cpc) established their authority by stressing the ruling legitimization of the cpc while market-oriented ones established their authority by emphasizing their performance, morality, and history. some scholars have discussed how national leaders use nyms to deliver their ideas of ruling. wang & zhang (2019) and tian & chen (2017) investigated the ideology and art of ruling presented in the nyms sent by xi jinping, concluding that xi jinping succeeded in helping enhance the dominant ideology in china (cf. li, 2015; li & ju, 2018; zheng et al., 2014). tong et al. (2018) analyzed the nyms extended by xi jinping from 2014 to 2018 based on coding theory and discourse analysis. findings indicated that the content of nyms collected and channels through which they were communicated were characterized with media convergence by being structurally stable, combing ideology with content, using natural and endearing words, being spread to the world via multimedia, etc. linguistic studies on nyms are relatively sparse with much attention paid to the nyms sent by national leaders (see e.g., alikberova et al., 2015; jiang & yang, 2019; wang, 2022; huang & zhu, 2018). arcimaviciene and jonaitiene (2015) evaluated the use of metaphor in the presidential new year greetings of twelve political leaders, using the analytical framework of critical metaphor analysis and procedurally employing pragglejaz group’s metaphor identification procedure. the evaluation of the 409 metaphoric clusters identified showed that hard and soft power skills within the ethical dimension were evoked by different political leaders. specifically, hard power leadership was more varied at the pragmatic, intermediary, and transactional levels of semantic representation, while female leaders were more democratic in their conceptualization and linguistic preferences than their male counterparts. the interpersonal function analysis of li (2018) on the nym for 2018 delivered by xi jinping demonstrated that using indicative mood helped narrow the distance between the speaker and the audience, thus making it easier for the audience to accept the information conveyed by the speaker. employing modal verbs, similarly, helped reveal the leader’s determination and commitment while using the first-person pronoun frequently implied that the leader stayed together with his people. čech (2014) conducted a thematic analysis of the new year speeches given by czechoslovak and czech presidents and proved that there were differences between the thematic concentrations in the speeches of presidents from the totalitarian period and the period of democracy although the relationship was not simple and direct. few studies have explored nyms from the perspective of narratives. dong and xiong (2012) discussed the characteristics of the narrative in 13 nyms of southern weekly, including highly political and representative events, a combination of macro and micro perspectives, praise and criticism, history and the present, as well as showing the beliefs of southern weekly. shi (2012) probed the nyms of southern weekly from its identity, topics, and outcome. in terms of the identity of southern weekly, the author believed that attention was turned to “us” from “the underprivileged”, “individuals”, and “citizens”. the topics, on the other hand, changed to “harmony” from “revolution”, “democracy” and “rights” while at the same time the nyms had become a national narrative rather than an individual narrative. zeng (2021) analyzed the nyms of people’s daily from 1979 to 2020 utilizing corpus linguistics and critical discourse analysis. the study concluded that three types of narratives were intertwined, in which the identity constructed by the collective-oriented narrative laid a solid foundation for the socialist-oriented and reform-oriented narratives while the latter two helped strengthen the identity by highlighting the remarkable achievements of the chinese people. despite the above-mentioned discussions on nym, few, if not any, scholars have explored nym from the perspective of translation. nym, which is naturally and closely linked to the cultural environment in which it is extended, is an important resource for discovering and handling cultural differences. given that translation is, likewise, a practice that deals with cultural differences, the current study aims to investigate how translators of huawei’s nyms address the culture-related problems from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. 3. domestication and foreignization in the english versions of huawei’s new year messages the current study adopts xiong (2014)’s classification of translation strategies and translation methods (as shown in table 1) as a framework for analyzing the english versions of huawei’s nyms from 2017 to 2022. a total of five nyms were collected since huawei did not extend an nym for 2021. three translation methods are identified in the current study, namely literal translation, liberal translation, and imitation, each with different translation techniques. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 29 table 1. xiong (2014)’s classification of translation strategies and translation methods translation strategy translation method foreignization zero translation transliteration word-for-word translation literal translation domestication liberal translation (paraphrase, idiomatic translation) imitation (addition, omission) variation translation recreation 3.1 literal translation literal translation requires the translator to follow the structure of the source text (st) and translate st without adding or omitting any information. by so doing, both the content and form of st can be retained, in particular the metaphors, imagery, and ethnic and local characteristics. translators using literal translation do not replace the words and rhetoric (e.g., metaphor) of st with the equivalent or similar ones in the target language, whereas they are allowed to change the lexicalsyntactic structure of st so that the target text (tt) will be comprehensible (xiong, 2014). literal translation is generally considered foreignization-oriented (xiong, 2014). readers usually find tt translated through literal translation hard to understand because the meaning of some expressions is not fully communicated as demonstrated in examples 1 and 2. example 1 st: 2022 st in pinyin: shǒu zài “wén zǐ lóng juǎn fēng” guó dù mǎ lā wéi de yī xiàn tuán duì, bāng zhù kè hù jiě jué jīng yíng kùn nán, huò dé gāo dù rèn kě. tt: in malawi, the field team earned recognition for helping our customers overcome operational difficulties in the middle of mosquito tornadoes. (nym for 2022) example 2 st: 2017 st in pinyin: yī qiè gōng zuò yào wéi rào zhòng liáng shi, dǎ liáng shi, tí shēng tǔ rǎng féi lì. tt: all managers must focus on creating value for customers, and work to “grow our crops, harvest the gains, and fertilize the soil for future business growth”. (nym for 2017) the tt of “ /wén zi lóng juǎn fēng” in example 1 and “ /zhòng liáng shi, dǎ liáng shi, tí shēng tǔ rǎng féi lì” in example 2 are confusing if the readers have little knowledge about chinese. “ /wén zi lóng juǎn fēng” in example 1 functions as an adjective for describing malawi across which a massive number of mosquitoes spread. if translated as “mosquito tornadoes”, however, it will be counted as “tornadoes composed of mosquitoes” literally, resulting in misunderstandings. “ /zhòng liáng shi, dǎ liáng shi, tí shēng tǔ rǎng féi lì” in example 2 was a slogan commonly chanted in china between the 1950s and 1970s when crop production was prioritized. ren zhengfei, president of huawei, who grew up in the sixties and founded huawei years later, used the slogan figuratively to encourage employees to enhance performance and improve management on many occasions, as a result of which the slogan has become part of the organizational culture of huawei. the tt of example 2 fails to convey the meaning of st considering that the metaphors of “ /liáng shi” and “ /tǔ rǎng féi lì” are not explained. foreignization-oriented as it is, literal translation may not cause trouble for the readers when the syntactic structure of st is adapted to that of the target language. example 3 st: 2022 st in pinyin: dào zǔ qiě cháng, xíng zé jiāng zhì, xíng ér bú chuò wèi lái kě qī. tt: the road ahead is long and hard. as long as we press ahead, we will reach our destination. (nym for 2022) communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 30 “ /dào zǔ qiě cháng” in example 3 is an expression from who is she?, a song created in the eastern zhou dynasty and collected in the book of songs, meaning that there is a long and difficult road ahead. “ /xíng zé jiāng zhì” is derived from an article titled cultivate yourself written by xunzi, a famous philosopher in ancient china, meaning that we will eventually reach our destination as long as we keep going. the tt of example 3 is appreciated because it expresses the meaning of st not only faithfully but also fluently. may it be not neatly and nicely structured as the st, it is comprehensible and serves the purpose of communication and cultural exchange despite the differences in ways of thinking in chinese and english. 3.2 liberal translation unlike literal translation, liberal translation believes that tt should communicate the message of st to readers naturally and fluently without much emphasis on form. as a domestication-oriented method, liberal translation centers more on the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of certain words rather than the grammar of the source language. two types of liberal translation are widely employed, i.e., paraphrase and idiomatic translation (xiong, 2014). 3.2.1 paraphrase translators using paraphrase interpret the st while not replacing the expressions of the st with the idioms of the target language. paraphrase is more likely used to translate the expressions related to ancient texts, poems, or historical figures in the source language because the meaning of these expressions will not be communicated accurately if translated literally. examples 6 and 7 demonstrate how paraphrase is used. example 6 st: 2020 st in pinyin: xiá lù xiāng féng yǒng zhě shèng. tt: fortune favors the bold. (nym for 2020) example 7 st: 2019 st in pinyin: tōng guò kǎo shì kǎo hé lái táo tài “nán guō xiān shēng” …… tt: we must use our examination and appraisal systems to weed out the experts who are no longer qualified. (nym for 2019) “ /xiá lù xiāng féng yǒng zhě shèng” in example 6 is a famous saying from the art of war, which originally means that only the brave will win in the battlefield. “ /nán guō xiān shēng” in example 7 is a name in chinese for those people who are unqualified but assume important positions. although chinese readers are familiar with these expressions, readers who know little about chinese culture may find them too obscure to be understood if no explanations are offered. apart from the information related to ancient texts, poems, or historical figures, paraphrase is also employed in translating elliptical sentences which are common in chinese. example 8 shows how paraphrase helps explain the elliptical sentences. example 8 st: 2020 st in pinyin: yào shí xiàn cháng tài huà de “néng shàng néng xià” …… tt: promotion and demotion is a fact of life for managers. this needs to be codified and incorporated into day-to-day operations. (nym for 2020) elliptical sentences are common in language use. the reasons can be both subjective as in expressing ideas as economically as possible and objective as in making expressions brief and concise with the help of various contextual factors (chen, 2005). nevertheless, chinese readers immersed in a high-context society depend more on contextual factors than english readers who belong to a low-context culture, as a result of which chinese readers are more likely to understand such expressions as “ /néng shàng néng xià” and paraphrase is necessary for english readers. 3.2.2 idiomatic translation idiomatic translation, unlike paraphrase, refers to borrowing similar expressions from the target language. as a domestication-oriented method, idiomatic translation not only makes the tt native but also serves the purpose of communication by borrowing equivalent or similar expressions from the target language. idiomatic translation is one of the most effective ways to translate idioms as illustrated in example 9. example 9 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 31 st: 2017 st in pinyin: kēng qiāng mó lì yǒng liàng jiàn, xióng xīn zhuàng zhì zài xiàng qián. tt: moving forward, we need to hone our skills, step up to the plate, and aim for the stars. (nym for 2017) two english idioms are used to help english readers better understand “ /xióng xīn zhuàng zhì zài xiàng qián”. the idiom “step up to the plate” originally means that “(for a batter in baseball) to move near home plate in preparation for striking the ball when it is pitched” and is figuratively used as “to move into a position where one is ready to do a task” while the other idiom “aim for the stars” means “aspire to something” or “set one’s goals high”. the meaning of the two english idioms used is consistent with the st “ /xióng xīn zhuàng zhì zài xiàng qián” both literally and figuratively. 3.3 imitation imitation means that the translator “assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only some general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork” (dyrden, 2006: 172). translators using imitation either add more information to the target text or omit unimportant information and only translate the key information (xiong, 2014). 3.3.1 addition people from different cultures express the same ideas differently due to differences in terms of wording, grammar, and syntactic rules. in order to make tt fluent and communicative, translators need to enrich the content of the st by finding out the underlying meaning of certain words and adding extra information to the tt. examples 10 and 11 are two cases of addition. example 10 st: 2022 st in pinyin: guǎn lǐ zhě hé zhuān jiā yào zhǔ dòng hé xīn yuán gōng duō hē kā fēi, bāng zhù tā men kāi kuò yǎn jiè. tt: managers and experts should sit down more often with new employees have some coffee, chat, and broaden their horizons. (nym for 2022) people in china, a high-context society, tend to express their ideas implicitly. since many aspects of cultural behavior are not made explicit in chinese society, chinese people are very sensitive to implicit messages and have learned how to interpret implicit messages accurately from an early age. for instance, chinese readers can quickly understand the implied meaning of “ /duō hē kā fēi” (have some coffee) in example 10, i.e., “chat and communicate with each other”. english readers from a low-context culture, however, will not understand the connection between “have some coffee” and “broaden their horizons” unless the implicit message “chat and communicate with each other” is added to the target text. example 11 st: 2020 st in pinyin: tè bié gǎn xiè nà xiē fèn zhàn zài bǔ dòng yī xiàn de yuán gōng jí jiā shǔ! tt: and in particular, my special thanks to our employees in the front lines who have been working day and night to patch up the holes in this embattled aircraft of ours, and to their families who have stood by their side. (nym for 2020) the translation of “ /bǔ dòng yī xiàn” in example 11 fully expresses the figurative meaning of the st. “ /bǔ dòng yī xiàn” is used to describe that employees of huawei, not feeling discouraged, worked together to weather the difficult times when huawei was included in the entity list by the united states in 2019 and many parts of its business were affected. “ /dòng” (hole) is therefore a metaphor for the ongoing or potential problems or difficulties huawei encounters since 2019. adding “in this embattled aircraft of ours” in the tt enables the english readers to deduce the implied meaning of “ /bǔ dòng yī xiàn” even though the metaphor “ /dòng” is translated literally. 3.3.2 omission omission refers to deleting some expressions that do not comply with the mental and linguistic traditions of the target language. the purposes of deleting some expressions are principally to keep the tt concise and intuitive, to highlight the facts and key information, and to conform to the cultural values of the source language and the linguistic structure of the target language, etc. (lu, 2013). omission is used in example 12. example 12 st: 2019 2020 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 32 st in pinyin: bú jīng yī fān hán chè gǔ, zěn dé méi huā pū bí xiāng. 2019 nián, duì huá wéi lái shuō shì jí qí bú píng fán de yī nián …… tt: 2019 was an extraordinary year for huawei. (nym for 2020) in chinese culture, poems are often used by leaders as the opening lines of their speeches because it is believed that poems reflect the social and spiritual life of human beings. “ /méi huā” (plum blossoms), regarded as a symbol of chinese national spirit because it stands proudly against the snow and frost and flowers in bitterly cold winter (yang, 2005), have long been admired and praised by poets. the difficult times starting from may 2019 is virtually a “bitterly cold winter” for huawei when they are forbidden to use the gms services of google, advanced risc machine, american chips, related technologies, etc. in the chinese nym for 2020, xu zhijun, huawei’s rotating chairman, used the plum blossoms to encourage huawei’s employees to overcome difficulties and aspire to something great. however, the poems concerning plum blossoms have been deleted from the english version considering that no special symbolic meaning has been imparted on plum blossoms in english culture and that poems are rarely used as opening lines in english culture. differences in rhetoric use is another reason for using omission. consider the following example: example 13 st: 2020 st in pinyin: gè jí gàn bù yào yǐ gōng sī dà jú wéi zhòng, shàng huǒ xiàn, xià zhàn háo, dào yè wù zuì xū yào de dì fāng, dào jiān kǔ qū yù zuò zhàn. tt: managers at all levels need to put company interests above personal gain and go where they are needed most, including hardship regions. (nym for 2020) as a type of human speech, nym has an illocutionary force that exerts an impact on the audience. the speaker delivering the speech will manage to influence the audience’s emotions in order to persuade them to accept his/her opinion. in the chinese context, the speaker will emphasize the common ground, such as values mutually accepted, emotions experienced commonly and so on, between himself/herself through using exaggeration to help establish or enhance mutual trust. “ , /shàng huǒ xiàn, xià zhàn háo” (“head to the front and fight in trenches” literally) in example 13, like “ , /shàng dāo shān, xià huǒ hǎi” (“head to the mountain of knives and jump into the sea of fire” literally), is a frequently used expression in chinese to show how determined a person is. in the english context, however, omission is used properly in example 13 considering that what the st means has been communicated and that the purpose of narrowing the distance with the audience by emphasizing common ground has been served. 4. concluding remarks the current study investigates the translation strategies and translation methods used in huawei’s new year messages sent from 2017 to 2022 from the perspective of domestication and foreignization under the framework of xiong (2014)’s classification. results suggest that three translation methods are employed, namely literal translation, liberal translation, and imitation. literal translation, as discussed in the current study, is foreignization-oriented and makes it difficult for target readers to understand the target texts since it retains the expressions that are unique in the source language. liberal translation and imitation are domestication-oriented and therefore facilitate readers’ understanding of the source text. what should be noted is that neither domestication nor foreignization can be labeled as “good” or “bad” in its nature. deciding which one to be adopted and advocated depends on the specific conditions and the purpose of the translation. translators are expected to employ various methods and techniques flexibly in order to better serve the purpose of the translation. in a word, domestication and foreignization are compatible with each other rather than mutually exclusive. there are some limitations in the current study. the first limitation is that the texts used in the study are relatively insufficient, resulting in somewhat subjective and incomprehensive analysis. second, the important role of readers and their perceptions are left understudied in the current study. nevertheless, the current study is believed to shed light on future studies on nym. references alikberova, a. r., vukadinovich, s. i., & nurmieva, r. r. 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(2015). the communication dynamics of new year message (in chinese, ). youth journalist ( ), 3, 103. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 7-29-pb(revised)1.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 29 the translation study of chinese and american pharmaceutical profiles from the perspective of recontextualization – regarding gphl and merck xuan shen1, xiaohai wang2 1school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, baiyun avenue north, guangzhou, china, e-mail: 20200310030@gdufs.edu.cn 2corresponding author: same as above, e-mail: 228208418@qq.com abstract pharmaceutical companies play an important role in defending us against the pandemic. as chinese pharmaceutical companies enter overseas markets, making contributions to the world, their company profiles need to be adapted to different contexts, such as the american context. under this circumstance, company profiles with different contexts can provide insight into the discursive relationship between text and context in the study of website translation. in view of this, this study firstly contrasts the english profile of chinese company guangzhou pharmaceutical holdings limited (gphl) with that of american company merck by genre analysis, then studies the application of (wodak & fairclough, 2010)’s “recontextualization” concept to the translation of the company profile—finally, generalizing the translation strategies and recontextualizing mechanism that is suitable for chinese pharmaceutical companies. it is hoped that this study can deepen the application of recontextualization and thereby give some advice to those chinese pharmaceutical companies in translating pharmaceutical company profiles. keywords: recontextualization, company profile, pharmaceutical companies, translation, genre analysis 1. introduction to improve the competitiveness of chinese pharmaceutical companies in the foreign market, especially during the pandemic, the external communication of corporate culture is particularly critical, and language is an important carrier for intercultural communication. under this circumstance, many chinese enterprises, including long-established enterprises, have set up english versions for their corporate profiles. as part of the corporate website, they are the window for corporate outreach, which involves more than retranslation (wu& li, 2017). elements are the linguistic features or resources that company profiles have. wodak & fairclough (2010) suggested that elements include explanations, evaluations, and legitimations that can be added to the new context. when elements are translated from one language to another, it’s necessary to free them from the original context and accept the new context. the disintegration and recombination of the context are known as recontextualization. recontextualization has been used for website translation studies over the past few years (lin, 2021; zhang & zhao, 2020; wu & li, 2017), but not many have focused on pharmaceutical companies' profile translation. moreover, those articles tend to pay more attention to the content than structure. therefore, this paper aims to apply the recontextualization to the translation study of the chinese pharmaceutical company profile compared with the american pharmaceutical company profile and combine the genre analysis to find the differences between chinese pharmaceutical company (gphl) and american pharmaceutical company (merck) in constructing corporate profiles and then point out the translating issues about the profile of gphl. from recontextualization, translation strategies and mechanisms can be explored for the chinese pharmaceutical companies to improve the translating quality of company profiles. theoretically, this paper partially fills the gap in profile translation study by combining genre analysis and recontextualization. practically, it is expected that this study can give some suggestions for the translation of pharmaceutical company profiles from chinese to english. 2. literature review context is vital for intercultural communication studies. recontextualization requires communicators to extract elements and information from the source context and reconstruct them in the new context for communicative purposes (fairclough, 2010). for translation studies, recontextualization is defined as selecting important information from the source language and reorganizing and rewriting them in the context of the targeted language. 2.1 recontextualization this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 30 recontextualization is a notion first put forward by bernstein in his research on pedagogy. it regulates the transformation of discourse within discourse production into the field of its reproduction. it’s a process in which texts, signs, or meanings are selected from one social practice and introduced into another (wu et al., 2016). linell (1998) believed that recontextualization is a dynamic process, and it means the transfer-transformation of elements from one context to another. he classified it into three parts-intratextual, intertextual, and interdiscursive recontextualization. recontextualization is not just confined to pedagogy. fairclough (2003) expanded this concept into discourse and social practices. he believed that recontextualization is the representation of social events and the perspectivation of discourse. a particular type of social event can be represented through different genres and networks of social practices. meanwhile, communicators’ cognition and notions can impact and transform discourse. the relationship between language and social practice is mediated through recontextualization (altahmazi, 2020). besides, recontextualization functions as assigning values to tokens in a particular context adapted to the constraints and requirements of a different context, thus re-evaluating and assigning a different value (fetzer, 2017). recontextualization is widely and deeply discussed in many fields, such as social reform and media. wodak & fairclough (2010) studied the higher education policies of the european union and found that the same policy could have different understandings in the various political, cultural, and historical contexts. they brought recontextualization into discourse analysis and explained the disciplinary relationship between this notion and social reform. wu (2016) applied recontextualization and transformation to the media discourse based on the first-instance judgment of the peng yu case. this article explains why a text is interpreted differently in different contexts-media context, judgment context, and reader interpretation context by creating the theoretical framework of the discourse-historical-contextual approach. media discourse is also analyzed in other methods. anbin (2021) delineated constructive journalism's conceptual common ground from comparative journalism and intercultural communication. by comparing public opinion surveillance (pos) between western and chinese journalism, he discovered that pos had been recontextualized as both western and chinese journalism has the same goal of serving the people. still, they hold various news concepts and media eco-system. still, his research lays the theoretical foundation for recontextualizing constructive journalism in the chinese social and cultural context. 2.2 recontextualization and translation recontextualization is also developed in the study of translation. moreover, many researchers utilize recontextualization in the translation study of corporate publicity. wodak 1999) argued that recontextualizing a text or discourse would bring the transformation of meanings through which the new context reflects elements being endowed with different dynamic contextual meanings. based on the previous categorization and transformation views (fairclough, 2003; wodak, 1999), wu (2016) proposed the following categorization of transformations in the recontextualization process: addition, deletion, abstraction, and rearrangement to analyze the media discourse, which paves the way for his analysis of website translation. wu & li (2017) further took website translations of fortune global 500 companies as examples to reveal the application of recontextualization and transformation in terms of the categorization of transformations: addition, deletion, rearrangement, and replacement, which enlightens more researchers to use this categorization and has the referential value for the study of website translation strategies. they also believed that the study of website translation should be from the perspective of publicity translation. other than comparing chinese company websites with american companies’, zhang & zhao (2020) utilized the chinese and english company profiles of the world’s top 500 chinese companies and explored the application of recontextualization, which is beneficial to the external publicity translation of chinese companies. wu & dong (2020) concentrated on the transmission of chinese culture. they elicited the website translation of confucius institute and concluded the new principles of recontextualization for this type of website translation: dynamic state, detailed demonstration, immediate feedback, and complete message. altahmazi (2020) showed the multimodal and cross-lingual recontextualization in the online news site. he found that recontextualization existed in a different ideological narrative. wang (2021) shed light on the website translation of china general nuclear power corporation and the translation issues of the typical chinese state company. she also pointed out the importance of recontextualization in corporate culture transmission and in entering foreign markets. according to the literature review, it can be concluded that many scholars are beginning to putting recontextualization into the study of website translation, especially company profile translation. still, a few of them notice the website translation of pharmaceutical companies, though they make significant contributions to preventing the pandemic, and their publicity translations closely connect with overseas business. on top of that, previous literature did not set clear boundaries between structure and content dimension under recontextualization. therefore, it’s expected that studying the translation of pharmaceutical companies can help chinese pharmaceutical companies enter the foreign markets and benefit people with made-in-china medicines. 3. method communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 31 this paper selects two typical english company profiles from a chinese pharmaceutical company-gphl and an american company merck for a case analysis to partially fill the gap. it integrates two approaches: genre analysis and recontextualization for the structural and content dimensions. genre analysis contrasts the linguistic moves between gphl and merck in the structural dimension. through this approach, structural differences can be found. based on the linguistic moves, content differences can be further examined by categorizing transformations in the recontextualization (wu et al., 2016; wu & li, 2017). recontextualization takes place within the same field, the pharmaceutical industry, and within the same genre, company profiles. it’s aimed to improve the profile translation of gphl by those two approaches. 3.1 genre analysis traditionally, the genre is classified into literature and rhetoric. however, following a deeper understanding of discourse analysis, linguists broaden the concept of genre, and they suggest that genre involves all the linguistic events of social practices and communication activities. in general, there are two schools of genre analysis. australian school is stand by martin. the swalesian school, represented by swale and bhatia, takes linguistic moves and steps analysis as the starting point for the discourse analysis. linguistic moves are defined as “a discoursal or rhetorical unit that performs a coherent communicative function in a written or spoken discourse (swales, 2004). a move can be realized by one clause, one or more sentences, a paragraph, or longer (cotos et al., 2017). move analysis is mainly used to study academic articles. tseng (2018) studied research articles in nine linguistic journals and found three moves: providing a theoretical background, establishing a theoretical framework, and sharpening the significance of one’s study. bhatia (1993) displayed seven moves of promotional letters in the business field, including establishing credentials, introducing the offer, offering incentives, enclosing documents, soliciting a response, using pressure tactics, and ending politely. he also believed that communicative purposes need to be figured out before analyzing the linguistic moves. in our paper, the move is seen as a stretch of linguistic resources that serve the particular communicative purposes of publicity. translation strategies can be realized through move analysis. many investigators have been concerned about business documents employing genre analysis in recent years. for example, liu (2012) conducted the quantitative and qualitative approaches to study chinese and american pharmaceutical companies' profiles. she found that realization is quite different, although they have similar linguistic moves. deng (2013) started with the angle of intercultural communication under genre analysis. it is found that chinese and english company profiles own different linguistic moves, and they have their unique linguistic features. li & zhu (2020) researched ceo statements in english from chinese and western annual reports. through the corpus linguistic approach and move-step analysis, they discovered that although both of them have the same communicative purposes, the realizations of linguistic moves are quite different. the linguistic moves of western annual reports are more flexible than those of chinese annual reports. from the literature review, it can be found that genre analysis has been widely used in business documents and contrastive analysis. however, not many combine genre analysis and recontextualization with studying the business documents, not to mention the website translation. moreover, this paper attempts to explain why translate in this way concerning the translation of corporate publicity materials. 3.2 move analysis gphl is a traditional chinese pharmaceutical company that works on chinese patent medicine, herbal medicine, chemicalpharmaceutical raw material, healthcare products, etc. this company plays a part in the transmission of traditional chinese medicine culture, and it owns the overseas business. merck is an american pharmaceutical company and ranks one of the global 500. its business mainly covers western medicine for treating covid-19, cardio-metabolic disorders, animal health, etc. on the one hand, they have similar points, such as the rank on the global 500 and the same industry. on the other hand, differences cannot be ignored either. they have various cultural and social backgrounds, lines of business, and enterprise property. if gphl wants to accommodate the western market. in that case, it requires modifying its profile translation referring to that of merck so that western customers can better understand chinese medicine and chinese pharmaceutical companies. as mentioned previously, communicative purposes need to be given priority and can be concluded as follows: attract the potential customers; show the features and advantages; establish the initial relationship with stakeholders. for the pharmaceutical companies, due to their strong specialty, high-quality company profiles enable stakeholders to understand the lines of business as well. linguistic moves can be summarized based on the analysis of communicative purposes. besides, move structure is a configuration of stretches of all the constituent moves of a text that accomplish coherent communicative goals and development ideas (tseng, 2018). it can be seen that figure 1 is the structural description of moves of gphl, and figure 2 is the move structure of merck. table 1. move structure of gphl communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 32 move structural description percentage of the total number m1 s1 s2 s3 s4 general introduction nature product and service capability achievement 14.15% m2 the work of party building 19.51% m3 social responsibility 15.83% m4 s1 s2 s3 s4 achievement and capability subsidiaries intangible cultural heritages trademarks patents 44.83% m5 development target 5.68% table 2. move structure of merck move structural description percentage of the total number m1 s1 s2 general introduction history product and service 13.31% m2 achievement 1.99% m3 mission statement 3.11% m4 leadership 3.61% m5 s1 s2 s3 capability employees research and development social responsibility 2.61% m6 corporate culture and value 36.69% m7 history 4.48% m8 product and service 27.74% m9 partner 3.73% m10 policies 2.73% from figures 1 and 2 it can be seen that the move structure of gphl and merck is different as a whole. it can be further discussed based on similarities and differences in move structure. the same move structure is a general introduction, accounting for 14.15% and 13.31%, respectively. concerning the differences, the work of party building takes up a more significant proportion of the move structure of gphl, while merck’s company profile does not. corporate culture and value are the move structure that gphl’s company profile does not possess. apart from that, the move structure of achievement and capability occupies the most significant proportion of 44.83% for gphl. at the same time, merck talks about corporate culture and value altogether with product and service, which accounts for 36.69% and 27.74%. 3.3 translation strategies according to transformations of recontextualization, there are four translation strategies: addition, deletion, rearrangement, and abstraction (wu et al., 2016). however, wu & dong (2020) brought another concept of substitution for their study of website translation. as required, there are five translation strategies suitable for the case analysis: addition, substitution, rearrangement, abstraction, and deletion. the move analysis impacts the process of addition, deletion, and rearrangement. profile translation of gphl can be improved according to the company profile of merck through this process. the five translation strategies are explained as follows: 3.3.1 addition fairclough (2003) suggested that elements such as explanations, evaluations, and legitimations may be added according to the new context. when it comes to the profile translation, additions complement some illustrations of characteristics and historical or cultural background. it also implies adding some statistics or figures. adding the move structure and explaining medical terms are significant for the two specific cases. as linguistic moves have been compared, it can be found that communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 33 information about corporate culture and value can be added. leadership can also be complemented if necessary. aside from that, gphl mentions its goal of development as follows: gphl develop its core business grand southern tcm, grand health, grand commerce, and grand medical treatment. source link: www.gpc.com.cn/ its profile translation contains medical strategies characterized by vogue meaning. western customers would like to receive more objective and specific information. therefore, they would like to know more about the particular content of grand southern tcm, grand health, grand commerce, and grand medical treatment. the added information should cater to the benefits of western customers as well. for example, merck writes its strategies and policies with functions: we support public policies that advance the interests of patients, improve public health and promote access to medicines and innovation. (source link: www.msd.at/en/msd-worldwide) the principle of “customer first” needs profiles to be attractive. they should know what customers want to know, such as the functions of products and services. on the contrary, when it comes to the introduction of products and services, gphl states as follows: it also boasts six state-level intangible cultural heritages: xingqun xiasangju granules, bys dashen kouyangqing granules, wanglaoji herbal tea, and chenliji traditional chinese medical culture, pangaoshou traditional medical culture, and the preparation process of zhongyi baoying compound. (source link: www.gpc.com.cn/) the names of chinese-type medicine are endowed with chinese characteristics. from this paragraph, transliteration is adopted to translate medical terms. this translation strategy is not concerned with cultural differences and readability. it’s suggested that add the efficiency and ingredients of medicines so that western customers can learn more about chinese medicine and chinese medicine culture. for instance, when talking about moving the structure of products and services, merck introduces them as listed: cardio-metabolic disorders we are determined to find solutions for the most serious chronic health challenges, such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. (source link: www.msd.at/en/msd-worldwide) cardio-metabolic disorders are also the medical term and can make reading difficult. but it explains the most serious chronic health challenges” with the sentence. customers can guess that this term is related to chronic diseases. that’s why gphl can correlate its medical terms with its efficiency. 3.3.2 substitution wu & dong (2020) regarded replacement as replacing the representation of a social event with another social event. the premise is that both of them hold similar features. for the profile translation, substitution was more likely to be realized by referential strategy, in which the name of the company should be replaced by the personal pronoun “we.” gphl prefers to use its company name to show its authority, which widens the distance between the company and western customers, while merck would instead use “we” to narrow down the space. the following two examples belong to the same move of general introduction. gphl is a well-established enterprise with over 400 years of history. (source link: www.gpc.com.cn) and merck states as follows: for 130 years, we’ve focused on the next quarter and the next century. (source link: www.msd.at/en/msd-worldwide) 3.3.3 deletion wodak (2001) argues that when writers represent a social event, they have to choose what to reserve and what to delete. back to the profile translation of gphl, it can be seen that there are many phrases with chinese characteristics, especially the move structure of the work of party building. this move does not exist in the source of merck. moreover, gphl repeatedly tells its patriot spirits as its company spirits. still, western customers cannot connect patriot spirits with a pharmaceutical company because we do not share the same historical and political background. for instance, when it comes to the linguistic moves of historical knowledge, it talks below: it has produced a galaxy of revolutionaries, such as yang yi, a leader of cpc in early days, advocate and organizer of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 34 guangzhou uprising and member of the standing committee of the political bureau of the cpc central committee (source link: www.gpc.com.cn) when it talks about the move structure of party building, it states some proper nouns related to chinese histories, such as “guangzhou uprising” “cpc central committee” “yang yi”, which is difficult for westerners to understand and is not suitable for the communicative purpose. hence, it’s better to delete the information or represent information in the form of a video so that readers can choose whether to read it or not. another piece of information that needed to be deleted in the move structure of the party building is praise and achievement with chinese characteristics. gphl demonstrates that: the cpc committee of guangzhou wanglaoji pharmaceutical co., ltd. has been listed as the “excellent grass-root party branch of guangzhou”. (source link: www.gpc.com.cn) because westerners do not recognize those achievements and value the facts, such as statistics and figures, it would be better not to show this type of achievement. all in all, the move structure of party building should be deleted following the cultural differences. 3.3.4 rearrangement rearrangement refers to the change of orders when representing a social event (fairclough, 2003). according to the analysis of the move, it can be concluded that gphl writes its achievement in different steps and occupies a more significant proportion than that of merck. therefore, it’s helpful to list figures, statistics, and other factual information together, just as merck does in its move structure of achievement to make the company profile concise and conspicuous. below is the achievement on merck’s website. our company by the numbers 74k employees $13.6 b research and development investment in 2020 $3.1 b total philanthropy in 2019 (source link: www.msd.at/en/msd-worldwide) figures and statistics can deepen the company’s impression, which favors cooperation and investment. on the contrary, gphl proposes its information about figures and statistics in the move structure of achievement below: it possesses ten well-known chinese trademarks, namely gphl, baiyunshan, wanglaoji, chenliji, zhongyi, kangzhiba, pangaoshou, tianxin, hejigong, and qixing. the brand value of wanglaoji reaches 108 billion rmb, the no.1 beverage brand in china. in comparison, the brand value of baiyunshan is estimated to be 28.3 billion rmb, ranking the first among medical brands in china. “ten,” “108 billion rmb,” and “28.3 billion rmb” are the statistics that need to be shown in the apparent position to present the company’s capability and convince benefit communities. rearrangement can also be used in the move structure of social responsibility of gphl. here are two examples: in meizhou, gphl also constructed wanglaoji’s first ingredient extraction center and the caizhilin chinese medicine industrialization service center, creating at least 800 jobs for local people and helping boost the local economy. the wanglaoji charity fund of rmb 182.8 million set up by wanglaoji health has taken an industry-leading stance, donating money and supplies to bring relief to disaster-stricken areas such as ya’an, lydian, wenchuan, yushu, and yiliang, and preventing and controlling h7n9, bird flu, and another disease. total donations have exceeded 1 billion rmb. (source link: www.gpc.com.cn) 800 jobs”, “182.8 million”, and “1 billion” are factual information that needs to be rearranged following the form of merck. besides, merck has the move structure of product and service, which customers are concerned about, while gphl does not have this structure and talks about it in the move structure of achievement. it is suggested that the part of the product and service should be rearranged and listed as one move other than one step. 3.3.5 abstraction fairclough (2003) indicated that abstraction is the degree of generalization. wu (2016) thought writers could report a social event specifically or straightforwardly. this notion is suitable for the profile translation as well. merck begins with a communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 35 conclusion before introducing structural descriptions in detail, while gphl does not abstract its descriptions. the moving structure of products and services is an excellent example of merck: we focus on scientific innovation to deliver medicines and vaccines that may help millions of people around the world. (source link: www.msd.at/en/msd-worldwide) this conclusion implies two meanings. firstly, the scope of business is “medicines and vaccines.” then, the benefits brought to customers are “help millions of people around the world.” here is another example of merck: oncology our mission is to deliver innovations that extend and improve the lives of people with cancer vaccines vaccines are one of the greatest public health success stones-and we’ve been discovering, developing, and delivering vaccines to help prevent disease for over 100 years (source link: www.msd.at/en/msd-worldwide) inversely, gphl introduces its product and service without a conclusion: gphl is dedicated to researching and developing chinese patent medicine, chinese herbal medicine, chemicalpharmaceutical raw materials and preparations, biological medicine and healthcare products, and pharmaceutical logistics and distribution and healthcare service. (source link: www.gpc.com.cn) gphl uses the parallel to show its products and service but lacks a conclusion. “chinese patent medicine” and “chinese herbal medicine” are all chinese medicine, so that they can be categorized into chinese medicine. the scope of business can be summarized as working on the research and development of chinese medicine, and those medicines can benefit customers. recontextualization has been discussed based on structure and content dimension. therefore, the recontextualizing principle of company profile translation can be further analyzed at the macro and cognitive levels. 4.1 recontextualizing principle of company profile translation as wu & dong (2020) put forward the recontextualizing framework of website translation for company cultural transmission, the direction of company profile translation can be concluded based on this and the case study of gphl and merck. our framework explores how to revise the pharmaceutical company profile translation and then figure out the recontextualization process and mechanism to realize companies' publicity from the macro, micro, and cognitive dimensions. this mechanism is conducive to understanding the application of recontextualization in the translation study of company profiles. it may be applicable in other types of website translation. the pattern is shown in figure 1. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 36 figure 1: recontextualization process of company profile translation in the macro dimension, corporate and language culture have a combined effect on cultural context and the process of decontextualization due to cultural differences. at the micro-level, genre analysis and recontextualization can be carried out to recontextualize the text concerning the effects of language and culture. finally, recontextualizing translation should coincide with the cognition and arouse readers’ attention; external publicity can be realized through the whole process. 4.2 translation of corporate publicity the translated text of gphl is not applicable to two principles of the three principles of “closeness”(huang, 2004): closeness to westerners’ needs for information about china and proximity to their thinking and language habits. translation of corporate publicity is regarded as publicity for foreign customers. it functions by letting them know about the company efficiently and directly, promoting commodities and company image, making them accept and buy products, services, and notions, and receiving interests. however, by comparing the english profile between gphl and merck, it can be seen that the structure and content of gphl do not meet the expectations of foreign customers, and their cultural differences and information needs are underestimated. that means the cognitive level has not finished, so the external publicity cannot be realized. furthermore, the whole text lacks focus, so the publicity goals are not achieved. 4.3 high and low context culture works as the mental strategy for human beings and functions as forming their way of thinking, feeling, and acting (hofstede, 2001). there are several cultural factors influencing how people see the world. different patterns of english translations between gphl and merck reflect the differences in context. hall (1976) came up with high and low context, mainly used in intercultural communication. the characteristic of high context is that much information is coded faintly rather than distinctly because people are more dependent on context. it can be explained that the focal points of profile translation of gphl are not prominent. in contrast, low context is featured by the low amount of information and is not rely so much on communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 37 context. the meaning of info-3rmation can be expressed clearly, so there is no need to guess based on context. to summarize, when the chinese pharmaceutical company, which is in a high-context country, enters a low-context country, it has to change its information from implicit to explicit. 5. conclusion this paper first adopts genre analysis and recontextualization to compare the english company profile between the chinese pharmaceutical company gphl and the american company merck. through this process, translation issues and strategies can be discovered for gphl. the research identifies the following five strategies serving publicity and cross-cultural communication were identified: addition, deletion, rearrangement, substitution, and abstraction. and then, it explores the recontextualization mechanism in the external promotion and cross-cultural communication and digs out the reasons for differences in cultural contexts and the three principles of closeness. it is suggested that this paper can provide a new perspective for company profile translation and help construct a discourse system for chinese pharmaceutical companies. however, limitations should not be ignored either. firstly, the data is limited, and future studies can select more pharmaceutical company profiles or among a large group of companies from different industries, countries, or cultures. secondly, statistical analysis and corpus analysis can be applied to increase the objectivity and preciseness of the results. acknowledgments as the paper is finally completed, i would like to show my great thanks to my advisor, professor wang for his long-term guidance and valuable suggestions. references altahmazi, t. h. m. 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(2020). an anlysis of the translation of the fortune 500 chinese company profiles from the perspective of recontextualization. journal of hulunbuir university, 72(2), 278–283 (in chinese: this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. microsoft word 02issue2021 4 communication across borders: translation & interpreting issn 2766-791x vol. 1 no. 2; 2021 www.jhkpress.com experiential metafunctional analysis of “shan xing” and its english versions huaming cheng1 st. paul university philippines; guangzhou college of commerce, china e-mail: kylechm@126.com this paper is the phased achievement of a school project of guangzhou college of commerce (no.: 2019xjyb008). abstract this paper attempts to analyze and compare transitivity processes of “shan xing” and its 11 english versions from the perspective of experiential metafunction of halliday’s functional linguistics and makes a comment on the similarities and differences between them. this study can give clues to the study of poems and their translations of the transitivity processes, by exploring the differences of participants and circumstantial elements with the theoretical framework of functional linguistics which can provide a necessary theoretical basis for the study of poetry translation. keywords: functional linguistics; experiential metafunction; “shan xing”; english versions of “shan xing” about the author: cheng huaming, a doctoral candidate of st. paul university philippines, an associate professor at guangzhou college of commerce, is mainly engaged in comparative linguistics and translation research. 1. introduction “shan xing (chinese: 山行)” is a seven-character quatrain of the tang dynasty by the poet du mu (chinese: 杜牧), which describes the author’s mountain climbing, and highly praises the beauty of the mountain in the late autumn. this poem shows a colorful picture of the autumn mountain, where there are stone path, white clouds, homes, maple groves, frosted leaves, which constitute a touching autumn color. in this poem, du mu uses emotions to control the scene, quickly and accurately capture the image of natural beauty, and integrate his own emotion into it, so that emotional beauty and natural beauty are blended one scene. the first sentence of the whole poem “yuan shang han shan shi jing xie (chinese: 远上寒山石径斜)”, depicts a winding mountain road to the hills. “yuan (chinese: 远)” describes the length of the mountain road; “han (chinese: 寒)” indicates the late autumn. these two words “xie (chinese: 斜)” and “shang (chinese: 上)” take concerted action, which express the mountain is high but the slope is slow. the second sentence “bai yun sheng chu you ren jia (chinese: 白云生处有人家)” is the description of what the poet sees, where the white clouds float is “you ren jia (有人家)”. these three characters make people feel that the mountains are full of life. it correlates with “shi jing (chinese: 石径)” in the first sentence. this is the passageway for the mountain dwellers. the third sentence is “ting che zuo ai feng lin wan (chinese: 停车坐爱枫林晚)”, in which the word “wan (晚)” is exquisitely used and it contains many meanings. firstly, it shows that the scenes of the first two sentences are seen during the day, and those of the last two sentences are evening scenes. secondly, because in the evening there are sunset, gorgeous sunset glow and red maple leaves which reflect each other, while maple grove is particularly beautiful. thirdly, the poet lingered, and in the evening he was reluctant to leave in the car, and he loved the red leaves. finally, because parking for a long time, observing into the micro, he realized the truth of the fourth sentence “shuang ye hong yu er yue hua (chinese: 霜叶红于二月花)”, which sentence is such an interesting epigram. the fourth sentence is the center of the whole poem. it is the poet’s strong colorful writing, condensed out of the pen. huo (1995: 351) thinks that the poem contains new ideas, exquisite layout. in the bleak autumn wind it intakes gorgeous autumn color, and compares the spring wind, is pleasing to the eye. recently, the main research on this poem includes: gong (1985) explained new meaning of “er yue (chinese: 二月)”. zhong (2010) analyzed three english translations of the poem from empathy perspective. li & xu (2012) illustrated the poem from the perspective of cognitive stylistics. zhao (2013) reinterpreted the text. besides, there are several articles of teaching design of the poem. from the point of view of the research content, the results of the comparative translation study of “shan xing” are rare. this article analyzes experiential metafunction of “shan xing” and its 11 english versions from the perspective of experiential metafunction of halliday’s (halliday, 1994) so as to provide a better method for poetry translation study. 2. experiential metafunctional analysis of the poem experiential metafunction is an important part of systemic-functional grammar by halliday. experiential metafunction consists of multiple semantic systems, the most important of which is transitivity system. its role is to use the experience of the real world and the inner world in a number of processes to express it, and identify the participants involved in the process and circumstantial elements (wang, 2002: 1). transitivity includes six processes: material process, mental process, relational process, verbal process, behavioral process and existential process (hu, 2003: 71). from the perspective of transitivity of experiential function, there are four processes in “shan xing”, i.e.: (1) material process / relational process: “yuan shang han shan shi jing xie (chinese: 远上寒山石径斜)”; (2) material process / existential process: “bai yun sheng chu you ren jia (chinese: 白云生处有人家)”; (3) material process / mental process: “ting che zuo ai feng lin wan (chinese: 停车坐爱枫林晚)”; (4) relational process: “shuang ye hong yu er yue hua (chinese: 霜叶红于二月花)”. in terms of functional discourse analysis, during transitivity analysis, it is necessary to indicate the related elements, such participants and circumstantials after the type of process is determined. in sentence (1) of material process, “shang (chinese: 上)” is the process, and the actor is the poet himself, which is omitted. “yuan (chinese: 远)” represents the circumstantial of space, and “han shan (chinese: 寒山)” is the range. “shi jing xie (chinese: 石径 斜)” shows the relational process: “shi jing (chinese: 石径)” is the carrier, and “xie (chinese: 斜)” is an attribute; in sentence (2) of the existential process, “you (chinese: 有)” is a process, “bai yun sheng chu (chinese: 白云生处)” represents the circumstantial of space, which includes a material process, “ren jia (chinese: 人家)” is an existent; in sentence (3) of the material process, “ting (chinese: 停)” is a process, “che (chinese: 车)” is the goal, “zuo ai feng lin wan (chinese: 坐爱枫林晚)” represents the circumstantial of cause, which also includes a mental process; in sentence (4) of the relational process, “shuang ye (chinese: 霜叶)” is the carrier, “hong (chinese: 红)” is an attribute, “yu er yue hua (chinese: 于二月花)” is the circumstantial of comparison. 2 table 1 “shan xing” and analysis of transitivity processes poem transitivity process (1) yuan shang han shan shi jing xie (chinese: 远上寒山石径斜) material process / relational process (2) bai yun sheng chu you ren jia (chinese: 白云生处有人家) material process / existential process (3) ting che zuo ai feng lin wan (chinese: 停车坐爱枫林晚) material process / mental process (4) shuang ye hong yu er yue hua (chinese: 霜叶红于二月花) relational process 3. experiential metafunction analysis of its translations on english translations of the poem “shan xing”, these 11 versions have been collected (see appendix). for convenience, the following versions are arranged by the order of time: weng (weng, 1985: 57), wang (wang & knoepfle, 1989: 49), xu2 (xu, 1990: 328-329), kotewell (guo, 1994: 227), zhuo (zhuo, 1996: 181), sun (sun, 1997: 431), xu3 (xu, 2001: 531), yang (yang, 2001: 274), seaton (seaton, 2006: 123), tang (tang, 2010: 7), liu (liu, 2015: 182), which represent 11 translations. for comparison, a sentence-by-sentence analysis is given below. 3.1 “yuan shang han shan shi jing xie (chinese: 远上寒山石径斜)” table 2 english versions of “yuan shang han shan shi jing xie” translated by process participant circumstantial weng material process: runs actor: a narrow stone path place: off the main road manner: winding, climbing, vanishing wang material process: winds actor: the narrow stone trail place: far up into the mountains xu2 relational process: are carrier: the stony paths attribute: aslant place: far up on the cold mountain kotewell material process: climb actor: i range: the chill mountain’s steep stone paths zhuo material process: ’s meandering actor: a stony path place: high up the chilly mount sun material process: wound actor: the stone trail place: far up the mountainside xu3 material process: leads actor: a slanting stony path place: far to the cold hill yang material process: winds actor: a flag-stone path place: up into the chilly hills seaton material process: turns actor: rocky path place: far climbing cold mountain tang material process: sloped actor: the rocky path place: far up the chilly mountains liu material process: is winding actor: an askew stone-paved path place: up the chilly mountain far away the first sentence “yuan shang han shan shi jing xie (chinese: 远上寒山石径斜)” is discussed below. the 11 english translations in terms of the type of process, participants and circumstantials are analyzed in the table 2 above. according to the process type, only one of all the translations is used the relational process. the process translated by xu2 is “are”. the carrier is “the stony paths”, and the attribute is “aslant”. “far up on the cold mountain” represents the circumstantial element of the place. all the other translations belong to the material process, most of the actors are “path”. weng translates it as “a narrow stone path”; zhuo as “a stony path”, xu3 as “a slanting stony path”, yang as “a flag-stone path”, seaton as “rocky path”, tang as “the rocky path”, liu as “an askew stone-paved path”. weng adds more information of “narrow”, while xu2 and liu respectively translate the meaning of “slanting” and “askew” to indicate the meaning of the original poem “xie (chinese: 斜)”. kotewell also uses the material process, which translates the omitted actor “i”. the process is “climb”, and the range is “the chill mountain’s steep stone paths”. in “the narrow stone trail” translated by wang and “the stone trail” by sun, all use “stone trail” to translate “shi jing (chinese: 石径)”. the processes translated by wang, sun, yang and liu, which are translated as “wind” or others, contain the meaning of the rugged mountain road in the original poem. in addition, the other material processes are “runs” by weng, “climb” by kotewell, “’s meandering” by zhuo, “turns” by seaton, “sloped” by tang. then the circumstantial to represent place “han shan (chinese: 寒山)” is discussed. most of them are translated as “cold/chilly mountain(s)/hill(s)”, such as “far up on the cold mountain” translated by xu2, “high up the chilly mount” by zhuo, “far to the cold hill” by xu3, “up into the chilly hills” by yang, “far climbing cold mountain” by seaton, “far up the chilly mountains” by tang, “up the chilly mountain far away” by liu. in the first sentence “han (chinese: 3 寒)” is used to evoke the fourth sentence “shuang ye (chinese: 霜叶)” (huo, 1995: 351). among the translations “off the main road” by weng, “far up into the mountains” by wang, “far up the mountainside” by sun do not appear the coldness of “han shan (chinese: 寒山)”. in the circumstantial, weng has added “winding, climbing, vanishing” to illustrate the rugged mountain path. generally speaking, the first sentence can follow the process of material and be translated as “a stony path winds up to the chilly mountain far away”. 3.2 “bai yun sheng chu you ren jia (chinese: 白云生处有人家)” table 3 english versions of “bai yun sheng chu you ren jia” translated by process participant circumstantial weng existential process: perch existent: a few tiny cottages place: into the cloudy heights where wang relational process: is relational process: are carrier: this attribute: a cloudy place carrier: the cabins attribute: almost invisible xu2 material process: plant actor: people goal: their dwellings place: where white clouds are made and formed, there kotewell existential process: are existent: homes of men place: deep in the white clouds zhuo are silhouetted goal: homes place: ’gainst the white clouds’ very fount sun existential process: stood existent: some abodes place: where the clouds were thick, there xu3 existential process: appear material process: are existent: cots and bowers place: where fleecy clouds are born, there yang relational process: are carrier: houses attribute: just discernible place: amid the thick white cloud seaton existential process: existent: some man’s home place: where clouds grow tang existential process: stood existent: some cottages place: where white clouds had risen liu existential process: is existent: a cottage which is hidden in the white clouds depth the 11 translations of the second sentence “bai yun sheng chu you ren jia (chinese: 白云生处有人家)” are displayed above. from table 3, there are seven versions using the existential process, while the process of translation does not appear in seaton, six of the other transitive processes of the translations are “perch” (translated by weng), “are” (by kotewell), “stood” (by sun), “appear” (by xu), “stood” (by tang), “is” (by liu). among them, sun presents a better translation, which shows the “hidden” homes in the mountains. the translations of the existent are “a few tiny cottages” by weng, “homes of men” by kotewell, “some abodes” by sun, “cots and bowers” by xu3, “some man’s home” by seaton, “some cottages” by tang, “a cottage which is hidden in the white clouds depth” by liu. for the existent “ren jia (chinese: 人家)”, kotewell, zhuo and seaton translate it as: “homes of men”, “homes” and “some man’s home”. here “home” is a place where people live. the poet thought that the mountains and forests were uninhabited, but he vaguely saw other people. there is a kind of warm feeling, in line with the meaning of the original poem. when weng translates it as “a few tiny cottages”, tang as “some cottages”, liu as “a cottage”, “cottage” here refers to “villa”. people in the mountains cannot form cottages because they are scattered. xu3 translates it as “cots and bowers”: “cot” refers to “shed, small house”; “bower” refers to “pavilion”. there are errors in the understanding meaning of the original poem. there are other translations “the cabins” by wang, “their dwellings” by xu2, “houses” by yang. wang and yang translate it as the relational process. there are two relational processes: “is” and “are” in the translation by wang. the carriers are “this” and “the cabins” respectively; the attributes are “a cloudy place” and “almost invisible”. the relational process of translation by yang is “are”. the carrier is “houses”, and the attribute is “just discernible”. xu and zhuo translate it as the material process. the process translated by xu is “plant”. the actor is “people”, and the goal is “their dwellings”. the process translated by zhou is “are silhouetted”, and the goal is “homes”. zhuo’s “silhouette” reflects a kind of outline, which is a certain background of the outline, more in line with the original poetic conception, because there are white clouds in the mountains, and the house cannot be clearly seen the full picture. finally, the circumstantial elements of the place to translate “bai yun sheng chu (chinese: 白云生处)” are discussed. 4 there are two versions: “sheng (chinese: 生)” and “shen (chinese: 深)”. “sheng (chinese: 生)” can be understood as in the formation of white clouds, “shen (chinese: 深)” means in the depths of the mist. weng translates it as “into the cloudy heights where”, kotewell as “deep in the white clouds”, zhuo as “’gainst the white clouds’ very fount”, sun as “where the clouds were thick, there”, yang as “amid the thick white cloud”. zhuo’s “fount” refers to “(literary or humorous) the place where sth important comes from” (wehmeier, 2004: 692), it explains the origin of white clouds, that is, where white clouds come from. the second sentence describes “bai yun (chinese: 白云)” in order to contrast the fourth sentence with a strong contrast of color. “frosted leaves” are extremely “red”, which gives a feeling of being redder than early spring flowers (huo, 1995: 351). both translations of kotewell and zhou embody “bai yun (chinese: 白云)”, and zhuo also shows the formation of white clouds. other translations “where white clouds are made and formed, there” by xu2, “where fleecy clouds are born, there” by xu3, “where clouds grow” by seaton, “where white clouds had risen” by tang embody the formation of white clouds. taken all the analysis into consideration, this sentence can use the existential process to be translated as “there are a few homes of men where the thick white clouds stay”. 3.3 “ting che zuo ai feng lin wan (chinese: 停车坐爱枫林晚)” table 4 english versions of “ting che zuo ai feng lin wan” translated by process participant circumstantial weng material process: pull up; entranced actor: i goal: my carriage place: here wang mental process: love material process: pause senser: i phenomenon: seeing the maples time: at sunset place: in my cart purpose: to watch them xu2 material process: stop actor: i goal: my cart cause: only cause i love the beautiful sight—of a maple grove, all red time: before the approach of night kotewell material process: stop actor: i goal: my carriage cause: because i admire the maple grove at nightfall zhuo material process: bring actor: i goal: my carriage to a halt cause: attracted by th’ maples sun material process: stopt actor: i goal: my cart purpose: to watch the maple forest late xu3 material process: stop actor: i goal: my cab place: at maple woods purpose: to gaze my fill yang material process: stop actor: i goal: my carriage cause: for i love the maple trees time: in the twilight seaton material process: halt behavior process: sit actor: i goal: my carriage manner: adoring, evening, maple grove tang material process: stopped actor: i goal: my cart manner: sitting therein to enjoy, looking at the lovely maple trees at dusk liu material process: stop actor: i cause: due to loving maple trees in late autumn purpose: to go sightseeing the third sentence is “ting che zuo ai feng lin wan (chinese: 停车坐爱枫林晚)”. it means to stop the cart because of the beauty of the evening maple forest. the original verse uses the material process, while wang uses the mental process “love” and material processes “pause”. the senser is “i”; the phenomenon is “seeing the maples”. the behavioral process of translation by seaton is “sit”, which should be a misunderstanding. this is similar with the original english translation “and i sit to admire” by kotewell. guo (1994: 227) revises it. the revised circumstantial element “because i admire the maple grove at nightfall” expresses the concept of cause, and accords with the meaning of the original poem. because of loving the late maple forest, he stops to watch the view (huo, 1995: 350). here “zuo (chinese: 坐)” does not mean “sit down”. selected notes of all tang poetry by sun & yan (2002: 3712) and selected tang poems by the institute of literature of the chinese academy of social sciences (2003: 580) explain “zuo (chinese: 坐)” means “because” rather than “sit”, so these two foreign translators mistranslated it. other translations are material processes. the process of the original poem is “ting (chinese: 停)”. weng translates it as “pull up”, yang as a phrase “bring…to a halt”, seaton as “halt”, while the other translations are “stop” or its different forms to indicate 5 the action of stopping. all the actors are “i”; the goals are “my carriage”, “my cart” or “my cab”. the circumstantial elements indicating cause include “only cause i love the beautiful sight—of a maple grove, all red” by xu2, “because i admire the maple grove at nightfall” by kotewell, “attracted by th’ maples” by zhuo, “for i love the maple trees” by yang, “due to loving maple trees in late autumn” by liu. other circumstantial elements of purpose are “to watch them” by xu2, “to watch the maple forest late” by sun, “to gaze my fill” by xu3, “to go sightseeing” by liu. based on the above analysis, this sentence includes the material process and mental process and can be translated as “i stop my cart because i love the maple grove in late autumn”. 3.4 “shuang ye hong yu er yue hua (chinese: 霜叶红于二月花)” table 5 english versions of “shuang ye hong yu er yue hua” translated by process participant circumstantial weng relational process: is carrier: the twilight mountainside attribute: ablaze cause: with crimson maples more vivid than spring flowers wang relational process: are carrier: the leaves attribute: as red as prairies time: in the flowering spring xu2 relational process: are carrier: maple leaves after a frost attribute: more beautiful in tone comparison: than flowers in february accompaniment: with their colors better known kotewell relational process: are carrier: whose frozen leaves attribute: redder comparison: than the flowers of early spring zhuo relational process: are carrier: th’ frost-redden’d leaves at dusk attribute: brighter comparison: than the bloom of spring sun cause: with frost-bitten leaves more crimson than spring blooms xu3 relational process: look carrier: frost-bitten leaves attribute: redder comparison: than early spring flowers yang relational process: are carrier: the leaves after early frost attribute: as crimson as spring flowers seaton relational process: carrier: frosted leaves attribute: far redder place: there comparison: than march bloom tang relational process: was carrier: the red colour of the maple leaves with frost attribute: deeper comparison: than that of “second moon flower” liu relational process: are carrier: whose leaves attribute: much redder comparison: than the flowers in february of spring below is the analysis of the last line of poem “shuang ye hong yu er yue hua (chinese: 霜叶红于二月花)”. sun translates it as a circumstantial element of cause “with frost-bitten leaves more crimson than spring blooms”, but all the other translations belong to the relational process, which is the same with the original poem. the carrier of translation by weng is “the twilight mountainside”, and the carriers of the other 9 translations are “the leaves” by 6 wang, “maple leaves after a frost ” by xu2, “whose frozen leaves” by kotewell, “th’ frost-redden’d leaves” by zhuo, “frost-bitten leaves” by xu3, “the leaves after early frost” by yang, “frosted leaves” by seaton, “the red colour of the maple leaves with frost” by tang, “whose leaves” by liu. all the carriers are consistent in the original poem “shuang ye (chinese: 霜叶)”, and most of the attributes are translated as “redder” or “red”. the translation by xu “more beautiful in tone” is not clear in the meaning. the attribute is translated by zhuo “brighter” (the color of the frosted leaves has been translated in the carrier “frost-redden’d”). the translation by yang is “as crimson as spring flowers”, and the translation by tang is “deeper” (the color of the maple leaf has been translated in the carrier “the red colour”). colour”). but “redder” indicates a more reddish meaning. most of the circumstantial elements are translated as the concept of comparison. weng’s “with crimson maples more vivid than spring flowers” expresses the circumstantial element of cause, and wang’s “in the flowering spring” indicates the circumstantial element of time. other circumstantial elements, such as “than flowers in february” by xu2, “than the flowers of early spring” by kotewell, “than the bloom of spring” by zhuo, “than early spring flowers” by xu3, “than march bloom” by seaton, “than that of ‘second moon flower’” by tang, “than the flowers in february of spring” by liu, show the circumstantial element of comparison, in accordance with the original poem. besides, zhuo’s translation also adds the circumstantial element of time “at dusk”. on the translation of “er yue (chinese: 二月)”, if it is translated as the second month, which is unclear. the translation of the second month of the lunar year is cumbersome and boring. “february” is incompatible with the whole meaning of the original poem (wen, 1989: 176). the chinese “february” is a spring blossom. it’s different from english “february”, which is still in the winter. guo (1994: 227-228) considered that the version of “early spring” to translate “february” is an exact version. to keep the same process of relational, the full sentence can be put into “the frosted leaves are much redder than the flowers in early spring”. 4. conclusion on the theoretical basis of the experiential function of halliday’s systemic functional linguistics, this article analyzes and compares these 11 versions. through the analysis of functional linguistics, the language of translations is discussed, and it can help us study some translation problems from a new perspective. the analytical framework of functional linguistics can be applied to describe poetry and its translation. this paper is not intended to judge the translation of famous men. it is hoped that this paper discusses the translation of ancient poetry into english from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics. to maintain the process in the english translation equivalent to that in the original chinese poem, the whole poem may be translated as: a stony path winds up to the chilly mountain far away; there are a few homes of men where the thick white clouds stay. i stop my cart because i love the maple grove in late autumn; the frosted leaves are much redder than the flowers in early spring. in consideration of rhyme, coherence and cohesion as well, some adjustments are made on the above initial version offered. the rhyme of the whole poem presents as “aabb”, with 15 syllables in each sentence. finally, a better revised version is displayed as follows: a mountain trip du mu a stony path winds up to the chilly mountain far away, where are a few homes of men amid which the thick white clouds stay. i stop my cart ’cause the maple grove in late fall i favor: the frosted leaves are much redder than the early spring flower. appendix: eleven english translations of “shan xing” weng: // autumn glory // / du mu / off the main road runs a narrow stone path, winding, climbing, vanishing into the cloudy heights where perch a few tiny cottages. / here i pull up my carriage, entranced. for the twilight mountainside is ablaze with crimson maples more vivid than spring flowers (weng, 1985: 57). wang: // trip to the mountains // / — du mu / the narrow stone trail / winds far up into the mountains / this is a cloudy place / the cabins are almost invisible / i love seeing the maples at sunset / and pause in my cart to watch them / the leaves are as red as prairies in the flowering spring (wang, 1989: 49). xu2: // a mountain tour // / far up on the cold mountain, / the stony paths are aslant. / where white clouds are made and formed, / there people their dwellings plant. / i stop my cart, only cause / i love the beautiful sight — / of a maple grove, all red, / before the approach of night. / maple leaves after a frost — / are more beautiful in tone — / than flowers in february — / with their colors better known (xu, 1990: 328-329). 7 kotewell: // traveling in the mountains // / by du mu / after i climb the chill mountain’s steep stone paths, / deep in the white clouds there are homes of men. / i stop my carriage, because i admire (original translation: and i sit to admire) the maple grove at nightfall, / whose frozen leaves are redder than the flowers of early spring (guo, 1994: 227). zhuo: // a mountain scene // / du mu / a stony path’s meandering high up the chilly mount, / where homes are silhouetted ’gainst the white clouds’ very fount. / attracted by th’ maples my carriage to a halt i bring: / th’ frostredden’d leaves at dusk are brighter than the bloom of spring (zhuo, 1996: 181). sun: // mountain trip / du mu // / (tang, 803-853) / far up the mountainside the stone trail wound, / where the clouds were thick, there stood some abodes. / i stopt my cart to watch the maple forest late / with frost-bitten leaves more crimson than spring blooms (sun, 1997: 431). xu3: // going up the hill // / a slanting stony path leads far to the cold hill; / where fleecy clouds are born, there appear cots and bowers. / i stop my cab at maple woods to gaze my fill; / frost-bitten leaves look redder than early spring flowers (xu, 2001: 531). yang: // travelling in the mountains // / du mu / a flag-stone path winds up into the chilly hills, / where houses are just discernible amid the thick white cloud. / i stop my carriage for i love the maple trees in the twilight, / the leaves after early frost are as crimson as spring flowers (yang, 2001: 274). seaton: // traveling among mountains // / far climbing cold mountain, rocky path turns. / there, where clouds grow, some man’s home. / i halt the carriage, sit adoring, evening, maple grove; / there frosted leaves: far redder than march bloom (seaton, 2006: 123). tang: // melody on autumn mountains // / by du mu / the rocky path sloped far up the chilly mountains. / there stood some cottages / where white clouds had risen. / i stopped my cart, sitting therein to enjoy / looking at the lovely maple trees at dusk. / the red colour of the maple leaves with frost was deeper than / that of “second moon flower” (tang, 2010: 7). liu: // mountain trip // / du mu / winding up the chilly mountain far away is an askew stone-paved path, / there is a cottage which is hidden in the white clouds/ depth. / due to loving maple trees in late autumn i stop to go sightseeing, / whose leaves are much redder than the flowers in february of spring (liu, 2015: 182). notes: ①the original translation of the third sentence by r. kotewell & n. smith is “i stop my carriage, and i sit to admire the maple grove at nightfall”, in which “sit” is the misunderstanding of “zuo (chinese: 坐)”. guo (1994: 227) puts it into “i stop my carriage, because i admire the maple grove at nightfall”. ②in order to save space, the lines of the english translation are separated by “/”, and the titles are separated by “//”. references guo, z. z. (1994). the gems of tang poems (in chinese, 唐诗精品百首英译). hubei education press (湖北教育出 版社). halliday, m. a. k. (1994). an introduction to functional grammar. arnold. hu. z. l. (2003). a survey of systemic functional grammar (in chinese,系统功能语法概论). hunan education press (湖南教育出版社). huang, g. w. (2002). the enlightenment of functional linguistic analysis to translation studies—an analysis of the experiential metafunction in the translation of qing ming (in chinese, 功能语言学分析对翻译研究的启示 ——《清明》英译文的经验功能分析). foreign languages and their teaching (外语与外语教学), (5), 16+11. http://10.13458/j.cnki.flatt.002599 huo, s. l. (1995). selected tang poems (in chinese, 唐诗精选). jiangsu ancient books press (江苏古籍出版社). institute of literature, chinese academy of social sciences (in chinese: 中国社会科学院文学研究所). (2003). selected tang poems (唐诗选). people’s literature press (人民文学出版社). 8 li, c. x. & xu, h. c. (2012). an interpretation of du mu’s poem “shan xing” from the perspective of cognitive stylistics (in chinese, 从认知文体学角度对杜牧诗歌《山行》的解读). journal of chongqing institute of science and technology (social science) (重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)), (23), 103-104+107. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-1999.2012.23.036 liu, z. (2015). 100 chinese poems with english translation (in chinese, 中文经典诗歌英译一百首). jiangxi university press (江西高校出版社). seaton, j. p. (2006). the shambhala anthology of chinese poetry. shambhala publications, inc. sun, d. y. (1997). an anthology of ancient chinese poetry and prose (in chinese, 古诗文英译集). shanghai foreign language education press (上海外语教育出版社). sun, j. j. & yan, t. (2002). selected notes on the tang poems (in chinese, 全唐诗选注). thread-binding books publishing house (线装书局). tang, y. h. (2010). english translation of 300 tang poems (in chinese, 英译唐诗三百首). tianjin people’s publishing house (天津人民出版社). wang, s. y & j. knoepfle. (1989). poems from tang and song dynasties (in chinese, 唐宋诗词英译). heilongjiang people’s publishing house (黑龙江人民出版社). wehmeier, s. (2004). oxford advanced learner’s english-chinese dictionary (6th edition). the commercial press and oxford university press. wen, s. (1989). english translation of selected poems (in chinese, 诗词英译选). foreign language teaching and research press (外语教学与研究出版社). weng, x. l. (1985). translation of ancient poems (in chinese, 古诗英译). beijing press (北京出版社). gong, w. y. (1985). a new explanation of du mu’s “shan xing” (in chinese, 杜牧《山行》“二月”新解). journal of humanities (人文杂志), (5), 124-125. doi: cnki: sun:rwzz.0.1985-05-026 xu, y. c. (2001). bilingual edition 300 tang poems (in chinese, 汉英对照唐诗三百首). higher education press (高 等教育出版社). xu, z. j. (1990). 200 chinese tang poems in english verse (in chinese, 唐诗二百首英译). beijing institute of languages press (北京语言学院出版社). yang, x. y. & g. yang. (2001). tang poems (in chinese, 唐诗). foreign language press (外文出版社). zhao, y. f. (2013). rereading of the classical text du mu’s “shan xing” (in chinese, 神思远翔《山行》中——经 典文本杜牧《山行》之重读). masterpieces review (名作欣赏), (18), 111-112. doi: cnki:sun:mzxs.0.2013-18-047 zhong, j. (2010). empathy in the three english versions of a classical chinese verse (in chinese, 从移情心理谈 《山行》的三种英译). journal of qiongzhou college (琼州学院学报), (4), 76-77. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.10086722.2010.04.033 zhuo, z. y. (1996). the chinese sentiments—as expressed in 128 oft-quoted poems (1100bc-ad1910) (in chinese, 华夏情怀——历代名诗英译及探微). sun yat-sen university press (中山大学出版社). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. microsoft word 02issue2021 29 communication across borders: translation & interpreting issn 2766-791x vol. 1 no. 2; 2021 www.jhkpress.com the co-effect of law and morality: on the legitimacy of china’s quarantine measures against covid-19 yuzhe hong school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china kaiju chen (corresponding author) center of business culture and philosophy of culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, china; institute of advanced studies, university of chinese academy of social sciences, china abstract over the past few decades, the world has seen the dispute between the modern rule of law and traditional rule of morality, and the conflict of these two models of social governance sharpens during covid-19. the rule of both morality and law in china, which has been criticized by the western world, was proved to be efficient during the campaign against covid-19. china’s quarantine measures constitute an important part of china’s anti-pandemic combat. at present, such countries like the usa, the uk, and france, which have failed to respond adequately to the pandemic, are trying to condemn china by doubting the legitimacy of china’s quarantine measures to transfer the domestic public sight and cover up their failure. this paper first presents the legal basis of china’s quarantine measures in established laws. it is found that quarantine measures in china have a valid basis in the chinese legal system. employing the theory of five regulations of using public power, the author then analyses the legitimacy of the operation of china’s quarantine measures. based on confucian theories of sacrificial structure and governance, the author finally reviews and evaluates both the practice and the effect of the rule by morality in china’s public administration. keywords: quarantine measures, law, morality, china 1. introduction china was the first country in the world to suffer a serious covid-19 outbreak and in the face of it, china has taken active and effective responses like imposing quarantine measures to prevent the spread of the pandemic. wuhan was the first city to be locked down, and then many of the badly hit cities also issued city closure. in these cities, people were strictly limited from going out and public places were closed to prevent close contact. by fully exerting the advantages of china’s social governance system of rule of both morality and law, which emphasizes the concepts of “people first”, “life first”, china has achieved prevention and control of covid-19 at the early stage of the pandemic. in the u.s., where a single rule of law model of social governance is implemented with a complete legal system, state governments have been busy debating the legitimacy of anti-pandemic measures and asking for financial support from the central government. as gavin (2020) stated, “for at least six weeks after the first cases of covid-19 arrived in the u.s., the federal government—and most state governments—did not attempt to put in place measures like stay-at-home orders, aggressive testing, isolation, contact tracing, or quarantine. financial barriers to isolation and care remain. this sluggish response gave the virus weeks to spread unfettered and virtually undetected”. the governance system of the u.s. is facing a great challenge. the patchwork of varying state policies and often-contradictory messaging about safety measures, including face masks and social distancing, may well amplify the harms to human health and the economy resulting from a much-delayed initial response (yamey,2020). in coordination with local or state public health departments and the federal centers for disease control and prevention (cdc), states in the u.s. grappled with difficult public health responses to the pandemic in the face of great uncertainty (neal & joanna, 2020). xia (2020) claimed that when public health emergencies occur, all aspects of society are affected by a special situation that is very different from normal times. under this circumstance, society changes its operation mode. this abnormal state will bring a severe test to the government and the public, and it is undoubtedly a test of a country’s governance system. otherwise, under the circumstance of covid-19 spreading globally as an international public health event, most countries are in the struggle combating against the virus. however, some countries (i.e., the usa) that did not effectively combat the epidemic are attempting to criticize china that its quarantine measures violated morality and law. it suggests that rather than ignoring this prejudice of the west, china should defend itself to gain a positive international image and more importantly, to disseminate the experience of fighting against covid-19 to the people of other countries who are still suffering from the epidemic. 30 2. analysis from the perspective of law isolation of confirmed or suspected patients and their close contacts is currently the most direct and effective prevention and control measure adopted by all countries in the emergencies of infectious diseases. in the process of prevention and control of covid-19, the quarantine measures taken by the chinese government have played a critical role in curbing the spread of the epidemic, and have also been supported by the domestic society and the public. in the process of building a country and a government under the rule of law, the isolation measures of china must follow relevant laws and regulations, and be operated under due procedures and legal principles. however, during severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars) in 2003 and covid-19 in 2019, the epidemic prevention measures, especially quarantine measures, are partly excessively enforced by law enforcement departments, which makes it hard for citizens’ freedom rights to be effectively guaranteed during this period. though it is of great necessity to appropriately restrict individuals’ freedom of going out during the epidemic, the legitimacy of the quarantine measures should be proved under the requirements of rule of law. in this section, the author will demonstrate the validity of china’s quarantine measures utilizing providing established law terms about quarantine measures and analyzing these measures from the perspective of the theory of five regulations of using public power. 2.1 established laws the outbreak of sars was the turning point of china’s legislation to focus on public health emergencies (liu et al., 2020). during the sars epidemic, the anti-sars measures, which involved restriction of personal freedom, had some defects in terms of validity. according to articles 8 and 9 of the law on legislation of the people’s republic of china (2000), the personal freedom of citizens, which relates to quarantine measures, is an absolute reservation of the law. the personal freedom of citizens can be restricted only if there is a legal basis. however, because of the deficiency of established laws, the quarantine measures during the sars were mainly based on the “emergency regulations for public health emergencies” formulated by the state council at that time. it was not until the revision of the law of the people’s republic of china on prevention and control of infectious diseases (2004) in 2004, which provided the legal basis to the quarantine measures on the restriction of personal freedom of citizens. after that, china formulated the law of the people’s republic of china on emergency response (2007). and revised the law of the people’s republic of china on frontier health and quarantine (2007) several times (chen, 2020). these laws provide a legal basis for the various quarantine measures in response to public health incidents and infectious diseases. in the current laws and regulations, the basis for the implementation of quarantine measures mainly includes articles 39, 40, and 41 of law of the people’s republic of china on prevention and control of infectious diseases (2004), which respectively stipulate the rules of quarantine measures taken by medical institutions, disease prevention and control institutions and governments [6]. among them, the medical institutions are responsible for medical treatment in the period of quarantine and the designated places for the medical observation of patients, suspected patients, and close contacts. the disease prevention and control institutions are responsible for taking medical treatment for close contacts at the designated place. the governments can quarantine the personnel in the places where the cases of infectious diseases occur. furthermore, article 12 of the law of the people’s republic of china on prevention and control of infectious diseases (2004) stipulates that all individuals in china should accept these anti-epidemic measures. in other words, to prevent the further spread of the epidemic, the individuals who need to be quarantined must cooperate with the related institutions. however, during the period of covid-19, more strict measures were adopted throughout the country like locking down roads and blocking management of all residential areas. it put forward challenges and called for reformations to the present system of laws. in the following sections, the author will give a more detailed description of this situation and attempt to give some suggestions. 2.2 analysis from the perspective of the theory of five regulations of using public power xia (2020) argued that the key to the rule of law is to control the operation of public power. in the operation of state’s public power, whether it is decision-making, implementation of the resolution of social contradictions and disputes, five requirements must be applied based on the ideology of rule of law, namely the theory of five regulations of using public power and the administrators must constantly examine in the whole process of decision-making, implementation and dispute resolution, whether the operation of public power meets these requirements: lawful purpose, lawful authority, lawful content, lawful means, and lawful procedure. the legitimacy of the quarantine measures taken by the chinese government will be analyzed from the perspective of these five rules of using public power. (1) lawful purpose when using public power to make certain decisions and behaviors, the administrators must conform to the purpose of laws and the spirit of rule of law. the purpose of the chinese government to take quarantine measures was to prevent, control, 31 and eliminate the prevalence of the epidemic and to protect public health. as stated by wendy & michael (2020), in the theory of public health, quarantines and travel bans are often the first response against new infectious diseases and the most effective means to eliminate and curb the prevalence after the occurrence of infectious diseases. to minimize the loss of the epidemic and quicken the restoration of social order, the chinese government was wise to take quarantine measures whose purpose is consistent with that of the law of the people’s republic of china on prevention and control of infectious diseases (2004). (2) lawful authority the use of public power should be carried out within the scope of legal authority. laws endow power to public power organs and define the corresponding limits of the operation of public power. after the outbreak of the epidemic, the chinese government transformed the social governance system from normal to abnormal. compared with the normal time, the public power in the abnormal time is more concentrated. law of the people’s republic of china on prevention and control of infectious diseases (2004) stipulates that the local government and medical institutions are the main units with the right to implement quarantine measures, and the police departments can assist in the compulsory quarantine of those who refuse to cooperate. (3) lawful content when the administrators use public power to make decisions, some legal norms and current effective legal provisions must be abided by specifically. in addition, the administrators must also abide by the general legal principles, including the principles of faith, equality, and administrative self-control. the purpose of taking the general legal principles as the standard to guide the operation of public power is to regulate administrative behavior. in the process of taking quarantine measures, abiding by general legal principles, the chinese government respected and protected every citizen and regulated related laws. in epidemic prevention and control, the administrators implement the principle of equality to balance the interests of the individual and the society and treat the legitimate rights of local and foreign citizens equally. (4) lawful means lawful means require that the ways and operations of using public power complying with the provisions of laws and regulations. any behavior of the administrators can violate the individuals’ and public interests. therefore, corresponding to the lawful purpose, the ways and measures to use public power must also be carried out within the framework of the law. if there is no restriction on the power of public administration to pursue its purpose by any means, this will cause the abuse of public power and violate the requirements of rule of law. in the emergency process, we should pay much more attention to the importance of lawful means. in the process of taking quarantine measures, we saw that during the process of covid19, china’s social media repeatedly stated several viewpoints, such as “controlling the degree”, “isolating the virus, not isolating love” and “comprehensively considering the legal and emotional principles”. these viewpoints also served as the working norms of the chinese government when implementing quarantine measures (han & wang, 2020). (5) lawful procedure the decision and implementation of quarantine measures should comply with the requirements of due procedure. although the principle of the due procedure will be limited in the state of emergency, the government should follow clear legal procedures when using public power, which has been accepted by the legislative organs of most countries under the rule of law. the initiation of china’s emergency mechanism is in line with the lawful procedures and the formulation of the prevention and control emergency plan has democratic participation and scientific demonstration, which have been agreed by the chinese national council. after the outbreak of sars, china’s legislation began to focus on public health emergencies. in this circumstance, several laws were established or revised, such as the law of the people’s republic of china on prevention and control of infectious diseases (2004) and the law of the people’s republic of china on emergency response (2007). these laws give medical institutions, disease control and prevention institutions, and local governments the right to carry out necessary quarantine measures in public health emergencies. these laws also stipulate the lawful procedure in the operation of quarantine measures and designate different work to different departments as stated in section 2.1. 2.3 new challenges of laws and suggestions during covid-19, some extreme measures such as locking down roads, blocking management of all residential areas were adopted throughout the country to curb the spread of the virus. with the continuous increase of emergency measures and liberty limiting measures of local governments, the formulated measures gradually changed from requiring residents to reduce going out to requiring residents to stay at home. the purpose of these locked measures was to restrict the residents’ going out as much as possible to limit the flow of residents. the quarantined objects of such lockdown measures had expanded from a small range of people to all residents. measures of this kind had few legal bases which can be found in article 49 of law of the people’s republic of china on emergency response (2007) and article 42 of law of the people’s republic of china on prevention and control of infectious diseases (2004) on place closure. 32 for the sake of protecting public health when public health emergencies occur, chinese governments are allowed to take temporary freedom-restricting measures according to the law. however, in some public health events that cannot be covered by established laws, the government’s extreme measures to control the disease triggered the contradiction between the necessity of disease prevention and control and the protection of individual’s legal rights. if we ignore this dilemma, it will inevitably lead to the loss of the lawful boundary of various prevention and control measures and as long as there is a public health event happens thereafter, various measures to cut off the contact will be arbitrarily used, which make it more possible of the violation of individual’s legal rights. montesquieu (1961) said that people who have power will use it unless there are boundaries of the law. to make the administrators play their due roles in using public power, there must be a restriction of them. to prevent the abuse of public power caused by the excessive administrative power of the government in the implementation of various quarantine measures, we must follow the requirements of legal ideologies to supervise the legitimacy of relevant public power decisions and behaviors, thus promoting the coordinated development of power and rights. furthermore, the various quarantine measures adopted by the government should be reasonable and equal. xia (2020) said that the principle of equality requires substantive consideration. when formulating and implementing norms, we should rationally consider all kinds of social factors, emphasize the standard of equality in all situations, and prevent arbitrary administration. to sum up, after the dust settles, the government should work on improving the relevant legislation of anti-epidemic measures and building a systematic, scientific, standardized, and effective legal system of epidemic prevention and control. to make a response to the problems exposed in quarantined objects, implementation procedure, and protection of citizens’ legal rights, the chinese government should appropriately revise the established laws, optimize the procedural rules in time, thus promoting the development of the public health legal system and ensuring that the response measures of epidemic prevention and control have a legal basis. the supervision of the implementation process of quarantine measures should also be strengthened to protect the citizen's legal rights and maintain social order. 3. analysis from the perspective of morality 3.1 confucian ethics of sacrifice chen (2008) thought there is a “sacrificial construction” within the boundary of all living things. the creatures and the environment are related to each other. however, some living individuals must sacrifice other living individuals to some extent to maintain their existence. this is the interpretation of the story of “the ox and the sheep” in mencius, and the story is as follow: the king was sitting in the hall. a man passed by with cattle. when the king saw him, he asked, “where are you going to take the cattle?” the man answered, “use it to worship the bell.” the king said, “set it free! i can’t bear to see it tremble with fear and be killed without any guilt.” the man asked, “then should we cancel worshiping the bell?” the king said, “how should we? replace it with sheep!” mencius said, “one is capable to unify the world with such a heart! (worshiping the bell with sheep instead of cattle) people may think that the king is mean. i knew that the king took pity on the cattle.” king xuan said, “yes, there are people who talk like this. although the state of qi is small, how can i spare cattle? it’s because i can’t bear to see it tremble and be killed, so i replace it with sheep.” king xuan defended himself that there was no real difference between using cattle and sheep to worship the bell. the reason why he decided to use sheep to worship the bell was that he saw the cattle trembling before the bell, and he took pity on it. ignoring the authenticity of xuan’s explanation, the problem is that if he saw the sheep shivering at that time, he might also ask for “changing cattle for sheep”. in other words, there was no entanglement in how to choose between sheep and cattle as they have different values. the story shows that in any case when a choice has to be made, no perfect option will be achieved, as we have to sacrifice the other objects when one is chosen. chen (2008) said that every choice involves the loss of value or some kind of sacrifice. this loss can be tolerated, not because someone has an absolute and innate judgment on the value of a thing, but because the painful judgment caused by this emergency is unavoidable. from the perspective of benevolence, every creature should be respected and cared for, but when it is necessary to choose between the two, this choice has to be made with deep regret. to sum up, it is obvious that “sacrificial structure” has a rich connotation. it has an in-depth discussion of the problem. it states that if the king does not see cattle (or sheep) to worship the bell, then there is no essential difference between cattle and sheep, but one choice has to be made under the circumstance of some sacrifice. it also reveals that although people are compassionate, they are aware of it only when they see the misfortune of other things or people. under the premise of “all things in one” of confucianism, when the big thing is being threatened and impeded from development, some parts of it have to be sacrificed. 3.2 confucian thought of the rule of morality 33 traditionally, china has always been a society with agricultural civilization. the economic foundation and the division of labor structure jointly determined the specific historical logic of china: the natural economy and the acquaintance society constituted an ethical society with the close relationship of family and country, which is the same set of principles that implemented in governing the family, country and even the world. chen (2019) stated that when dealing with family or national problems, people are accustomed to taking morality as the first choice rather than law. only when moral education is not enough to deter the ruled class, can the ruling class use strict laws. confucius believed that the governance of a country depends not only on severe legal sanctions but more importantly on tolerant moral education. confucius said that to govern the people with decrees and to rectify them with criminal law, the common people only want to dispense the crime and punishment, but they have no sense of shame; to guide the people with morality and assimilate them with etiquette, the people will not only have a sense of shame but also have a sense of submission (the analects of confucius for politics). confucian ethics itself constructs social order by the social relationship based on kinship and interpersonal relationship. historically, benevolent governance and the rule of morality are the core ideologies of ancient chinese social governance. the two ideologies can be traced back to the governance values of the zhou dynasty. “cultivating morality throughout one’s life” was mainly reflected in the administrator’s understanding of the importance of morality and the initiative of moral behavior; “respecting morality and protecting the people” means that the governors must implement the moral policy that protects and benefits the people, and the governors should be cautious in punishment, so as not to disturb, hurt or harm the people. the “morality cultivation” and “morality respect” advocated by the people of the zhou dynasty are not only the requirements of the governors but also the requirements of institutional arrangements, which had a far-reaching impact on the later confucianism. according to confucius, benevolent governance means to govern with morality, that is, the institutional arrangement and implementation of the state and society must conform to the people’s will, and convince people with mortality (ning & wang, 2019). confucian benevolence refers to not only regulating oneself but also loving others. from a negative point of view, benevolence is “don’t do to others what you don’t want to do to yourself” (the analects of confucius ꞏ yanyuan). mencius, the representative of confucianism, further systematized the confucian theory of governance value. he opposed hegemonism and believed that convincing people with virtue is the necessary choice of benevolent governance. at the same time, he further expounded that the core of the thought of benevolent governance is the people-oriented thought, emphasizing that “the people are the most important, the country is the second, and the monarch is the least”. he advocated that “the ancient wise king liked benevolence but ignored power” and “those who are benevolent should be in a high position; those in a high position who is not benevolent would expose their evilness to the public”. meanwhile, it also required the administrators to “respect the wise people and use their abilities, and if a wise man is in power, all the people in the world will be happy”. from the above chinese traditional confucian classics, we can see that confucius and mencius’ thought of the rule of morality advocated improving individual’s moral level by improving that of the governing class, implementing peopleoriented benevolent governance, and then achieving the goal of the rule of morality. these thoughts focus on improving the moral level of the governing class and establish the value orientation of confucian governance, which is people-oriented, serving people with morality and combining morality and punishment. for a long period, the thought of the rule of morality was the dominant ideology of china’s national governance whose core is people-oriented. the thought of the rule of morality not only advocated the moral restraint of individuals but also advocated that the ruling class should be moral in governing. under the circumstance of public health emergencies such as covid-19, which can threaten people’s life safety, some necessary measures are urgently needed to protect people under the people-oriented requirements of the rule of morality. 3.3 moral analysis human rights are inviolable. however, every viewpoint exists with its presupposition and its supporting ideas. cao (2020) stated that human beings are living in a society with others and no one can live alone. therefore, it makes no sense to talk about human rights without considering others in society. furthermore, when we consider human rights, we cannot ignore the necessity of the continuation of life because if one’s living and healthy rights are not guaranteed, other rights are meaningless. chen (2008) said that throughout one’s life since he was born as a baby, he survives and grows up because of the care of his parents and even more other people. what supports the continuation of our life are not natural will, but the benevolence and moral responsibility of others, especially parents. safety, one of the human rights, is different from other general rights. it is not given by a specific social system but is natural. a society that denies the guarantee of life safety is a society without morality. only on this premise can other rights exist. a government that follows the rule of morality will take all necessary measures to protect people’s life safety. the continuation of human life is not an individual issue, it is about the continuation of society. therefore, human rights should be considered at the scope of the whole society. meanwhile, the individual’s appeal, whether it is from the insiders or outsiders, cannot be used as a criterion to judge the legitimacy and righteousness of a collective measure or behavior. everyone lives together and relates to each other closely. it is improper to blindly emphasize individual rights when the responsibility to others in common life is neglected. 34 during the epidemic, quarantine measures are made in the consideration of collective life safety. in a certain sense, as far as the measures of quarantine are concerned, on the one hand, it is self-evident that quarantine is effective in reducing infection and its starting point and motivation are to protect the personal safety of all quarantined people with some sacrifice on their freedom for going out. it is a protection of the most basic human right: life safety; on the other hand, no matter who, if his claim of going out during the city closure is satisfied, the possibility of the spread of the virus will increase and will bring out an evil impact on the society and other people. that is the situation in which human rights are truly violated. in any case, as long as an individual lives in society, he has a social responsibility, which requires him to behave in adherence to social rules of modality. in other words, the freedom of any individual is not abstract freedom beyond social responsibility. from the analysis of the above two aspects, the debate about the ranges of quarantined people and whether the individuals would be satisfied or not is more like the struggle between the two opposing parties of interests, rather than the discussion about the way to solve the problem between individuals in the community of interests. this kind of struggle ignores the fact that people coexist with each other and it causes the division of the group while making a little contribution in solving the problem. in the opinion of traditional confucianism, the root of this split lies in the absence of benevolence and morality. the kindness to other people and creatures that embodied in king xuan’s statement “not bearing seeing the death of cattle” should be regarded as a basic principle to solve the problem in the community of people. to sum up, from the perspective of the ethical principles contained in the confucian “sacrificial structure”, the significance of china’s quarantine measures during the covid-19 mainly has two aspects. first, the choice of lockdown is not the result of different parties’ struggle but is the choice under the consideration of social morality, which contains the protection of people’s lives and health and shows the government’s respect and kindness to people. second, the birth and continuation of individual life are based on the premise of group co-existence, so it is inappropriate to talk about individual rights or responsibilities abstractly with the ignorance of group living. 4. the co-effect of law and morality during covid-19 chinese traditional confucian thought of the rule of morality provides value-oriented support for chinese contemporary social governance from two dimensions. first, it provides the basis of value judgment for the existing legal rules. the goal of rule of law of china is to realize “good law and benevolent governance”. aristotle (1996) linked the concept of good law with moral value. he believed that one of the standards of good law is to reflect the moral value that people cherish. the individual is the principal part of social life, and the value orientation of institutional ethics should reflect the moral value of the people in the society it serves. then, the formulation of law in the rule of law needs to be based on the social characteristics and contemporary development trends. second, it provides guidance of value for the combination of the rule of morality and rule of law in social governance. the modern rule of morality emphasizes the moral cultivation, moral sentiment and moral education of politicians should be under the regulations of law framework that the law restricts the public power and everyone is equal in the law. the value orientation of the confucian thought of the rule of morality is people-oriented and emphasizing persuading people by morality and it is of positive significance to establish human dignity and maintain interpersonal relations and provides the basis for the combination of rule of morality and rule of law in social governance. max weber (2004) thought that the social life organized by small communities in ancient china is contrary to the modernity of the west. contemporary china’s social governance draws lessons from western economics and western rule of law thought, takes the assumption of “economic man” as the premise of governance and regulation, and makes a series of institutional arrangements with the help of public power, like the formulation of laws, through the promulgation of taboos and its punishment measures. however, although this kind of institutional arrangement can meet the minimum regulation of social behavior, it cannot achieve a society of high moral standards. economists argue that the performer of benevolent governance is not necessarily the government and what decides the rational allocation of social resources between people is not necessarily the compulsive force of a state but can be a moral habit or force. the moral force of chinese society was fully manifested in the face of covid-19. the chinese government provided free medical treatment for patients with new crown pneumonia. after wuhan was locked down, to give treatment to all covid19 patients, the chinese government invested huge amounts of money and built the huoshenshan hospital and leishenshan hospital in about ten days. 86 new designated hospitals were reconstructed or built, and 3000 beds per day on average were added in 16 square hospitals, and more than 60 thousand beds were added to meet the needs of the increasing patients. if the scale of 1000 beds is used to calculate a hospital, it means that 60 new hospitals with 1000 beds in each hospital were built in wuhan within one month. in response to the rapid increase in the supply of hospital beds, more than 40000 medical staff across the country volunteered to rush to wuhan to participate in the treatment of covid-19 patients. 19 provinces supported the covid-19 patients in 16 cities outside wuhan in hubei province. while rescuing hubei, other areas of china rapidly initiate the first-level response to an emergency public health emergency, forming a system for rapid diagnosis and treatment of new corona pneumonia and a system of prevention and control of covid-19 with universal participation. across the country, countless volunteers worked hard to help those who were quarantined at home. they guarded in the community, sent grain, vegetables, meat, and other life necessities to the quarantined people, and solved various problems of the quarantined people. 35 as discussed above, there are connections and contradictions between the principles of the rule of morality and the principles of rule of law. even in normal times, we need to be cautious to apply and differentiate them in specific events. in the special case of a major epidemic outbreak, the demand for such a demarcation is even more urgent. both rules of morality and rule of law have their value evaluation systems and to achieve the balance of the two during the epidemic, we need a meta value that can integrate the two. from the above analysis, we can find that only the people can be served as the meta value. only the people have the power to achieve the integration of the state and the society in the broadest sense. only with the people as the principal part of the society, will it be possible to solve the contradiction between the rule of morality and rule of law. people are the most fundamental value starting point of every act and policy of the government. 5. conclusion based on an analysis of china’s quarantine measures against covid-19 from the perspectives of law and morality, this study examines the legitimacy of these measures by employing confucian sacrificial structure, confucian thought of the rule of morality, and the theory of five regulations of using public power and looking for the legal basis of these measures in china’s established laws. by analyzing the moral connotation of the story of cattle and sheep in mencius, the author makes discussion on the confucian sacrificial structure and adopts it as a tool to analyze the moral manifestations embodying in china’s controversial quarantine measures against covid-19. with confucian thought of the rule of morality, this paper demonstrates the people-oriented idea contained in china’s quarantine measures. in the next section, several of china’s established laws about prevention and control of infectious diseases are listed and the history of china’s legislation about prevention and control of infectious diseases is also mentioned to prove the legitimacy of the quarantine measures. by examining the legitimacy of china’s quarantine measures during covid-19, this study is expected to shed light on the improvement of the moral and legal consciousness of the citizens of our country. it also offers insights into the improvement of the chinese government’s implementation of quarantine measures like optimizations of related laws, detailed regulations on quarantine procedures, and equality for every citizen. future studies can extend the scope of study to other campaigns (i.e., china’s financial policies and patients’ medical fees) to examine the legitimacy of other china’s antiepidemic measures. 36 references aristotle. (1996). politics. trans, wu, s. the commercial press, 126. cao, m. (2020). “city closure” and confucian “sacrificial” ethics (in chinese, “封城”与儒家“牺牲”伦理). journal of south china university (social science edition) (南 华 大 学 学 报 ( 社 会 科 学 版 )),21 (3), 31-32. doi:10.13967/j.cnki.nhxb.2020.0041. chen, c. (2020). legal basis and legal optimization of quarantine measures in emergent infectious disease events (in chinese, 突发性传染病事件中隔离措施的法理依据及法律优化). journal of taiyuan university (social science edition)(太 原学院学报(社会科学版)), 21(04), 39-44. doi:10.13710/j.cnki.cn14-1294/g.2020.04.006. chen, l. (2008). wang yangming’s theory of the unity of all things: from the perspective of “body-body” (in chinese, “万物一体”论: 从“身—体”的立场看). east china normal university press, 7, 101, 183. chen, s. (2019). confucianism and freedom: an issue still to be discussed (in chinese, 儒学与自由:一个仍然有待商讨的问 题). journal of east china normal university (philosophy and social science edition) (华东师范大学学报(哲学社会 科学版)), 51 (2), 1-6. doi:10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5579.2019.02.001. goldstein, n. d., & suder, j. s. (2021). application of state law in the public health emergency response to covid-19: an example from delaware in the united states. journal of public health policy, 42(1), 167-175. doi:10.1057/s41271020-00257-8 han, x., &wang, x. (2020). implementation of the value of “people first” under the epidemic situation: from the perspective of moral and legal governance dilemma and solution (in chinese, 疫情态势下“人民至上”价值的 落实——以道德与法治治理困境及破解为视角). journal of wuhan university of science and technology (social science edition) (武汉科技大学学报(社会科学版)), 22 (05), 479-483. doi:cnki:sun:whks.0.2020-05-002. liu, x., xie, p., & wang, y. (2020). research on improving the construction of china’s epidemic prevention legal system from multiple perspectives (in chinese, 多视角下完善中国防疫法律体系建设研究). academic exploration (学术 探索), 07, 68-74. doi:cnki:sun:yxst.0.2020-07-009. max, w. (2004). max weber’s portfolio. trans. kang, l., jian, h. guangxi normal university press,56. montesquieu. (1961). on the spirit of law: volume 1. trans. zhang, y. the commercial press, 154. ning, y., &wang, y. (2019). integration of socialist core values into social governance: value, dilemma and reality (社会 主义核心价值观融入社会治理:价值、困境与现实). research on ideological and political education (思想政治 教育研究),01, 34-39. doi:10.15938/j.cnki.iper.2019.01.007. parmet, w. e., & sinha, m. s. (2020). covid-19-the law and limits of quarantine. new england journal of medicine, 382(15). doi:10.1056/nejmp2004211 xia, j., & wu, m. (2020). study on the legal issues of quarantine measures in public health emergencies (in chinese, 突 发公共卫生事件中隔离措施的法律问题研究). journal of changzhou university (social science edition) (常州大 学学报(社会科学版), 21(6),18-29. doi: cnki:sun:jssb.0.2020-06-003. yamey, g. (producer). (2020). u.s. response to covid-19 is worse than china’s. 100 times worse. [online] available: https://time.com/5850680/u-s-response-covid-19-worse-than-chinas. (june 10, 2020) zhang, r. (2020). legal analysis and improvement of quarantine measures in covid-19 epidemic prevention and control (in chinese, 新冠肺炎疫情防控中隔离措施的法律分析与完善). journal of kunming university (昆明学院报), 42(4), 35-40. doi: 10.14091/j.cnki.kmxyxb.2020.0 this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 01.v02issue01.05.2022.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 8 imbalance between schema and dynamic equivalence: an analysis of the c-e translation of profile of air china yali cheng1 1school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: 20200310011@gdufs.edu.cn abstract schema is a concept from cognitive poetics, a complete information system composed of correlative knowledge. dynamic equivalence theory proposed by eugene a. nida is a precise translation theory centered on reader’s reception. this paper synthesizes schema theory with theories in dynamic equivalence, based on which the author constructs a framework for analyzing the translation process of the profile of air china (ca), revealing some existing problems and appealing for the specific strategies for the translation of ca’s profile. this paper concludes that in the c-e translation of ca, there exist imbalances between the schemata and dynamic equivalences, namely from the perspectives of language, content and culture. it is hoped that some constructive attention and promising improvement are generated for ca’s english profile or even for other enterprises’ profiles. keywords: schema theory, dynamic equivalence theory, c-e translation of chinese airline profiles, air china (ca) 1. introduction for an airways, in addition to providing products1 and services, it also needs to publicize itself through proper channels in order to raise its international popularity and prestige in markets at home and abroad. in addition, as the universal language, english exerts a crucial impact on international communication and commercial intercourse. under this circumstance, the c-e translation of chinese airline profiles, usually acts as an information window, the highly condensed content of the company, often presenting the most valuable information to the target audience (li, 2021). airline profiles to some extent decide the very first impression of an enterprise to foreigners. however, many chinese airlines are devoid of attention to the english translation of their corporate profiles, ignoring crucial factors that should be delicately handled. as such, decent ce translations of chinese airline profiles are necessary and insightful, which is conductive to the enhancement of airline’s images, and in turn, in regard to the airline profile, it involves a wide scope with high value of translation. the c-e translation of chinese airline profiles in this study is under the guidance of schema theory and dynamic equivalence theory. firstly, schema is a concept from cognitive poetics, represents the presentation form of knowledge which systematically associates the new information with the given information for the purpose of information storage and processing; it is a complete information system composed of correlative knowledge (liu & zhao, 2014). secondly, dynamic equivalence theory proposed by eugene a. nida (1986) is a precise translation theory centered on reader’s reception (du, 2019). nida’s dynamic equivalence theory is universally acknowledged as the commonly applied translation theory to achieve the linguistic, content and cultural equivalence between the source text (st) and the target text (tt) due to its focus on accurate transformation of st’s cultural connotations instead of the rigid superficial translation, which has been highly valued and influenced china’s translation practice. this paper will synthesize schema theory in cognitive poetics with theories in dynamic equivalence, based on which the author attempts to construct a framework for analyzing the translation process of ca’s profile (st), try to propose some existing problems of profile’s translation (tt) and explore the specific strategies for them, hoping that some constructive suggestions could be provided for the references of ca’s profile or even for other enterprises’ profiles. 2. literature review this part is an overview of previous studies on translation of company profile from the angles of schema theory and from dynamic equivalence theory as well as from other perspectives. 2.1 studies on translation of company profiles from the angle of schema theory 1 the product of civil aviation is space transfer (displacement) of passengers and goods. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 9 milton (1999) regards corporate profile as an effective tool to win potential customers’ trust and to make a good impression on them by giving a brief introduction of who you are and what you do. generally speaking, a corporate profile seems as a bridge between a company and its customers or potential customers, and it is clear that the function on a whole is to inform, to promote and finally to persuade favorable responses from the target readers (jiang, 2014). therefore, how to translate their profiles as the st (chinese) to meet the stylistic requirements of the tt (english) and achieve the promotional objective become a common concern for companies and business translators (liu, 2012). the word “schema” (plural: schemata) is from the greek vocabulary2 and is firstly put forward by the german philosopher immanuel kant in 1781 in his famous work critique of pure reason. according to kant, new concept could become meaningful only when it has been connected with one’s existing knowledge (cui, 2002: 53). according to bartlett, the term “schema” refers to an active organization of past reactions, or of past experience, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic response” (bartlett, 1932: 201). since this paper is mainly about the translation of airline profiles from the angle of schema theory, contents as follow will conduct a more detailed literature review about it. li (2014) explores the application of schema theory in the progress of business translation and discusses the relation between business translation and the four forms of schema theory, namely, linguistic schema, content schema, structural schema and cultural schema. however, the study is too general to reveal the relevance to specific company issues, such as the translation of company profile, translation of company contracts, etc. fortunately, there are still some valuable studies concerning company profiles under the guidance of schema theory. for example, qiao (2014) conducts a comparative study on schemata of corporate profiles about the chinese companies and the british and american ones, which discovers that they have both similarities and differences of schemata in their corporate profiles at three levels: language schemata, cultural schemata and formal schemata (qiao, 2014). although qiao’s study, to some extent, will help chinese companies create corporate profiles which can be comprehended and recalled more easily by the foreign readers, her analysis is only limited to analyzing the schema similarities and differences between chinese, british and american company profiles. as such, detailed suggestions on improving the translation and writing of corporate profiles ought to be proposed on the basis of the study. besides, it will be better if the study is carried out with more data. four years later, li (2018) interprets english profiles of chinese and american telecommunication companies based on schema theory. li analyzes 60 corporate english profiles in china and the u.s. from the aspects of linguistic schema, formal schema, content schema and schema activation so as to find out the similarities and differences between the two and to interpret the differences from the cognitive and social-cultural perspectives. this paper can shed some light on the study of applying schema theory to corporate profiles and provide some implications for chinese telecommunication companies. however, it is devoid of discussion of detailed translation methods and strategies for chinese companies to create highquality english profiles. as what yan (2019) reveals in her review of cultural schemata theory in china from 2000 to 2018, most of these studies are repetitive, and the proposed translation methods are based on the translation strategies and methods proposed by previous scholars, lacking innovation; in terms of research methods, many authors only cite relevant examples, lacking in-depth discussions and explanations, which should be avoided in future studies (yan, 2019). in short, schema theory has been extensively applied in various domains in domestic studies, but at present, those studies which apply schema theory mainly concentrates on conventional methods, frameworks or strategies, which are devoid of innovation. in addition, papers analyzing the company abound, but few of which specifically focus on company profiles, not mention to airline profiles. besides, some current research on c-e translation of company profiles is disconnected from prevalent guiding theories, remaining only in the level of theoretical introduction rather than concrete application of theory and practice. there are apparent research gap in study of translation of company profiles by combining schema theory with other theories like dynamic equivalence theory. therefore, it is of great necessity and significance to fill the research gap of corporate profile translation by finding new theoretical guidance. 2.2 studies on translation of company profiles based on dynamic equivalence theory 2 greek skhéma meant ‘form, figure’. latin took it over as schēma and used it as the equivalent of figure in a range of applications, such as ‘figure of speech’ and ‘diagram’, many of which were originally taken over by english. source: https://www.quword.com/etym/s/scheme [accessed on november 28th , 2021] communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 10 in this part, studies on dynamic equivalence theory are first introduced and then previous studies on company profile from the perspective of dynamic equivalence theory and other perspectives will be reviewed. the definition of dynamic equivalence is firstly given by nida in his book toward a science of the translation. in this book, based on the experience in biblical translation, nida put forward two translation approaches: dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence. dynamic equivalence advocates that “the relationship between receptor and language should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message” (nida, 1964: 159). while formal equivalence pays attention to translating the meanings of words and phrases in a more literal way so as to keep literal fidelity. nida also emphasizes the priority of dynamic equivalence over formal equivalence. dynamic equivalence is the quality of a translation in which “the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (nida, 1969: 24). it is wildly spread and gradually gains wide acceptance. furthermore, dynamic equivalence not only applies the research results of linguistics to the practice of translation but also provides a linguistic theory of translation for researchers and is of referential significance to translators (zhu, 2020). this paper prefers nida’s dynamic equivalence, because the essence of this theory is found to correspond with the characteristics of translation in c-e translation of chinese airline profiles. the detailed analysis will be presented in the following parts. because dynamic equivalence theory (also functional equivalence theory) originates the guidance of translation, research on translation based on it is abundant especially in china. however, the author finds that prevalent studies on chinese airline profiles are scarce. next, some crucial studies on company profiles under the guidance of dynamic equivalence will be reviewed. liu et al. (2014) analyzes the differences between chinese and foreign profiles of some well-known large companies, trying to use the strategy of discourse reconstruction to solve these differences based on nida’s dynamic theory. they argue that it is necessary to reconstruct the discourse in the progress of translation according to the readers’ requirements, so that the functional equivalence can be achieved and the final purpose of the company profile can be realized. zheng (2021) takes the c-e translation of export-oriented company profiles in liaoning province as an example to analyze the problems encountered in the c-e translation of company profiles and the strategies used in translation. he draws conclusions that the current translation quality is uneven, and there are problems in the c-e translation of company profiles such as improper translation, logical confusion, which affect the image and publicity effect of the company. additionally, due to differences in culture, thinking styles, expression habits, writing styles, there are many differences in content, words, syntax, and culture in chinese and english company profiles. in the process of achieving functional equivalence, methods such as restructuring, shifting, and omission methods can be used to make the translation more suitable for the target language reader’s habits (zheng, 2021). zheng collects profiles of some export-oriented companies in liaoning province from their official website. as what he acknowledges in the end of the paper, the authenticity of these corpora is beyond doubt. thus, this paper still needs to be improved and further research needs to be done on this subject. apart from export-oriented company profiles, studies on other companies’ profiles are also in full swing. fu et al. (2021) compare the differences between the english profiles of british and american e-commerce companies (walmart, asda, onbuy, etc.) and chinese e-commerce companies (alibaba, qidian, jingdong, etc.), discussing the translation problems of chinese e-commerce companies’ profiles and proposing the causes and corresponding solutions. according to their findings, the translation of e-commerce company profiles on the basis of functional equivalence is not only the conversion between forms and contents, but also the communication between cultures (fu, et al., 2021). therefore, when translating company profiles, the translator should pay attention to the reading response of the target readers, deeply understand the culture of the st, and adopt the method of translation, change the person, increase the content and adjust the structure to meet the reading habits of the target readers, so that the english company profile can be translated smoothly. 2.3 studies on translation of company profile from other perspectives after searching for studies on company profiles, the author gains two results: firstly, these studies almost use only one theory to conduct the research. despite the fact that those studies have somewhat refined the previous studies, they still lack multifaceted analyses and interdisciplinary perspectives. secondly, studies on company profiles is increasingly popular, but those focusing on airline profiles are insufficient. for example, xu (2020) explores the problems in the english translation of tea company profiles under the guidance of newmark’s communicative translation theory (1981: 22). it is proposed that tea company profile translation ought to give priority to the acceptance level of english readers and fully consider the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 11 differences in chinese and english language and thinking styles. also, tan (2021) makes a report on c-e translation of profile of zhengzhou yutong bus co., ltd in the light of communicative translation theory. based on german functionalist translation theory, gao (2019) compares and analyzes two groups of pharmaceutical company profile in china and abroad. the results show that there are significant differences between the two groups in terms of length, information distribution, high-frequency vocabulary and genre characteristics. therefore, translators need to adjust the structure of the english translation of the profiles according to the information needs and reading habits of western audiences (gao, & ma, 2019). form the perspectives of aristotle’s “three appeals theory”, perelman and olbrechts’ audience theory and presence theory, li (2020) takes huawei company profile as an example to explore the positive role of rhetorical persuasion in the selection of translation strategies and construction of translated texts in enterprise’s international publicity, aiming to help enterprises realize effective persuasion and increase their influence. besides, there are scholars absorbed in other theories to analyze company profiles, such as verschueren’s adaption theory3 (wu, 2009 & jin, 2011), geert hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory4 (li, 2013). also, shi chunrang conducts a corpusbased study on the translation of chinese enterprise profiles (shi, et al., 2012). such examples abound. however, the author deems that whatever theories are used to study company profiles, most of the subjects studied in these results are too general. that is, if the research subject is expanded to company profiles, then the reference value is not sufficiently targeted when facing companies with different types and nature. this paper focuses on a detailed subject, airlines in china, to study the dynamic equivalence problems in the c-e translation based on schema theory, striving to enhance the innovation and relevance values of company profile research. 3. theoretical framework this part contains a general introduction of the relevant concepts in schema theory and dynamic equivalence, on the basis of which a synthetic framework of analysis will be constructed and further explained. 3.1 the categories of schema theory 3.1.1 linguistic schema carrell (1983: 79) puts forward that “linguistic schemata include knowledge of letters and their corresponding sounds, grammar, vocabulary, idioms, word attack skills, and distinctions between spoken and written forms of the language”. that’s to say, knowledge of contexts or language can activate schemata stored in people’s mind when they encounter a new discourse. translation is a process of decoding (understanding) and coding (expression). as a translator, he or she is first and foremost a reader (yan, 2016: 26). good translation can only be generated when the translator masters both the st and the tt, thus it could be possible to decode the st and construct comparative schema to encode the tt in a proper way. 3.1.2 content schema content schema refers to one’s background knowledge of the content area of the text and it contains both specific and general information in the given topic (carrel & eisterhold, 1983: 79), which exerts a crucial influence on translators to understand the st. kern makes a more detailed explanation for content schema: it is related to the cultural concept, the topical knowledge and the extent of readers’ understanding about the world (kern, 2000). linguistic schema is the first step to comprehend the st, while content schema makes compensation for the inadequacy of previous understandings, helping translators well master the st and generate more perfect tt. 3.1.3 cultural schema numerous scholars around the world have defined cultural schema. according to garro (2010), cultural schema is related to the cultural knowledge beyond the text, the generalized collection of customs, tradition, folklore etc., which is a cultural knowledge structure in people’s mind concerning the past experience. george yule states that cultural schema refers to previous knowledge structures based on experience in a particular culture (sun, 2015: 14). specializing in the research on 3 a linguistic theory created by jef verschueren, a leading belgian linguist and secretary general of the international pragmatics society. 4 hofstede's cultural dimension theory is a framework proposed by geert hofstede, a dutch psychologist, to measure cultural differences among different countries. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 12 the application of schemata to translation, liu (2003) maintains that cultural schema is the knowledge structural chunk about culture existing in people’s brain, or it is an organizational model of the knowledge of culture based on previous experience, which can be mobilized to perceive and understand various cultural phenomena in the world. in a word, besides the translation process, cultural schemata can be used in diverse areas and they are dynamic with many differences, but there are also commonalities which can be learned through efforts. thus, cultural schemata can be compensated in one way or another. 3.2 dynamic equivalence in translation nida (1969) once said that the purpose of translation is to achieve the closest equivalence between the st and the tt, which is also important in the process of c-e translation of airline profiles. furthermore, the surface structure of the st needs to be divided into the basic elements of the deep structure 5 ; these are “transferred” in the translation process and then “restructured” semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the tt (see the figure 3.2). figure 3.2: nida’s three-stage system of translation (from nida and taber, 1969: 33) next, for the sake of better guidance for the c-e translation of chinese airlines, the author carries out a detailed analysis of equivalence from the perspectives of language, content and culture, aiming to make an instructive connection to the three corresponding schemata mentioned in the section 3.1 (linguistic, content and cultural). 3.2.1 linguistic equivalence according to the author, both the semantic and stylistic concepts belong to the category of language, so semantic equivalence and stylistic equivalence mentioned above are collectively referred to as linguistic equivalence. semantic equivalence is the most fundamental and important principle in translation, which requires the translator to pay attention to the grammatical and semantic relationships between words, phrases and sentences. in other words, in order to achieve semantic equivalence, translators are expected to pay attention to the lexical levels as well as syntactical ones; as for stylistic equivalence, it is defined as functional equivalence among the source text and translated text, aiming at achieving consistent expression by the use of invariant with the same meaning (nida, 1969). usually, parallel clauses are used in chinese airline profiles, and they are antithetical and neat, which may cause translation challenges for both translators and target readers. to achieve stylistic equivalence, translators can adopt literal translation method under the guidance of dynamic equivalence theory. 3.2.2 content equivalence nida (1969) believes that translation ought to firstly adhere to the content equivalence and then form equivalence. content equivalence is not strictly word-to-word or word-to-sentence equivalence. therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of sticking to the linguistic structure of the original text, that is, not sticking to formal correspondence. when translating the chinese airline profiles, the translator cannot only analyze the language itself but put the language into a specific context to analyze its meaning and function. as 5 some of nida’s systematic approaches borrow theoretical concepts and terminology both form semantics and pragmatics and from noam chomsky’s work on syntactic structure which formed the theory of a universal generative-transformation grammar. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 13 such, nida proposes a number of tweaks, such as adding notes or footnotes. in order to make the readers of the target text can react similarly to the readers of the original text, the translator should fully consider the needs of the target readers for understanding and appreciation, and select annotations suitable for the specific context. 3.2.3 cultural equivalence language is an essential and important part of a given culture and that the impact of culture upon a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable. when it is used in contexts of communications, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways. as is known, the relationship between language and culture exerts great impact on translation, in which case, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, so the process of translation at least gets involved two different cultures. in terms of the cultural difference in translation, the equivalence between chinese and english can be categorized into total equivalence, near equivalence, little equivalence and non-equivalence (wang, 2016). 3.3 analytical framework for the present study since this paper is based on schema theory and dynamic equivalence theory, the figure 3.4 synthesizes both of them to illustrate the analytical process. the detailed processes and illustrations are as follow. figure 3.3: analytical model of translation process based on schema theory and dynamic equivalence theory for present study firstly, the schemata starts from the writer of the st who can transfer his/her schemata in the mind into the texts, otherwise the st and the later tt (translation) will not be generated. secondly, the translator ought to make a contrastive analysis of the schemata embodied in the st and tt from the angles of language, content and culture, thus activating the corresponding st schemata and encoding them into the texts of tt (translation). meanwhile, the transformation of dynamic equivalence between the st and tt need finishing. thirdly, based on the tt, translators should regard themselves as the target readers or find some real ones, trying to encode the tt in the most appropriate way to construct tt schemata which can achieve the highest degree of schemata transformation from st to tt. 4. discussion and results communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 14 in the light of the figure 3.3, the author will go through the following three steps to interpret the translation process. firstly, decoding the st and activating the st schemata from language, content and culture; secondly, comparing the st and tt and actively constructing the schemata of the tt; thirdly, verifying the accomplishment of dynamic equivalences between the schemata of st and tt and polishing the tt again. next, some specific examples from the profile of ca6 will be analyzed based on these three steps. table 4.1: five examples cited from the profile of ca example 1 st tt ca the design also features the calligraphic version of ca’s chinese name, a reproduction of the handwriting by late chinese leader deng xiaoping, the architect of china’s drastic social and economic transformation who laid the foundation for the country’s economic power. example 2 the corporate logo of ca depicts phoenix, a legendary bird worshiped by the nation since ancient times as a symbol of luck and happiness. example 3 with imagination stretched a bit, the way the logo is laid out recalls the english word “vip”. the deep red color is used since it’s associated with anything happy and lucky in chinese culture. example 4 chinese ancient literature contains constant references to the bird which “flies from the eastern happy land over mountains and seas and bestows luck and happiness upon all parts of the world”. example 5 our vision is to become “a leading carrier in the world”. our mission stresses “ operational safety, customer orientation, steady growth, people development and fulfillment of responsibilities”. our brand positioning is to be “a professional, trusted, internationally respected chinese brand closely associated with china ”. step 1: decoding and activating the st schemata. as is shown, from the angles of language, these four examples are full of long, compound sentences and four-word structure words, making information detailed and understandable, such as example 1 ( ) and example 5 ( ). a series of four-character structures also make the st symmetric, vivid, full of vigor and rhythmic beauty. however, the contents are connected to chinese history and legend, and the time span of context is large, from ancient legend to modern society such as example 4 ( ) and example 5 ( ), so the understandings and schemata of the st become harder to decode. furthermore, from the angle of culture, there are a large amount of research value in the st. step 2: comparing the st and tt and constructing the schemata of the tt. table 4.2: analyzing translated texts three angles comparative schemata 6 sources: http://www.airchina.com.cn/cn/about_us/company.shtml & http://www.airchina.com.cn/en/about_us/company.shtml communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 15 st (chinese) tt (english) linguistic (1) chinese emphasizes the implicit coherence of sentences without fixed grammar or syntactic format. (2) the text is sometimes compact but sometimes scattered. (3) in the st, the modern vernacular and ancient chinese can be switched flexibly. (1) english pays attention to syntactic structures and their explicit cohesion. (2) the text is scattered. (3) in the tt, modern english is universally used. content (1) contents cited from classical quotes make meaning more difficult to be decoded. (2) the time span of context in the st is large, from ancient legend to modern society. (1) in the tt, the content schemata of chinese classical quotes are elusive. (2) the time span of context in the tt is disordered, from ancient legend to modern society and then to the past century. cultural expressions related to distinctive chinese history, myths and legends have frequently occurred. the tt is devoid of expressions or explanations about chinese history, myths and legends. from the aspect of linguistic equivalence, the sentences in the st usually have no obvious conjunctions and the content structure is fragmented; while sentences in the tt have complete subject-verb-object with compact and complete structure. in example 3, although the st lacks a detailed subject, it is understandable that the logo of airline, or the phoenix is illustrated with reference to the context, which emphasizes the implicit coherence of sentences without fixed grammar or syntactic format. in the tt, however, sentences must have complete subject-verb-object with compact and complete structure to make the meaning clear and readable. from the perspective of content equivalence, the tt fails to achieve the correspondence of meaning with the st. foe instance, in example 3, “ ” is translated as “with imagination stretched a bit”. the concept of “imagination stretched a bit” is extremely vague and the translation is somewhat arbitrary, breaking the content equivalence. also, “ ” in the st cannot find the translated meaning in the tt. from the angle of cultural equivalence, there exist cultural defaults by comparing the st and tt because the translation version cannot provide reasonable and readable connotations of the st. for example, in example 4, “ ” has neither a counterpart nor an interpretation in the tt; “ ” is translated as “eastern happy land”, but how “ ” can be connected to “happy land”? it contains a cultural default here. also, “ ” in chinese refers to selecting the essence, but there is no corresponding expression in the tt. such cultural defaults abound in the c-e translation of the profile of ca. step 3: verifying the accomplishment of dynamic equivalences between the schemata of st and tt and polishing the tt again. based on the linguistic equivalence, the author deems that the schemata of st and tt fail to accomplish linguistic equivalence in the fields of the word-selection, syntax, text order and style. for instance, “ in example 1 is translated as “the architect of china’s drastic social and economic transformation”, breaking the semantic equivalence and leading target readers to the domain of architecture or a social revolution, which is far from the original definition. in fact, there is a proper noun to express “ in english, that’s “china’s reform and opening-up”. thus, personally speaking, the tt of can be better translated as “the chief architect of china's reform and opening up”. similarly, the schemata of st and tt exist content equivalence problems in terms of meaning, spirit, as well as context, and the cultural equivalence is little accomplished. for instance, example 2, the st is translated as “a legendary bird worshiped by the nation since ancient times as a symbol of luck and happiness”, which breaks the content and cultural equivalences. because on the one hand, the word “ lacks equivalent translation, and it is not specified which country this is. on the other hand, the translation of is inaccurate, missing the cultural connotations. in chinese, refers to “something auspicious”, a sign of good fortune. it is considered by communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 16 confucianism to be a natural phenomenon that expresses the will of heaven and is beneficial to human beings. thus, contains the connotation of oneness of heaven and humans and it cannot simply translated as “a symbol of luck and happiness” what’s worse, is devoid of corresponding translation in the tt. in summary, from the perspective of authors, example 2 can be better translated as “phoenix, the king of birds, is the auspicious bird in the ancient legend of the chinese nation”. by and large, the company profile of ca suffers from a series of translation problems, concentrating on the imbalance among the schemata of st, the schemata of tt, and dynamic equivalences. thus, some translation strategies is necessary for ca. according to the contents above, strategies for solving the problems in the c-e translation of a's profiles can be provided from the perspectives of language, content and culture. firstly, from the linguistic angle, translators are expected to have a good command of linguistic features and differences of the source language and the target language, trying to activate the schemata based on the corresponding linguistic habits, such as the text, grammar, syntax and style. secondly, in addition to the language abilities, translators ought to possess abundant knowledge as well as excellent competence of sorting and interpreting information, because rich knowledge accumulation and sufficient practice are conductive to the process of schemata adjustment. thirdly, on the level of culture, it is necessary for translators to strengthen and deepen the understanding of different culture and customs, avoiding cultural prejudices and ambiguities, adding footnotes for opaque and elusive contents and omitting redundant contents. 5. conclusion under modern circumstance, c-e translation is an indispensable bridge for communication and understanding between china and the world. hence, scholars and translators are expected to find translation problems and spare no efforts to present more better and smooth translations. the paper provides an innovative analytical framework that allows more translation problems to be studied in the future. what’s more, this framework synthesizes schema theory and a series of dynamic equivalence rather than under a single theory. therefore, for the future researches on c-e translation of company profiles or on other translation problems of company issues, it is hopefully applicable and feasible. references bartlett, c. 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[master’s paper in jiangxi university of finance and economics]. 17 this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 v02issue02.06.2022.0613.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 33 the chinese schema and power direction of the dissemination of korean tv dramas yong lu1 1school of art, guangdong university of foreign studies, no. 2 north baiyun avenue, guangzhou, china, e-mail: ly3519@126.com abstract the dissemination of korean drama narrative art--the exotic art form in chinese context-is not only a typical form of cultural output in the current social context but also the product of self-adjustment of the artistic style of korean dramas under the foreign context. the tendency of visual aestheticism, the aesthetic text writing of daily life and the emotional appeal of universal meaning held by the korean dramas have become the influential factors for this artistic style to enter the chinese context and disseminate. the rising consumption consciousness in contemporary society has become the external inducement of the dissemination of korean drama culture in china, which lays the internal driving force for spreading of this culture in china from the two dimensions of production and acceptance. korean dramas--as a foreign cultural style of chinese communication--not only present a unique visual landscape and mirror image of life for the development of chinese film and television art but also provide a more diverse and more affluent world picture for chinese film and television art atlas. but the dissemination of korean dramas in the chinese context also forms a specific power relationship with the aesthetic elements that stimulate audio-visual pleasure in the images or the derivative goods and fashion demands formed by korean dramas. while laying the groundwork for their narrative style in the chinese foreign context, korean dramas also set up a practical strategy of intertwining art and power. the dramas aim to construct the intention of cultural identity but also provide a sample for the culture colonization. an analysis of the chinese communication schema of this artistic style is undoubted of positive, enlightening significance to constructing the aesthetic orientation of the cultural subjectivity of a specific nation. keywords: korean tv drama, visual communication, chinese context, power, cultural identity 1. introduction as an exotic art style, korean drama is undoubtedly the cultural form that disseminates the local culture deeply and has the most extensive influence on the local cultural structure and aesthetic consciousness of the society after the spread of western learning to the east in the 20th century. the oriental art form, which is very different from the western cultural pedigree, has changed the structural atlas of the current chinese culture, cutting into the growing realm of modern chinese mass culture with its unique narrative representation and expression. the art form evolved into colorful and dazzling aesthetic symbols, constructed the unique exotic landscape in the local cultural family, and triggered a pretty general convergence effect and cultural identity. admittedly, the dissemination of korean dramas coincides with the multi-dimensional representation of the "visual turn" in modern society. as a model of modern visual art, korean dramas’ narrative style and visual language signs not only contain the essential connotation and practical significance of modern visual texts but also extend the external schema and internal genealogy of popular culture in a sense, providing a more diversified paradigm for the modern evolution of popular culture. here, korean drama, a dominant art style in modern society, is focused on the aesthetic mirror of popular culture. the discussion of the dramas’ unique narrative form, visual landscape, as well as the extended power structure and practical significance undoubtedly has essential reference value for the pluralistic isomorphism and meaning integration of current culture. at the same time, it will also provide practical aesthetic thinking for the narrative paradigm of modern visual text. 2. the mass carnival in the image world: the visual representation and aesthetic orientation of the narration in korean dramas as a model representative of modern visual art, the dissemination of korean dramas benefits from the rise of popular culture and the promotion of social consumption consciousness. the popular culture creates a suitable context for korean dramas to spread in china. as a cultural form of modern society, the context of popular culture's derivation and growth accords with the pluralistic characteristics of modern society, and consumer-oriented social transformation is an essential driving force for the continuous extension of popular culture. a consumption-oriented society is not only a society with rich materials but also a society in which consumption dominates production and demand. " there is all around us today a kind of fantastic communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 34 conspicuousness of consumption and abundance, constituted by the multiplication of objects, services, and material goods, and this represents something of a fundamental mutation in the ecology of the human species" (baudrillard,1998). the concept of consumption constitutes a kind of ideology in the current society and has become the foundation of modern daily life. meanwhile, consumption also changes the aesthetic consciousness of the social subject and promotes the aesthetic consciousness of the subject to understand different cultural forms actively. south korean drama is a model cultural representative of subject aesthetic consciousness in the context of consumption. it is no accident that korean dramas landed on chinese mainland. if the eastward spread of western culture at the beginning of the 20th century is a way for chinese people to dispel the dimension of reality with the help of western learning, korean tv dramas at the end of the 20th century, as a form of asian culture, represent a tributary in the wave of multiculturalism in modern society, and are the free choice of consumer society to cope with the multicultural needs of society. the cross-context communication is more imbued with cultural and even economic implications and lacks political motivation marked by the introduction of western learning to the east. in other words, it is the consumption-oriented social context that gives birth to korean tv dramas as a foreign culture. korean tv dramas, like hong kong, taiwan and hollywood movies, did not set off an upsurge when they landed on chinese mainland at the early beginning, however, with the continuous integration of the narrative representation of this artistic style based on foreign context, with the technical support of modern media, and with its unique narrative techniques and aesthetic connotation, korean tv dramas have constructed a specific "field" for the local extension of foreign culture in china, delineating and constantly expanding the admiration and worship of their followers, thus forming a different landscape and different elegant demeanor in the current chinese cultural territory. first of all, adhering to visual aesthetics is the formal tone of the mirror narration of most south korean dramas. in the eyes of aesthetics, the primary mission of art is to provide the sensory pleasure to the aesthetic subject, following the direction of aestheticism. “arts have only one highest law, which is the law of form or harmony” (xu ,1988). the form can create everything, and without form participation, there will be no artist's creative feelings, and it will be impossible to create beautiful art. therefore, south korean tv dramas are the best samples of aestheticism. superficially actors with excellent images are usually selected to act as plot roles, coupled with beautiful and appropriate costumes and character activity environment, but this is only one aspect of the plastic visual aesthetic tendency of south korean dramas; however, the aesthetic landscape created by south korean dramas is more reflected in a harmonious configuration of visual mirrors. the character image, language or activity environment, the visual level of picture composition, color allocation, or dynamic setting all follow a much stricter principle of identity. hence most south korean dramas present warm, coordinated, fresh, and tranquil visual images, which create a comfortable and leisurely acceptance effect. however, compared with pure aestheticism, korean tv dramas do not fully uphold aestheticism. because aestheticism, in order to mark the uniqueness and eternity of art, usually separates the close relationship between art and life. “life always destroys the artistic theme with its reality. life is a reflection, while art is real” (wilde, 2020). in the theory of aestheticism, art and life are out of touch and out of tune. korean tv dramas strictly distinguish the relationship between content and form, which is characterized by marked aestheticism in form, while the narrative theme is based on real life. they effectively integrate the beauty in form and the reality in theme into the modern mirror image. then they organically unifies beauty with life, which is an effective correction and realistic promotion of the aesthetic concept of traditional aestheticism. secondly, the aesthetics of daily life is the inherent logic of the narration of most korean dramas. the daily life is the most basic living state of human beings. it has always been regarded as a non-essential secondary field. the chinese and western philosophy before the 20th century were generally stranded in a metaphysical tradition, paying attention to the abstract world outside daily life. the “turn of daily life” at the philosophical level opened in the 20th century catalyzed the change in the field of aesthetics. nowadays, the aesthetic of daily life is the mainstream of the evolution of modern society, which means the aesthetic in the modern sense has moved from the dimension of traditional art to the dimension of daily life. according to jameson “the culture of the 19th century is also understood as elegant music, painting or opera, and culture is still a way to escape from reality. in the theory of post-modernism, culture has become completely popular, and the distance between elegant culture and popular culture, pure literature, and popular literature is disappearing. the post-modernist culture has expanded from the specific ‘cultural circle’ in the past into people's daily life and become consumer goods ”(jameson, 1986). korean tv dramas adhere to the narrative logic of the aesthetic of daily life. its presentation style includes two aspects: first, the internal narrative style of korean tv dramas follows the mainstream characteristics of the aesthetic of daily life. the narrative theme, character shaping or plot setting of south korean tv dramas follow the objective laws of real life. exploring the true meaning of beauty from daily life has become the basic melody of most south korean dramas. korean tv dramas usually carry themes taken from the trivialities of daily life, rejecting bizarre plot descriptions and thrilling visual stimulation. advocating the most precious spiritual value of human nature in the ordinary details of daily life, the dramas refocus the details of ordinary life and its human brilliance that are gradually forgotten because of the rapid speed and rhythm communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 35 of life in the real world in front of the audience, awakening audiences' gradually forgotten tenderness of life. then the audiences truly realize the rich multiple aesthetic values in real life. second, as a universal art style, south korean tv dramas have entered into real life as a model symbol of the aesthetics of daily life. according to featherstone, the british sociologist, one of the meanings contained in the aesthetics of daily life is the rapid flow of symbols and images that permeate the daily life of contemporary society. at this level, korean tv dramas can become the most exemplary aesthetic representative of daily life in real life of chinese society. the identity effect and extended economic driving force in modern chinese society have become a cultural event with far-reaching influence. it has added strong korean amorous feelings and a elegant cultural demeanor to modern social life. thirdly, the value demand for the supremacy of emotion and the tragic artistic structure is the mainstream thread of the narrative art of korean tv dramas. so far as the prevalent themes of korean tv dramas are concerned, the mature and customized joint creation and the motif pattern of emotion supremacy have become the established narrative framework of korean drama art. even though the themes of south korean dramas are quite extensive and related to all aspects of social life, the cores of the dramas by the diversified plot framework often shared a standard color--the deep thinking of people's emotional world and the value of existence. either the personal life experience or the philosophy of trivial daily life in south korean tv dramas contains actual emotional demands which achieve a high degree of emotional sublimation in the seemingly ordinary and even aesthetic plot designation to meet the emotional expectations of modern people who are increasingly squeezed and gradually lost in modern society. if the pursuit of emotional life experience is the eternal topic of korean drama narration, the tragic plot settings and tragic artistic rendering have become the unique framework of korean drama narration. the rendering and worship of tragic art in south korean dramas are different from the emotional tone worshipped by the local culture, which make the art form more attractive and changes the established “sense of joy” foundation of the local traditional culture. compared with western culture, the local culture belongs to the category of “sense of joy,” but western culture is more “guilty”. although the essence of “guilt” permeates with the feelings of “tragedy,” the respect for tragedy has not become the mainstream of western culture. the narrative style of korean tv dramas has undoubtedly broken the inherent atlas of chinese and western cultures and added new seasoning to the cultural feast of the domestic audience. wang guowei, a modern sinology master said: “the spirit of our people represented by operas and novels does not go without this happy day color--begins with sadness, finally joyful; begins with the separation, finally reunion; begins with the poor, and finally enjoyment” (wang, 2021). the people who are accustomed to the "sense of joy" no longer adhere to the existing taste of traditional culture and art. those people are eager to experience the sad feelings of exotic style in the pluralistic and open art map and then expand the aesthetic field of vision and artistic sentiment. it is worthwhile mentioning that the sad feelings rendered by south korean dramas are pretty different from the tragedies of western culture. most tragedies in the west should be character tragedies, such as hamlet and macbeth. the tragic plots designed by south korean tv dramas are no longer based on character tragedies. to some extent, it is no longer the characters’ character but the plots themselves that causes the tragic plots and endings in south korean dramas. both the enrichment and even perfection of the characters leading to tragic plots and endings are more in line with the aesthetic demands of the chinese people. therefore, it is natural to gain recognition and resonance. 3. homogenization of receptive context: the realistic dimension of aesthetic identity of narrative art in korean tv dramas the internal reason that why korean dramas can gain a local cultural identity as a foreign art form lie in the unique artistic representation of the dramas’ narration, while the external reason that why korean dramas are highly sought after and admired in the chinese context is the agreement between the receptive context of chinese culture and the internal value and aesthetic orientation of korean dramas. to some extent, the compelling motivation for promoting the cross-context spread of this art form is that the value system implied in korean tv dramas is accepted, recognized, and even infatuated in the context of chinese culture, resulting in a certain aesthetic and value. admittedly, the success of korean dramas in the chinese cultural context benefits from the horizon and even emotional fusion produced by the cultural vision held by the creative subject of korean drama narration and the common vision of the aesthetic subject in the cross-cultural context. the internal mechanism of constructing the horizon fusion is the cultural homogeneity of korean context and chinese context, because the two cultures share the foundation based on confucian culture. in the history, the spread of confucian culture in china and south korea is a source and flow relationship. in the early period of koguryo, confucian culture has formed a comprehensive coverage and in-depth influence on this nation. the rulers of this nation practiced promoting the absorption of confucian culture from the perspective of official administration. therefore, confucian culture which is a foreign culture and ideological system has also built a solid ideological foundation in traditional korean society. although the confucian trend of thought have been created and changed by korean ancestors, their inherent communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 36 ideological tone is consistent, which is the potential premise that cannot be ignored in the cross-context communication of modern korean dramas. unlike the gradual decline of confucian cultural influence in china, even in today's mainstream korean society, adhering to and inheriting confucian culture is still the national principle that modern korean society has always believed in. the national concept of “loyalty to the king,” “making friends with faith,” and “filial piety” in interpersonal relations, “persuading good and punishing evil,” and “suppressing evil and promoting good” in literature and art have always been fundamental basic norms in today's korean society. in china, although the source and mainstream of the local culture have been continuous in the context of confucianism, the same wind and cloud surge in history as questioning and abandonment, and this doubt and even deviation reached the peak in most of the 20th century. after the reform and opening up, the mainstream consciousness began to re-discover the historic value of confucian culture and gradually restore the current status of this traditional culture; however, the artificial historical fracture cannot be bridged in a short period. the development of modern society witnesses the improvement of material life which promotes the social subject to have a sense of “seeking roots.” but the fracture of the cultural foundation caused by the times has made the chinese people deaf to the cultural identity, communication style and value. the western civilization introduced by reform and opening up cannot fill the gap in the spiritual level of the chinese people because it is heterogeneous. cultural identity crisis has become a common social phenomenon in modern society. when south korean dramas landed in mainland china with the most authentic and straightforward source culture, chinese people found a good medicine to heal their identity crisis from the inner spiritual system implied in korean dramas. the ethical norms and lifestyle of confucianism inherited by korean dramas have formed a reasonable concept of self-identity in the interaction between themselves and others, which promotes the realization of each individual's selfidentity. confucianism carried by korean dramas activates the cultural memory of chinese people and awakens their pursuits for life experience and value. they gradually capture the long-forgotten spiritual relics in this art form. what korean tv dramas bring is the form of “back-feeding” rather than the simple cultural entertainment and audio-visual pleasure. the dramas reawaken chinese people's re-cognition of traditional culture and arouses chinese people's search for roots. they bridge the cultural rupture of chinese people's self-spirit in the transition between traditional and modern times and provide an ideological treasure house to awaken memory and emotion for the cultural continuation of modern chinese people. nowadays, as a style of strong popular culture, korean tv dramas bear the mission of structuring and transmitting the social values whose core is the cultural thought of confucianism. the interpretation and admiration of confucianism carried out by korean dramas prompted the theory to be deeply rooted in the foreign context and continued to expand. the ethical morality, family concept and personality pursuit advocated by confucianism have laid the foundation for the basic principles of modern korean national culture. the scope and depth of the practice of morality advocated in confucian culture in south korea even far exceed the state of its mother culture. it is korea's pursuit and worship of confucian culture that makes the artistic form become the foundation of modern korean culture. based on this culture, korean dramas convince chinese people so that some scholars assert: “korea today is a living fossil of ancient china” (zhan, 2007). the confucian culture in south korean dramas stimulates the sense of acceptance of china's local context. it lowers the threshold for this foreign cultural and artistic form to settle in a foreign context. it promotes the recognition and acceptance of this artistic style in the chinese context. it is undeniable that as far as the receptive groups in the chinese context are concerned, the receptive groups familiar with the confucian cultural ideas promoted by south korean dramas are not unfamiliar with the confucian cultural ideas promoted by south korean dramas. when chinese people find that their mother culture has taken root in a foreign country, they can derive a sense of cultural existence and cultural pride. this sense aims to promote the interaction and integration of the two national cultural contexts, which become the psychological normal for chines audiences to accept korean dramas and their cultural thoughts. from the perspective of communication, communication as a two-way behavior has never been wishful thinking. facing the "invasion" of a foreign culture, the audiences dominate and defend in a state of stimulation. their understanding and meaning construction of foreign cultural texts are usually obtained through “negotiation” with the text in a given cultural context, during which the audience's ability of cultural reflection and cultural criticism should not be underestimated. their mother culture and the values determine what kind of label they put on foreign culture and how to judge it. the cultural exchanges between china and south korea are the convergence and collision of heterogeneous cultures. the entering of korean dramas should be regarded as a kind of communication in cross-cultural context. the degree of influence of a foreign culture in the cross-cultural communication depends on the degree of differences in the two cultural contexts. if there are more similarities between the two cultures, the result of decoding the foreign culture tends to be more consistent with the connotation given by the original information coding. “the more people have in common, the less serious setbacks or cultural misinterpretations they encounter in communication. when the cultural differences among members of different cultural groups increase, the possibility of misunderstanding is undoubtedly greater” (guan, 1995). confucian culture carried by korean dramas has communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 37 bridged the gap between chinese and korean cultures. due to the rendering of confucianism, the values, lifestyle and even spiritual pursuits advocated by korean dramas are not difficult to be understood and accepted in the eyes of chinese audiences. the cultural identity and acceptance channels are connected and giving rise to a robust cultural convergence effect and cultural intimacy. “perception is an important aspect of socio-cultural factors, and the similarity of perception makes it possible to share meaning within the same culture” (samovar, 1988). it is the original homogeneity between chinese and korean cultures that has led to the popularity of korean dramas in china. in spite of gaps and ridges, the dissemination of korean culture is much smoother than that of western culture in china. 4. the power structure behind the light and shadow: the power writing of the narrative art of korean tv dramas as a foreign art style, the popularity of korean dramas in the chinese context undoubtedly meets the internal needs of many social elements, thus building a grand landscape of cross-context communication. the dissemination of korean dramas behind "watching" is a process of exerting power. korean dramas also transfer and inculcate power to the audience by conveying happiness. the dramas achieve the operation of power by following the development of happy elements in the text and stimulating the happy emotions of the audience. as far as south korean tv dramas are concerned, the pursuit and production of audio-visual pleasure is an inexhaustible driving force for the popularity of korean tv dramas. pleasure production in korean tv dramas is realized under a certain degree of power, or it can be said that power as the core force of visual art is also the core of south korean tv dramas. in order to exert power over the audience and control the majority of the audience, the pleasure element of the korean drama itself is critical. korean dramas capture the audience and stimulate the audience's interest only by showing pleasure. under the temptation and cooperation of pleasure, the korean drama text controls the text power and realizes its cultural influence. so far as the receiver is concerned, the recipient's understanding of the korean drama text is no longer flat or even subversive but internalized into the life experience of the performance picture, plot details, and character modality in the text to achieve a sufficient perception of the happiness of the text. power has been internalized into the viewer’s heart. it creates the viewing subjects who need the joy of the text. korean dramas undoubtedly can produce pleasure, whose inexhaustible source is provided by the detailed description of the plot, the careful design of the aestheticism picture, and the comprehensive presentation of life details. those unique text features shorten the distance between the text and the audience and let the audience feel the happiness created by the text in the process of watching. particularly, the famous theme of real life, especially the life of ordinary people in south korean tv dramas, bridges the gap between the inner perception of the audience in the real world and the artistic text. the production of happy meaning has become common in the process of korean dramas dissemination. in the discourse power field dominated by elite discourse, although the film and television texts describing elite discourse may also arouse the audience’s happiness, the realistic gap between elite discourse and ordinary audience exists objectively. however, the degree of its influence is limited, at least in such text dissemination, the audience's direct understanding is difficult to occur, so visual legitimacy is often questioned. the majority of viewers often drift away from this influence, so the scope and extent of which text-dominated happiness is being accepted are significantly reduced. south korean drama texts, through creating happy elements, stimulate the audience's interest in watching and form a temptation mechanism through which obtains the ultimate operation of power. like other visual texts, the korean drama texts give full play to the charm of temptation in expression and transform the temptation of the text into an lasting performance of the desire. the temptation of desire does not lie in what it can express but in the continuous expression of desire itself. this continuous expression delays the goal of desire indefinitely, abstracts desire and becomes a form of desire that represents characters. the power to realize temptation in south korean tv dramas is quite hidden, which can still bring audience groups into their symbolic violence. this is a symbolic law which is, moreover, not a law but an unavoidable rule. we adhere to it without grounds, as something arbitrary yet obvious, and not in accord with some transcendent principle (baudrillard,1990). the symbolic rule of this temptation is not the logic and rules of life followed in real life, and it belongs to the rules of symbolic temptation itself. the audience controlled by this set of rules in watching becomes the slave of the temptation phenomenon gradually. under the disguise of this temptation rule the korean drama texts have a profound influence on the audience, and the korean tv drama texts have become the object worshiped by the viewers so that the viewers lose themselves in front of the symbol of temptation and give up their dominance. admittedly, behind the popularity of any cultural text style, there is a deep ideological drive. as frederick jameson said, “at the most basic level, every text is a political fantasy”(jameson, 2004). an interactive relationship exists between the film and television script, which is also the carrier of media information and ideology, that is power. in the process of dissemination, media information not only reflects the pattern of benefit distribution formed by the media information itself and the firmly established power but also “is organized in a way to fundamentally represent a unique view of world construction. this information is usually processed in dominant or consultative codes. furthermore, it is shared by most people as a form of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 38 common sense” (baldwin et al., 2007). power usually manipulates visual discourse in micro form to achieve the purpose of controlling the audience in korean dramas narration. the micro form can be interpreted in the following aspects, such as the operation of the lens, the editing of the visual pictures, the technical processing of the plays, and the choice of the narrative mode of the play. employing the microcosmic operation, power is digested into every detail of korean drama narration: lens, editor, color, language, action and scene. the characteristic portray of the details in korean dramas lays the foundation for the unique representation of korean drama. the portray also exerts the implied power weight to the extreme. according to bourdieu, power usually works in a power field. the possession of these powers also means the control of the special profits of this field(bourdieu, 1997). power constructs a workplace with the help of artistic texts. power permeates the micro details of artistic texts and drives the audience's aesthetic taste, life habits, emotional representation, and even the reconstruction of the audience's self-identity. the popularity of korean tv dramas has undoubtedly built a solid cultural field, which also has a built-in mechanism of power operation. influence by this power, the aesthetic taste of the audience gradually converges, their life habits are gradually assimilated by the plot, and their evaluation criteria of visual discourse and lifestyle that are commonly used in the field are circulated. the visual discourse and the life mode often break through the barriers between the artistic world and real life. the visual discourse gradually evolves into a fashion in the real world. power is a way to prevent people from having the slightest grievance by shaping people's ideas, perceptions, and preferences and making them accept their place in the existing order (baldwin et al., 2007). through the unified allocation of style, interest, and sentiment, korean dramas have built a tremendous visual landscape and interest order, which is gradually presented in a fashionable style. the social individuals are classified by the fashion in the form of field whose external embodiment is unique language styles, dress styles, or behavioral characteristics. those unfamiliar with and do not accept this fashion form are often excluded from the established field. fashion shows a special charm in the restriction, which has the charm of the beginning and the end simultaneously, novelty and instant charm (simmel, 2001). almost every polar korean drama has set off a fashion trend in the chinese context, from beer and fried chicken to popular clothing and even korean-flavored famous words, without exception, triggered a wave of convergence of the pursuit effect. definitely, as a foreign art form, the hidden power operation of korean tv series directly promotes its inheritance and acceptance in the foreign context and constantly expands its acceptance field. superficially, what it presents is only a foreign spread of cultural and artistic style, which is nothing more than a successful case without suspicion in the modern society with increasingly close globalization. but the role of this power cannot be underestimated in terms of its influence. culture promotion is often based on the premise of occupying, weakening, and even destroying the existing field of other cultures. the continuous dissemination of korean dramas brings not only the exotic amorous feelings of the visual senses but also a collision and intersection of the two cultural forms. a culture carries the values and world outlook of a nation. one foreign cultural form encroaching on the existing field of the local culture will undoubtedly tamper with the national identity and value orientation behind the established culture. the result is that the original local cultural map is weakened, forgotten, or even questioned, and the national character of the cultural foundation is challenged, let alone the material fields such as the economic level behind the culture. those economic benefits produced by the korean dramas are the direct testaments. each successful korean drama is the extraordinary driver of economic effects. 5. aesthetic disenchantment after carnival: cultural enlightenment and rational reflection on the narrative art of korean dramas as a flashing exotic symbol in the cultural field in modern transformation of chinese society, the occupation of the chinese market by korean drama art and the capture of the audience in the context of chinese communication are successful. the extended cultural influence, the resulting economic, and even political forces cannot be ignored. those who benefited from the dissemination of western learning to the east in the 20th century may not take the wave of korean dramas in china for granted, and the dominant events located in the pure cultural boundary seem to be challenging to explain the impact of this cultural phenomenon. the right way to treat the surging of korean drama art in a foreign context and even the charismatic performance of this art form is not to echo and imitate others. what we should do is to make a calm and objective analysis and judgment, putting aside the layers of fog scattered by the art of korean dramas. we can see the real mirror image constructed by this art form through this enchanting figure. as an outstanding feature of the period in social transformation, the binary opposition trend at the cultural level is becoming increasingly evident. the increasing resolution of traditional ideas and the continuous emergence of cultural thoughts of the times are intertwined. it seems that deconstruction has become the most fashionable subject word in social development. the re-establishment of the new value system and the choice of the traditional deconstructed ideas coexist with deconstruction. a mutual connection and relay of the two value systems often lead to the swing and loss of the cultural acceptance groups, which provides a space for the “other” to enter the culture. especially those who lack the basic cognition and scale of discriminating communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 39 and screening cultural codes are easier to become the trend of foreign cultures. an in-depth acceptance and spiritual infatuation of foreign culture are usually based on forgetting the mother culture, especially when the old and new cultures are at the barrier of transformation, which constitutes the evaluation symbol of social fashion. they are likely to lead to the absolute negative consciousness of the mother culture and the values it carries. we can assert that any nation that ignores, forgets, or even abandons its cultural traditions and values is terrible. if the forgetfulness and abandonment become a collective unconsciousness of the society, the hidden crisis is even more self-evident. korean drama is a foreign cultural form whose opportunity to enter the chinese context is that china is at the joint orifice of its social transformation, including cultural transformation. the traditional cultural concept has been questioned, and the new cultural form has not been established yet, which provides a port for korean tv dramas to cut in. the chinese complex held by korean tv dramas themselves has undoubtedly paved a broad road for this cultural form to go straight forward. in china, however, the values carried by korean dramas are, after all different from the local culture, and their molded social life is also very different from the chinese life. if the chinese audiences are infatuated with the life patterns and values in the mirror for a long time, there may be social problems and even mental confusion in real daily life probably. definitely, as a scientific attitude, we do not need to label the local popularity of south korean tv dramas as cultural imperialism or cultural colonization, nor do we need to be too anxious about the tide of "ha-han" caused by south korean dramas. unlike economic and political exchanges and interaction, a majority of cultural exchanges are mental activities. the essential elements of their inherent cultural concept and artistic representation are the reason why the art of korean dramas has been popular in foreign contexts for a long time. compared with south korean tv dramas, the domestic film and television production, and even cultural creation in recent years are lack of high-quality works but with higher expansion of profit-oriented consciousness. the production concept of "short and fast" affects the subjectivity of the producers. the criticism for domestic film and television production, and even the cultural field is the lack of in-depth excavation of traditional cultural ideas, ignoring the aesthetic of daily life and details under the guidance of quick success and quick profit. the leading factor of film and television art cannot be separated from entertainment, but "while attaching importance to the function of entertainment, we cannot ignore the educational function of mass culture" (zeng, 2007). the practical strategies to deal with the exotic culture occupying its own living space should be endowing culture with profound connotation, promoting the educational attribute of culture and art, overcoming the superficial, planarization carnival, and demagogic representation of modern culture, and genuinely improving the connotation construction of culture itself. as a result, the art of korean dramas caused a wave of visual "shock" in the chinese context under its glamorous shadows and costumes. they smashed the memory bunkers of chinese people and constructed a mythological palace of commodity fetishism, thus creating a virtual world in an intoxicating real space. korean dramas plasticize the subject consciousness of foreign space, guide the aesthetic subject to realize the generation of subject consciousness by glancing back, and present it in the form of a "perfect landscape" in an atmosphere of "self-romance." as the collective symbol of youthful fetishism, the charm of korean tv dramas in the chinese context lies in that it is good at applying diverse and rich characters and stories to show a high degree of homogeneity of spiritual hardship. they spare no effort to cut the "beauty" in real life into sporadic, impulsive moments to realize the recognition of the meaning of life. the vast differences from real life that constructed a kind and distant, utopian world. references baldwin, e., & mccracken, s. (2014). introducing cultural studies. routledge. 89-94. baudrillard, j. (1998). the consumer society: myths and structures. london: sage publication ltd. 26. baudrillard, j. translated by brain singer. (1990). seduction. new york: st. martin′s press. 124. bourdieu, p. trans by bao yaming. (1997). cultural capital and social alchem: bourdieu interview. shanghai: shanghai people’s publishing house. 142. guan, s. (1955). cross-cultural communication (in chinese: . beijing: peking university press, 56. jameson, f. r. (2004). f.r jameson collection (volume 1). beijing: press of renmin university of china. 136. jameson, f.r. (1986). post-modernism and culture theory. xi’an: shanxi normal university press.147. samovar, l.a. (1981). understanding intercultural communication. belmont: wadsworth publishing. 60-65. simmel, g. (2001). the philosophy of fashion. beijing: culture and art publishing house. 77-80. wilde, o. (2010). the decay of lying: and other essays. penguin classics.26-28. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 40 wang, g. (2012). comments on a dream of red mansion (in chinese: ). hangzhou: zhejiang ancient books publishing house, 47. xu, j. (1988). aestheticism (in chinese ). beijing: press of renmin university of china, 80. zeng, f. (2007). chinese aesthetics in the period of transformation—zeng fanren collection (in chinese, ). beijing: the commercial press, 473. zhan, x. (2007). the prevalence of korean culture in china and its reasons, contemporary korea vol(1), 68-73. , this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. microsoft word 02issue2021 37 communication across borders: translation & interpreting issn 2766-791x vol. 1 no. 2; 2021 www.jhkpress.com on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on thick translation: a case analysis of the grand scribes records (selected chapters) zhen li school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies e-mail: whitelian7777@163.com jie lyu (corresponding author) school of english for international business/institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies e-mail: lisalv@gdufs.edu.cn the study is one of the achievements of innovative projects of colleges and universities under the department of education of guangdong province (project no. 2019wtscx024) and is supported by institute of hermeneutics of guangdong university of foreign studies (fund no. csy-2021-ya-04). abstract: culture-loaded words (hereinafter referred to briefly as clws), as their names imply, are expressions that mostly present the uniqueness of culture. the translation of clws has always been one of the core issues in translation, and the dilemma of translation adequacy and readers’ acceptability has also bothered translators for centuries. thick translation theory, stressing that translation is not so much a literal work than a process of cultural transmission, attaches great importance to cultural differences. under such theory, this study takes clws in nienhauser’s translation of shih chi: po-chi as a study object, attempting to find out how thick translation can be realized concerning translating clws. generally speaking, literal translation, sense-for-sense translation, a combination of different strategies, translation with the footnote, and transliteration are widely adopted in nienhauser’s translation. when it comes to specific kinds of clws, even a certain kind of translation strategy is likely to be realized by many different methods. this variation can be explained by three elements: the translator’s subjectivity, the degree of cultural difference, and the degree of contextual default. the translator’s subjectivity is the dominant factor for it determines translation purpose, while the other two factors affect the “thickness” of an individual word’s translation. key words: thick translation, culture-loaded words, shi ji, translation strategies 1. introduction culture-loaded words are words, phrases, and idioms that signify things specific to a culture, reflecting the unique ways of doing things that a certain group of people has gradually accumulated over the course of history and that set them apart from other people (liao, 2000). shih chi, as one of the most monumental historic records, reveals almost every facet of ancient society, and thus contains nearly every kinds of words manifesting chinese history and culture, i.e. culture-loaded words. amidst all the translation of shih chi, the grand scribes records places most attention on the academic value and the transmission of source-language cultural information (li, 2015). being loyal to the original text earns nienhauser’s translation a great deal of credits, and thus widely recognized as an ideal object for studying chinese history. therefore, this study will take nienhauser’s translation as an example to examine how thick translation can be realized. according to thick translation, the interpretation of culture rather than the transformation of literal meaning becomes the foremost question in the translation, which makes thick translation a valuable perspective to study translation. even though many scholars have taken initiative and adopted this theory to study the translation of chinese classics in recent years, few researchers have studied the translation of shih chi from this account. in addition, despite much theoretical work on thick translation, there is no determined guidance when it comes to the practice of translation, notably the translation of historical records like shih chi. therefore, this study will take culture-loaded words—hereinafter referred to briefly as clws—in nienhauser’s the grand scribes records: basic annals of pre-han china as an example to examine how nienhauser and his team realize thick translation. owing to the limitation of time and space, not terms in all chapters in nienhauser’s translation are examined, instead of which clws in the five emperors, basic annals one, the chou, basic annals four, the ch'in, basic annals five, and hsiang yii, basic annals seven these four symbolic chapters are selected as the research sample. 2. previous studies on thick translation 38 in 1993, kwame anthony appiah borrowed the term “thick description” from an anthropologist called geertz and proposed a mode of “academic translation”, a translation that contains numerous notes, commentaries, or prefaces where a rich “cultural and linguistic” context is embedded (appiah, 1993: 817). inspired by appiah, theo hermans (2003) made further discussions on this matter in his work: thick translation is a “line worth pursuing” when it comes to the translation across culture and language. despite all the theoretical strides of thick translation, neither appiah nor hermans gave any specific guidance on how thick translation should be realized or to what degree a translation can be dismissed as thick translation. martha p.y. cheung illustrated that thick translation should “identify itself as a problematics of cultural representation” (cheung, 2007: 32). researches on thick translation have shown a rapid upward trend in china over the years. when thick translation was newly introduced into china, scholars mainly focused on the evaluation of this translation theory and many of them also appreciated its significance (duan, 2006; sun, 2010; xia, 2008; song, 2014). amongst all these researches, wang (2020) had systematically summarized three values brought by the thick translation—highlight on translators’ subjectivity, providing cultural representation and readers options, giving many credits to this translation theory. however, they didn’t explain how translators—as they said— “accept or refuse the cultural information” and when in translation practice. thus, this study will go into detail to see what exactly influences the translators’ decision in translation based on a highly praised translation version of shih chi. this question somehow resonances with another unsettled problem: when numerous extratextual notes should be added into translation as appiah suggests? many scholars have discussed the influence of translators’ subjectivity and how the translators “filter” cultural information, via doing comparative studies between different translations or in-depth observation on single translation (zhong, 2017; zhao, 2010). zhou and qiang (2016), for example, successfully divided the “thickness” of translation into six levels and discussed the relationship between the subjectivity of translators and thick translation in detail. despite all of their contributions, influencing factors other than translators’ subjectivity appear to be less discussed, so this study will continue to explore this question based on the grand scribes records. chinese scholars also put forward different views on the practice of thick translation. based on the theory of annotation and subtext, wang and yang (2012), taking the anthology of english translation of chinese translated discourse as an example, classified explanatory notes on the basis of their functions into six major types. their findings provide a valuable window on how translators make translation thick in the explanatory notes, so this study also borrows this classification when analyzing the notes in nienhauser’s translation. in addition, in a comparative study of three chinese versions of on rumours, cao exposed the drawbacks brought by numerous annotations included in the translation and appealed for adopting implicit thick translation strategy, which refers to adding explanatory words in the translation text without changing its original meaning (cao, 2013: 3). following his work, wan and hu (2020) proposed that translation strategy can be divided into explicit translation and implicit translation these two types of translation. for all the progress made in the previous studies, the translation strategies identified appears to be not enough to cover all kinds of clws in historical records like shih chi, while the application scope of some similar translation strategies also show a clear distinction. take the intext-bracketing mentioned in wan and hu’s article as an example, pietro adopted this kind of translation method when approaching the names of the famous historical figure, while nienhauer used a similar method to deal with the words without equivalent expression in english. shih chi, other than classic novels such as a dream of red mansions or a floating life, covers more ancient political events, warfare in particular, and thus could be harder for scholars to understand. therefore, focusing on clws, this study attempts to find out the translation strategies used in nienhauser’s english translation, hopefully making some contributions to the application of thick translation. 3. translation strategies of clws based on thick translation to analyze translation strategies more carefully, this paper adopts chen xiaodan’s classification of clws and is ambitious to find out the translation strategies applied in the translation of each kind. chen (2010) furthered deng yanchang’s (1989) classification, sorting them into two categories: absolute sense-vacant clws and semi sense-vacant clws. semi-sense-vacant clws refer to the expressions that have partially equivalent concepts in the culture of another language. it is the nonequivalent part that causes the vacuum of sense. in general, these kinds of words can be further divided into three categories: clws with multiple meanings, clws with cultural connotations, and pragmatic-sense nonequivalent clws. within clws with multiple meanings, the content specified may have only one expression in the source language, while several expressions are representing a similar content in the target language. for example, the word “cousin” is used to describe all children of aunts or uncles, while chinese usually use “表弟 biǎo dì” “堂妹 táng mèi” to distinguish the sex and blood relationship. in addition, clws with cultural connotation refers to terms which contain different implicit meanings in the sphere of different cultural background. for instance, the term “龙 lóng” symbolizes majesty and omens in chinese culture, while it could be regarded as the representation of evilness in english culture. furthermore, some expressions have their pragmatic meaning in one certain language, but few corresponding expression in another language function the same way. for instance, while terms like “贵 guì” “您 nín” can be used to call the opposite side in conversation politely, only the term “you” shares the same meaning. such kind of clws is defined as pragmatic-sense nonequivalent clws. in the grand scribes records, there have generally identified five kinds of translation strategies: transliteration, literal 39 translation, sense-for-sense translation, translation with footnote and a combination of different strategies. when it comes to a certain kind of translation strategy, it may involve more precise translation methods in practice. what’s more, some of those translation methods have been be applied to all kinds of clws, while the others tend to have certain application scope. 3.1 transliteration transliteration generally refers to transmission from the source language to the target language with a similar pronunciation. according to nienhauser (1994), a simplified version of wade-giles’ romanization is adopted in the grand scribes records. this translation strategy is found to be used to approach absolute sense-vacant clws only. however, the cultural information can hardly be transferred to the target language context using this kind of translation strategy. for this reason, transliteration is normally supplemented with other extratextual notes such as footnotes or supplementary materials. by providing cultural information in the paratext, the readers are able to have a systematic understanding of the clws. however, on the negative side, this translation strategy brings more obstacles in reading. example 1 sl (source language)：项籍者，下相人也，字羽。（《史记笺证：贰, 本纪·项羽本纪》，第 559 页） sl in pinyin: xiàng jí zhě, xià xiàng rén yě, zì yǔ. tl(target language): hsiang chi 項籍 was a native of hsia-hsiang 下相 3 (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 179) . footnote: 3 located just west of modern su-ch'ien 宿遷 in kiangsu (t'an ch'i-hsiang, 2:8). it was also only a few miles east of the confluence of the ssui（四）and sui（唯）rivers. as will be seen below, much of the early activity in this chapter takes place along the ssu river north and west of hsiang yu‘s hometown. for one account of the origin of the name hsia hsiang see "so-yin"，but this place it over 50 miles north west of these events and is therefore probably in error (by nienhauser, hsiang yii: basic annals seven: 179). as example 1 indicates, the translator transliterates the terms “下相 xià xiàng” based on the wade-giles romanization with its original chinese characters attached. may the quotations of original text slow down the reading speed of target readers in comparison to traditional translation, yet it is a direct reflection of chinese culture, bringing the readers a visual impression (li, 2015). here, the translators exquisitely interpret the meaning of the term “下相 xià xiàng”: first of all, the translator indicates the modern location of hsia-hsiang; then by relating this place to other frequently mentioned places, the translator actually explains a warfare situation happened in the historical event to the readers so that they are able to create a more comprehensive picture in their minds when learning those events in the translated text. at last, the translator also introduces a different account of interpretation as reference and make critical comments on this interpretation. 3.2 literal translation literal translation can not only reflect the aesthetic value of the author to a large extent but can also convey the information that sense-for-sense translation may not be possible to achieve (chen, 1998). here, literal translation, including several translation methods, should be understood as a translation strategy from a broad sense. generally, literal translation as a strategy of translation refers to translation containing some “tracks” of the original text, which places great attention to the equivalence in form between the source language and target language (huang, 2009). 3.2.1 literal translation: literal correspondence literal translation is an effective way to represent the source-language culture as much as possible, so this translation method has been widely adopted to approach all kinds of clws. when using this translation method, the translator translates the original text based on its literal meaning. chinese word, as one kind of ideograph, carries meaning in every single character, for which the advantages of literal correspondence could be maximized. still, literal correspondence without footnotes there might be some missing cultural default becoming invisible to the readers, while the readers find these terms easy to the reader and easy to understand. here, a case will be analyzed to explain how this translation strategy works practically. example 2 sl: 项王按剑而跽曰：“客何为者？” （《史记笺证：贰, 本纪·项羽本纪》，第 587 页） sl in pinyin: xiàng wáng àn jiàn ér jì yuē: “kè hé wéi zhě?” tl: king hsiang rested his hand on his sword, raised himself to his knees, and said: "who is this guest (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 192)?” in example 2, one’s understanding of the culture-loaded term “跽 jì” is built based on the knowledge that ancient chinese sat on their calves in the daily life. when they removed their hips from their calves and kept their upper bodies straight, this act was called “跽 jì”. in this context, this act suggested that king hsiang was alerted when he saw fan kuai was trying to break in (han, 2004). however, the emphasis of this sentence should fall on the act “按剑 àn jiàn”, i.e. “rested his hand on his sword” in english translation, which shows that king hsiang was ready to defend himself anytime. the act “跽 jì” just makes his act more complete to the readers and highlights this attitude. as a result, the translator’s simply translating it to “raised himself to his knees” doesn’t cause much trouble for the readers to understand this situation. likewise, words such as “社稷 shè jì” “司马门 sī mǎ mén” “白璧 bái bì” “玉斗 yù dòu” “黄屋车 huáng wū chē” “衰絰 shuāi dié” “素服 sù fú” adopted the same 40 translation strategy. despite all the advantages of this, it also makes the readers less possible to understand clws thoroughly as they do with the help of annotation. furthermore, literal correspondence is also used to translate clws with cultural connotations. however, in those situations, literal correspondence plays the role of presenting a word’s basic sense while neglecting its hidden cultural information. given this fact, literal correspondence is also called omission, when it comes to words with cultural connotation. 3.2.2 literal translation: chinese word-building imitation according to the theory of realia2, there are generally five kinds of translation strategies: calque, approximate translation, transcription, descriptive translation, contextual translation (mark & moira, 2004). among these translation strategies, “calque” means translating the clws based on the source language’s grammatical rule. chinese word-building imitation follows a similar logic to the calque strategy—the translators recreate a similar expression in the target language based on the word structure of the source language. this translation strategy is found to be used to approach clws with cultural connotation only, notably official titles. example 3 sl: 闻陈王败走，秦兵又且至，乃渡江矫陈王命，拜梁为楚王上柱国。（《史记笺证：贰, 本纪·项羽本纪》，第 562 页） sl in pinyin: wén chén wáng bài zǒu, qín bīng yòu qiě zhì, nǎi dù jiāng jiǎo chén wáng mìng, bài liáng wéi chǔ wáng shàng zhù guó. tl: when he heard that the king of ch'en had been routed28 and that ch'in's troops were about to arrive, he crossed the chiang, forged an order from the king of ch'en appointing hsiang liang as the king of ch’u’s supreme pillar of state,29 and said: "the land east of the chiang has already been pacified (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 181). footnote: 29 shang chu-kuo 上柱國；"chi-chieh" notes this was equivalent to the post of minister of state (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 181). in example 3, “上柱国 shàng zhù guó” is an official title in ch’u during the warring states period, the status of which is approximate to a prime minister in ancient china; but after the warring states period, this position is normally designed as an honorific title instead of a formal job title with power (han, 2004). in nienhauser’s translation, the expression “supreme pillar of state” is adopted, which is reproduced in correspondence with the word structure of “上柱国 shàng zhù guó”: “supreme” means “most important, or most powerful” according to the macmillan english dictionary, similar to the meaning of “上”; parallel to the term “上柱国 shàng zhù guó”, “pillar of state” means someone powerful and respected within the country. besides, in the footnote, the translators explain the duties or status of this position with the reference source attached. unlike literal correspondence, this translation presents the basic sense of this word in a more implicit way like what this position is supposed to do. however, this translation method can remind the readers of the fact that this position is designed in another culture, avoiding them falling into the fallacy of “easy tolerance” brought by masking the cultural differences (appiah, 1993: 818). 3.2.3 literal translation with intertextual notes or addition this kind of translation can not only preserve cultural information but can also complement the cultural vacuum of sense without sacrificing the textual fluency (wang, 1997). however, owing to the limitation of textual space, the complemented information that can be added into the translation text is also rather limited. this translation strategy is found to be used to approach absolute sense-vacant clws and interchangeable words of pragmatic-sense nonequivalent clws. example 4 sl: 遂见东方君长，合时月正日，同律度量衡，脩五礼五玉三帛二生一死为挚，如五器，卒乃复。（《史记笺 证：壹, 本纪·五帝本纪》，第 16 页） sl in pinyin: suí jiàn dōng fāng jūn zhǎng, hé shí yuè zhèng rì, tóng lǜ dù liàng héng, yǒu wǔ lǐ wǔ yù sān bó èr shēng yī sǐwéi zhì, rú wǔ qì, zú nǎi fù. tl: he used five pieces of jade, three kinds of silk, and two live animals and one dead animal as presents. [this was done] in correspondence with [the rank symbolized by] the five kinds of tokens (by nienhauser, the five emperors, basic annals one: 9). in example 4, the term “五玉三帛二生一死 wǔ yù sān bó èr shēng yī sǐ” refers to several etiquette requirements that differ from level to level of the federal lords, according to han (2004). in chou, an era that relied on the system of rites and music to maintain the hierarchy, different ranks of federal lords were required to follow different standards of etiquette on various occasions. in nienhauser’s translation, literal translation can be recognized in the first sentence, but in the second sentence, intertextual note “the rank symbolized by” is added to the text, interacting with the word “the five kinds of tokens”. since the 2 realia (latin, the real things ). in translation, realia (plural noun) are words and expressions for culture-specific material elements. 41 etiquette requirements mentioned earlier are subject to the same rank requirement of “the five kinds of tokens” as the text indicates, this addition to the text completes the meaning of “五玉三帛二生一死 wǔ yù sān bó èr shēng yī sǐ” in translation. with intertextual notes, the readers have access to the literal meaning of this term and learn more about the core issue it embraces—the political and cultural systems in chou as well as the social norms that shaped people’s minds and behaviors at that time. 3.3 sense-for-sense translation sense-for-sense translation pays more attention to recreating the images of clws in target-language culture, which can help the readers establish the fluency and incoherence of translation texts in a short time. similar to literal translation mentioned above, sense-for-sense translation should also be understood as a strategy of translation, which focuses on transferring the meaning of the original text and places less attention on the equivalence in form (huang, 2009). however, in some cases, the aesthetic value of expressing implicitly in the original text can be destroyed by this transparent translation. and most importantly, this translation strategy is possible to render an “easy tolerance” of the foreign culture and weakens its impact in turn (appiah, 1993: 818). 3.3.1 sense-for-sense translation: alternative term when alternative terms of clws can be found in the target language culture, it is possible to achieve sense-for-sense translation by adopting these terms. due to the advantages, this translation strategy is widely applied in translating all kinds of clws. even though the content referred to by absolute sense-vacant clws is totally missing in the target-language culture, expressions similar to their literal meaning may still be found. however different these terms are, the practice of translation basically follows the same rule—define the words, then find an alternative term in the target language. example 5 sl: 吾令人望其气，皆为龙虎，成五采，此天子气也。（《史记笺证：贰, 本纪·项羽本纪》，第 585 页） sl in pinyin: wú lìng rén wàng qí qì, jiē wéi lóng hǔ, chéng wǔ cǎi, cǐtiān zi qì yě. tl: i have had a man observe his aeromantic signs, and they are always in the form of dragons or tigers appearing in all five colors (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 190). in example 5, the culturally unique term “气 qì” , literally referring to energy or gas, origins from religion or superstition in the warring states period, ch’in and han dynasties. at that time, people believed that the shape and sign of cloud revealed the fate of the individual, and the omen given by those shapes of cloud was dismissed as “气 qì” (han, 2004). in nienhauser’s translation, “气 qì” is translated as “aeronautic signs”. truly that there is no concept resembling the term “气 qì” in english, but the translator adopts its basic sense and uses the alternative term “sign” to describe it. in correspondence to the position of “气 qì”, the term “aeronautic” is added to the front of “sign”, preserving the cultural information in the source-language text. though this kind of translation makes clws easier to understand for the readers, other hidden cultural information might inevitably become invisible during the reconstruction of the images from the source language to the target language. let’s return to example 5, without the cultural background that observing the form of cloud and inferring the prophesy it implies is a religious practice in ancient china, some western readers might be confused why the aeronautic space of one person has a sign. 3.3.2 sense-for-sense translation: generalization sense-for-sense translation can also be realized by generalizing the basic sense of clws, when the cultural background of these terms is not required by the context. the advantages of this translation strategy are obvious—it makes these terms easier for the readers to understand. however, this translation strategy may render the readers less possible to learn about the thick cultural background of the terms. this translation method is found to be used to approach absolute sense-vacant clws. example 6 sl: 项羽乃悉引兵渡河，皆沉船，破釜甑，烧庐舍，持三日粮，以示士卒必死，无一还心。（《史记笺证：贰, 本纪·项羽本纪》，第 566 页） sl in pinyin: xiàng yǔ nǎi xī yǐn bīng dù hé, jiē chén chuán, pò fǔ zèng, shāo lú shè, chí sān rì liáng, yǐ shì shì zú bì sǐ, wú yì hái xīn. tl: hsiang yii led all his troops across the river; he then sank all his boats, smashed his cooking utensils, burned his cantonment, and took with him only three-days' rations, showing that his officers and soldiers would fight to death, that not even one man hoped to return (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 187). in example 6, the word “釜甑 fǔ zèng” refers to two unique cooking utensils in ancient china, similar to pot and jug in the modern world. in the context, mentioning the term “釜甑 fǔ zèng” is just to show hsiang yii’s determination to beat his enemies, so here “釜甑 fǔ zèng” more tends to be an expression and symbolizes all the cooking tools that hsiang yii’s army have access to. in short, it is what “釜甑 fǔ zèng” stands for instead of its literal meaning matters so the translators translate “釜甑 fǔ zèng” to “cooking utensils” rather than the literal translation like “ancient pot and jug”. 3.3.3 sense-for-sense translation: contextualization 42 contextualization is generally applied to those clws which may have different meanings in different situations. the meaning of words could change along with the development of history, notably the conversion of connotations, the expansion and reduction of extensive sense etc. (gao, 2000). in these cases, the translation mainly varies from context to context and thus has no fixed pattern. for instance, in example 14 and 15, “….公 gōng” contains different meanings in different conditions, it can be an official title or an honorific title. this translation method is found to be used to approach clws with multiple meanings. example 7 sl: 沛公 （《史记笺证：贰, 本纪·项羽本纪》，第 585 页） sl in pinyin: pèi gōng tl: magistrate of p'ei (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 185) example 8 sl: 缪公 （《史记笺证：壹, 本纪·秦本纪》，第 317 页） sl in pinyin: miù gōng tl: duke mu (by nienhauser, the ch'in, basic annals six: 92) as the examples listed above indicates, different translations are adopted in correspondence with different contexts. in chinese context, one character is possible to function differently, so variances can be seen in nienhauser’s translation in order to satisfy the requirement of each context. let’s explain this in the case study. in example 7, unlike another term, the term “沛公 pèi gōng” seems more to be a pragmatic custom rather than a formal title. it is a custom in ancient china that you call someone with their position. people used “沛公 pèi gōng” to call liu bang because he had been the magistrate of p’ei county. in this way, “沛公 pèi gōng” is translated as “magistrate of p'ei” instead of “lord of p’ei”. in example 8, “公” is an honorary title, one of the five ranks of noble class which is illustrated in the footnote in chapter 1. thus, “缪公 miù gōng” is translated into “duke mu”. 3.3.4 sense-for-sense translation: connotative overtness sense-for-sense translation can be realized by translating the implicit meanings of the clws. this kind of translation strategy can not only contribute to uncovering cultural information in a more direct way, but also make the translation easier to understand for the readers without adding numerous annotations. for this reason, cao (2014) defines it as an implicit thick translation. this translation method is found to be used to approach clws with cultural connotations. example 9 sl: 每吴中有大徭役及丧，项梁常为主办，阴以兵法部勒宾客及子弟，以是知其能。（《史记笺证：贰, 本 纪·项羽本纪》，第 559 页） sl in pinyin: měi wú zhōng yǒu dà yáo yì jí sang, xiàng liáng cháng wéi zhǔ bàn, yīn yǐ bīng fǎ bù lè bīn kè jí zǐ dì, yǐ shì zhī qí néng. tl: secretly he organized and trained his guests, retainers and other young men in the arts of war, and in this way he came to know their abilities (by nienhauser, hsiang yii, basic annals seven: 179). in this case, the term “宾客 bīn kè” should not be simply understood as guests in english; actually, this term refers to those poor or powerless talents who are voluntarily fed by a rich and powerful family and serve them as consultants or guards in exchange (li, 2001). and that’s why hsiang liang trained the young men to test their abilities. in nienhauser’ translation, the expression “guests, retainers” are used. according to the macmillan english dictionary, the word “retainer” means “a servant, especially one who has worked for someone from a high social class for a long time”, which is very close to the original meaning of “宾客 bīn kè” in the context. instead of simply translating the literal meaning, the translators follow the implicit meaning of this term in this context directly so that the readers could have a logical understanding of the behaviors of the historical figure and even the whole historical event. in addition to this term, phrases such as “秋毫 qiū háo” “常车 cháng chē” “士伍 shì wǔ” also adopt the same translation. 3.4 footnote footnote refers to the added explanatory at the end of each page, which is usually adopted when the culture-loaded terms embrace great differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, or when the context requires so. this translation strategy is seldom used alone, the translator usually combines with other translation methods. through this translation strategy, the translator is able to preserve the exotic charms of clws to a large extent, even though the readers may feel a bit inconvenient to search for cultural information of the terms. this translation strategy is found to be used to approach all kinds of clws. example 10 sl: 三年，王冠。（《史记笺证：壹, 本纪·秦本纪》，第 360 页） sl in pinyin: sān nián, wáng guàn. tl: in the third year (335 b.c.), the king [hui-wen] was capped248 (by nienhauser, the ch'in, basic annals five: 110). 43 footnote: 248 this was a ceremony, performed when a young noble reached twenty, which symbolized his coming of age (by nienhauser, the ch'in, basic annals five: 110). footnote plus other translation strategy is suitable for clws with huge intercultural gap. in example 10, the term “冠 guàn” is translated as “cap” according to its literal meaning, which reveals that the coming-of-age ceremony in ch’in dynasty is symbolized by cap. beyond that, the translators further deepen the interpretation of this term in the annotation by explaining its cultural background. the intertextual relationship between the text and annotation provides the readers with a rich cultural interpretation where source-language culture is effectively represented. in addition, phrases such as “初伏 chū fú” “三户 sān hù” “金鼓 jīn gǔ” “阡陌 qiān mò” also use the same translation strategy. 3.5 combination of different strategies this translation strategy does not have a regular pattern of practice, and it is found to be used to approach all kinds of clws. the translation usually depends on the requirement of the terms themselves or the context. for example, the term in the grand scribes records “土德 tǔ dé” is closely related to the theory of wu xing and the theory of five virtues, and origins from some legendary stories associated with the earth that occurred at the time of huang-ti as lu-shih ch’un-ch’iu records (han, 2004). for this reason, people recognized huang-ti as a king that was blessed by the earth. in the book, the translator uses the expression “an auspicious omen” to describe the term “德 dé” according to its core sense, and the expression “related to earth’s power” to describe the term “土 tǔ” according to its literal meaning. meanwhile, the translators quote the explanation of lu-shih ch’un-ch’iu as intertextual reference and put it into note, enriching the cultural background of the term “土德 tǔ dé”. to put it in nutshell, thick translation follows no pattern. in fact, the definition of thick translation remains controversial till today. according to appiah's definition, only translations with annotations or extratextual texts can be defined as thick translation, but many scholars have shown in their research that there should be various categories of thick translation strategies (cheung, 2007; cao, 2016; wen & wang, 2016). at the same time, some scholars have pointed out that the theory of thick translation is lacking in guarantees from methodology to results (wu & zhu, 2019). therefore, this study should clarify that the so-called “thick translation strategy” here should be considered as a translation strategy that helps translators to achieve deep translation with the premise of not obscuring source-language culture. as for the definition of translation text with thickness, it should be judged from the degree of cultural interpretation that the whole book presents. generally, considering the loyalty to source-language culture, literal translation, transliteration or other translation with notes should be the first concern in translation. 4. influencing factors of translation strategies so far, the translation strategies used by nienhauser and other translators have been explained in detail via case studies. with so many translation strategies, how the translators decide to adopt one translation strategy for these words and another one for other words? in this part, three potential influencing factors are identified based on the context theory: the translators’ subjectivity, the degree of cultural differences and the degree of cultural default. 4.1 the translators’ subjectivity regardless of all the different opinions on thick translation, there is one thing that many scholars agree about thick translation: translation is always related to the translator’ s research purpose. according to translation background and translation purpose illustrated in the paratext in the grand scribes records, translation project of the entire shih chi started from 1970s to 1980s, when there still were thirty chapters of shih chi without thorough english translation and the most complete translation then was the translation of burton watson (nienhauser et al, 1994; nienhauser, 1996). burton watson’s translation is generally recognized as a reader-friendly book with great aesthetic value, but he still sacrifices the scientific rigor of translation by simplifying academic terms, chinese personal names or titles (klein, 2010; nylan, 1996; bodde, 1995). in this case, to provide an “academic translation” has become a historical task. for this reason, nienhauser sets “a faithfully, carefully annotated translation which is as literate and consistent as possible” as their purpose of translation (nienhauser et al, 1994: xvii). during the interview with wei hong in 2018, he restated that accuracy was the priority of their translation, and their translation is for scholars and specialists instead of regular readers. therefore, in his translation, foreignizing translation is mainly adopted: extensive annotations are added in the book and literal translation works as the main translation strategy. 4.2 the degree of cultural difference the degree of cultural difference also plays an important role in the translation. here the degree of cultural difference should be understood vertically and horizontally, that is, both the wideness and depth of cultural difference should be taken into consideration. the depth of cultural difference largely impacts the difficulty of understanding words originated in an alien culture. according to the context theory, the translators normally start from the literal meaning of exclusive terms representing different human civilizations, and find out the general meaning based on the context; after that, the meaning of words should be reaffirmed in the social-cultural context; next, the meaning of words should be recreated in the target44 language culture based on the cultural information of both source-language culture and target-language culture; at last, the meaning of words will be expressed in the target language (chen, 1998; liu, 2001). in this process, the cultural differences between target-language and source-language function as the key element for understanding. if the cultural void is large, meaning that alternative concepts are hard to be found in another culture, then understanding such words could take more effort for the targeted readers. such shared and implicit knowledge in two different cultures, defined as situational default, is normally expected to build the foundation of conversation (wang, 1997). thus, for absolute culture-vacant clws, one kind of term which cannot find any alternative term in another culture, foreignizing translation strategies such as transliteration, annotation or combination could be adopted more frequently. the depth of cultural differences decides the difficulty of representing an image of words in another culture. if words naturally embrace rich cultural information, with or without alternative terms in another culture, to represent such expression is bound to take more effort as well. 4.3 the degree of contextual default as the context theory indicates above, the context of the original text is the key factor during the translation. according to ge (2001), context is supposed to complement an expression’s cultural connotation. likewise, the translation of clws should also relate to the cultural void of context. as wang (1997) indicates, shared background knowledge or pragmatic presupposition is required in conservation in order to reach an expected communication purpose. therefore, when to reproduce the image of one word from source-language culture to the target-language culture, the cultural connotations embedded in the source-language should also be represented in the target-language culture; otherwise, the targeted readers could hardly understand the text even if the literal meaning of culturally unique terms is perfectly translated. however, when the extended meanings could be easily inferred from the context, an additional explanation is also not necessary. in conclusion, the translation of clws is subject to the need of context, which means that the translation strategies rely on how many efforts the intended readers would take to understand the whole context originated in the source language culture. 5. conclusion this study has observed how the translators approach each kind of clws and conclude five kinds of translation strategies applied in the grand scribes records and their application scope: transliteration, literal translation, sense-for-sense translation, the combination of both and translation with footnote. furthermore, this study has identified three factors that may influence the choice of translation strategies: translators’ subjectivity, the degree of cultural difference and the degree of contextual default. given all these findings, this study has many limitations. firstly, this study only focuses on clws in selected chapters in the grand scribes records: basic annal of pre-han china, so more cases in the entire shih chi still remain to be studied. secondly, this paper only analyzes the translation of clws, neglecting the translation of the sentence, paragraph or even chapters. the greatest advantage of in-depth translation is to resist the ideological impact or even erasure of the source language culture by increasing the degree of alienation of the translated text. in translation practice, although the translator's subjectivity has a great positive influence on the translation, his or her own personal emotion will inevitably affect the translation, which is difficult to be avoided. in this case, it seems a bit risky to leave it to the translator to decide the “depth” of the translation alone. therefore, this study suggest that a principle or mechanism to define the “thickness” of translation results could be an alternative of improvement. references appiah, k. a. 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(2010). “深度翻译”与意义阐释:以梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的典故翻译为例[“thick translation” and meaning interpretation: a case study on the allusions in thoreau’s walden]. foreign languages and their teaching, 2: 77-81. doi: cnki: sun: shkf.0.2016-02-010. zhong, d. f. (2017). 康达维译《文选·赋》: 学术研究型深度翻译[thick translation for academic research: a case study on kang dawei’s c-e version of wen xuan: fu]. foreign languages and their teaching. 49(01): 124-134+161. doi： cnki: sun: wjyy.0.2017-01-012. zhou, l. s. & qiang, h. (2016). “厚译”究竟有多厚?——西方翻译理论批评与反思之一[how thick is the “thick translation”: one of the criticism and reflection on western translation theory]. foreign languages and their teaching, 6: 103-112. doi: doi:10.13458/j.cnki.flatt.004316. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. v02issue02.06.2022.0613.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 10 on translating introductions of shameen attractions based on textual information types from the perspective of communication xuanying lu1, jie lyu2 1school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: 849587009@qq.com 2corresponding author: same as above, e-mail: 1833904290@qq.com fund: the study is one of the achievements of innovative projects of colleges and universities under the department of education of guangdong province (project no. 2019wtscx024) and is supported by the institute of hermeneutics of guangdong university of foreign studies (fund no. csy-2021-ya-04). abstract communication researches how people communicate social information by signals. since tourism translation is of significance for foreign-oriented publicity, it is reasonable to conduct research on tourism translation from the perspective of communication. generally, when translating introductions of tourist attractions, to better meet foreign tourists’ expectations of different textual information types that are in line with the theme-oriented information-highlighting principle, it is suggested that translators not only remove redundancy from the source text by strategies like omission and condensation, but also reduce its noise combining amplification, omission, conversion, restructuring and so forth on account of differences between reading habits as well as the context of chinese and western culture; and particularly, strategies like literal translation, transliteration, free translation, and note, should be applied to translating cultural information according to foreign tourists’ expected feedback. keywords: tourism translation, textual information types (tit), communication, shameen 1. introduction tourism translation plays an influential role in foreign-oriented publicity and even international communication. however, the english translations of some tourist introductions in guangzhou are of discouraging quality due to various mistakes, and need to be studied in that many of them fail to precisely convey the original chinese texts or have received unsatisfactory response from foreign tourists. and to make tourism translation better function as a way of foreign-oriented publicity, it is reasonable to research it by applying communication theory. this paper intends to examine the english-translated introductions of tourist attractions from the perspective of communication theory based on the case analysis of shameen, a tourist attraction in guangzhou. merits and problems of the translated introduction of shameen have been explored based on textual information types in line with theme-oriented information-highlighting principle. finally, an attempt has been made to summarize the translation strategies applicable to different purposes of information processing as well as to different tits. 2. applicability of communication theory to tourism translation of shameen if foreign tourists want to get the english introductions of shameen attractions, they need to scan the qr code at the bottom of the sign of the attraction to enter the official website but not open to comments. as such, the translated texts serve as a static, one-way communication process, and matches the shannon-weaver's model of communication as shown in fig. 1. in this model, shannon and weaver unprecedentedly bought forward the idea of “noise”, which appertains to anything that clings to communication contents but is undesired by the sender in the process of conversion or acceptance of information. there are two kinds of noise: one generates from inside the information source, and the other one comes from outside the source (hu, 2017, p.40). for shameen, “noises” embody one that is generated from the attraction itself, for example, a load of architecture vocabulary in the text, which might make the introductions elusive. and the other one comes from external factors, such as foreigners’ stereotypes of china. these noises could easily fuzz communication contents and hinder the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 11 communication process. the receiver may not receive all the messages quite precisely – the expected communication effect will be weakened; even worse, the receivers’ misconstruction could be caused (n.d.). redundancy conduces to reducing noise and by definition, is the repeated part of information. it doesn’t threaten the integrity of information, but helps eliminate the uncertainty of and correct the information, benefiting audiences’ percepting information (hu, 2017, p.41-42). as for shameen, for instance, introductions of many attractions in there list quite detailed historical events of the destination, trying to impress tourists with the historical significance of each attraction. descriptions of historical events in these introductions take nearly two thirds of all the contents, while much information seems trivial in the eyes of visitors as in the case of making a long name list of every u.s. consul general to guangzhou, china. such redundancy decreases the information amount that the introduction is capable to carry, and weakens the economical delivery of information, turning out to distance tourists from enjoying their visits. figure 1. shannon-weaver’s model of communication (n.d.) generally speaking, in the process of communication, to ensure the communication effect, the translator is expected to navigate through noise, redundancy, and information amount. it is advisable that the translator reduces as much noise as possible with the least redundancy, and tries his best to accurately transfer messages through the limited amount of information. certain criteria help manage the relationship. in the first place, response of the “audience” is a crucial element for evaluating the communication effect. in real life, the flow of information is not one-way. it is unwise for the sender to bombard their target audiences with contents merely on their behalf like what the silver bullet theory suggests. communication emphasizes more on the connotation of “together”, “both sides” and “exchanging” (hu, 2017, p.20). translating introductions of attractions, if regarded as a communication process, should not be analyzed completely in accord with the original shannonweaver’s model. the destination of communication contents is the audience, and the final purpose for communication is the identification or much further, the support from the audience. the audience’s reaction is rightly a key element for evaluating the communication effect. “audience” is the collective name of all kinds of information receivers. they select the information that meets their cognition of reality consciously, manifesting obvious bias in their actions. during the process of communication, the audience would react to information sent by the sender, which is exactly “feedback”. the translator, sending the information of the translated introductions, should likewise take readers’ demands and reactions into account and take actions to direct their choices of information to a favorable one (hu, 2017, p.43+226-228). a perfection of shannon-weaver’s model is like: two considerations are applicable to analyzing feedback. first is the value of information. there is a universal dislike for tedious, repeated, and intricate content among visitors from different cultures. the introduction of attractions, as a channel for information flow, is of limited capacity of information – the physical space for carrying information is limited. to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of communication, the translator must analyze the value of each tit and decide on how to process those (lyv & pan, 2020). to this end, zeng once proposed the economical conciseness principle for foreignoriented publicity translation: firstly, the translator conveys as much information as possible with as few words as possible; secondly, the audience be able to get the clearest and most fluent (as opposed to lengthy and cumbersome) information at the lowest cost (the time and effort made to process information) (2005b). the second is the audience’s cultural background. the audience’s bias for selecting information, or “selective behavior”, is closely connected with their rebelliousness. for tourism translation, western audiences may ignore or refute information that threatens their cognition, or even derogate the source of the information (hu, 2017, p. 235). tourism translation serve as a window for foreign audiences to understand china in the truest way. therefore, when translating, it is suggested that the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 12 translator endeavor to clear up misunderstandings caused by different cultures and ways of thinking, to increase the readability and acceptability of the translation, and to achieve the foreign-oriented publicity goal as well as the expected communication effect (yang, 2010). figure 2. shannon-weaver’s model of communication (n.d.) it is worth noticing that, when processing information, the translator needs to not only “remove redundancy” from the text, but also “reduce noise” of the text – but both of which are not necessarily deleting information; due to the differences between chinese and western cultures, and the knowledge gap between chinese people and foreign tourists, sometimes the translator may have to add information that the original text had failed to deliver. at the same time, such awareness of audience’s rebelliousness never amounts to blindly wooing the audience. both chinese cultural influence and foreigners’ interests in chinese culture continue to grow, discerning the “noise” and “redundancy” poses a much bigger challenge to the translator. the international status of the country should be taken into account, so as to meet the demands for international cultural communication of a country. 3. on translating introductions of attractions in shameen, guangzhou based on tits at present, the only theory that exactly for tourism translation is the theme-oriented information-highlighting principle proposed by professor zeng lisha. there is not a specialized system for tourism translation theory. in line with this principle, tit qualitatively summarizes the nature, function, characteristics, and value of different theme-bound tourist information, categories including factual information, descriptive information, evaluative and appraisal information, cultural information, vocative information, aesthetic information, stylistic information, and information of tips (2005a). shameen is a distinctive architectural complex that embodies european style and reflects chinese modern history about the concession. all the introductions of attractions in shameencome in 5 tits: factual information type, descriptive information type, evaluative and appraisal information type, cultural information type, and stylistic information type. each will be analyzed with examples. 3.1 factual information type factual information makes up the largest part of most tourism profiles and provides readers with basic knowledge of the tourist attraction (luo, 2009, p.32). this tit is the most objective among all nine textual information types of the theory and carries the largest amount of information. nevertheless, although factual information is objective, a smart translator should still cautiously discern the redundant information from all the objective facts to maximize the efficiency of communication. how to remove redundancy as well as reduce the noise of these two kinds of information depends on both the target audience’s cognitive habit and, things like national condition, nation history, and cultural characteristics of a country where the attractions are in. generally, there are two subtypes of factual information: one about the present and the other about the past. factual information about the present mainly introduces the current situation of the destination; common examples include a description of address, area, and other basic information about the destination (zeng, 2005a). the detailed address of the destination is included in all of the introductions. here is an example; parts to be analyzed are highlighted in bold and underlined (similarly hereinafter): translation example 1 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 13 source text: 16 18 20 source text romanized: shāmiàn dàjiē yìndù rén zhùzhái jiùzhǐ, wéi guǎngzhōu shāmiàn jiànzhù qǘn de zǔchéng bùfèn, wèiyǘ guǎngzhōu shì lìwān qǖ shāmiàn jiē cuìzhōu shèqǖ shāmiàn dàjiē 16, 18, 20 hào (shāmiàn dàjiē yǚ shāmiàn yījiē jiāojiè de xīběi zhuǎnjiǎo chù). target text: the site of indian residence is a part of guangzhou shamian architectural complex. it is located at no. 16, 18 and 20 shamian avenue, liwan district, guangzhou. (excerpted from the introduction of the site of the residence of india nationals, no. 16, 18, 20 shameen street) the only way for foreign tourists to read the english introductions of shameen attractions is by heading for shameen in person, and then scan the qr code at the bottom of the sign of each attraction for access to the corresponding website. that is, the tourists must be in shameen, guangzhou if they have scanned the qr code and seen the website. therefore, the fact that site of the residence of indian nationals “is a part of guangzhou shamian architectural complex” is redundant and leads to inefficient delivery of information. information value can be evaluated by referring to parallel text in the target language (lyv & pan, 2020). as china covers vast stretches of land, to better reign over the whole country, rulers in the ancient time divide the country into many districts with several levels, and the way of administration division established in the yuan dynasty is still in use today. a complete description of address in china usually includes information of province, city, district, community, road, and number, while that of western countries often presents name of city, road, and number only. for example, the british address is written in forms like “2 drury way, north circular road, london nw10 0th”, or for american one it goes like “490 2nd street, suite 300, san francisco, california 94107”. western people do not use “district” to describe address; they might even be perplexed by the word “district” since it means “an area of a town or country, especially one that has particular features2.” it would be better to omit the description of “liwan district”. and, the original translator already removed the redundant “ ”. moreover, the original author might have a strong willingness to make tourists learn thoroughly about the specific location of the site, thus expressly annotated that the site locates at “ ” in brackets. but actually, foreign tourists are not scholars who specialize in shameen architectural complex, or residents who settle in shameen. it is of no use for them to know such detailed address information. it is laudable that the redundant parts of “ ” have already been deleted in the original translation. apart from that, the diction for describing the address here also needs attention. although there is no such convention in the united kingdom, people in the united states use “avenue” for roads that run north-south and “street” for east-west ones. since “ ” runs east-west, it would be better to use “street” instead of “avenue” here in case of potential noise. to summarize, an optimized translation should be like this: translation example 1 (revised version) target text: the site of the indian residence is located at no. 16, 18, and 20 shameen street, guangzhou. (excerpted from the introduction of the site of the residence of india nationals, no. 16, 18, 20 shameen street) in addition, caused by different thinking modes of language, when translating a description of an area, redundancy can easily be created. an example is: translation example 2 source text: 0.39 source text romanized: miànjī yüē wéi 0.39 píngfāng gōnglǐ, céng shì zhūjiāng “xī shí gōnglǐ” de qǐdiǎn, lǎo guǎngzhōu chéng de shāngyè wénhuà zhōngxīn. target text: covering an area of about 0.39 square kilometers, it used to be the starting point of the “west 10 kilometers” of the pearl river landscape belt as well as the commercial and cultural center of the old guangzhou city. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) 2 oxford university press. (2014). district. in oxford english dictionary (8th ed., p.594). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 14 chinese expression is far different from that of english, and this can easily lead to redundancy and noise in translation. influenced by the thinking mode of the mother tongue, it is uneasy for the translator to recognize that (pinkham, 2000). hence translators have to pay much effort to learn and get used to the expression of the target language. laudably, the translator converted “ ” into “covering an area of” to meet the reading habit of foreign tourists. still, this translation embodies a typical chinese thinking mode. the word “cover” means “to spread over the area mentioned3.” that is, “area” is the default object of “cover”; the word “cover” involves the meaning of “area” already. it would be better to omit the redundant “an area of”. translation example 2 (revised version) target text: covering about 0.39 square kilometers, it used to be the starting point of the “west ten kilometers” of the 30-kilometer pearl river landscape belt as well as the commercial and cultural center of old guangzhou. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) factual information about the past is for historical events related to the destination as well as the influence of these events (zeng, 2005a). examples include the history of the attraction, stories of celebrities who are in connection with the destination, or some other historical events that are indirectly related to the destination. often, the original author will introduce some experiences of celebrities related to the attraction, aiming at tourists to obtain a deeper understanding of the destination. still, if not handled properly, the noise would easily generate, or the passage might be sprinkled with redundant information that does not have a strong connection with the destination, like the following example: translation example 3 source text: 1847 1854 source text romanized: 1847 nián, fǎguó chuánjiàoshì mù ruòsè wéifǎn qīng zhèngfǔ guānyǘ xīfāng chuánjiàoshì bùdào de guīdìng, qiánrù shānxī. 1854 nián, fǎguó chuánjiàoshì mèng zhènshēng qiánrù zhílì, dōu bèi dāngdì guānfǔ cháhuò, jiěsòng guǎngzhōu fǎguó lǐngshìguǎn. target text: in 1847, the french missionary, joseph pastor, broke into shanxi province in violation of the qing government’s provisions on the preaching of western missionaries. in 1854, the french missionary meng zhensheng sneaked into zhili and was seized by the local government and sent to the french consulate in guangzhou. (excerpted from the introduction of the site of the french missionary building, no. 42 south shameen street) at the first glance, it seems that the names of the french missionaries have some connection to “the french missionary building”, while it does not make sense. there is no information about whether these two persons were once worked in this french missionary building or they were finally sent here after being arrested, and the lack of information generates noise – tourists might have no idea what the connection between the two missionaries and the building is after reading these two sentences. the translator should omit the two sentences, or search and add relevant information for clarifying the connection to reduce the noise. last but not least, shameen had been the british-french concession for nearly 90 years and more than ten countries used to set their consulates here. shameen is, therefore, of significance in reflecting chinese modern history about concession, and it would be laudable that relevant content is emphasized instead of being deleted as redundancy in translation. 3.2 descriptive information type descriptive information describes attributes or qualities with descriptive expressions to help readers better understand the characteristics of the factual information. this tit combines both subjectivity and objectivity, because of which there might be some exaggeration in the source text. the translator should discriminate the textual information that has been exaggerated from the source text (luo, 2009, p.32). exclusively, chinese features four-character idioms. using four-character idioms can make the text much tidier in rhythm and more flowery in language. it also strengthens the power and infectiousness of the text. as it is unique to chinese, if being fully translated, problems including poor logic and excessive exaggeration could be caused, both of which create redundancy and generate noises, thus reducing the readability of the text. 3 oxford university press. (2014). cover. in oxford english dictionary (8th ed., p.470). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 15 for introductions of shameen attractions, descriptive information is mostly seen in the depiction of building characteristics. for example: translation example 4 source text: source text romanized: zhèng lìmiàn liǎng céng jǖn wéi zhùláng shì, zhùláng xiànjiǎo jiǎnjié míngkuài, zhěngtǐ jiànzhù wàiguān pǔsù qīngyǎ, yǚ jiànzhù zhōubiān de lǜshù, xiǎo huāyán jiéhé, gěirén yīzhǒng níngjìng dànyǎ zhī gǎn. target text: the front elevation is a corridor with pillars on both floors, and the corridor line foot is concise. the overall appearance of the building is simple and elegant, combined with the green trees and small gardens around the building, giving people a sense of quiet and elegant. (excerpted from the introduction of the czech consulate, no. 1 north shameen street) “elegant” means being well-designed, pleasing, and graceful in appearance or style when referring to a person or things45. it is obvious that this conflicts with the meaning of “simple”. putting the two words together as coordination might lead to noise and bewilder foreign tourists. the diction here must be noticed: the conjunction “and” should be replaced for logical purpose. besides, “elegant” is not equivalent to the chinese word “ ”, and it is also not the only meaning for “ ”. reusing the same word “elegant” in one paragraph also creates redundancy. in the last phrase of the source text, the meaning of “ ” in “ ” is similar to that of the previous “ ” in “ ” in chinese, and it would be better using another appropriate word to replace the repeated “elegant” in this paragraph when translating. the character “ ” has several aspects of meaning in chinese; the original translator just misunderstood and failed to choose the correct one here. however it may be, there is one core connotation of “ ” – not being ordinary. as for how to extend it, the translator may refer to the context. in the last phrase, the source text emphasized the quiet and peaceful environment of places surrounding the building with the word “ ”, intended to highlight the not being ordinary in such beauty. therefore, the noun forms of adjectives likes “peaceful” can be used as a substitute for that of “elegant”. additionally, in chinese, many words are symmetrical in structure for the passage being more energetic and infectious. but these words are often repetitive in meaning, like “ ”. “green tree” is not a popular expression in english-speaking countries. in a metropolis, most trees of the greenbelt are green; it is of no use to emphasize their color redundantly. together with free translation, amplification, conversion, and restructuring, the optimization should be like: translation example 4 (revised version) target text: the façade of the first and second floors is designed in prostyle concisely. the overall appearance of the building is simple but elegant. the atmosphere of peace and quiet is made stand out by trees and small gardens around the building. (excerpted from the introduction of the czech consulate, no. 1 north shameen street) 3.3 evaluative and appraisal information type this tit evaluates the factual information and its features. it is usually suggestive and inductive. translators should properly deal with those overloaded expressions with the original author’s strong comments attached to the factual information to avoid being influenced by the subjective ideas of the original authors (luo, 2009, p.32-33). chinese culture is a high-context one. in a high-context culture, communication tends to be imprecise; people assume a relatively high level of shared knowledge with the individual they are communicating with. to better understand the meaning, people need to pay more attention to their physical surroundings (mitchell, 2009, p.20-21). that is, in whatever written materials or face-to-face conversation, messages are less literally and less directly conveyed. people have to look for more information from the context of a message, action, or event. it is the same for c-e translators when translating. translation example 5 4 collins press. (january, 2022). elegant. in collins cobuild advanced learner's english dictionary (5th ed.). https://www.collinsdictionary.com/zh/dictionary/english/elegant 5 oxford university press. (2014). elegant. in oxford english dictionary (8th ed., p.661). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 16 source text: source text romanized: shāmiàn jiànzhèng le guǎngzhōu jìndàishǐ de biànqiān, liúxià le sūn zhōngshān xiānsheng, zhōu ēnlái zǒnglǐ děng wěirén de zújì, qīnlì le xǚduō zhòngdà lìshǐ shìjiàn, chéngwéi wǒguó jìndài shǐ yǚ zūjiè shǐ de suōyǐng. target text: shāmiàn witnessed the changes of modern history of guangzhou, left the footprints of mr. sun yat-sen, prime minister zhou enlai and other great men, and experienced many major historical events, thus becoming the epitome of china’s modern history and the history of concession. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) first, exaggerations are usually used when chinese people make comments. the reality might not be completely consistent with the literal meaning of those comments. it is not suggested that translate such comments word for word and sentence for sentence, but try to figure out the original author’s idea and restructure the sentences so that unnecessary noise could be reduced. both the first and the last sentences overstate the significance of the shameen complex. the first sentence “ ” exalts that the shameen complex witnessed the entire modern history of guangzhou, and the last one “ ” even likens it to the epitome of modern history (including the history of concession) of the whole country. both sentences are biased towards the destination; diction here must be carefully treated when translating. second, problems of lacking logic appeared frequently in this example. actually, “changes of history” cannot be witnessed; a place can only witness things like events, phenomena, and so forth. also, “shameen” is unable to walk or leave footprints, or experience things like human beings; human beings leave footprints in this architectural complex instead. moreover, for the fourth sentence, a place cannot become an example of history in terms of logic and it is better to describe a period of history or a historical event as the “epitome of history”. translators must pay special attention to these kinds of expressions, and try not to be influenced by the thinking mode of the mother tongue. for the problems above, diction, omission, and conversion are feasible approaches to reduce noise. third, as the original author wanted to stress the historical importance of the shameen complex here, what giants did when they stayed here had better be clarified either – giants had been to many places and where they used to stay does not mean anything in most cases – if things giants did are of historical significance. but after investigation, few events about both mr. sun yat-sen and shameen are found. considering that “ ” covers those small events, omitting these redundant descriptions would be better, like: translation example 5 (revised version) target text: having witnessed many historical events in the modern times of guangzhou, the shameen complex is of historical importance for modern china. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) since “ ” and “ ” are similar in meaning, condensation and restructuring are also used in the above optimization. additionally, it is common that chinese texts would like to make conclusions that can make the theme of the passage more sublime and magnificent. these conclusions are often empty and excessively exaggerated. here is a typical chinese conclusion of passage: translation example 6 source text: source text romanized: shāmiàn, bùjǐn shì guǎngzhōu de shāmiàn, gèng shì zhōngguó de shāmiàn, shìjiè de shāmiàn. target text: shamian belongs not only to guangzhou, but also to china and the whole world. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) although it cannot be denied that shameen is of significance for the history of architecture, it is still exaggerated to describe shameen as being of the significant meaning to the whole world, especially when compared with well-known tourist attractions like the leaning tower of pisa or the forbidden city. descriptions should be downgraded when being translated to be moderate in the lower context of english and to avoid misunderstanding. also, the expression of the source text typically embodies the phraseology of chinese. the original author could have tried to highlight the value of shameen in specific aspects. but limited to the thinking mode of chinese, he made the conclusion communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 17 sublime using the chinese rhetoric of parallel structure, sacrificing details. the original translator was then regrettably misled by such means of expression and could do nothing but translate the source text word by word, failing to understand what the original author means. to reduce the noise of this example, translators should try to figure out what the original author wanted to express actually, and then restructure the information by a large amount. from chinese thinking mode, the meaning of shameen to guangzhou, china, and even the whole world could be connected with its being architectural complex, or covering a wider range, being cultural heritage. clarification should be extended with conversion if necessary then; the reason why shameen is meaningful can also be added and amplified as a transition. to summarize, an optimized translation can be: translation example 6 (revised version) target text: considering its distinct architectural characteristics and historical meaning, shameen is a valuable cultural heritage for not only guangzhou, but also china, and even the whole world. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) 3.4 cultural information type cultural information introduces unique chinese culture to help readers better understand china. this tit can easily overload information, and the translator should carefully analyze foreign tourists’ demand for learning about chinese culture (zeng, 2005a). when translating, it should be taken into consideration the exact meaning or reference of those culture-loaded words. to translate things unique to china, the translator can combine literal translation or transliteration and explanation, to better publicize chinese culture (lyv & pan, 2020). usually, when translating tourism profiles, there is “non-equivalence at culture level” proposed by christiane nord, as cited by he & tao (2010). the non-equivalence is more obvious in translating culture-loaded words. to overcome that, zheng (2016) offered six strategies: transliteration, transliteration with notes, literal translation, literal translation with notes, the combination of transliteration and literal translation, and free translation. in the following of 3.4 cultural information type, transliteration with notes and literal translation with notes will be mainly adopted for chinese architectural terms. translation example 7 source text: 5 4 source text romanized: shǒucéng dàtīng kuān 5 jiān, shēn 4 jiān, yǒu hòu wài láng. dì èr, sān céng yánjiē chú lóutī jiān dōu shè wài láng, yě yǒu hòu láng. zhōngjiān kāi tiānjǐng bìng zhítōng tiān miàn. lóutī shè zài dōngxī rùkǒu, dōng tī zhǐ shàng èr, sān céng, bùnéng shàng wūdǐng; xī tī bùnéng jìn shǒucéng, dàn kě shàng èr, sān céng hé wūdǐng. target text: the first-floor hall is 5 wide and 4 deep. there are second floors and third floors along the street, except for staircases, with external corridors and back corridors. the stair case is located at the entrance to the east and west. the east staircase only goes up to the second and third floors. it cannot go up to the roof. the west staircase cannot go into the first floor, but it can go up to the second, third and roof. (excerpted from the introduction of the former administration bureau of broadcasting of the nationalist government, no. 73 north shameen street) “ ” and “ ” are two concepts unique to chinese traditional architecture. in a room, “ ” is the width of the side parallel to the door, and “ ” refers to the length of the side perpendicular to the door. according to the weights and measures of the qing dynasty, for “ ”, or, the main room of a building, one jian equals 6 meters, while those for “ ” and “ ”, or room next to and room furthest away from the main one are shorter. there is no such corresponding architectural term in english, and translators commonly metricate this kind of measurement unit unique to chinese culture, or foreign tourists would fail to understand them. still, apart from converting the first sentence into “the first-floor hall is about 30 meters wide and 24 meters long,” the translator may also transliterate and annotate the two “ ” as zheng suggested, but the text can be much longer. to reduce noise, since shameen is an architecture complex, and, more decisively, since “ ” is a concept of chinese traditional architecture, applying transliteration to “ ” with a note helps highlight the characteristics of eclecticism of this building, contributing to foreign tourists learning about chinese traditional architecture. as for the note, it would be better to use both an annotation as well as a footnote, which can make the main body of the target text tidier and more concise. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 18 similarly, “ ” and “ ”, not having been translated in the original translation though, well emphasize the characteristic of eclecticism that it successfully blends chinese and western architectural styles, hence are recommended to be translated. and to translate the latter one, the translator has to first deal with the culture-loaded word “ ” – similarly to “ ”, transliteration with notes (footnote here also) may suit. as courtyard means “an open space that is partly or completely surrounded by buildings and is usually part of a castle, a large house, etc.,” “ ” can be a small courtyard within a house that is surrounded by rooms, or rooms and wall sometimes. in addition, as tianjing itself has never had a roof, translation for “ ” can be omitted in the target text, and “ ” could be amplified to provide audiences with a clearer image. in addition, as tourists are not allowed to go into the building, foreign tourists do not have to learn about such full details as to where the east staircase and west staircase respectively go up. the last three sentences do not help stress the eclecticism but create redundancy and are better to be deleted, like: translation example 7 (revised version) target text: the hall on the first floor is about 5 jian (30 meters) in width and 4 jian (24 meters) in length with corridors outside. there are also external corridors along the street on both the second and the third floors, except for the side the staircase is on. surrounded by the corridors and rooms, there is a tianjing* on the second floor. the staircases are located near the entrance to the east and the one to the west. *note: jian: a unit of length unique to chinese ancient architecture; one jian equals six meters referring to the weights and measures of the qing dynasty. tianjing: a small courtyard within a house that is surrounded by rooms, or rooms and walls sometimes; one house may contain one or more tianjings. (excerpted from the introduction of the former administration bureau of broadcasting of the nationalist government, no. 73 north shameen street) in addition to chinese architectural terms, fengshui terms also characterize introductions of attractions in shameen. first of all, fengshui itself, a large proportion of whose ideas are at variance with materialism and marxism, is inconsistent with chinese social ideology. when dealing with issues – including translation ones – relevant to that, we have to differentiate the idealistic ideas and remove relevant descriptions from the text. to carry forward the positive part of such a culture, notes can be added to explain the reason why some ideas make sense or work. for shameen, fengshui terms appeared in almost every piece of the introduction, for instance: translation example 8 source text: source text romanized: lóu gāo sì céng, zuò běi cháo nán, píng dǐng. target text: the building is four stories high, sitting in the north and facing the south, with a flat roof. (excerpted from the introduction of the former administration bureau of broadcasting of the nationalist government, no. 73 north shameen street) “ ”, or facing south, is a principle of house building following chinese fengshui. this is because most buildings in ancient china are low in height, few of which being with big trees, tall buildings, or high mountains surrounding. and, much of chinese territory, especially in ancient times, is on the north of the tropic of cancer (23°26’ n) – that is, for those regions, sunshine goes into houses from the south side. consequently, a majority of house buildings in ancient china face the south to obtain better lighting, and at the same time, to take shelter from the north wind and keep the house warm. fengshui terms like “ ” “ ” can usually be seen in introductions to traditional house buildings in china. really, in most cases, the “ ” can make domestic tourists understand the good location of a building, especially residential ones. considering that foreign tourists are not familiar with chinese fengshui, when translating “ ”, the translator may add notes or annotations to explain its origin, meaning, and effect. translation example 8 (revised version) target text: facing south*, the four-storied building has a flat roof. *note: “facing south” is a chinese fengshui principle of house building, aiming at good lighting and keeping warm since much land of china locates on the north of 23°26’ n; although shameen locates at 23°10’ n, “facing south” is still helpful for lighting in most seasons; and being in the subtropics, shameen possesses a warm climate already. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 19 (excerpted from the introduction of the former administration bureau of broadcasting of the nationalist government, no. 73 north shameen street) except for “ ”, the rest of this kind of description is better to be omitted, since locations like “ ”, “ ” and “ ” are true of no use to lighting or keeping warm or other else but cause noise. the imperial era name originates from ancient china and can be also seen in ancient north korea, ancient vietnam, ancient mongolia, and modern japan. since the revolution of 1911, or the xinhai revolution, the monarchy being overthrown, imperial era name had been abolished in china. however, being a special and unique way of numbering years, it would be better not to omit the main part of the chinese imperial era name, for reducing noise so that foreign tourists can learn more about chinese culture. for example: translation example 9 source text: 1865 1920 source text romanized: ... jiàn yǘ qīng tóngzhì sì nián (1865), chóngjiàn yǘ 1920 nián. target text: the building was first built in 1865 and rebuilt in 1920. (excerpted from the introduction of the site of hsbc, no. 54 shameen street) to optimize, the literal translation and annotation should be like: translation example 9 (revised version) target text: the building was first built in the 4th year of emperor tongzhi’s reign in the qing dynasty (1865) and rebuilt in 1920. (excerpted from the introduction of the site of hsbc, no. 54 shameen street) there is not a commonly used pattern for translating era name yet. still, literal translation, relatively less information being missed, might be more suitable. or, for descriptions like this example: translation example 10 source text: 1924 source text romanized: ... jiàn yǘ zhōnghuá mínguó shísān nián (1924), ... target text: built in 1924, ... (excerpted from the introduction of the dodwell & co. ltd.(british), no. 61 shameen street) optimization could be like this: translation example 10 (revised version) target text: built in the 13th year of the era of the republic of china (1924), ... (excerpted from the introduction of the dodwell & co. ltd.(british), no. 61 shameen street) it is worth attention that, the feudal system had been overthrown before the republic of china establishing. therefore, the translator should be careful not to use the word “reign”, or additional noise may be created. the last problem with translating cultural information is that, because of cultural non-equivalence, there is no corresponding word or expression for many appellations like ancient toponyms or government positions in ancient times. for instance, “ ” is the governor who is in charge of the military and political affairs of commonly two provinces. in english, the only word whose meaning is similar to it is “general” – a high-ranking officer in the armed forces, usually in the army6. these two words are not equivalent in meaning. if the translator wants to accurately express the meaning of “ ”, he must use phrases or sentences to explain the responsibility as well as the jurisdiction of this position in the form of notes. the following is also representative of non-equivalence: translation example 11 6 collins press. (march, 2022). general. in collins cobuild advanced learner's english dictionary (5th ed.). https://www.collinsdictionary.com/zh/dictionary/english/general communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 20 source text: source text romanized: míngdài zài cǐ shè “huá jié tíng”, guǎnlǐ wàishāng huòwù jìnchū; qīngdài zhōngyè zài cǐ jiàn xī gù pàotái, gǒngwèi guǎngzhōu chéngchí. target text: huajie pavilion was set up here to manage the foreign trades; in the mid qing dynasty, xigu fort was built to defend the city of guangzhou. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) the “ ” of “ ” is not an ornamental building in a garden or park7, and should not be translated as “pavilion”. for “ ”, there are 3 ways of interpretations that involve border or military affairs: military post set near the border for reconnoitering hostile forces; inn, courier station for resting and staying the night; or kiosk, usually sells articles of daily use. referring to the context, the first interpretation is more suitable. the adaptation of translation having reduced noise can be: translation example 11 (revised version) target text: in the ming dynasty, huajie post was set up here for administrating foreign trades; in the mid-qing dynasty, xigu casemate was built in defense of guangzhou. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) 3.5 stylistic information type stylistic information refers to linguistic features conveyed through the style of the writer who uses effective devices to organize the text so that the text may be attractive to the audience. this tit can influence the acceptability of the introduction. its transferability is relatively weak; proper adjustments should be made in the process of translating (luo, 2009, p.33-34). in chinese tourism profiles, stylistic information is distinguished by rhetoric in most cases, parallelism and antithesis in especial; some authors who excel at writing may even compose several lines of poetry. for this reason, stylistic information is usually flowery in language but inefficient in conveying messages. the information amount of it can be low if it were completely translated. foreign tourists are probably unable to make out what the author is driving at after reading floods of ink either. the following one can be a typical example: translation example 12 source text: source text romanized: wénwù huányüán, xiū jiù rú jiù, lùchū zhēnróng; cuìzhōu gǔlóu, qiānmǐ huājiē, gǔshù chènyìng; wánshàn gōnggòng shèshī, zhìlì mínshēng shíshì; chuàngshè fánghóng huā dī, shuǐhuàn jiàn gào yüǎnlí; héxié sānwéi shìjiǎo, sùzào wénhuà zhǔtí, yíngdé gèjiè hǎopíng. target text: cultural relics have been well restored to show their original charm; ancient trees, flowery streets and historic buildings benefit by associating together; public facilities have been improved to upgrade people’s livelihood; flowery dike has been renovated to protect shameen from flooding. all these measures shape the cultural theme of shameen, winning it praise from society. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) at first sight, the translation is like a jumble of ideas: cultural relics, trees, streets, buildings, public facilities, dike, and cultural theme, totally of seven subjects are mentioned with poor coherence and cohesion, making it hard for audiences to understand the connection among each subject. the heavy use of parallelism and antithesis does not help to communicate information clearly at all. a translation would be acceptable provided that it conveyed the necessary message of the source text and brought the effect that conforms to the cultural context of the target language to readers successfully, even though there might be some differences between language styles or contents of the two texts (li, 2012). to translate the above stylistic introduction, the translator needs to remove redundancy by recapitulating and condensing key messages, and reduce the noise by toning down 7 collins press. (march, 2022). pavilion. in collins cobuild advanced learner's english dictionary (5th ed.). https://www.collinsdictionary.com/zh/dictionary/english/pavilion communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 21 the stylistic expressions of the original author as well as restructuring key messages, also improve coherence and cohesion by conversion, to make the text more logical and more readable, like: translation example 12 (revised version) target text: the government well restored the cultural relics, improved public facilities, and beautified the environment of shameen, all of which helped show the cultural charm of shameen and make it enjoy great popularity. (excerpted from the overall introduction of shameen) 4. summary of translation strategies in this paper on translating the introduction of shameen attractions based on tit from the perspective of communication, translation strategies including literal translation with notes, transliteration with notes, free translation, amplification, omission, condensation, diction, conversion, restructuring, and extension are involved. generally speaking, chinese tourism profiles focus more on flowery language, abundant rhetorical devices, emotional expressions, etc., which are hard for foreign tourists to comprehend and bring about redundancy and noise. it can be seen in the previous analyses of the nineteen examples that, probably, though not necessarily, redundancy is of a stronger connection with contents like human geographical characteristics and social identity of the destination, which chinese, the source language features; while noise is more closely related to language style or in-text logic influenced by the thinking mode of mother tongue. according to li, when composing tourism profiles, english writers prefer to objectively describe concrete objects with fewer rhetorical devices, emphasizing more on providing audiences with a specific image of the scenery of the destination. while, chinese writers often pay more attention to the social identity (e.g. social significance, stage of development) and human geographical characteristics of the destination, depictions excerpted from histories or literature accounting for a large proportion of the whole introduction in especial; all these might make the destination seemed more appealing to domestic tourists, still, for foreign audiences with a different cultural background, such contents can be redundant or hardly understood (2012). for removing redundancy, there are mainly two strategies: omission and condensation. both of them are not only used for removing content that contributes nothing to audiences’ learning about things like geography and infrastructures of the destination, or their understanding of chinese culture, but also for improving wording that looks powerful and infectious in chinese but is repeated in meaning in english sometimes. still, when composing tourism profiles, chinese writers are accustomed to reinforcing a personal perception of the beauty of the destination, then making the scenery attractive and alive in tourists’ imagination and resonating with audiences through description and rhetorics like exaggeration and metaphor. hence chinese tourism profiles are usually filled with flowery language and useless content, causing noise in the process of communication (li, 2012). to reduce noise, more strategies, including literal translation with notes, transliteration with notes, amplification, omission, condensation, diction, conversion, restructuring, and extension, are involved. if there were more corpora, not limited to shameen in other words, free translation, and even all the above translation strategies, might be also involved in the translation of the five or even all tits. and, different translation strategies need to be flexibly combined and applied when translating, to remove redundancy as well as to reduce noise, especially the latter one, helping achieve a better communication effect. grouping the strategies by tit, there are also interesting discoveries: there are connections between the selection of translation strategies and the information amount carried by the tit. strategies of free translation, amplification, omission, conversion, and restructuring, are applied to the translation of almost every tit. particularly, diction should be paid more attention to when translating tits that are with a relatively large amount of information, factual information, descriptive information, and cultural information often included. while extension and condensation are more frequently used in the translation of tits carrying a relatively small amount of information, including descriptive information, evaluative and appraisal information, and stylistic information in terms of this paper. table 1. translation strategies for tits based on goals of processing information tit information amount carried translation strategies removing redundancy reducing noise factual information large omission free translation, amplification, omission, diction, conversion, restructuring, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 22 descriptive information relatively large omission free translation, amplification, omission, diction, conversion, restructuring, extension evaluative and appraisal information relatively small omission, condensation free translation, amplification, omission, condensation, conversion, restructuring, extension cultural information large omission literal translation with notes, transliteration with notes, amplification, omission, diction, conversion, restructuring stylistic information small omission, condensation free translation, amplification, omission, condensation, conversion, restructuring 5. conclusion there are differences between the languages and aesthetics of chinese and western cultures, chinese and english tourism profiles being good embodiments. to overcome problems caused by the differences and to achieve a better communication effect, the translator needs not only to “remove redundancy” from the text, but also to “reduce noise” of the text – both of which are not necessarily deleting information. due to the differences between chinese and western cultures, the translator may add information or explanation sometimes, or even make changes to the original contents, to fill the gaps in knowledge about chinese culture of western tourists that the original author did not take into account. at the same time, the translator should not only beware of the rebelliousness of the audience but also avoid simply catering to the audience’s preferences – as chinese cultural influence continues to grow, what should be defined as “noise” or “redundancy” should be considered carefully. in reality, according to melvin l. defleur, noises exist in every part of the communication process, and all these noises might affect the receiving of information and could have an influence on the communication effect (hu, 2017, p.104, 106-107). in contrast, shannon and weaver considered elements and relationships among them in the communication process unchanged; they also segregated the process of communication from the society and neglected social influence like political and economic factors. in this way, this research can still be extended. shameen is an architectural complex that is of significance in reflecting modern china. this paper, studying translating introductions of shameen attractions, can help enrich research on tourism translation from the perspective of communication and fill in the gap that there is no research on tourism translation of guangzhou with tit being applied. analyses as well as conclusions drawn in this paper are not perfect and need to be polished and completed yet. still, this paper, hopefully, may shed some new light on studies on tourism translation of guangzhou, and even studies on tourism translation from the perspective of communication. references he, j. b., & tao, y. (2010). study of the translation errors in the light of the skopostheorie: samples from the websites of some tourist attractions in china. babel, 56(1), 35-46. hu, z. r. (2017). an introduction to communications (in chinese, ). higher education press ( ). li, c. m. (2012). tourist text translation base on the comparison between chinese and western cultures (in chinese, ). journal of jianghan university (social science edition) ( ). 29(5), 110-113. luo, n. (2009). a study of c-e translation of university webpage profiles: a functionalist approach. (unpublished master’s thesis). guangdong university of foreign studies. lyu, j., & pan, l. (2020). translation of tourism profiles based on textual information types from a communication perspective (in chinese, ). translation quarterly ( ). 97, 69-82. mitchell, c. (2009). international business culture. world trade press. pinkham, j. (2000). the translator s guide to chinglish. foreign language teaching and research press. shannon and weaver model of communication. (n.d.). communication theory. retrieved january 16, 2022, from communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 23 https://www.communicationtheory.org/shannon-and-weaver-model-of-communication/ yang, x. l. (2010). c-e translation for global communication: from a perspective of communication studies – with a case study on china today (in chinese, ). [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. shanghai international studies university ( ). zeng, l. s. (2005a). on theme-oriented information-highlighting principle for translating tourism profiles (in chinese, ). shanghai journal of translators ( ). (01), 1923. zeng, l. s. (2005b). a review of the english translation of “china’s national defense in 2002” (white paper) – also on the “economical conciseness principle” of translation for international communication (in chinese, 2002 ). journal of guangdong university of foreign studies ( ). (02), 5-9+16. zheng, d. h. (2016). to push chinese culture “go out”: translating culture-loaded words (in chinese, ). shanghai journal of translators ( ). (02), 53-56. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 1 communication across borders: translation & interpreting volume 01, issue 01, 2021, issn: 2766-791x a study on chinese single-player video game title translation from the perspective of skopos theory zhixiang li; zhaofeng jiang nanning normal university, guangxi, china abstract: as video games gain popularity worldwide and become one of the most common entertainment forms in the digital era, the game’s title is given both commercial value and entertainment value. in the process of translation, in order to achieve these two values, the correct translation theory and strategy need to be adopted. translating chinese game titles accurately and effectively into english is challenging for chinese translators. the idea “the end justifies the means” from skopos theory indicates that the translation effects decide translation strategies. based on skopos theory, this paper explores the translation of chinese game titles, and provides suggestions about translation methods for chinese game translators to facilitate chinese game developers’ goal of going global. keywords: localization; game text translation; chinese-to-english translation; skopos theory 1. single-player video games a single-player video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with an input device to generate visual feedback for a player, whereby only one player is expected throughout the course of the gaming session. according to a report issued by gamma data (2019), the actual sales revenue of china’s single-player game upped to rmb 640 million in 2019, an increase of 341.4%, reflecting the flourishing development of chinese single-player games. another chinese single-player games bestselling list for 2020 shows that two single-player video games, gunfire reburn and pascal’s wager, had sold over one million copies, owing to the development of chinese games in video games digital communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 2 distribution services platforms like steam and wegame (gamelook, 2021). in 2020, china audio-video and digital publishing association (cadpa, 2020) issued a report showing that the actual marketing revenue of china’s independently developed games in overseas markets was us$15.450 billion, an increase of us$3.855 billion over the previous year, maintaining high growth momentum. in terms of regional distribution, the us, japan, and korea are still the main markets for china’s self-developed games, with combined revenue of 60.27% of the total overseas revenue, manifesting that overseas markets are significant for china’s game development. 2. game localization for a good localization can promote a game in different regions and lead to a spike in game sales, localization is the top priority before promoting the game globally. game localization refers to the preparation of video games before they are released in new regions or countries, including modifying the game process, changes to the game content, new physical packaging, manuals, recording new audio, and modifying good content according to the censorship requirements, and most importantly, the translation of the game text. game translation not just means to translate the text literally but to translate the culture of the source language into the target language. chris crawford (1982), a game designer, defined the game as “a rudimentary cultural form”. in the backdrop of globalization, the game has become a new cultural form with the capacity to spread culture abroad. for some game players, it is japanese games like dynasty warriors and romance of the three kingdoms that introduce them to the historical figures of the three kingdoms of china (220–280). despite china’s long history and rich culture, these cultures have rarely been spread abroad successfully through chinese games. with the increase of china’s international influence, cultural communication, and media innovation, western gamers are attracted to oriental myths increasingly. it is not uncommon in some chinese game discussion groups to see english-speaking gamers petitioning chinese game developers to release the english versions. therefore, as a game translator, one should be clear about the localization translation methods and strategies to translate culture. 3. game titles translation and skopos theory game translation involves the translation of ui (user interface), game dialogue text, plot subtitles, and so on. this paper mainly discusses the translation of chinese single-player video game titles. the importance of the game title is mirrored in its entertainment value and commercial value. the former (the entertainment value) is to please the target players communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 3 and show them the features and the culture of the game. the latter is to stimulate their desire to buy and gain commercial profits. it is both crucial and challenging to translate the game title well, as a proper translation boosts game selling, while a bad translation may discourage the game players from buying it. minako o’hagan (2013:150), the associate professor at the school of cultures languages and linguistics, suggests that the skopos theory should be the guiding theory of game translation because game translation is “primarily driven by its purpose (skopos), which is ultimately to entertain the end-user of the translated product”. skopos, a greek word defined as “aim or purpose”, was introduced into translation theory and developed by hans j. vermeer in the late 1970s. the idea was then extended by some skopos theorists, most notably, christiane nord. according to nord (2018:12), in the framework of skopos theory, the communicative needs and the culture-specific world knowledge of the intended receiver are important factors that determine the purpose of a translation. when choosing a game, gamers expect to choose a game with a catchy title that captures their interest. a good game translation should have both entertainment value and commercial value to meet players’ needs. after identifying the goals of the gamers, the question is how to apply the right translation strategy to guide the game title translation practice. according to reiss and vermeer (1984:90), the paramount rule for any translation should be the skopos rule which means “the end justifies the means”. it is expected to solve the existing dilemmas of domestication and foreignization. nord (2018:28) claims that “the skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful translation’, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which translation is needed”. in other words, domestication and foreignization are suitable for translation strategies under skopos theory, and they can be applied in game translation. 4. domestication and foreignization 4.1 domestication domestication is based and centered on the target language. it adopts target language expressions that the target language readers can understand, striving to enter the target language readers’ world, attempting to convey the information intended by the source language text and make the translation vivid. the advantage is that it can make the target language readers understand the source language text without obstacles. domestication is frequently used in the translation of game titles. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 4 the examples thereinafter are chinese single-player video games released on the steam platform. it is noted that the translations of these games have been officially used on the steam platform, which means all of them are officially authorized translations. example 1 original version english version (official translation) xī yóu jì zhī dà shèng ɡuī lái (西游记之大圣归来) monkey king: hero is back zhǐ rén (纸人) paper dolls xiān jiàn qí xiá zhuàn (仙剑奇侠传) chinese paladin: sword and fairy liǎo bù qǐ de xiū xiān mó nǐ qì (了不起的修仙模拟器) the amazing cultivation simulator yù jiàn (御剑) flying sword regarding the translation of game titles, minako o’hagan (2013:176) suggests using the strategy of substitution, where the original title is replaced with a reference analogous in the target culture, to achieve a similar effect on the target user. in example 1, the official translator replaced the concepts in original versions with the corresponding ones in the target language and tried to achieve an equivalence effect on the target player. it is worth noting that only some of the english versions mentioned above are acceptable because the strategy of substitution was used correctly. “zhǐ rén (纸人)”, for example, literally means paper man in chinese concerning different expressions for the same concept in different languages. chinese people call this kind of paper man-shape toy paper man based on its material and appearance, while english speakers call it paper doll based on its material and usage. besides, the image of paper man is a common element in chinese horror movies and novels while foreign horror movies often use the doll as a creepy element. the translation of monkey king: hero is back also uses substitution. the translator replaced the original title “dà shèng (大圣)” in chinese with “monkey king” which is a more familiar title to the western players. nevertheless, the translation of “xī yóu jì zhī dà shèng ɡuī lái (西游记之大圣归来)” is still debatable. monkey king has other titles like sun wukong, which is more welcome in the western players because some popular games have characters named after it. apart from it, the translation’s subtitle, “hero is back”, is clearly missing an article in front of it, making the sentence less coherent. errors such as misunderstandings or misuses of words also occurred in the official translation versions. as an slg game (simulation game) of chinese fantasy influenced by chinese mythology, the translation of “liǎo bù qǐ de xiū xiān mó nǐ qì (了不起的 communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 5 修仙模拟器)” may be mistaken for a farming game because the word “cultivation” can not fully explain the meaning of “xiū xiān(修仙)” which means a mortal becomes a celestial being through supernatural training or practice in chinese mythology. even though some foreign players have accepted the word “cultivation” as the translation of “xiū xiān(修仙)”, the word “cultivation” usually refers to farming games in english games, which will give the wrong information to the target information player. similar errors also can be found in “xiān jiàn qí xiá zhuán (仙剑奇侠传)” which mistakes the word “paladin” for the equivalence of “xiá (侠)”. the translation of “yù jiàn (御剑)” is acceptable because even though it changes the part of speech in the original word, it still conveys the correct message to the target players. example 2 original version english version (official translation) guǐ gǔ bā huāng (鬼谷八荒) tale of immortal zǐ sài qiū fēng (紫塞秋风) the wind road shén wǔ huàn xiǎng (神舞幻想) faith of danschant pà sī kǎ qì yuē (帕斯卡契约) pascal’s wager the famous american translation theorist eugene naida (2001), who advocates domestication, suggests that the reader of “a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. domestication gives the reader a smooth reading experience as if reading a work in the native language. for the purpose of making the target player conceive the ideas of the original text, some images or concepts should be reformed in the target text. therefore, it is acceptable to omit, add, or even create some concepts for the sake of coherence and expressiveness. the word “shén wǔ (神舞)”, for example, is translated as “danschant” which is a compound word created by the translator. since the game’s genre is related to ritual dance, the innovative translation may bring a new perspective to the players. 4.2 foreignization domestication and foreignization are not the same as literal translation and free translation, in that domestication and foreignization extend the concepts of literal translation and free translation and elevate language to an aesthetic level. lawrence venuti (2004:20), a famous american translation theorist, introduced the pair of translation terms of domestication and foreignization and described the foreignization communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 6 method as “an ethnodeviant pressure on those values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad”. foreignization requires the translator to take the original text as the center so that the target language readers can experience the language characteristics, culture, exoticism, etc., of the source language. simultaneously, the translation requires the target language readers to accept the unique features of the source language. today’s game industry is centered on the united states and japan, which has drawn criticism from some scholars (dongwon jo, 2020). the long-term game culture domination of the united states and japan has been drawing global gamers’ attention to these two countries, while the game culture in other countries are ignored due to their underdeveloped game industry. consequently, most game players in china are more familiar with western game culture than westerns being familiar with chinese game culture. venuti (2004) argues that, “foreignization entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along lines that are excluded by dominant cultural values in the target language”. his remarks further illustrate that the use of foreignization is feasible in game translation for chinese culture is excluded by the dominant game culture in the target language. example 3 original version english version (official translation) gǔ jiàn qí tán (古剑奇谭) gujian xuān yuán jiàn (轩辕剑) xuan yuan sword tài wú huì juàn (太吾绘卷) the scroll of taiwu xiá zhī dào (侠之道) path of wuxia dà yǎn jiāng hú (大衍江湖) evolution of jianghu jiàn pò (剑魄) jianpo the examples of foreignization are also divided into two parts. in this part, the original versions all contain culture loaded words with oriental culture, such as “xiá (侠)” “pò (魄)” and “jiāng hú (江湖)”, which have no exact equivalences in the target language. in their english versions, they are all translated through pinyin transliteration. the advantage of this translation method is that it can lead the target language players to chinese culture. as early as 2010, oxford english dictionary included the phrase “wuxia” and defined the phrase as a genre of chinese fiction or cinema featuring itinerant warriors of ancient china, often depicted as capable of superhuman feats of martial arts. besides, chinese phrases like “guanxi” and “add oil” have been included communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 7 in the dictionary. as chinese phrases make it into oxford english dictionary, it reflects the increasing acceptance of chinese culture in the english-speaking world. however, as mentioned above, chinese game culture is not the dominant culture yet. some phrases like “gǔ jiàn (古剑)”, “tài wú (太吾)” or “jiàn pò (剑魄)” are not included in the western dictionaries. if the target language players do not know chinese culture well enough or only pay cursory attention to the related themes, they cannot get any information from it. therefore, using transliteration to translate a game’s title may confuse the player and discourage them from buying it. on top of that, some englishspeaking players may have a hard time remembering the title of the game. example 4 original version english version (official translation) huī jìn zhī guān (灰烬之棺) coffin of ashes bō xī yà shí ɡuānɡ (波西亚时光) my time at portia qiāng huǒ chóng sheng (枪火重生) gunfire reborn apart from video games based on chinese mythology, many games made in china are of world-contents or settings related to western culture. in this case, it is easy to find the corresponding concepts or words in english. by adopting foreignization as the translation method, the english version is smooth and readable. it conveys the information in the original language and keeps its form of the original sentence. 5. conclusion in conclusion, the chinese game industry enjoys strong growth momentum. in order to maintain rapid development, chinese game developers should concentrate on the overseas markets and the localization translation of games. a game title is the first impression of the game. because of cultural differences and different language usages, translating chinese game titles accurately and effectively into english is challenging for a chinese translator. based on skopos theory, game titles can be translated by means of domestication and foreignization according to the purposes of the addressee. both domestication and foreignization are used with high frequency in the game title translation. besides, it is important to note that the translator must take the pragmatic differences into consideration when they translate chinese game titles into english. communication across borders: translation & interpreting 01(01) 2021 8 references chic. (2020). china game industry report 2020 (in chinese) [2020 年中国游戏产业报 告]. retrieved from http://www.cgigc.com.cn/gamedata/22132.html crawford, c. (1982). the art of computer game design. gamelook. (2021). 2020 chinese single-player games annual sales ranking (in chinese) [乘风破浪的国产单机游戏！2020 年度销量排行榜出炉]. retrieved from http://www.gamelook.com.cn/2021/01/412971 gamma data. (2019). 2019 china game industry annual report (in chinese) [2019 中国 游戏产业年度报告]. retrieved from https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1653349541342415533&wfr=spider&for=p jo, d. (2020).’ bursting circuit boards’: infrastructures and technical practices of copying in early korean video game industry. game studies, 20(2). limelight. (2020). the state of online gaming 2020. retrieved from https://www.limelight.com/resources/white-paper/state-of-online-gaming-2020/ nida, e. a. (2001). language and culture: contexts in translating. shanghai foreign language education press. nord, c. (2018). translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. routledge. o’hagan, m., & mangiron, c. (2013). game localization: translating for the global digital entertainment industry (vol. 106). john benjamins publishing. reiss, k., & vermeer, h. j. (1984). groundwork for a general theory of translation. tubingen: niemeyer. venuti, l. (2004). the translator’s invisibility. shanghai foreign language education press, shanghai. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. http://www.cgigc.com.cn/gamedata/22132.html v02issue02.06.2022.0613.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 24 the characteristics and translation strategies of fuzzy language in diplomatic communiqués yuqi huang1, jian li2 1school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies e-mail: hyque216@126.com 2corresponding author, school of english for international business, guandong university of foreign studies, email:200411210@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract fuzzy language mainly refers to the vagueness of words, phrases, and fuzzy meanings. in the official documents of the ministry of foreign affairs of china, the appropriate use of vague language can make the language more polite and show the position and attitude of the issue. after collecting the information of the ministry of foreign affairs’ communiqués of china from 2019 to 2021, this paper uses the software of antconc to build a corpus and sort out the data about the use of fuzzy language in the documents. under the guidance of the politeness principle, this paper summarizes the frequency and characteristics of the four fuzzy hedges in diplomatic communiqués. in addition, the skopos theory is further employed to explain and analyze the characteristics of relevant translation strategies. keywords: fuzzy language, translation strategy, diplomatic communiqués 1. introduction under the background of the new era, the voice of the chinese government can be heard further, and china now is more influential worldwide than before. the accurate and convincing articles symbolize the position and actions of the chinese government that must eliminate any tiny mistakes. this paper discusses the functions of different types of fuzzy expressions in language, covering the implied meaning behind the sentences and analyzing their structure via the software antconc. by analyzing the various semantic roles of different types of fuzzy words, their function to refine the corresponding and practical strategies behind the sentence can be determined. this research will use the corpus analysis method and detailed text analysis to advance the research on translation. compared with the mainstream studies mainly focusing on the research of the colloquial content like speeches and talks, this research pays attention to the official communiqués of the ministry of foreign affairs in the writing perspective and practical application. this paper mainly studies the official english communiqués issued by the ministry of foreign affairs from 2019 to 2021. under the guidance of the politeness principle and the skopos theory, it uses the corpus method to analyze the characteristics of fuzzy language and then summarize the translation strategies. feasible strategies could be put forward based on china’s unique conditions to help solve the difficulties in the translation of ambiguous language. this paper mainly answers these questions: (1) what are the main types of fuzzy language and their frequency of usage? (2) what are the fuzzy language’s main characteristics in the politeness principle framework and the skopos theory? (3) how can the characteristics contribute to the translation practices in the context of foreign affairs? 2. literature review professor zadeh (1965) of the university of california published a paper on fuzzy sets, which first mentioned the concept of fuzzy language or hedge. as soon as the concept came into being, it attracted significant attention and was widely used in various natural and social sciences disciplines. later on, georgy lakoff (1972), a famous generative semantic linguist in the united states, clarified hedges as “words whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy.” then, brown and levison (1987) explained hedges as a particle word or phrase that modifies the degree of membership or a noun phrase in a set. zadeh (1972) divided hedges into four categories based on grammar, which contained adjectives and adverbs, adverbial and expressions, affixes, and some politeness structures. according to prince et al. (1982), there are two types of hedges: approximators and shields. approximators are the fuzzy words that limit the degree of variation. it enables the listener to hear from the speaker new concepts related to, but different from, the original topic. shields are fuzzy words that limit variable communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 25 norms. this kind of variable hedge is often used in measuring things. there is no need to pay attention to how close the actual situation is to the topic because specific numbers are often provided. he (1985) followed the classification of prince and made the further investigation. then he subdivided approximators into rounders and adaptors. adaptors indicate a change in some degree, like sort of and a little bit, are a way of saying something close to being accurate, but not exactly true, closer to the actual situation and avoiding being too dogmatic. the use of rounders in verbal communication gives the listener the range of the subject and enables him to understand things within that scope. he also divided shields into two types: plausibility and attribution. the reason for using variable language is that the speaker does not want to exaggerate the figures to deviate from the facts or because he cannot give an exact figure at once. in addition, hyland (1998) also carried out different categories from a semantic perspective: lexical hedges and strategic hedges. moxey et al. (1993) explored the problem of fuzzy quantifiers from pragmatic and psychological perspectives, and their research objective was how people understand and use quantifiers in natural language. in 1973, lakoff analyzed examples from semantics and summarized the functions of the hedge. using these fuzzy languages, he found his words became more objective and gained authority, and the speaker’s tone softened. joanna channell (1994) outlined the various forms of fuzzy words under the pragmatic principles. she emphasized that interpreters cannot separate interpretations of fuzzy language from specific contexts and inferences. she also found that “semantics + pragmatics = meaning,” which means the fuzziness of language should be analyzed not only from the semantic level but also from the pragmatic sense. she concluded ten fuzzy language functions by analyzing several examples, including self-protect, politeness, and persuasion. in short, hedges are those expressions that make things fuzzier or less fuzzy, displaying a speaker's commitment. from the various explanations above, it can be inferred that the primary function of fuzzy language is to avoid being dogmatic and to be polite. to better explain the characteristics, this thesis follows the prince’s and he’s categories of hedges because of its clear classification standard and widespread usage. after the fuzzy concepts’ first appearance, many scholars conducted further investigations in this topic, and until now, the fuzzy language is still appealing to scholars and attracting them to take efforts on it. 3 theoretical framework 3.1 politeness principle english famous linguist scholar leech g.n. (1983) combined the previous studies like brown and levinson’s and then put forward the politeness principle. this principle has six maxims: the approbation maxim, agreement maxim, tact maxim, generosity maxim, modesty maxim, and sympathy maxim. accordingly, two sub-maxims are divided under each maxim. among these maxims, the tact maxim is of great importance because it is used for avoiding conflicts in communications. furthermore, people inherently attribute to the invisible rule under explicit configuration (goffman, 1986). some euphemisms can make the original statements pleasant, decent, and elegant, thus reducing the purpose of insulting others in the expression. that action is the embodiment of the tact maxim. the maxim of agreement mainly refers to reducing the expression of their differences with others, minimizing the differences with others, and increasing the agreement with others as much as possible. the translator should appropriately choose euphemisms and use polite wording to make the translation clear and indirect. furthermore, this thesis mainly discusses fuzzy language in the two maxims. 3.2 skopos theory skopos comes from the greek word skopos, meaning aim. in the book a framework for a general theory of translation, published in 1978, vermeer first elaborated the skopos theory’s basic principles, claiming that translation belongs to intercultural interaction. moreover, translation is a type of social activity. the writer defines the intention, while function refers to the introducing context. the intention of the original author may differ from the translator. translation can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories: 1. the general purpose of the translator (such as making a living) 2. the communicative purpose of the translation (like enlightening or instructing the reader) 3. special needs acquired by the context (such as literal translation to explain the particular aspects of the grammatical structure of a language) in most cases, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text. it also means “the communicative function of the translation to the target readers in the social and cultural context” (vermeer, 1989). in the skopos theory, translation means to produce a text in the target context for the target recipient in the target language. in contrast, the source text is communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 26 subordinate (nord, 2001). in other words, the source text is not at the center of authority but an open entity with infinite possibilities. the primary principle of the skopos theory in all translation processes is to understand the “principle of purpose,” which means translation should be able to function not only in the context and culture of the target language but also in the expectation of targeted readers. the whole translation process is determined by the goal to be achieved; that is, the result handles the method. therefore, the translator should clarify his specific purpose in the given translation context and decide which translation method to adopt according to this purpose. 4 results and analysis 4.1 data collection corpus is a crucial tool used for collecting statistics and analyzing. without its help, efficiency and accuracy could not be guaranteed. this research chooses to use the software antconc (version 3.5.9) because of its easy accessibility and economy. antconc was developed by a japanese professor laurence anthony at waseda university, and it is famous for its neat interface and simple operation. antconc can generate a list of the total occurrence of the targeted word from all texts provided and locate it in the passage. then the frequency is calculated and stated within a second. diplomatic communiqués in recent three years (2019-2021) have been collected from the official website, and there are a total of 70 articles and about 150 thousand words. according to prince’s and he’s classification, the hedges can be categorized into two main types: shields and approximators. of the two types, each includes two subtypes. shields include plausibility and attribution, while approximators contain adaptors and rounders. based on this category, each type of hedge’s overall frequency and distribution are calculated. here is the detailed statistic. table 1. frequency and distribution of hedges category number percentage shields 5.21% plausibility 19 3.00% attribution 14 2.21% approximators 94.79% adaptors 312 49.29% rounders 288 45.50% total 633 100% from this table, it can be found that the most frequently used hedges are approximators, which account for 94.79% of all the hedges. as for the shields, only 33 words are used and take the percentage of 5.21%. it’s obvious that the fuzzy expressions used in communiqués are mainly approximators. it can be inferred that shields are not very welcomed in diplomatic communiqués because shields are often used to strengthen the speaker’s politeness and avoid a sharp tone accompanied by a personal style. 4.2 frequency distribution table 2. frequency and distribution of all types of hedges hedge type word frequency percentage shields plausibility we believe 19 3.00% attribution according to 13 2.05% is reported 1 0.16% approximators adaptors more 220 34.76% some 21 3.32% only 20 3.16% even 19 3.00% large 13 2.05% many 9 1.42% almost 7 1.11% communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 27 kind of 2 0.32% little 1 0.16% rounders over 108 17.06% more than 56 8.85% about 38 6.00% recent 25 3.95% most 24 3.79% around 21 3.32% nearly 12 1.90% less than 3 0.47% roughly 1 0.16% total 633 100% here are the details. from this table, the shields are used less than approximators in these diplomatic communiqués. among the shields, “we believe” and “according to” contribute significantly. the phrase “we believe,” which contains hope and implies calling on for something, displays writer’s position and can often be seen at the article’s end. also, the “according to” expresses the source of the content, making readers convinced that the articles are reliable and genuinely subjective. adaptors are words that supplement and modify the original meaning of utterances to some extent, serving writers with more accurate expressions (he, 1985). the word “more” appears most frequent, holding 34.76% of total hedges. in further investigation, it is found that most “more” is used to modify nouns and adjectives. compared to other adaptors, “more” ranks top frequency, conveying information that the ministry of foreign affairs picks up formal and more concrete expressions and makes the passages exact and convincing. among all the articles, all the adaptors only account for 0.2%. he (1985) also mentioned that a rounder is a word or phrase that limits the range of movement. if all the rounders and compare them with all research materials, it can be seen that only 0.19% of the whole words are rounders. among all the rounders, “over” accounts for 17.06% and is used 108 times. after a deeper check, it is obvious that “over” is also used in modifying nouns, especially on the time and numbers. these fuzzy words are tools to make figures less absolute and ideally convince readers. now, after collecting enough data about the categories and frequency of the fuzzy words, the core principle of the usage can be refined. in the table, “more” and “over” stand for maximum frequency among all the hedges. some examples are listed to help elaborate better on the characteristics. 4.3 content analysis this part makes an explanation on the reasons and effects based on the politeness principle and the skopos theory. the tact maxim and empathy maxim are fundamental in diplomatic translation, which should be paid more attention to. 4.3.1 plausibility analysis on behalf of the chinese position, the communiqués should show their readers not only polite but also friendly words. plausibility plays a vital role in making proposition less assertive and absolute, thus building a comfortable reading experience. the most frequently used plausibility, “we believe,” is analyzed below. translation example 1: source text: “ ” (2019.4) target text: “considering connectivity as a means of bringing countries, peoples and societies closer together, we believe the belt and road cooperation promotes exchanges, mutual learning and dialogue among different peoples, cultures and civilizations.” here, “we believe” shows a wish that china wants to build up belt and road cooperation to strengthen development and calls on other countries to join our cooperation instead of demanding and ordering other countries. moreover, if “we believe” is deleted, the meaning of the content becomes a little bit arrogant. without the plausibility, the sentence’s tone would be aloof communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 28 and stiff, as if ordering other countries to cooperate. shields used to avoid too direct and absolute saying. in this regard, the tact maxim is extensively represented, making the tone persuasive and polite. this communiqué aims at enlightening other countries to join the belt and road, so advantages are put forward to persuade. 4.3.2 attribution analysis attribution is a symbol of the quotation from authorities, and it can indirectly show the attitude of china in communiqués. translation example 2: source text: ( ) (2021.8) target text: “we call upon all countries, in cooperation with the relevant stakeholders, to increase national, regional and global capacities, carry out vaccine research and development as well as production in line with strict standards according to the world health organization (who) regulations, and provide safe, effective and high-quality covid-19 vaccines.” here “according to” contains many functions, including quoting authoritative documents from who, expressing wishes to other countries, and implying our vaccines are high-quality and up to standards. this attribution intends to display authority and calls on other countries to provide vaccines that reach standards. according to the skopos theory, this context is persuasive, and the attribution can help the translator achieve this intention. 4.3.3 adaptors analysis about adaptors, they are used to modify a change to some degree. they are a way of saying something closely true but not exactly true. the most frequently used adaptor is “more” in these communiqués, appearing 220 times. here are the details. table 3. frequency of “more” function determiner adverb pronoun frequency 148 67 5 translation example 3-1 source text: “ ” (02/2020) target text: “both sides would encourage more projects to be enlisted under this initiative as the reflection of the close and warm partnership and mutual trust between malaysia and china.” translation example 3-2 source text: (12/2019) target text: “the interests and future of all countries are more intertwined than ever before.” translation example 3-3 source text: (11/2021) target text: “in its cooperation with africa, china applies the principles of giving more and taking less, giving before taking, and giving without asking for something in return.” more” mainly serves as a determiner to adjust the range of targeted objects, showing a fuzzy description of the number. in example 3-1, “more” is a determiner to modify the projects to show the strong desire of both two countries to enlist projects; it obeys the tact maxim. adaptors are used widely to modify the progress and benefits in the countries’ relationships, expressing the future rewards of the cooperation plan and convincing readers that this cooperation is helpful and beneficial. in example 3-2, “more” functions as an adverb to picture the intertwined situation, implying all countries share a common future reasonably. “more” also emphasizes that the relationships among all countries would be even more critical in the future. it shows persuading and seeking deeper cooperation. this adaptor obeys tact maxim and agreement maxim and expresses the intention clearly. in example 3-3, “more” serves as a pronoun, hiding the detailed information of benefits but serving china’s communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 29 selfless and polite image. based on the skopos theory, a translation should serve the intention, and the “more” here perfectly fulfills its mission of clarifying the chinese position. 4.3.4 rounders analysis rounders are words that limit the range of the utterance, often accompanied by numbers. sometimes it is hard to get the precise number, or the exact number is not so acquired to understand. then it is time for rounders to make efforts. the use of rounders in communication gives the listener a scope of the subject and enables him to understand things within that scope. below are the most frequently used rounders “over.” example 4: source text: 4000 170 60 (9/2019) target text: “meanwhile, china has provided over 400 billion rmb yuan in foreign aid and sent over 600,000 aid workers to nearly 170 countries and international organizations.” like “over” or “nearly,” rounders always appear near the numbers, showing a slight vagueness in the sentences. in example 4, “over” modifies the number of money and aid workers. the numbers here are fuzzy, but the figures are still reliable and straightforward due to the large base of the nouns. the translator takes a method of ellipsis in which the total number is not written entirely. if translators just put all the exact numbers here, the sentence would be messy, and readers may be distracted by the complex information. avoiding exact numbers releases readers’ reading pressure and helps them receive information quickly. by doing this, the readers’ attention will be focused on the chinese contribution. the usage of rounders does not affect the intention of conveying information, so it is acceptable based on the skopos theory. the fuzziness of official documents is mainly reflected in the following aspects: 1. the ambiguity brought by the indeterminacy of the thing itself. for instance, “more.” more time can be a few days, a month, even years. these similar words contain ambiguity itself and are also widely used. 2. the vagueness caused by the variability of things. for example, teenagers. 3. the uncertainty of the meaning of words. among the words that describe the nature, degree, and scope of things, the specific boundaries of some words are difficult to define, and there are always fuzzy intersecting areas, for example, “a bit” and “a little.” they both show a small degree, and it is not easy to distinguish them just by understanding the degree. the function of these fuzzy expressions is mainly reflected in three aspects: firstly, they are used to show some words that are nearly but not entirely correct in degree or quantity to avoid being too arbitrary. secondly, they can be used to modify or restrict the expression of some content that is not necessary or cannot be precise. third, implying some messages and making articles look clear and polite. as a content text, the communiqué clarifies china’s position on many areas and issues, provides guidelines for work, and veritable authoritative information. the specific function of these official articles is to let readers home and abroad know about china’s national conditions and government work. it represents the official thoughts and actions of the chinese government. 5 translation strategies 5.1 criteria as a practical language communication and social practice, translation is always full of infinite possibilities. the criterion of the skopos theory to evaluate the quality of translation is adequacy rather than equivalence (duan, 2000). adequacy refers to the translation text being suitable to the requirements of the translation purpose. that is to say, and the translated text should fulfill its communicative function in the target language context and culture. compared to other translation content, the diplomatic translation needs more accurate and proper expressions, which is a high demand for translators. diplomatic content always includes national issues, international affairs, bilateral cooperation, and official announcements with solid political characteristics and significance. therefore, the translators should use standardized strategies and faithfully convey the information. according to pan (2010), the skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of behavior with a specific purpose like any other action. the most crucial role of the skopos theory is to guide the selection of translation strategies. purpose or intention is the most direct and fundamental factor in determining strategy. purpose determines every process and detail of translation. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 30 the fundamental criterion of translation works under the guidance and demand of the author (duan, 2000). it means that no matter how hard the translator tries to catch the author’s thoughts and feelings, the translation is not a pure reproduction of the author’s actual psychological process but a re-creation of the text, which is also guided by the translator’s understanding of the text. any tiny misunderstanding may cause considerable trouble, especially in the diplomatic translation. therefore, during the translation process, the translator should concentrate on the purpose of translation and get the work done accordingly. 5.2 tactics based on the politeness principle and the skopos theory, to conclude the characteristics and usage of these types of hedges is now available. whether oral or written, the chinese often use fuzzy expressions or rhetoric to share ideas, while other people from western countries are likely to use logical and direct ways. therefore, some adjustments are needed to help foreigners better understand what the author wants to convey. below are some suggestions for translators based on what is discovered from the statistics elicited from the corpus. 5.2.1 from precision to fuzziness the precise translation is the norm, but sometimes ambiguity is a better choice. for example, it is ubiquitous to translate figures and data into official documents. not all figures need to be placed directly in the communiqués. to ease the reader’s pressure, translators often omit some data details, leaving only the central part. that is where the hedges come in. adaptors play an essential role in modifying the degree, while rounders do well in adjusting ranges. regardless of the specific data or the scope of something, approximators can help translators better convey the original meaning without causing difficulties for readers. at the same time, adding shields can make the article read less aggressive, which also shows the connotation of the politeness principle. plausibility makes the translation subjective and highlights the official position, while attribution attaches importance to quotation authority and convinces people. the use of these fuzzy words often makes the translation more palatable to readers, ensuring the intention of conveying information and giving people a polite impression, which is also conducive to the official agreement of readers. 5.2.2 from fuzziness to precision fuzzy messages in diplomatic primitives are retained in translation in some cases. most semantically fuzzy words can be translated directly by using fuzzy words corresponding to the literal meaning and political standpoint. due to the historical differences of each country, the social and cultural development is also various. if the information in the original language is not explained, the translation cannot be equivalent to the targeted ones, which confuses readers. therefore, the background and needs of readers must be fully taken into consideration in translation, and the original language should be supplemented so that readers can understand it better. for the cultural ambiguity caused by metaphor, quoting idioms, common sayings, and ancient poems, it would be better to adopt similar sayings in english on the basis of a correct grasp of the literal meaning and political connotation. combining with the diplomatic and overall context, the expression of chinese characteristics certainly helps spread chinese culture. fuzzy language itself has excellent uncertainty and selectivity, resulting in many implicated meanings. in addition, some fuzzy information should be deleted considering the whole content and its core meaning. based on the analysis of specific diplomatic context, some fuzzy expressions with similar meanings that are not politically strong or repeated frequently can be discarded, and the translation workload can be reduced. 5.2.3 from fuzziness to fuzziness although humans use different languages, the core structures that determine their organization is very similar, making the two languages equivalent in meaning. some words with equivalent meanings can be found in the target language in translation. therefore, it is an excellent method to match these equivalent meaning words accordingly and appropriately. when fuzzy information only affects a part and is reflected in a particular word, literal translation can be used for word-to-word translation so that fuzzy information can be perfectly preserved. based on the skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines the process of translation. in order to show our politeness and avoid conflicts, translators should avoid sensitive topics and issues. besides, sometimes it is unsuitable to tell the details or concrete plot to the other. ellipsis and fuzzy language are the most common methods of dealing with these problems. in addition, the logic between sentences is often reflected in mood and semantics. there are many long sentences in english, and the sentence structure is very complex and rigorous. a large number of connectives reflect the logic between sentences. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 31 the translation needs to be flexible and avoid unnecessary and redundant words so that the translation conforms to the target expression habits. in diplomatic translation, translators must clarify their position and get rid of the troublesome dilemma. there are implied meanings behind the sentences; how to deal with them makes a significant difference in many cases. sometimes the author wishes to preserve preliminary information, so the translator should try to preserve the characteristics of fuzzy language as faithfully as possible. otherwise, if fuzzy information is translated clearly, it does not truly reflect the author’s will but brings unnecessary trouble to communication. 6 conclusions and limitations in this paper, the software corpus antconc is used to calculate the distribution of four types of hedges used in the communiqués and carry out the theory. in the translation of the official communiqués, the translators should consider the entire content and background and then leave some room to adjust and explain. the official document generally requires plain and direct. nevertheless, in some cases, considering different readers and sometimes it is difficult to speak frankly, the utterance needs to be euphemistic and implicit. the need for confidentiality or etiquette also factors matters. in official documents, the situation analyzed, the questions raised, the experience summed up, and the appeal is all universal and complex to a certain extent. suppose there is a lack of accurate generalization. in that case, the article is bound to be protracted, and vague language has a high degree of generalization, making up for the lack of precise words in generalization. the use of these words makes the text concise and believable. the contents reflected in the official document must be objective, and no one can express his subjective color and feelings in the official document. therefore, fuzzy words should be used appropriately when writing articles. despite the hard work of this research, the study still has some limitations that further study could improve. this paper mainly focuses on the guidance of the politeness principle and the skopos theory. due to the limited practice experience and translation knowledge, there is a large room that can be improved on the analysis of the cases. it takes a lot of effort and time to do further research. in the translation study, only the translator’s strategy is studied from the perspective of the reader’s acceptance level and language level, and other specific situations are not studied. besides, they also need to have a high political acuity and translation ability of political documents. the author of this paper still cannot meet the requirements in these aspects, meaning the possibility of mistakes and errors. over the past decades, china has played a more critical role in international affairs and gained a better reputation worldwide. it is hoped that further studies can supplement the translation of the chinese diplomatic and contribute more to the chinese political propaganda, thus strengthening the communication between china and other countries. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 32 references brown, p., & levison, s. c. (1987). politeness: some universals in language usage (vol.4). cambridge university press. channel, j. (1994). vague language. oxford: oxford university press. goffman, e. (1986). interaction ritual: essays on face to face behavior. new york: garden city. he, z. (1985).hedges and verbal communication.foreign languages,1985(05), 29-33. [in chinese: 何自然. (1985). 模糊限制语与言语交际. 外国语(5), 5.] hyland, k. (1998). hedging in scientific research articles (vol.54). john benjamins publishing. lakoff, g. (1972). hedges: a study in meaning criteria and the logic of fuzzy concepts. chicago linguistic society. lakoff, g. (1973). hedge: a study in meaning criteria and the logic of the fuzzy concepts. journal of philosophical logic, 2(4), 458-508 leech, g. n. (1983). principle of pragmatics. london:longman. moxey, l.m., & sanford, a.j. (1993). communicating quantities: a psychological perspective. hove,uk: lawrence erlbaum. nord, c. (2001). translatingasa purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. shanghai foreign language education press, 9-13. prince, e. f., frader, j. & bosk, c. (1982). on hedging in physican-physican discourse. linguists and professions, 8397. vermeer, h. j. (1989). skopos and translation commission. heidelberg: heidelberg university press. vermeer, h. j. (2001). a framework for a general theory of translation. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. zadeh, l. a. (1965). fuzzy sets. information and control, 8(3), 338-353. zadeh, l. a.(1972). a fuzzy-set-theoretic interpretation of linguistic hedges. journal of cybernetics. zhu, x. , & zhang, m. (2005). a brief review of the main research on fuzzy linguistics abroad. contemporary linguistics], 2005(03)：259-267+286. [in chinese: 朱小美, & 张明. (2005). 当代国外有关模糊语言学的主要研究 this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 简评. 当代语言学, 7(3), 9.] 7-29-pb(revised)1.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 21 research into the subtitling of song of the phoenix from the perspective of manipulation theory ying wei1 1school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail:1482083452@qq.com abstract andré lefevere’s theory of manipulation emphasizes the close relationship between translation and social culture, arguing that translation is rewriting and rewriting is manipulation. rewriting treats translations as created or projected images of the original source texts, representing a far more dynamic implementation of translation theory. as one of the most frequent manifestations of global communication today, audiovisual translation (avt) is able to overcome language barriers when spreading culture around the world. of the several modes available to translate audiovisual programs, subtitling, grown in visibility and significance, has evolved into a prominent and prolific field of study, with many more scholars devoting to the analysis of audiovisual programs in recent years. this paper takes the subtitle translation of song of the phoenix, a cinema with strong chinese characteristics, as an example to explore the embodiment of lefevere’s three elements of manipulation in cinema subtitling. it is found that, under the manipulation of such extra-textual factors as ideology, poetics, and patronage, translators will flexibly adopt certain rewriting devices in subtitle translation to transcend ideological and poetic differences and cater to the patronage’s requirements so as to achieve the translation purpose. key words: audiovisual translation, subtitling, song of the phoenix, manipulation theory, rewriting 1. introduction against the backdrop of the booming social networks as well as streaming platforms, audiovisual works have become a prominent representative of communication in the digital world. audiovisual productions have become carriers of cultures and languages worldwide due to their ease of dissemination, which in turn has propelled audiovisual translation (avt) to one of the most predominant translation practices of the 21st century. movies, like literature and other creative arts, can bring different cultures closer or alienate them. with the potential to reach a wider audience, cinema has a more significant cultural effect than other artistic practices. (kuo, 2018). and yet, in the existing literature, little attention has been paid to the possible role of translation in the internationalization of chinese audiovisual productions, with most attention focused on such broader issues as the whole film and tv industry (keane, 2015), the successes in the box office of chinese works abroad, and the socio-cultural and political implications of such cross-border exchanges. (su, 2016; keane, 2019; rosen, 2020). song of the phoenix, a literary film directed by tianming wu and starring zeru tao and wei zheng, was released in 2016 in mainland china. the film, adapted from jianghong xiao’s novella of the same name, tells the story of the decline of suona, a traditional chinese folk-art form, in the context of western culture’s impact and china’s changing times. in the film, suona represents not only the skills but also the rules and beliefs upheld by generations. the film shows the perseverance of two generations of suona craftsmen, master jiao and tianming you, who endeavor to find a way for folk culture and make every effort to preserve the excellent traditional chinese culture. the film won the special jury prize and several nominations for the 29th golden rooster award, the best feature film award at the 1st silk road international film festival, and the audience favorite film award at the tours film festival in france. beyond that, the film became the official screening film of some international film festivals and received rave reviews everywhere it has been screened. yimou zhang, ke xu and other famous directors in china have voiced their support. martin ssecko, director of the academy award, praised tianming wu as a true giant in the film industry. with the deepening of cultural exchanges between china and the west, foreign films are constantly pouring into china while domestic films are further going to the international market. in this context, the translation of film subtitles means a lot. for an excellent movie to reach the global market, it must ensure that the recipients of the target language can accurately understand the film’s language through english subtitles as well as the images. as a film with strong chinese characteristics and local flavor, song of the phoenix contributes significantly to the inheritance and transmission of chinese culture. a proper translation can effectively promote the dissemination and development of traditional chinese culture. according to lefevere, translation is the rewriting of the source text, rewriting is manipulation, and all translations are the result of manipulation. ideology, poetics, and patronage are the three primary factors that manipulate translation, and any translation is inevitably influenced by these factors. the translation of the subtitles of song of the phoenix is no exception. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 22 due to the influence of these three factors, the translator has to adopt appropriate translation strategies to achieve the translation goals successfully. 2. literature review 2.1 previous research on audiovisual translation in the context of the rising popularity of audiovisual communication in all spheres of public and private life, it is an indisputable fact that recent decades have witnessed a surge in quantity, both in the production of avt and in the research into this field. the late 1950s and early 1960s saw a sluggish start of research on avt. luckily, the late 20th century witnessed an unprecedented and significant growth of research in this field, sparked by the digital revolution of the 1990s and translation as an establishment for academic and research subjects at the university level. the work of fodor (1976), a pioneer in avt studies, opened the door to research in this area. a few years later, mayoral, kelly, and gallardo (1988), with their detailed contributions, helped lay the foundation for the exploration of audiovisual translation. encouragingly, interest in this field has grown significantly today. within the broader discipline of translation studies (ts), avt has emerged as a promising area of academic research, which owes a good deal to the fertile ground provided by the prolific audiovisual industry of internet, dvd, film, television, 3d, etc. audiovisual modes from subtitling, dubbing, voiceover, audio description for the blind and the partially sighted to subtitling for the deaf and the hard-of-hearing have captured the interest of academics, allowing avt to rise to positions of importance and one of the most exciting areas in ts today. of the existing modes of translation activities in audiovisual programs, subtitling is arguably the most widespread owing to its cheap and fast characteristics. its popularity has also been boosted by the availability of free subtitling and video-editing programs online. in addition to its development as a professional activity, subtitling, grown in visibility and significance, has evolved into a prominent and prolific field of study since many more scholars are devoting to the analysis of audiovisual programs in recent years. examples are the frequently organized international conferences, the publication of collective volumes and monographs on the subject, and the completion of many dissertations. notable among these are studies on interlingual subtitling (schröter, 2005; mattsson, 2009) and on subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (sahlin, 2001; neves, 2005). as with any other field of translation, translators must make language their primary concern, which explains why many scholars choose case study as the ideal approach, often choosing a specific film or sitcom and analyzing the linguistic areas that pose a challenge. examples range from the translation of humor (schröter, 2005), compliments (bruti, 2009), idioms (gottlieb, 1997), swearing, or taboo language (chapman, 2004; mattsson, 2006) to cultural references (pedersen, 2007). notably, some scholars focused solely on the language level, ignoring the semiotic complexity of audiovisual productions and the necessary technical factors. in contrast, the idea of using multimodal transcription as a research method for the analysis and subtitling of audiovisual texts was put forward by some scholars (taylor, 2003; desilla, 2009). influenced by the cultural turn, the scope of research on subtitling has expanded with its socio-cultural embeddedness emphasized. words are powerful, and the manipulation in the original text and in the translated version comes easily to them. as well as reflecting reality, films distort it by constructing certain images and reinforcing certain stereotypes, thus shaping the audience’s perception of the world. it is worth noting that translation activity is not neutral. translation has turned out not just to be a bridge between cultures, and it can also amplify differences and reinforce false stereotypes, thus blowing up those bridges it was supposed to build. fortunately, the fact has also alarmed translation scholars who now realize that mass media are a powerful force both in the original context and translation. nevertheless, censorship forces, power, ideology, as well as manipulation remain a heavily unexplored topic in subtitling. 2.2 a review of the manipulation theory in translation studies the manipulation concept was put forward by theo hermans (1985) and his colleagues in the collected essays the manipulation of literature: studies in literary translation, which marked the formation of the embryonic form of manipulation theory. later, the translation theorist andré lefevere introduced the concept of cultural turn and manipulation, which greatly enriched this theory. as well as highlighting the fact that translated texts exist exactly within the framework of cultural or power relations, the cultural turn revealed how a text could be exploited and manipulated by a series of external factors in the process of transformation from source to target environment. lefevere directly presented challenges to the widely-accepted conventions of descriptive translation studies (dts). his basic idea is to shift the focus of translation studies from the linguistic structure and linguistic form correspondence, which are the concerns of the linguistic school, to the significance and function of target texts and source texts in their respective cultural systems. lefevere concerned the interaction between translation and culture, especially the ways in which culture affects and restricts translation, and “the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 23 larger issues of context, history and convention” (1990: 4). he regarded translation as a rewriting and therefore manipulation of the original text with the idea that the text is translated within an imposed ideological framework to ensure that it plays its proper role in a given society (hermans, 1999; ndlovu & sibanda, 2014). lefevere has put it that a translation cannot truly reflect the original work mainly because it is always manipulated by ideology, poetics, and patron power. he argued that these specific factors systematically govern the acceptance and rejection of literary texts. for lefevere, “the most important consideration is the ideological one” (munday, 2010). in this case, it refers to the ideology of the translator or the ideology imposed upon the translator by the patron. the poetological consideration refers to “the dominant poetics in the tl culture”. ideology and poetics jointly determine the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems. translators are no longer perceived as passive transmitters of information, but as active agents involved in shaping the ideological discourse of their culture since they may consciously or unconsciously embrace their value system and contribute to its transmission or subversion. manipulation theory puts translation activities in the context of culture, and provides a new perspective for literary translation by thoroughly examining factors other than language. lefevere’s more systematic discussion of the manipulative view of translation has had a tremendous impact on every branch of the discipline, although it is more obvious in literary translation than in that of specialized translation or avt, for instance, where scholars have adopted it more slowly (diaz-cintas, 2012). even though there are some works on avt following the principles of the cultural turn, they are still in infancy. 3. the embodiment of manipulation in the subtitle translation 3.1 ideological manipulation lefevere borrowed the idea of frederic jameson and added that ideology should be the “grillwork of form, convention, and concepts which can influence people’s actions” (2004: 125-126). at last, lefevere’s definition of ideology is not limited to politics, which he argued is the concept grid of attitudes and opinions acceptable in a given society at a given time, through which readers and translators engage with the text (2004). according to lefevere, ideology is composed of social ideology and the ideology of the translator. social ideology usually refers to some beliefs held by a group or society, including religion, politics, ethics and aesthetic tastes, etc., which will change with the development of human beings. the translator’s ideology that comes from his or her life and educational experiences is an essential factor influencing the choice of translation strategy and is susceptible to the social ideology. considering the different ideologies, the translator will inevitably make corresponding manipulations to the original text to achieve the stated purpose and make the translation conform to the mainstream ideology. the manipulation and rewriting of ideology in the subtitle translation of song of the phoenix are mainly reflected in the culture-loaded words in the movie. culture-loaded words are words, phrases, and idioms that indicate things specific to a culture, reflecting the unique ways of behavior gradually accumulated by a certain group over the course of history, which distinguishes them from other people (liao, 2000). culture-loaded words are susceptible to the exoticism and diversity of cultural factors. due to the vast differences between chinese and western cultures and ideologies, it’s hard to find equivalents for some culture-loaded words in the translation process. therefore, translators need to take the differences between chinese and western ideologies into full consideration and adopt the translation strategy of domestication for reasonable rewriting. as an excellent chinese film, song of the phoenix presents traditional folk music culture and large amounts of culture-load words with strong chinese characteristics related to social customs. here are some specific examples. translation example 1. st(source text): st in pinyin: shī niánɡ, nǐ mén jiā jiù nǐ hé shī fù liǎnɡ ɡè rén mɑ? tt(target text): auntie, is it just you and the master here? translation example 2. st: : : st in pinyin: tiān mínɡ: bà, zhè shì wǒ shī dì lán yù, shī fù yě ɡěi tā fànɡ jià le. lán yù: dà shū, shī fù ɡěi wǒ mén liǎ fànɡ jià le. tt: tianming: dad, this is my fellow student, lanyu. master gave him a vacation, too! communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 24 lan yu: uncle, our master gave us a break, so i came to see my senior classmate. there are a series of complex appellations unique to chinese culture in the movie, such as (shī fù), (shī niánɡ), (shī xiōnɡ), (shī dì) and so on. the translator adopts the strategy of domestication to rewrite the source text so as to conform to the western mode of thinking. in traditional chinese culture, people used to call their master’s wife or teacher’s wife as (shī niánɡ) or (shī mǔ); call the one who studied from the same teacher earlier than themselves as (shī xiōnɡ); call the one who studied from the same teacher after themselves as the (shī dì). these appellations are a reflection of the characteristics of chinese kinship terms, which pay special attention to the position in the family hierarchy. in contrast, western kinship terms are far less complex than ours. in addition to showing the relationship of generation, their appellations can only be inferred from the context, which requires translators to look at the different ideological characteristics of the appellations and carry out a reasonable and appropriate conversion. the word (shī niánɡ) is also a unique chinese term, and in english, there is only an explanation of the meaning “the wife of a master” but no specific corresponding one. therefore, in the english translation, the term “auntie” is selected as a broad and ambiguous term used by westerners, and the terms (shī xiōnɡ) and (shī dì) are translated as the broad terms “senior classmate” and “fellow student” respectively, regardless of gender. such translations take into account the two different ideological characteristics and respond to the westerners’ emphasis on individuality and independence, as well as the ambiguous kinship system. translation example 3. st: st in pinyin: cónɡ jīn wǎnɡ hòu, wú shuānɡ zhèn jiù méi yǒu jiāo jiā bān le. cónɡ jīn wǎnɡ hòu, wú shuānɡ zhèn zhǐ yǒu yóu jiā bān. tt: from today, there is no more “jiao dynasty” in the wushuang villages. from now, it’s the “you” (tianming’s surname) dynasty the you suona ensemble. in traditional chinese culture, the word (bān) in (jiāo jiā bān) and (yóu jiā bān) refers to an organization organized according to position or for certain needs, and also refers to the old term for a theater troupe, such as the (xì bān), (wén bān), (wǔ bān). however, there is no equivalent of (bān) in western culture, so the translator chooses the broad word “dynasty” to express this approximate meaning, cleverly borrowing from the change of dynasties to express that the era of the “jiao dynasty” led by master jiao has become a thing of the past. at the same time, the translator successfully avoids the confusion between the pronunciation (yóu) and the english personal pronoun “you” by using a phonetic transliteration with a note when the term (yóu jiā bān) first appeared. translation example 4. st: ss in pinyin: nǐ hé bì yì tiáo dào pǎo dào hēi ne? tt: why should you trap yourself sticking to one path? tianming chooses suona and goes forward on the road of inheritance, and his determination is fully reflected in the translation. the use of the word “trap” vividly conveys the spirit of the character and creates emotional resonance for the audience, making it easier for the target language audience to interpret tianming’s character. the word “trap” is more emotionally charged than “run” with accurate wording and strong language acceptability. in consideration of the social differences, the translator does not translate the word (hēi) in the source text as “black”, but adopts a strategy of reduction, so as to enable the target language audience to accurately understand the emotions of the character, at the same time, the cultural factor of the difference in urban construction design is neglected. because in ancient china, the lifang unit system was implemented and the alleys were closed, so if people kept walking along a road, there would be no way out. translation example 5. st: st in pinyin: yo, nà nǐ mén yóu jiā bān zǔ fén shànɡ ɡāi mào qīnɡ yān le. tt: wow, there must be holy smoke clouds pouring forth from your ancestors’ tombs. the traditional chinese patriarchal ideology and others’ teasing of tianming’s father contained in the culture-loaded words (zǔ fén mào qīnɡ yān) are difficult for the target audience to interpret, because it does not fit the mindset and language expression habits of the target audience in this context. (zǔ fén mào qīnɡ yān) belongs to chinese geomantic culture, and in the eyes of ancient chinese, the color “cyan” represents auspiciousness and sacredness. however, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 25 the style of “tombs” in china and the west is very different, and the phenomenon of (zǔ fén mào qīnɡ yān) does not usually occur in foreign countries, and “tomb” is also taboo in most countries, so the translator has chosen appropriate modifiers to indicate the positive aspects of this sentence. therefore, the selection of the word “holy” is consistent with the cultural color of the source language. translation example 6. st: st in pinyin: suǒ yǐ yɑ, zài zán men de zhè kuài dì pán shànɡ suǒ nɑ bù nénɡ duàn le zhǒnɡ. tt: thus, we can’t let the sound of suona be absent from this area. the transliteration of “suona” is in line with the perception of the target language audience, because suona was introduced to china from persia during the jin and yuan dynasties, and most countries also have a concept of it, so the transliteration does not cause ambiguity and achieves the purpose of material culture dissemination. after a long period of development, suona has become one of the most important folk instruments in china, and it has continued to integrate with many traditional cultures in china, spreading widely in all areas of china (zhou, 2018). because chinese suona has its own material and cultural characteristics, chinese weddings and funerals, festivals, operas and literature are all closely related to it, and it often appears in film and television productions, the transliteration of “suona” preserves the chinese cultural heritage and is conducive to the understanding of our chinese culture by the target language audience. in addition, ideological differences are also presented in the translation of the film title song of the phoenix. as a piece of traditional chinese folk music, (bǎi niǎo cháo fènɡ) is not unfamiliar to many chinese people, and about its name, there are several different translations in existence, typical of which are: a hundred birds worshiping the phoenix; birds paying homage to the phoenix. however, when translating the title of the film, the translator does not directly choose the original translation, which is determined by the linguistic characteristics of film and television translation on the one hand, and the ideological differences on the other. the connotation of “phoenix” in chinese and western cultures varies in certain degree. phoenix is the king of all birds in ancient chinese legends, and is considered the most honored of all birds, with the saying “hundreds birds paying homage to the phoenix”. in chinese ideology, “phoenix” has been the most auspicious bird in the legend since ancient times, and is a symbol of good luck and harmony, so chinese people hold a reverential attitude towards phoenix. therefore, the name of the song (bǎi niǎo cháo fènɡ) is translated as hundreds birds worshiping the phoenix or birds paying homage to the phoenix. the selection of “worship” and “pay homage to” respectively expresses the nobility of the phoenix and convey the chinese people’s reverence for it, and such a translation will not cause chinese readers any trouble in understanding. however, if the title of the film is translated into english in the same way, the audience may be misled. although there is a myth legend of “phoenix nirvana” in the west, the phoenix is not the one in the traditional chinese sense, but an immortal firebird in western mythology. “phoenix nirvana” is often used as a metaphor for an indomitable spirit and a strong will. the degree of sacredness and reverence of phoenix in the ideology of chinese and westerners is different. from this aspect, the choice of “worship” and “pay homage to” may cause misunderstanding or even confusion to western audience. therefore, when translating the title of the film, the translator does not directly choose the original translation for ideological differences but subtly retranslates it as song of the phoenix. on the one hand, it avoids the possible misunderstanding of the audience due to the difference in the connotation of “phoenix” caused by the difference of chinese and western ideologies, and at the same time cleverly retains its commonality. although there are some differences in the connotation of the phoenix, the myths and legends of “phoenix” in china and the west share the same feature, that is, the phoenix symbolizes vitality and beauty. from this point of view, it is understandable for the western audience to keep the “phoenix”. on the other hand, the translator chooses “song” as the central word of the title, which could help highlight the film’s subject. this makes it easier for the western audience to infer the general content and theme of the film based on the title, which is conducive to the formation of a certain expectation of the audience. 3.2 poetics manipulation lefevere (1992) has detailed that a poetics specifically consists of two components: one is a list of literary devices, motifs, prototypical characters and situations, genres, as well as symbols; the other is a concept of the role literature plays, or should play, in the overall social system. poetics is considered to be the yardstick against which current production is measured, and exerts a tremendous influence on the selection of themes and the acceptance of literary works by the social system. therefore, the translation should conform to the target dominant poetics. in a certain socio-cultural context, in order to ensure the successful implementation of translation activities, the translator will take the initiative to manipulate and rewrite the original communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 26 text to make the translation conform to the pursuit and claims of the mainstream poetics of the translated language. a comparative analysis reveals that this rewriting and manipulation in the english translation of the movie subtitles of song of the phoenix is mainly manifested through two types of poetics expressions, that is wording and syntax. english and chinese are formed under different historical backgrounds and social forms, reflecting the features of their respective national cultures. chinese belongs to the ideographic writing system, while english is the phonetic writing system. chinese attaches great importance to parataxis, and the sentences are linear and loosely structured, with each clause connected by meaning. english emphasizes hypotaxis, and clauses are connected by explicit grammatical means. therefore, in the translation process, considering the differences in english and chinese grammatical norms, translators must adapt the linguistic forms and styles of the two languages in order to conform to their expression habits and adapt to the mainstream poetic forms of the target language. translation example 7. st: st in pinyin: ɡǒu rì de, nǐ zhè shì làn ní fú bù shànɡ qiánɡ ɑ, nǐ zhè shì. tt: fuck. you worthless, dumbass kid! (ɡǒu rì de) is a vulgar word with regional characteristics. the cultural image of “dog” differs in different cultural environments, and the attitudes of chinese and western people toward “dog” are very different. the author’s use of corresponding translation fits the cultural values of western countries, and the derogatory attitude is accurately conveyed, which is in line with the cognition of the target language audience. in the film, tianming’s father mistakenly believes that his son has been driven home by the master, and the choice of the word “worthless” reflects the father’s reproach to his son, conveying the his anger and helplessness. the original sentence is a typical chinese one, with a loose structure and many repetitions. in the translation, the translator takes into account the expression habits of the target language and transforms it into an exclamatory sentence in english, using the strategy of free translation and reduction, which is strict and concise, and easy for the target audience to accept. translation example 8. st: st in pinyin: wǒ kuài yào chuī bù dònɡ le, kě zán zhè huánɡ hé àn shɑnɡ bù nénɡ méi yǒu suǒ nɑ. bié shuō hūn sànɡ jià qǔ nònɡ jǐ ɡǎn suǒ nɑ nào no, jiù shì pínɡ shí ɡàn huó lěi le, dà huǒ tīnɡ yí duàn yě nénɡ jiě jig fá. tt: soon, i won’t be able to play anymore, but the banks of the river can’t be without a suona player. we are not just for funerals and weddings, but we also play the suona music for people when they are exhausted from work. it helps everyone to relax. the sentence is likewise retranslated in terms of linguistic form and style. the very colloquial and loosely structured sentences of chinese are translated into the compact and logically related sentences of english, which conform to the poetic form and grammatical norms of the target language. 3.3 patronage’s manipulation translation is an orchestrated activity with many interested parties involved. as lefevere (1992) has put it, patronage means something like the power (people, institutions) that can facilitate or hinder literary reading, writing, and rewriting. the patronage can be an individual or a religious group, a social class, a political party, publishers, as well as the media including newspapers and magazines and major television companies. it can be seen that the scope of patronage is very extensive and has different expressions in different works. the influence of patronage on film subtitle translation is mainly reflected in film censorship, the content and standards of which in turn reflect certain aspects of the dominant ideology at a certain period of time. in the words of billiani (2007), censorship remains a pervasive phenomenon that operates in many ways with different forms presented, and... translation remains one of the most powerful tools we currently have for shaping intercultural interactions. in order for a film or tv production to successfully march into foreign markets and gain the expected ratings, translators must take measures to avoid ideological conflicts with sponsors when translating film subtitles. translators usually adopt such means as complete deletion, transformation and weakening when translating movie subtitles to avoid conflicts, successfully pass the examination and achieve the set translation purpose. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 27 as a film inheriting traditional chinese culture, song of the phoenix, if translated properly, would contribute to the globalization of chinese culture and promote foreign audiences’ awareness and understanding of traditional chinese culture. in the process of foreign translation of film and television works, influenced by various aspects of the patronage, translators should take the national image into full consideration and reduce or avoid conveying a negative national image. therefore, whether it is from the perspective of the national image or the patronage, translators should consciously adopt appropriate translation strategies when performing subtitle translation so as to successfully achieve their translation purposes. in the english translation of song of the phoenix, the translator mainly focused on the deletion and weakening of some vulgar and offensive words in the film, so as to purify the work and successfully pass the examination. translation example 9: st: st in pinyin: tiān mínɡ shuō, tiān mínɡ shuō... tā yóu jiā bān chū huó ɡēn wǒ pì xiānɡ ɡān ne? tt: tianming says, tianming says! his business is none of mine! i am retired! this dialogue takes place when the you dynasty first takes up a job, and tianming you asks si xi to invite master jiao to come, but the attentive master jiao considering not to affect tianming’s performance, firmly refuses si xi. in translating the reply of master jiao, the translator adopts a weakening translation strategy, using “none of my business” to deliberately distance the relationship between the two, while reducing the vulgarity of the text. translation example 10: st: st in pinyin: bié tā mā tài dānɡ huí shì le, suí biàn chuī bean jiù dé le. tt hey, no need to go crazy. just play something simple, whatever. this dialogue takes place when tianming’s best friend, changsheng, is getting married, and in accordance with the traditional custom, he invites you dynasty to perform. when the you dynasty is playing vigorously, changsheng comes over and tells tianming that he doesn’t need to play so hard. since tianming and changsheng are friends who grew up together, they have a very close relationship, so changsheng and tianming talk very casually. the simple, crude language in the original text successfully conveys the character traits. the translator removes the vulgar word (tā mā) from the translation. such treatment is necessary from the point of view of purifying the film subtitles and avoiding ideological conflicts with the patronage. 4. conclusion as well as unleashing great potential in promoting chinese culture to the world and strengthening the country’s soft power, audiovisual translation could be employed as a tool to promote foreign trade in creative industries and increase economic returns. based on andré lefevere’s manipulation theory, this paper probes into the manifestation of manipulative factors in the english translation of the subtitles of song of the phoenix as well as the translators’ flexible strategies of translation in response to these manipulative factors. through the analysis, it is found that the translator is also influenced and manipulated by ideology, poetics and patronage in the translation process. under the influence of these manipulative factors, translators will inevitably take the initiative to rewrite the original text properly in order to avoid ideological conflicts, to meet the mainstream poetics, and to uphold the will of the patronage, so as to achieve the desired translation goal smoothly. references billiani, f. 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[in chinese , 33(3), 4.] this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 7-29-pb(revised)1.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 9 exploring the translations and translating of yueju (cantonese opera) haowen liang1 1school of foreign languages, guangzhou xinhua university, china,e-mail: 874664699@qq.com. this paper is an achievement of the visiting scholar program (no. f202102013) in south china university of technology abstract yueju ( /cantonese opera), one of the chinese operas being popular in the southern china and amongst the overseas chinese community, works as a vital element for disseminating chinese culture. however, the english translations for “yueju/ ” are dissatisfying for being unprecise, lack of motivation and failing to highlight the cultural elements of the cradleland. under the guidance of the post-colonialism theory, the present study will try to apply some translation strategies to work out the possible translations. keywords: cantonese opera, translation studies, post-colonialism, cross-cultural communication 1. introduction known as “the red bean in the south”, cantonese opera (“ ” yueju) is a delicate and unique type of performance in china. with the diaspora of cantonese-speaking chinese people, such an opera has been disseminated to the north america, australia and the southeastern asia amongst other places. besides, in recent years, thanks to its fascinating plot, splendid costume and unique voice, it has attracted non-cantonese speakers. up to 2012, hong kong finished the english translation of these texts: the brief introduction of more than 120 pieces of cantonese opera and the 18 excerpts of different plays. what’s more, activists in hong kong and singapore had already translated, rewrote the cantonese opera scripts in languages like english, malay so as to perform the operas in different languages and attract more audience. for instance, cha duk chang children’s cantonese opera association in hong kong has produced some cantonese operas in english like breaking the red lantern ( , zuidajinzhi). in addition, the association takes these works as a method to help the teenage members to study english language, chinese culture and cantonese opera itself. however, a big problem may hinder the further spread of cantonese opera because there are several different english names for the term “ ” (yueju). these english names are as follows: “cantonese opera”, “guangdong opera” and “yue opera”. even worse, the scholars argue and hold different opinions for these names. hence, there is a research gap for the present study to find a better term for “ ” (yueju) by analyzing its origin from relevant translation theory. 2. reasons for different translations of “yueju ( )” 2.1 an analysis of the term “guangdong opera” in most cases, the traditional chinese operas are named after the cradlelands or the dialects used in the performance. considering that “ ” (yueju) is popular amongst people in guangdong province and its cradleland also lies in guangdong, the opera is named as “guangdong opera” by some people. however, for the skeptics, guangdong province also has operas like teochew opera, han opera (hakka opera), leizhou opera and tea-picking opera among others. besides, “ ” (yueju) is also popular in guangxi, hong kong and macau. hence, it is too broad (or narrow) to name “ ” (yueju) as “guangdong opera”. 2.2 an analysis of the term “yue opera” some people rendered the term “ ” (yueju) as “yue opera”. for instance, “ ”, literally meaning “the cantonese opera theater of guangdong” is officially translated as “guangdong yue opera theater”. the proponents argue that “yue” is the transliteration of “ ” which means guangdong province or something related to cantonese people, their dialects and culture. hence, it is reasonable to name “ ” (yueju) “yue opera”, which shows its cultural connection with the cantonese people. nevertheless, the opponents challenge that yue opera may confuse the readers because the shaoxing opera in shanghai and zhejiang province is also named yue opera (“ ” pinyin also pronounce as “yueju”). 2.3 an analysis of the term “cantonese opera” taking the above mentioned conditions into consideration, pan (2000) argue that the term “cantonese opera” is advisable. the main reasons are the following: 1) the term is widely used in the english world; 2) the word “cantonese” refers to the dialect used by the cantonese people residing in both guangdong and guangxi. hence, it can precisely refer to the original audience of the very opera. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 10 3. how “yueju” was and could be translated a proper name for “yueju ( )” means the first step for a better dissemination of the cantonese opera. however, a good name is not only about terminology but also about the unequal power relationship between different cultures. it should be noticed that the term “cantonese opera” will not confuse the readers like other terms available and used; nevertheless, it clearly unveils a position of the weakness of chinese culture when it is going global. 3.1 the unequal power relationship behind the term “cantonese opera” michael foucault puts forward the power discourse theory, pointing out that power is closely related to discourse: the nature of power is the power of articulation, and discourse is not merely the tool for power but also the key point for mastering power (wei, 2015, p. 124). in the cultural transmission, power, especially the hegemony of discourse/culture, is ubiquitous. as a critical part of discourse generation, the influence of political and cultural power is omnipresent in the process of translation. the relationship between power and translation can be mainly summarized as follow: firstly, translation yields to power, for instance, the selection of source text and translation strategy often reveal the power discourse. after it failed in the opium war in the 1840s, china strong demanded for learning from the west. hence, for a long time, the directionality of translation in china was mainly from foreign languages to chinese while the purpose of translation lay in the introduction of western knowledge and values. in a word, the translation activities in china have always been under the western discourse hegemony. secondly, powers lie in translation. in other words, translation also boasts its value, function, and influence. therefore, china must make good use of the chinese-to-english translation to build up its cultural image on the international stage. meanwhile, different cultures or countries, by making use of translation, can make their voices heard and protect the world’s cultural diversity. in the following, i will analyze the term “cantonese opera” as the english translation of “ ” (yueju) from the relationship between translation and power. according to the existing opinions, “cantonese” refers to the “the dialect of chinese spoken in the vicinity of canton in southern china” or “of or relating to canton (guangzhou), its inhabitants, their dialect, or their cuisine” (see the new oxford english-chinese dictionary). hence, it is reasonable to translate “ ” (yueju), an opera popular in the cantonese-speaking areas, as “cantonese opera”. however, such a translation shows the hegemony of western culture. in most cases, the name of chinese opera is translated this way: “the pinyin name of the cradleland + opera”, for instance, yue opera (also known as “shaoxing opera” because it originates in shaoxing, zhejiang), sichuan opera. sometimes, some of the opera are translated in this way: “the local dialect name of the cradleland + opera”. for example, teochew opera (i.e., chaozhou ju in pinyin), is an opera famous in chaozhou (known as teochew in the local dialect). hence, most english terms for translating china’s operas boast the cultural connection with their origins. however, the term “cantonese opera” is another story. from the perspective of etymology, “cantonese” comes from “canton”, the english name for guangzhou. the word “canton” originates from french, meaning an administrative division of a country or the capital city of this division. nowadays, the term “canton” is used as a name for places or territorial subdivisions in france and several countries and regions with french influence like belgium, switzerland, lebanon and the quebec province of canada. in france, the term “canton” was once one of the administrative divisions above “commune” (analogous to a us civil township or city). in switzerland, canton is the name for the federated states of the swiss confederation. a swiss canton may consist of “communes” or “districts”. guangzhou, being the capital city of guangzhou prefecture ( in chinese) and guangdong province in the ming and qing dynasties, was the residence of the officials like prefect ( ) and “governor” ( ). besides, it was consisted of several townships and counties. besides, the city of guangzhou, as one of the important cities on the maritime silk road, was one of the coastal cities for communication between china and the world at large. in the qing dynasty, the famous “the thirteen factories” were located in guangzhou and merchants from western europe, and america came here for business. however, the westerners in the 18th and 19th centuries, who were unfamiliar with china’s administrative divisions, used the word “canton” to name this city. some opinions argue that “canton” was a transliteration of guangdong. however, the existing corpus has falsified such sayings. in canton guide (published in 1889) by john glasgow kerr, there were paragraphs including the translation of “ ” (guangzhou), “ ” (guangdong), and “ ” (guangzhou prefecture) as follows: “the city of canton is situated on pearl river, 90 miles from hongkong……. it is the capital of kwong-tung province, and contains about 1,000,000 inhabitants. it is the residence of the viceroy of the two kwong provinces, and of high military and civil officals of the province. it is also the seat of the officers of the kwong chau department...” (kerr, 1889, p. 1) in the selected text, guangzhou was called canton, guangdong province “kwong-tung province”, while the guangzhou communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 11 prefecture “kwong chau department”. it should be noted that “kwong-tung” and “kwong chau” are the transliteration of the pronunciation for “guangdong” and “guangzhou” in the cantonese dialect. in other words, for the westerners in the late 19th century, the english names for “guangdong” and “guangzhou (canton) ” were distinguished. therefore, the term “canton” does not originate from “guangdong” or “guangzhou”. therefore, we can conclude that using “canton” to name “guangzhou” reveals the inequality between different cultures in discourse power, namely, the strong cultures would name things of the weaker cultures the way as they like. above all, the term “cantonese opera” cannot present the characteristics of the chinese culture (especially the cantonese culture). therefore, a better english name is needed to eliminate the hegemony of the western culture and reshape the cultural identity of china. 3.2 thought resource for eliminating the inequality of discourse power between different cultures with globalization, it is inevitable that the strong culture will permeate into other cultures, causing the culture of the weakness to face the risk of assimilation. hence, it is a new project in the research of cultural communication about maintaining cultural identity. as one of the significant methods of cultural communication, translation itself means the contest of the discourse powers of the two cultures. under the background of the peaceful rise of china, the chinese culture was and is presenting itself to the rest of the world and gaining the equal rights in cultural communication. the translation theory of post-colonialism, with the aim to unveil the hegemonical nature of imperialism in cultural communication, coincides with the goal of helping chinese culture win an equal status and increase the world’s cultural diversity. the post-colonialism school, moving away from the existing research paradigms, which mainly focused on the linguistic dimension of translation, considers the historical and cultural elements and points out that 1) translation is a way to get power; 2) translation is an arena of cultural colonialism and decolonization and 3) the process and result of translation reveal the discourse power of the cultures of the source and target languages. niranjana, one of the representative figures of post-colonialism, believes that the activity of translation is always political. the power relationship lying behind the translation is always where the (ex-) colonialist imposes the “symbolic control” over the culture of weakness or the people of their ex-colony. in other words, the relationship between different cultures is far from equal. hence, she calls on the people in colonies to “relocate translation and turn it into a place of resisting and transforming” (niranjana, 1992: 15). as a way of resisting, post-colonialism disagrees with the seemingly objective or neutral cultural opinions advocated by the (ex-) colonialists and the strong culture: these seemingly neutral opinions, by emphasizing the “sameness” of different cultures while neglecting the differences, imposes discourse violence against the weaker and marginalized culture and may cause cultural crisis. as for translation, post-colonialism school holds that post-colonialist translation should be a tool for the third world/the weaker culture to achieve these goals: 1) getting rid of the dominance of the strong culture; 2) moving away from the peripheral position and 3) making their voice heard when communicating with the strong culture. in the context of the postcolonialism, there are two major translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, which are not merely about textual style but also connected to political power (wei, 2015). the strategy of domestication usually adopts a fluent expression that is easy to be understood. the translators using this strategy are required to produce a translated text which reads like the nontranslation text in the source language. however, the strategy of domestication, to some extent, might underscore the uniqueness/specificity of the source culture. in a world with the unequal relationship between different cultures, this strategy helps the strong culture not merely in imposing their discourse power on other culture, but also in conducting cultural appropriation of the source text and its culture. for laurence venuti, one of the translators of post-colonialism, the strategy of foreignization is a way of resistant translation, i.e., when translating the text of the cultures of weakness, the translator purposely selects the unfamiliar, unaccustomed, and non-fluent expressions to preserve the exotic, unique elements of the source text (zhang, 2018). by preserving the cultural features of the original text, the original text could resist the assimilation of the strong cultures. being affected by post-colonialism, a certain number of chinese scholars point out that it is reasonable to use the foreignization strategy when helping chinese culture going global. for instance, xu (2014) affirms the positive effects of foreignization strategy when analyzing the problems in the translation and dissemination of the chinese classics, like the doctrine of the mean, the analects of confucius, and dream of the red chamber. however, the foreignization has its limitations in helping the chinese culture go outside. tan & zhang (2018) even criticize that “the post-colonialism theory over-emphasizes the cultural and political function of the foreignization strategy while ignoring the translation itself. hence, it has little guidance to the translation practice”. therefore, in the dissemination of the culture of weakness, the translator should adopt a flexible method and pay attention to the effect when selecting the strategy. if the translator misunderstands the foreignization strategy and blindly uses the word-for-word method, which seems to preserve the feature of the source culture, they would surprisingly find that their translation works are too obscure for the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 12 target audience to understand. in a word, the translator of the weaker cultures shall maintain the cultural identity and strike a balance between foreignization and domestication. 3.3 the possible solutions for translating “ ” (yueju) due to the dominance of the english language, when talking about the translating texts relevant to english, there are more texts translated from english than texts translated into english. in other words, even the audiences from non-english speaking countries need english materials to learn about cantonese opera. considering this situation, the present paper tries to make a compromise, using both the strategy of foreignization while adding notes. by doing so, the translation can highlight china’s cultural identity while making it possible for the audience to easily understand the meaning. in the following, some possible solutions are provided, and the most appropriate one would be selected through a corpus-based analysis. the first possible translation could be jyut opera (cantonese opera). guangdong (guangzhou) is home to cantonese opera. the chinese character “ ” (yue in pinyin) refers to the city or the province. however, the term “yue opera” in english has already been designated to “ ” (also known as shaoxing opera, a chinese opera in zhejiang province and shanghai. inspired by the case of “teochew opera”, with “teochew” in the local dialect meaning chaozhou city, “ ” (yueju) could be translated as “jyut opera” with “jyut” representing “ ” in the cantonese dialect. meanwhile, the linguistic society of hong kong, an academic group, has developed a romanization system of cantonese called jyutping, with the syllable of “jyut” for “ ”, meaning the cantonese dialect and “ping” for “ ”, meaning “phonetic alphabet”. such a system is widely accepted by the education system in hong kong to teach the pronunciation of cantonese dialects. hence, it is reasonable to adopt “jyut” for “ ” according to the jyutping alphabet. in order to help the foreign readers to understand, a note “cantonese opera” is added and the whole term comes to be “jyut opera (cantonese opera)”. another option would be guangfu opera (cantonese opera). the opera is an indispensable part of cantonese culture. cantonese people name themselves guangfu people in chinese. cantonese people reside in not merely guangdong province but also hongkong, macau and guangxi. meanwhile, there are also other operas like teochew opera and han opera (hakka opera) in guangdong province. therefore, to refer to the opera more accurately, the term “ ” (yueju) can be translated as “guangfu opera”. such a translation would be more accurate than the “guangdong opera” because it refers to the cultural factor rather than a narrow geographical factor. the last one could be guangzhou opera (cantonese opera). typically speaking, cantonese opera is said to originate from guangzhou city. hence, “ ” (yueju) is translated as “guangzhou opera”. it should be noted that the term “guangzhou” has been gradually known to the world thanks to that the city gain momentum economically and in terms of tourism. however, the term “canton” is more famous than “guangzhou”. by translating “ ” (yueju) as “guangzhou opera” with a note “cantonese opera” added, the new term can strengthen the connection between “guangzhou” and “canton”. what’s more, by impressing the audience that guangzhou is linked to the popular opera, the term may make guangzhou more famous and attract more tourists to visit it in the coming future. to find the most advisable translation version, the proper names in these proposals would be analyzed through corpora. hence, corpus as google books n-grams and wikipedia corpus are selected to find out the frequencies of terms proposed above in the historical texts and the academic texts. while the corpus of coca, british national corpus, news on the web (now), and global web-based english are chosen for checking the frequencies of the terms in the news or online texts. the results of searching the relevant terms are listed below in table 1. table 1. the frequencies of the translations in corpora corpus word google books n-grams (british english) google books n-grams (american english) wikipedia corpus coca bnc now glowbe total jyutping 0 0 366 0 0 59 17 442 jyut 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 6 guangzhou 14705 38280 9049 492 15 33896 4456 100893 guangfu 0 0 92/2 5/0 0 152/0 56/0 2 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 13 as for the proposal one, the term “jyutping” appears 442 times, with 336 times in wikipedia and 61 examples in the hong kong media. in other words, the term “jyutping” is only popular among hong kong readers and not so widely accepted by the western audience. as for the term “jyut”, there are only 6 searching results. all the results are mainly the jyutping spelling of some chinese words in the cantonese dialect. however, the samples are not enough to be widely disseminated among the foreign readers. hence, translating “ ” (yueju) as “jyut opera” may not be an optimal choice. as for the second proposal, there are 305 examples in corpus like wikipedia corpus, corpus for contemporary american english, news on the web, and global web-based english. however, most examples did not stand for the chinese “ ” but for other chinese characters. with such a low frequency, the word “guangfu” is not likely to help the audience better understand the translation. as for the final term, “guangzhou”, appears 100,893 times in different corpus. among different corpus, the term appears 33896 and 4456 times in the news on the web (now) and global web-based english (glowbe) respectively. obviously, the term “guangzhou” boasts more frequency than the term “jyut” or “guangfu”. in other words, “guangzhou” is more widely accepted by the foreign readers than the two other proposals. therefore, guangzhou opera (cantonese opera) is recommended for rendering “ ” (yueju) for both the width of usage and the representation of the cultural identity. 4. conclusion the different translations of a cultural term mean the contest for different motivation and even the wrestling of discourse powers. the present paper attempts to work as a pathway and to inspire more translation researches on these fields like the naming of the traditional chinese operas and other art forms in english, and the translation of terminology in the relevant fields. under the backdrop of globalization, in order to help more traditional chinese art going global, the translator is advised to strike a balance between two extremes of foreignization and domestication. on the one hand, they try to practice under the guidance of “resisting translation” according to the post-colonialism theory. on the other hand, they should avoid using the word-for-word translation method blindly which may lead to obscure translation text that fails to attract the target readers. finally, more research is needed to explore the translation strategies, methods, and skills in the relevant fields and make it possible for the chinese culture to “go into the readers’ culture” while preserving its own features. more importantly, it is expected that more translation researchers can put forward theories to help chinese culture and other marginalized nations go global while building up their cultural identity. references huang, y. & zeng, y. (2019). on the translation strategies of cantonese opera under the background of “belt and road” (in chinese, “ ” ). sichuan drama ( ), 1, 40-44. huang, y. (2008). developing china’s translating profession to help bring about a more productive interaction among the world’s diverse cultures (in chinese, ). chinese translators journal ( ), 29 (4), 6-9+94. liu, j. (2009). a general history of western translation theory (in chinese, ). wuhan university press ( ). niranjana, t. (1992). siting translation: history, post-structuralism, and the colonial context. berkeley los angeles & oxford: university of california press. pan, f. (2000). on the foreign translation of yueju and relevant issues (in chinese, ). the red bean in the south ( ) 6 40 tan, f. & zhang, z. (2018). on the conception of foreignizing translation of schleiermacher (in chinese, ). journal of xi’an international studies university ( ), 26 (1),c106 wei, t. (2015). on foreignization in chinese-english translation from the perspective of postcolonial theory (in chinese, ). journal of hebei university of engineering (social science edition) ( ( ) ), 32 (3),124 xu, j. (2014). translation of chinese classics: theory and practice (in chinese, : ). beijing university press ( ). a brief introduction of the author: liang haowen [ ], lecture, school of foreign languages, guangzhou xinhua university. researching interests: translation studies, cognitive linguistics, cross-cultural communication. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. v02issue02.06.2022.0613.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 41 a comparative analysis of chinese versions of on the road based on retranslation jing niu1 1school of foreign studies, hebei university, china, e-mail: lodestarn@139.com abstract translation practice is closely related to language development and social advances. the change in all aspects of society will promote translation activity. in addition, some translation texts need to be renewed especially in literary translation, due to social progress, and readers’ demands. therefore, many scholars around the world turn to retranslation and its hypothesis and give their definitions or express their views. the book, on the road, written by jack kerouac and published in 1957, is one of the representative works of america in the 1950s, primarily reflecting the condition of the beat generation. after its publication, three chinese versions of the early period in china emerged and the translators are: chu’an wen (wen’s version, 1998), yongnian wang (wang’s version, 2006), and yueqing tao and xiaoli he (1990 version). in 2020, the works of jack kerouac entered into the public domain. therefore, a couple of translation versions emerged, such as xianghui yao’s version, ang wu’s version and wei yang’s version. this paper analyzes the four chinese versions (respectively tao and he’s version, yao’s and wu’s and yang’s versions) from different dimensions in order to examine certain scholars’ opinions on the phenomenon of retranslation. keywords: translation activity, retranslation, comparative analysis, on the road, literary translation 1. introduction on the road was written by jack kerouac and published in 1957 by viking press. it was primarily autobiographical, originating from jack kerouac’s experience of traversing the continental united states. this book describes the two main protagonists’ behaviors on the road to mexico, showing their spirits of taking adventure and seeking freedom, also reflecting spiritual emptiness of american youngsters after world war ii. their lifestyle exerted considerable influence on american youngsters in 1960s. arguably, among jack kerouac’s books, on the road is the most representative work, which is recognized by les cent livres du siècle. it is regarded as a classic by hippie movement around 1960s, albeit this book enjoys mixed reviews after its publication. in addition to the different evaluations, this novel is not compact in structure and is partly characterized by a stream of consciousness. moreover, behind the social influence it brought and the recognition from the public, it went through an arduous process of publication. kong’s essay (2020) shows the turn of acceptance of mainstream culture at that time, which explains that on the road takes six years from its draft to final publication. kong expresses that this novel realizes the metamorphosis from folk literature to classic literature due to the active engagement of each party, involving academic study, and the press, among other things. with its growing influence, the first chinese version of cover-to-cover translation was published by lijiang publishing limited in 1990, with tao and he as its translators. and then, wen’s translated version was published in 1998. wang’s version, published in 2006 by shanghai translation publishing house, had dominated the whole market for more than ten years. however, the year 2020 witnessed many new translated versions. among those, jie chen’s version, published by hunan literature and art publishing house, received much attention. there are other versions: yao’s version published by phoenix publishing & media group, yingyi he’s version published by hunan literature and art publishing house, as well as wu’s version, yang’s version. the translated versions spring up like mushrooms, but here a research focus will place on just four versions. 2. retranslation 2.1 previous studies of retranslation outside china according to shuttleworth and cowie (2014), the term “retranslation” is another name for “indirect translation”, which means the translation process is conducted through intermediate translation relying on another language rather than the source language. in susam-sarajeva’s opinion (2006), there are some points about retranslation: not only the literary and canonical ones but also many other types of texts can be retranslated; the action of retranslation is not necessarily caused by the outdated translation versions or different times; retranslation will emerge when the current translations are flawed, assimilative, literal, or when the readers of target language shift their thoughts, or when a struggle for a local discourse that contains those this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 42 translation versions is conducted; retranslation consider more on the demands and views of the receiving system than the intrinsic characteristics of the source text. arguably, susam-sarajeva provides a fuller explanation for the retranslation phenomenon, introducing the retranslation of other texts into people’s horizons and bringing further consideration for its reasons. 2.2 previous studies of retranslation in china as for the studies in china, many scholars discuss the difficulty of retranslation and discuss the relationship between the first translated version and the subsequent versions, and explore a way for the new translated versions to reach a higher level based on the existing achievement earned by the first version or the old ones. the following scholars primarily explore retranslation from the theoretical perspective and generalize the important issues in this field. their conclusions provide the theoretical basis for the subsequent studies, including this paper. in contrast, this paper places emphasis on the research of specific cases and test some scholars’ studies to some degree. luo (1995) points out that retranslation is a phenomenon with the development of translation practice and is indispensable for promoting the translation field to some extent. luo thinks retranslation is inevitable, and the purpose is to seek better translation versions while respecting the old translations. luo (1991) refers to the first translation and the retranslated versions: the retranslated versions need to avoid repeated expressions of the first translation. otherwise, the retranslations will suffer the suspicion of plagiarizing. xu (1996) concludes that retranslation have two meanings: one is that someone retranslates the works he or she has already translated. another is that someone retranslates the works other scholars or translators has already translated. xu also thinks that literary translation, especially literary retranslation, should utilize the advantages of the target language and adopt the best expressions in receiving system. gu (2003) puts forward retranslation on filtered translational accumulation, which means that the translated versions should reasonably employ all the old translations, absorb the quintessence, and infuse new better expressions. in this way, a translation version that is the closest to the original text will be produced. above studies refer to the attitude to the first translated version or the past versions: respecting and absorbing their quintessence. some studies continue to refine the concept of retranslation, and others, like gu’s research, contribute to its theoretical innovation. 2.3 summarization the studies of retranslation outside china explore the definition of retranslation and the texts it involves as well as its reasons. in contrast, the studies in china focus more on the retranslation process and its outcomes—different translated versions. both of them contribute to flourishing retranslation. 3. relevant studies about on the road 3.1 previous studies of on the road outside china the following studies primarily analyze on the road from the perspectives of culture and literature. little attention is drawn to its translation or retranslation. under this circumstance, this paper intends to fill that gap. dougherty (2008) uses an ecological perspective to read this novel under the context of the increase of automobiles and more reliance on fuel in america and discusses the vision of driving on the road from the protagonist sal’s view. ireland (2009) studied the relationship between the works of road genre and american history and culture. on the road is one of the cases to be analyzed. salles et al. (2018) explore the existential curiosity in the face of unexpected events and scenes based on phenomenology. savio (2019) analyzes how the authors embody their experience of world war ii in their works and takes the two novels jack kerouac’s on the road and j. d. salinger’s the catcher in the rye as the examples and explores the determinant forming the novels. morrison (2020) explores the canterbury tales and on the road from the perspective of pilgrimage ecopoetics and points out that geoffrey chaucer’s tales exert influence on jack kerouac’s writing of this novel. to sum up, dougherty’ research is a unique perspective for the study of on the road, for this book itself has literary solid color. while savio and morrison explore this novel with another work employing one typical character or research perspective and understand the links between works or the works with american society. salles et al. notice the novel’s content, while ireland regards it as one subject together with other similar subjects to analyze his research topic. from the this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 43 analysis of savio and morrison, respectively, in 2019 and 2020, a research trend of on the road may combine it with another novel or other works to discuss common problems. 3.2 previous studies of on the road in china the following studies involve the literary perspective and the perspective of translation. however, they lack the analysis from the perspective of retranslation. furthermore, this paper provides two dimensions: synchronic analysis and diachronic analysis, and introduces new translated versions into study, which enriches the research of this novel. he (2003) explores the writing style of tropic of cancer and on the road and points out three characters: the first-person narrative approach to describe the life and ideas of “the lost generation” and “the beat generation”, the expression of antitraditional culture and the shape of anti-hero character, spontaneous motivation and creative method. jiang and yu (2010) discuss the impact of wars on american people, in particular their mental world, through the analysis of hemingway’s the sun also rises and jack kerouac’s on the road and find that there are something similar between “the lost generation” and “the beat generation”: traumatized by the wars and seeking for new values. jin (2012) analyzes the marginal people in on the road, rabbit run, and the catcher in the rye. it shows those people’s inability to integrate themselves into the society at that time and their rebellion. su 2013 discusses the significance of route 66 for american culture and people, combines the context of the novel on the road and further reflects the spirits of the westward process through route 66. li (2015) explores the translator’s subjectivity through wen’s version and wang’s version and discusses the nuances of the two versions caused by translators’ different opinions. han (2016) analyzes the different chinese versions from three phases: in 1980s and 1990s, at the turn of the century, in the early 21st century, and shows the main characters of various translated versions. han (2017) uses the two novels of jack kerouac to explore the betweenness of the author himself. he shows the contradictions between seeking freedom and stability in on the road, and between the breakthroughs and conservatism in the dharma bums. jin (2018), based on gadamer’s prejudices theory, analyzes the two translated versions of on the road, respectively yushi huang and xianrong shi’s 1962 version and wang’s 2006 version, from the perspective of language, cultural context, and economic climate. to sum up, many scholars in china make a comparison or find similar characters between this novel and other works, no matter what perspectives they explore. in addition, some analyze the translated versions of this novel, mainly two versions to compare. studies about this novel both at abroad and home may contain literary elements, such as highway culture, the characters’ analysis, value seeking, and dimension of translation, such as the comparison between two versions, and its translation and communication in china. furthermore, many studies utilize comparisons between translated versions or different works. through the review of this novel, the author finds there is no research on retranslation about this novel. moreover, less attention to the new translated versions after 2020 is paid. therefore, the author decides to study chinese versions from the perspective of retranslation and discusses the value of retranslation in this novel. 4. comparative analysis of the chinese versions 4.1 the comparison among three versions published in 2020 4.1.1 basic introduction of the three versions the author chooses wu’s version, yao’s version, and yang’s version, all of which were published in 2020. they are distributed by citic press group, jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing house, yunnan people’s publishing house separately. 4.1.2 specific analysis in diction arguably, “diction” refers to an activity that when people want to express something or translate one language into another, people will choose an appropriate expression under corresponding context. the author extracts some examples from the translated versions. all of examples use various expression on words of the source text, showcasing translators’ consideration on diction. translation example 1. source text: i first met dean not long after my wife and i split up. i had just gotten over a serious illness that i won’t bother to talk about, except that it had something to do with the miserably weary split-up...... target text by yao: wǒ hé qī zǐ fēn shǒu bù jiǔ hòu, dì yī cì communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 44 jiàn dào le dí ēn. nà huì ér wǒ gāng cóng zhòng bìng zhōng huī fù guò lái, zhì yú shēng bìng wǒ lǎn de duō shuō shén me, zǒng zhī hé wǒ men lìng rén pí bèi de kě bēi de fēn shǒu yǒu guān...... target text by wu: wǒ tóu huí yù dào dí ān shì zài wǒ hé wǒ lǎo po sàn huǒ zhī hòu bù jiǔ, nà shí wǒ bìng le yī chǎng, dàn zhè chǎng bìng wǒ yě bù xiǎng zài tí jí le, shēng bìng què shí yǔ nà chǎng bēi cuī, lìng rén pí bèi de lí hūn yǒu guān...... target text by yang: (dì yī cì yù dào dí ēn, shì wǒ hé qī zǐ lí hūn hòu bù jiǔ. wǒ gāng jīng lì le yī chǎng dà bìng, jù tǐ qíng kuàng yě lǎn de duō shuō le, fǎn zhèng kěn ding gēn nà chǎng jiào rén xīn lì jiāo cuì de fēn shǒu hé wǒ de qíng xù tuō bù liǎo guān xì……) “split up” is translated as “fēn shǒu/ ”, which means “break up” in yao’s text, “lí hūn/ ” which means “get divorced” in yang’s text, “sàn huǒ/ ” which means “end a relationship” in wu’s text. however, when “split-up” appears for the second time, only yao handles it with the first expression “fēn shǒu”, while yang changes it from “lí hūn” to “fēn shǒu”, wu adjusts it from “sàn huǒ” to “lí hūn”. considering the original text, “i first met dean not long after my wife and i split up”, the word “wife” in chinese means a title for a woman who gets married, so for chinese readers, the words “split up” means that the marriage between “i” and “my wife” is dissolved. the three translations introduce three different words to express that situation. translation example 2. source text: one day i was hanging around the campus and chad and tim gray told me dean was staying in a coldwater pad in east harlem, the spanish harlem. target text by yao: yī tiān wǒ zài xiào yuan lǐ xián guàng, chá dé hé dì mǔ gé léi gào sù wǒ shuō dí ēn zhù jìn le dōng hā lái mǔ qū--yī tào zhǐ gōng yìng lěng shuǐ de lián jià gōng yù. target text by wu: (yǒu yī tiān, wǒ zhèng zài xiào yuan xián guàng, chá dé hé tí mǔ gé léi gēn wǒ shuō dí ān zhù zài dōng hā lái mǔ de yī suǒ dōng tiān bù dài nuǎn qì de pò gōng yù lǐ, xī bān yá yǔ qū de hā lái mǔ.) target text by yang: (yī tiān, wǒ zhèng zài xué xiào lǐ huàng you, chá dé hé dì mǔ gé léi gào sù wǒ, dí ēn jiù zài dōng hā lái mǔ qū, yě jiù shì suǒ wèi xī bān yá hā lái mǔ qū de yī piàn pín mín kū lǐ.) “cold-water pad” is translated as “lěng shuǐ gōng yù/ ”, indicating that “the pad only supplies cold water” in yao’s version, and as “dōng tiān bù dài nuǎn qì de pò gōng yù/ ”, meaning that “the pad lacks the heating facilities” in wu’s version. in comparison, yang renders it as the meaning of “slum”, in chinese “pín mín kū/ ”. yao’s version is arguably literal translation. throughout the context, it is unnecessary to emphasize the supply of water in the pad, and there are no relevant plots revolving around “cold water” or “hot water”. wu’s version mentioned above belongs to liberal translation to some degree. it strips the literal meaning off, changes the meaning into an acceptable expression and presents a pad with poor facilities. this will not cause distortion of the main idea of this novel. likewise, yang utilizes free translation. “cold-water pad” is translated into three versions. translation example 3. source text: and this was really the way that my whole road experience began, and the things that were to come are too fantastic not to tell. target text by yao: (wǒ de zhěng gè lù shang shēng yá yě què shí jiù shì zhè me kāi shǐ de, jí jiāng fā shēng de shì qing shén qí de nán yǐ miáo shù.) communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 45 target text by wu: (wǒ hòu lái zhěng gè ‘zài lù shàng’ de shēng yá jiù shì zhè me kāi shǐ de, zhī hòu fā shēng de yī qiè jiǎn zhí fěi yí suǒ sī.) target text by yang: (zhè tiáo lù hòu lái zhēn de chéng le wǒ zhěng gè ‘zài lù shàng’ lì chéng de kāi duān, zhī hòu fā shēng de shì qí miào dào bù kě sī yì, jiǎn zhí wú fǎ yán shuō.) “too fantastic not to tell” is translated by yao and yang through literal translation based on the english structure, with different chinese characters. wu deals with this situation by utilizing the chinese four-character words “fěi yí suǒ sī / ”, which means that “someone’s behaviors or something is too abnormal and weird to imagine by other ordinary people”. “too fantastic not to tell” in the source text is to describe the subsequent experiences of the protagonists. furthermore, the characters in the novel are on behalf of the beat generation. the attitudes of challenging traditional values, contempt for social orders, and seeking for absolute freedom fill their minds. under this circumstance, the three translations capture the original meaning and adopt various dictions to express the source text. above cases of study showcase various dictions regarding the original will be applied in diverse translations to avoid repetition. 4.1.3 specific analysis in comprehension “berthoud pass” emerges four times in the original text. through the verification of wikipedia, this word refers to mountains rather than a person. therefore, the explanation of yao’s version for “...reached clear to the top of berthoud pass...” is not appropriate because it is described as ferdinand berthoud, a french horologist. yao misunderstands the context here. as for yang and wu, both provide the proper meaning of “berthoud pass”. this shows that retranslations, even emerging at the same period, will correct or prevent misunderstanding of the source text and avoid flawed versions with the pursuit of adequate and better renderings. 4.2 yueqing tao and xiaoli he’s version and ang wu’s version 4.2.1 basic introduction of the two versions the publishing time of the selected two versions spans 30 years. tao and he’s version (hereinafter referred to as tao’s version), the first formal chinese version, was published in 1990. wu’s version with other new versions springs up in 2020. 4.2.2 analysis of the language from lexical terms this paper discusses the development of language from lexical terms. for example, regarding the appellation in the novel without particular signified, tao’s version almost deals with them totally by the word “huǒ jì/ ”, which refers to a term of endearment between males in some regions of northern china. through counting, “huǒ jì” appears 136 times in tao’s translated version, and 7 times in wu’s text. it proves that “huǒ jì” in china’s language development presents a declining tendency, though this word is not old-fashioned enough to be sifted out. instead, wu adopts “gē men ”, which enjoys a similar function as “huǒ jì”, totaling 153 times. and this word “gē men” is a daily expression nowadays, following the current language usage. 4.2.3 analysis on diction this part is related to discussion on exact wording. the word “blackie” in “hey, blackie” is translated as “zá zhǒng/ ” in tao’s version and into “lǎo hēi/ ” in wu’s version. in chinese, “zá zhǒng” is foul language when connected with people. nevertheless, the original text here includes no hostility, disparagement, or contempt, but a relaxed tone, a salutation. in this circumstance, “zá zhǒng” with its negative effect is unsuitable and may be misleading. based on the attitude to black people from the whole text, no expression about black people is accompanied by distain. therefore, wu tackles “blackie” in a simple manner to ensure a familiar oral expression in target language. 4.2.4 analysis of translation errors translation errors may include the following types: obvious mistakes such as wrong translation of common sense, mistakes caused by misunderstanding, mistakes made due to limited recognition. the following examples, to some extent, reflect the types of translation errors above. some basic mistakes can be corrected immediately, others can be revised with meticulous consideration of the context. and some mistakes caused by limited recognition will be corrected with the development of recognition and the passage of time. translation example 4 source text: missouri pacific communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 46 target text by tao: (mì sū lǐ de dà xī yáng) target text by wu: (mì sū lǐ tài píng yáng) tao’s version mixes up “pacific” and “atlantic” and changes the chinese expression of “pacific” as that of “atlantic”. in terms of this point, wu provides the proper translation. translation example 5. source text: “when you borrowed that nickel to make up the check for the chicken-fried steaks” “no, man, the chili! remember, the texas star?” target text by tao: (“dāng nǐ jiè shàng jǐ gè zi er qù mǎi yóu jiān jī pái.”) (“bù, lǎo xiōng, zhēn jiàn guǐ! nǐ hái jì de dé kè sà sī xīng bào ma?”) target text by wu: (“nà huí nǐ zhǎo wǒ jiè le 5 měi fēn, hǎo còu gòu mǎi zhà jī pái de qián.”) (“bù, gē men, shì là zǐ jī! nǐ jì de ma? zài dé kè sà sī zhī xīng.”) “texas star” is understood as a newspaper in yao’s text and as a restaurant in wu’s version during the translation process. according to the context, with “chicken-fried steaks” and “chili” as reference information, wu’s understanding is more accurate, while tao offers a not coherent version of those sentence expressions. there are some other examples like “columbus, so long”. tao’s version does not understand the meaning in the original text, thereby giving an irrelevant translated text. however, wu realizes a perfect link with the previous information: the two highschool boys who say “columbus, so long” are from columbus, ohio, and plan to hitch around the united states in the summer. above information fathoms out what the source wants to express: two boys have stayed columbus for a long time and say goodbye to this place to start their journey. under this circumstance, wu’s version presents a flawless one. “chevy” is another name for “chevrolet”. cars of the brand “chevrolet” were introduced into china’s market in 2005. due to the early publication in 1990, “chevy” may be a new word or a specific translation about it was not determined. tao’s version does not translate it as “xuě fú lán/ ” in chinese, while wu revises this point. in short, from the perspectives of language development, diction, errors correction, wu’s version provides better expressions than tao’s. 5. conclusion the comparison among the three versions shows that the translated versions published in a same period would choose various vocabularies and adopt different translation methods to accomplish the target text without many similarities while ensuring a relatively excellent translation. through the analysis, all translated versions show evident signs to avoid repetition. the comparison between the old version and the new version demonstrates that 30 years is not enough to witness significant differences in language, especially in literary expression and that the new translation truly makes strides and seeks a better translation. based on the discussion of the above cases, this paper proves that 1) retranslations indeed avoid repetition with existing translations, 2) the reason of retranslation include that the previous versions are flawed and there is a need to seek better ones. certainly, there exist some limits to this paper. five new translation versions were produced and published in 2020. due to limited time, the author only chooses three of them. some new examples or research perspectives may exist in other versions, which may be discussed in future papers. meanwhile, other scholars may explore the other texts from the comparative analysis or just a single one. references dougherty, s. 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(2020). on the road ( ). jiangsu: jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing house. volume03issue01.0914.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 58 localization and cultural adaptation of museum websites: a case of the chinese website of the british museum jiaxing hu1 1college of foreign languages, nankai university, hjx_hs@foxmail.com abstract this paper examines the approach to localizing a high-level website through cultural adaptation, focusing on the six elements of cultural adaptation in web localization: spatial orientations, navigation modes, translation equivalence, country-specific symbols, icons, and color symbolism. using the 10 most-searched chinese museum websites as reference objects, the paper analyses the level of cultural adaptation in the chinese website of the british museum and provides suggestions to increase its localization level, including the use of sticky sidebars, icons plus textual descriptions, and bright colors. the paper highlights the importance of understanding cultural differences in website design and the potential impact on user experience. overall, the paper offers insights and practical recommendations for web localization practitioners to effectively adapt websites to different cultures. key words: localization, cultural adaptation, museum website, the british museum 1. introduction the museum has been an integral part of human civilization throughout history. it serves as an organizational entity and physical space that collects, conserves, and displays tangible and intangible evidence of human history and nature. in addition to preserving cultural heritage, museums have evolved into essential educational and touristic hubs. defining the concept of a museum has been a subject of debate among institutions and scholars, with the international council of museums (2022) providing an up-to-date and comprehensive definition: a museum is a not-for-profit, permanent institution in the service of society that researches, collects, conserves, interprets and exhibits tangible and intangible heritage. open to the public, accessible and inclusive, museums foster diversity and sustainability. they operate and communicate ethically, professionally and with the participation of communities, offering varied experiences for education, enjoyment, reflection and knowledge sharing. (p. 3) this definition emphasizes one mission of a museum: serving the public. a museum serves as a custodian of heritage, preserving and interpreting it for future generations, promoting cultural understanding and awareness, and contributing to the development of identity and memory. however, due to constraints of time and space, serving all audiences becomes an impossible mission for traditional museums. most traditional museums have been limited in their capacity to provide services. these limitations manifest in the form of geographical barriers, physical access constraints, and overcrowding. not all individuals can travel to a museum location, and the limited capacity to receive visitors may discourage attendance. these challenges pose significant obstacles to the mission of traditional brick-and-mortar museums as non-profit and public good institutions, which aim to serve the entire population. in recent years, museums have increasingly turned to alternative ways to reach wider audiences. online exhibits, virtual tours, and digital platforms have emerged as popular approaches, extending the accessibility of museums beyond physical space and time. while acknowledging that online museum visiting cannot substitute the experience of in-person visit, it extends the accessibility of a museum. as a result, the museum website has drawn significant academic attention, with researchers highlighting the positive impacts of museum websites on audience engagement and education (mateo, 2021; cook, 2007). furthermore, scholars have explored the effectiveness, usability, and design of museum websites (wu and liu, 2021; cristobal-fransi et al., 2021; kabassi, 2019). however, despite the growing number of multilingual museum websites, little research has focused on the localization of museum websites, which involves adapting website content and format to meet the linguistic, cultural, and functional requirements of different regions or target audiences. specifically, the principles of museum website localization and the standards for localized websites remain under-researched. in contrast to building a website from scratch, website localization entails “the adaptation of digital content on the web and through mobile applications or software applications to meet the cultural, linguistic, legal, and other requirements of a target market where it will be deployed” (benmamoun et al., 2021, p. 216). a localized website is based on an established website and, technically and culturally, adapts itself to the target community. localizing a website is not merely a matter of translating its content into another language. rather, a localized website must be customized to the unique needs and preferences of the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 59 target audience, taking into account factors such as cultural norms, user preferences, and technical requirements. this may involve adjusting the content, format, and structure of the website to better suit the needs of the target audience. the aim of this paper is to investigate the cultural issues that arise in the localization of museum websites, with a specific focus on cultural adaptations to web content and format. using the chinese website of the british museum (referred to as tbm), this paper seeks to answer two key questions: 1) how is cultural adaptation manifested on localized museum websites? and 2) what strategies should be employed in the web localization of museum websites to achieve effective cultural adaptation? by addressing these questions, this research aims to contribute to the understanding of cultural considerations in the localization of museum websites and provide insights into effective strategies for achieving cultural adaptation. the findings of this study can inform museum professionals and website designers in their efforts to enhance the accessibility and engagement of diverse audiences in the digital realm. 2. methods this study adopts a comparative analysis method to examine the cultural adaptation of tbm’s chinese website. specifically, the chinese website of tbm is compared with other successful chinese museum websites and the english version of tbm. the top 10 most-searched chinese museum websites, as identified by the chinese museum trending searches (cmts), are used as the benchmark for successful cultural integration. table 1. top 10 most-searched chinese museum websites. names abbr. urls [the palace museum] tpm https://www.dpm.org.cn [national museum of china] nmc http://www.chnmuseum.cn [museum of wu] mw https://www.wuzhongmuseum.com [guangdong museum] gm https://www.gdmuseum.com [hunan museum] hm http://www.hnmuseum.com [henan museum] hnm http://www.chnmus.net [chengdu museum] cm https://www.cdmuseum.com [suzhou museum] sm https://www.szmuseum.com [zhejiang provincial museum] zpm https://www.zhejiangmuseum.com [luoyang museum] lm http://www.lymuseum.com/ the top 10 most-searched chinese museum websites can be considered culturally-customized websites that have achieved the highest level of localization within the chinese cultural context, despite not being explicitly localized. these websites successfully meet the expectations and preferences of chinese web users for museum websites. by conducting a comparative analysis between tbm's chinese website and these benchmark websites, this study aims to identify and evaluate the cultural adaptations present in the web content and format of tbm's chinese website. the findings will shed light on effective strategies for achieving cultural adaptation in the localization of museum websites, particularly within the chinese cultural context. 3. localization level and cultural adaptation 3.1 localization level communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 60 localization level describes the extent to which a website adapts itself to the target culture and users. in commercial contexts, the decision on the level of localization often depends on return on investment (roi) considerations. in essence, if the localized website is expected to generate greater benefits, more resources will be allocated by the localization commissioner to create a higher-level localized website (yunker, 2003; brooks, 2000). the categorization of localization levels varies widely depending on different criteria. based on the degree of cultural adaptation, singh and pereira (2005) propose five categories of web localization levels: 1. standardized websites: having the same web content for all users. there are no efforts made to create customized websites. 2. semi-localized websites: providing contact information about local branches. little else customized information is offered to address the needs of international users. 3. localized websites: offering country-specific web pages with translation, but the functions and structures are not customized. 4. highly localized websites: offering all content and site structure/functions fully adapted to the target users. 5. culturally customized websites: totally immersed in the target culture and society. (pp. 10-15) different localization levels require varying degrees of re-engineering and re-structuring. to achieve a high-level localized website, not only the textual and visual information, but also the underlying program and coding should be adjusted and even recreated to customize itself to the target users. however, singh and pereira (2005) point out that only a limited number of websites are fully customized to the highest level, primarily due to time and cost constraints as well as the finite capacity of localizers. thus, while high-level localization is desirable, practical considerations often limit the level of adaptation achievable in real-world localization projects. although singh and pereira’s categorization offers a valuable framework for understanding various levels of localization, it fails to encompass all potential cases. one such case involves organizations that selectively localize certain web pages, while leaving others unlocalized and linking the localized and unlocalized pages through hyperlinks. this phenomenon is frequently observed in non-commercial organizations due to limited localization resources (jiménez-crespo, 2013, p. 35). this form of localization may be categorized as a “hybrid level”, where a website comprises pages with varying localization levels. 3.2 cultural adaptation the role of culture and cultural adaptation in localization has been widely acknowledged by scholars in both the localization industry and translation studies (esselink, 2001; katan, 2009). the purpose of cultural adaptation in localization is not “to trick users into thinking your company is local, but to let users know that you understand their specific needs and wants” (yunker, 2003, p. 18). a well-localized website should fully immerse itself in the target culture to achieve this purpose. in general, a website with a higher localization level requires more cultural adaptations, which results in lower cognitive burden, more effective interaction, and greater acceptance from target users (jiménez-crespo, 2013, p. 32). these adaptations, as outlined by singh and pereira (2005), contribute to the establishment of perception, symbolism, and behavior among the target web users: 1. perception: the process by which individuals select, filter, organize, and interpret information to create a meaningful picture of the world; 2. symbolism: the system of representations and symbols carrying cultural information. 3. behavior: individual’s actions and aspirations guided by cultural values. in the context of web localization, the aforementioned three factors impact the website design and influence web users’ motivations and decisions. however, since this study focuses on the website itself rather than the web users, only the implications of perception and symbolism for localized websites will be discussed. implications of perception and symbolism for localized websites include: perception: 1. spatial orientation 2. navigation modes 3. translation equivalence symbolism: communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 61 1. country-specific symbols 2. icons 3. color symbols these six elements encompass both web content and format, reflecting user’s expectations of a website in a specific cultural context. by analyzing the characteristics of the top 10 most-searched websites with regards to the six elements outlined, a reference framework for the highest-level web localization can be developed. this framework will be used to evaluate the localization of tbm’s chinese website and identify areas where improvements could be made. 4. findings 4.1 perception 4.1.1 spatial orientation spatial orientation refers to the organization of content on a website, which directly influences the visual perception of web users (barber and badre, 1998). the location of the main content can impact the user’s perception of a website’s visual appeal, with english-speaking users often preferring a left-side emphasis layout due to the left-to right reading direction of english. additionally, web users familiar with symmetrical web structures may prefer to find information on the central part of the screen. website layouts can generally be categorized into three types: a) left emphasis layout, with the main content appearing on the left side; b) right emphasis layout, with the main content appearing on the right side; and c) symmetrical layout, in which both left and right sides are emphasized. these layouts can be applied in website design solely or together. table 2. the homepage layouts of the 10 sampled chinese museum websites. museum web layout tpm symmetrical nmc right emphasis; symmetrical mw symmetrical gm symmetrical hm right emphasis; symmetrical hnm left emphasis cm symmetrical sm symmetrical zpm symmetrical lm symmetrical it is noteworthy that the symmetrical layout stands out as the predominant choice of the homepage layout among the sampled chinese museum websites, accounting for 90 per cent of the cases. this layout type is, therefore, considered a visual convention for chinese web users, who have a preconceived notion of how a museum website’s homepage should be structured. nielsen and tahir (2001) posit that users arrive at a new web’s homepage with a considerable amount of mental baggage accumulated from prior visits to other homepages. as a result, users have formed a generic mental model of how a homepage should function. hence, when a chinese web user clicks on the chinese website of tbm, they expect to encounter a website resembling other museum websites in china, that is to say, a website with a symmetrical layout in terms of spatial orientation. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 62 the chinese website of tbm adheres to the visual convention of symmetrical layout, which is prevalent in the homepage designs of chinese museum websites. the comparison between the chinese and english versions of the tbm website (illustration 1 and 2) reveals that the spatial orientation of the homepage is unchanged in the chinese version. despite several adjustments in textual and visual content, the symmetrical structure of the homepage is retained, which is consistent with the expectations of chinese web users. 4.1.2 navigation modes navigation modes refer to the way in which web navigation is structured, including the placement, tags, and functions of navigation. in essence, web navigation acts as a road map for users. it is the table of contents of a website, which guides users throughout their exploration of the site. there are four different navigation approaches, as identified by websitebuilderexpert (wbe): 1. mega drop downs: large menu panels dropping down from the global menu header at the top of the website. 2. footer menus: appearing at the foot of the web page, offering additional content and links. 3. sidebars: appearing at the side of the web page and running horizontally alongside the content. 4. breadcrumbs: hierarchical links showing sub-categorized pages. 5. sticky navigation: staying fixed to the top of the page, not disappearing when a user scrolls down the page. illustration 2 english homepage of tbm illustration 1 chinese homepage of tbm communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 63 some approaches in the wbe classification have overlapping characteristics. for instance, sticky navigation can be found at the top, side, or bottom of a web page, and can be classified as mega drop downs, footer menus, or sidebars, respectively. in this regard, the position and the stickiness/non-stickiness of navigations will be investigated separately in this paper. table 3. navigation position and stickiness of 10 sampled chinese museum websites museum name navigation position navigation stickiness tpm top; side yes (side) nmc top; side yes (side) mw top; foot yes (top) gm top; foot no hm top; foot no hnm top no cm side; foot yes (side) sm top; side yes (top; side) zpm top; side; foot yes (side) lm top; foot no table 3 shows that 90 per cent of the sampled websites place their navigation at the top of the web page, while 60 per cent use sticky navigation. additionally, 80 per cent of them apply two types of navigation. notably, sticky navigation is often located on the side of the web page. the chinese version of tbm’s website exemplifies a straightforward navigation design located at the top of the web page, as depicted in illustration 3. in comparison to the english version’s navigation (illustration 4), the chinese version has simplified both its functions and items. for example, the “search” and “donate” buttons present in the english navigation are absent in the chinese version. while the “shop” button is left, its web is not localized. instead, the chinese website of tbm employs a third-party e-commerce platform to fulfill this function. clicking on the “the british museum shop” button in the chinese navigation redirects users to tmall, china’s largest e-commerce platform. according to wang and li (2022), the platform model of e-commerce is the dominant approach in chinese market, with a growing number of consumers preferring to make purchases on third-party platforms rather than self-operated business websites. as a result, outsourcing to a third-party shop rather than operating a localized business website aligns with chinese consumer habits and offers operational and logistical cost reductions. the existing navigation design on the chinese website of tbm is effective in serving its basic functions, despite being simplified. however, to achieve a higher level of localization and adaptation, it may be beneficial to incorporate a sticky sidebar that can offer additional information and features, such as contact details and search functionality. this could enhance the user experience by granting easy access to essential information and tools, while also aligning with the conventions of chinese web design. 4.1.3 translation equivalence illustration 2 chinese navigation of tbm illustration 1 english navigation of tbm communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 64 the translation of a website necessitates careful consideration to ensure the preservation of equivalence between two languages. website translation here refers to the transformation of linguistic codes, and as such, adaptations are required in word processing to ensure that the message conveyed in the source language is accurately reflected in the target language. in the case of the chinese-english language pair, for example, adjustments to the date format are often required for englishchinese translation due to the different writing habits of the two languages. the chinese date format is typically expressed as “year-month-day”, whereas the common order in english is “day-month-year” or “month-day-year”. to address this disparity, all dates on the chinese website of tbm are adapted to the chinese format. similarly, time, currency, and other measurement units on the chinese website adhere to the chinese writing system. these adaptations are implemented to ensure that chinese web users can easily comprehend the information presented on the website, thereby reducing their cognitive load in reading it. another notable difference between english and chinese lies in entropy, a statistical parameter that measures the amount of information generated on average for each letter of a text in a given language. in general, chinese characters carry more information and occupy less space than english words (chen et al., 2017). consequently, when translating all textual content on a website from english to chinese, the resulting chinese text occupies less space on the website, leading to a more scattered presentation of information on the website. to compensate for this, various approaches are commonly employed, including the addition of textual and image-based content. on tbm’s chinese website, this compensation strategy primarily involves the augmentation of textual content rather than images. for instance, the description of the collection “indian terrapin (kachuga dhongaka)” on the english website of tbm contains 307 words, while the corresponding description on the chinese website contains 816 characters. however, the chinese website only includes one picture of the collection, compared to 15 on the english version. by incorporating additional textual content, the chinese website seeks to mitigate the space disparity resulting from translation and provide chinese users with a comprehensive understanding of the exhibit. however, it is important to acknowledge that the divergent approaches to textual and visual presentation between the english and chinese versions may affect the overall user experience and perception of the website’s content. with a greater number of images depicting the exhibit on the english website, users of the english version have a more direct and visually-oriented experience. in contrast, chinese users gain access to more extensive background information about the exhibit due to the increased amount of textual content on the chinese website. the disparity in presentation between the two language versions implies that the user experience and the way in which information is conveyed may differ based on the users’ preferred habits in receiving information. english users may rely more heavily on visual elements to grasp the essence of the exhibit, while chinese users have access to a more detailed textual narrative that provides them with a deeper understanding of the exhibit's cultural and historical significance. consequently, the website’s design and content adaptation reflect the cultural and linguistic preferences of the respective target audiences, thereby catering to their specific information consumption habits. 4.2 symbolism 4.2.1 country-specific symbols country-specific symbols refer to elements that represents a way of life or embody specific cultural values. these symbols hold particular meanings or connotations within different countries or cultures. for example, in chinese culture, the huishaped pattern (resembling the chinese character “ ”) serves as a symbol associated with tradition, wealth, luck and endlessness, which is commonly employed in the design of furniture, buildings and clothing. in the context of web design, such countryand culturalspecific symbols are usually utilized as decorative elements. among the 10 sampled chinese museum websites, only two of them incorporate countryand culture-specific symbols. the website of nmc features the huishaped pattern and the website of tpm employs flower-shaped and fish-shaped symbols as decoration for web buttons. all of these symbols carry connotations of wealth and luck. conversely, the remaining eight sampled websites do not include country-specific symbols on their pages, suggesting that their presence may not be considered necessary. the chinese website of tbm, meanwhile, do not apply country-specific symbols as well. while country-specific symbols can add cultural significance and visual appeal to a website, their absence does not necessarily diminish a website’s effectiveness. in the case of chinese museum websites, the limited use of country-specific symbols suggests that they may not be deemed essential for the design of a museum website in china. however, the decision to include or exclude such symbols ultimately depends on the goals and target audience of the website. for example, if a museum website aims to attract tourists or visitors from specific countries, incorporating country-specific symbols may be more suitable and effective. similarly, if a website aims to showcase a particular facet of a country’s culture, the inclusion of relevant symbols may be beneficial. the consideration of country-specific symbols should align with the specific objectives and target audience of the website in question. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 65 4.2.2 icons icon serves as visual symbols that refers to links, options, or functions within a website. their role in web design is crucial as they facilitate easier and more efficient navigation for users. icons provide visual cues that can be readily recognized and understood, transcending language and cultural barriers. with the aid of icons, web users can obtain information speedily without language-related obstacles. it is therefore important to select icons that are culturally appropriate and easily understandable by the website’s target audience. when analyzing the icons of a website, it is crucial to determine whether they are understood within a specific culture. for example, if a website uses chinese characters as icons, they may be not understandable for british users. additionally, icons should be used in conjunction with clear textual descriptions to ensure users grasp their intended purpose. this approach creates a seamless user experience, reduces cognitive load and enhances user engagement. table 4. how icons are applied on the 10 sampled websites. museum name how icons applied tpm icons + textual description nmc icons + textual description mw icons gm icons + textual description hm icons + textual description hnm icons + textual description cm no icons sm icons + textual description zpm icons + textual description lm no icons table 4 demonstrates that the majority of websites employ a combination of icons and textual descriptions. this icon usage pattern enables users to quickly navigate to desired pages and functions, minimizing misunderstandings. however, no icons are present on the chinese website of tbm, even though its english version applies this pattern (illustration 5). therefore, to achieve a higher level localization, it is recommended that the chinese website of tbm also incorporate icons with textual descriptions to provide users with clearer guidance and enhance their overall experience. 4.2.3 color symbolism the selection of colors in web design can be influenced by cultural factors as colors carry different meanings and connotations across cultures. when localizing a website, careful consideration is needed in choosing a standard color, which refers to the main color used for the web logo, icons, navigation, and background, as it represents the website’s image. it is important to be culturally sensitive to ensure that the chosen color aligns with the target audience’s cultural understanding. table 5. standard colors of the 10 sampled websites. museum name standard colors tpm red nmc red mw black gm red hm white hnm red illustration 3 icons on the english website of tbm communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 66 cm white sm white zpm white lm yellow the analysis of standard colors used on chinese museum websites reveals that white and red are the most commonly chosen options; similarly, the chinese website of tbm also adopts white as its standard color, deviating from the black used in the english version. however, it is worth mentioning that many chinese museum websites incorporate additional bright colors alongside their standard color. for example, the website of the hunan museum uses red and yellow, while the palace museum employs blue and yellow. these additional colors prevent the websites from appearing monotonous and enhance their visual appeal. in contrast, the chinese website of tbm predominantly utilizes white, which can make the website appear tedious and unchanging. therefore, to achieve a higher-level localization, it is suggested to incorporate other colors such as red and yellow, which are commonly seen on chinese museum websites, into the design of the chinese website of tbm. this would add vibrancy and align with the cultural preferences of chinese web users. 5. conclusion this paper has investigated the approach to localizing a high-level website through cultural adaptation, by analyzing six key elements of cultural adaptation in web localization, namely spatial orientations, navigation modes, translation equivalence, country-specific symbols, icons, and color symbolism. in line with this objective, the study has drawn upon the cmts and analyzed the top 10 most-searched chinese museum websites, which are considered as culturally customized for chinese users, to identify effective localization strategies. specifically, the paper argues that a successful high-level localized website should align with the expectations of target users and existing websites designed for the local audience should serve as a norm for localization efforts. through a comparative analysis of the chinese website of tbm with the 10 sampled websites, this paper finds that the former has adopted some cultural adaptations in web localization, such as a symmetrical layout, the use of the chinese writing system, and the application of white as the standard color. the paper also provides some recommendations for increasing the localization level of museum websites, including incorporating sticky sidebars, using icons with textual descriptions, and adding bright colors, all of which aim to enhance user engagement and satisfaction. these suggestions can be used as guidelines for web designers and developers seeking to create culturally customized websites that meet the needs and expectations for users in a specific cultural context. by considering the six key elements of cultural adaptation, museum web designers can create websites that effectively communicate with the target audience and provide an optimal user experience. 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(11),136-137.] v02issue02.06.2022.0613.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 1 on translating red tourist attractions in guangzhou based on the variational translation theory chuqi wu1, jingjing huang2 1school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: 969017449@qq.com 2 corresponding author: same as above, e-mail: juliahjj@163.com fund: the study is one of the achievements of innovative projects of colleges and universities under the department of education of guangdong province (project no. 2019wtscx024) abstract due to the great historical significance of red tourist attractions, special attention needs to be paid to the translation of red tourist attractions. it will be beneficial for the sustainable development of red tourism and telling compelling chinese stories in a good way. based on the variational translation theory (vtt), the paper analyzes the translation of tourist texts of the red tourist attractions in guangzhou on the “list of 100 national cpc-related tourist attractions and scenic spots (2016)” with the seven translation techniques derived from vtt, which are adding, deleting, editing, narrating, condensing, integrating, and altering. according to the author’s research, most of the translations of red tourist attraction texts applied complete translation, though few adopted vtt. on the whole, the current situation of the translation of red tourist attractions is not optimistic, since only a few texts have english translated versions and many problems exist in current versions. the paper is supposed to inspire an increasing number of scholars who can show their interest in the translation of the tourist texts of the red tourist attractions, and thus spread chinese culture and convey chinese values in a good and correct way. keywords: variational translation theory (vtt)1, red tourist attractions, the translation of tourist texts 1. introduction red tourist attractions, usually known as revolution-themed tourist attractions, are important destinations of patriotism education in china: tourists learn about revolutionary history and legacy during the visit. the centenary of the founding of the communist party of china (cpc) in 2021 ignited a wave of studying the history of the cpc by paying in-person visits to the revolutionary sites, conducing to the thriving red tourism. translation of red tourist texts is more than cross-language and cross-cultural translating red tourist texts resonate with political leanings and patriotic mood. in addition to conveying the factual information in the red tourist text to the target reader, the translation aims at finding as much echo in the hearts of foreign visitors as in chinese visitors, therefore facilitating the cultural exchanges between china and the world. liu, zhang, and wang (2021) pointed out that “if we follow the original text too much, we cannot express the content perfectly” (p. 4), and suggested that variational translation theory—hereinafter referred to briefly as vtt—is viable to seeking the balance between the original text and the target text. unlike complete translation, the theme of variation translation is adaption, a way of compromise by taking the demands of the reader, the translator, the source text, and the target text into consideration. guangzhou, one of the most visited cities in china by foreigners undertakes the mission of carrying forward the spirit of the red revolution as well as introducing the revolutionary history of the motherland. therefore, this study selects six red tourist attractions in guangzhou from the "list of 100 national cpc-related tourist attractions and scenic spots (2016)" jointly issued by the general office of the cpc central committee and the general office of the state council, prc in 2016 as examples to explore the translation techniques applicable to translating red tourist attractions based on vtt. the six red torist attractions are the memorial museum of comrade mao zedong sponsoring the peasant movement institute, guangzhou 1 variational translation theory (vtt) is put forward by the chinese author professor huang zhonglian, and the official english translation of such theory is given in 2020 with the publishing of the book variational translation theory by springer. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 2 uprising memorial hall, the martyr memorial park, sanyuanli people's anti-british struggle memorial hall, huang huagang mausoleum of 72 martyrs, site of huangpu army military academy, guangzhou. 2. introduction basis 2.1 the development of vtt variation translation has long been widely used and explored in translation practice at home and abroad, though it was in 1998 that professor huang zhonglian formally put forward the concept of variation translation and then vtt systematically four years later. tan zaixi took french translator de abrangur and german translator herder as examples in his book a short history of translation in the west published by the commercial press in 2004 to prove that the practice of variation translation has a long history in the west, especially in the unprecedented golden era of the translation theories from 17th century to the 19th century (as cited in du, 2021). for de arbangur, the most important thing about translation was to help readers understand the content of the source text rather than translate all the words. therefore, de arbangur would do some adding or deleting in the translation as long as it was helpful for target reader’s understanding, attending little to the form and content similarity between the source text and the translated one. to be more specific, herder added some expressions in his translation of the temple of shakespeare in the hope that the readers could better understand the source text with such a supplement. as for the exploration of variation translation and vtt in china, both yang (2018) and du (2021) suggested that the practices of variation translation could be traced back to the translation of the buddhist scriptures in china. then, the practices of translation saw a further development through the tang dynasty, the late ming dynasty, the early qing dynasty, and the may fourth movement in 1919. during this long period, incomplete translation took a great part of all the translation materials. china, however, witnessed the vernacular promotion movement thereafter. under the influence of lu xun and other scholars, the translation practice of western literature in china began to emphasize the complete translation without missing a word (huang & zhang, 2020, p. 2). according to huang (2002a), chinese scholars hoped to save the reform of chinese characters and the development of literature by borrowing western ideas and literature after the may 4th movement (p. 13). huang (2002a) also indicated that the liberal changes of content and form by the translator are blamed as betrayal at that time (p. 11). therefore, the concept of complete translation became prevailing to avoid losses in the learning process of western literature. in contrast, variation translation was dismissed as a worthless practice of translation and the exploration of vtt in china developed slowly at that time but still captured the attention of some scholars including zhang zhongyue and professor zhou zhaoxiang of the hong kong baptist convention. in the words of huang (2002b), he pointed out that variation translation takes the external context as the premise and the reader as the center to solve the cultural contradiction between the source text and the multi-level target language readers' needs. in the same year, based on the studies on yan fu’s translation works and the practices of translation, huang (2002c) put forward vtt systematically, pointing out the four key factors, seven adaptation techniques, eleven variational translation methods, and seventeen research directions of vtt. it was also in 2002 that huang zhonglian released his book variational translation theory published by china translation and publication corporation. guo (2003, as cited in yang, 2018) regarded the foundation of the vtt as a breakthrough in the process of translation in china. further deepening of and research on the theory was conducted. ten pairs of typologies were summarized by huang zhonglian in the paper research methods of translation variation theory in 2011. huang and li (2014) discussed the twelve translation methods about their similarities and differences by comparison and contrast to deepen the research of variation translation. in addition, numerous conferences related to the study of vtt have been held, such as the second high-level forum on "theoretical translation and translation methodology" with the theme of "criticism and reflection on translation change theory" at guangdong university of foreign studies in 2018. founded in china in the late 1990s, vtt has constructed from 1998 to 2008, developed from 2009 to 2017, and expanded from 2018 on (huang & yang, 2018). it was labeled as china’s first original translation theory. based on the chinese monograph variational translation theory which was published in 2002 by china translation and publication corporation, huang zhonglian integrated findings and insights from 2002 to publish the english version of variational translation theory by springer in 2020 (huang & zhang, 2020). with social and economic development and the advent of the information age, the application of the vtt has been diversified from traditional literary genres such as fiction, poetry, and drama to “other well established and clearly defined types of text for translation such as multimedia texts, tourism texts, and legal documents” (williams & chesterman, 2004, p. 9). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 3 zhou (2005) suggested that the vtt will provide interpreters with a psychological buffer and a flexible platform to cope with challenges and open up a new field to some extent by analyzing the necessity, feasibility, and evaluation of the adaptation of interpreting such theory. hu (2004) said that the techniques of variation translation are efficient to meet the needs of advertisement translation as advertisements may be misunderstood because of different cultures if being translated word by word and sentence by sentence. the discussion on the application of variation translation in advertisements has been existing since the end of the 20th century. vtt’s application has been widely used in all walks of life with the further development of vtt. machine translation will also involve variation translation in the future as vtt will “significantly improve the efficiency of making full use of the foreign information” (huang & zhang, 2020). 2.2 variation translation vs. complete translation complete translation refers to the translation activity in which the translator converts the cultural information of the source language into the target language to achieve a similar even the same style. ji (2015) pointed out that complete translation pays attention to the integrity of information conversion, including the integrity of content, form, and style, and seeks to maximize the "similarity" between target text and source text. on the contrary, variation translation is a translation activity in which the translator uses adaptation techniques such as adding, deleting, editing, narrating, condensing, integrating, and altering to ingest the original text’s contents to meet the specific requests of specific target readers under specific conditions (huang & zhang, 2020, p. 7). huang and zhang (2020) suggested that what existed between complete translation and variation translation is creative writing added in the variation translation, and it is the variation translation that makes the concept of translation specialized and concrete. in the book variational translation theory, huang and zhang (2020) indicated that the amount of information in the complete translation (a) is different from the amount of information in the variation translation (b) because of adaptation (p. 91). then the seven variational translation techniques can be seen as adding(a>b), deleting(a<b), editing(a≤b), narrating(a≈b), condensing(a b), integrating(a b), and altering(a b). compared with complete translation, “variation translation is characterized by five words: abundance, swiftness, excellence, economization, and preciseness (huang & zhang, 2020, p. 165)”. therefore, variation translation better fits in with the current needs of society in the quest for reading efficiency along with increasing cross-cultural exchanges. though some differences, such as content, macro-form, and input of translators, do exist in the complete translation and variation translation, scholars admit that similarity also exists in these two forms of translation as well. ji (2015) said that complete translation and variation translation are formally opposite, but they both pursue the best integration point between "similarity" and "acceptability" in different ways. it is said that complete translation can be seen as the starting point of variation translation as both of them “involve translating the original work and contain the information of the original work” (huang & zhang, 2020, p. 16). 3. vtt applied in the tourist texts of red tourist attractions in guangzhou vtt is constituted by one core philosophy, two contradictions, four key factors, seven techniques, and eleven methods, and the former ones are the cause of the latter, interrelated with each other (huang & zhang, 2020). generated by the four factors of the vtt and bringing about the eleven variational translation methods, these seven translation techniques have seen wide application in variation translation. therefore, an analysis of the seven variational translation techniques is conducive to exploring how vtt is applied in the tourist texts of red tourist attractions in guangzhou. by field visit, the application of vtt in the six guangzhou red tourist attractions listed in the "list of 100 national cpc-related tourist attractions and scenic spots (2016)" is shown as follows. 3.1 adding (a>b) the way of adding information to the original works is adding by means of explanation, commentary, writing and the like to assure target readers easier and more precise unscrambling of information. generally speaking, the adding part in the translation of tourism translation texts can be divided into two categories according to their functions. one type of adding is to achieve contextual coherence and fluency with the aim of enhancing the target readers' understanding of tourist attractions, and the other is to add explanations of culture-loaded words with chinese characteristics to ensure textual legibility among foreign tourists. 3.1.1 adding for cohesion adding for cohesion in vtt refers to writing in the technique of adding. writing means adding relative content of the source text to the target one. according to the position of the adding part, writing can be divided into three types: writing before translating which is used to explain the background foreshadowing for the post, writing after translating which is used to communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 4 supplement the previous, and writing while translating which is used to serve as a bridge to connect the whole article firmly (huang & zhang, 2020, pp. 93-94). translation example 1. source text: target text: the memorial museum of comrade mao zedong sponsoring the peasant movement institute, with the short title of nongjiangsuo museum, is a second-class national museum that is established on the base of the guangzhou site of the peasant movement institute, or the national key cultural relic protection unit. the former site of the canton panyu confucian school was founded in1370 (3rd year of hongwu period in the ming dynasty). the historical buildings, with yellow tiles and red walls, look solemn and magnificent. in the ming and qing dynasties, it was the main place to develop the confucianism talents and offer sacrifices to confucius. in 1926, mao zedong sponsored the sixth peasant movement institute here, with the in-depth study of chinese peasant problems, training a large number of peasant movement cadres, which made an important contribution to the chinese revolution. the historical buildings which are the site of peasant movement institute have become a historic revolutionary memorial from then on. selected from the travel brochure of the memorial museum of comrade mao zedong sponsoring the peasant movement institute the outstanding characteristics of writing while translating are connecting the preceding and the following and cleverly embedding supplementary content for the translation to make it more coherent and increase the amount of information (huang & zhang, 2020, p. 93). the underlined part of the selected paragraph is the added part of the english translation of the official tourism brochure of the memorial museum of comrade mao zedong sponsoring the peasant movement institute. at first glance, the two supplementary sentences seem unnecessary. after all, if the two supplementary sentences are chopped, the paragraph flows still smoothly, causing little impact on the understanding of the translation. however, if examined in the whole text, the two supplementary sentences make the text more coherent and structured, especially with the use of the two added phrases “the historical buildings”. the first supplementary sentence on the description of the architectural appearance is to highlight the solemnity of the place, which provides rationality for mao zedong's sponsorship of the sixth peasant movement here, and the place is rated as the key national cultural relic protection unit. the second supplementary sentence tells the time of this site being regarded as a historical memorial hall of the chinese revolution, echoing the last sentence of the first paragraph, which does great help to the tourists’ understanding of the historical significance of the memorial museum of comrade mao zedong sponsoring the peasant movement institute. 3.1.2 adding for comprehension when it refers to adding for comprehension in vtt, it is generally related to explanation in the technique of adding. explanation means explaining part of the content of the source text in the target one because target readers are not that familiar with those parts as it has profound meaning or it is terminology, including literary quotation, ancient sayings, words, and so on (huang & zhang, 2020, p. 92). translation example 2. source text: target text: canton panyu confusion school was one of the main educational institutes in guangzhou city in the ming and qing dynasties. the confucian scholar (corrected) studied confucian here and started from the title of xiucai as the first step into the imperial examination system. the imperial examination system was the (corrected) of talent communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 5 and officer selection in ancient china. it was started in the sui dynasty, completely established in the tang dynasty, and reached its peak in the ming and qing dynasties. finally, it was abolished during the reform of the new educational system in the late qing dynasty. the imperial examination system lasting more than 1300 years in china, had played a significant role in the history of china and resulted in a wide range of influences. the chinese imperial examination culture is displayed in the guangji hall, which is behind the minglun hall. the exhibition is divided into three parts respectively: the history of the chinese imperial examination system, the process of the chinese imperial examination system, the number one scholar zhuangyuan in guangdong province. selected from the travel brochure of the memorial museum of comrade mao zedong sponsoring the peasant movement institute the explanation is usually added as part of the text rather than being a footnote. by doing so, the information content and the length of the text would increase (huang & zhang, 2020, p. 92). in this example, both phrases and sentences are added to the tourist text as supplementary parts for foreign tourists to better understand the background relevant to chinese culture. in example 2, the word “ ” is translated into “canton panyu confusion school”. “ ” is a typical culture-loaded word that appeared in the western zhou dynasty, which refers to the place of learning mainly open to the children of the nobility. “ ” now refers specifically to confucius temple usually set up by local governments in ancient china, and it is where ancient scholars studied traditional confucian culture. if “ ” is translated into “school”, its historical implication is dismissed. therefore, adding the word “confusion” precisely conveys the connotation of “ ”. another adding of the location word “canton” to modified “ ” avoids confusing tourists with other confusion schools. in addition, three complete sentences are added here in explanation of what the imperial examination was and how the imperial examination developed. meanwhile, they also serve as a supplement to the following sentence which says that the imperial examination had a history of more than 1300 years. the imperial examination, namely “ ” in china, was one of the most important talent selecting systems in the history of china. the system is well-known to the chinese but quite foreign to non-native tourists, thereby necessitating exhibiting the chinese imperial examination culture and the variational translation technique adding is used here. the application of vtt here has indeed been of great help for foreign tourists to break cultural barriers and understand chinese culture, thus enjoying a better tourist experience. another culture-loaded word “ ” is translated into “number one scholar zhuangyuan”. the translation explains the meaning by referring to the new english-chinese dictionary and keeps its chinese pronunciation zhuangyuan. 3.2 deleting (a<b) the way of deleting information unwanted to the target readers is deleting. in the variation translation, translators will tell what is unwanted for the target readers from the original texts and retain information that tallies highly with readers’ demands. the deleting unit can be a word, a phrase, a sentence, or a paragraph. huang (2002a) suggested that any information that directly or indirectly conforms to the needs of readers to a high degree can be retained, and any information that deviates from it or has little relationship can be discarded (pp. 113-115). by doing so, better communication can be achieved. 3.2.1 deleting for prominent information from the perspective of the reality of translation, need is the initial driving force of translation activities. the goal of deletion is to get the most out of the smaller pieces and make the most of the useful information (huang, 2002a, p. 114). translation example 3. source text: target text: the tombstone of alexand hiss everett, who was the first u.s. minister to china. (selected from the exhibition of whampoa military academy memorial) translation example 4. source text: target text: zhan tianyou(1861-1919): an english teacher at the guangdong real learning academy. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 6 (selected from the exhibition of whampoa military academy memorial) the description of honorary titles and awards is a unique expression with chinese characteristics, which is very common in the introduction of red tourist attractions (zhang, 2021). however, given consideration to foreigners' reading mentality and requirements for the layout of the scenic spot introduction column, both zhang (2021) and huang (2002a) suggested deleting such information properly to remain the appealing tourist text. in example 3, the translated introduction of alexand hiss everett keeps only one piece of the information-his title “the first u.s. minister to china” and deleted other details in the chinese text that he was dead in guangzhou in 1847 and he was buried in a foreigners’ cemetery in huangpu, a very significant cemetery as the manifestation of sino-us relationships. from the perspective of foreign tourists, these deleted details were of little help and distract their attention. in example 4, the chinese version of zhan tianyou's introduction tells that he was known as "the father of china's railway". the translator has taken this fact as irrelevant to the theme of the development of the whampoa military academy memorial and thus deleted it in the translation. such deletion is questionable and zhan’s being the father of china’s railway reveals the influential power of the faculty of guangdong real learning academy as well as unveiling him as a household name in china. thus the seemingly irrelevant information accentuates the prominence of zhan tianyou in the eyes of foreign tourists. 3.2.2 deleting for political information from the superstructure level, any translation is to serve the national politics and economy (huang, 2002a, p. 7), therefore translators generally have a certain sense of cultural input or cultural output when translating. for example, several translations of moment in peking published in japan made substantial modifications to the facts and circumstances of china's resistance to japanese aggression. the discussion of the japanese editions of moment in peking here aims at examining the sensitivity of japanese translators to cultural exchanges. translation example 5. source text: target text: after re-occupying guangzhou, the kuomintang army began to carry out massacres against the rebels. from 13th to 19th, more than 5700 revolutionary soldiers and revolutionaries were killed, including more than 200communist party members. the city was enveloped in white terror. (selected from the exhibition of the guangzhou uprising memorial hall) in example 5, the chinese text depicts the blood and carnage in detail: dead bodies were found everywhere from "under the baiyun mountain "," by the pearl river" to “all the streets and lanes of the city”. all these appalling descriptions were abridged in the translation. the translator downplays the emotional touch by delivering a condensed version in one single sentence that “the city was enveloped in white terror”. translation example 6. source text: target text: the guangzhou uprising was quelled, under the all-out counterattack of the kuomintang authority in guangzhou. in order to preserve and accumulate the revolution force and power, key leaders and some rebels in the uprising fled to hong kong and later returned back to the battle lines across the country to continue their dauntless fights under the leadership of the central and the guangdong committee of the cpc. (selected from the exhibition of the guangzhou uprising memorial hall) communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 7 in an article, the content should be divided into primary and secondary ones. appropriate deletion of secondary information can make cultural communication smoother. at the same time, under the ideology of peacetime, imperialism, with its obvious military and political components, can be slightly weakened to describe war objectively (peng, 2017). in example 6, the underlined chinese version lists many place names including "hailufeng", "jiangxi province", and "jinggang mountain" where the revolutions continued, the names of the following uprisings “ ” and land revolution of encircling the cities from the rural areas “ ”. all this information is considered secondary and therefore left out in the translation. keeping these unfamiliar places and culture-loaded terms is of little help but baffling for foreign tourists to understand the red spirit of the revolutionaries. 3.3 narrating (a b) the way of translating an original work by changing the form, deleting the details, and keeping the main idea is narrating. in other words, narrating is a kind of paraphrasing. by narrating, what the translators concentrate on are the main ideas rather than the form of the original work. generally speaking, narrating includes deleting and editing that involve variational translation techniques of which key steps are selection, arrangement and translation to convey contents in a clearer, more logical, and more impressive way. translation example 7. source text: target text: the revolutionary spirit of anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism swept guangdong province after the first kuomintang-communist cooperation. however, the cooperation broke down after chiang kai-shek and wang jingwei started their respective anti-communist coups in 1927. (selected from the exhibition of the guangzhou uprising memorial hall) translation example 8. source text: target text: on july 9th, 1926, the national government of guangzhou started the northern expedition. the picture shows the launching ceremony for the northern expedition. (selected from the exhibition of the guangzhou uprising memorial hall) the original text of example 7 explains the historical background of the rapid development of the anti-imperialist and antifeudal tide and then depicts the catastrophe in guangzhou when the cooperation between the kuomintang and the communist party broke up after the outbreak of the anti-communist coup. in the english version, the translator purposefully deletes details such as the historical background and retells the main content of this paper: the development and breakdown of the first kuomintang-communist cooperation. similarly, the original text of example 8 gives some details of the northern expedition congress while what is left in the translated version is the launching ceremony for the northern expedition. if example 8 employs complete translation, the english version should be as such: “the national revolutionary army held the northern expedition launching ceremony in guangzhou east field. in order to overthrow warlords and unify china, on july 9, 1926, with the support and promotion of the communist party of china, the kuomintang army held its launching ceremony in guangzhou and formally set out for the northern expedition”. more specific and detailed though, the complete translation version is far from being logical and clear. 3.4 integrating (a b) the way of combing two or more similar or logical parts, like a sentence, a paragraph, a chapter, etc., of the original work during translation is integrating. translation example 9. source text: communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 8 target text: in 1927, chiang kai-shek and wang jingwei started their respective anti-communist coups, and the great revolution encountered a severe failure. to salvage the revolution, the communist party planned another revoltguangzhou uprising-after the nanchang uprising and the autumn harvest uprising. named “workers’ and peasants’ red army”, a worker’s, peasants’ and soldiers’ democratic regime-guangzhou soviet government was established. it had played an important role in guangzhou, the political, economic, and cultural center in south china, and was later the “paris commune of the east”. although the guangzhou uprising suffered defeat due to the great disparity of strength between the two parties, it, along with nanchang uprising and autumn harvest uprising, marked the beginning of the communist party’s independent leadership of revolutions and establishment of the people’s army and played an important role in the history of the development of communist party and the people’s army. (selected from the exhibition of the guangzhou uprising memorial hall) huang zhonglian and zhang yongzhong (2020, p. 100) suggested that integrating should be used when the structure of the original text is not proper, like separating one paragraph into two. in the original text of example 9, the foreword of the exhibition of the guangzhou uprising memorial hall is divided into three paragraphs. the first paragraph reveals the historical background of the guangzhou uprising, the second paragraph depicts the outbreak and development of the guangzhou uprising, and the third paragraph unveils the historic significance of the guangzhou uprising. in the translated version the three paragraphs are condensed into two: the integrating technique is employed in merging the first two paragraphs into one. such integration makes sense in that both paragraphs are pertinent to the history of the guangzhou uprising while the third paragraph shifts into the historic significance of the event, hence the need for separation from the first two paragraphs. 4. conclusion the paper conducts an analysis of the english translated tourist texts of the six of guangzhou's red tourist attractions which are listed on the “list of 100 national cpc-related tourist attractions and scenic spots (2016)” published in december 2016 from the perspective of vtt, based on the seven variational translation techniques, especially adding, deleting, narrating and integrating. the aim is to encourage further study on the english translation of the red tourist attractions not only in guangzhou but entire china. as red-themed tourism plays an increasing role in cross-cultural communication, hence the need for quality translation of the tourist texts. findings of the translations of red tourist attractions do not seem optimistic. bilingual or multilingual introductions are not usually accessible to foreign visitors. yet among the bilingual introductions, complete translation dominates. in this paper, the complete translation is examined in handling red-themed tourist texts as compared with the variation translation, and it is proven through case analyses that the variation translation stands out: the flexibility of the variation translation better fits in with the textual features and political purposes of the red-themed introductions. to conclude, wide and in-depth research on translating red tourist attractions from the perspective of the vtt is required for china to “tell compelling chinese stories accurately and in a fantastic way”. references du, l (2021). research on interpretation strategies of long and difficult sentences in press conferences under translation variation theory—based on premier’s press conferences 2019-2021 (master’s thesis, inner mongolia university, inner mongolia, china). hu, y (2004). translation variation of advertisement (master’s thesis, wuhan university of technology, hubei, china). huang, z (2002a). variational translation theory[m] (in chinese, [m]). china translation and publication communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 02 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 9 corporation ( ). huang, z (2002b). the seven variational translation strategies (in chinese, ). foreign language research (01),93-96. doi:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2002.01.018. huang, z (2002c). variational translation theory: a new theory of translation theory (in chinese, : ). foreign language teaching abroad (01),19-22. doi:cnki:sun:gwjx.0.2002-01-004. huang, z. 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(2004). the map: a beginner's guide to doing research in translation studies. shanghai foreign language education press. yang, c (2018). a study on english translation of tales of hulan river by howard goldblatt from the perspective of translation variation theory (master’s thesis, shanghai international studies university, shanghai, china). zhou, q (2005). the relationship between interpreting and variational translation theory (in chinese, ). chinese science & technology translators journal (03),20-23. doi:10.16024/j.cnki.issn1002-0489.2005.03.007. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 7-29-pb(revised)1.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 39 visualized analysis of science and technology translation in china based on vosviewer (1998-2022) yingfu zhu1, leping huang2 1 school of foreign languages, tianjin university of commerce, china, e-mail: zhuyingfu@stu.tjcu.edu.cn 2 school of foreign languages, tianjin university of commerce, china, e-mail: huangleping@tjcu.edu.cn abstract science and technology translation and related research have achieved milestones both in china and the west, but conditions in china have not drawn attention, especially regarding translation activities and analyzing relevant research. to provide a reference for the future development of science and technology translation worldwide, this study reviews the history of science and technology translation in china and presents an overview of the development of related research in various aspects using vosviewer to investigate the researchers, research topics, themes and trends of science and technology translation in china. keywords: science and technology translation, translation history, translation studies, vosviewer 1. introduction science and technology translation both in the west and in china has progressed gradually with translation practice and achieved milestones. in reviewing chinese translation history, many efforts have been made across a variety of countries and regions. some notable examples include rachel lung (2008; 2016), who introduced translation officials in the tang dynasty and put the jiangnan arsenal’s translation department as a microcosm to introduce translation and ideological transformation in 19th-century china. martha cheung (2011) introduced some chinese endeavors in reconceptualizing translation, and rachel lung (2011) also has a monograph sharing the history of interpretation in early imperial china. however, the majority of scholars worldwide have not paid much attention to the history of chinese translation, especially regarding science and technology translation activities and analyzing relevant studies. therefore, in an attempt to add the chinese piece to the puzzle of translation history, this study will review the development of science and technology translation that falls into two parts: the history of chinese science and technology translation activities and the advance in related research. 2. history of chinese science and technology translation the history of science and technology translation practice in china can be divided into four periods: before the ming dynasty ( -1368), during the ming dynasty and the qing dynasty (1368-1912), during the republic of china (1912-1949), and from the founding of the prc (1949) until the present day. 2.1 the early period translation in china before the ming essentially consisted of translating religious documents, but a small number of foreign books on philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and other sciences, such as jiuzhi calendar, brahmin prescription (li et al., 1999), and so on, were also translated into chinese. 2.2 the middle period china’s science and technology began to fall behind the west in the 16th century and continued to fall during the late ming dynasty and the early qing dynasty. meanwhile, to do missionary work in china, western missionaries began to cooperate with chinese scholars to translate scientific documents, thus introducing western science and technology and marking the first science translation climax in china. according to ma zuyi (2004), the ancient classics translated during this period mainly involved physics, medicine, astronomy, and arithmetic, with a small number of social science texts regarding linguistics, literature, philosophy, theology, etc. being translated. although it was not yet systematic, the introduction of western sciences and technology gave the chinese people a basic understanding of the development behind western innovations, providing the relevant knowledge for dramatic political changes in chinese society. however, after over seventy famous missionaries came to china and translated or edited about 120 scientific works (xu, 2005), qing dynasty expelled western missionaries in 1723. thus, there was little translation of scientific works over the next 100 years. this changed in the late qing dynasty, however, when translation institutions and translation centers were set up to train translators and offer translation courses to realize “national salvation.” the second science and technology translation climax this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 40 in china began with the emergence of xu shou, yan fu, and even kang youwei, the leader of the reformists, who was not satisfied with only translating military technology, chemical, and electrical knowledge. he advocated for the translation of political, legal books, and various academic documents, thus expanding the scope of science and technology translation in china (she et al., 2001). in the late qing dynasty, the number of scientific and technological translations in china increased significantly with over 2,000 works translated, a much higher number than that in the late ming and the early qing (li et al., 1999:44). this difference is epitomized by jiangnan arsenal’s translation department, the largest translation institution of scientific and technological works during the westernization movement, which published 185 scientific and technological translations and over 49 translated but not published works from 1868-1912 (wang, 1988). 2.3 the modern period in this period, the practice of science and technology translation in china became even more ambitious and extensive. the quantity of translated scientific works in this period reached nearly 10,000, far outnumbering the quantity translated during the last seventy years of the qing dynasty (li et al., 1999:45). the government established book compilation and translation departments, while non-governmental publishing, such as the china publishing and the commercial press, also developed rapidly, and scholars and experts who had returned from overseas became the main force of science and technology translators. this period also witnessed the endeavors of the communist party of china. the central committee of the cpc started to foster translators and interpreters, and in 1940, the foreign languages school was established in yan’an, shanxi. communist party of china also set up publishing houses, where they translated many books about marxism-leninism and other scientific works. 2.4 the contemporary period with the founding of the people’s republic of china in 1949, especially owing to the implementation of the reform and opening-up policy in 1978, chinese science and technology translation has reached a new climax. with a larger number of translators and a wide range of channels and forms of communication, many more subjects can be translated. therefore, the practice of science and technology translation in china has brought new vitality and opportunities to the developing chinese science and technology. 3. history of chinese science and technology translation studies 3.1 before the implementation of the reform and opening-up policy before the ming dynasty, translation studies in china centered on religious documents, such as shi daoan’s (312-385) “five adaptations and three difficulties” from the jin dynasties, yan zong’s (557-610) “eight requirements for translators” from the sui dynasty, and xuan zang’s (about 600-662) “five non-translatable categories” from the tang dynasty. in the late ming dynasty and the early qing dynasty, western missionaries, as well as far-sighted personages among the chinese dignitaries at that time such as xu guangqi and li zhizao, mentioned their opinions on science and technology translation in the preface and synopsis of their translations, opening up the study of science and technology translation in china. over a hundred years later, in the republic of china, as the different types and the overall number of scientific and technological translations increased, the research on science and technology translation also became more prosperous. after the founding of the people’s republic of china in 1949, there was an urgent need to utilize translated works and introduce foreign scientific and technological resources, especially those from the former soviet union, to develop china in its reconstruction period. therefore, science and technology translation research in this stage centered on russian texts. journals such as (russian learning) and fan yi tong bao (chinese translation bulletin) were witnessed in this stage. 3.2 a bibliographic analysis of related researches (1978-2022) chinese science and technology translation research was rejuvenated after china implemented the reform and opening-up policy in 1978. a large number of foreign language and translation journals, such as chinese translators journal (formerly: translators’ notes), opened a column on “science and technology translation,” while professional journals such as shanghai journal of translators (formerly: shanghai journal of translators for science and technology) and chinese science & technology translators journal were founded. the number of papers on science and technology translation gradually increased to over a thousand, and many papers, monographs, and textbooks discussing theories and techniques of science and technology translation also became increasingly published. influenced by globalization and informatization, science and technology translation research has varied contents, diverse research methods, and broadened research perspectives after analyzing relevant papers in three high-impact chinese communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 41 translation journals (shan yu et al., 2017). science and technology translation research is gradually becoming prosperous.based on the quantitative analysis and mapping analysis of related papers, this study examined the last 25 years (1998-2022) of science and technology translation research in china. 3.2.1 data collection and analysis (a) data source the data for this study were obtained from the chinese social science citation index (cssci), a database developed by the institute for chinese social sciences research and assessment of nanjing university. cssci has been used by tsinghua university, the national library of china, the chinese academy of sciences, and more than 100 other institutions as a basis for academic evaluation and assessment. the cssci database covers important research articles on chinese science and technology translation. (b) analysis tools the analysis tool used by the authors was vosviewer, developed by nees jan van eck and ludo waltman of leiden university’s centre for science and technology studies (cwts), based on the computing platform java released by sun microsystems, as a software tool for constructing and visualizing bibliometric networks. vosviewer is capable of systematically exploring the research process of a discipline and determining its development trends, providing research institutions and research funders with a comprehensive view of their scientific activities to support strategic decision-making. the version of the vosviewer used in this study was 1.6.18. in addition, the authors used office excel, a data processing software developed by microsoft, for plotting line graphs. the version of office excel used in this study was 16.43. 3.2.2 visualization analysis the authors used “ ” as a search term and obtained 343 scholarly essays related to science and technology translation from cssci source journals. using the paper-by-paper examining method, 271 valid articles were kept manually based on their titles and abstracts after excluding articles such as book reviews and conference reviews. the information of valid articles, including title, author, institute, keywords, source, and year of publication, was saved in text files and imported into the software tool vosviewer. combining with traditional bibliometric methods for data statistics, the authors analyzed the status of chinese science and technology translation research in the past 25 years. (a) analysis of papers published annually the chart of annual publications can visually show the development of a subject. the data collected were processed using microsoft office excel to produce a chart of annual publications in chinese science and technology translation research during 1998-2022, as detailed in figure 1. figure 1. papers published annually in chinese science and technology translation study during 1998-2022 the total number of articles published during 1998-2022 was 271, with an annual average of about 10.8 articles. as shown in figure 1, the research on science and technology translations by chinese scholars at the end of the 20th century was at a communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 42 climax, and the number of articles published in 1998 and 1999 both reached 20. however, in 2000, the number of publications dropped sharply to single-digits, which is believed to be influenced by the fact that chinese scholars focused more on literary translations because of a debate on the scientific and artistic aspects of translation between the translation theory of the chinese linguistic school and the traditional translation theory of the artistic school at this time. from 2001-2011, the number of publications began to stabilize and even surged in 2009 and 2011. that was owing to the expanded enrollment of postgraduate students in china especially due to the establishment of the master of translation and interpreting, which focuses on the cultivation of application-oriented talents. the number of articles increased significantly to 40 in 2012 because of the rise of computer-aided translation tools and the review of all research in the 10 years since the millennium. the number was stable again from 2013-2021 at an annual number of publications of around 10. that was owing to the in-depth research on the use of machine translation, the expansion of the spatial and temporal span of data analysis, the exploration of the history of chinese science and technology translation, and innovations within the training mode of science and technology translation talents in institutions of higher learning. (b) analysis of articles’ authors using vosviewer, the raw data were pre-processed by converting the format. then, the authors set the options: type of analysis: co-authorship; counting method: full counting; unit of analysis: authors; minimum number of documents of an author: 1. all other settings were default. as a result, 309 eligible authors met the threshold, and a network view of coauthorship was generated, as shown in figure 2. figure 2. network view of co-authorship in chinese science and technology translation study during 1998-2022 among them, the top five authors in terms of the number of publications are shown in table 1. all of these authors were highly productive authors in the field of chinese science and technology translation research and published four or more science and technology translation papers in cssci source journals between 1998 and 2022. table 1. top five productive science and technology translation research scholars in chinese cssci source journals during 1998-2022 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 43 no. author documents 1 fang mengzhi 5 2 yang zhendan 5 3 huang zhonglian 4 4 wen jun 4 5 xu mingwu 4 at the top of the list is fang mengzhi, former chief editor of shanghai journal of translators. he published five articles about science and technology translation in cssci source journals in the last 25 years and has an abundance of other achievements. he is a pioneer in theoretical research on science and technology translation (guo, 2014) and has made remarkable contributions to the development of this field in china. also with five articles is yang zhendan, former senior editor of the commercial press, who has published a series of articles exploring the translation of scientific and technological terms in foreign language teaching and research and has made significant contributions to the relevant study. yang is followed by huang zhonglian, director of the institute of translation science at heilongjiang university, who has researched applied translation and translation thinking, etc.; wen jun, from the school of foreign languages, beihang university; and xu mingwu, dean of the school of foreign languages, huazhong university of science and technology, all with 4 articles, highlighting the importance that both experts and their institutions place on the study of science and technology translation. (c) analysis of the frequency and co-occurrence of keywords set the options in vosviewer: type of analysis: co-occurrence; counting method: full counting; unit of analysis: keywords; minimum number of occurrences of a keyword: 2. all other settings were default. 122 keywords met the threshold. after further processing keywords by manual merging, 98 valid keywords and their frequencies were obtained. then, by arranging the results in descending order, the top 10 keywords are shown in table 2. the occurrence of these high-frequency keywords is more than five times, which to some extent represents the hot issues that are of concern in chinese science and technology translation research from 1998 to 2022. table 2. high-frequency keywords of science and technology translation research in cssci source journals during 19982022 no. keyword occurrences no. keyword occurrences 1 science and technology translation 58 6 science and technology papers 8 2 translation 29 7 scientific and technological terminology translation 8 3 science and technology english 23 8 applied translation studies 7 4 translation strategies 11 9 applied translation 7 5 translation techniques 10 10 curriculum setting 6 as shown in table 2, the keyword “science and technology english” is at the top of the list, indicating that chinese science and technology translation research has mainly focused on english to chinese texts in the last 25 years. the fourth and fifth rankings are “translation strategies” and “translation techniques” respectively, indicating that chinese scholars attached importance to the analysis and summary of science and technology translation activities. the chinese scholars’ emphasis on techniques is, to a certain extent, also reflected in “science and technology papers” and “scientific and technological terminology translation," which are ranked 6th and 7th, respectively, and involve word choice and chinese pinyin spelling in translated texts. the occurrences of the keywords “applied translation studies” and “applied translation” are both 7, which indicates that with the implementation of the reform and opening-up policy, applied translation, such as the translation of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 44 advertisements, has emerged rapidly. likewise, applied translation research, which started from science and technology translation research, has also gradually developed. finally, “curriculum setting" has also received much attention from chinese scholars, reflecting the gradual attention to cultivating science and technology translation talents in china in the past 25 years. the authors further selected all valid keywords for co-occurrence analysis, and a network view was generated, as shown in figure 3. figure 3. network view of keywords co-occurrence in chinese science and technology translation study during 1998-2022 according to the number of keywords they contain, the clusters ranked in the top five are as follows: cluster 1 contains 11 keywords, which are: online translation, chinese to english translation, skopos theory, science and technology journals, science and technology terms, science and technology papers, editing, translation methods, translation quality, english translation, and english. the research topic can be summarized as machine translation of scientific and technological texts, and the main research content is in machine translation (e.g. online translation) assisted, the guiding theory of english translation of chinese scientific and technological discourses, translation method, and the evaluation method of translation quality. cluster 2 contains 11 keywords, which are: shanghai science and technology translation society, publishing house, foreign language education, discipline research, applied translation, applied translatology, literary translation, fang mengzhi, editing and processing, translation theory research, and the translatology system. the main contents can be summarized as applied translation studies and research on the translatology system, of which the primary promoter is fang mengzhi, former chief editor of shanghai journal of translators sponsored by shanghai science and technology translation society. cluster 3 contains 11 keywords, namely: information technology, training mode, technology writing, summary, translation profession, translation criticism, translation teaching, master of translation and interpreting, translation competence, curriculum setting, and curriculum design. the research theme can be summarized as a teaching and training model for translation majors led by mti, and the main research is about designing curriculums for developing translation techniques in information technology, technical collaboration, and translation criticism. cluster 4 contains 10 keywords, namely: china, chinese scientific and technological classics, reflection, development, review, outlook, current situation, research method, translated texts, and problem. the theme of the study can be summarized as a review, reflection, and outlook on chinese science and technology translation, with the main contents being the methods of chinese science and technology translation research and its problems, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 45 as well as the history of science and technology translation in china. cluster 5 contains 8 keywords, namely: shanghai journal of translators, chinese science & technology translators journal, analysis, science and technology english translation, translation techniques, translation research, translation sentences, and article analysis. this research theme can be summarized as the analysis of science and technology translation papers in high-influence translation journals in china, such as shanghai journal of translators and chinese science & technology translators journal. it mainly analyzes the science and technology translation techniques, translation methods, and translation research involved in papers. therefore, it is evident that the research scope of science and technology translation in china is relatively wide, not only involving translation methods and translation techniques, but also including translation theory research, reflecting on the pre-existing research, and looking forward to the future from various perspectives. all in all, the research on science and technology translation in china gradually shows prosperity. 4. conclusion the translation of science and technology works and relevant studies both in the west and in china have progressed together with translation practice and achieved milestones. however, the related achievements in china have not received much attention. in this regard, this study divided and briefly introduced the history of chinese science and technology translation from ancient to contemporary times, as well as the development of science and technology translation research. furthermore, the study hopes to provide a reference for the development of science and technology translation worldwide by analyzing the studies between 1998 and 2022 from the perspective of china in three dimensions: the number of papers annually, authors, and keywords. although the research on science and technology translation in china has made many achievements, compared with the practical and theoretical research on literary translation in china, the research on science and technology translation is still weak. not only is there a lack of outstanding published practical and theoretical papers on science and technology translation, but there is also a need for more science and technology translators and translatology scholars to strengthen their research on the basic theory of science and technology translation while summarizing the experience of it, to promote the continuous development of science and technology translation research. references cheung, m. p. y. (2011). reconceptualizing translation some chinese endeavours. meta, 56(1), 1-19. guo, j. z. (2014). [a salute to the outstanding achievements of professor fang mengzhi, a pioneering scholar of translation]. [shanghai journal of translators], (1), 2-5. li, n. q., xu, p. & zhang, f. (1999). [characteristics, achievements and brief comments on various periods in the history of science translation in china]. [chinese translators journal], (3), 32-34. li, n. q., xu, p. & zhang, f. (1999). [characteristics, achievements and brief comments on various periods in the history of science translation in china]. [chinese translators journal], (4), 43-46. lung, r. (2008).translation officials of the tang central government in medieval china. interpreting, 10(2), 175-196. lung, r. 2011). interpreters in early imperial china [m]. amsterdam/philadelphia: john benjamins publishing company. lung, r. (2016).the jiangnan arsenal: a microcosm of translation and ideological transformation in 19th-century china. meta, 61, 37-52. ma, z. y. (2004). [a brief history of china’s translation]. [beijing: china international translation and publishing co]. shan, y., fan, w. q. & xie, f. (2017). (1985—2015) [a visualized analysis of science and technology translation (1985—2015) in china]. [shanghai journal of translators], (2), 34-42+93. she, x. b., zhang, f., chen, l. & li, b. h. (2001). [major points in science translation study: a historical review]. [shanghai journal of translators for science and technology], (1), 1-6. wang, y. z. (1988). [a brief history of the translation department of the jiangnan arsenal]. [china historical materials of science and technology], (3), 65-74. xu, j. z. (2005). brief history of science translation in china. meta, 50(3), 1010–1021. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 46 notes note 1. the deadline for data collection is june 13, 2022. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. v02issue01.05.2022.02.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 18 deconstructing binary concepts of good/evil, male/female, love/hatred: a comparative cultural study of the crying game and kung fu hustle min chen1, jing wu2, kaiju chen3 1 school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china e-mail: rachchen0128@163.com 2school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china e-mail: 2191747052@qq.com 3center of business culture and philosophy of culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, china; institute of advanced studies, university of chinese academy of social sciences, china corresponding author: kaiju chen, e-mail: 200010931@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract neil jordan depicts a story in the crying game which is permeated with binary oppositions in multiple scenes at a dizzying speed. the plot is featured by unconventionality which secures the film a position in the international screenplay industry. kung fu hustle, a hong kong film directed by stephen chow, embraces hollywood-level box-office. it is an exemplary work of unconventionality as well. multiple themes of human nature, gender, and love remain to be further discovered and investigated in both films. the disintegration of similar themes is presented through different approaches. the mystery behind the “abnormality” of the two films is of significance in cultural studies. the present study decodes the secrets of the crying game and kung fu hustle through deconstructing binary concepts of good/evil, male/female, and love/hatred shown in the films, which provides a comprehensive and analytical perspective to interpret jordan’s and chow’s masterpieces through a comparative analysis. keywords: the crying game, kung fu hustle, deconstructionism, binary oppositions, comparative cultural study 1. introduction in 1992, neil jordan’s film the crying game received great applause from the movie industry as well as academic communities. as a romantic thriller, it starts with a carnival scene where jody (a british soldier) falls into the trap of jude’s (an ira member) sexual seduction. jody is a hostage controlled by another ira man, fergus. a friendship between the two opposite parties generates and promotes the development of the film plot. when fergus is assigned to terminate jody, he finds himself unable to accomplish the task and finally lets jody leave. ironically, jody dies during the british army’s ambush of the hostage site. to look after jody’s girlfriend, dil, fergus moves to london, disguising himself as a construction worker. fergus feels an irresistible urge to love dil but finds out that “she” is a man. the ira tracks fergus down, holding him guilty of betraying the ira and using dil to demand his involvement in an assassination of a judge. when fergus does not show up in time, jude seeks him out but only gets killed by dil. fergus takes the blame and goes to prison for dil, atoning for the death of jude. the film ends with a scene where dil dresses up as a woman visiting fergus in the prison. differing from the crying game, kung fu hustle is a comedy beneath the surface of great martial arts films. overcoming the law of gravity and physics, the main characters in this film can leap into the air and spin in circles and even land on the ground gracefully. protagonists in kung fu hustle do not have formal names, only being referred to as nicknames such as xing, the landlord, and fang. small potatoes cultivate strong power, which is one of the unique features of chow’s filming style. kung fu hustle describes a story with the backdrop of a chaotic social setting where the axe gang manipulates and dominates society. a shanghai slum named pig sty alley stays free from the harassment of gangsters. the couple of the landlord and many other community members have been living in the slum in a harmonious atmosphere. xing, who used to be bullied, wants to become a part of the axe gang. therefore, he attempts to commit evil crimes to demonstrate his potential evilness. in the end, however, he realizes that he does not belong to the group of evil gangsters. rather, he is one of the heroes who should protect kindness and peace, just like many characters from pig sty alley. the crying game is intertwined with multiple themes ranging from race, gender, and identity to love. similarly, kung fu hustle embraces various topics including humanity, love, and culture as well. it is through dismantling conventional ideas on these topics that the films can present reasonable and interesting plots. with traditional thoughts overthrown and a series of binary oppositions deconstructed, typical characteristics of deconstructionism make their presence to the audience, and more specifically, to scholars. academically speaking, exploring multiple themes of the two films requires a wellcommunication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 19 established theory and a comprehensive research method. through reviewing previous studies on the crying game and kung fu hustle, the present study notices that a study on decoding the two films applying deconstruction theory has not yet been investigated enough. some film commentators fail to consciously explain the theory and its application in analyzing films, only simply mentioning the idea of binary oppositions without synthesizing the deconstruction features in the films. the present research, therefore, targets unveiling the mystery of the crying game and kung fu hustle by explaining the deconstruction of binary oppositions in them, which provides a novel and systematic way of interpreting and comparing films, inspiring people to rethink the credibility of conventional doctrines. 2. literature review 2.1 previous studies on the crying game and kung fu hustle studies on critiquing the crying game share themes ranging from race, gender, film-shooting techniques, cross-dressing, love, etc. most of them are journals of film reviews. researchers embarked on unraveling the fascinating details of the crying game with an overwhelming interest, shedding light on topics of race and ethnicity. nicola evans argues that contemporary films have become the medium of rejuvenating race and stereotypes through subverting conventional opinions (evans, 1998). he explains how ideology works to form the public’s attitudes towards race and ethnicity. david lugowski makes comments on the crying game by analyzing and elucidating the plot. he proposes that the film’s emphasis on race expands beyond interracial relations and lies in the construction of manhood (lugowski, 1993). topics concerning gender and homosexuality have been investigated by scholars as well. james joy studies the way black and white female film figures are represented in the crying game. he thinks that audiences who are fascinated by jordan’s interracial film might also have been trapped by the stereotypical idea of black femme fatales are described and sold as the objects of white/male fantasy (joy, 1995). echoing joy’s research, sarah edge explores the way jude, the ira woman is represented in the film. she concludes that the character of jude represents both national and international anxieties concerning contemporary masculine and feminine subject positions (edge, 1995). lori gilbert regards the crying game as a crossing game in the sense that a protagonist named dil crosses the river of males and females through cross-dressing. her (his) presence is a blender of genders and an element of homosexuality. jude crosses the water from girlhood to womanhood (gilbert, 1994), which is an element of gender. attempts have been made to weave multifaceted themes in the crying game together. luo feiyan discusses the film from the perspective of nationality, gender identity, and the transcendence of human nature (luo, 2020). among a handful of research on the crying game, the most prominent one is conducted by hu jiaqiang and lv linqiong. in their research, the film is divided into three parts and each part shows a deconstruction of a triangle of relationships. using the theory of deconstruction, this study manages to present readers with a well-structured explanation of how deconstructionism works in breaking conventional views. it does not, however, mention the concept of deconstructing the binary oppositions in the film. previous studies concerning kung fu hustle are related to the sophisticated chinese culture. scholars attempt to discover the essence of chinese kung fu and grass-roots culture. lu xi analyzes the kung fu culture in the film by unraveling the veil of the humorous scenes and uses kung fu hustle as an example to investigate the grass-roots culture in chow’s films (lu, 2014). similarly, che et al. propose that stephen chow’s comedy style conforms to the social context and reveals the commercial culture in the post-modern climax (che, 2005). to enrich the research on kung fu hustle, du houping incorporates more elements for analysis. he analyzes the construction of film figures and the culture it presents to the audience, concluding that the way chow portrays characters and presents heroes shows features of post-modernity, which deserves appreciation (du, 2020). previous studies emphasize the importance of the culture conveyed by kung fu hustle and present a well-structured analysis for reference. scholars notice the deconstruction of conventional interpretations of the role of heroes, aesthetics, and human nature as well. for instance, tang xiaoting argues that stephen chow uses humor, parody, and martial arts to deconstruct the public’s understanding of heroes and provides explanations for a novel interpretation of heroic values (tang, 2005). to further the research, li tong analyzes stephen chow’s films from the perspective of deconstructionism, with kung fu hustle as one of the examples. li proposes that chow deconstructs the role of heroes by pointing out that heroes could be ordinary people and the binary opposition of good/evil is deconstructed in the film as well (li, 2019). what should be noted is that previous studies lack a systematic analysis of kung fu hustle, only emphasizing the deconstruction of one of the binary oppositions in the film. 2.2 research gap from the analysis of the crying game and kung fu hustle, we can sense that there exist research gaps in uncovering the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 20 details of the films. considering the film plot, there is no denying that both films are by nature masterpieces permeated with deconstruction. previous studies, nonetheless, do lack enough emphasis on this theory. on one side, there is a lack of a systematic theory that has been applied as the theoretical foundation of any research. most of the studies are film reviews with the main plot being explained and analyzed and several topics being discussed. in the case that there does exist a statement regarding binary oppositions, the deconstruction of those hierarchical pairs is not demonstrated. on the other side, previous studies fail to provide a large number of journals for the investigation. topics from the film are not explored to a large extent. though there are scholars applying deconstructionism in analyzing the film, they do not start from the angle of overthrowing the binary oppositions that appear in the film. what should be addressed is that scant attention has been paid to conducting a comparative cultural study of the crying game and kung fu hustle, ignoring the different manifestations of deconstructing the same binary oppositions in two different films that both enjoy applause in the film industry. the present paper, therefore, bears significance in the sense that it decodes the mystery of the crying game and kung fu hustle from deconstructionism, with the starting point of analyzing the binary oppositions in this film. using derrida’s deconstructionism to disintegrate the hierarchical pairs in the film, this study aims to provide a comprehensive and systematic view of interpreting the crying game and kung fu hustle, with elements regarding human nature, gender, and love being considered and elucidated. 3. theoretical framework 3.1 derrida’s philosophy of deconstruction emerging in the 1960s, deconstruction is a form of philosophical and critical analysis originating principally from jacques derrida’s masterpiece named of grammatology. as a renowned philosopher in the 20th century, derrida challenges the “center” of meaning that is presupposed by saussure, even in structuralist theory (derrida, 1988). in derrida’s of grammatology, the reasonable existence of a “center” is doubted and negated. the desire for a “center” is defined as “logocentrism” that carries the greatest possible concentration of presence (derrida, 1997). derrida puts in question the fundamental metaphysical assumptions of western philosophy that everything has a “center”. to justify and express his deconstructive thoughts, derrida coins the term “différance” to define a combination of spatial and temporal concepts, retaining its meanings of differing and deferring. “différance” is the systematic play of differences, traces of differences, and the spacing by which elements relate to one another (cuddon, 2004). it emphasizes the temporal and spatial differences among things and is a tool for analyzing literary works. the thought of deconstruction put forward by derrida does not have an explicit definition according to derrida himself. deconstruction demonstrates the difficulty of any theory that would define meaning in a uni-vocal way: as what an author intends, what conventions determine, what readers experience (culler, 1982). some people misinterpret deconstruction as the mere destruction of a “center” or authority. deconstruction functions in more than just dismantling a “center”; it targets using neutral and equivocal deconstructive terms to subvert metaphysical thinking. derrida attacks the assumption that a text has a single, stable meaning (klages, 2006). 3.2 deconstruction of binary oppositions the origin of binary oppositions can be traced back to the ancient greek arena when aristotle western metaphysics developed an “either-or” logic that inevitably generated dualistic thinking (bressler, 2004). the dualistic thinking of binary oppositions can be detected in saussure’s course in general linguistics in which he proposed a series of concepts of binary oppositions such as the signified and the signifier, diachronic and synchronic, langue, and parole (saussure, 1960). binary oppositions are developed to work as the theoretical foundation of modern structuralism in saussure’s compositions. the concept of binary oppositions prescribes hierarchical pairs such as presence/absence, good/evil, male/female, central/marginal, speech/writing, etc. in western metaphysics, the former element of the pairs is superior and fundamental to the latter one. as derrida states that the former dominates the latter in value and logos (derrida, 1997). to deconstruct binary oppositions, derrida uses the term “différance” to argue that hierarchical oppositions can be removed and dismantled. selden supports derrida, saying that “binary opposition” can always be deconstructed, “the hierarchy can be easily undone and reversed.” (selden et al., 2004). in literary theoretical discourse, neither term in a binary opposition or pair is considered absolute. it is therefore reasonable for the audience to understand why in literary works and movies some twists and turns subvert conventional thinking. in defining a term of binary oppositions, it is never possible to give either one a permanent definition. if so, the plots would be fixed and lack innovation. in western thoughts, one term defines and communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 21 is, in turn, defined by what appears to be its opposite, and in all binary oppositions, one term, usually the former of the two, is privileged hierarchically over the other (wolfreys et al., 2006). it is exactly this kind of thinking pattern that has been greatly sniped at by derrida. in interpreting any binary opposition, derrida argues the structure within any hierarchical pair is shaky and could be reasonably reversed. for example, meng argued that in the right/wrong binary hierarchy, western thought would claim the supremacy of right over wrong, attributing to wrong a derivative and supplementary role. however, the purity of “right” does not exist. there is at least some “right” in the wrong (meng, 2015). therefore, applying derrida’s deconstruction of binary oppositions in understanding the crying game and kung fu hustle, explanations of how each of the hierarchical pairs gets dissolved are justifiable. 4. deconstruction of binary oppositions the crying game and kung fu hustle in the public’s interpretation are simply deemed as “being full of twists and turns” and the mechanism of how each protagonist transforms throughout the films remains ambiguous. derrida’s deconstruction serves as an instrument that bridges the vacuum between the film plots and the revelation of several themes in the films. he thinks that any binary opposition is subject to deconstruction (derrida, 1981). this study will analyze the deconstruction of binary oppositions in the films, including good/evil, male/female, love/hatred, with each of them representing the subversion of human nature, gender, and love. as the plot fares ahead, conventional doctrines concerning the three binary oppositions are deconstructed and, to some degree, reconstructed. 4.1 deconstruction of binary opposition between good and evil in the crying game, the ira members are depicted as terrorists. the ira operative leader peter and member jude breed typical characteristics of a killer: cruel, violent, indifferent, cranky, merciless, etc. the way they treat jody is undoubtedly inhumane. jody is clouted, handcuffed, blindfolded, beaten, and tortured for days. with a backdrop of dark and dim scenery, the film cultivates a dismal atmosphere. as a member of the ira, fergus is expected to embody the evilness that is inherited from his political background. fergus does not break the audience’s expectations of him at the beginning of the film. he is obedient, following what is demanded to do. before he has interactions with jody, it is fair to say that fergus symbolizes evilness which is the same as his ira boss and “colleagues”. fergus experiences a radical change when compared with how he acts like an ira member. if he disguises himself as a merciless killer from the onset, it is a person with kindness and good human nature that he turns out to be in the end. reviewing the film, we can sense that there is a binary opposition between good/evil. according to midgley, in western metaphysics, the former is superior to the latter (midgley, 2002). what is assessed as superior and better is placed on the left side of the hierarchical pair, and what is deemed as inferior, worse, or less welcomed is put on the right side of the slash. there is a consensus among not only in western ideology but also within chinese communities that performing good deeds and becoming good people are valued with care more than being evil or bad. the binary opposition of good/evil is demonstrated by fergus with good nature versus fergus and the ira as killers. judged from the plot, the hierarchical opposition of good/evil is unstable. neil jordan manages to demonstrate how a binary opposition is possibly shattered and dismantled into pieces. this pair of binary opposition belongs to the category of human nature. when defining the essence of human nature, plato defines “good” as justice, support, help, harmoniousness, truth, and virtue; “evil” as injustice, destroy, destruction, and chaos (jia & zhang, 2019). he also argues that the binary of good/evil cannot be subverted or reversed. while in jordan’s film, the binary opposition is explicitly overthrown. the process, according to derrida, is precisely the process of deconstruction. for the audience, conventional ideas on the human nature of a killer are subverted. fergus is an unconventional killer. deconstructing the role of a killer involves two stimuli. the first one is the interaction between fergus and jody. though trapped in a perilous situation, jody attempts to develop a friendship with fergus both consciously and unconsciously. in his eyes, fergus enjoys utterly discrepant features compared with other ira members. he senses fergus’s kindness, patience, and sympathy towards him and takes advantage of it to secure himself a possible opportunity for escape. fergus as a killer is unbelievably friendly to jody, feeding and communicating with him every day. a weird yet harmonious friendship gradually makes its presence to the audience. after the interaction, fergus acts in a way that bears no resemblance to a killer: he talks, laughs, and even helps his hostage to escape, tilting to his true nature. the second stimulus comes in the story of the scorpion and the frog. jordan tactically borrows the parable from orson welles’ mr. arkadin. in jody’s narrative, he implies that there are two types of people in this world: one being evil in nature; the other, being innately good. evil people do everything for their own sake; while good ones know what the right thing is. jody wants fergus to understand that they are in a similar position: they are both controlled by the ira. jody communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 22 implies that fergus does not belong to the ira in nature. he also overtly expresses his concern over the nature of the ira, suggesting that the ira is evil in nature and will kill him as a hostage. fergus, however, does not believe that the organization will kill innocent people. this further demonstrates that fergus is the frog who should chase his true self bravely. reflecting on the story and what jody says, fergus starts to doubt the behavior of the ira and rethink the predicament he is in. he realizes that there is some commonness between him and jody. their friendship has been built on an increasingly solid foundation. so, we will not be surprised to see that when fergus is required to kill jody, he seems so hesitant and finally let him leave. derrida thinks employing the strategies of deconstruction, the hierarchical opposition of good/evil could be transformed into evil/good, namely, “good” can dominate “evil” and it is the same the other way round. in terms of the parable’s ambiguous meaning, fergus becomes amphibious of a mixed or two-fold nature. using deconstruction to analyze the dissolution of the hierarchical binary of good/evil, we can understand how fergus manages to transform from “evil political identify” to “good inborn nature”, which deconstructs people’s conventional understanding of the nature of a killer. in kung fu hustle, the dualistic pair of good/evil has been made explicit at the beginning of the film. in a time of social unrest and disorder, the axe gang blatantly kills the leader of another gang and his mistress, threatening policemen to clean up the “battlefield”. the axe gang is deemed as the most feared group of gangs with scary physical and mental power. it can be inferred from the film that if you are a member of the axe gang, you are entitled to high social status and the right of going shopping free of charge. people fear being wreaked vengeance upon by those gangsters if they cannot satisfy their requirements. pig sty alley, however, presents itself as an utterly different community where peace and kindness exist. though conflicts happen occasionally, people living in pig sty alley are representatives of friendliness, virtue, and humanity. some seemingly philistines are proficient in martial arts. it is their efforts to fight against the axe gang that demonstrates the pursuit of good virtue. the relationship between the two sides can be described as the binary opposition of good/evil. in the context of the film, they are by no means living in harmony. to combat evilness, xing presents the audience in an exemplary way by emphasizing and exploring the essence of humanity. xing as one of the protagonists used to be bullied by a group of naughty and evil teenagers amid his endeavor to protect a disadvantaged girl. this results in his inclination to be a gangster. he believes it is the basis of being respected and cherished. xing’s behaviors, including robbery, murder, and deceit, are not successful and all end in failure. the more eager he is to demonstrate his evil human nature, the more attacks he gets from other people. he then starts to doubt himself and finally cannot avoid approaching his true nature, which can be sensed when xing tries to kill the gangster instead of the landlord. after xing suffers from the pain of being beaten up by mr. beast, the world’s top killer, he reoccurs in the film as a brand-new person who supports righteousness and good virtue. he transforms from an evil human being into a person in the pursuit of kindness and peace. the role of the world’s top killer mr. beast, whose chinese name is huo yun xie shen, has been deconstructed in kung fu hustle as well. as a representation of evilness and insanity, mr. beast pursues violence throughout his lifetime, which implies that he is as evil as the axe gang members. his human nature, at the same time, is evidenced by his merciless and cruel acts of killing. mr. beast claims that in the world of kung fu, speed defines the winner. his kung fu can be said to be second to none and in the battle against xing, mr. beast wreaks havoc on all xing’s bones and tendons. when he fails to kill xing, he thinks he is destined to doom. what elevates the main theme of the film to a higher level is that xing does not kill mr. beast. on the contrary, xing shows his willingness to teach mr. beast which makes the defeated man so touched and then resort to peace. mr. beast transforms from a “beast” into a person who understands the importance of kindness. chow deconstructs the role of mr. beast at the end of the film, showing his purpose of revealing a profound and perpetual topic of all mankind, namely, the pursuit of peace and good human nature. 4.2 deconstruction of binary opposition between male and female the second binary opposition is concerned with male/female. in this hierarchical pair, gender is deconstructed through the disruption of the conventional dichotomy of man and woman. in the crying game, although fergus is ordered to kill jody, he cannot do this. however, jody is run over by a van of a british army. this film now shifts its location to london, where fergus (who has changed his name to jimmy) finds jody’s girlfriend, dil, and gradually develops a romantic relationship with her. when fergus meets dil at the first sight, he is attracted by this tender and beautiful girl with long curly hair and fashionable clothes as a hairdresser. more importantly, she is full of female charm. she flirts with fergus and tries to establish a relationship with him in a reserved way. she sings a song in the pub where her lithe body and graceful dancing greatly impress fergus. as a lady, she is certainly delicate and communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 23 vulnerable, so she needs masculine protection. fergus and dil soon fall in love with each other like all other love stories with dates, flowers, and romantic restaurants. it seems that the audience can imagine their subsequent happy life. however, the film dismantles all expectations: when fergus takes off dil’s clothes, he is shocked to find out that dil is a man. suddenly, he pushes dil away and rushes to the toilet. he cannot accept loving a man because he thinks he is not gay. it is not only a subversion of the film plot but also a subversion of traditional stereotypes and a deconstruction of male and female, homosexuality and heterosexuality. with the reference to derrida’s philosophy of deconstruction, the dichotomy of male and female should be destroyed. sex is a mistaken concept to distinguish a person because a man or a woman is not defined by his or her biological traits. gender, a cultural version of sex, is also unreasonable because it is just a kind of performance of masculinity or femininity (li, 2003). in this film, dil is a man from the point of biological traits; but “she” is a woman from her social practices. once the conventional gender stereotype is deconstructed, we don’t call dil a homosexual or a transvestite and we don’t say dil is abnormal or weird. dil is dil, who can be a true self, wear the clothes he/she likes, and love a person he/she loves. when the differences between male and female, homosexuality and heterosexuality are erased, two persons fall in love for the only one purpose: love. in this film, dil is a good example. she is never confused or shameful about her “abnormality”. she wears the clothes she likes and behaves following her own heart. she bravely admits and demonstrates her love even when she is refused by fergus. on the contrary, fergus is puzzled about his gender identity. at first, he expresses his disgust at homosexuality and rejects dil’s love. but gradually, he finds he still has some feelings for dil even though he knows dil is a man. to some extent, his gender identity is not deconstructed thoroughly, but it is exactly his nature. he is indecisive and afraid to transcend the conventional rules while his all actions indicate that he is beyond the normality. finally, he will figure out whether the relationship between him and dil is friendship or, love. although there is no homosexual element in the film kung fu hustle, the male and female characters can still represent the deconstruction of traditional sexual stereotypes, especially through the relationship between the landlord and landlady. it is generally acknowledged that in a patriarchal society, the husband is superior to the wife because the husband is the pillar of the family. however, in this film, the landlady is the leader of her family and even the head of the community. she is depicted as a shrewish and tough woman at the beginning of the film, but as the plot progresses, a sense of justice in her inner heart is re-evoked. finally, she realizes her responsibility and tries her best to protect other people with her husband. on the contrary, the landlord is less remarkable as he is a little roguish and always follows the landlady. when the lipstick marks on his face are seen by her wife, he is beaten fiercely. it is safe to say that landlord and landlady represent the subversive version of conventional images of husband and wife. although the behaviors of landlord and landlady are constructed for comic effect, the characters’ design in which the wife is stronger than the husband contributes to the concept that the traditional stereotypes can be broken, and a new and opposite mode is possible and even successful. women, particularly, the landlady in kung fu hustle are never the appendage of the men. the landlady is competent with superb martial art skills and bears the responsibility of pursuing justice. also, the landlord is a skilled fighter with a sense of justice. therefore, they are a couple having the same ability and ambitions. all in all, the dichotomy of male and female can be erased, and we should not bind some certain qualities to a certain sex. it is the feature of an individual that is valuable, no matter what his or her sex is. 4.3 deconstruction of binary opposition between love and hatred the third binary opposition is about love/hatred which reconstructs the new relationship between fergus and dil in the film the crying game and drives the transformation of xing in kung fu hustle. in the crying game, fergus has known dil is a man, and he says he cannot love dil because he is not gay. although fergus says he only likes dil as a girl previously, he still kisses her and looks after her. it seems everything has become better after the shock. however, jude and maguire turn up again and they order fergus to carry out a dangerous assassination mission otherwise they would hurt dil. the hatred for endless fight closely intertwines with the love for dil and fergus finally accepts this mission to protect dil. however, fergus doesn’t show up in time for the assassination, causing the death of maguire. jude gets infuriated and seeks fergus out with a gun but then she is killed by dil. fergus takes the rap for dil and is sent to jail. ultimately, dil visits fergus in the prison and calculates when fergus could be freed from prison. the atmosphere between them is relaxing and their lines also show a sense of humor (dil mistakenly counts the days as she forgets the leap year and fergus corrects her). when dil asks fergus why he does all these for her, he says it is because of his nature and tells the story of “scorpion and frog” with funny tones and gestures. the image of fergus, in the end, demonstrates the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 01 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 24 reconstruction of fergus who gives up his previous hatred and accepts the love from dil. as a killer, he once holds a gun to catch a hostage out of hatred, but later to protect his lover for love; he is supposed to be merciless and violent, but now he smiles at his lover. besides, the relationship between fergus and dil is reconstructed. the new reconstruction signals the disappearance of hatred and the pursuit of love. for fergus, he sets aside the national hatred and begins to face up to dil’s love; for dil, she puts aside the hatred for fergus for the death of jody but bravely loves fergus again. and one thing that can be ensured is that their relationship is heading in a better direction. their communication in the end at the prison is more relaxing than before and fergus’s attitude to dil is more inclusive. he does not treat dil seriously and carefully but regards her as a listener to whom he can talk casually and trustfully. it may be the best state of their relationship in which they understand each other although their attitudes to this relationship have never been identical. after all, a good ending for them does not have to be love, but beyond love. for xing, a hero in the film kung fu hustle, love and hatred are no longer the opposites but a continuum in which his perfection is gradually established. in the beginning, xing is described as a horrible man with profound hatred due to his failure and despair in his childhood. so, he wants to be an evildoer, attempting to kill someone and rob an ice cream trunk. the twist in the story is that xing finds out that the vendor of the ice cream trunk is the girl whom he tried to help when he was a little boy. the girl fang shows xing the lollipop, but he throws it on the floor. at that moment, the love and kindness in xing’s inner heart are awakened and, in the meanwhile, a different hatred is also aroused. this kind of hatred is not xing’s disappointment in the dark society but in himself. he is angry at himself that he bullies the weak to hide his inability and hurts the girl who is expressing her gratitude. this hatred also evokes the love at the bottom of his heart. xing reflects on himself and begins to believe there is still something good in the world, which foreshadows the transformation of xing in the following plot. the landlord and landlady also set the example of deconstructing the binary opposition of love and hatred. they live in a small town, escaping from conflicts in the world because of the death of their son. there must be some hatred in their heart, so they don’t want to take any responsibility at the beginning. but later, as the film progresses, they realize that great power comes with great responsibility. the hatred for the outside disputes changes into the love, justice, and protection for innocent people and peace. to summarize, hatred and love in kung fu hustle are no longer incompatible like water and fire as they can be found in one person at the same time. the hatred for the vicious force drives the love for peace and niceness, in turn, the love in the inner heart provides the power to fight against hatred and evilness. 5. conclusion the present research, from the perspective of derrida’s deconstruction, makes a comparative cultural study of the crying game and kung fu hustle through deconstructing binary concepts. the conflicts between binary oppositions of good/evil, male/female, and love/hatred are intense, each of them presenting the subversion of the dominant terms within the structure. interpreting films from the angle of dismantling hierarchical pairs, we further resonate with neil jordan and stephen chow in reconstructing the public’s understanding of settled doctrines, invoking thoughts on human nature, gender, and love. the crying game and kung fu hustle nurture multiple binary oppositions and evoke their deconstruction. the deconstruction of these dichotomous pairs provides an explicit explanation for the audience to probe the mystery behind the plots. this study offers a well-structured way to analyze films applying deconstruction, assisted by the notion of breaking binary oppositions. references bressler, c. e. 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(2nd ed.). edinburgh: edinburgh university press ltd., 369. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. volume03issue01.0611.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 14 the english translation of indeterminacies in tao yuanming's poetry from the perspective of reception aesthetics theory yushan cen1 1school of translation studies, soochow university, e-mail:cys13451154130@gmail.com abstract tao yuanming, known as "the ancestor of reclusive poets" and "the originator of pastoral poetry", occupies an important position in the history of chinese poetry. like many excellent poems, tao's poems also use a large number of blank spaces, which makes his poems concise but meaningful. from the perspective of the concept of "indeterminacies" in the theory of reception aesthetics, combined with the characteristics of the blank spaces in tao’s poems, this paper classifies them into linguistic indeterminacies, syntactic indeterminacies, imagery indeterminacies , and cultural indeterminacies, analyzes and compares it with the original text and translation, and discusses the english translation methods of blank in ancient chinese poetry. keywords: english translation of tao yuanming's poems, reception aesthetic theory, blank 1. introduction poetry is a brilliant pearl in literature, and poetry translation is a bridge to convey excellent cultures from abroad. poets express their emotions through the exquisite use of language, which is the most concise form of literature. it is a highly refined and condensed representation of real life in various ethnic language systems around the world. poetry from different countries has its unique charm. due to differences in geographical location, local customs, lifestyle habits, language, and other factors, chinese and western poetry differs greatly in terms of form, style, theme, and other aspects. poetry translation brings vitality to literary creation in the target language country and brings novel literary experiences to readers in the target language country. classical poetry is a treasure of chinese culture, and effectively conveying classical poetry is crucial for cultural exchange between china and the west. whether readers can feel and recognize the beauty of poetry translations is the key to poetry aesthetic translation. only when the beauty of the source language poetry appears in a form that the target reader can accept and identify with, can it stimulate the reader's subjective initiative in reading and enable them to experience aesthetic effects similar to those of the original text. liu bai (vacancies) is a major feature of chinese poetry and a major difficulty in translating chinese poetry. it shares similarities with the "indeterminacy" in reception aesthetics. this paper takes tao yuanming's poetry as the corpus, and based on the theory of reception aesthetics, analyzes and compares the translation of liu bai (vacancies) in chinese classical poetry from four aspects: linguistic indeterminacy, syntactic indeterminacy, image indeterminacy, and cultural indeterminacy. 2. "indeterminacy" in the theory of reception aesthetics the theory of reception aesthetics, which originated in the 1960s, has changed the vision of literary research from authorcentered and work-centered to reader-centered through the investigation and reflection of previous literary theories, thus improving the status of readers and enriching the connotation of literary works. robert jauss, one of the founders of reception aesthetics and a famous german literary theorist, published the article "the history of literature as a challenge to the science of literature" in 1967, marking the birth of reception aesthetics, whose theoretical basis is phenomenal aesthetics and interpretive aesthetics. wolfgang iser is another important representative of reception aesthetics. robert jauss and wolfgang iser together are known as the "two stars of reception aesthetics". according to reception aesthetics, literary texts are not a close whole but tend to provide "schematized aspects" (iser, 1978:21). in other words, there are many implications or meaning gaps in literary texts, which are not clearly expressed in words and should be discovered and filled by readers. this is why, according to the view of reception aesthetics, literary works are not equal to literary texts, while other theories regard these two concepts as the same. literary works are full of uncertain factors or gaps. what readers need to do when reading is to fill these gaps with their vision of expectation, which is called concretization in reception aesthetics. in a narrow sense, concretization refers to any actions and efforts taken by readers to fill in every uncertain factor. in a broad sense, it refers to the actualization of the text. in other words, a literary work includes not only the literary text, but also the concretization of readers, and the latter part is more important. "indeterminacy" is an essential part of literary works. iser (1979, p. 125) claimed that meaning is not embodied in the text, but generated in the process of reading. they are not entirely subjective or pure texts, but the result of interaction between communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 15 readers and texts. therefore, the translator, as a reader, fills in these indeterminacies by making full use of proper imagination and creativity. then, the target readers complete the uncertainties in the translated works through their imagination and creativity. iser (1979, p. 55) said that the more uncertain factors are, the more diverse the image the reader constructs. reception aesthetics was applied to western translation studies in the late 1970s. in the 1980s, some chinese scholars also began to apply reception aesthetics in translation study. reception aesthetics is successful and effective in guiding and studying translation, and provides new perspectives and ideas for translation and translation studies. 3. liu bai in ancient chinese poems ancient chinese poetry is the quintessence of chinese culture. most of its length is limited, but its meaning is often endless. today, despite the changes of times, it still has unattainable and unrepeatable artistic and cultural values, of which "liu bai" is one of its major characteristics. "as the internal essence of chinese poetry culture, the vacancies and indeterminacies of meaning in ancient art have some holographic characteristics of chinese cultural spirit. it is also the core topic of the aesthetic hermeneutics of ancient chinese literature, and is the generation and operation mechanism of chinese artistic meaning in the form of artistic conception." (jin, 1995). liu bai, that is, leaving corresponding blank spaces in the work. what is left behind is a kind of wisdom, a realm, the end of visualization, the beginning of imagery. leaving vacancies can be seen as the process of writing realistically and seeking virtuality. the language of poetry is highly concise, leaping, and implicit. a good poem can often show a grand scene or reach a lofty artistic conception through a few words of description, and achieve the artistic height of endless meaning. yan yu once said in the ts’ang lang poetry critique ( ): "...therefore, its beauty is thorough and exquisite, and it cannot be touched. it is like the sound in the air, the color in the picture, the moon in the water, and the image in the mirror. the words are limited but the meaning is endless.", indicating the beauty of blank space in poetry and prose. the meaning of vacancies is also mentioned in reception aesthetics. it shares similarities with the "indeterminacy" in reception aesthetics. iser (1974) said: "if the reader has been given the whole story, leaving with nothing to do, then his imagination will never enter the field, and the result will be that everything is readily set out in front of the reader, and then inevitably boredom will set in." liu bai in ancient poetry is ubiquitous, and the forms it takes are diverse. at the micro level, it includes rhythm, linguistic words, syntactic structure, and rhetorical devices; at the macro level, it includes imagery and connotation. 4. english translation of indeterminacies in the poems of tao yuanming tao yuanming (c. 365-427) was a distinguished poet, rhetorician, and essayist from the late eastern jin dynasty to the early liu song dynasty. he is known as "the patriarch of the hermit poets" and "the progenitor of the idyllic poetry school". tao wrote 125 poems and 12 essays, which were compiled by later generations as the tao yuanming collection. the main types of his works are: drinking poems, chanting poems, pastoral poems, and prose. tao is the first poet who wrote a lot about drinking in the history of chinese literature. his drinking poems are rich in life, profound in philosophical connotation, and highly accomplished in art, which are masterpieces in the history of chinese poetry. tao's spirit of drinking had a great impact on the creation of drinking poetry in the tang and song dynasties. as a huge spiritual force, he inspired scholars and literati in the depths of adversity, and his life of poetry and drinking has become an ideal life mode for many poets. tao's drinking spirit has been inherited through the creation of poets of all ages and has given out eternal artistic brilliance in the history of literature. in addition, his idyllic poems are the most numerous and the most accomplished. these poems fully express the poet's noble moral integrity of keeping his will; his love for simple rural life, his knowledge of labor and his friendly feelings toward the working people; and his pursuit and aspiration for an ideal world. as a literati doctor, such thoughts, feelings, and contents are unprecedented in the history of literature, especially in a society with strict patriarchal systems and concepts. tao is the pioneer of pastoral poetry. his pastoral poems, with simple and natural language and lofty artistic conception, opened up an unexplored land for chinese poetry and directly affected the pastoral poetry school of the tang dynasty. in his idyllic poems, his weariness of the dark reality and his love for the quiet idyllic life can be seen everywhere. tao's works have attracted the attention of not only chinese scholars and readers but also countless poets, literary enthusiasts, and researchers from abroad. not only has scholarship on tao and his works been noted in the history of chinese literature, but overseas interest and research on him have continued for many centuries, with a wealth of related writings. overseas readers, especially in the english-speaking world, became acquainted with tao mainly through the english translations of his works. modern readers in the english-speaking world have come to know the poet and his life through the translations of poems by sinologists or translators from different periods. like many traditional chinese poems, tao's poems also use a large number of vacancies. according to the characteristics of the blank spaces in his poems, this paper divides it into four parts: linguistic indeterminacies, syntactic indeterminacies, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 16 imagery indeterminacies, and cultural indeterminacies. it analyzes and compares the indeterminacies in the original text and the translated text, and discusses the english translation methods of the blank space in ancient poems in different categories. 4.1 linguistic indeterminacies at the linguistic level, indeterminacies refer to the omission of some words that lead to incomplete sentences, including subjects, predicates, prepositions, modifiers, and conjunctions. these ellipsis will contribute to the conciseness and retention of poetry, and also help to form the imagination space in the reader's mind. chinese classical poetry is a literary genre that is full of blanks and fuzziness in all directions and at all levels, leaving a huge space for readers to appreciate. rhetoric is the main form of text blank, that is, linguistic indeterminacies are formed through pun, metaphor, implication, metonymy, irony, repetition, etc. the following examples are linguistic indeterminacies caused by reduplicated words. reduplicated words are an aesthetic feature of tao's poems. in many of tao's poems, verbs appear as reduplicated words. dealing with the reduplication is an important part of preserving the language style and reproducing the poetic meaning of tao's poems, but due to the differences between the chinese and western languages, it is not advisable to translate the reduplication directly into english, as it will not only create an obstacle to the understanding of the target language readers but will also make the grammatical structure of the translation confused. therefore, for this kind of semantic gap, the translator needs to give full play to his initiative and creativity and make appropriate rewriting to help the readers of the target language understand the content and meaning of the poem without compromising the original meaning. example 1 source text: target text: late autumn now provides a dreary view, amid the chilly wind and heavy dew. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:66) slowly the autumn has come to its close; chilly the wind and dew mingle. tr. by albert richard davis (1984:78) little by little autumn has come to an end chill, chill the wind and dew combine. tr. by james robert hightower (1970:119) the poem is about the arrival of the bleak wind and dew in the late autumn of september. the use of the words ' ' and ' ' seem to convey the special atmosphere of late autumn. the superlatives here act as adjectives in the original text to modify autumn and wind respectively, but wang translates them as the adjectives 'late', 'dreary' and 'chilly' and 'heavy', which form a couplet, conveying the original meaning and fills in the missing first rhyme with the final rhyme. the only minor flaw is that the phonetic beauty of reduplicated words is not conveyed to readers. davis converted these two reduplicated words into adverbs, which is a great translation method because reduplicated words mostly have a modifying effect in poetry and prose. while filling in the meaning gap, davis made the translated text very close to the original text, providing readers with a similar aesthetic experience and meeting their expectations. example 2 source text: target text: the moon sheds light o’er ten thousand li. visible its glow o’er land and sea. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:90) far, far the rays extend a million miles, wide, wide the lights spread out through space. —tr. by james robert hightower (1970:196) tao yuanming's poetry often reveals a profound experience of life. this experience is a profound introspection of life itself. for human life, its meaning is evergreen. in the second poem of the miscellaneous poems, tao yuanming writes of his sense of worry that time is running out and that his life is already limited, that he has not yet achieved his ambition, and that the value of his life has not yet been realized. the poem depicts the scene between heaven and earth at sunset and moonrise, which then leads to the poet's feeling that life is short and that it is difficult to achieve one's ambition. wang's translation uses communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 17 'o'er' to convey the implication of the two superlatives ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ which is simple and concise. although it does not reproduce the style of the superlative at the beginning of the stanza, the two lines echo each other in form, and the end rhyme largely fills in the gaps in the superlative. example 3 source text: target text: the farther from home in my boat i go, the stronger my thoughts for the country grow. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:46) far into the distance the lonely boat departed, continuous and constant the thought of returning home. tr. by william acker (1952:87) into the distance the solitary boat goes; endlessly my thoughts of returning wind. tr. by albert richard davis (1984:120) wang uses the basic pattern of the common sentence pattern "the more, the more" in the english language to replace tao yuanming's technique of reduplication. this translation method retains the rhetorical features and aesthetic taste of the original poem to a large extent and also conforms to the expectations of the target language readers. it is a "win-win" translation method, and it is the re-creation and filling of the language gap. in comparison, although william acker's translation conveys the meaning of the original poem, it is still lacking in rhyme and sound. however, it can be seen that he has taken some consideration in this regard, such as translating " " as "continuous and constant", which is a common alliteration in english poetry rhetoric. it is obvious that both translators have their ways of thinking and translating, and i reckon that wang's version is more in line with readers' expectations. 4.2 syntactic indeterminacies syntactic indeterminacies are produced by the breakthrough or backwash of poetic language to the rules and collocations of everyday language. it can create an undetermined state through the absence of sentence elements (lack of subject, predicate , and object), produce a compound sense or ambiguity effect through word usage, or change the meaning gap through abnormal collocation (such as preposition of object, inversion of subject and predicate, etc.). example 4 source text: target text: my house is built amid the world of men, yet with no sound and fury do i ken. to tell you how i can keep deaf and blind, any place is calm for a peaceful mind. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:113) i built my house near where others dwell, and yet there is no clamor of carriages and horses. you ask of me "how can this be so?" "when the heart is far the place of itself is distant." —tr. by william acker (1952:117) i built my hut beside a traveled road yet hear no noise of passing carts and horses. you would like to know how it is done? with the mind detached, one’s place becomes remote. tr. by james robert hightower (1970:130) tao pioneered drinking poetry, and his drinking poem is a masterpiece in the history of chinese poetry, with its rich life content, profound philosophical connotations, and high artistic achievement. this poem lacks a subject in sentence structure, which is very common in classical chinese poetry. the charm of ancient chinese lies in its flexible structure and scattered communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 18 sentence patterns. the poet uses subject-free sentences with verbs as the core to describe the scenery and create vivid images. however, english is a hypotactic language and its structure is rigorous. therefore, to ensure the accuracy of grammar, the translator needs to fill in the missing content in chinese according to english grammar rules. here, all three translators add the subject "i" and translate the ownership of " " (the place where the poet lived), thus the meaning of the original poem is truly conveyed. in the process of translating poetry into english, the completion of the syntactic structure of the original poem coordinates the pragmatic differences between chinese and western poetry and clears cognitive barriers for readers. example 5 source text: — target text: i've loathed the madding crowd since i was a boy while hills and mountains have filled me with joy. by mistake i sought mundane careers and got entrapped in them for thirty years. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:52) nothing like the others, even as a child, rooted in a love for hills and mountains, i fell into their net of dust, that one departure a blunder lasting thirteen years. tr. by david hinton (1993:43) in this poem, as in the previous one, the subject is not mentioned, and the two translations add the subject 'i' to the original poem. in such cases, the translator needs to analyze and fill in the omitted syntactic elements and words according to the characteristics of the source and target languages. 4.3 imagery indeterminacies “ ” is a unique and typical concept in chinese classical poetry, which involves an artistic image and its implication. the concept of it in chinese poetry is different from that of "image" in english, because "image" does not have as many meanings as “ ” . when writing poems, the poet will choose some specific images to describe the picture and convey his feelings. “ ” is the external object that the poet chooses and endows with internal emotions and feelings. it is the combination of exterior and interior with aesthetic value. therefore, the reader must grasp these images to understand and appreciate the poet's feelings and emotions. example 6 source text: target text: when we meet, a few remarks will go; how fast the hemp and mulberry leaves grow! —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:54) on overgrown paths, i meet neighbors without confusion: we only talk about how the crops are doing, nothing more. —tr. by david hinton (1993:45) this poem was written the second year after tao resigned. he was immersed in farming life at that time and often communicated with his neighbors about the growth of crops. from the pictures of "no miscellaneous words" and "mulberry hemp", we can understand how tao's social life is. wang translated " " literally as “hemp and mulberry”, but hinton did not translate it literally as "hemp and mulberry", but changed it to "crops". due to the different geographical environments in china and the west, the cultivated food crops are also different, so western readers may not know much about mulberry and hemp, but wang's translation can expand the horizon of expectations of western readers to some extent, stimulate their thinking, and generate interest in customs and habits beyond poetry. hinton's translation is also justifiable, which is more conducive to readers' understanding of poetry, but it may also be detrimental to the reader's initiative and leave little room for reflection. example 7 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 19 source text: target text: the orchids blossom lush beneath the windows; before my parlor grow so dense the willows. when you departed from me, my dear friend, i did not know how many years you'd spend. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003,152) below my window orchids show their colors, before the hall the willow tree is dense. when first my friend and i were separated i had not thought he would be long away. tr. by james robert hightower (1970:169) willow ( in chinese is pronounced similarly to the character stay ( ), meaning to stay or to wish for someone to stay. this special pronunciation gives willow's image the feeling of missing someone or the sadness of departure. willow is usually the carrier of the poet's emotion. it is therefore often used by poets to express their homesickness in the face of parting. the same is true of tao's poems. the willows in his poems also have profound meanings. the literal translation method adopted by wang here does not explain the connotation of the willow tree much, but the whole poem is composed of two sentences of scenery and the last two sentences of lyricism. the target language readers may not understand the deep meaning behind the "willow" at the beginning, but this is also the beauty of the translation. as the readers further understand and take the initiative, it is not difficult to establish the relationship between the image words and emotions, and then explore the connotation behind it. in this case, the expectations of target language readers are expanded and cultural exchanges are highly realized. therefore, by adopting this translation method, the original image is retained to the maximum extent, and its aesthetic value is well preserved in the target text. hightower's translation also retains the two imagery words in the poem, and he noticed the rhythmic beauty of the two reduplicated words in the poem. therefore, he used the alliterations of "below" and "before" in his translation, conveying both the imagery beauty and the phonological beauty of the original text. example 8 source text: target text: in verdant woods, chrysanthemum now glows; on rocky slopes, green pine-trees line in rows. lofty are chrysanthemums and pines, which in the frosty weather show best signs. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:20) fragrant chrysanthemums ablaze in woodlands blooming, green pines lining the clifftops: isn’t this the immaculate heart beauty, this frost-deepened austerity? ---tr. by david hinton (1993:50) chrysanthemums ( ) and pine trees ( ) are cultural symbols with special meanings in chinese culture. in the late autumn when everything is withering, the fragrant chrysanthemum and the green pine are unafraid of the cold, unyielding, blooming proudly and standing firmly, symbolizing noble and tenacious character and integrity. here, although the poet describes scenery, he uses things to describe people, to express his feelings of staying away from the dark officialdom and sticking to the noble and upright spirit. even though foreign readers are familiar with chrysanthemums and pine, they may not know the connotation of these two images in traditional chinese culture. wang chooses to retain the surface image and modifies it with "lofty" in the following so that the reader can find the deep meaning. readers could acknowledge that chrysanthemums and pine trees may not only represent plants and flowers in the poem. likewise, david also reflects this in his translation, as "immaculate heart beauty" and "austerity" are both words used to describe human beings, and readers will realize that in chinese traditional poetry and prose, chrysanthemums and pines are imbued with human emotions and are symbols of purity and nobility. proper filling by the translator can stimulate the target readers to explore the deep meaning communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 20 behind the representation, thus broadening their horizon of expectations. 4.4 cultural indeterminacies to understand the connotation and artistic conception of chinese poetry, one must have a comprehensive understanding of the chinese cultural background it involves, because language and culture are closely related to each other. "there exists no language that is not steeped in the context of culture, no culture that does not have at its center in the structure of natural language." (lotman, 1978: 211-212). the image of chinese poetry is rooted in chinese culture, influenced and shaped by it. the special connotation of some images in chinese culture is determined by the uniqueness of chinese culture. peter newmark once said, "frequently where is the cultural focus, there is a translation problem due to the cultural 'gap' or 'distance' between the source and target languages." (newmark, 2001: 94). even the same thing will have different connotations in different cultures. example 9 source text: target text: gone is bo-ya, who played the zither for his friend; gone is zhuangzi, who talked truth with his friend. since there's no man with such a noble mind. where should i roam and what am i to find! —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:160) two high graves by the side of the road, po ya in one, the other chuang chou. men like these are hard to find if i went now, what would i seek? ---tr. by james robert hightower (1970:182) "bo-ya" ( ) and "zhuangzi" ( ) are household names in chinese culture, but they may not be well known to western readers. the cultural gap will hinder the target language readers' accurate understanding of the original text. both bo-ya and zhuangzi are pursuing a life of unbridled friendship with their best friends, and seldom consider their political careers. tao yuanming resonates with them in this regard. in consideration of the acceptance of the target language readers, wang explained the two names after the literal translation to clarify the implied content and the theme. therefore, readers of the target language can not only obtain its original meaning but also acquire knowledge about culture-specific words. in this way, the expectation range of target language readers is expanded. james directly translates the names of the people in the poem without explaining them. instead, he provided annotations in the subsequent appreciation of the poem. although readers may understand what these two people represent when reading the explanation, they do not seek a thorough understanding when reading the poem. in my humble perspective, a better way to deal with such situations is to provide a slight explanation in the original poem, which can be referred to in wang's translation. this not only helps readers understand but also does not interrupt them in reading. example 10 source text: target text: with fair chrysanthemums in view, i pluck their petals glistening with wet dew. a sip of wine that carries these fair flowers, will free my mind from all the worldly powers. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:112) colors infusing autumn chrysanthemums exquisite, i pick dew-bathed petals, float them on that forget-your-cares stuff. even my passion for living apart soon grows distant. tr. by david hinton (1993:100) communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 21 " " is the synonym for jiu (alcohol) in ancient times, because drinking can make people temporarily forget the worries of reality. in many stories in china, jiu appears as the image of "wang you wu". like china, western countries also have their own unique wine culture, but in the west, wine is mostly associated with romance and elegance, and is rarely used to express and relieve sadness, which forms a gap in the understanding of chinese and western wine culture. wang's translation of "wang you wu" into "a sip of wine" does not translate its literal meaning directly, thus avoiding ambiguity. in addition, the translation of "jiu" ( into "wine" conforms to the expectations of western readers and helps western readers understand the original text. hinton translates it as “forget-your cares stuff”, although this approach is faithful to the original text, readers may not be able to understand the translation due to cultural differences between china and the west. in this case, translators need to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the literal translation. if the literal translation can be both faithful to the original text and understandable to readers, then it is acceptable to use. but if literal translation adds comprehension barriers to readers, it may require a change in translation methods. example 11 source text: target text: in endless pursuit for eternal life, peng zu died and gave up worldly strife. —tr. by wang rongpei (2003:80) p'eng lived to a great age, yet he went at last, when he longed to stay. (p'eng is the chinese methuselah.) —tr. by arthur waley "peng zu", one of the pioneers of taoism in the pre-qin dynasty, is said to have lived 800 years. in chinese traditional culture, he is a long-lived person. in western culture, according to the hebrew bible, methuselah was the ancestor of enoch and lived until 969. wang and waley both translated "peng zu" directly. the difference is that waley added the note "p'eng is the chinese methuselah." he not only retained the cultural image in the original text, but also linked it with the cultural image familiar to western readers, which is helpful for western readers to understand the original text. this way of using cultural relevance and similarity to eliminate barriers to understanding not only helps western readers understand the original text but also helps expand their horizons of expectation and learn more about chinese culture. 5. conclusion tao yuanming is an important poet in the history of chinese poetry. his poems and personality enjoy a high reputation in the literary circles at home and abroad. the language in his poems is plain but far-reaching and thought-provoking, revealing the righteousness of life between the lines. the indeterminacies in his poems are the embodiment of his unique aesthetics, which contains profound cultural connotation. for western readers, if they want to truly understand the connotation, the necessary chinese cultural cultivation is indispensable. however, due to the differences in cultural background, living habits, geographical environment, etc., western readers will inevitably feel difficulty in the process of understanding. if the connotation of the images cannot be understood, the artistic conception of the poem and the thoughts and feelings expressed by the poet will be more difficult to predict, and the aesthetic experience will also be greatly diminished. the theory of reception aesthetics provides a new perspective for the translation community to study and deal with the blank points in poetry from the readers’ point of view. its "indeterminacy" theory is similar to the "liu bai" technique with a long history in china. from the above analysis of the translated versions of tao's poems, we can see that in the principle of "for readers", the translators, according to the characteristics of the source language and the target language and cultural differences, fill and interpret the vacancies in the poem through different translation strategies, clarifying the understanding obstacles for the target language readers. at the same time, the translator does not interpret the original poem too much, but leaves the readers with space for imagination, providing a reference for the english translation of poetry. "therefore, there is no literal translation or free translation in poetry translation, but only plain and skillful translation." (lyu , 2002) the translator is the reader first, and then the translator. through the comparative analysis of the above translations, it can be seen that different translators have different translation styles and personal innovation abilities. finally, this paper provides the following suggestions for filling blank spaces in chinese poetry with the excellent translations mentioned above: 1. when handling linguistic indeterminacies, appropriate word conversions can be made according to the meaning and composition of the words in the original context, especially when translating distinctive vocabulary such as reduplicated words. it is also important to pay attention to whether the translation can convey the phonological beauty of the original text. the simple literal translation is not advisable on such occasions, and the specific translation method still needs to be carefully considered by translators. 2. when dealing with communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 22 syntactic indeterminacies, the translator should be aware of the differences in syntactic structure between chinese and english, as incomplete sentence components are quite common in classical chinese poetry. the translator should make an appropriate filling to facilitate the understanding of the target language readers. 3. when translating images in poetry and prose, translators need to adjust their translation strategies according to the context. if the context of the original text can reflect the connection between images and their symbolic meanings, then the treatment is simple and a direct translation can be adopted, which not only conveys the meaning but also leaves room for the readers to think. but if the connection is not reflected in the poetry, then the translator might add appropriate explanations or annotations. here, the author leans more toward the former, which also tests the translator's ability to adapt and create. if annotations are added in the following text, it is highly likely to interrupt the reader and affect the aesthetic experience. 4. when translating culturally loaded words, translators can also refer to the translation method mentioned in the last suggestion. there are both differences and similarities between chinese and english cultures. when dealing with heterogeneous cultures, translators can adopt the interpretive translation method. when dealing with common cultures, translators can use cultural commonalities to interpret the content of poetry and prose by borrowing the corresponding content in the target culture. this not only helps translators understand the content of poetry and prose but also enhances the communication and integration between the two cultures. thus, in the process of poetry translation, translators should unleash their imagination and creativity, try their best to clear the reading barriers caused by uncontrollable factors such as cultural background , and at the same time, appropriately preserve the blank features in the original poem, giving target language readers a certain amount of imaginative range, achieving interaction and communication between readers and poetry, and enabling readers to better appreciate the beauty of poetry. references acker, w. (1952). t’ao the hermit —sixty poems by t’ao ch’ien (365-427 . thames & hudson. cai, h. (2006). translation strategies of tao yuanming's poems with reduplicated words. foreign languages and their teaching. (10), 5 [in chinese . (2006). . (10), 5.] davis, a. r. (1984). t’ao yuan-ming: his works and their meaning. hong kong university press. hinton, d. (1993). the selected poems of t'ao ch'ien. washington: copper canyon press. iser, w. (1978). the act of reading: a theory of aesthetic response. baltimore and london: johns hopkins university press. iser, w. (1983). the implied reader. baltimore and london: johns hopkins university press. james, r. h. (1970). the poetry of t'ao ch'ien. oxford library of east asian literature. jin, p. y. (1995). blank and uncertainty: the inner essence of chinese poetics. the journal of multicultural studies of the orient (04), 26-41 [in chinese . (1995). : . 1995 4 ] lyu, s. x. (2002). gems of classical chinese poetry in various english translations. zhonghua book company [in chinese . (1980). . ). ] lotman, yu m. (1978). text and function. new literary history. 9 (2). newmark, p. (2001). a textbook of translation. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. wang, r. p. (2003). the complete works of tao yuanming. changsha: hunan people press [in chinese (2003) . : . ] wang, y. x. (2010). the multiple imagery and blank filling of the poem "yuan wu da gu". masterpieces review. (23), 110-111. [in chinese . (2010). . : .] microsoft word 02issue2021 9 communication across borders: translation & interpreting issn 2766-791x vol. 1 no. 2; 2021 www.jhkpress.com a pilot study on undergraduate students’ english-chinese translation shifts in web-searching process: combining screen-recording and retrospective verbalization methods li-you chang department of applied english, chaoyang university of technology lychang@cyut.edu.tw abstract translation shifts (i.e. linguistic changes at lexical, syntactic and expression levels) naturally occur with the use of translation techniques in the process of translating a source text (st) into another target text (tt). however, previous scholars mostly focused on analyzing translation products but hardly investigated translation shifts through translation process research (tpr) methods. therefore, the pilot study combining screen-recording and retrospective verbalization methods aims to explore the causes and types of translation shifts made in three undergraduate students’ web-searching process in the hope of summarizing some implications for translator training. the preliminary findings are as follows. firstly, the combination of screen-recording and retrospective verbalization methods could detect the causes of undergraduate students’ dissatisfying translation shifts, such as their over-reliance on online dictionaries or insufficient background knowledge in the st. the results of the pilot study also show the implications of both recalling students’ application of internalized translation techniques and prompting them to reflect on how to make better translation shifts through the consultation of relevant background knowledge in the st. secondly, despite the usefulness of web resources, students should be taught to cross-check reliable web resources for refining tt expressions with personal translator’s style as another implication of translation shift analysis. keywords: english-chinese translation shifts, web-searching process, screen-recording method, retrospective verbalization 1. introduction translation shifts have been studied for a long period of time by both western and chinese scholars (e.g. vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995; loh, 1958a/1958b; catford, 1965; popovič, 1970; van leuven-zwart, 1990a/1990b; newmark, 1988; sager & hamel, 1995; hatim & munday, 2004). the translation shift theory, belonging to descriptive translation studies (toury, 1980), becomes full-fledged through comparative linguistic analysis (e.g. vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995). among the above scholars’ studies, vinay and darbelnet’s and catford’s shift models have been widely discussed by other researchers (e.g. cyrus, 2009; zhang & li, 2009). translation shift analysis serves as “a means of describing what constitutes the translation product but there are limits about what it can (or even attempts to) tell us about the actual process of translation (munday, 2008, p. 63), so the theoretical basis for the pilot study is formulated by cognitive translation process in an attempt to break through the limits of product-oriented translation shift analysis. the approaches of translation shifts are rarely tested by empirical translation process research (tpr). although bahramy and aidinlou (2014) verify the positive effects of teaching translation shifts for more acceptable translated texts, they focused more on the improvement of students’ translation quality than on the process of making translation shifts. therefore, the pilot study will fill this research gap by using tpr methods to investigate the causes and types of translation shifts in undergraduate students’ translation (web-searching) process, their retrospective verbal reports on translation shifts and the implications of shift analysis for translator training. 2. literature review 2.1 definitions of translation shifts translation shifts are defined by a few scholars. munday (2008, p. 55) considers translation shifts to be “small linguistic changes occurring in translation of source text (st) to target text (tt).” jabak et al. (2016, p. 154) define translation shifts as “an important feature of any translation as they are unavoidable, especially if the sl and tl belong to two different families 10 such as english and arabic,” and their study discusses such linguistic shifts as word order, parts of speech, word choice, tense, number and voice to make the concept of translation shifts “more intelligible and more practical” (p. 165). actually, catford (1965, p. 73) is the first scholar that introduces and defines the term translation shifts as “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the sl to the tl.” he further proposes the following types of translation shifts (pp. 75–82): structural shifts (shifts in grammatical structures), class shifts (shifts from one part of speech to another) and unit shifts (shifts happen when a translation equivalent in the tl is at different units to the sl among word, clause, sentence, group and morpheme; for example, a word can be translated into a short sentence with the segmentation technique). another scholar, popovič (1970, p. 80), defines another type shifts of expression as “the result of the translator’s conscious efforts faithfully to reproduce the aesthetic totality of the original [text].” shifts of expression also pertain to literal or free translation deriving from “the tension between the original text and the translation ideal” (munday, 2008, p. 62). these shift types as a result of particular english-chinese translation techniques (see section 2.2) will be analyzed in the pilot study. 2.2 related studies on translation shifts the following studies on translation shifts will be reviewed because they motivated the researcher to analyze the causes and types of translation shifts in the pilot study. some scholars conducted contrastive linguistic studies on different types of translation shifts. for example, al-zoubi and alhassnawi (2001) construct their own model to analyze various types of translation shifts at linguistic and paralinguistic levels, and they propose a new term “translation equivalence” for the translators to establish between the source language (sl) and target language (tl). newmark (1988) identifies four types of translation shifts: the first type is the change from singular to plural; the second type happens when the sl grammatical structure does not exist in the tl; the third type is the one when literal translation is grammatically possible but may not fit the natural usage in the tl; the fourth type refers to the transposition technique as the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure. besides, some corpus-based studies (e.g. munday, 1998; macken, 2007) also examined the lexical, syntactic and freeness levels of translation shifts and presented some findings of shift occurrences. shih (2012) also conducted a corpus-aided study to explore english-chinese translation shifts in prepositions, concluding that “prepositional translational shifts are closely related to a host of factors such as contrastive linguistic differences between sl and tl, textual functions and the translator’s style” (p. 59). according to the above studies, translation shifts are actually “a phenomenon inherent to translation,” which is not anymore regarded as “mistranslations” or “deviations of the norm” (van leuven-zwart, 1990b, p. 228). in order to better understand the causes and types of translation shifts in students’ web-searching process, the pilot study will mainly adopt a top-down shift analysis (kade, 1968), i.e. to examine such factors other than translation techniques as the characteristics of the tl beyond the semantic level, the function of a translation, students’ interpretation of web resources and the translator’s style. 2.3 translation techniques, strategies and related shift models a number of translation scholars (e.g. ho, 1997; molina & hurtado albir, 2002; dong & zhao, 2012) discuss and term translation techniques in the translation process. molina and hurtado albir (2002) distinguish translation techniques from translation strategies: translation strategies are the procedures used by translators to solve problems with a particular objective in mind, while translation techniques characterize translation strategies and influence the translation results. ho (1997) defines the restructuring technique used by the translators who split sentence structures to indicate the grammatical order of the sl for a more fluent tt. dong and zhao (2012) indicate that the translators use the conversion technique to transfer the st word into another part of speech in order to achieve a corresponding effect in the tt. in the following, two shift models will be presented and compared in relation to the application of the above translation techniques. vinay and darbelnet (1958/1995) contrasted the systematic-linguistic differences between english and french to prevent the translators’ errors in working with this particular language pair. coincidentally, a chinese scholar dian-yang loh (1958a/1958b) also put forward his translation shift model in 1958 with some similarities to vinay and darbelnet’s model (see zhang & li, 2009 for more details). based on vinay and darbelnet’s contrastive analysis, seven translation techniques are provided: three are borrowing, calque and literal translation as direct techniques, and the other four are transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation as oblique techniques. although vinay and darbelnet did not use the term translation shifts, it is these four oblique techniques that lead to different shift types within english-french translation. these four oblique techniques commonly used in englishchinese translation will be defined and compared with loh’s translation techniques in the following. firstly, the transposition technique refers to “replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message” (vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995, p. 88). transposition is similar to loh’s conversion technique as substituting sl words with tl words that are “identical in meaning but different in terms of part of speech” (loh, 1958b, p. 186). the transposition or conversion technique leads to catford’s class shifts. vinay and darbelnet (1958/1995) also believe that the translators of any pair of languages should employ the transposition techniques to produce a natural-sounding translation. 11 secondly, the modulation technique is defined as “a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view of the sl” (vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995, p. 89). loh’s inversion technique, similar to modulation, is defined as “the constituent elements of a sentence are arranged in a way that is different from the general rules of word-order of the language in question” (loh, 1958b, p. 229). the modulation or inversion/restructuring technique thus results in catford’s structural shifts. thirdly, the equivalence technique occurs in translation cases where “one and the same situation can be rendered by two texts using completely different stylistic and structural methods, and most equivalences belong to a phraseological repertoire of idioms, clichés, proverbs, nominal or adjectival phrases, etc” (vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995, p. 90). however, loh has no similar technique to equivalence which contributes to shifts of expression (popovič, 1970). lastly, the adaptation technique is employed when the type of situation to which the sl message refers is unknown in the tl culture. in this case, “the translator has to create a new situation that can be considered as being equivalent” (vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995, p. 91). loh’s transliteration technique (similar to vinay and darbelnet’s borrowing technique) and coinage of new characters (similar to vinay and darbelnet’s calque technique) are two methods for “translating nouns denoting things of foreign origin” (loh, 1958a, p. 47). based on the two shift models and their related translation techniques, the pilot study will explore the occurrences of students’ translation shifts in their translation process (i.e. their application of translation techniques and consultation of web resources as translation strategies), together with their retrospective verbal reports. 2.4 web-searching studies on the translation process web-searching studies on the translation process are relatively few (e.g. enríquez raído, 2011, 2014; shih, 2017; chang, 2018). enríquez raído (2011) asked four postgraduate translation students to complete two translation tasks in two separate weeks of a course. she combined pre-task questionnaires, screen recording, online search reports and post-task interviews to study these students’ web-searching behaviors. her findings point to not only the importance of web-searching skills for translation but also the requirement of more empirical studies on learning contexts where the types of translation tasks are determined by the need of using online information. shih (2017) used think-aloud protocols (taps) and the screen-recording method to investigate six chinese trainee translators’ web-searching behavior in translating a scientific text. although these subjects’ idiosyncratic behavior in online searches was identified in terms of their use of various web resources, shih did not conduct post-task interviews to examine what her subjects thought about their web-searching behavior. then, chang (2018) combined taps, the screen-recording method and cue-based retrospective interviews to explore the formation of ten chinese students’ web-searching skills (i.e. instrumental competence) during their one-year postgraduate translation course in the uk. chang’s study demonstrates that the combination of taps, screen recording and cue-based retrospective interviews can be used as a set of metacognitive reflection tools to hone translation students’ web-searching skills. however, none of the above web-searching studies touch upon the connection between subjects’ use of web resources and translation shifts occurring in their translation process, and this is what the pilot study will tap into. 2.5 the application of tpr methods into shift analysis 2.5.1 screen recording the screen-recording method enables the researchers to access subjects’ actions, their faces and what happens on the computer screen. some screen-recording software (e.g. bb flashback; see more details in the research design section), downloadable onto any computer, records avi files of all on-screen activities during a translation task. in other words, everything translators do is recorded by “an unobtrusive application running in the background” (angelone, 2012, pp. 46–47). the screen-recording method – unobtrusive, user-friendly and ecologically valid – can be used in conjunction with verbal reports. according to göpferich and jääskeläinen (2009, p. 173), screen recordings are “particularly useful for analyzing the research activities which form an integral part of translation processes, as they provide a detailed account of which electronic sources or web-sites the subjects are using during translation.” hence, the present study chooses the screen-recording method which not only serves as a suitable tpr tool but also makes subjects more autonomous in making translation shifts as a selflearning process. 12 2.5.2 retrospective verbal reports the cue-based retrospection method is able to provide subjects with powerful reminderps by recalling their memory about their engagement in a translation task. ericsson and simon (1987, p. 41) point out that using cueing stimuli and giving subjects general instructions to report their thoughts, during the immediately preceding cognitive activity, produce retrospective verbal reports which to a large extent mirror the actual mental processes. according to ehrensberger-dow and künzli (2010, p. 116), the strength of the cue-based retrospection method is that the researchers can collect cue-based retrospective data “that are less susceptible to memory decay” by replaying the recordings of subjects’ translation process and requiring them to comment on what they have done. however, englund dimitrova and tiselius (2009, p. 110) identify a weakness of the retrospection method: total recall of information cannot be generated and the accuracy of the information recalled may be reduced due to subjects’ inadequate memory. hence, retrospection has to be cued to facilitate recall, and a cueing stimulus is preferably “encoded in the same way at recall as it was at the original presentation” (ericsson & simon, 1993, p. 119). 3. research aims and questions the primary aim of the pilot study is to explore the causes and types of undergraduate students’ translation shifts made in their web-searching process. the secondary aim is to summarize the implications of translation shift analysis for translator training. the research questions are as follows: (1) what are the causes and types of translation shifts made in three undergraduate students’ web-searching process during an english-chinese translation task? (2) how and why do these students use translation techniques and web resources to produce translation shifts? (3) to what extent do these students think that the translation shifts made in their web-searching process could improve translation quality? the above research questions will be answered by the analysis of the screen-recording and retrospective verbalization data. details of research design will be explained in the following research design section. 4. research design 4.1 selection of student subjects three undergraduate students, who took a required course entitled basic chinese-english translation at the department of applied english of chaoyang university of technology in central taiwan, agreed to participate in the pilot study at the end of this course (see appendix 1: consent form). in this course, the researcher had spent 18 weeks teaching the students how to use various translation techniques, such as addition, omission, conversion, sentence restructuring and ways of translating terms and proper nouns to solve translation problems in both general (e.g. news articles) and specialized texts (e.g. technological articles). in addition, they were also taught how to search for different types of web resources (online dictionaries, online encyclopedias and online parallel texts in the tl) to settle their translation problems. moreover, through mid-term and final oral presentations, these students were asked to translate a given st, reflect on their translation problems and evaluate the successfulness of their employment of translation techniques, web resources and other translation factors. the reasons why the three student subjects were chosen are as follows. firstly, they put much effort to translate and revise their weekly assignments; secondly, their mid-term and final oral presentations offered unique insights into solving translation problems and refining expressions in the tts. hence, based on their top 5% of average marks among other students, the researcher assumed that the three student subjects might have made progress in learning translation and could be more competent in applying translation techniques and web resources to make translation shifts. table 1 shows the three students’ demographic information (see appendix 2: demographic form). 13 table 1. student subjects’ demographic information codename gender age educational background level of common european framework of reference (cefr level) field(s) of translation experiences time length of translation experiences tony m 21 ba in english language b2 (vantage) no 0 sherry f 26 ba in english language, literature and linguistics b2 (vantage) journalistic and tourism texts and subtitles 10 months helena f 21 ba in applied english b1 (threshold) no 0 in table 1, the average age of the three students is 23 and all of them major in the english language. the three students also achieve vantage and threshold levels in english proficiency tests. except sherry, the other two students claimed that they did not have any translation experiences (though they had practiced translating different text types during the 18-week course but may not consider those assignments to be practical). therefore, it will be interesting to investigate how the three novice translators make linguistic changes (i.e. translation shifts) with the aid of translation techniques and web resources. 4.2 methodological procedures the three individual students were asked to translate an art news article (see appendix 3: source text of the pilot study) from english into chinese. this art news article briefly introduces the life of an italian painter artemisia gentileschi (a.d. 1593– 1654) and an upcoming exhibition for her paintings held by the national gallery in london. this art news article scores 45.4 in flesch reading ease readability formula and its readability level is “difficult to read for 15to 17-year-olds.” during the past 18-week course of basic chinese-english translation, these students had learned how to tackle lexical (i.e. terms and proper nouns), syntactic and knowledge problems while translating both general (e.g. news and tourism articles) and specialized texts (e.g. financial and technological articles), so the researcher decided to pick the art news article containing some vocabulary, background knowledge and lengthy sentences that might pose challenges on the students, hoping that they could make translation shifts by checking more web resources than using translation techniques. during this translation task, the students’ web-searching process of solving translation problems and choosing translation equivalents were recorded by a piece of audiovisual software bb flashback. shortly after the translation task was completed, the researcher replayed part of the individual students’ bb flashback videos and prompted them to specifically verbalize and comment on any linguistic changes (i.e. translation shifts) made in their web-searching process. as for the students’ retrospective verbalization, the researcher adopted the other-initiated approach to ask the students to only verbalize “when explicitly requested to do so by the experimenter” (færch & kasper, 1987, p. 17) with the following pre-set questions: (1) what changes in words (terms and proper nouns) and sentences did you make while translating the article from english into chinese? (2) how did you use translation techniques and online resources to make such changes in these translated words (terms and proper nouns) and sentences? why did you decide to make such changes? (3) how important do you think online resources are for making changes in these translated words (terms and proper nouns) and sentences? (4) do you feel that the changes in these translated words (terms and proper nouns) and sentences improve your translation quality? (5) throughout the 18-week course basic chinese-english translation, what have you learned to improve your translation quality by applying translation techniques and online resources? figure 1 shows how a student subject translated the article recorded by bb flashback on a laptop, and figure 2 displays an example of a bb flashback video. 14 figure 1. student subject’s translation task recorded by bb flashback figure 2. an example of bb flashback video 5. results and discussion 5.1 data transcription previous translation process researchers (e.g. krings, 1986; jääskeläinen, 1999; englund dimitrova, 2005) developed their own transcription conventions for tpr data considering different research purposes. however, their transcription conventions only recorded subjects’ verbalizations without screen-recording information. enríquez raído’s transcription convention (2014, pp. 103–105) was adapted for the pilot study because her convention includes more complete information about subjects’ screen-recording behavior (i.e. timeframe, on-screen windows or tabs with urls, subjects’ verbal reports and their consultation of web resources), so this convention largely meets the needs of the pilot study for analyzing students’ web-searching behavior. 5.2 the causes and types of translation shifts in students’ web-searching process this section will achieve the two research objectives (see section 3) regarding the causes and types of students’ translation shifts made in their web-searching process during the english-chinese translation task, and the implications of shift analysis for translator training will also be presented. in the following, case studies on the three student subjects’ translation shifts will be discussed with their transcription records of screen-recording data and retrospective verbal reports on the use of translation techniques, web resources and other top-down factors (kade, 1968). 5.2.1 class and unit shifts: tony’s case study table 2 shows the first student subject tony’s transcription records of class and unit shifts (catford, 1965) in “gruelling.” tony looked up the st word “gruelling” in bing dictionary and the machine translation of the st segment in google translate. he might feel that the chinese meaning “折磨人的” (torturing) in bing dictionary or the machine translation “艱 15 苦的” (difficult/arduous) could be translated in a different way because according to his retrospective verbalization, tony reported that he had changed the order of words in some st sentences for several times because “the sentence structure of english is strict, whereas chinese sentence structure is more flexible.” as a result, he converted “gruelling” from an adjective into a noun, “折磨” (torture) and used the segmentation technique to translate “gruelling” into a separate sentence, “她備受 折磨” (she suffered from a lot of torture). tony’s use of the conversion and segmentation techniques in translating “gruelling,” possibly with the aid of bing dictionary and google translate, lead to both class and unit shifts that read more naturalsounding than literal translation. these shifts also correspond to newmark’s third and fourth types of translation shifts (1988) respectively as “literal translation is grammatically possible but may not fit the natural usage in the tl” and “the transposition technique as the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure.” however, tony was unsure of whether the translation shifts he made actually improved his tt quality because he thought that “only readers will find some mistakes and improper usage in my chinese translation, and the readers will give me advice on improving the translation.” in addition, throughout the 18-week translation course, tony claimed that he had learned the timing of using some translation techniques, particularly the conversion technique (vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995; loh, 1958b) and he also stressed the importance of translation techniques for improving tt quality. as his retrospective verbal report further indicates, tony mentioned that “i translated the st based on the context and personal experience, and then re-edited and checked the tt.” the reason why he made linguistic changes is that he felt dissatisfied with his own translation, so he resorted to authoritative online information (e.g. wikipedia) as a shortcut to improving his translation. for translating and refining short and long sentences, tony reported that google translate provided him with a helpful hint. hence, the implication for translator training is that undergraduate students shall be taught to carefully use translation techniques and consult web resources (e.g. online encyclopedias and machine translation) for making translation shifts. table 2. tony’s class and unit shifts timeframe (h:m:s.ms) on-screen windows/tabs english st segments (underlined words, terms, proper nouns and sentences) underlined translation shifts in the chinese tt consultation of web resources retrospective verbal reports 1:20:19.50 1:22:43.21 bing dictionary (https://cn.bin g.com/dict/) google translate (https://transla te.google.com. tw/) at the age of 17 gentileschi was raped by the painter agostino tassi and then faced a gruelling court case. 她在17嵗時曾被 聘請(的)繪畫教 師阿戈斯蒂諾· 塔西強姦，之後 面對這場官司， 她備受折磨。 (back-translation: when she was 17 years old, she was raped by the employed painting teacher agostino tassi, and then while facing the court case, she suffered from a lot of torture.) check [bing dictionary]: “極度疲勞的” (exhausted), “折 磨人的” (torturing) check [google translate]: 在 17 歲 時 ， gentileschi 被 畫家阿戈斯蒂 諾·塔西強姦， 然後面對一個艱 苦的法庭案件。 (backtranslation: at the age of 17, gentileschi was raped by the painter agostino tassi, and then faced a tough court case.) “during the process of translation, long sentences with more information are easy for me to picture the scenario so that i can give a more colorful version. ‘gruelling’ here is an adjective, but in my translation it becomes a noun […] but short sentences for me are hard to translate, and they gave me less information, so i must translate this sentence with my own ideas and knowledge […] i copied the whole sentence to google translate and see how google translated it. google translate can give me a helpful hint.” 16 5.2.2 structural shift: sherry’s case study another student subject sherry reported that she made more translation shifts in long sentences such as relative clauses, “i underlined the adjective (relative) clauses and circled the noun clauses to check the meaning of the sentences […] so i separated the sentences and tried to find fluent chinese.” table 3 displays sherry’s transcription records of a structural shift (catford, 1965) in “appear in various roles.” sherry looked up the two st words “various” and “appear in” in yahoo dictionary and linguee dictionary, and she further read an online chinese bbc news article about the background information of the female artist artemisia gentileschi. according to her retrospective verbal report, sherry reported that she roughly understood the miserable story of artemisia gentileschi and applied the inversion/modulation technique (loh, 1958b, p. 229) to modify “自畫像” (self-portraits) with “呈現各種角色的 ” (presenting various roles), but she felt that her chinese translation, “她繼而畫出許多呈現各種角色的自畫像” (she then kept drawing [many presenting various roles] self-portraits) was still imperfect because she lacked enough background knowledge. sherry’s structural shift also refers to newmark’s second type of translation shift (1988) as “the sl grammatical structure does not exist in the tl.” as sherry’s retrospective verbal report further suggests, the combination of the screen-recording and retrospective verbalization methods could be pedagogically useful to probe into why some undergraduate students make dissatisfying translation shifts in tt expressions, possibly because of their over-reliance on online dictionaries or lack of an in-depth understanding of the background knowledge in the st. sherry’s retrospective comments also point out that online information is of importance for locating the translations of proper nouns and exact meanings of the st words. more importantly, she checked relevant background information (e.g. taipei museum’s art news article) and restructured the tt sentences mainly for more fluent expressions. this explains that the causes of translation shifts are related to not only fluent tt expressions as the characteristics of the tl (kade, 1968) but also to the level of the translators’ understanding of background knowledge in the st. from the retrospective verbal report, sherry claimed that the translation shifts she made might improve tt quality to some extent (bahramy & aidinlou, 2014), but she still needed more time to gain background knowledge before translating the st. over the 18-week translation course, sherry had learned the usefulness of the inversion and conversion techniques (vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995; loh, 1958b) for making translation shifts in the tt. another implication for translator training is that the combined methodology could not only recall students’ use of internalized translation techniques but also make them more focused on acquiring background knowledge from web resources to make better translation shifts. table 3. sherry’s structural shift timeframe (h:m:s.ms) on-screen windows/tabs english st segments (underlined words, terms, proper nouns and sentences) underlined translation shifts in the chinese tt consultation of web resources retrospective verbal reports 1:09:48.20 1:09:57.50 1:12:24.80 yahoo dictionary (http://tw.diction ary.search.yaho o.com) bbc 英倫網:走 出強姦和折磨 陰影的女畫家 (https://www.bb c.com/ukchina/tr ad/vert-cul45423455) linguee dictionary (http://cn.lingue e.com) she went on to paint numerous self-portraits in which she appears in various roles. 她繼而畫出許多 呈現各種角色的 自畫像。 (backtranslation: she then kept drawing [many presenting various roles] self-portraits.) check [yahoo dictionary]: “不同的” (different), “各種各樣的” (various kinds of) check bbc chinese news: “the female painter who steps out of the shadows of rape and torture” check [linguee dictionary]: “亮相” (show up), “ 登出來” (publish) “i think ‘in which she appears in various roles’ is difficult for me because this sentence is also a relative clause, and i couldn’t tell the exact meaning of ‘appear,’ so i think the translation is not good […] i remember i just checked ‘appear in’ but couldn’t find any useful (online) results.” 17 5.2.3 shifts of expression: helena’s case study the last student subject helena reported that she changed the passives into active voice as translation shifts. table 4 displays helena’s transcription records of shifts of expression (popovič, 1970; munday, 2008) in “underrepresented” and “astonishing.” although she just looked up the st word “underrepresented” in bing dictionary, helena did not follow the literal meanings of bing dictionary but freely translated the connotative meaning of “underrepresented” as “以男性為主導 的” (mainly dominated by men). helena also employed the equivalence technique [1] (p. 90) to make the form of her translation more variable by rendering the st word “astonishing” into a chinese four-character idiom “唏噓不已” (not stop sighing) and even adding another idiom “獨樹一幟” (show one’s unique style) which has no equivalent to the st segment. from her retrospective verbalization, helena reported that she allowed for the st text type as a news article and emphasized that the chinese translation would have been lengthy and unattractive if she had not made any linguistic changes. additionally, helena claimed that she did not frequently use translation techniques, and the web resources she browsed such as online dictionaries and wikipedia were less important for making linguistic changes, though reading wikipedia and online articles could assist her in understanding the background knowledge of the st before she made translation shifts. on the contrary, she argued that personal translation skills outweigh web resources in terms of making translation shifts. as helena’s retrospective verbal report suggests, it was noted that the function of a translation and the translator’s style are important factors to translation shifts, and this jibes with shih’s findings (2012, p. 59). according to her retrospective comments, helena believed that the translation shifts she made could improve tt quality (bahramy & aidinlou, 2014), and she also found the conversion and restructuring techniques (vinay & darbelnet, 1958/1995; loh, 1958b) most useful for making translation shifts after the 18-week translation course. helena also felt satisfied with the refined tt expressions full of her personal style. table 4. helena’s shifts of expression timeframe (h:m:s.ms) on-screen windows/tabs english st segments (underlined words, terms, proper nouns and sentences) underlined translation shifts in the chinese tt consultation of web resources retrospective verbal reports 20:25.20 bing dictionary (https://cn.bing. com/dict/) in recent decades, there has been growing interest in the artist, because of both her astonishing personal story and increasing concern that female painters have been under represented in art history and museum displays. 近幾十年來，由 於阿特蜜希雅令 人唏噓不已的人 生經歷以及在通 常以男性為主導 的藝術領域的獨 樹一幟，使她備 受關注。 (back-translation: in the past decade, because of artemisia’s life experience which makes people not stop sighing and showing her unique style in the art field mainly dominated by men, [these causes] make her get increasing concern.) check [bing dictionary]: “未被充分代表 的” (not fully representative), “代表性不足” (insufficiently representative) “i changed the passive voice to active voice, like i translated ‘underrepresented’ into males’ contribution to art, and i also checked the meaning of ‘underrepresented’.” 18 6. conclusion the pilot study combining three undergraduate students’ screen-recording data and retrospective verbal reports takes an initiative to explore the causes and types of translation shifts (i.e. class, unit, structural and expression shifts) made in these students’ web-searching process. the preliminary findings are as follows. firstly, the combination of the screen-recording and retrospective verbalization methods could diagnose why some undergraduate students as novice translators cannot make satisfying translation shifts, possibly because of their overdependence on online dictionaries or lack of sufficient background knowledge in the st. moreover, the methodology of the pilot study demonstrates the implications of not only recalling students’ application of internalized translation techniques (e.g. the conversion and inversion/restructuring techniques) but also prompting them to reflect on how to make different types of translation shifts (jabak et al., 2016) by learning background knowledge from useful online encyclopedias or parallel texts with similar expressions. secondly, although most students’ retrospective verbal reports pointed to the usefulness of web resources for refining tt expressions as a main cause of translation shifts, translation shifts may also reveal students’ personal translator’s style. as the three student subjects’ web-searching behavior was less diversified, translator trainers should teach students to cross-check various types of web resources with a pinch of salt while making linguistic changes which may be related to tt function and the translator’s style. future studies could replicate the pilot study based on the following suggestions. firstly, because of the limited sample size in the pilot study, future studies shall compare more postgraduate students’ or professional translators’ web-searching behavior with that of undergraduate students to picture universal translators’ behavior in making translation shifts (particularly the inference to tt function, personal translation skills and the translator’s style). secondly, although most student subjects in the pilot study felt that the translation shifts they made might improve tt quality in some way (bahramy & aidinlou, 2014), future studies shall include more subjects’ translation quality assessment data to objectively analyze the causes and effects of translation shifts. acknowledgements i hereby extend my sincere gratitude to the three student subjects for participating in the pilot study. references al-zoubi, m. q. r., & al-hassnawi, a. r. (2001). constructing a model for shift analysis in translation. translation journal, 5(4). [online] available: https://translationjournal.net/journal/18theory.htm (october, 2001) angelone, e. (2012). the place of screen recording in process-oriented translator training. ritt, 14, 41–55. bahramy, m., & aidinlou, n. a. (2014). the effect of translation – shifts instruction on translation quality. journal of education and practice, 5(10), 9–15. catford, j. c. (1965). a linguistic theory of translation: an essay in applied linguistics. oxford: oxford university press. cyrus, l. (2009). old concepts, new ideas: approaches to translation shifts. monti, 1, 87–106. chang, l.-y. (2018). a longitudinal study on the formation of chinese students’ translation competence: with a particular focus on metacognitive reflection and web searching (unpublished doctoral dissertation). university college london, uk. dong, m., & zhao, y.-s. 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(2010). methods of accessing metalinguistic awareness: a question of quality. in s. göpferich, f. alves & i. m. mees (eds.), new approaches in translation process research, copenhagen studies in language, vol. 39 (pp. 113–132). samfundslitteratur press: copenhagen. ericsson, k. a., & simon, h. a. (1987). verbal reports on thinking. in c. færch & g. kasper (eds.), introspection in second language research (pp. 24–53). clevedon/philadelphia: multilingual matters. ericsson, k. a., & simon, h. a. (1993). protocol analysis: verbal reports as data. cambridge: mit press. 19 færch, c., & kasper, g. (1987). from product to process. in c. færch & g. kasper (eds.), introspection in second language research (pp. 5–23). clevedon/philadelphia: multilingual matters. göpferich, s., & jääskeläinen, r. (2009). process research into translation competence: where are we, and where do we need to go. across languages and cultures, 10(2), 169–191. hatim, b., & munday, j. (2004). translation: an advanced resource book. london & new york: routledge. ho, h.-l. (1997). binary error analysis of sight interpretation from english into chinese and its pedagogical implications. studies of translation and interpretation, 2, 111–135. jabak, o. o. et al. (2016). translation shifts in regard to translation from english into arabic and vice versa. journal of the malaysian translators association, xviii(1), 154–166. jääskeläinen, r. (1999). tapping the process: an explorative study of the cognitive and affective factors involved in translating (unpublished doctoral dissertation). university of joensuu, joensuu. kade, o. (1968). zufall und gesetzmäßigkeit in der übersetzung. beihefte zur zeitschrift fremdsprachen. leipzig: veb verlag enzyklopädie. krings, h. p. 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(1990a). translation and original: similarities and dissimilarities, ii. target, 2(1), 69–95. van leuven-zwart, k. m. (1990b). shifts of meaning in translation: do’s or don’ts? in t. marcel & b. lewandowska tomaszczyk (eds.), translation and meaning, part 1 (pp. 226–233). maastricht: euroterm. munday, j. (1998). a computer-assisted approach to the analysis of translation shifts. meta, 43(4), 142–156. munday, j. (2008). introducing translation studies: theories and applications. (2nd ed.). london & new york: routledge. macken, l. (2007). analysis of translational correspondence in view of subsentential alignment. metis-ii workshop on new approaches to machine translation, leuven, belgium. molina, m. l., & hurtado albir, a. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functional approach. meta, 47(4), 498–512. newmark, p. (1988). approaches to translation. oxford: pergamon press. popovič, a. (1970). the concept “shift of expression” in translation analysis. in j. s. holmes, f. de haan & a. popovič (eds.), the nature of translation: essays in the theory and practice of literary translation (pp. 78–87). mouton: the hague. sager, j. c., & hamel, m. j. (1995). comparative stylistics of french and english: a methodology for translation. amsterdam & philadelphia: john benjamins. shih, c.-l. (2012). a corpus-aided study of shifts in english-to-chinese translation of prepositions. international journal of english linguistics, 2(6), 50–62. shih, y.-y. (2017). web search for translation: an exploratory study on six chinese trainee translators’ behaviour. asia pacific translation and intercultural studies, 4(1), 50–66. toury, g. (1980). in search of a theory of translation. tel aviv: the porter institute for poetics and semiotics. vinay, j.-p. & darbelnet, j. (1958/1995). comparative stylistics of french and english: a methodology for translation amsterdam & philadelphia: john benjamins. zhang, m.-f. & li, p. (2009). introducing a chinese perspective on translation shifts: a comparative study of shift models by loh and vinay and darbelnet. the translator: studies in intercultural communication, 15(2), 351–374. notes note 1. the link of this art news article can be found at: https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/london-prepares-to-celebrate-artemisia-gentileschi-in-2020. note 2. the online test of text readability can be found at: 20 https://readabilityformulas.com/flesch-reading-ease-readability-formula.php. note 3. the literal meanings and translations of all the chinese words, phrases and tt sentences are provided throughout the article. appendix 1: consent form dear student, this is dr. leo li-you, chang, an assistant professor from department of applied english, chaoyang university of technology. i sincerely invite you to participate in a research project. before i obtain your approval, i will explain the purposes and procedures of the research project in the following. the purposes of the research project are firstly, to investigate any linguistic changes at lexical and syntactic levels made in your translation process, particularly in your web-searching process as a problem-solving and decision-making approach. secondly, to explore your retrospective comments on those linguistic changes occurring in your use of translation techniques and web resources through a piece of audiovisual software bb flashback. the procedures of the research project involve the following steps. firstly, you will be asked to translate an article from english into chinese. during the translation task, your translation behaviors will be recorded by bb flashback at the same time, including your image, the process of using web resources, and your production of the chinese translation on an ms word file. you are allowed to use any web resources or reference materials to solve your translation problems and choose translation equivalents. shortly after the translation task, i will conduct a retrospective interview with you by replaying and cuing part of your video file produced by bb flashback. you will be further asked to make retrospective comments on any linguistic changes in your translation product. your anonymity will be protected, and a codename will be used in my research data. please tick the following boxes and sign if you agree to become a subject in the research project: □ as a participant, i will participate in dr chang’s research project on time. if i fail to attend, i will notify dr. chang in advance and let him reschedule for me. □ i understand the purposes and procedures of the research project and agree to be a participant. signature: _____________________ date: ________________ appendix 2: demographic form 1. full name (in english): _______________________ 2. gender: m / f 3. age: ______ 4. educational background: □ bachelor’s degree (ba/bsc) in ______________________________________ □ master’s degree (ma/msc) in _______________________________________ □ phd in _________________________________ □ other degrees; please specify: _______________________________________ 5. english proficiency test scores: (multiple choices) □ ielts: ____________ □ toefl (ibt): _____________ □ toeic: _____________ □ college english test band 4 and band 6 (cet): ________________________ □ other tests; please specify: _________________________________________ 21 6. have you ever practiced translating in a translation course or worked as a freelance translator during your undergraduate/postgraduate study? □ yes □ no if yes, please specify what text type(s) you translated: (multiple choices) □ journalism (news articles, commentaries, columns, etc.) □ business, economics, or finance (economic articles, statistical data, etc.) □ legal (legal cases, regulations, provisions, etc.) □ literature (prose, poetry, novels, etc.) □ medical, technology, engineering or science □ tourism (tourism articles, reviews, blogs, etc.) □ manuals, handbooks, instructions or specifications □ subtitles □ other text types; please specify: ______________________________________ 7. if your answer to question 6 is yes, how long have you practiced translating: _____ year(s) appendix 3: source text of the pilot study london’s national gallery plans major artemisia gentileschi show in 2020 in 2020, the national gallery in london is to hold a major exhibition on artemisia gentileschi, arguably europe’s greatest female old master (april-july 2020). this follows its recent purchase of her self-portrait as saint catherine of alexandria (1615-17). the exhibition will be focused on paintings that have almost universally accepted attributions, excluding those that are seriously questioned by some specialists. letizia treves, the national gallery’s curator, says that this will enable us to see “the real artemisia”. in recent decades, there has been growing interest in the artist, because of both her astonishing personal story and increasing concern that female painters have been underrepresented in art history and museum displays. treves points out that artemisia’s “life story is intertwined with her art”. born in rome in 1593, she was trained by her father orazio gentileschi, a distinguished follower of caravaggio. at the age of 17 gentileschi was raped by the painter agostino tassi and then faced a gruelling court case. she went on to paint numerous self-portraits in which she appears in various roles. in 1639 artemisia joined orazio in london where she was working at the court of charles i. she died in 1654 or shortly afterwards, probably in naples. artemisia gentileschi’s self-portrait as saint catherine of alexandria (1615-17) was a previously unknown work, which came up in a parisian auction held by christophe joron-derem at hôtel drouot in december 2017, with an estimate of €300,000 to €400,000. it sold to two dealers, milan-based marco voena and london-based fabrizio moretti, for €2.4m (with fees). the national gallery then bought the painting at a substantial mark-up for £3.6m, mainly with funds from its american friends. the picture has now been cleaned, revealing the quality of the work and confirming the gentileschi attribution. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 58 study on the effectiveness and strategies of chinese cultural dissemination in russia julin xu1, fuqiang zhou2 1 school of international business, jiangxi university of applied technology; institute of hermeneutics, school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, e-mail: 20210320002@gdufs.edu.cn 2 corresponding author, professor and deputy dean of the college of foreign studies at guangdong baiyun university. email: zhoufuqiang@gdufs.edu.cn abstract the belt and road initiative has emerged as a catalyst for the burgeoning cultural exchanges between china and russia. nevertheless, the chinese cultural dissemination in russia has encountered a few obstacles, thus affecting its effectiveness. this paper examines the typical problems associated with the chinese cultural dissemination in russia, as identified through a literature review and a questionnaire survey. the issues addressed include the image of chinese culture, public engagement, the translation and chinese cultural dissemination, and cultural identity. the paper proposes the adoption of diverse dissemination strategies to address these problems. these include enhancing cross-cultural communication competencies, leveraging information technology, organizing multi-level and multi-domain cultural exchanges, elevating the quality of the content disseminated, and employing a variety of dissemination channels. these strategic efforts are designed to enhance chinese cultural confidence, amplify the impact of cultural dissemination, and foster a deeper affinity and appreciation for chinese culture among the russian people. key words: chinese culture; dissemination effectiveness; dissemination strategy 1. introduction culture is “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”(tylor, 1871: 1). edward burnett tylor’s definition of culture as a “complex whole” represents a pivotal moment in the modern understanding. in this context, chinese culture can be understood as an extensive and intricate repository that encompasses a multitude of elements, including but not limited to faith, norms and social rules, arts, customs and rituals, and so forth. these elements collectively reflect the chinese people’s collective identity and shared values. in essence, culture is “about shared meaning”(hall, 1997: 1), encapsulating the fundamental functioning of culture within a society. cultural dissemination is a complex and multi-dimensional process, whereby different cultures connect and interact with each other, people learn different knowledge and skills and broaden their horizons, as well as new ideas and advances being brought to the fields of art, science and technology. consequently, the dissemination of culture contributes to the enhancement of mutual understanding and respect among different social groups and to the promotion of cultural diversity and innovation at the global level. “the essence of cultural dissemination abroad is the interactive exchange and creative expression of culture in different countries and socio-cultural contexts.”(yang, 2020: 112) the chinese cultural dissemination is of paramount importance for the preservation and succession of cultural heritage. it enables culture to transcend temporal and geographical boundaries, thereby ensuring the ongoing continuity of human civilization. in the context of globalization, the chinese cultural dissemination serves twofold purpose. firstly, it reinforces the cultural self-confidence of the chinese people, encouraging the preservation and celebration of traditional cultural practices. this, in turn, contributes to the construction and reinforcement of cultural identity and a heightened sense of belonging. secondly, it serves to enhance the international recognition of chinese culture. in the 1990s, joseph s. nye, a renowned american scholar, initially introduced the concept of “soft power” in his book bound to lead: the changing nature of american power. “cultural soft power represents the primary component of a nation’s soft power, which is fundamentally based on culture.”(zeng & li, 2023: 74) cultural dissemination represents a crucial instrument of cultural soft power. by investigating and utilizing chinese cultural resources, a country can effectively disseminate the core ideas, traditional virtues and humanistic ethos that are inherent to chinese culture. this process not only fosters cultural innovation but also serves to amplify a nation’s cultural soft power. consequently, it reinforces the country’s international discourse, enhances its cultural competitiveness, and extends its global influence. the roots of cultural exchange between china and russia can be traced back to the time of genghis khan’s western expeditions, particularly his victory over the grand duke of kiev in 1223, which led to the establishment of mongolian rule (liu, 2012: 82). this event is regarded as a pivotal moment in the cultural history between the two nations, signifying a rich history of cultural exchange that has endured for over seven centuries. this extensive chronology has documented the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 59 profound integration and dynamic interaction between the two nations across a multitude of domains, including politics, the economy, and culture. the establishment of the sino-russian commission for cooperation in education, culture, health, and sports in 2000 marked the beginning of a period of fruitful collaboration between china and russia in the humanities. this collaboration has yielded significant outcomes across various sectors, including trade and economy, education, culture, health, sports, tourism, media, film, archives, and youth engagement (institute for global cooperation and understanding, 2022: 2). since 2006, china and russia have organized nine national theme years, namely, the year of russia in china and the year of china in russia (20062007), the year of russian-chinese language (2009-2010), the year of china-russia tourism (2012-2013) and the year of china-russia youth friendly exchange (2014-2015), the year of china-russia media exchange (2016-2017), the year of china-russia local cooperation and exchange (2018-2019), the year of china-russia scientific and technological innovation (2020-2021), the year of china-russia sports exchange (2022-2023), and the year of china-russia culture (2024-2025), which have been pivotal in deepening sino-russian friendship and advancing humanistic exchanges in various fields. in conclusion, it can be stated that cultural exchanges between china and russia have made a significant contribution to the development of bilateral relations, with the potential for further growth and dynamism in the future. the objective of this research2 is to examine the present state of chinese cultural dissemination in russia. the research aims to assess the responses and perceptions of russian respondents, with a particular focus on the feedback from young, tertiaryeducated individuals aged 18 to 25. this will enable the identification of the effectiveness of existing dissemination strategies and the development of strategic recommendations that could enhance the influence of chinese culture. 2. major findings this study considers four dimensions of chinese cultural communication in russia: dissemination awareness, content preferences, dissemination evaluation, and suggestions for dissemination, which allows for a more nuanced understanding of the needs and expectations of russian audiences, thus providing a solid basis for developing more precise and attractive cultural dissemination strategies in the future. 2.1 dissemination awareness the survey findings indicate that traditional media, encompassing mass media, books, and newspapers, continue to play a pivotal role in introducing chinese culture to most russian respondents. this highlights the continued importance of conventional media in the dissemination of culture. nevertheless, it is notable that a considerable number of respondents discovered chinese culture through non-traditional means, including social media platforms, word-of-mouth recommendations from friends, or firsthand experiences during travel. furthermore, most respondents demonstrated an openness and keen interest in chinese culture. this positive perception may be linked to a variety of factors, including age, educational background and an inherent curiosity to explore and understand novel cultural phenomena. 2.2 content preferences the preferences of the russian respondents for chinese cultural content demonstrate a multifaceted interest in traditional and modern cultural elements. elements of traditional culture, such as calligraphy and tea ceremonies, which are celebrated for their elegance and cultural depth, were particularly appealing. furthermore, the respondents exhibited a profound interest in literature and art, as well as folk customs, which serves to illustrate the enduring allure of china’s artistic heritage. among modern cultural content, movies and tv dramas were the most popular, and an important way for respondents to learn about chinese culture. in the realm of modern cultural content, movies and tv dramas emerge as the most favored categories, serving as a crucial medium for the respondents to provide insights into contemporary chinese society, values, and lifestyles. furthermore, the chinese new year and the dragon boat festival are identified as the most popular chinese festivals among the respondents. this preference reflects universal acceptance of chinese festival culture in cross-cultural communication and its potential to foster a deeper understanding and appreciation of chinese culture and traditions. 2.3 dissemination evaluation the survey results indicate that the russian respondents rated the effectiveness of chinese cultural dissemination on the international stage as moderately high. the respondents concur that china’s current efforts in cultural dissemination have yielded tangible outcomes. however, they also highlight the existence of untapped potential for advancement. language barriers and cultural differences are identified as the primary obstacles to cultural dissemination, underscoring the necessity for targeted solutions, such as more accessible language resources and cross-cultural educational collaboration. furthermore, the respondents unanimously agree that chinese culture plays a significant role in global cultural dialogues. 2 this research uses partial data from a research project on chinese cultural dissemination in russia, which begun on june 12, 2024 and was conducted by a team of researchers from guangdong university of foreign studies. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 60 2.4 suggestions for dissemination the survey results indicate that respondents have formulated strategic recommendations with a view to enhancing the chinese cultural dissemination. firstly, the interactivity of cultural content should be enhanced to enrich the content and forms, and to make full use of information technologies such as vr/ar and artificial intelligence. secondly, it is recommended that localization strategies be implemented to adapt the content of chinese cultural dissemination to the russian people, and that cross-cultural exchanges and economic and trade exchanges be strengthened to facilitate an understanding of chinese culture. furthermore, it is recommended that the chinese cultural dissemination focus on students and tourists, ensuring that cultural content is easily accessible and attractive. additionally, the use of multilingualism in the chinese cultural dissemination is encouraged to surmount language barriers. in a nutshell, the russian respondents demonstrated a receptive attitude towards chinese culture and a strong interest in engaging with it through information technologies and in relation to specific cultural fields. nevertheless, the continued existence of language and cultural differences represents a significant obstacle to the chinese cultural dissemination in russia. to address these challenges, the respondents identified leveraging information technology and enhancing interactivity as critical strategies. furthermore, the use of targeted approaches and multilingualism are considered effective strategies for enhancing the chinese cultural dissemination in russia and on a global scale. 3. discussion based on the above findings, typical problems in chinese cultural dissemination in russia are identified and dissemination strategies are offered accordingly. 3.1 typical problems in chinese cultural dissemination in russia cultural exchanges between china and russia, as significant neighboring countries, contribute to mutual recognition and appreciation of their respective cultures. in the context of china’s growing influence on the global stage as a representative of emerging and developing economies, it is becoming increasingly clear that a national image is indispensable for the dissemination of culture. a comprehensive examination of survey data on the chinese cultural dissemination in russia has identified several key issues, as outlined below: 3.1.1 stereotypical image of chinese culture in traditional media a nation’s cultural image can be defined as a complex ‘representation system’ that contains its culture, formed through a process of self-shaping and external recognition from others. it is a narrative constructed from the threads of history and reality, which is then recombined and edited to create a representation that can be leveraged as a significant resource for cultural evolution and plays a pivotal role in shaping a nation's collective memory (qin & yang, 2021: 68). the chinese civilization, with its fluctuating fortunes over the past five thousand years, provides a compelling illustration of the rich and dynamic cultural development that has characterized it. the formation of chinese culture is a testament to its own self-shaping as well as the cognition and reception by others, embodying a unique cultural narrative. china’s cultural image is both a symbol and a cultural capital that can stimulate development and innovation and is conducive to the construction of a collective identity for the chinese people. the formation of a cultural image is a complex and comprehensive process that necessitates a thorough examination and contemporary interpretation of cultural traditions, ensuring that they possess both profound historical roots and a contemporary relevance. the dissemination and exchange of cultural images can facilitate the transcending of regional and linguistic boundaries, thereby establishing them as a shared cultural heritage and spiritual wealth for all humankind. however, the image of china among the russian people is frequently distorted by the subjective lens through which traditional media such as newspapers and radio are viewed. it is evident that these media outlets tend to prioritize the dissemination of positive news about the united states and western countries, while offering relatively limited coverage of china. this imbalance has led to instances of inaccurate information being disseminated, which has the potential to negatively impact china’s image (yang, 2021: 57). the prevalence of biased reporting has a direct impact on public perception. given that traditional media represent the primary source of information for many older russians, coupled with the limitations of information sources, the possibility exists that some one-sided reports may lead them to hold stereotypical negative views of china. this not only affects their attitudes towards china and chinese culture, but also impedes the chinese cultural dissemination and the depth of cultural exchanges between russia and china. 3.1.2 low participation of the russian people in sino-russian cultural exchanges since 2006, china and russia have jointly organized nine national theme years, reflecting an escalation in the frequency and depth of cultural exchanges between the two nations. nevertheless, such cultural exchanges are primarily driven by governmental initiatives. the role of the two governments should be to act as a mobilizer of resources and a catalyst for communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 61 diplomatic activities, rather than to be the primary agents of cultural dissemination. it is the masses of both china and russia who are the true agents of cultural exchange. their participation is the core force of cultural exchange. at present, the current non-governmental organizations (ngos) that facilitate chinese-russian cultural exchange face significant challenges. firstly, folk organizations frequently encounter limitations in terms of funding and resources, which impedes their ability to disseminate chinese culture on a comparable scale and in a comparable quantity to government-led organizations. secondly, the limited resources available can dampen the enthusiasm of these organizations to effectively disseminate chinese culture. consequently, the means of cultural dissemination adopted tend to be uniform and repetitive, lacking the innovation and diversity necessary to capture widespread interest and participation. 3.1.3 low dissemination effectiveness of chinese cultural translation projects in russia in the context of the belt and road initiative, the international dissemination of excellent traditional chinese culture has ushered in unprecedented convenience and broad opportunities. the chinese cultural translation constitutes a significant component of the “going out” strategy of chinese culture and plays a pivotal role in the establishment of an open, inclusive, and balanced international cultural relationship. the translation of chinese culture is not merely a matter of converting language and words; it also involves the transmission of cultural spirit and values. the differences of china and russia in terms of culture, language and religious belief have presented considerable challenges to the dissemination of traditional chinese culture and have even resulted in the distortion of cultural information. for instance, the act of translation may result in discrepancies between the translated text and the source text, particularly in terms of style, linguistic features and implied meaning. such translation challenges not only affect the original flavor of the work, but also the russian readers’ accurate understanding of chinese culture. to illustrate, the term “layoff” (xià gǎng) was employed in specific historical periods of china, such as during the reform of state-owned enterprises from the late 1990s to the beginning of the 21st century. this term denotes the termination of employment contracts because of enterprise reorganization, restructuring, or economic restructuring. however, it does not imply the complete termination of employment. rather, it suggests that workers may still be on the roster of the enterprise, awaiting reemployment or compensation. nevertheless, in russian, the term may be misinterpreted as a general concept of “unemployment”, which refers to the state of being actively seeking employment in the labor market but not yet having found one (yang, 2021: 57). the discrepancies between chinese and russian cultures present a challenge to the international chinese cultural dissemination, as they limit the role of chinese culture in international communication. in contrast, tao youlan highlighted deficiencies in the current state of chinese cultural translation in her interview. she noted that there is a lack of publicity and promotion, research on dissemination effectiveness, and reflection and improvement. additionally, she stated that there is a need for an overarching compilation of cultural contents and fields that are worthy of dissemination. a notable deficiency is the absence of consultation with overseas scholars and surveys on the needs of professional readers overseas. this has resulted in a lack of targeting in the selection of cultural works for foreign translation, which has in turn affected the international influence and acceptance of translated works of culture (tao & zhao, 2023: 4-5). therefore, it is of the utmost importance to promote the international dissemination of translated works from the perspective of dissemination content, which is conducive to promoting mutual respect, learning, and integration among different cultures. otherwise, the translated works of chinese culture have not achieved the anticipated effectiveness of dissemination, and the dissemination of exemplary traditional chinese culture has been impeded, thereby influencing international audiences’ cognition and understanding of chinese culture. 3.1.4 low identification with chinese culture by the russian people “in common sense language, identification is constructed on the back of a recognition of some common origin or shared characteristics with another person or group, or with an ideal, and with the natural closure of solidarity and allegiance established on this foundation.”(hall & du gay, 1996: 2) china and russia, as two countries representing eastern and western civilizations respectively, have their own unique cultural traditions and values. chinese culture is rooted in confucianism, which prioritizes harmony and moral cultivation. in contrast, russian culture is profoundly shaped by orthodox christianity, which places a strong emphasis on belief or spiritual life. these fundamental cultural and religious differences may result in discrepancies in the values of the two peoples and even give rise to misperceptions, which in turn may restrict cultural exchanges and mutual understanding to a certain extent. after all, “‘values’ are the cornerstone of culture, representing the essential difference between different cultures, and constitute the most challenging aspect for integrating heterogeneous cultures, thus creating the most stubborn obstacles in cross-cultural exchange and interpretation.”(chen, 2023: 192) consequently, in the chinese cultural dissemination in russia, the russian people encounter difficulty in comprehending the profound significance of chinese culture and in empathizing with the spiritual essence of chinese culture. the strengthening of chinese cultural identity can facilitate the enhancement of the international influence of chinese culture and the promotion of the understanding and identification of chinese culture among people from all over the world. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 62 3.2 strategies for disseminating chinese culture in russia 3.2.1 cultivating intercultural competence of russian language professionals in this context, the cultivation of intercultural competence of russian language professionals is of paramount importance for the promotion of cultural exchanges and collaboration between china and russia. it is imperative that these professionals possess not only proficiency in russian but also an in-depth comprehension of russian culture, history, and social context. this ensures the accurate conveyance of the essence of chinese culture in russia. in order to achieve this objective, it is essential that the educational system assigns equal importance to language proficiency, cultural understanding, and cultural adaptability. in other words, the development of cross-cultural communication skills can be facilitated through education and practice. consequently, it is of paramount importance to intensify research on chinese and russian cultures and to reinforce the accumulation of field experience. for instance, studying abroad and internships can facilitate the communication and collaboration among russian language professionals in sino-russian culture. furthermore, russian language professionals are encouraged to learn another foreign language, to improve communication efficiency by utilizing information technologies, and to enhance their international vision, thus promoting chinese culture on the international stage. the application of innovative thinking is conducive to the exploration of novel dissemination strategies. the strengthening of cultural confidence can ensure the active display of china’s development and cultural achievements in sino-russian cultural exchanges. these comprehensive measures will not only strengthen cultural exchanges between china and russia, but also enhance the international influence and attractiveness of chinese culture on a global scale. 3.2.2 utilizing information technologies information technology represents a powerful means of communication in the process of disseminating chinese culture in russia. according to research, the language barrier represents the most significant obstacle to the chinese cultural dissemination in russia. the application of information technology, including artificial intelligence translation tools, can assist in reducing this barrier. these tools facilitate personalized recommendations, language translation, and voice recognition, among other functions. this technology can enhance the efficiency and quality of translation, making it easier for the russian people to access and understand chinese culture. furthermore, the integration of virtual reality (vr), augmented reality (ar), and artificial intelligence (ai) and other cutting-edge technological tools can enhance the depth and innovation of chinese cultural content, providing immersive and interactive experiences for the russian public. this approach can enrich the means of chinese cultural dissemination, strengthen the sense of participation, and enhance interactivity and interest. for instance, virtual reality (vr) technology enables users to “travel” to ancient chinese palaces and temples. the implementation of interactive cultural experiences, such as online chinese learning platforms, virtual museum tours, and digitized tours of chinese cultural heritage, enables russian users to interact with cultural content through a range of digital interactions, including clicking, touching, and speaking. furthermore, the integration of education and entertainment in chinese culture-themed online games or virtual reality experiences has the potential to resonate with young russians, while simultaneously imparting cultural and educational values. the use of social media platforms to disseminate information and engage users in interactive activities has the potential to facilitate the spread of chinese culture through social networks. this, in turn, could lead to an expansion of the influence of chinese culture. 3.2.3 implementing multi-level and multi-domain china-russia cultural exchanges it is recommended that china-russia cultural exchanges be expanded beyond the government level to include activities at the level of non-governmental organizations, youth exchanges, local cooperation, and public diplomacy. in response to the dearth of cultural exchanges between the chinese and russian people, civic groups, associations, and other unofficial organizations should organize and carry out a plethora of cultural exchanges, including art exhibitions and on-site creations, cultural festivals, tourism and sports activities, exhibitions, performances, and so forth. furthermore, community cultural activities are organized to facilitate the experience of each other's cultures in daily life, thereby creating more opportunities for the presentation of chinese culture to the russian public. in this way, the russian people have greater opportunities to directly experience chinese culture, which in turn promotes cultural exchanges and interactions between china and russia. furthermore, online chinese-russian cultural exchanges are conducted, exemplified by the utilization of a novel approach of “procedural narrative generation” (meng & zhou, 2019: 44) to construct cultural narratives. moreover, the platform allows users to participate in the secondary dissemination of content through behaviors such as liking and sharing. additionally, it considers the preferences of the audience at the early stage of content creation. the use of artificial intelligence enables the customization of stories according to audience interests, thereby facilitating a novel form of interaction and engagement with cultural content. identification is defined as “a construction, a process never completed always ‘in process’.”(hall & du gay, 1996: 2) online interactive cultural exchanges permit russian audiences to cease being passive receivers and become active participants, capable of influencing the direction of the narrative. the application of this cultural narrative mode can facilitate personalization and interactivity in traditional communication, thereby ushering in a new era in which the two communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 63 peoples can co-create content. meanwhile, these online and offline cross-cultural exchanges can facilitate the effective dissemination and widespread recognition of chinese culture in russia. 3.2.4 enhancing the quality of dissemination content “in the current era, where the value of content is paramount, it is essential to generate high-quality narrative content with the objective of achieving efficient and high-quality dissemination of traditional chinese culture. the primary means of promoting the dissemination of traditional culture is to encourage social participation in the content creation process.”(meng & zhou, 2019: 44) the enhancement of the content quality of the chinese cultural dissemination in russia represents the core of the realization of effective cross-cultural communication and the improvement of dissemination effectiveness. firstly, the focus of the dissemination strategy should be on the depth of cultural exchange. in the dissemination process, it is crucial to avoid superficiality and one-sidedness. instead, a focus on the depth of content is essential to ensure the comprehensiveness and authenticity of cultural exchange. this entails delving into the depth and connotations of culture. in addition, it is essential to provide comprehensive background information, conduct in-depth research, and employ multi-perspective analysis to ensure the accuracy and authority of the information. furthermore, the incorporation of emotional input and professional interpretation can enhance the appeal and credibility of the content, facilitating an emotional connection with the audience. secondly, the selection of content for cultural exchange is of paramount importance. in order to effectively disseminate chinese culture in russia, it is essential to first understand the needs and interests of the russian audience. this understanding should then be used to select timely content that is positive in values, and diverse. by doing so, it is possible to attract russian audiences and promote cross-cultural communication and understanding. hence, content that is compatible with russian culture can facilitate the acceptance and influence of chinese culture. the chinese cultural dissemination in russia can be enhanced through careful, in-depth content excavation and selection, combined with storytelling and audience interaction. this approach can effectively improve the quality of dissemination content and enhance the power and influence of information dissemination. moreover, russian audiences are encouraged to engage in discourse and provide feedback on the content, with the objective of enhancing its interactivity and participation. the content is subject to rigorous quality control and regular updates to ensure its continued relevance in the context of evolving social and audience dynamics. 3.2.5 utilizing multiple dissemination channels the acceptance of chinese culture in russia is contingent upon the cognitive channels of the russian people. the choice of dissemination channels for chinese culture in russia is influenced by age, educational background, and professional experience. consequently, the effectiveness of dissemination is also affected. young russian students may be more likely to encounter cultural information through the internet and social media, whereas professionals may prefer to learn about it through books, academic articles, or professional training. consequently, to develop an effective cultural dissemination strategy, it is essential to consider a range of dissemination channels in order to align with the habits of the russian public at all levels. in other words, it is recommended that various dissemination channels, especially social media, be fully utilized to attract young audiences. concurrently, traditional media should be consistently employed, and the role of educational and tourism channels should be reinforced. although a variety of dissemination channels have been employed by the russian population to learn about chinese culture, there is still room for improvement. for instance, the chinese cultural dissemination in russia could be further enhanced by increasing the proportion of cultural courses in the education system such as in confucius institutes in russia and the frequency of cultural content on the media. 4. conclusion this research project aims to investigate the current state of the chinese cultural dissemination in russia, identify the most prevalent challenges, assess the efficacy of current strategies, and propose potential avenues for improvement. however, it has its limitations. firstly, the sample is limited in its representativeness and therefore cannot fully reflect the real situation in different regions and populations across russia. secondly, the research is based predominantly on quantitative data, with a paucity of in-depth interviews to explore the deeper perceptions and emotions of the audience. thirdly, cultural differences and language barriers are identified, but a comprehensive analysis of the specific details is lacking. moreover, it is essential to consider the long-term attitudes and behaviors of russian audiences. with the deepening of globalization and the continuous progress of information technology, the breadth and depth of chinese cultural dissemination in russia will be further extended. sustained efforts and innovations can help overcome barriers to the chinese cultural dissemination in russia, improve the effectiveness of dissemination, and promote in-depth cultural exchanges and mutual understanding between the two countries. this will increase the role of chinese culture in global cultural exchanges and realize its wider international recognition. references communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 64 hall, s. (ed.). (1997). representation: cultural representations and signifying practices. london: sage. hall, s., & du gay, p. (eds.). (1996). questions of cultural identity. london: sage publications. institute for global cooperation and understanding. (2022). people-to-people exchanges briefing: sino-russia people-topeople exchange mechanism. beijing: peking university. [in chinese: . (2022). : ] tylor, e. (1871). primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom volume i. london: j. murray. zeng, s. c., & li, s. l. (2023). overseas chinese and the spread of chinese culture in argentina. journal of world peoples studies (1), 74-85.[in chinese: , . (2023). . (1), 74-85.] chen, k. j. (2023). cultural context, barriers to interpretation and validity of interpretation. social sciences in china (02), 184-203.[in chinese: . (2023). . (02), 184-203.] liu, g. x. (2012). a brief introduction to sino-russian cultural exchanges in the past 20 years. contemporary china history studies (5), 82-85.[in chinese: . (2012). 20 . (5), 82-85.] meng, d., & zhou, j. (2019). opportunities and paths for artificial intelligence to spread excellent traditional chinese culture from the perspective of social participation. fujian tribune (6), 41-47.[in chinese: , . (2019). . ( ) (6), 41-47.] qin, z. c., & yang, z. y. (2021). research on cultural representation and communication innovation of the grand canal in china. the central plains culture research 9 (3), 67-73.[in chinese: , . (2021). . 9 (3), 67-73.] tao, y. l., & zhao, t. y. (2023). the status quo, challenges and trends of practice and research of sino-foreign cultural translation: an interview with professor tao youlan. shandong foreign language teaching 44 (02), 1-6.[in chinese: , . (2023). —— . 44 (02), 1-6.] yang, y. q. (2020). the transformation direction and realization path of chinese cultural communication to foreign countries. journal of socialist theory guide (9), 112-117.[in chinese: . (2020). . (9), 112-117.] yang, z. t. (2021). research on the international communication path of chinese culture from the perspective of chinarussia cultural exchange. journal of lianyungang technical college 34 (2), 56-59.[in chinese: . (2021). . 34 (2), 56-59.] 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 32 study on the effectiveness of chinese cultural dissemination in korea: an empirical analysis based on a questionnaire survey na liu1, ying ru2, and jianhua tang3 1institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: youna1105@hotmail.com 2school of foreign studies, chang’an university, e-mail: ruying0509@gmail.com 3shien-ming wu school of intelligent engineering, south china university of technology, e-mail: jtang4@scut.edu.cn abstract: amidst the growing trend of global integration, chinese cultural dissemination on an international scale has emerged as a significant concern. south korea, being a neighboring country of china, has a rich history of cultural interactions between the two nations. however, in the present era, there are still obstacles to effectively promote chinese culture and establish a strong connection with the korean people. this paper aims to examine the level of knowledge and interest that koreans have in chinese culture by conducting a questionnaire survey. additionally, it seeks to assess the effectiveness of dissemination and provide recommendations for enhancement of chinese cultural dissemination. key words: chinese culture, cultural dissemination, south korea, questionnaire 1. introduction intercultural communication and exchange play a crucial role in contemporary international relations. culture serves as both a symbolic representation of a country’s identity and a significant demonstration of its influence. the rich chinese culture, spanning over 5,000 years, has captivated global interest due to its distinctive art, philosophy, history, language, and traditional customs (hu & mclean, 2020). south korea, due to its geographical proximity to china, has a rich history of cultural interactions with its neighbor. since the han dynasty, chinese cultural elements-such as confucianism, chinese characters, and tea culture—has influenced south korea through the korean peninsula. in recent years, cultural exchanges have intensified, leading to more frequent and interactive engagements (lee, 2020). these extensive exchanges have made chinese culture increasingly accessible to international audiences via films, tv dramas, literature, art exhibitions, and confucius institutes. south korea regards aspects of chinese culture, including chinese characters and confucianism, as part of its own heritage and envisions contributing to their future development (pu, 2002). the confucius institute in south korea effectively promotes martial arts culture (piao & du, 2010). additionally, some south korean film directors incorporate chinese elements into their films, recognizing and appreciating chinese culture. films co-directed by chinese and south korean filmmakers are particularly well-received, appreciated for their cross-cultural storytelling, historical contexts, and cultural exchanges (jin, 2020; liu, 2019). however, chinese cultural dissemination in south korea has encountered obstacles. political and economic factors have recently caused fluctuations in the historically strong relations between the two countries. incidents such as the thaad deployment have led to strained relations and intermittent interruptions in cultural exchanges. korean media reports on china exhibit diverse opinions, reflecting the complex and multifaceted attitudes of the korean public towards china. there are significant challenges to effectively spreading chinese culture and enhancing its impact on the korean population. for instance, some south korean films and tv dramas distort history, demonize chinese cities, and vilify chinese people, resulting in inaccurate, negative, and derogatory portrayals of chinese culture (li & yu, 2023). additionally, despite their popularity in korean academia, classic chinese literature like a dream in red mansions and traditional culture like mazu have received little attention among the general public due to cultural and religious reasons (zheng, 2019). efficiently disseminating chinese culture globally has become a significant concern, as it enhances a country’s influence, supports its diplomatic strategy, and fosters economic collaboration, cultural confidence, social cohesion, and scientific and technological advancement. by implementing effective cultural communication strategies, china can play a more substantial role in globalization and promote world peace and development. to address existing obstacles, scholars have proposed various solutions. jin and jin (2023) highlight the importance of chinese language education in south korean universities to improve young people’s intercultural communication skills and cultural identity. additionally, china should develop an independent cultural industry to boost cultural exports (liu, 2006) and improve the efficiency and transparency of its film censorship to address the legislative gap in cultural communication strategy with south korea (xu, 2021). on a micro level, scholars suggest that filmmakers should balance media differences, integrate cultural elements, align with contemporary cultural discourse, and address the target audience's emotional and ethical perspectives to ensure successful reception in diverse markets (zhang & nie, 2024). wang and wang (2022) recommend using diverse communication channels and creating popular science readings to foster a broader appreciation and understanding of chinese literary masterpieces. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 33 previous research has primarily concentrated on the historical roots of cultural interactions between china and korea and their consequences. however, there is a lack of robust investigation into the contemporary ramifications of the diffusion of chinese culture in korea and the factors that shape it. this study aims to address the existing research gap by conducting an empirical investigation. this study conducts a comprehensive analysis of koreans’ understanding and fascination with chinese culture, as well as the impact of its dissemination. by combining survey data with existing literature, the study presents specific recommendations for enhancing the dissemination effects of chinese culture in korea. these recommendations are supported by empirical evidence, providing a solid basis for improvement. 2. research design 2.1 subjects of the study the subjects of this study are individuals of korean nationality. a grand total of 181 questionnaires were obtained via an online survey, out of which 180 were deemed valid. the interviewees consisted of individuals from various educational and professional backgrounds in korea, with 16.1% falling within the age range of 18-25 and 60.2% falling within the age range of 26-35. the age group of 36-45 represented 22 percent, while that of over 46 accounted for 1.7 percent. in general, there is a significant percentage of individuals who are young or in their middle age. the respondents encompass a diverse range of individuals, including students, education/researchers, culture/media practitioners, and individuals from various backgrounds. the majority of respondents were university students (54.2%), with master's degree holders (30.5%), doctoral degree holders (13.6%), and high school graduates (1.7%) comprising smaller proportions. the surveyed population is stable, well-balanced, and representative of the research population that will be targeted in this study. these participants are capable of representing the general sentiment of young people in the korean society towards chinese culture. 2.2 content of the study this study aims to investigate the impact of the dissemination of chinese culture in korea. the research in question encompasses the following two aspects. firstly, the level of korean people’s understanding and interest with chinese culture. the study focuses on examining the general perception of chinese culture among the korean population and their level of familiarity with specific aspects of chinese culture. furthermore, this pertains to the assessment made by korean individuals regarding the impact of chinese cultural exchange and their recommendations. the study extensively and thoroughly examined the impact of communication resonance, the major challenges in communication, and the extent to which the communication process has been fully acknowledged. 2.3 methodology this study employs a quantitative research methodology and gathers data through a comprehensive questionnaire. the questionnaire comprises inquiries that cover various aspects, including accessibility, overall perception, and familiarity with chinese cultural intricacies, obstacles to comprehension, specific areas of interest, and dissemination effectiveness. descriptive statistics were employed to analyze the data, and the gathered information was condensed and examined to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the korean public’s awareness and acceptance of chinese culture. 3. korean people’s perception of chinese culture the investigation into korean people’s perception of chinese culture focused on three main areas: overall impression, detailed perception, and cognitive barriers. to assess the overall impression, the questionnaire included questions about the ways koreans understand chinese culture, their evaluation of its overall impression, and their cognitive level regarding it. to explore the detailed perception, the questionnaire asked about the traditional content that best represents chinese culture and the most favored chinese festivals. for the cognitive barriers, respondents were directly asked to identify factors such as “language barriers”, “cultural differences”, “lack of channels”, “difficulty in understanding content”, and “other potential obstacles”. 3.1 the general perception of chinese culture among korean people the extent of korean people’s familiarity with chinese culture is influenced by their exposure to chinese cultural elements, their overall perception of chinese culture, and their understanding of specific aspects of chinese culture. the findings of the questionnaire survey indicate that the primary source of korean people’s understanding of chinese culture is news media (37.2%), followed by books and newspapers (18.9%), other means (18.3%), tourism activities (15%), and cultural lectures (10.6%). koreans primarily acquire knowledge about chinese culture through the official news media, particularly the mainstream media in south korea. their initial exposure to chinese culture occurs through local news reports and other channels, which is then followed by engaging in travel activities. a significant number of koreans travel to china due to the geographical communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 34 proximity of the two countries. furthermore, their initial encounter with chinese culture occurred through printed media such as books and newspapers. a limited cohort of individuals were introduced to chinese culture initially via foreign social media, chinese songs, television, and films. this indicates that the dissemination of chinese culture in south korea is insufficiently extensive. the promotion on social media and other activities, in particular, is insufficient. regarding the overall impression of chinese culture, 15% of individuals express a strong interest, 36.3% show a moderate interest, 30% lack interest, and 18.7% have no interest at all. in general, the korean population’s perception of chinese culture exhibits a clear trend of polarization. approximately 50% of the participants hold a favorable general perception of chinese culture and exhibit a degree of curiosity towards it, thereby establishing a solid basis for the dissemination of chinese culture in south korea. nevertheless, the remaining half of the participants displayed minimal enthusiasm towards chinese culture, suggesting that there is ample opportunity for enhancing the dissemination of chinese culture in south korea. according to the survey respondents, the korean demonstrates a considerable level of awareness regarding chinese culture. 52.3% of the participants selected the category “general,” while 31.7% had limited knowledge on the subject, and 27% possessed a relatively high level of knowledge. based on the provided data, it is evident that the korean population’s understanding of chinese culture exhibits a distinct hierarchy. the majority of individuals possess a superficial and limited comprehension of chinese culture, a significant portion of the population lacks awareness of it, and only a minority have a profound understanding of it. this indicates that there is a certain basis for the dissemination of chinese culture in korea, but further efforts are required to enhance its extent and scope. it is necessary to increase the scope of cultural dissemination and enhance awareness among this specific group of people through increased publicity and educational initiatives. additionally, it is necessary to offer cultural activities of good quality in order to enhance their comprehension of chinese culture. 3.2 the extensive understanding of chinese culture among korean people the survey was conducted to assess the korean people’s understanding of the fundamental essence of chinese culture and traditional cultural elements, with the aim of gaining insight into their knowledge of the chinese spirit. poetry, music, and folk art are the traditional cultural elements that have gained greater recognition and acceptance among the korean people. specifically, 39.4% of the population acknowledges poetry, while 37.2% acknowledges music. this suggests that these cultural forms are more successful in capturing and maintaining the audience’s attention due to their diverse nature, interesting content, and widespread distribution channels. while the percentage of individuals opting for calligraphy and chinese painting is relatively low (16.7%), this particular group exhibits a greater level of appreciation and awareness towards the art. this suggests that calligraphy and chinese painting hold a significant influence in the high-end cultural market. the preferred festivals among koreans are chinese new year (39.4%), mid-autumn festival (13.3%), dragon boat festival (7.6%), lantern festival (2.5%), and an uncertain percentage (39.7%) who are unsure about chinese festivals. these statistics indicate that chinese new year, being the most significant traditional festival in china, holds a considerable level of recognition and attraction in korea. the extensive impact of the chinese new year can be ascribed to the abundant cultural events, robust media campaigns, and targeted promotions in sino-korean cultural exchanges. in addition, south korea is home to several chinatowns where residents also partake in spring festival traditions such as posting spring couplets and hanging lanterns in their homes. the mid-autumn festival has effectively promoted chinese festival culture to the local population through these explicit celebrations. nevertheless, the mid-autumn festival, dragon boat festival, and lantern festival are less well-known and embraced in comparison to the spring festival. approximately 33% of the individuals surveyed expressed uncertainty regarding the traditional festivals celebrated in china. this indicates a lack of effective publicity and promotion of traditional chinese festivals in korea. therefore, there is a need to improve cultural dissemination in order to enhance the korean public's knowledge and understanding of traditional chinese festivals. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 35 figure 3.2-1 preferred chinese festivals among koreans 3.3 obstacles in comprehending chinese culture a separate survey was conducted to examine the obstacles faced by korean individuals in comprehending chinese culture. these barriers also serve as impediments to the dissemination of culture. the survey results indicate that the primary issue is the language barrier, accounting for 47.4% of the respondents’ concerns. this is followed by cultural differences at 41.6%, while lack of channels and difficult-to-understand content account for 6% and 5% respectively. communication can be hindered by multiple obstacles, with language barriers and cultural differences being the primary factors that need to be addressed in order to enhance communication effectiveness. the chinese culture has a long and intricate history, with abundant layers of meaning. for koreans who are newly exposed to chinese culture, comprehending these profound cultural foundations may appear overly complex and challenging. in addition, koreans who are not acquainted with chinese culture may find it challenging to comprehend various aspects of it, including ancient poems and calligraphy, which are considered classic works and cultural expressions. another issue arises from the absence of clear instructions and explanations during the dissemination process. when it comes to disseminating chinese culture, there is a dearth of effective guidance and explanation, resulting in numerous cultural elements being presented in a manner that is not easily comprehensible. this, in turn, amplifies the challenge of understanding. figure 3.2-2 obstacles in comprehending chinese culture currently, the channels through which chinese culture is spread in korea are quite limited, primarily relying on traditional media and sporadic cultural events. this approach falls short of fully utilizing modern technology and new media platforms for dissemination. despite the existence of cultural exchanges between china and korea, the frequency and extent of these exchanges remain inadequate to effectively reach the general public. 4. assessment and recommendations on chinese cultural exchange in the questionnaire survey, korean people were evaluated on the effectiveness of chinese cultural dissemination and provided suggestions for improving the dissemination process in korea. the evaluation of the dissemination effect focused on four main aspects: “overall impact”, “level of resonance”, “difficulties and obstacles encountered during dissemination”, and communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 36 “adherence to the dissemination process”. for the communication suggestion survey, respondents were asked about effective channels, forms, methods of communication, and target audience groups. a multiple-choice format was used for the communication suggestions survey. 4.1 assessment of the impact of chinese cultural communication on the korean population the assessment of the dissemination impact primarily relies on four factors: “overall impact”, “level of resonance”, “difficulties and obstacles encountered during dissemination”, and “adherence to the dissemination process” an investigation was conducted to determine if the communication process was fully respected. the findings are as follows. the majority of respondents rated dissemination effectiveness as poor (42.7%), followed by fair (32.8%), good (12.2%), very poor (7%), and very good (5.3%). approximately 50% of the participants hold the belief that the distribution of information is inadequate and requires substantial enhancement. this implies that the current methods of communication and content are inadequate in reaching and captivating this particular audience, highlighting notable deficiencies and the necessity for enhancement. 33.3% of the participants regarded the communication's effectiveness as average. the proportions of respondents who rated the effectiveness of chinese culture communication as “very good” and “good” were approximately 17.5%, indicating that a small number of participants expressed satisfaction with it. the survey revealed that the majority of koreans held a neutral stance towards the impact of chinese culture, considering it to be average and lacking a profound impact. resonance levels were ranked in descending order based on percentage, with ‘average’ accounting for the highest percentage at 43.3%. subsequently, there is a 23.9% occurrence of ‘a little resonance’, followed by 16.7% where no resonance is present, and finally 15% where there is a greater degree of resonance. the survey results indicate that a significant majority of the respondents (78.6%) had average or below average levels of resonance towards the dissemination content of chinese culture. this suggests that the dissemination content failed to effectively resonate with the majority of the audience. furthermore, it indicates that they possess certain emotional responses towards the content of chinese culture, albeit not profound or intense enough. consequently, there exists a discernible disparity in their level of acceptance of the culture. to identify the most significant challenges in dissemination, a multiple-choice question is posed to the respondents, and the survey findings are as follows. the primary issue identified by the participants is the cultural disparity, constituting 54.4% of the responses. this indicates that korean individuals are significantly impacted by the divergences in cultural origins and principles when engaging with and comprehending chinese culture. next, language barriers are reported at a rate of 30 percent, suggesting that differences in language significantly impact the communication and comprehension of cultural content. the homogenization of content was measured at 27.2%, which suggests a dearth of diversity and originality in the cultural content that is currently being conveyed. a total of 7.22% of the participants expressed concerns about the sole method of communication, indicating that the current communication channels are inadequate in effectively reaching and involving the target audience. the remaining individuals constituted 3.3 percent of the overall population. additional concerns encompass limited opportunities for exposure, unfavorable impressions or attitudes towards china, discriminatory perceptions of koreans, and international diplomatic relations. respondents reported a dearth of familiarity with chinese culture, which hampers their comprehension and enthusiasm for it. due to the limited usage of social media and platforms like google, instagram, and youtube in china, there is a scarcity of information about china on these platforms, and some of the available information is unfavorable. consequently, the chance for korean individuals to acquire knowledge about chinese culture is diminished. furthermore, due to the political rhetoric, south korean media exhibits a greater tendency to disseminate adverse information regarding china, encompassing political conflicts and environmental issues. this inclination may foster bias against chinese culture among the south korean populace. for instance, the installation of the thaad anti-missile system in south korea in 2016 provoked a robust response from china, resulting in strained relations between the two nations and a decline in cultural interactions. contrary to the abundance of negative news, there is a scarcity of positive reports and introductions regarding chinese culture, leading to a restricted public comprehension of chinese culture. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 37 figure 4.1-3 challenges during the dissemination in the end, a survey has been conducted to determine the level of respect given to chinese culture during the process of dissemination. the findings indicate that 45.4% of the participants hold the belief that chinese culture is generally regarded with respect during its dissemination in korea. the statement suggests that most koreans acknowledge that while chinese culture has been given a certain level of fundamental admiration during its spread, it still lacks in certain aspects and depth, leaving room for further enhancement. the proportion of individuals who did not receive adequate respect amounted to 38.8%, suggesting that a substantial segment of the korean population harbors a more unfavorable perception regarding the level of respect for chinese cultural communication. this segment of the audience may have experienced bias or misinterpretation in cross-cultural communication, resulting in their perception that chinese culture has not received adequate reverence. 4.2 recommendations regarding the promotion of chinese culture the primary focus of the dissemination suggestions revolved around the examination of dissemination channels, modes of dissemination, techniques of dissemination, and target audience segments. the multiple-choice question was adopted. according to the survey results, tourism projects are regarded as the most efficient means of communication, comprising approximately 53.9%. this implies that facilitating korean tourists to directly engage with chinese culture through tourism initiatives is the most appealing and efficient means of communication. tourism programs offer direct interaction and firsthand experience of chinese culture, which can amplify tourists’ fascination and connection with chinese culture. the mainstream media and cultural and creative industries follow, representing 41.7% and 35.0% respectively. this indicates that the spread of chinese culture through mass media and innovative cultural products holds significant promise. the mainstream media has the ability to reach a wide range of audiences quickly and has a significant impact on them. the mainstream media holds significant credibility among a large number of individuals and has the ability to enhance the authoritative nature of communicated content. by utilizing films, animation, games, and other popular forms of entertainment, chinese culture can be effectively disseminated and its global impact can be strengthened. cultural and educational institutions comprise 22.8% of the total, highlighting the significance of imparting cultural knowledge to the younger generation through structured cultural education. educational institutions exert a significant impact on the younger generation, fostering their curiosity and sense of belonging towards chinese culture. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 38 figure 4.2-1 dissemination suggestions cultural exchange activities are regarded as the most effective means of dissemination, constituting approximately 56.7%. this suggests that the most appealing and efficient way to communicate is by directly showcasing and sharing chinese culture through cultural exchange activities. following that, cooperative school-running programs accounted for 17.8% of the total, suggesting that systematic education is a significant method for culturally disseminating information to international students. sporting events and economic and trade exchanges constituted 12.6% and 10.0% respectively, suggesting that cultural diffusion through sports events and business exchanges also holds some promise. figure 4.2-2 effective dissemination means when it comes to methods of communication, digital museums and vr/ar technology are regarded as the most efficient ways to integrate modern technology and improve the effectiveness of chinese cultural communication. they account for 26.8% and 26.1% respectively. this suggests that by utilizing digital museums, virtual reality, and augmented reality technologies, it is possible to create immersive cultural experiences and provide convenient access, thereby improving the dissemination of chinese culture. the utilization of artificial intelligence and live interaction contributed to 24.6% and 22.0% of the results, respectively. this suggests that the promotion of chinese culture in korea can be significantly improved through the implementation of intelligent, customized cultural services and immediate interactive communication methods. the two most significant audience groups for dissemination are university students and tourists, comprising 29.8% and 29.7% respectively. it suggests that promoting chinese culture can be effectively achieved through higher education, cultural exchange activities, tourism programs, and cultural experience activities. cultural practitioners constitute the second most significant category, comprising 16.4 percent of the overall total. this indicates that the dissemination and promotion of culture through professional avenues is also a crucial means of cultural expression. although primary and secondary school students make up a smaller percentage (13.2%), it is crucial to cultivate their cultural awareness and interest through the education system in the long run. the survey examined the concerns that the korean public believes require attention when chinese culture becomes globalized. the most significant factors to consider were the disparities in cross-cultural backgrounds and the improvement of audience engagement, accounting for 31.0% and 26.8% respectively. this implies that in order to improve the effectiveness of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 39 communication when promoting chinese culture, it is crucial to have a comprehensive understanding of and show respect for the diverse cultural backgrounds, as well as employ interactive methods of communication. the increase in the appeal of cultural content and the expansion of product variety contributed to 21.0% and 11.6% respectively. this suggests that international audiences can be effectively engaged by captivating and diverse cultural content. 5. analysis and suggestions 5.1 overview evaluation this study aims to analyze the present state and impacts of the dissemination of chinese culture in korea. the results of the aforementioned research are analyzed and summarized into three primary aspects. 1.1.1 a need for enhancement in cultural awareness and interest the survey results indicate notable disparities in koreans’ perception of chinese culture. the majority of koreans possess a certain level of familiarity with chinese culture; however, the extent and scope of this knowledge are still inadequate. even within the broad scope of cultural awareness, such as traditional festivals. although there is a lack of knowledge about chinese culture among some koreans, over 50 percent of the respondents express either a “considerable” or “intense” interest in chinese culture, suggesting a significant level of curiosity and eagerness to further explore chinese cultural aspects. nevertheless, there are still certain individuals who express a complete lack of interest or only a minimal interest in chinese culture. this indicates that there is a need to enhance the appeal of cultural communication to cater to audiences with varying levels of interest. 5.1.2 a lack of effective communication and a low level of resonance despite widespread interest in chinese culture, the impact and level of resonance are relatively low. over 60% of respondents indicated an “average” or “low resonance” level, suggesting that chinese culture fails to evoke emotional resonance and identification among korean audiences during the cultural dissemination process. this suggests that chinese culture has not effectively evoked strong emotional connection and identification among korean during the communication process. this demonstrates that the current communication methods and content are insufficient in satisfying the requirements of the audience. in the future, cultural communication should prioritize enhancing the appeal and variety of content, expanding the scope and richness of culture, and catering to the diverse requirements of audiences across various levels. 5.1.3cultural disparities and linguistic obstacles impeding effective dissemination the primary challenges faced in contemporary communication are cultural disparities and linguistic obstacles. cultural disparities hinder the cultural resonance between the two sides during the dissemination process, leading to koreans feeling unfamiliar and uneasy when exposed to chinese culture. additionally, the language barrier prevents them from fully comprehending and embracing the profound cultural implications of chinese culture. the presence of these two hindrances has had a substantial impact on the dissemination of chinese culture in korea, necessitating the implementation of efficacious strategies to surmount them. 5.2 suggestions considering the issues identified in the study’s findings, the following suggestions are proposed to enhance the promotion of chinese culture in korea. 5.2.1streamline the cultural content and augment the appeal and variety of the cultural content to effectively spread chinese culture in korea, it is imperative to offer culturally enriching content that is both accessible and comprehensible. the complexity of comprehending cultural content can be diminished through engaging and captivating modes of communication. the integration of music, games, fashion, science, and technology into the dissemination of chinese culture serves to enrich the modes of expressing cultural content. additionally, it helps to overcome language barriers, enhances the diversity and hierarchical nature of dissemination, and makes cultural transmission more dynamic and lifelike. furthermore, contemporary cultural elements are incorporated alongside traditional culture. contemporary culture possesses the attributes of style, originality, and engagement, which can successfully captivate the interest and involvement of the younger demographic, while also fostering greater understanding and diminishing the feelings of detachment and unease stemming from differences. it has the ability to disseminate chinese culture in a more subtle manner. it is possible to create film and tv productions that depict the social life and culture of contemporary china. these productions can showcase the lifestyle, social transformations, and technological advancements of modern china, with the aim of making the cultural content more relatable to korean audiences in their everyday lives. chinese culture can be made more appealing and captivating by incorporating engaging narratives, entertaining elements, and vibrant expressions. create culturally diverse content tailored to the specific needs of audiences of various age groups. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 40 enhance the provision of guidance and elucidation on cultural content to facilitate audiences' comprehension and embrace of chinese culture. 5.2.2integrate contemporary technology to broaden communication channels and amplify the interactivity of communication. utilize multimedia platforms to enhance the distribution channels and frequency of chinese cultural dissemination, and extensively disseminate chinese cultural content through television, the internet, social media, and other mediums. utilize platforms like youtube and other video-sharing websites to disseminate chinese cultural content, including historical documentaries, cultural lectures, and travel videos, with the aim of captivating a larger audience. alternatively, utilize popular social media platforms like instagram and tiktok to share concise videos showcasing chinese culture, aiming to engage and captivate younger viewers through enjoyable and interactive content. in addition, you can initiate challenges that revolve around chinese culture (e.g. #discoverchina) or cultural challenges, such as cultural quizzes and handicraft challenges. these challenges aim to stimulate audience engagement and encourage them to share their accomplishments. by doing so, the content gains more visibility and becomes more interactive through active participation and sharing. 5.2.3facilitate immersive cultural experience programs to promote and enrich cross-cultural exchange and foster mutual understanding. to foster greater mutual understanding and tolerance between the two populations and mitigate the challenges posed by cultural disparities, it is imperative to engage in additional cross-cultural exchange initiatives, such as cultural festivals, cultural exchange visits, and collaborative projects. offer immersive cultural communication techniques, such as virtual reality (vr) cultural experiences and interactive cultural activities, to enhance audience engagement and provide a more authentic cultural experience. utilize virtual reality (vr) technology to replicate china's historical sites and landmarks, including the great wall, the forbidden city, and the terracotta warriors and horses. this will enable audiences to embark on virtual tours of these cultural sites using vr equipment, immersing themselves in the magnificence and historical ambiance of these locations. one can also create virtual reality projects that offer cultural experiences, such as virtual festivals and reenactments of historical events. this allows viewers to participate in traditional festivals, major historical events, and other cultural experiences through virtual reality, thereby enhancing their cultural immersion. virtual cultural workshops can be conducted online, allowing viewers to actively engage through live broadcasting or videoconferencing. this provides an opportunity to learn traditional chinese skills, such as calligraphy, painting, and tea art, remotely. 5.2.4offer superior translation resources and expert elucidations to acquire a more profound comprehension of chinese culture and mitigate misinterpretations. to enhance the dissemination of chinese culture in korea, we should improve the availability of high-quality translation resources, including literature, audiovisual productions, and cultural initiatives. collaboration with reputable translation agencies and linguistic specialists is essential to ensure precision and smoothness in translations. additionally, increasing the availability of chinese language courses and learning opportunities within the korean education system is crucial. offering scholarships and exchange programs can further incentivize students to pursue chinese language acquisition. employing contemporary technology, such as online language learning platforms, applications, and virtual classrooms, will provide more adaptable and convenient methods for language acquisition. engaging korean cultural specialists in chinese culture promotion initiatives can enhance communication by leveraging their unique perspectives and interpretations. alternatively, inviting renowned chinese scholars to deliver comprehensive lectures on chinese history and culture at korean universities and cultural centers can facilitate a deeper understanding of chinese culture among korean audiences. implementing these strategies can significantly strengthen the dissemination and impact of chinese culture in south korea, leading to enhanced mutual understanding and amicable relations between the two populations. consistently striving for progress and enhancements can help chinese culture achieve broader dissemination and global recognition, thereby enriching and diversifying world culture. 6. conclusion the study effectively demonstrates the multifaceted nature of chinese cultural dissemination in south korea, highlighting both the successes and the areas needing improvement. through various channels such as educational exchanges, media collaborations, and cultural events, china has managed to significantly enhance its cultural influence and foster greater understanding between the two nations. however, the research also points out the challenges posed by cultural differences and the necessity for more nuanced and targeted approaches to maximize the effectiveness of these dissemination efforts. future strategies should focus on deepening the engagement through localized content and sustained cultural dialogue to build a more robust and enduring cultural bridge between china and south korea. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 41 references hu, x., mclean, d. 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[in chinese: , (2019). “ ” . , 2019, (01): 52-54.] appendix . , . , . . . . communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 42 , . , ! , . . , . a. 1. ? a. b. c. d. / e. ( : ________) 2. ? a. b. c. d. e. ( : ________) 3. ? a. b. c. d. e. ( : ________) 4. ? a. b. c. d. e. ( : ________) 5. ? a. ~ b. c. d. e. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 43 6. ? a. b. c. d. e. 7. ? ( a. b. c. d. e. ( : ________) b. 8. ( communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 44 ( ( ( ( ( 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 8 research on the perception and evaluation of chinese culture dissemination in thailand: an analysis based on literature review and questionnaire survey xuyang tang1, yingzhong hou2 1 lecture, faculty of asia languages and cultures, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail:793636753@qq.com 2 corresponding author, professor, school of journalism and communication, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china,e-mail:houyzh2000@163.com abstract this study investigates the perception and evaluation of chinese culture dissemination in thailand based on a comprehensive analysis of questionnaire survey data and literature review. the research reveals that thai people generally have a strong interest in chinese culture, with traditional festivals, film and television, and arts being the most appealing aspects. however, their in-depth understanding of chinese culture remains insufficient. the study identifies cultural differences and language barriers as key factors hindering the effectiveness of cultural communication. to enhance the international influence of chinese culture and deepen people-to-people exchanges between china and thailand, the study proposes a series of countermeasures, including innovating communication concepts, means, and channels; constructing a grand cultural communication pattern; adhering to the principle of "seeking common ground while reserving differences"; and optimizing the discourse system and methods of cultural dissemination. the findings provide valuable insights for promoting cultural exchanges and mutual learning between china and thailand, and contribute to the building of a community of shared future for mankind. key words: chinese culture communication; thailand; cultural exchanges; mutual learning; artificial intelligence ※※funding: this research was supported by the humanities and social sciences foundation of guangzhou (grant no. 2024gzyb45 ) 1. introduction china and thailand have had close interactions and exchanges since ancient times. throughout history, cultural exchanges and interactions between china and thailand have undergone a gradual development from superficial to in-depth. from the 4th to the 13th century, chinese historical records documented many ancient kingdoms located in present-day thailand and their interactions with china, laying the foundation for the long-term relationship between the two countries. china and thailand have enjoyed an abiding friendship that can be traced back well over two millennia. the earliest documented contacts occurred during ancient chinese dynasties, when maritime expeditions ventured to thai shores via the ocean-based trade routes later known as the maritime silk road. sino-thai bonds continued to grow throughout the later imperial period, culminating in the ming dynasty which witnessed the most intense flurry of diplomatic emissary exchanges. over the ages, china and thailand have cultivated a profound affinity through wide-ranging collaboration across political, commercial, cultural and myriad other domains. this priceless legacy of historical ties forms the bedrock upon which the two nations' present-day relationship continues to flourish and evolve. the continuous exchanges between china and thailand have led to the spread of chinese culture to thailand, profoundly influencing the development of thai society. thai chinese are the most fully integrated group of overseas chinese in southeast asia, and thai literature and art are filled with elements of chinese culture. it can be said that chinese culture has been integrated into all aspects of thai social life. entering the 21st century, sino-thai relations have achieved leapfrog development. in 2013, president xi jinping proposed the "belt and road" initiative, and thailand became one of the first countries to support and participate in the initiative. in 2019, china and thailand ushered in a new chapter by establishing a community of common destiny and upgrading bilateral relations to a comprehensive strategic cooperative partnership. xi jinping once said, "we should carry forward the special friendship of 'china and thailand as one family' and build a more stable, more prosperous, and more sustainable chinathailand community with a shared future." president xi jinping underlined the pivotal importance of cross-cultural dialogue and reciprocal learning as a crucial driver for propelling human progress and nurturing worldwide harmony and growth. cultural interplay forms the cornerstone of constructing a shared future between china and thailand. currently, the pragmatic cooperation between china and thailand in many fields such as economy, trade, investment, tourism, and education is advancing comprehensively, laying a solid foundation for deepening people-to-people exchanges. at the same time, the strategy of chinese culture going global is being steadily implemented, and "telling china's story well and spreading china's voice" has become an important strategy for cultural development in the new era. spreading chinese culture in thailand is conducive to enhancing the international influence of chinese culture and promoting people-to-people communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 9 connectivity between china and thailand, contributing wisdom and strength to building a community with a shared future for mankind. in the context of the new era, an in-depth exploration of the spread of chinese culture in thailand is of great theoretical and practical significance for expanding sino-thai people-to-people exchanges and mutual learning, promoting the international dissemination of chinese culture, and serving the building of the china-thailand community with a shared future and the community with a shared future for mankind. this paper intends to combine questionnaire surveys and literature analysis from the perspective of exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations. the survey data provides empirical support for analyzing thai people's cognition and evaluation of chinese cultural communication. on the one hand, it examines the overall current situation of chinese cultural communication in contemporary thailand and reveals thai people's cognitive level and emotional attitude towards chinese culture; on the other hand, it analyzes the bottleneck factors restricting sinothai cultural exchanges and proposes optimization paths for expanding chinese cultural influence and deepening sino-thai people-to-people exchanges in the future, with a view to contributing academic strength to serving the building of the china-thailand community with a shared future and promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind. 2. literature review as china's comprehensive national strength continues to rise, international interest in chinese culture has been growing. communicative reach is an indicator used to assess the breadth of international coverage of china's voice, while influence is a standard employed to evaluate the persuasive power and depth of transmission of china's narratives. the guiding force and credibility, in contrast, can reflect the extent and level to which chinese discourse and chinese concepts have garnered consensus in the global domain (hou, 2024). chinese and foreign scholars have conducted extensive and in-depth discussions from the perspectives of cultural soft power and international people-to-people exchanges. nye (2004) first proposed the concept of "soft power" in his book soft power, regarding culture as an important component of a country's soft power. zhao qizheng (2012) further pointed out that cultural diplomacy should be given equal importance as political diplomacy and economic diplomacy, and that cultural diplomacy should cross languages and cultures, with storytelling being an important way of public diplomacy and cultural diplomacy. in recent years, the "going global" of chinese culture has become a research hotspot in the domestic academic community. scholars generally believe that telling china's story well and spreading china's voice are important paths to enhance the country's cultural soft power. prevailing scholarship on sino-thai cultural interchange, both at home and abroad, has largely zeroed in on the ensuing dimensions: to begin with, mapping out the trajectory of cultural exchange between the two countries from a historical vantage point. fu zengyou (2020) analyzed the causes of sino-thai cultural exchanges, carefully sorted out the history of ancient and modern sino-thai cultural exchanges, and described the rich and colorful forms of sino-thai cultural exchanges. second, assessing the effectiveness of sino-thai people-to-people exchanges from a realistic dimension. skaggs et al. (2024) revealed china's significant growth in influence in thailand by systematically assessing china's influence in traditional media, social media, overseas chinese networks, pro-china associations, geo-economics, and geostrategy. domestic studies generally point out that since the implementation of the "belt and road" initiative, sino-thai exchanges in education, tourism, local affairs, and other fields have expanded comprehensively, showing a sustained warming trend (cao wen et al., 2021; meng lijun, 2022). however, factors such as cultural identity differences and language barriers have constrained the depth of exchanges to a certain extent (lu rui, 2021). ma xiaoxiao studied the practice and connotation of "feedback" in the folk beliefs of overseas chinese, believing that it helps to understand the resilience of excellent chinese traditional culture and its relationship with chinese cultural identity, and is also conducive to more effectively enhancing the chinese cultural identity of overseas chinese. third, discussing the channels and carriers of chinese cultural communication in thailand. some scholars have examined the communication effects of different cultural carriers, such as chinese language teaching (huang lina, 2019) and festival activities (liu yue, 2021), providing useful references for innovating working methods. kanoksilapatham (2013) found through a national survey that due to economic, cultural, and educational reasons, the demand for chinese language in thailand is high, but there is a shortage of textbooks and teachers' teaching skills, and there is an urgent need to develop standardized courses and national examinations. lilasettakul and an (2011) examined the cross-cultural adaptation of chinese volunteer teachers and found that 74% of teachers worked in thailand for less than a year, and there was no significant correlation between cross-cultural training and adaptation. fourth, analyzing the key factors influencing the effectiveness of chinese cultural communication in thailand. most studies believe that thai people's educational background, chinese language proficiency, cross-cultural communication experience, etc., are closely related to their perception and evaluation of chinese culture (lu rui, 2021). at the same time, whether cultural content and discourse can be effectively transformed into forms that target audiences are happy to see and hear is also the key to determining the effectiveness of communication (cao jing, 2022). wang zulei (2018) wrote a preliminary study on the correlation between chinese language dissemination and chinese image perception among the thai public, using word association and written interviews to survey the thai public and conduct research on china's image. thai scholar kitti communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 10 prasirtsuk analyzed the practice of chinese cultural diplomacy in southeast asia, emphasizing the important role of cultural identity in bilateral relations. 3. questionnaire design and data description this chapter conducts a comprehensive and multi-dimensional analysis of the current state of chinese cultural cognition among respondents in thailand, primarily based on questionnaire survey data and existing secondary data. first, it introduces the questionnaire design ideas and content, as well as the basic information of the data. second, through descriptive statistical analysis, it sorts out the demographic characteristics of the sample and related background factors. third, it focuses on discussing the data distribution and characteristics of thai people's overall cognition, interested content, evaluation, and other aspects of chinese culture, revealing the current situation of chinese cultural communication in thailand. finally, it explores the key factors influencing their cultural cognition, striving to provide a multi-dimensional outline of the cognitive landscape of chinese cultural communication in thailand, offering decision-making references for further deepening sino-thai people-to-people exchanges. 3.1 sample characteristics analysis figure 1. age distribution of survey sample figure 2. highest educational attainment this study adopts a self-designed questionnaire, which mainly includes the basic information of the respondents, overall cognition of chinese culture, interested cultural content, exposure to communication channels, evaluation of communication effects, and problems and optimization suggestions in communication. to ensure the quality of the survey, the questionnaire has undergone multiple rounds of revisions and finally formed a complete thai version. the survey targets a majority of the thai public, as well as long-term residents in thailand with a thai language learning background, and questionnaires are distributed through online channels. a total of 51 valid questionnaires were collected. the survey was conducted from midto-late june to july 3, 2024, and distributed through the questionnaire star software. the sample is mainly composed of young people, with 84.31% aged between 18-35, and more than half are young people aged 18-25, mainly students. the overall education level is relatively high, with 84.31% of respondents having a bachelor's degree or above, and more than 20% having a master's degree or above. highly educated people occupy the main body of the sample. the occupations are mainly students (47.06%) and education and research personnel (21.57%), with the two accounting for nearly 70%, reflecting that intellectuals and young students are the main force among the respondents. however, the sample also includes government officials, corporate employees, self-employed individuals, and people from all walks of life, which is conducive to a comprehensive examination of the differences in cultural cognition among different groups. although the sample size is small, it can reflect the characteristics and problems of chinese cultural communication in thailand to a certain extent. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 11 3.2 analysis of the current situation of thai people's cognition of chinese culture figure 3. overall impression of chinese culture figure 4. the understanding of chinese culture 3.2.1. high recognition, but limited in-depth understanding. the survey shows that 86.28% of respondents believe that chinese culture holds a "very important" or "relatively important" position in world culture. this indicates that chinese culture has a high level of attractiveness in thailand, and thai people generally have a strong desire to understand chinese culture. 88.23% of respondents expressed that they are "very interested" or "relatively interested" in chinese culture. this shows that the level of recognition and importance of chinese culture in thailand is very high. however, the following data reflects that the respondents' cognitive level of chinese culture is not high. only about half (50.98%) of the respondents believe that the thai public "fully understands" or "relatively understands" chinese culture, 47.06% chose "generally understands," and a few "do not quite understand." this is also consistent with 33.33% of respondents choosing "general" when asked if they can resonate with chinese culture upon contact. it can be seen that although thai people have a strong interest in chinese culture, their comprehensive and indepth understanding of it is still insufficient. enhancing their cognition of chinese culture from the surface to the inside and from shallow to deep is the top priority of future work. at the same time, as high as 45.1% of respondents considered cultural differences to be the biggest obstacle to understanding chinese culture at present, and 35.29% regarded language barriers as an important constraining factor. notwithstanding the recent efflorescence of grassroots connections between china and thailand, it is manifest that noteworthy linguistic and cultural chasms endure. thais' apprehension of chinese culture stays relatively superficial, wanting in systematic profundity and nuanced discernment. chen, k. (2009) language is the most important tool for human beings to represent the world and realize communication. however, the recent advent of artificial intelligence and the dawning of the large model epoch seem to be diminishing the gravity of this hurdle. the differences in culture and the lack of mutual trust and understanding have become the biggest gap for thai people to understand chinese culture. in addition, three respondents in the questionnaire mentioned that some chinese tourists in thailand lack civilized qualities, which affects thai people's impression of china. this is similar to the findings of the study "a preliminary study on the correlation between chinese language communication and public perception of china's image in thailand," which found that sino-thai cultural differences have led to some stereotypes and misunderstandings of chinese culture among thai people, mainly reflected in aspects such as speech and behavior, civilized quality, made in china, tourist behavior, and views on gender equality. these stereotypes and fallacies not only echo the disparities between china and thailand in terms of cultural milieu, value frameworks, and behavioral conventions but also underscore particular deficits in the global transmission of chinese culture. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 12 3.2.2 interested content: equal emphasis on tradition and modernity, highlighting the spiritual level. figure 5. which aspects of chinese culture people are most interested in multiple choice in terms of traditional culture, the survey data shows that calligraphy, painting, folk art, poetry, and songs are all favored, and a few respondents also chose chinese martial arts. this survey shows that among the many traditional chinese festivals, the spring festival is the most popular among thai people, with a selection ratio as high as 82.35%. this is consistent with the research results of liu yue (2021). liu yue's (2021) survey of thai university students found that the respondents' awareness of typical spring festival elements such as spring festival couplets, dumplings, and red envelopes was relatively high, with an average of over 80%. at the same time, among the other options, two respondents chose the qingming festival, indicating that the tradition of qingming ancestor worship is also highly preserved and inherited among the chinese ethnic groups in thailand. regarding the chinese cultural content of interest, chinese films and tv dramas (55.88%) are the most attractive to thai people, followed by chinese traditional festivals, food, history, etc. in the realm of present-day culture, chinese cinematic and television creations have garnered the utmost acclaim, vividly exhibiting the immense magnetism of china's film and tv culture in thailand. in recent years, more and more outstanding chinese film and television works have entered the thai market, building an important bridge for sino-thai cultural exchanges. the next step should be to deeply explore the viewing preferences of thai audiences and create more excellent film and television works that are closely related to thailand's national conditions and close to the lives of thai people, so as to enhance the international dissemination power and influence of chinese culture. the respondents' love for historical culture and philosophical thought in the spiritual and cultural aspects reached 31.37%, and the proportion of literature and art was 21.57%. chinese philosophical thoughts and value concepts have a certain influence in thailand. tran quoc vuong (2018) believes that the core ideas of "benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trust" in confucian culture are in line with thailand's inherent concept of honor. the concept of a community with a shared future for mankind proposed by president xi jinping also has many similarities with some buddhist thoughts. the survey also shows that 44.12% of respondents are most interested in chinese contemporary culture. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 13 3.2.3 equal emphasis on official and private channels for information dissemination. figure 6. forms that help enhance the understanding of chinese culture multiple choice official channels are important positions for chinese cultural communication. this survey shows that 73.53% of respondents believe that educational and cultural institutions are channels conducive to promoting chinese cultural communication. thailand has the largest number of confucius institutes in southeast asia. as of 2024, thailand has a total of 16 confucius institutes and 11 confucius classrooms, distributed in major cities such as bangkok, chiang mai, khon kaen, and songkhla, as well as universities and secondary schools in other provinces. they have become important platforms for sino-thai cultural exchanges. they provide convenience for local universities and regions in thailand to learn chinese and understand chinese culture, and also make positive contributions to the further development of sino-thai relations. the survey also found that 58.82% of respondents prefer to learn about chinese culture through mainstream media. it can be seen that the leading role of media in cultural communication is still prominent. in recent years, emerging channels such as online social media like tik tok, facebook, and online lectures have also become important channels for thai people to learn about china, and private channels are also a new force in communication. at the same time, 72.55% of respondents believe that tourism projects contribute to the spread of chinese culture. sino-thai interconnectivity and people-to-people exchanges are becoming more frequent. it is necessary to make full use of major project constructions such as the greater mekong subregion cooperation, china-laos railway, and pan-asian railway to create themed tourism routes and integrate chinese cultural elements into scenic spots. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 14 3.2.4 it is hoped that technology empowerment, along with intelligent and immersive experiences, will enhance the appeal of chinese culture. figure 7. the melding of chinese culture with pioneering technology (multiple choice) as we traverse the era of artificial intelligence, the interweaving of technology and culture is growing ever more intricate, with intelligent and immersive encounters surfacing as trailblazing conduits for magnifying the allure of chinese culture.in the survey, artificial intelligence (70.59%) and vr/ar technology (66.67%) received the most attention, reflecting thai people's expectations for intelligent and immersive cultural experiences. at the same time, digital museums (58.82%) and interactive live streaming (49.02%) also have considerable development potential. in addition, films, tv dramas, music, food, tourism, etc. are also effective cultural communication carriers, indicating that while technology develops, content creativity and cultural charm are still the core elements of cultural communication. in the future, china should follow the development trend of the intelligent era, creatively combine cutting-edge technologies with chinese culture, and create a more threedimensional, vivid, and attractive cultural image. at the same time, it should continue to give full play to the role of traditional cultural carriers such as films and tv dramas, tell chinese stories well, and spread chinese voices. 4. conclusions and implications 4.1 research conclusions this study used a combination of literature review and questionnaire survey methods, based on the perspective of exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations, to examine the current situation of chinese cultural communication in thailand and thai people's cognitive evaluation. the study found: first, thai people are generally interested in chinese culture, but their cognition needs to be improved. second, in terms of cultural content preferences, film and television works and traditional festivals are the most popular, reflecting the characteristics of taking into account contemporary and traditional aspects, and emphasizing participatory experience and cultural connotations. third, the channels for chinese cultural communication in thailand are becoming increasingly diverse, presenting a new pattern of joint efforts between official and private sectors, as well as the integration of online and offline platforms. fourth, chinese cultural communication in thailand has made positive progress, but there is still a long way to go in enhancing cultural identity. fifth, cultural chasms engender cognitive distortions and misconceptions, and vanquishing prejudices entails equitable dialogue, pursuing common ground while honoring differences, and mutual edification. in sum, the transmission of chinese culture in thailand finds itself at a new historical crossroads, grappling with both extraordinary opportunities and pragmatic impediments. it should follow the trend of intelligence, innovate ideas, enrich means, expand channels, and promote the transformation of cultural communication from a scale-oriented model to a quality and efficiency-oriented one, injecting new impetus into deepening sino-thai cultural exchanges and promoting people-to-people connectivity. simultaneously, the culmination bestows the ensuing insights for augmenting public perception and potency of chinese culture in thailand. 1. grasp the new development stage, follow the trend of intelligence, and strengthen the innovation of ideas, means, and channels for cultural communication. focus on areas that thai people enjoy, such as film and television and festivals, use technological means such as vr/ar and ai to create immersive experiences, and launch more excellent works that combine sino-thai wisdom and reflect humanistic feelings. at the same time, actively give play to the unique advantages of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 15 thai chinese, encourage them to participate deeply in sino-thai cultural exchanges, and play a "feedback" role in cultural communication. vigorously promote chinese culture, present a positive image of chinese tourists being civilized, friendly, and hospitable, and enhance the soft power of chinese culture. 2. accelerate the construction of a large-scale cultural communication pattern that is compatible with the "belt and road." further improve the chinese language and culture promotion system with confucius institutes as the leader and various cultural institutions as support. dynamically amplify the capacities of confucius institutes, orchestrate a scintillating mosaic of cultural immersion enterprises, and sculpt them into cardinal conduits for sino-thai grassroots interchanges. deepen cooperation with mainstream thai media, give full play to the unique role of overseas chinese and international students, and consolidate the foundation of public opinion. buttress the evolution of thai chinese associations and intensify the authority of chinese media. exploit the resource virtues of overseas chinese in realms such as economy, trade, science and technology, and education, and galvanize pragmatic synergy between china and thailand. 3. innovate people-to-people exchange methods and create distinctive cultural exchange brands. actively develop new forms of people-to-people exchanges such as study tours and cultural volunteer services. relying on china's unique humanistic and natural resources, develop cultural tourism boutique routes with distinctive themes and rich experiences, so that thai people can enhance their cognition and recognition of chinese culture while "walking in china." support exchanges between young students of the two countries, carry out joint research, exchange internships, and other projects, and cultivate successors for sino-thai friendship. vigorously advocate for chinese culture and raise the civilizational stature of chinese denizens. strengthen the guidance and education of chinese tourists, regulate their words and deeds, and present a good image of chinese tourists being enthusiastic, friendly, civilized, and polite. encourage chinese-funded enterprises in thailand to actively fulfill their social responsibilities, participate in public welfare activities, and establish the image of a responsible major country. convey china's goodwill through practical actions, eliminate stereotypes, and enhance the feelings between chinese and thai people. 4. uphold the concept of "seeking common ground while reserving differences and mutual learning," and build a bridge of people-to-people communication through equal exchanges. treat cultural differences with an open and inclusive attitude, seek common ground while reserving differences, and harmony without uniformity on the basis of mutual respect. encourage thai chinese to actively inherit and promote excellent traditional chinese culture, enhance cultural confidence, and play the role of a "cultural bridge." use overseas chinese as a link to create conditions to promote in-depth and lasting friendly exchanges in various fields, carry out diverse cultural exchange activities, and build a communication platform for chinese and thai people. emphasize the cultivation of bilingual prowess, reinforce cross-cultural communication dexterity, disperse misconceptions, and cement mutual assurance. 5. optimize the discourse system and communication methods of chinese culture's international communication. explore the convergence points of chinese and thai cultures, and use popular, vivid, and easy-to-accept expressions to explain chinese concepts. innovate new dialogue models to resolve differences. equip thai chinese media to revolutionize cultural parlance, expand expressive modalities, and recount chinese narratives and promulgate chinese voices in fashions that captivate thai audiences. amplify brand cultivation, polish cultural insignia imbued with present-day merit, widely trumpet the harvests of sino-thai cultural interchanges, illuminate the vivid praxis of china and thailand joining hands and collaborating for shared prosperity, exhibit china's refreshed visage and pioneering endeavors, and accentuate cultural rapport. 4.2 limitations and suggestions for further study while this study provides valuable insights into thai people's perceptions and evaluations of chinese culture communication, it is not without limitations. the primary limitation lies in the relatively small sample size (n=51), which may not be fully representative of the diverse thai population. future research should aim to expand the sample size and ensure a more balanced representation across various demographic segments, such as age, education, and occupation. a larger and more diverse sample would enhance the generalizability of the findings and provide a more comprehensive understanding of how chinese culture is perceived and received in thailand. in general, sino-thai people-to-people exchanges are in a period of leaping from "quantity" to "quality." the focus of future work is to take culture as the soul and education as the foundation, improve the three-dimensional communication network that combines tradition and modernity, online and offline, and while expanding the breadth of exchanges, focus on expanding the depth of exchanges, so as to lay a solid foundation of public opinion for deepening the construction of the china-thailand community with a shared future. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 16 references chen, k. (2009). on the power of language: the philosophical, cultural and pragmatic essence of language. academic research, (12), 154. [in chinese: . (2009). —— . (12), 154.] fu, z. (2020). the history of china-thailand cultural exchanges. international culture publishing company. [in chinese: . (2020). . . 34] hou, y., & yu, c. (2023). factors for evaluating the effect of international communication in the intelligent era: research review and trend prospects. international communication, (1), 23. [in chines: , & . (2023). : . , (1), 23.] huang, l. (2019). research on the spread of chinese culture in thai chinese teaching [doctoral dissertation, guangxi university for nationalities]. [in chinese: . (2019). .( ), ] kanoksilapatham, b. (2013). national survey of teaching chinese as a foreign language in thailand. journal lingua humaniora, 7, 621-639. lilasettakul, t., & an, r. (2011). a study on the cross-cultural adaptation of the international chinese volunteer teachers in thailand. intercultural communication studies, 20(1), 208-223. liu, y. (2021). a survey on the current situation of the spread of spring festival culture among thai university students. crossroads: southeast asian studies (02), 78-85. [in chines: . (2021). . , (02), 78-85] lu, r. (2021). a study on the perception of china’s national image among thai students in china[master's thesis, yunnan university]. [in chinese . (2021). ( ), ] ma, x. (2023). the cultural resilience and cultural identity of chinese traditional culture: a study based on the concept of feedback in the folk beliefs of thai chinese. research on the chinese nation community (6), 146-161. [in chinese . (2023). —— . , (6), 146-161.] ni, s & lin, h. (2022). xi jinping holds talks with thai prime minister prayut chan-o-cha. people’s daily. https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2022-11/19/content_5727899.htm. [in chinese: & . 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(2011). . .] appendix communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 17 a. 2 4. 5. 7. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 18 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 19 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. volume03issue01.0611.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 39 chinese-english translation strategies of children’s picture books from the perspective of multimodality —a case study of the monkey king series qian cui1, jian li2 1 school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, e-mail: 384813853@qq.com 2 corresponding author: school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, email:1340720658@qq.com abstract children’s picture books, as a marginal genre of children’s literature with rich graphic and textual expressions, play a good role in promoting the overall development of children’s language and cognition. in recent years, many foreign children’s picture books have been translated into chinese for readers in china, but relatively little attention has been paid to the original chinese picture books, and the research for children’s picture book translations rich in chinese elements and culture has not attracted much attention. therefore, this study first selects the original chinese picture book the monkey king and then uses literature review and case study methods, to discuss the translation strategies of children’s picture books from a multimodal perspective, hoping to provide a preliminary reference for the translation practice of original chinese children’s picture books. keywords: children’s picture books, multimodality, chinese-english translation strategies 1. introduction in the field of children’s literature, picture books are a special genre, which is characterized by illustrations and texts, featuring beautiful pictures and interesting storylines. excellent children’s picture books promote imagination, language skills, and cognitive abilities. in recent years, picture books have been loved by chinese children and parents. in the early 21st century, children’s picture books developed rapidly, and a large number of foreign picture books were introduced into china. however, the influence of domestic original picture books is far lower than that of foreign picture books. therefore, to spread chinese original picture books to the world, scholars should pay attention to the translation of chinese original picture books, so that more chinese excellent picture books can go abroad. at present, the research on children’s picture book translation in china is still quite limited, and there is very little research on the application of multimodal theory, which will be discussed in the literature review section. generally speaking, as of january 2022, there are only 486 articles in cnki (china national knowledge infrastructure; chinese: ) under the theme of “ /huìběn fānyì” (picture book translation), compared with two under “ /ér tóng wénxué fānyì”. a large part of the picture book translation focuses on english-to-chinese translation, and few articles focus on chinese-to-english translation. after adding the search for “multimodality”, there are 43 results. most of these articles adopt the discourse analysis framework under systematic functional linguistics and have less discussion of the relationship between images and text. at the same time, searching for “multimodal pragmatics” yields 34 results. therefore, at present, few translation studies focus on the combination of multimodal pragmatic theory with picture book translation. this paper uses the image-text relations theory of martinec & salway (2005) to analyze the chinese-to-english translation of the monkey king picture book, aiming to provide translation strategies for the english translation of children’s picture books. to achieve the above objectives, the following two research questions are proposed: 1) what are the characteristics of the image-text relations between the chinese and english versions? 2) what pragmatic strategies did the translator use in the translation? 2. literature review 2.1 multimodal discourse analysis over the past 20 years, multimodal discourse analysis has achieved remarkable results. first, scholars have focused on the importance of other modalities besides language. michael o’toole was the first one to extend semiotic resources beyond language, and he conducted research in multimodal discourse frameworks in many fields of art. under this framework, there are three kinds of meanings, namely conceptual meanings, interactive meanings, and compositional meanings. subsequently, based on halliday’s (1994) systematic theory of functional linguistics, kress and van leeuwen proposed visual grammar to describe the semiotic resources of images and analyze the visual aspects of these patterns. effect. their book, reading images. a grammar of visual design is one of the most influential studies in the field of multimodality (kress & van leeuwen, 1996). another research trend is intermodality. the concept of multimodality questions the division of meaning between disciplines, arguing that meaning is not a simple superposition of symbolic resources, but depends on the interaction between modalities, that is linkage (jewitt, 2009). barthes (1977) distinguished three kinds of relationship between images and texts from the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 40 perspective of semiotics: anchorage, which means the subordination of text; illustration, which means the subordination of images; relay, which means equal position. martinec & salway (2005) studied the intermodality in children’s books, advertising, and other media, and proposed a new image-text relationship system image-text relations theory based on the theory of barthes and halliday. in addition, domestic research on multimodal translation is mainly limited to two major fields: film and television translation and multimodal teaching. film and television translation mainly focuses on subtitle translation, with a single film and television work as the research object, and there are many repeated studies. in the field of multimodal teaching, many research results have been achieved in the field of interpreting teaching, and the research on multimodal interpreting corpus provides a reference for interpreting teaching (liu, 2015). the multimodal research framework is relatively vague, and there is a problem of conceptual confusion. pictures books have drawn the attention of researchers in recent decades, but domestic research on picture translations is relatively small, and there is no systemic theoretical structure. in recent years, there have been an increasing number of multimodal research on picture books both at home and abroad. the book translating picture books: restoring language, sight, and hearing for child audiences was released by routledge in 2018 (oittinen et al., 2018). this book examines the relationship between languages, images, and sounds in picture book translation from the perspective of dual semiotics and multimodality, including the relationship between image and text, audiovisual translation, cultural rewriting, and other topics. what’s more, under the background of the belt and road initiative, there have been studies on the translation of chinese cultural translations from the perspective of pragmatic translation theory combined with multimodality (mo & li, 2021), and then put forward the multimodal pragmatic translation strategies in the field of cultural foreign translation. 2.2 pragmatics translation foreign translation views have grown to include two new perspectives: multimodal pragmatic analysis and experimental pragmatic analysis. sara dicerto’s 2018 work multimodal pragmatics and translation: new models for source text analysis contains the most recent study on multimodal pragmatic analysis. it offers a model for analyzing multimodal source text, which aids in understanding how multimodal text communicates meaning and how to cope with a multimodal text translation. foreign experimental pragmatics has produced beneficial outcomes. the most common experimental techniques are questionnaire surveys, interviews, eye monitoring technology, time-related potential, and functional magnetic resonance, among others. the first to introduce pragmatic theory into translation studies was hatim and mason (1990). in 1979, xu guozhang introduced austin’s book how to do things with words in china. the two scholars pointed out that the two languages have different means of realizing “illiteracy power”, that is, english adopts the form of syntax, while chinese uses vocabulary (he & duan, 1988). additionally, the first to systematically engage in the study of pragmatic translation was gutt (1998). li (2008) analyzed the current situation of pragmatic translation in china, combed the research results from 2011 to 2020, and found that domestic scholars use more perspectives on pragmatic translation theory, including pragmatic equivalence theory, relevance theory, cross-cultural pragmatics, adaptation theory, relevance theory, etc. it is stated that the present scope of pragmatic theory is restricted and that the study subjects are confined to literary translation and subtitle translation. the author searched cnki and found that there are only three research papers in terms of multimodal pragmatic translation published in 2022. one of them is a review article and one put forward suggestions on the multimodal pragmatic translation of chinese characteristic discourse from a macro perspective (hong, guo & wu, 2022), and the other adopted the method of case study, discussing the multimodal pragmatic translation strategies of cultural foreign translation, finally found three kinds of image -text relationship strategies, and achieved the pragmatic functions of perspective transformation, pragmatic enrichment, and thematicization (mo & li, 2022). it can be found that there are still few studies on multimodal pragmatic analysis, and there is a large research gap. 3. method this paper selects one typical chinese original picture book the monkey king for a case analysis to partially fill the gap. this book has been translated into many languages and distributed all over the world. foreign languages publishing house reprinted the english version of monkey king several times in 1986, 2007, and 2010. in march 2023, zhaohua publishing house published the monkey king series to provide excellent traditional chinese cultural picture books for overseas teenagers (qin & xie, 2023). this paper integrates two approaches: multimodal pragmatic analysis and pragmatic equivalence for the image and text dimensions. the multimodal pragmatic analysis proposed by chen and qian (2011) draws on the framework of systemic functional linguistics. starting from the purpose of communication, it studies how the modal forms interact to form a certain discourse meaning, and combines two multimodal examples to verify the feasibility of the structure. also, the image-text relations theory proves to apply to the exploration of multimodal meaning in the framework of pragmatics. (dicerto, 2018). also, it can be used to analyze the image-text relationship in a hypermedia system (martinec et salway, 2015). pragmatic communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 41 equivalence refers to the fact that in form the purpose is not necessarily equivalent to the original language, but in the connotative sense the equivalence must be maintained. in translation practice, lu (2013) systematically sorted out the commonly used translation strategies of pragmatic equivalence, and there are mainly five kinds. 3.1 multimodal pragmatic analysis framework at present, multimodal studies in the fields of socio-semiotics, systemic-functional grammar, and discourse analysis are remarkable (lemke, 1998; kress & van leeuwen, 2001). chen and qian (2011) mentioned that the analysis based on the existing theoretical frameworks of pragmatics only focuses on the influence of the information conveyed by the language ontology on communication, and lacks the full consideration of non-linguistic factors such as image, music, mood manner and ignores the important role of non-linguistic modalities that participate in meaning construction, hence it has great limitations in the process of meaning construction. based on the comprehensive theoretical framework of systemic functional figure 1. multimodal pragmatic analysis framework (chen & qian, 2011) linguistics, we construct a framework for multimodal pragmatic analysis from the perspective of communication itself. as shown in figure 1, the multimodal information of pragmatic analysis can be divided into three factors: situational factors, communicator factors, and media factors. among them, situational factors include weather, place, and noise; communicator factors include facial expressions, eyes, tone of voice, volume, and body language. the relationship between non-language factors and language factors is complementary and non-complementary. as shown in figure 2, the image-text relations theory explores the image-text relationship from the two aspects of status and the logic-semantic relationship. in terms of status, the two scholars divide it into equality (images and texts are independent or complementary to each other) and inequality (images and texts belonging to affiliation) two relationships. as for the logico-semantic relationship, it further includes extension and projection. expansion is further classified as elaboration, extension, and enhancement. elaboration means that the pictures and texts tell the same story. it encompasses two kinds of relations: exposition (when the semantics expressed by the image and the semantics expressed by the text table are the same) and exemplification (when the semantics expressed by the text and the semantics expressed by the image are mutually subordinate). extension refers to the fact that either one of the pictures and texts adds new information to the other. enhancement refers to the fact that one side of the picture and text explains environmental factors such as time, space, and causality for the other side. it should be mentioned that there are two subsystems under the image-text relations theory that can be further divided into sub-items. different combinations can be formed between subitems. it is reasonable and effective to apply image-text relations theory to multimodal discourse analysis. the image-text relations theory proves to apply to the exploration of multimodal meaning in the framework of pragmatics. (dicerto, 2018). also, it can be used to analyze the image-text relationship in a hypermedia system (martinec et salway, 2015). some scholars used this theory to analyze the relationship between the image information of movie subtitles (chen & zhang, 2017). some scholars used the classic picture “han xizai’s night banquet” collected by the palace museum as a corpus and chose the theory of image-text relationship to study the relationship between intermodality and pragmatic strategies in cultural translation (mo&li, 2021). therefore, the author communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 42 chooses the image-text relations theory (martinec et salway, 2015) as the theoretical framework. the theory of image-text relationship provides a theoretical basis for the analysis of the multimodal translation of source text, and multimodal analysis provides an effective method for multimodal analysis. figure 2. image-text relations theory (martinec & salway, 2015) 3.2 pragmatic equivalence in translation professor he (1997) believed that the core of pragmatic translation is pragmatic equivalence, that is, the translator should make it simple for the target text readers to comprehend through the pragmatic comparison between the two languages to achieve pragmatic equality, translation methods must be chosen. scholar he (1997) proposed that “pragmatic translation can also study the issues of pragmatic-linguistic equivalence and social-pragmatic equivalence through the comparison of two languages”. pragmatic linguistic equivalence refers to the fact that in form the purpose is not necessarily equivalent to the original language, but in the connotative sense the equivalence must be maintained. social pragmatic equivalence means that to avoid obstacles to cross-cultural understanding for the target readers, the translator should fully consider the social and cultural differences, and express the culturally loaded messages according to the cultural habits of the target text, to achieve the purpose of communication. in translation practice, to achieve the purpose of pragmatic equivalence, translators often adopt the translation strategy of domestication. (chen, 2003). lu (2013) systematically sorted out the commonly used translation strategies of pragmatic equivalence, and there are mainly five kinds: 1) context-oriented—translating the functional meaning of the words. 2) pragmatic integration—reproducing the same connotative meaning by deleting and rewriting the source text’s phrase structure and linguistic style, instead of adhering to the source text’s form 3) pragmatic modification—in accordance with the target language’s expression patterns, so that the target text can more closely recreate the meaning of the source text. 4) pragmatic explicitation—adapting to cultural differences. pragmatic explicitation is the expression of concealed cultural information in the source text by adding phrases to help readers comprehend and identify the translation. 5) pragmatic politeness—pay attention to pragmatic appropriateness. last but not least, lu (2013) believes that pragmatic translation leaves a large space for the translator to deal with freely. on the premise of correctly understanding the author’s intention of the source text, the translator consciously chooses the appropriate translation strategy to effectively realize the purpose and the communication between the reader and the source text. 4. results and discussion due to the relatively old version, this study only takes the fourteenth monkey raises havoc in jindou cave as the research object. thus, this study intends to examine the pragmatic translation strategies under the theoretical framework of image-text relations theory with the employment of a quantitative method. this study probes into the translation strategies of the book in three dimensions. to be exact, the first one is pragmatic enrichment; the second one is pragmatic enrichment; the third one is pragmatic integration and coherence, and the fourth one is domestication, as shown in table 1. table 1. image-text relations of the monkey king image-text relation of the source text image-text relation of the target text frequency pragmatic strategy exposition exemplification 12 pragmatic enrichment extension enhancement 14 pragmatic integration status logico-semantics equal unequal elaboration extension enhancement exposition exemplification time space causality image-text relations expansion projection communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 43 extension exemplification 56 domestication total pages 82 4.1 case analysis of extension to enhancement picture 1 translation example 1. source text: “ ” target text: one day as the four pilgrims were going over a high mountain, the tang priest pointed to a gully and said, “disciple, look at the towers and houses over there. let us go and beg for some food before we continue on our way.” monkey immediately took a hard look. he saw evil-looking mists and clouds hanging over the place. referring to image-text relations theory, extension means that one modality adds new information to another modality in any aspect of the participant, the process, or the environment. when one modality modifies the time, space, cause, and other environmental factors, it is represented as enhancement (martinec & salway, 2005). as shown in picture 1, in the image, the monkey king is standing on a high mountain, looking down at the tower below the mountain. in addition to the depiction of the monkey king, the source text includes the scene of the master and his three apprentices crossing the high mountains and tang priest talking to the monkey king which the image doesn’t contain. the image only depicts part of the content of the text, and the source text extends the relationship and expands new character information. thus, the relation between the source text and the image is an extension. in addition to the extension, there is one more relationship between the image and the target text that provides specific time and space information “to a gully” and “before we continue on our way” to make the sentence shorter and the structure more concise. thus, the relationship between the target text and the image is enhancement. referring to the previous research, mo & li (2021) have discussed that the translator used the strategy of enhancement to introduce the historical background and the role information of chinese traditional pictures. from extension to enhancement, it can be found that the pragmatic strategies used by translators are coherence and pragmatic integration. to conform to the sentence structure and logical relationship of the readers, the translator added the specific direction “to the gully” in the scene where tang priest is speaking to monkey king. moreover, the dialogue “before we continue on our way” clearly shows the order of actions which is highly logical. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 44 picture 2 translation example 2. source text: target text: as they began to despair, the towers and buildings disappeared, and a huge cave rose in front of them. the buildings were just the magic of an anvil spirit that had been waiting there to catch people. now many little demons came rushing out of the cave and took the three of them inside. as shown in picture 2, the picture shows the scene of the little demon walking toward the master and his three apprentices with weapons. the st not only expresses this scene but also explains that the building was changed by the monster, adding new information and expanding the scope of the text. therefore, the image-text relationship is an extension. compared with the st, the translation also narrates the scene of the disappearance of the building, which paves the way for the later exposition that the monster is transformed from a building. therefore, the image-text relationship is enhancement. the translator adopted a pragmatic integration strategy. lu (2013) illustrated different writing habits of news texts between china and western countries. the practice of listing a long list of official titles and names is in line with chinese people’s expectations and reading habits, but in the west, the news tends to discuss the main subject. equally, on this page, the translator did not translate the action of being noisy but translated their disappointment making the sentence structure more in line with the reading habits of the target readers. it reproduces the same semantics as st, but a more vivid description than it. 4.2 case analysis of exposition to exemplification picture 3 translation example 3. source text: ” ” target text: monkey sneered at the demon and shouted, “shut up, damned beast! come here and taste my cudgel!” the demon thrust his spear at monkey. after thirty hard-fought rounds, neither of them had won or lost. exposition means that one modality shares the same information with another modality. exemplification refers to the representation of information from one modality to another utilizing detailed description (martinec & salway, 2005). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 45 as shown in picture 3, the picture shows the scene of the battle between the monkey king and the monster, which is consistent with the semantics of the st, so it is the exposition relationship between the image and st. while, the words “sneered, shouted” in the translation narrate the facial expression of the monkey king, hence the image-text relation is exemplification. from exposition to exemplification, the translator adopted the strategy of pragmatic enrichment, which means making the depiction more concrete. when describing monkey king’s laugh, the translator did not directly translate the verb but highlighted the disdainful expression and the sharp voice. such processing can quickly convey strong emotions and attract target readers. picture 4 translation example 4. source text: ” ” ” target text: one little devil hurried in to report. “your majesty, there’s a monk at the gate. he’s called monkey king, the great sage equaling heaven, and he’s asking for his master.” the demon was delighted to hear this.” just the person i wanted to see,” he said. as shown in picture 4, the picture shows the scene of listening to the demon’s report. the description in the st is consistent with the semantics of the image. therefore, the st and the image are in an exposition relationship. st does not explain who “he” is but only highlights the information of two characters that are the same as the image. compared to st, tt describes that “he” is monkey king, explains his life experience, and makes the image of monkey king more concrete, thus tt and the image are in the relationship of exemplification. it can be found that the translator also adopted the strategy of pragmatic enrichment. as the previous study stated, the translator did not directly translate the pronouns of the st but enriched the relatively brief description in the st to highlight the superior strength of monkey king. 4.3 case analysis of extension to exemplification picture 5 translation example 5. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 46 source text: target text: as they arrived at the gate of the cave, monkey shouted, “open up, devils!” taking his ring, the demon king was ready to come out again. just as the doors opened, the river god threw all the water in his white jade bottle into the cave. as shown in picture 5, the image expresses the scene where the water god is pouring water from a white jade bottle. in addition to describing the above scene, the st also uses the yellow river analogy of water displacement to provide new information. therefore, the st and the image are in an extension relationship. there is no analogy to the yellow river in the translation, but a description of monkey king’s language is added to highlight monkey king’s momentum when he faces the battle. therefore, the translation and the image are in an exemplification relationship. from extension to exemplification, the translator used the pragmatic strategy of domestication. the st clearly stated that the source of the water is the yellow river, but in the tt, the translator translated it into all the water, omitting the background of the yellow river. this kind of text processing makes the target readers not need to know the information that the yellow river is the second largest river in china so that readers can read smoothly. picture 6 translation example 6. source text: target text: with a shout of “go!” and one bound of his somersault cloud he was soon at vulture peak. bringing down his auspicious cloud, he looked all around. noble towers and pavilions were shining in the clouds. bells and chimes were ringing and voices could be heard reciting holy sutras. it was a wonderful place. as shown in picture 6, the semantics expressed by images are related to the text. the st vividly describes ling mountain from the perspective of vision and hearing, summarizing the buddhist atmosphere. the images carefully depicted in the source text enrich the readers’ spatial imagination, making the image and characteristics of buddhism come alive on the paper. therefore, the image and st are in an enhancement relationship. in the tt, the translator’s description is more detailed than the st, carefully portraying the sound of the monkey king driving an auspicious cloud and the agility of his movements. however, the translator omitted the religious background of buddhism and merely indicated that ling mountain is a wonderful place. therefore, from enhancement to exemplification, the translator used a pragmatic strategy of domestication. from the target reader’s point of view, this reduces the barriers to understanding and makes translation straightforward. 5. conclusion based on the theory of image-text relations theory, through the analysis of the chinese and english versions of the monkey king series of picture books, this paper draws the following conclusions: (1) the image-text relations theory between the st and tt has three relationships under the subsystem of logical semantics: exposition-exemplification, extension-enhancement, and extension-exemplification. (2) the translator adopted different translation strategies when faced with the three different image-text relationships. for the exposition-exemplification image-text relationship, the translator used a pragmatically enriched translation strategy to describe the characters in detail and plot; for the extension-enhancement image-text relationship, the translator adopted an communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 47 integrated and coherent translation strategy, not sticking to the structural consistency, but focusing on the logic of translation; for the extension-exemplification image-text relationship, the translator chose the method of domestication, which are close to the reading habits and expressions of the target readers. the findings of this paper also have certain guiding significance for the translation of picture book translators. this paper may provide a new perspective for exploring the translation of children’s picture books based on multimodal pragmatic theory. in addition, it provides corresponding strategies for the foreign translation of chinese original picture books and looks forward to excellent translations of chinese original picture books going abroad. through literature research, case analysis, and qualitative analysis, this paper reviews the previous research on multimodal theory and picture books and finally discusses three reasonable children’s picture book translation strategies. however, due to the limited theories currently analyzing children’s picture book translations, authors must support their views from different perspectives. criticism of the example may be unjustified because it cannot be separated from the author’s limited knowledge and personal judgment. when translating children’s picture books using a multimodal pragmatic analysis framework, there is not enough space to comprehensively and thoroughly analyze the various types of language-visual relationships, which makes the conclusions less comprehensive. the discussion and analysis in this paper are somewhat subjective and do not think from the perspective of children, so in the future, i hope to increase corresponding empirical research. considering the limitations of this paper, the author hopes that future research can focus on exploring more reasonable principles and theories of children’s picture book translation strategies. acknowledgements first of all, i would like to thank the respected ms. li jian for her consistent guidance in my study. from the proposal to the polishing of the final draft, her thorough knowledge and rigorous academic stance have inspired me a lot. secondly, i would like to extend my gratitude to all the teachers and classmates who have taught and helped me over these four years. without their guidance and support, i could not be able to successfully complete this thesis. thirdly, i would like to appreciate my dear family, who are always patient and caring when i face obstacles. it is their trust and unreserved love that have enabled me to overcome the challenges without fear. references arsenio jesús moya guijarro. 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(05): 82-86. doi: 10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h..05.034.] volume03issue01.0914.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 8 aesthetic pursuit and cultural metaphor of piano music based on traditional chinese culture bo lyu1 1the education department of shenzhen university, china. email: 756639168@qq.com project funding: stage achievements of the 2022 shenzhen university apprenticeship teaching project abstract the cultural values of chinese piano music are the humanistic spirit and cosmology of “the harmony between man and nature” and “the beauty of equilibrium and harmony” in traditional chinese culture. the piano art itself has a strong western artistic flavor. but in the context of the integration of multiple musical cultures, chinese piano music not only embodies the essence of traditional chinese music culture, in line with the aesthetic interests and aesthetic concepts of the chinese nation, and contains the beauty of profound classical aesthetic connotations, placing emphasis on meaning rather than form, pursuing the mood beauty, and putting emotion in the scene. it also reflects the pursuit of traditional chinese culture, showing the cultural metaphor of patriotic feelings, harmony in diversity, and innovative transformation in the beauty of artistic fusion. the article analyzes the aesthetic pursuit and cultural metaphor of chinese piano art in terms of the cultural connotation of chinese piano art. keywords: chinese piano music, aesthetic pursuit, cultural metaphor 1. introduction during the ming dynasty, the italian catholic missionary matteo ricci (1552-1610), with the sacred mission of preaching, dedicated a clavichord to the then emperor ming shenzong in 1601 (xin, 1995). as an import from the west, the art of piano and traditional chinese music come from two different cultures. since the 20th century, chinese piano music has gone through five stages of development (infancy, initial exploration, development, uncertainty, and prosperity), and has continued to inherit, innovate, and integrate with the understanding, respect, and recognition of western culture. the interoperability and integration between different cultures have gradually strengthened, presenting the differences and characteristics between different cultures. a large number of excellent piano works have emerged: such as the cowherd’s flute, flute and drum at sunset, the moon reflected on erquan pond, 100 birds singing in homage to the phoenix, autumn moon over the calm lake, and so on. these works perfectly express the life and emotions of the chinese people, reflect the wisdom of chinese music and the charm of chinese culture, with strong national colors and unique musical style, and also embody the essence of chinese traditional music culture, in line with the aesthetic taste and concepts of the chinese people. based on absorbing the practical experience of european piano art, chinese piano music has created a brand new musical style with pioneering thinking and daring, which has shone in world music history and gradually formed a unique chinese piano music culture, evolving into a wonderful cultural treasure combining chinese and western features. its unique emotions, attitudes and values, vocabulary, formed its discourse system and identity, thus promoting the development of the world of piano art. (zheng, 2021) at present, chinese piano music is practiced and disseminated in a global cross-cultural context. to solve the contradiction between the aesthetic ideology of art creators and art appreciators in the two cultural exchanges, it needs to go beyond the traditional subject-object mode of thinking, to understand the cultural background and social environment of piano music with inter-subjective thinking, and put it into the expression of chinese cultural characteristics for research, so that leads to a two-way reciprocal understanding and communication across cultures. in this way, we can promote the development of piano music culture in china and meet the requirements of a diversified era. 2. characteristics of chinese piano music cultural value orientation the development process of piano art inheritance, assimilation, construction, and creation all reflect the value orientation of traditional chinese culture. 2.1 the cultural spirit of “harmony between man and nature” chinese confucianism’s “the grand music is in harmony with earth and heaven” in “heaven-human induction” and taoism’s artistic view of approaching the natural universe reflect the chinese culture’s “harmony between man and nature”. as the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 9 dominant culture of china for thousands of years, respecting nature and adapting to nature has a rich connotation and reflects the profound and lofty cosmic spirit of the chinese people. in essence, it reflects the humanistic spirit of traditional chinese culture and has become a fundamental belief that has been followed throughout the long-term social practice of the chinese people for thousands of years (zhang, 2018). “harmony between man and nature” is one of the core issues in traditional chinese philosophy, and china has been exploring the issue of man and nature for a long time, and pursuing the realm where heaven, earth, and man can be integrated. the “harmony between man and nature” is the harmony and unity of man and nature, and the harmony and unity of man and society, as well as the harmony and unity of man himself. the concept of “harmony between man and nature” is a prominent expression of the essence of traditional chinese culture. the “gene” of traditional chinese aesthetics contained in piano music is reflected in the pursuit of a light, still, soft, and profound tone. the themes of the works use freehand to depict the rhythm of nature and trigger moving images of “harmony between man and nature” and “the blending of scenery with emotion”. for example, chen peixun’s autumn moon over the calm lake depicts the extreme scenery from the river, lake, sunset, xiao, drums, and waves at multiple levels, expressing the beautiful and relaxing emotions; li yinghai’s flute and drum at sunset and liu dunnan’s piano concerto the mountain forest depict the majestic mountains and forests in the southern miao region; he luting’s the cowherd’s flute takes a typical chinese ink painting of a cowherd boy riding a cow and playing the flute as its artistic image, and uses simple composition and brushwork to express the unity of heaven and man; huang huwei’s pictures of bashu and cui shiguang’s mountain spring all reflect the implication of the blending of scenes and emotion and the harmony between man and nature in chinese piano works. 2.2 the cultural orientation of equilibrium and harmony in the traditional chinese aesthetic perspective, “equilibrium and harmony” is both the highest standard and the ideal realm. confucius said, “in the application of the rites, harmony is to be prized.” in mencius gong sun chou ii, there is “heaven’s favorable weather is less important than earth’s advantageous terrain, and earth’s advantageous terrain is less important than human unity.” this shows that confucianism has always promoted the way of thinking of the middle way. the idea of “valuing harmony” is often combined with the meaning of “advocating equilibrium”. in the doctrine ( 476 bc -221 bc of the mean, there is “this equilibrium is the great root from which grow all the human actings in the world, and this harmony is the universal path which they all should pursue. let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish”. this shows thoughts that “harmony is beautiful” and “harmony is precious”. “harmony” is the highest state of thought and cultural pursuit of traditional chinese culture. with the development of the times, the cultural orientation of piano music has obvious commonality and continuity. the commonality is that chinese piano music culture has always lived in harmony with western piano music culture, reflecting its “equilibrium and harmony” integration, “harmony in diversity” and “finding common ground while reserving differences”. while choosing the fusion of chinese and western music cultures, chinese piano musicians always keep their cultural consciousness of traditional chinese culture. chinese piano works are the crystallization of the wisdom of “making foreign things serve china and the past serve the present” and the organic combination of chinese national music culture and western music culture. with the character of “equilibrium, harmony, profundity” of traditional chinese culture, chinese piano works have reached a high artistic taste. for example, there are chu wanghua’s xinjiang meditation (1978), wang jianzhong’s colorful clouds chasing the moon (1975), quan jihao’s long and short (1984), chen yi’s duo ye (1984), zhao xiaosheng’s tai chi (1987), and so on. the new era of piano music composition has changed the narrow understanding of nationalization in the past, no longer simply using the melody of folk songs with harmony and accompaniment, but recognizing the fundamental problem of nationalization in a deeper way, which is how to reflect the spirit of the nation and the spirit of the times in the works. the new era of piano music composition advocates the policy of “making the past serve the present and foreign things serve china”. it not only obtains new inspiration from foreign musical creation experiences but also conducts deeper excavation from the essence of traditional chinese culture and national aesthetic interest. national musical aesthetic psychology and aural thinking habits are permeated with deep chinese cultural aesthetic heritage. 3. the aesthetic pursuit of chinese piano music piano music culture is a derivative of creative development, and the aesthetic pursuit based on traditional chinese music culture presents three major characteristics: “imagery beauty”, “mood beauty” and “rhythm beauty”. the piano art brings out the connotation and artistic implication of chinese national culture, further promoting the self-aesthetic consciousness of chinese piano art. 3.1 “imagery beauty” in chinese piano music communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 10 the so-called “image” is a kind of artistic imagery created by the unique emotional activity of the creative subject to express subjective feelings (ke, 2015). the highest realm of traditional music aesthetics is “to create an imagery with an intention”, valuing the implication rather than the form. mr. ye lang, a famous aesthetician in china, proposed that “in traditional chinese aesthetics, imagery is the essence of beauty, and the image is also the essence of art. the most general provision of ‘imagery’ given by traditional chinese aesthetics is ‘the blending of scenery with emotions’” (ye, 2009). specifically, it refers to the relationship between scenery and emotion, that is, the expression of emotion through the scenery and the blending of scenery with emotions. the pursuit of chinese piano music’s imagery focuses on the expression of emotion through objects and scenes, which is rich in aesthetic ideas and presents profound aesthetic philosophies. it is mainly manifested as the intertwined relationship between content and form, reality and nihility, equilibrium and harmony, scenery and emotion, forming the aesthetic thinking of playing and appreciating chinese piano music. the expression of content and the choice of subject matter cannot be separated from the extremely poetic and picturesque features of mountains, water, moon, and night, and the depiction of natural landscapes link to human emotions, moods, will, and intentions to express the beauty of chinese piano music. the imagery of chinese piano music works is characterized by vivid imaginative descriptions of people, landscapes, and events in traditional culture, which then form musical images. for example, composer lai yinghai’s adaptation of flute and drum at sunset shows a wide range of scenes through the changes of various factors such as pitch, rhythm, sound, and strength. for example, it depicts scenes of sunset, boating on the river, flute, drum beat, river breeze, water waves, splashing waves, water birds playing, river waves, rolling waves, fishermen sculling, and so on. the work uses a variety of methods to express emotions with great precision, and the piano technique borrows from the guzheng, guqin, and pipa to completely dissolve the foreign instruments in the oriental imagery. from the point of view of music composition, the composer’s view is objective. in the process of using notes to paint the scene, on the one hand, it is necessary to pursue the realism of the scene, and on the other hand, to imagine the scene. in the process of performance, it is necessary for the performer to understand the composer’s original intention through the analysis of the composition background and to form a psychological resonance with the composer by using the method of “empathy”, to be able to grasp the relationship between scenery and emotion more accurately, and then to achieve a precise artistic presentation through specific performance techniques. 3.2 the deep sublimation of imagery is the “mood beauty” the “mood” is an important category in the aesthetics of traditional chinese art, and the creation and performance of chinesestyle piano suites are interwoven with the physical and emotional contexts, emotion, and mood. the creation and presentation of mood is an important factor in reflecting the style. (he, 2019) the artistic mood of “still, virtual, soft, and profound” in chinese music culture is to integrate one’s emotional thoughts with the musical objects depicted in the creation or performance of music to achieve the state of “combination of objects and subjects”. the way of feeling of “i have you, you have me, unified chaos and unity of space and time” is a distinctive feature of traditional chinese music thinking. it does not aim at a priori ideals and revealing the overall existence of things, but takes the process of experiencing reality and the enlightenment of ultimate existence as the purpose of artistic behavior. in traditional chinese culture, the literati mastered the arts of music, chess, calligraphy, and painting, and classical music enchanted countless literati with its melodious sound, easy rhythm, and idyllic scenes. and the fusion of the moods of music, chess, calligraphy and painting adds to the artistic beauty of the classical music. the piano piece autumn moon over the calm lake is a work that reflects this characteristic. the piece is calm and natural, with features of the chinese nation while at the same time conforming to the traditional aesthetic characteristics of focusing on the beauty of the mood. the piano performance is vivid in image, clear in sound and transparent in texture by adjusting the touch tones, intensity and speed changes. it precisely grasps the aesthetic pursuit of chinese culture, and depicts the artistic picture of impressive moonlight and boundless lake in the autumn, which makes the audience feel like they are immersed in the scene and the rhythm. 3.3 the aesthetic pursuit of rhythm beauty in chinese piano music the beauty of rhythm should combine form and spirit, which is reflected in music as the overall rhyme of musical works. rhythm is an important category in traditional chinese aesthetics, reflecting all the aesthetic styles of the chinese nation. also, it is manifested in many fields of art, such as music, painting and calligraphy. specifically, in terms of piano music, it refers to the rhythm of musical elements, including various forms such as the blending of scenery with emotion, the combination of reality and nihility, and the oblivion of things. just like the blank space in painting, chinese piano works employ a large number of flexible grace notes in the use of rest in the works. it is precisely the vivid charm between reality and nihility, the static music, and the beauty of blank grace notes get that create a kind of infinite daydream of “a dramatic communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 11 moment of silence”. for example, the performance of flute and drum at sunset by li yinghai, the moon reflected on erquan pond by chu wanghua, tai chi by zhao xiaosheng and other works gradually transition from slow and fading to resting, with a large number of grace notes to achieve the modification of the melody part, achieving the effect of complementing the sound with rhyme, which is highly romantic and shows the chinese rhyme of piano art. in chinese musical works, the notation of scattered plates is often used to reflect this pursuit of rhythm. the “improvisation” and “randomness” are either in the form of a loose structure or a loose rhythm. for example, in the introduction of wang jianzhong’s colorful clouds chasing the moon (1975), the scattered board only gives a few hints about the pitch and rhythm, leaving great space for the performer to play. the specific rhythm is controlled by the performer’s inner feelings, and the music is like an ink painting scroll in a dream and a thin layer of water mist smoke. in the tune, the high notes of the right hand are like ripples, and in the hazy atmosphere created by the right-hand texture, the lines and the texture are in harmony. the melody played by the left hand is soft and refreshing. the bass reverberates far away, like a tremor of sound in the air. thus, a kind of free expression can be obtained, and the rhyme is graceful, reflecting a kind of free aesthetic rhyme. in addition, the musical structure and harmony style, rhythm connotation, the “transition and combination” in the musical structure, the musical harmony color, the musical elements such as traditional instrumental music, folk music, opera, folk music tone and melody, and the timbre and touch keys of the performance, give the artistic works the charm and temperament from the inside out, which gradually manifests the full vitality of the works, and conveys a vivid aesthetic sense. the aesthetic pursuit of “imagery”, “mood” and “rhythm” in chinese piano music is the process of brewing, accumulation, sublimation and presentation of traditional chinese philosophy and aesthetics of confucianism and taoism. 4. cultural metaphors in chinese piano art metaphor, as a way of cognition, is commonly found in human language and thinking. traditional chinese culture contains a profound spirit of confucianism, buddhism and taoism, and is full of the composer’s understanding and interpretation of chinese aesthetics, which has a profound cultural metaphor, reflecting the aesthetic ideals of the creator, the performer and the admirer, the feeling of the family and the reflection of the universe and nature. 4.1 chinese piano music carries the cultural metaphor of family and national sentiment excellent chinese piano works can awaken in people a sense of patriotism, a desire to serve the country, the courage to take responsibility and a sense of humanity. for example, the piano concerto the yellow river, with the yellow river as its backdrop, is a passionate tribute to the unyielding spirit of struggle and the power of tenacious resistance shown by the chinese people at a time of national crisis, and has become the voice of the times; works including wang jianzhong’s red flowers all over the mountain, joy of emancipation, and liu yang river, chu wang hua’s the sky above the liberated area and man jiang hong prelude (for left hand), and liu zhuang’s variations based on shandong folk song folk tune of yimeng mountain, speak of national righteousness and humanistic concern, making the listener feel a sense of concern for the country and its people, showing the close connection between chinese piano art creation and the people, the times and the country, and demonstrating the spirit of chinese piano creation, which originates from the people’s life, perpetuates the heart of the pure and builds up the spirit of rejuvenation. 4.2 chinese piano culture shows the cultural metaphor of harmony in diversity chinese pianists and composers are not limited to western artistic expression but are rooted in the soil of chinese national culture. they explore the potential of piano musical instruments, discover the new language of chinese music in the integration of chinese and western culture, internalize traditional chinese culture, and display transcendence and innovation. a series of compositional models have been developed from the interplay of chinese and western music cultures, creating musical works with a strong chinese folk style. the chinese nation has a profound cultural heritage. all ethnic groups need to achieve harmony in diversity in their exchanges, communication and integration. the world of art is gorgeous and the national culture is colorful. transcending nationalities, regions and genres is an essential characteristic of chinese piano music culture (cheng d, 2021). it reflects the cultural connotation of harmony in diversity. the vitality of its inheritance and development lies not in assimilation and unity, but in accepting and absorbing the strengths of all parties. the essence of chinese piano music culture can only be truly understood through harmony and acceptance of differences. according to cultural anthropology, chinese piano music, with its broad mind, has a great affinity for western composition techniques and music culture, absorbs and transforms the western piano music culture, and selectively embraces and accommodates the ideology and culture of different factions and nationalities, making it an organic part of the national piano culture community (feng, 2022). 4.3 chinese piano culture reflects the cultural metaphor of innovative transformation communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 12 chinese traditional music culture is a profound of traditional chinese musical culture, values and aesthetic thought. it is rooted in the fertile soil of the history and culture of various ethnic groups and epitomizes their historical culture, way of life, values and other modes of thinking and behavior. it is an inexhaustible source for music creation. the key to the innovative transformation of china’s outstanding traditional cultural resources is to handle the relationship between heritage and innovation, tradition and modernity. as the saying goes, change leads to solution and solution leads to development. with a dialectical perspective, we should treat chinese traditional music culture and foreign music culture correctly, and borrow the best elements of western music culture based on inheriting the essence of chinese traditional music culture. to strengthen cultural awareness and cultural identity, to inherit and explore the contemporary value of excellent chinese traditional music culture, and to build cultural confidence, it is necessary to explore new paths of chinese cultural development and cultural communication in the context of the new era (adrian tien, 2015). the piano, as the “king of musical instruments”, has a wide tonal range, and a bright, crisp, varied and expressive tone. in the first half of the 20th century, the russian composer alexander tcherepnin held a competition to “solicit piano pieces with a chinese style”, which inaugurated the nationalization of piano music in china in modern times. this was an important step on the road of exploring the combination of chinese and western piano music in early china. as tcherepnin says, chinese composers must open up a path of innovative development for chinese music...the more nationalized the works of chinese composers are, the more they will be of world value” (alexander & sun, 2009). dai baisheng has made a summary of the characteristics of the formation of the style of piano music composition in china. “china’s nationalized piano composition has experienced the pursuit of national tones before 1949. in the 1950s, it quoted traditional tunes to create melodies with national tones. in the 1960s, it explored the nationalization of harmonies in the collection of piano adaptations of traditional music. in the 1970s, piano adaptations became the only way out of piano composition. after the 1980s, chinese styles became more individual and diverse” (dai, 2006). the creative concept of uniting folk music elements with western compositional techniques, combining western polyphonic techniques with traditional chinese tunings, melodies, and unique percussion rhythms, has resulted in many piano works with a fusion of chinese and western characteristics. it creates the piano context of chinese style, integrates the traditional chinese music creation techniques with the traditional western functional harmony system, innovates in integration and develops in complementarity, which is an important way for the innovation and development of chinese traditional music creation. it is not only an innovation in the content and form of piano music, but also a collision and interchange between eastern aesthetic interests and western structural styles. chinese piano music has accumulated creative experience through the collision and interplay of chinese and western musical cultures, and has derived the creative mode and composition rule with chinese style (chen & zhang, 2019) . the rapid development of china’s economy since the reform and opening up has led to an increasingly strong demand for spiritual culture, and the “piano fever” that began in the early 1980s has led to the emergence of many outstanding pianoplaying talents who have entered the international piano stage and won applause and honor for the country. this has provided an opportunity for the creative transformation and innovative development of china’s excellent traditional music culture (chen, 2015). chinese piano music works not only embody the essence of traditional chinese music culture, but also present it in an artistic expression that is pleasing to the people, which is in line with the aesthetic interest and aesthetic concept of the chinese nation, and the aesthetic process of chinese piano music can also evoke people’s aesthetic imagination and rich aesthetic experience. in my view, this is a successful example of exploring the creative transformation of chinese traditional music culture, led by the value of cultural confidence and the creation and performance of chinese-style piano works. chinese piano culture profoundly embodies the contemporary and innovative characteristics of chinese culture in the new era. in the process of the collision and fusion of the two musical cultures, chinese piano culture has maintained its cultural self-awareness and cultural self-confidence, promoting the development of its own culture through exchanges and dialogue with the world’s cultures, and making innovations on it. the piano music culture, as a highly distinctive cultural form, has been formed and developed over a long period, merging with traditional chinese culture and forming a unique style of piano music culture. in recent years, the channels and scope of communication have gradually become various and extensive, especially the new media technology and communication channels. it can also promote the inheritance and innovation of excellent traditional music culture in an all-round, multi-field and multi-level way (gao & wu, 2022). thus, it effectively promotes the overall spread and development of chinese piano music culture, and chinese piano music is bound to enter the world stage and stand in the forest of world music. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 13 references alexander, t. & sun, h. 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(2021) the centennial course of chinese piano music. transactions on comparative education, 3 (3). 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 95 a study of chinese culture’s dissemination in spanish-speaking regions from the perspective of post-colonialism yali cheng1, jingjing huang2 1faculty of business and trade, guangzhou songtian polytechnic college, e-mail: cyl779559663@qq.com 2corresponding author: school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: jul iahjj@163.com abstract this study explores the intricacies of chinese cultural narratives’ construction, transmission, and reception in spanishspeaking areas. through questionnaire surveys and the post-colonial lens, it seeks to understand the complexities that arise from cultural hybridity, adaption and identity formations in the context of former colonial territories. the research acknowledges the dialectical nature of cultural exchange, influenced by historical, economic, and social factors. by delving into these dynamics, the paper contributes to a nuanced understanding of chinese cultural dissemination overseas, highlighting the need to narrow psychological and emotional distances between chinese and foreign population and helping chinese cultural disseminate abroad more effectively and smoothly. keywords: chinese culture, dissemination, spanish-speaking areas, post-colonialism 1. introduction in the era of globalization, cultural dissemination has emerged as a critical aspect of international relations, shaping perceptions and intercultural exchanges. among the numerous cultures dynamically engaging with the world, chinese culture stands out for its rich heritage, philosophical depth, and increasing global influence. at present, however, there still exists the phenomenon of “easy to go globally but difficult to go practically”, the possibility of misunderstanding, misreading and misjudgment among countries. thus, the psychological and emotional distance between chinese and foreign people needs to be narrowed (wang, 2024). meanwhile, it is essential to give full play to the positive role of social forces in the process of overseas dissemination of chinese culture (liu, 2024). this paper embarks on a nuanced exploration of how chinese cultural narratives are constructed, transmitted, and received in spanish-speaking regions, employing relevant questionnaire surveys and post-colonial theories to decipher the complexities inherent in this process. post-colonialism, as an important trend of cultural criticism, arose in the middle of the 20th century and reached its peak of prosperity in the late 20th century (yang, 2012). it offers invaluable insights into power dynamics, cultural hegemonies, and the resistances and appropriations that characterize cultural encounters in the aftermath of colonial rule. by adopting this perspective, the study transcends mere descriptive accounts of cultural exchange, delving instead into the intricate web of power relations, representations, and identity formations that underpin the dissemination of chinese culture overseas. we acknowledge that cultural dissemination is not a one-way flow of information but a dialectical process influenced by historical, political, economic, and social factors, all of which are inflected by the legacy of colonial histories. the focus on spanish-speaking areas—encompassing nations across latin america, spain, and other regions where spanish is predominantly spoken—provides a unique terrain for investigation3. because most of these areas belong to developing countries, the level of social and economic development is limited, the construction of digital infrastructure is insufficient, and the historical influence of anglo-american centralism and spanish media has long been in a subordinate position in the global communication pattern (shi & zhang, 2024). they are mainly the products of complex colonial histories, presenting a diverse landscape of cultural receptivity and adaptation. the encounter between chinese culture and the variegated spanishspeaking cultures offers a fertile ground to examine how chinese cultural elements are integrated, resisted, or transformed within these societies, and how these interactions reflect or challenge global power structures. this interdisciplinary inquiry, rooted in post-colonialism, endeavors to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics involved in the global circulation of chinese culture, particularly within the spanish-speaking context. it aims to go beyond simple narratives of cultural domination or homogenization to emphasize the complex negotiations, arguments, and transformations that occur at the intersections of different cultures. ultimately, it is hoped that this paper can shed light on ways to promote more equitable and reciprocal cultural exchanges in today’s interconnected world, where respectful dialogue between cultures is essential to foster global understanding and cooperation. 2. literature review this part consists of two domains, which are respectively previous studies on chinese culture’s dissemination abroad, and 3 the survey was launched in june 2024, and as of now, respondents are mainly from the spanish-speaking regions of latin america, and it is constantly updated. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 96 previous studies on the international dissemination of chinese culture under the guidance of post-colonialism. 2.1 previous studies on chinese culture’s dissemination in spanish-speaking areas the literature review synthesizes recent studies examining the validity and reliability of chinese cultural dissemination within spanish-speaking regions, focusing on authenticity, reception, and the effectiveness of cultural exchange mechanisms. special attention is paid to how these studies navigate the complexities of post-colonial dynamics and the unique cultural landscapes of spanish-speaking countries. several studies have underscored the importance of maintaining cultural authenticity while adapting to local contexts in the dissemination process. li and wang (2021) analyzed the role of cultural festivals and events in transmitting chinese culture in latin america, arguing that successful adaptations often involve a balance between preserving core cultural elements and embracing local interpretations. their study emphasizes the role of community participation and co-creation in fostering authentic cultural experiences (li & wang, 2021). moreover, reception studies have revealed a nuanced picture of how spanish-speaking audiences perceive and engage with chinese cultural products. pérez and rodríguez (2020) conducted a survey among spanish youth, finding that media consumption habits significantly influenced attitudes towards chinese culture. positive perceptions were associated with increased exposure to diverse chinese cultural content, suggesting that strategic media dissemination can enhance cultural understanding and acceptance (pérez & rodríguez, 2020). methodologically, scholars have employed mixed-methods research to assess the reach and impact of chinese cultural dissemination. a case in point is the work by garcía and zhou (2019), who combined content analysis of media representations with in-depth interviews to investigate the portrayal of china in spanish media. they highlighted a tendency towards stereotyping and underrepresentation of china’s cultural diversity, calling for more balanced and nuanced narratives (garcía & zhou, 2019). nowadays, the proliferation of digital platforms has reshaped the landscape of cultural dissemination, offering new opportunities and challenges. a study by hu and valdés (2022) examined the role of social media in promoting chinese culture in latin america, finding that platforms like tiktok and weibo facilitate direct interaction between chinese creators and spanish-speaking audiences, enhancing cultural authenticity and reducing the influence of intermediaries (hu & valdés, 2022). from other perspectives such as post-colonialism, it has been crucial in understanding the power dynamics underlying cultural dissemination. zhang and moreno (2021) applied a post-colonial lens to analyze china's cultural diplomacy in latin america, arguing that while efforts to share chinese culture can challenge western cultural hegemony, they must also navigate local histories of colonialism and resist replicating neocolonial patterns (zhang & moreno, 2021). in summary, recent studies on the validity and reliability of chinese culture’s dissemination in spanish-speaking areas have emphasized the importance of cultural authenticity, audience reception, and the strategic use of digital platforms. the postcolonial perspective has enriched our understanding by highlighting the need for culturally sensitive and reciprocal exchanges that respect the agency of receiving cultures. future research should delve deeper into the impact of these cultural exchanges on local cultural production, investigate the long-term effects on intercultural relations, and explore innovative methods for measuring the effectiveness of cultural dissemination efforts. 2.2 previous studies on the international dissemination of chinese culture under the guidance of post-colonialism post-colonialism, as articulated by scholars such as edward said (1978), homi bhabha (1994), and gayatri spivak (1988), centers around deconstructing colonial legacies and understanding the ways in which cultural representations are used to assert or resist power. it underscores the importance of examining cultural flows not merely as neutral exchanges but as sites of ongoing negotiation between the colonized and the colonizer. in the context of chinese cultural dissemination, the lens helps illuminate how china has positioned itself under lingering colonial influences and the dominance of western cultural imperialism. several studies have investigated the mechanisms and platforms through which china disseminates its culture internationally. zhao and balnaves (2020) analyze china’s soft power strategies, emphasizing the role of media outlets such as china global television network (cgtn) and confucius institutes in promoting a positive image of china abroad. they argue that these platforms serve as vehicles for cultural diplomacy, challenging western narratives and fostering intercultural dialogue. similarly, zhang and sun (2016) examine the use of film festivals and co-productions as strategic tools to present a diversified and contemporary image of china, thereby resisting stereotypical representations. a key focus of post-colonial analyses is the examination of cultural negotiations that occur during the dissemination process. wang (2018) explores how chinese literature in translation becomes a site of cultural negotiation, where issues of authenticity, cultural hybridity, and the translator’s agency come into play. by analyzing translations of mo yan’s works, wang illustrates communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 97 how the translated texts can both reinforce and subvert dominant cultural discourses. chen and starosta (2015) extend this discussion to digital spaces, arguing that social media platforms facilitate alternative narratives of china, often constructed by diasporic communities, which challenge mainstream western perceptions. furthermore, understanding the reception of chinese cultural products in different international contexts is crucial. li and voci (2013) conducted a study on the reception of chinese tv dramas in africa, revealing how local audiences actively appropriate and reinterpret these narratives, demonstrating the fluidity and complexity of cultural exchange. their findings underscore the importance of recognizing audience agency in shaping the meaning and impact of cultural dissemination. conversely, yang and wallis (2019) critically assess the limited success of chinese cultural products in penetrating the western market, attributing it partly to the persistence of orientalist stereotypes and western cultural preferences. by and large, this review has highlighted the multifaceted nature of the international dissemination of chinese culture under the guidance of post-colonialism. it underscores the strategic deployment of various platforms, the dynamic processes of cultural negotiation, and the varied receptions across different regions. while acknowledging the progress made in challenging western dominance, it also reveals the persistent obstacles faced by chinese cultural dissemination efforts. future research could delve deeper into the role of digital media, given its increasing influence, and explore more nuanced understandings of audience reception across diverse socio-cultural landscapes. 3. method the study will be carried out practically and theoretically. in practice, the quantitative analysis in the paper is based on real and effective questionnaires from spanish-speaking areas; in theory, qualitative analysis cuts into the direction of postcolonialism. details are in the following two parts. 3.1 questionnaire surveys the questionnaire surveys are designed and translated into 14 languages for the world, and the survey used in this article is in spanish. the questionnaire consists of 30 questions in two parts. first, the basic information of the respondents (part 1, questions 1~4), including nationality, age, highest education level and occupation. the second is the main questions (part 2-questions 1~26, about the respondents’ views on the overseas dissemination of chinese culture), which are further divided into four directions: (a) dissemination awareness, (b) content preferences, (c) cultural evaluation and (d) suggestions for dissemination. figure 1. the title of the questionnaire survey (spanish version)4 in short, this spanish version of the questionnaire is a key entry point for the research topic, and the following post-colonial analysis in 4 will be closely linked to the results of the questionnaire. 3.2 theory and data post-colonialism offers a critical lens to understand the cultural exchanges and identity formations that emerge from historical and contemporary interactions between cultures, particularly those with colonial histories. by focusing on spanish-speaking regions, this study seeks to uncover how chinese cultural dissemination interacts with the lingering effects of european colonialism, local cultural identities, and the globalized cultural landscape. 3.2.1 main theories drawing primarily from the works of homi k. bhabha (1994), edward said (1978), and gayatri chakravorty spivak (1999), 4 please find more information in the appendix at the end of this paper. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 98 this study will utilize post-colonial theory to analyze the complexities of cultural dissemination. the concepts of “hybridity”, and “cultural adaption” will be central to understanding the dynamics of cultural exchange between china and spanishspeaking regions. 3.2.2 data collection methods a thorough examination of media texts (news articles, tv shows, films, and social media content) produced in spanishspeaking countries that represent or discuss chinese culture. this will help identify themes and narratives that shape perceptions of chinese culture. moreover, selecting specific instances or events (e.g., cultural festivals, educational exchanges, or media campaigns) as case studies to deeply analyze the mechanisms and impacts of chinese cultural dissemination. 3.2.3 data analysis first, coding and categorizing data from content analysis and interviews to identify recurring themes and patterns related to the reception and representation of chinese culture. second, examining the language used in media texts and interviews to uncover the underlying power dynamics and ideologies shaping perceptions of chinese cultural dissemination. 3.2.4 ethical considerations ensuring informed consent from all interview participants and maintaining confidentiality where required. being mindful of cultural sensitivities and avoiding perpetuating stereotypes during data collection and analysis. in the end, by following this methodology, the study will provide a nuanced understanding of how chinese culture is disseminated and received in spanish-speaking areas, considering the complexities of post-colonial contexts, and offering insights into the evolving global cultural landscape. 4. results and discussion this section presents the outcomes of the data analysis and discusses their implications within the context of post-colonial dynamics, cultural hybridity, and the role of technology in shaping cultural encounters. 4.1 reception and representation of chinese culture figure 2. results of “what is your overall impression of chinese culture?” in the questionnaires according to part 2section a of the questionnaires, questions are about attitudes towards chinese culture. it is asked to include topics such as general impressions of chinese culture, perceived knowledge of chinese culture within their own country, the importance of chinese culture in the context of world culture, etc. based on the results of the survey, it seems that respondents generally hold positive views of chinese culture, with over half indicating that they are either very interested or quite interested in learning more about it. chinese culture is predominantly portrayed through themes of tradition, economic prowess, and technological innovation in spanish-speaking media. however, these representations often oscillate between admiration for china’s rapid development and lingering stereotypes that echo colonial-era perceptions of the ‘exotic east’. as garc a and zhou (2019) observe, the spanish media tends to emphasize china’s economic influence and cultural uniqueness, which aligns with the notion of ‘cultural imperialism’ (spivak, 1999), where china is both admired and feared as a cultural and economic powerhouse. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 99 however, when asked about the general awareness of chinese culture in your country, the majority indicate that they believe the public is either poorly informed or completely uninformed about it. this suggests that while there may be interest in learning about chinese culture, there may be a lack of access to information or resources to do so. figure 3. results of what do you think is the general awareness of chinese culture in your country? in the questionnaires there are reasons for these results. previous studies have shown that the portrayal of chinese culture in spanish media can be problematic. for example, a study by mart nez-garc a and rodr guez-rodr guez (2021) finds that spanish media often portrays china as a monolithic entity, ignoring the diversity of its culture and people. similarly, a study by garc a-lamarca and s nchez-cort s (2019) found that chinese culture is often underrepresented in spanish education, which could contribute to a lack of understanding and the perpetuation of stereotypes. one notable example of this stereotypical portrayal is the character of “chino chirino” on the popular spanish tv show “la que se avecina5”. chirino is portrayed as a bumbling, clumsy character who speaks broken spanish and is obsessed with martial arts. this portrayal reinforces negative stereotypes of chinese people as being foreign and other, rather than as fully integrated members of society. in contrast, spanish literature has provided a more nuanced and complex depiction of chinese culture. for example, the novel “el año del drag n6” by juan villoro7 explores the experiences of a mexican-chinese family living in mexico city during the 1968 student protests. the novel provides a rich and detailed portrayal of chinese-mexican culture, highlighting the struggles and triumphs of chinese immigrants as they navigate life in a new country. furthermore, the dissemination of chinese culture in spanish education is critical to shaping future generations’ perceptions of china. unfortunately, chinese culture is often underrepresented in spanish educational curricula, leading to a lack of understanding and perpetuation of stereotypes. according to a study by garc a-lamarca and s nchez-cort s (2019), only 14% of spanish high schools offer mandarin chinese as a language option, despite china’s growing global influence. however, there are some positive developments in this area. for example, the confucius institute, a chinese governmentfunded organization that promotes chinese language and culture worldwide, has established several branches in spain. these institutes offer chinese language classes, cultural events, and teacher training programs, helping to promote a more nuanced understanding of chinese culture among spanish students and educators. overall, while there is interest in learning about chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas, there may be a lack of access to accurate and nuanced information. it is important to continue promoting a more comprehensive understanding of chinese culture through education and media representation, in order to foster greater cross-cultural understanding and appreciation. when asked about the importance of chinese culture in the context of world culture, the majority of respondents believe that 5 la que se avecina is a popular spanish television sitcom that premiered on telecinco in april 2007. created by alberto caballero, laura caballero, and daniel deorador, the show is set in mirador de montepinar, a fictional residential complex located in pozuelo de alarcón, a wealthy suburb of madrid. 6 el año del drag n was first published in 2014, which is a novel with a blend of fantasy and realism, a characteristic feature of villoro’s writing style. the story is set in mexico city and revolves around a group of children who live in a neighborhood called colonia roma. 7 juan villoro is a prominent mexican writer, essayist, playwright, and academic. his works often relate with complex social and political issues through the lens of magical realism. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 100 it is either very important or quite important, which indicates that there is recognition of the significance of chinese culture on a global scale. figure 4. results of “what do you think is the position of chinese culture in world culture?” in the questionnaires in conclusion, the reception and representation of chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas have been mixed. while some portrayals have been positive and accurate, others have perpetuated negative stereotypes. spanish media often portrays china as a monolithic entity, while literature provides a more nuanced and complex depiction of chinese culture. also, chinese culture is often underrepresented in spanish education, although there are some positive developments in this area. it is essential to continue to promote a more nuanced understanding of chinese culture among spanish-speaking populations, fostering greater cross-cultural understanding and appreciation. 4.2 hybridity and cultural adaptation hybridity, a concept coined by homi k. bhabha (1994), refers to the merging of distinct cultural identities to form new cultural configurations. when chinese cultures intersect with spanish cultures, they often result in the creation of hybrid forms that are neither purely chinese nor purely spanish, but rather a synthesis of both. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 101 figure 5. results of question 8~10 in the questionnaires questions 8~10 reveal interesting insights into the reception and representation of chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas. the majority of respondents (28%) were most interested in chinese literature and art, followed closely by history and culture (24%). this suggests that spanish-speaking individuals appreciate the artistic and historical aspects of chinese culture, possibly due to their rich and diverse nature. the interest in chinese philosophy (16%) and folklore and customs (20%) was lower, but still notable, indicating curiosity about the intellectual and traditional facets of chinese society. questions 8~10 reveal interesting insights into the reception and representation of chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas. the majority of respondents (28%) were most interested in chinese literature and art, followed closely by history and culture (24%). this suggests that spanish-speaking individuals appreciate the artistic and historical aspects of chinese culture, possibly due to their rich and diverse nature. the interest in chinese philosophy (16%) and folklore and customs (20%) was lower, but still notable, indicating curiosity about the intellectual and traditional facets of chinese society. when asked about preferred formats for learning about chinese culture, live experiences (84%) emerged as the clear favorite, followed by audiovisual materials (56%), and reading texts (28%). this preference for experiential learning could be attributed to the desire for hands-on engagement and immersion in chinese culture, while audiovisual materials offer a more accessible and engaging way to learn about chinese culture. the low preference for expert explanations (20%) might suggest that people prefer self-directed learning over didactic approaches. regarding the best representation of chinese characteristics, calligraphy and painting (72%) stood out as the top choice, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 102 followed by opera and scenic arts (8%). this indicates that respondents perceive calligraphy and painting as the most characteristic elements of chinese culture, perhaps because they embody the essence of chinese aesthetics and history. the low selection of classical music (16%) and poetry (0%) might imply that these aspects are less recognized or appreciated by spanish-speaking audiences. in addition to results above, culture dissemination often results in some hybridity and cultural adaptations. for instance, chinese art techniques, such as paper cutting and calligraphy, have influenced local artisans in spanish-speaking regions. this has led to the creation of hybrid art forms, where traditional chinese motifs are combined with local imagery, creating unique pieces that speak to both chinese and spanish heritage. what’s more, in areas with substantial chinese diaspora communities, religious practices have adapted to incorporate local religious traditions. for example, chinese buddhist temples in spanishspeaking countries might hold services in both chinese and spanish languages, and incorporate local saints and rituals into their ceremonies. also, chinese myths and legends have been adapted and integrated into the literary traditions of spanishspeaking areas, which can be seen in children’s books and adult literature where chinese stories are retold with local characters and settings, making them accessible and meaningful to spanish-speaking audiences. overall, the questionnaire demonstrates that spanish-speaking individuals have a keen interest in exploring chinese culture, particularly its artistic and historical aspects, and prefer interactive and multimedia formats for learning. the high preference for live experiences and audiovisual materials suggests that cultural exchange programs, such as workshops, performances, and documentaries, could be effective ways to introduce and represent chinese culture in these regions. 4.3 cultural evaluation according to the survey, the overall effect of the dissemination of chinese culture abroad is considered to be “good” and “very good” by most respondents (48% and 20%). however, there is also a significant number of people who consider it to be fair (32%). when asked about “to what extent do the contents of chinese culture resonate with you?”, the majority of respondents chose “more” (52%), followed by “completely” (24%) and “generally” (20%). only a few people chose “less” (4%). figure 6. results of question 16~17 in the questionnaires regarding the biggest problem in the dissemination of chinese culture abroad, the majority of respondents identified language barriers as the main issue (72%). “cultural differences” come second (12%), followed by “single mode of communication” (12%) and “homogenisation of content (4%). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 103 figure 7. results of questions 18 in the questionnaires in terms of “do you think chinese culture is fully respected in the process of overseas dissemination?”, the majority of respondents chose “generally respected” (48%), followed by “quite respected” (36%) and “fully respected” (8%) and “not much respected” (8%). when comparing the international influence of chinese culture to that of other cultures, the majority of respondents chose “relatively strong” (56%), followed by “average” (24%), and “very strong” (20%). generally speaking, the reception and representation of chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas seems to be generally positive, although there are some challenges related to language barriers and cultural differences. the majority of respondents believe that chinese culture has been respected adequately during its diffusion process abroad, but there is still room for improvement in terms of its international influence compared to other cultures. figure 8. results of questions 19~20 in the questionnaires 4.4 suggestions for dissemination based on the survey results, here are some suggestions for disseminating chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas: focus on increasing the attractiveness of cultural content (68%) communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 104 expand the diversity of product forms (48%) improve engagement with people (4%) value cultural differences (36%) consider other options (12%) it appears that the majority of respondents believe that increasing the appeal of cultural content and expanding the range of products available would be effective ways to promote chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas. additionally, improving engagement with local communities could help build stronger connections between china and these regions. it is also important to recognize and appreciate cultural differences, as this can help bridge gaps and foster mutual understanding. finally, exploring other options beyond those listed in the survey could provide additional opportunities for promoting chinese culture on the other hand, the responses in the survey reflect post-colonial anxieties, national identities, and concerns about cultural imperialism in several ways. firstly, the emphasis on valuing cultural differences (36%) and considering the uniqueness of the spanish-speaking region (12%) in the dissemination of chinese culture highlights a concern for preserving local identity and autonomy. this can be interpreted as a response to historical experiences of colonization, where local cultures were often suppressed or erased in favor of the colonizer's culture. by prioritizing the preservation of local culture and identity, these responses reflect a desire to resist cultural imperialism and assert national identity. secondly, the focus on increasing the attractiveness of cultural content (68%) and expanding the diversity of product forms (48%) can be seen as a response to the legacy of colonialism, which often imposed aesthetic standards on colonized societies. these responses suggest a desire to create a more inclusive and diverse cultural landscape that reflects the unique perspectives and experiences of the spanish-speaking region. thirdly, the low response rate for improving engagement with people (4%) suggests a certain degree of skepticism towards cultural exchange programs that prioritize direct interaction between individuals. this could be due to concerns about cultural imperialism and the potential for unequal power dynamics in cross-cultural interactions. instead, there is a greater emphasis on creating culturally relevant content and products that can be consumed and enjoyed by local audiences without necessarily requiring direct engagement with chinese culture. all in all, the survey responses reflect a complex interplay of post-colonial anxieties, national identities, and concerns about cultural imperialism. they highlight the need for a nuanced and context-specific approach to cultural exchange that takes into account the unique histories, experiences, and perspectives of the spanish-speaking region. 5. conclusion the study concludes that the dissemination of chinese culture in spanish-speaking areas is a multifaceted process, influenced by the legacies of colonial histories and contemporary power relations. through the survey data, it becomes evident that the reception and representation of chinese culture are shaped by a complex web of factors, including post-colonial dynamics, cultural hybridity, and technological advancements. the research underscores the significance of recognizing audience agency in the interpretation of chinese cultural products, which can lead to both appropriation and reinterpretation. the findings reveal that while there is a general positive interest in chinese culture among spanish-speaking communities, there remains a need to address lingering misunderstandings and stereotypes. this necessitates a more sensitive and inclusive approach to cultural diplomacy that respects cultural differences and avoids perpetuating colonial-era biases. moreover, the study points to the potential of digital media platforms like tiktok in democratizing access to chinese culture, suggesting new avenues for cultural exchange that transcend traditional power imbalances. yet, it also highlights the persistent challenges in penetrating western markets due to entrenched cultural preferences and stereotypes. in conclusion, the research contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the global circulation of chinese culture, emphasizing the need for reciprocal and equitable cultural 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[in chinese: . (2012). . ( )(06),74-79.] yang, x., & wallis, j. (2019). the limits of china’s cultural power: rethinking the global appeal of chinese tv dramas. international journal of cultural policy, 25(2), 229-244. zhang, l., & moreno, f. (2021). post-colonial perspectives on china’s cultural diplomacy in latin america: opportunities and challenges. journal of contemporary china, 30(115), 741-757. zhang, q., & zhao, s. (2022). digital media and the dissemination of chinese culture in latin america: a case study of tiktok. media international australia, 177(1), 111-124. zhang, x., & sun, y. (2016). film festivals as a platform for cultural diplomacy: the case of china. place branding and public diplomacy, 12(3), 174-187. zhao, y., & balnaves, m. (2020). china’s soft power strategy and its implications for international communication. asian journal of communication, 30(3), 211-225. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 106 appendix complete version of questionnaire (spanish version): communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 107 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 108 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 109 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 110 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 111 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 112 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 113 7-29-pb(revised)2.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 14 the translation and promotion of chinese national drinks brands from the perspective of advertisement history abstract chinese beverage brands have been faced with surmounting competition from both within and without since the very beginning. the present study, by qualitatively and quantitatively analyzing the publicity history of coca-cola, is intended to explore the strategies for translation and transmission of chinese national drinks brands in the new era, with the aim to provide ideas and thoughts for promoting chinese brands to go global and becoming part of the strengths for national competitiveness. by way of conclusion, it is suggested that chinese beverage enterprises give their brands english names, translate their slogans by taking into account both the original language features or products and the cultural norms of the target language, and publicize their brands in a more dynamic and diachronic way, all of which would be helpful for promoting the image of the brands as well as their internationalization. keywords: chinese national drinks; brand image; diachronic advertising; going-global 1. introduction with economic globalization, enterprises are faced by surmounting competition from the same industry and different lines of businesses, both within and without the national borders. the coca-cola company, for instance, took the first-mover advantage and dominated the beverage industry for hundreds of years, but is continuing to fight new rivals, such as its primary competitor pepsi-cola, and the later-comers out of its homeland, like nongfu spring of china. the same is true for chinese national drinks brands that are making great efforts to go global. therefore, advertisement and publicity are necessary and the successful story of foreign beverage brands offers lessons for others to learn. the present study, by qualitatively and quantitatively analyzing the publicity history of coca-cola, is intended to explore the strategies for translation and transmission of chinese national drinks brands in the new era, and to provide ideas and thoughts for promoting chinese brands to go global and becoming part of the strengths for national competitiveness. 2. literature review 2.1 previous studies in china through searching beverage and advertisement as the keywords in cnki, the largest chinese academic database, we can find that 73.91% of the findings (a total of 362 papers) are addressing the principles and methods of beverage advertising and are published in periodicals belonging to trade economy, manufacturing industries and media, including how to craft an ad (zhang, 1985), tv commercials, beverage ad and celebrities, homophonic advertising, and the overwhelming studies on creative advertisements in recent years. also, the advertisements of coca-cola were introduced and explored in every aspect of china, with a complete publication of 350 papers between 1983 and 2021. however, merely 19 papers explored the translation of (food and) beverage ads, concentrating the translation of some best-known slogans from such translation theories as the skopos theory (yuan, 2014; zhang, 2018) or exploring the differences between chinese and western cultures (wang, 2021). one could move away from the micro-level and go further to identify the lacunae that await further investigation, such as the less considered similarities in beverage advertising. not less obviously, big-data-driven strategies that can highlight the differences in eastern and western drinks ads have remained largely unanswered. 2.2 related studies in the west in the west, there was more research on this topic. by searching the exact keywords in taylor & francis database, we can quickly get a total of 7000-plus findings, which moves toward more macro-levels, focusing on consumers attitudes toward, material effects of and racial issues in beverage advertisements. for instance, angelini & bradley (2010) explored the effects of homosexual imagery in print ads, and wanjohi et al. (2021) presented a landscape analysis of sugar-sweetened beverage journal of guangdong university of foreign studies, gdufs, china, e-mail:201510091@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 15 policies in kenya. comparatively speaking, studies in the west are not only mainly done on the macro-levels, but also with a clear focus, which means that researchers either investigate further into the beverage products (the flavors, the additions, the targeted consumers and their acceptance) or the cultural aspects (i.e., modes of media, codes and policies, ethics and genders). another feature of these studies lies in the methodologies that tend to be more holistic, triangulated and empirical. for instance, ian (2009) gave a diachronic study of the advertising of alcoholic beverages in australia through 1969-86. to sum up, relevant researches in china are more likely to highlight the micro aspects and principles for crafting a beverage ad. in contrast, its equivalents in the west tend to focus on the more macro issues and be more empirical. as a result, it would be significant for chinese researchers interested in this topic to expand their research vision and triangulate the research methods with an advertisement history view that has been less explored. 3. an analysis of the advertisement history of coca-cola coca-cola is the most influential and valuable brand in the beverage field. according to the china brand power index (cbpi) done by chnbrand in 2021, a total of 203 top brands have been surveyed in 100 chinese cities and fall into 16 finegrained lists or categories: bottled water, 100% pure fruit juice, fruit and vegetable juice, energy series, tea drinks, instant coffee, herbal tea, soda water, carbonated drinks, lactic acid bacteria drinks, liquid milk, yogurt, beer, domestic wine, high-end liquor, and mainstream liquor. among them, the coca-cola company, with a total of 160 brands, dominates the list of carbonated drinks, bottled water, fruit juice, energy series, and soda water. therefore, it would be significant for other companies to take a good look at the advertisement history of coca-cola and learn from it. 3.1 a brief history of the refreshing company john pemberton founded coca-cola on may 8, 1886, and the name was given by frank robinson, the accountant of jacobs pharmacy; then, asa candler acquired the formula of the drink and the coca-cola company in 1888, and incorporated it as a georgia corporation in 1892. it was sold in every state of the united states in 1895 and bottled in canada, cuba, and panama in 1906, 6 years after which the company extended its business to the philippines, its first expansion into asia. during world war i, the company began to establish a relationship with the red cross and bottling plants in europe, first in paris and bordeaux in 1919, and in belgium, china, colombia, germany, haiti, italy, mexico, the netherlands, and spain in the late 1920s; it had operated in 100-plus countries by 1959. some critical moments for the company were 1928, 1976 and 1985, when it began its long-term cooperation with the olympic games in amsterdam, the fédération internationale de football association (fifa), walt disney company as a sponsor, respectively. it re-entered the china market in 1978, after a nearly 3-decade absence, and it celebrated its 100th anniversary worldwide in 1986. 3.2 the expansion into different drinks the company expanded nationwide and worldwide, thanks to the increase in product series and efforts in the advertisement. if its expansion in space can be called horizontal development, then that in product variations should be seen as vertical development. the first new product created by coca-cola was fanta, an orange-flavored soda launched in italy in 1955 and entered american market in 1960; one year later, the company acquired minute maid, and officially launched sprite in 1961. when coca-cola re-entered china in 1978, it introduced the plastic packaging bottles; and more flavored series came out, with diet coca-cola in 1982, cherrycoke in 1986, and vanilla-flavored coca-cola in 2002. besides, coca-cola also walked its way into coffee and other drinks, for instance, it cooperated with nestlé in 2001 and acquired costa coffee in 2018. moreover, its operations in different countries worked hard to localize the drinks and adapt to the local cultures. for instance, the china leg of coca-cola developed the orange-flavored minute maid in 2011, making it become the 14 th beverage brand with a brand value of over us$1 billion. another case was its r & d in japan, where the company launched a new fatreducing and zero-calories cola targeted at the market in 2017 and coca-cola clear in 2018. with the continuing development in flavors, packaging, bottling shapes, specifications and types of drinks, coca-cola was fully flourished and registered a total asset of us$87.296 billion and a market value of us$263.597 billion. 3.3 the history of advertisement coca-cola was advertised the day it was created; namely, it first appeared in the newspaper and announced itself as a delicious and refreshing beverage in 1886. throughout its 135 years of publicity and promotions, many ads in different wording, modes, and for varied purposes have been created. by collecting 71 ad slogans and 53 pictures over the years, we have built the former into a small-scaled coke-ad corpus that has 495-word tokens and 236-word types, and the latter into a coke-picture corpus that is multimodal. the company authorized a sum of $11,000 for advertising budget, which was not a small sum in 1892, and increased it to $100,000 in 1901 and $1 million in 1911. such expenditure on ads and promotions brought tremendous success for coca-cola, making its sales hit 1 million gallons in 1904, 3 million per day in 1917, and 6 million per day in 1925. the present study will explore its advertising history from the following aspects. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 16 3.3.1 the lingual mode: wording by counting the frequency of the advertising words, we find that coca-cola hits 22 times and coke 13 times, and you (i.e., the potential customers) reaches 11 times (see table 1), as it is important to publicize the name of the product, especially when imitators of the very name appeared. it is equally important to take the potential buyers as the addressees to draw them closer to the product. another feature of lingual wording is the wide use of adjectives that could help the products attract and influence the consumers, which in turn triggers their wants of buying (zheng, 2021:382-3). this includes refreshing , good , real , only , best , classic , cold , great , national , delicious , bracing , bright , crisp , delightful , discriminating , global and ideal amongst others, all of which were used to highlight the refreshing function and delicious taste of the very drink. a third feature of the ads is the brevity or conciseness of the slogans, as the average sentence length of the total 71 ads is 6.97 words, and there are a few longer ones, such as the one in 1955 that has 39 words and goes like this: 50 million times a day at home, at work or on the way. there s nothing like a coke. 1. bright, bracing taste. everfresh and sparkling. 2. a welcome bit of quick energy. brings you back refreshed . last but not least, many rhetorical techniques have been applied in crafting the ads. for instance, the adoption of personification in enjoy a glass of liquid laughter, thirst knows no season, the best friend thirst ever had, coca-cola goes along, coke knows no season, and where there s coke there s hospitality presents a positive image of the product to the buyers. table 1. a list of words with high frequency (the top ten) rank freq. word cases 1 22 coca-cola the 1880s: drink coca-cola. 2 13 coke 1947: coke knows no season. 3 11 you 1988: you can t beat the feeling. 4 9 taste 1957: sign of good taste 5 8 refresh/ refreshes/ refreshed/ refreshment 1886: delicious and refreshing beverage. 1924: refresh yourself. 1925: the pause that refreshes. 1939: when you think of refreshment, think of ice cold coca-cola. 1959: be really refreshed. 6 6 good 1907: good to the last drop 7 6 real 1969: it s the real thing. coke. 8 6 drink/drink 1901: a delightful summer or winter drink 9 6 thirst/ thirsty the 1910s: the thirsty one s best beverage 1922: thirst knows no season 10 5 best 1930: the best friend thirst ever had 3.3.2 the multimodal ads: pictures and programs a pictorial ad was designed as early as 1891, when calendars were used for advertising, and this became a tradition in its publicity. upon the top of an elegant lady, there was a message delivered: a delightful summer or winter drink. for headache or tired feeling. relieves mental and physical exhaustion. from this, we can see that the product was still not free from its original nature of syrup, and it seems that the message fails to go well with the picture, but it indeed expanded the time range of the consumption to a year-round period. then, celebrities did not become part of the advertising until 1900, a year when music performer hilda clark appeared in multiple ads that included trays, posters, and bookmarks, which was followed by athletes, vivian the coca-cola girl, illustrations of santa, singers, and the like, and played the role of celebrity effects. moreover, other multiple modes were added to the advertising mix, such as outdoor billboards were introduced as part of it in 1925, booklets on the flower in 1940, radio programs in 1951, radio and television programs in 1953, radio and television commercials in 1971, pavilions at world s fair in 1958, publicity on vans in 1978 (in beijing), videos in the 2000s and q & a narratives in 2011 (see the short history booklet on its official webpage, coca-colas/coca-cola-a-short-history-125-yearsbooklet.pdf). this has been done, due to the development of and the adaptation to media and advertisement. 3.3.3 the social-cultural networks: adjustment of the positioning coca-cola has never been satisfied with its achievement but kept leading ahead by adjusting its positioning, which in turn, enlarged its social-cultural networks and range of influence/markets. back to the year of its creation (1886), merely nine drinks were sold a day, but it hit 19,400 beverages every second on its 125 anniversary (2011). this remarkable volume should be contributed to the enlarging turf of the brand and constant adjustment of positioning. it started to focus exclusively on coca-cola in 1891, and only after nearly 70 years of concentration did it launch the new soda drink named fanta (in italy in 1955). however, in terms of publicity and promotions, it underwent several transformations, such as the early use of coupons communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 17 in 1887, the transition from a summer beverage to a year-round one in 1921 (via the slogan thirst knows no season ), the becoming of an international hit in 1971 (via the commercial i d like to buy the world a coke ) and worldwide sponsorship of sports events. what s more, charities also contributed a lot to the establishment of the social-cultural networks; for instance, it was recorded that it made a $1 million donation to atlanta s emory university in 1914. furthermore, the constant changes in packages and packaging, flavors, and drink categories were also part of the adjustment. the trial and error method was also used in its adjustment. a well-known case in point was the big and mistaken move in changing its formula in 1985, when the new product, dubbed new coke in contrast to the original one renamed coca-cola classic, generated national protests, and was on the market for merely 79 days. 4. the translation and promotion of chinese national drinks brands: some case analyses 4. 1 the translation of brand names david oqiwy, the father of advertisement, came up with the concept of brand image and held that creativity is needed to name a product and build a positive image among the public. the brand name refers to a term, designation, sign, or design, or a sum coined to pronounce and publicize the product or service to the market. it, together with brand logos, not only has cultural, aesthetic and interpersonal values that present a particular image and cultural identity, but also carries the product, corporate and even national inspiration on the part of the name givers (hu, yu & pan, 2013:47). as for the translation of brand names, it paves the way for the going global of brands and would transfer the product, corporate and national inspiration to foreign consumers afterward. look at the name of coca-cola one more time. robinson named it this way because the double cs would read in rhyme and look well in ads, and therefore he penned it in spencerian script font. comparatively speaking, most chinese beverage brand names were rendered simply in pinyin or cantonese, including jianlibao ( ), jiaduobao ( ), wahaha ( ), and wong lo kat ( ); others were translated in pinyin+ english forms, such as nongfu spring ( ) and huiyuan juice ( ), and only a few have an english name, like uni-president ( ). this makes it difficult for foreign consumers to read and then remember these brand names, and therefore there is a must and the first step for these brands to go global by having an english name and then getting it registered. compared with what comes next in 4.2 slogan translation and 4.3 multimodal translation, that of brand names, at the words level, seems easier but is not the case, because we believe that the rendering of brand names and logos is a creation or at least transcreation, one that has to be created based on creative ideas, designing and a good understanding of the laws, aesthetics of the target culture (wang, 2019). moreover, a lot of failed cases could be cited here to show how important and challenging it is in reality: jinji clock was translated into gold cock which was offensive to american markets, and lost the original meaning of jinji; namely, diligent and timely alarming in the morning; another famous brand named baixiang battery in chinese was also literally rendered as white elephant (it is still used as the english name!), which shocked the english-speaking markets, as white elephant means good-for-nothing in their cultures. 4.2 the translation of ad slogans communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 18 table 2 a list of drinks slogans and their translations in the first case, the slogan of the first brand (i.e., nongfu spring) is rhymed, and if it is translated as the one on the internet, it will provide a piece of false or misleading information, as the product is pure water, and therefore it is not sweet in any sense. here, the original rhymed character tian ( ) was chosen to highlight the function or effect of the product, that is, it means cool and refreshing, the same as in the coca-cola slogan, so we may either retranslate it into cool water, crisp taste or nongfu spring tastes cool by learning from and adapting to foreign slogans. the second slogan of jianlibao was also rendered word for word and sentence for sentence, with an impolite tone in the translation in that it implies that those who drink the product are not in good health. this makes it rather difficult to present a good image of the same brand. we would like to put it this way, have a jianlibao and a full life, by following the example set by coca-cola in 1980, namely, have a coke and a smile. as for the second category of slogans, they were translated by imitating the grammatical construct of an apple a day keeps the doctor away. they do have reasons to do so, because the two brands, just like coca-cola, were produced with a medical significance in the very beginning, so it is appropriate to be translated as such; but what the present study finds inappropriate is the wording of peeve, as it brings a negative tone and is easy to put readers in a negative mood. it is this reflection on the translations that leads us to retranslate it positively, like think of full refreshment, think of jiaduobao. the same goes with the retranslation of the slogan of wong lo kat, the oldest beverage in china, founded in 1828, as the two rivals employ the same slogan pattern. the last two slogans give a positive impression both in chinese and english versions. the first one of uni-president emphasizes the advantage of the product from the stance of consumers. at the same time, its official english version is a literal translation, failing to foreground the refreshing effects of the products and the relationship between the product and the buyer you. therefore, words like refresh and you/your are used in our retranslation, refreshes your life values, in which refreshes is a pun that means refreshing you and your life values at once. when it comes to the last case, wahaha passes on a laughing and happy tone, so it is a pun in the original slogan, referring to a peal of happy laughter and the brand name. in our version, we would like to retain the double meanings in the source slogan and therefore renders it as the liquid laughter. 4.3 a diachronic publicity of the brands with the development of media, more and more forms of media come into being and are involved in advertising. from the history of coke s advertising mix, we know that the same brand was first advertised in prints (newspapers and magazines), and outdoor billboards (1925), aired through radios (1930) and broadcast on tv programs (since 1950), and commercial videos. various media are also used in the publicity of chinese beverage brands. in the case of jianlibao, founded in 1984, it was selected as the official drink for the 23rd olympic games, where it got wide attention and the nickname of magic water of china. afterward, the drink established the image of a beverage that had magic power for sportsmen, and it was widely advertised as such in newspapers, making it the first national brand in the following 15 years and starting the long history of cooperating with sports games. in 1989, sportsman li ning was invited as the brand s spokesman. jianlibao ranked on the top of china s beverage brands in 1997, and has a long sponsorship of the asian games. however, it did not diversify its advertising mix but confined itself to sports, branding itself as a famous sports drink. it surpassed a budget of nearly 300 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 19 million yuan for advertising on different tv channels in 2013. comparatively, nongfu spring created in 1996, adopts a more diversified ad mix. nongfu spring started with its famous slogan, as analyzed above, and presented it with an image of natural water through another well-known slogan, . ( ). it is the publicity of this philosophy that drives its advertising to closely connect with nature, especially the geography of water sources. happily, it also markets several cases set for chinese cultures and holidays, such as family reunions during the spring festival. first, nongfu spring boasts four primary water sources, namely, qiandao lake in zhejiang, changbai mountain, danjiangkou in hubei province, and wanlv lake (the largest lake in south china), which consists of the mineral spring water and deep-lake water, and is printed on the coating of nongfu bottles. second, the company also manufactures a series of documentaries and programs to advertise its products, with foci on the water source, water quality, life quality and family reunion. for instance, on its official website, there are six videos on the advertisement page: half of them were designed for the new year (the tiger year and the bull year), and the other half were documentaries for publicizing the quality of the water. high-tech is used to get shots of the growing moments of all beings in changbai mountain; numbers are given to record a total of 2806 kinds of flora and 1588 types of fauna, and words and background songs integrated into the scenes, which makes the documentary impressive and true to life by punching these lines: every snowflake is an unexpected surprise in changbai mountain and every drop of water is a taste of the soft snowflake of changbai mountain. in addition, ad commercials are launched by associating with the social themes of the day. one social reality in china is the migration of the youths with the continuing urbanization, leaving parents and the old generation in their hometown and thus generating a complex of homesickness. according to report on beverage consumers (2016), 56.9% of bottled water consumers were aged between 20 and 29, and 28.2% were within the 30-39 age group, and this means that the lion s share of bottled water buyers was the young generation in their 20s and 30s. therefore, the commercial entitled a lunch of family reunion, commissioned swimming athletes and their parents to publicize the meaning of family reunion, with a touching punchline, for many reasons, you cannot be home, but only you can complete your parent s lunch list. such multimodal advertisements with creative design and punchlines make nongfu spring successful, ranking no.1 in manufacturing bottled water. 5. conclusion from the perspective of advertisement history, we first reviewed the ads evolution and mix of coca-cola. by further analyzing the slogans and multimodal ads of coca-cola both qualitatively and quantitatively, we found the patterns in foreign beverage ads in wording, slogan and multimodal levels, which in return, was applied in translating chinese brand slogans, and in reflection upon what had been done by chinese drink companies. by way of conclusion, it is suggested that chinese beverage enterprises give their brands english names, translate their slogans by taking into account both the original language features or products and the cultural norms of the target language, and publicize their brands in a more dynamic and diachronic way, all of which would help establish the image of the brands as well as their internationalization. references ) communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 20 ) ) this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 89 china’s culture dissemination in greece: from the perspective of olympic spirit influences xiao ma1, guochang chen2 1faculty of english language and culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, email: kentma@gdufs.edu.cn 2corresponding author: school of journalism and communication, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, email: cgcchen@gdufs.edu.cn abstract: the spirit of the modern olympics originated in greek civilization and has become an important means of promoting exchanges among peoples, solidarity among nations, and mutual understanding among civilizations worldwide. athens, the capital of greece, hosted the modern summer olympic games for the first time in 1896 and again in 2004. beijing, the capital of china, is notable for being the first city to host both the summer and winter olympic games. the experiences of china and greece in hosting the summer olympics back-to-back in 2004 and 2008 have strengthened the olympic spirit as a new bond of cultural exchanges and mutual understanding between the two countries. following these events, exchanges and cooperation between china and greece accelerated. greece, as the first european union country to respond to china's belt and road initiative (bri), has become a model for international civilization exchanges, mutual understanding, and shared prosperity, exemplified by the cooperation in the construction and development of the port of piraeus. the olympic spirit has thus become a bridge of friendship, promoting mutual understanding. under the belt and road initiative, china and greece will continue to advance in cultural exchanges, enhance cultural mutual trust, and strengthen cooperation and development. key words: the olympic spirit influences; china’s culture dissemination; belt and road initiative (bri); funding: this work was supported by the humanities and social sciences foundation of the ministry of education of china (grant no. 23yjc740003). 1. introduction china and greece are excellent representatives of eastern and western civilizations. china and greece have respected each other since ancient times. greece is regarded as the cradle of western civilization. the ancient greek historian herodotus, on the other hand, believed that “china is the cradle of all culture and wisdom, and the nation favored by the sun god.” ancient europeans' imagination of mainland china also unfolded through the ancient greek geographer ptolemy's description of ceres. the ancient silk road gave the people of ancient greece the space to imagine china as the “oriental other”. if traditional chinese culture was obscure and imaginary to ancient greece, today in the 21st century, in the context of china’s belt and road initiative (bri), china and greece have a new opportunity to learn from each other’s civilizations. from mount olympus to mount everest, from the aegean sea to the yangtze and yellow rivers, china and greece are facing a new historical opportunity for common prosperity. both being as the world’s most important civilization, the communication between china and greece should take place in an appropriate culture context. “accessibility is key to the understanding of the meaning of the discourse.” (chen, 2020). with openness and win-win cooperation, the two countries share mutual respect for the wisdom of ancient civilizations as the starting point, the inheritance of the olympic spirit as a new opportunity for dialogue, and the belt and road initiative as a new idea for civilization development, in the context of the spirit of “faster, higher, stronger – together”, the two countries will continue their cooperation, and set up a model of mutual understanding among civilizations in the international community. 2. literature review 2.1 the perspective of mutual appreciation of chinese and greek civilizations the clash of civilization theory holds the view that “relations between states and groups from different civilizations, will not be close and will often be antagonistic.” (samuel huntington, 1996). however, the friendly practice of mutual understanding between the civilizations of china and greece breaks this assertion with facts. china-greece relations were transformed by the mid-2000s, “the fact that beijing was hosting the 2008 olympics after the 2004 athens olympic offered a unique opportunity to increase cultural contacts and advanced cooperation” (stroikos, 2022). given each civilization has its own long history, sino-greek people can share the same civilization values and have similar cultural connotations. in recent years, the pace of interaction between china and greece has accelerated and the areas of exchange have deepened. according to the report, under the promotion of the “year of culture and tourism in greece and china” (2021-2022), cultural exchanges and communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 90 mutual appreciation of civilizations between china and greece have been carried out frequently. the two countries use cultural symbols, such as art, philosophy, theatre, drama and exhibitions of cultural relics, as a vehicle for dialogue, and moving from “resembling each other” to “knowing each other”. from “acquaintance and knowledge to similarity and affinity” (cheng, 2022). the commentary article shows in the 50 years since the establishment of diplomatic relations, china and greece, as two long-standing civilizations, “have always appreciated, learned from, understood and helped each other.”(yan, 2022). according to the chinese academic index knowledge (cnki), as of july 2024, most of the comparative studies on the topic of “china and greece” focus on the long history of chinese and greek “myths”, with greek myths being the most popular, with 65 articles, followed by chinese myths, with 41 articles. greek mythology has the largest number of articles, with 65, while chinese mythology has the second largest number of articles, with 41. both countries identify with each other as representatives of the east and the west of a long civilization. in greek mythology, the olympic spirit is undoubtedly the most spiritual treasure that transcends the ancient and the modern, and the cultural space. 2.2 research on the spread and influence of the olympic spirit in current china china first bid to host the olympic games in 1991, and has so far successfully organized one summer and one winter olympic games. beijing became the world's first dual olympic city. the two olympic games contributed to the rooting of the olympic spirit in the hearts of the chinese people and to the popularity of the olympic movement in chinese society. research on the impact of the olympic spirit in china mainly centers on its manifestations, communication carriers, and its influence on chinese values and its own international image. in terms of expression, the olympic memory and its carrier, the perfect fusion of chinese cultural elements and olympic elements, enhance the chinese cultural confidence and national identity. (chen & liu, 2024). in terms of the vehicle of communication, coubertin's “ode to sport” glorifies peace and emphasizes the important purpose of sport as a vehicle for bringing people from all over the world together, interacting with each other and promoting friendship to promote world peace and unity. (chen r. & chen x.f., 2024). the humanistic value of the new olympic motto, “together”, which, in the context of the crisis, conveys the original spirit of the olympic games and promotes the idea of uniting strengths, coping with change and returning to the humanistic approach, thus promoting the concept of a community with a shared future of mankind. (wu & cai, 2023). in terms of the integration of values, the olympic spirit is intrinsically compatible with china's global civilization initiative, that is, they share the same value concerns, have similar values and have a common value orientation; and sports and physical education based on the olympic spirit have increasingly become an important element of humanistic exchanges and cooperation on the platform of the belt and road initiative. (liang & wang, 2023). in terms of national image, some studies have taken multiple symbols as the dimension of analysis, arguing that the beijing winter olympics, with traditional chinese culture as its foundation, not only illustrates “chinese romance” but also integrates and expresses the perseverance and inspirational spirit of the olympic spirit.(wang, 2023) it can be said that the spread of the olympic spirit in china has promoted the cultural exchanges between china and greece in a multidimensional and in-depth manner. 3. discussion mutual learning of culture content in the perspective of olympic spirit since the opium war of 1840, as the qing dynasty was forced to open its gate of authority and market, colonial oppression has caused sentiments of national self-improvement and independence to run high in chinese society. the chinese people wanted to get rid of the plight of being colonized and were constantly searching for ways and means of salvation and survival. at the beginning of the 20th century, zhang bolin, the headmaster of tianjin nankai high school, made a public speech calling for the participation of chinese athletes in the international olympic games. one of the reasons why modern chinese society actively promotes the olympic movement and the olympic spirit is that modern china is in dire need of a spiritual force that can awaken national renaissance and break through colonial oppression, “civilizing its spirit and barbarizing its body”. on july 17, 1910, shanghai “declaration” article “chinese sports conference of the herald” issued the famous chinese “three questions on olympics”, namely, “when can china send a team to participate in the olympic games? when will china be able to win the olympic games? when will china be able to host the olympic games?”(li, 2018). since then, china has been pursuing its century-old olympic dream, which was eventually realized in beijing in 2008. the olympic spirit originated in greece, and china's journey in pursuit of the olympic dream is also a journey of mutual understanding between chinese and greek civilizations. 3.1 research design this study mainly adopts questionnaire analysis and case observation to derive opinions. the questionnaire centers in the themes of perception of the spread of chinese culture, preference for specific contents of chinese culture, and the effects of the local spread of chinese culture in greece. the age distribution of the respondents concentrated in the 18-25 age group and they are all local greeks, with educational backgrounds at the university level or higher. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 91 meanwhile, this study observes and analyzes cases of cultural exchanges that have been widely reported in china and greece in recent years. the selection of cases takes into account important factors such as the industry, the identity of the representative of the person, the source of the report and the authority, etc. olympic events, the deeds of cultural figures, internet bloggers, and cases of economic and trade cooperation between the two sides were selected as samples for observation and analysis. 3.2 olympic spirit: culture content of cross-fertilization combining tradition and modernity between china and greece according to the investigation of the european business review (ebr), a positive attitude towards the chinese people was expressed by 71% greek citizens from the poll of greek agency public issue in july 2016. the research emphasizes that “since 2008, the increasingly close ties between greece and china have caught the attention of the world media”. undoubtedly, sharing the experience of hosting olympic events has brought the two countries closer together in cultural exchanges and the friendship of their people. the 2004 olympics returned to athens, greece, where beijing took over the olympic flag at the closing ceremony. at the closing ceremony of the athens olympic games, beijing presented an eightminute performance titled “from olympia to the great wall of china”. this presentation aimed to demonstrate to the greek people and the global community the chinese cultural interpretation of the olympic spirit. through the olympic games, more greeks have learned about the development of contemporary china and have had direct contact with a modernized china. the cultural symbols in the opening ceremonies of the two beijing olympic games, the olympic medals rich in traditional chinese cultural connotations, and the olympic mascots that are deeply rooted in people's hearts have perfectly conveyed the spiritual character, aesthetic tendency and value orientation of chinese culture. from the 2008 slogan “one world, one dream” to the 2022 theme “together to the future”, it shows the development of the olympic spirit into chinese culture, and it also fits perfectly with the newly added olympic motto “together”. the values of sharing, co-governance and win-win in chinese culture are presented and transmitted to the world through the olympic games. for greece, the olympic games are seen as part of greece's own cultural heritage and as its contribution to the world at large (mavrotas, 2022). by expressing its firm support for the beijing olympic games, the hellenic olympic committee recognizes and accepts the olympic spirit conveyed by china. it can be said that china and greece have accomplished mutual appreciation and recognition of traditional culture and modern civilization in the olympic games. according to the results of the questionnaire, more than half of the respondents to the question “what forms can enhance the understanding of chinese culture?” believe that cultural exchanges and sports events can enhance the spread of chinese culture in greece. table 1. enhance understanding of chinese culture 3.3 olympic game: a platform for cross-cultural exchanges of mutual understanding and trust between the people of two countries. a 44-member choir of children from the mountains of fuping county, hebei province, china, sang the olympic anthem in greek during the opening ceremony of the 2022 winter olympics in beijing. music as an art meets in this moment across the languages of china and greece, interpreting the unity and hope in the olympic spirit. according to the questionnaire, chinese culture resonates well with local greek respondents. in the history of cultural exchanges between the people of the two countries, there have been both sympathetic exchanges between great thinkers and hospitable exchanges between the people. nikos kazantzakis, a famous greek writer and thinker, is passionate about chinese culture and has written a biography of his personal experience in china, which provides valuable material for the greek public to understand chinese culture. kazantzakis was invited to visit china again in 1957 and met face-to-face with the chinese literary scholar mr. mao dun. kazantzakis commented on the similarities between the cultural heritage of china and greece, noting that “socrates and confucius are the two masks of mankind, and underneath the masks is the same face of human reason”. in june 2024, the statues of another chinese literary giant, lu xun and kazantzakis, were inaugurated in the kazantzakis museum in crete. the two literary giants, who had never met each other before, had long since met ideologically, and the height of sino-greek cultural exchanges was increasing. for the general public, the short video community has also become a new venue for cultural exchanges between greece and china. marianna and sofia, greek twin sisters studying in china, have received a lot of attention and praise for their promotion of china-greece tourism on chinese social media and short video platforms, and the greek government has encouraged their friendly initiative by awarding them the title of “ambassador of greek tourism in china”. the greek government encouraged the sisters' friendly initiative by awarding them as “greek tourism ambassadors communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 92 in china”. the results of the questionnaire on “favorite cities in china” showed that chinese cities such as beijing, shanghai, guangzhou and xi'an are well known in greece and have become the ideal destinations for greek young people to travel to china. 3.4 olympic spirit promotes economic effectiveness of sino-greek cooperation china and greece have moved from mutual cultural appreciation to development and common prosperity. greece is the first eu member state to sign the belt and road initiative with china. the two-way investment between china and greece focuses on maritime transportation, telecommunications and other fields. among them, the piraeus port jointly constructed by china and greece is a successful example of china and greece practicing the belt and road initiative (bri). according to the belt and road country study: greece, the economic benefits of the bi-port project, which is operated by the sino-greek partnership, have been favorable, and greek officials view the project as “the key to unlocking greece's future investment potential...” (yiannis plakiotakis, 2019). table 2. 2004-2018 piraeus port benefits as the largest port in greece and the closest deep-water port to the far east, the new situation of the maritime hub of bilbao has not only brought new opportunities to the lives of the locals, but has also made it possible to share the prosperity and development of china and europe with the guarantee of a transshipment port for maritime transportation. reversing the stereotype of “stealing our job chances”, the throughput of the port of piraeus has steadily exceeded the 5-million-ton mark since 2016, from 680,000 teus at the beginning of the cooperation, and has become a top port in the mediterranean region. table 3. throughput of piraeus port data from: lloyd's list in the midst of epidemics and regional conflicts affecting world trade, the port of piraeus has maintained its position as the top port in the mediterranean region with a throughput of 5 million tons in the last three years. the significance of the exchanges and mutual understanding between the civilizations of china and greece is worldwide and “in line with the essential requirements for the development of civilization.”(xiao junzheng, 2024). it is believed that the value of china is going to be learned by the greek exporters gradually, “not only as an importing country but also as a hub for the export of greek products to southeast asia.” (george floras, 2020) against the background of the deepening cooperation in the economic and trade fields between china and greece, the investment of chinese enterprises in greece has formed the scale of dozens of investments after more than ten years of development, involving a wide range of industries and fields, covering not only the infrastructure, shipping, finance, real estate and other industries, but also shipping, e-commerce, telecommunication and other fields. it is foreseeable that with the deepening cooperation of the belt and road initiative (bri), the scale of sino-greek bilateral investment will be optimized continuously. 4. current issue and challenges 4.1 chinese culture overseas communication needs to explore diversified approaches the survey still reveals some objective problems. linguistic differences between the peoples of different countries remain a natural barrier to cultural exchange. in the case of olympic sports. for example, china has become a major gold medalwinning country in recent olympic games, while chinese athletes and coaches in dominant olympic sports are just known by the local greek public. in the spring of 2024, duan fang, a member of the chinese women's national volleyball team, joined a greek women's volleyball league team, becoming one of the few players to play overseas. in china, individuals learn and understand greek civilization more through reading translated works of classic ancient greek philosophers, historians, and dramatists, while contemporary greek literary and cultural works have still not been popular. the spread of chinese communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 93 culture in greece was similar in that most of the early knowledge of chinese culture and thoughts among the greek people came from the translation of chinese classics by missionaries. it should not be overlooked that most of the time, exchanges between two countries carried out more by a third-party internationalized language, and lack of bilingual talents are still an urgent problem. in china, there have been universities specializing in the greek language since 1972, and since the beginning of this century, chinese universities have established centers of greek studies. in greece, four confucius institutes have been contracted to teach the chinese language and to disseminate chinese culture and traditional chinese medicine. it should be noted, however, that there is still a shortage of people who are able to exchange ideas in the original languages of the two countries. the vast majority of cultural exchanges are still officially led. spontaneous cultural exchanges in the form of humanistic tourism, studies in china or greece, and bilateral consumption in the arts, culture and sports industry are still main directions that can be focused on in the future. 4.2 public cultural exchange radiates the prosperity of popular culture with the introduction of the belt and road initiative, bilateral exchanges between china and greece have become more frequent, and cultural exchange activities have become increasingly close. in recent years, the two countries have held many important official and private events such as exhibitions of cultural relics, exchanges of art collections, as well as drama, and the organization of book translations and publications. however, most of the cultural activities are still mainly for public welfare, with the main purpose of promoting and enhancing mutual understanding between people. although the spread of chinese culture in greece has formed a benign interactive situation, more and more greek people are willing to understand, learn and try to incorporate elements of chinese culture into their lives, such as learning the concept of chinese medicine and health care methods. however, chinese culture has not yet established a mature cultural market and industry in greek society. a stable and prosperous mass culture industry and mass culture market is the ideal goal of cross-cultural exchanges, and a prosperous market means that cultural exchanges can be self-sufficient, self-supporting and constantly renewed under the impetus of the industry. therefore, from cultural exchanges of public welfare nature to the breeding of prosperous mass culture, there is still much room for the development of chinese culture in greece, and the future goal should be to pay attention to improving the acceptance of chinese culture in greece and the effect of localization of chinese culture. 5. conclusion the olympic motto “faster, higher, stronger-together” not only conveys the spirit of the olympic movement, but also expounds the common ideals and common goals of the development of human civilization. china and greece have centered on the core of the modern olympic spirit in their international exchanges, which is in line with the value orientation of building a community with a shared future for mankind. as important representatives of eastern and western civilizations, china and greece share common and far-reaching values and worldviews in uniting all human races and promoting common prosperity of the world. china and greece can commit themselves to becoming a friendship and prosperity model for the exchange and mutual understanding of world civilizations, and bring a new olympian flame to the current turbulent world situation. reference chen, k. 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[in chinese: .(2024). . . ] volume03issue01.0611.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 1 oral poetry: exposition of selected yoruba lullabies sunday michael oyeleke department of english and literary studies, ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria, e-mail: sundaymichaeloyeleke@gmail.com abstract the beauty of poetry is fully achieved when presented in the oral form. however, many poets nowadays seem to be engrossed in the written form only, giving little or no credence to the oral form –whose absence arguably invalidates poetic aesthetics as meter, tone, rhyme and rhythm, just to mention a few. hence, this study captures selected lullabies in their oral art form through audio recording before transcribing and translating them to the written form in this paper. this study basically describes some yoruba lullabies as a form of oral poetry and how they function in the yoruba sociocultural structure. it adopts both quantitative and qualitative methods by using two field agents as active participants who interviewed and collected six lullabies from two aged yoruba women (in ibadan, oyo state and ikire, osun state) as a representation of the yoruba society; and consulting conceptual materials from books in libraries and on the cyberspace. using the functionalist theory as hermeneutics, it assesses the contribution of lullabies to the maintenance of the yoruba culture and social structure as it is today. this study aims to add to the existing knowledge in the lore of oral poetry in general, and translation of selected yoruba lullabies precisely. keywords: orature, oral poetry, lullaby, translation, yoruba 1. introduction this study basically describes socio-cultural significances of selected yoruba lullabies as they are today in their oral poetic form, using the functionalist praxis. it is pertinent to describe some key concepts as “orature”, oral poetry, lullaby and translation that serve as background to this study. the term “orature” is an uncommonly used term that was coined by the ugandan linguist pio zirimu to replace the widely used oxymoronic term “oral literature” or other common terms as verbal art, unwritten literature, non-written literature, folklore, traditional literature etc. however, this study subscribes to the use of the term “orature” because it posits the term is less ambiguous compared to other terms. according to zirimu, “orature is a term generally applied to spoken literary tradition such as folktales, folklore, musical theatre, proverbs, riddles, live history, epic poem and historical recitation”. for zirimu, it refers to any art form that is passed orally or presented by word of mouth. another renowned scholar, ruth finnegan also describes orature by choosing the term “oral literature” which “is by definition dependent on a performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion –there is no other way in which it can be realized as a literary product”. finnegan (1970a) further makes the distinction between “the actual creation of a written literary form and its further transmission.” she asserts that oral literature differs because there is much more intimate nexus in the transmission. she argues that the written literature has an independent and tangible existence in a single copy that other written copies may be treated as secondary. but the case of oral literature is different because the questions about the channels of actual communication are of utmost importance and the oral art form cannot easily be argued to possess any continued or independent existence without its oral realization and direct performance by a singer or speaker (finnegan, 1970a). oral poetry is a genre of orature that deals with poetry that is composed (often communally owned as against individual authorship found in written poetry) and transmitted through the words of mouth without the aid of writing. oral poetry in africa, nigeria and in the yoruba society to be specific, are often songs that delineate the whole range of human activities and experiences – in forms of praise and merriment, amusement and entertainment, love and loss; works songs and protest songs, just to mention a few. subcategories of oral poetry are, but not limited to lullabies, panegyrics, elegies, odes, proverbs, riddles, and work songs. a lullaby is a cradlesong or a soothing poem that is sung to make children calm or soothe them to sleep. the purpose of lullaby varies. lullaby in the yoruba society is not only used to calm or lull babies to sleep but may also serve as a supplication and a medium to transmit cultural norms and tradition. similarly, finnegan in one of her essays “topical and political songs” (1970b), buttresses that: songs can be used to report and comment on current affairs, for political pressure, for propaganda and how to reflect and mould public opinion. this political and topical function can be an aspect of many of the types of poetry already discussed –work songs, lyric, praise poetry, even at times something as simple as a lullaby (finnegan, 1970b). similarly, uwemedimo (2009) describes, “like other forms of poetry, nigerian lullabies stand up to the staked for poetry as contributive in value to health and the growth of literature and language”. according to t.s. eliot also cited by thompson communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 2 and then uwemedimo, “the poetry of a people takes its life from the people’s speech and in turn gives life to it”. this submission has largely been given support by the sample of lullabies presented in this study. translation, as a concept, defies a precise definition. there is a common perception that translation is an inferior copy of the original which is often considered as superior. there is however an uncommon line of thought that gives prominence to translation as a kind of reincarnation of the original. the famous deconstructionist, jacques derrida espouses this line of thought by suggesting that translation becomes the original effectively (bassnett, & lefevere, 1998, hermans, 2013). this paper therefore aligns with this assumption that the reader accesses the original through translation. in other words, the translation can transform to the reader’s original. the layman’s description of translation can be putting or repeating what is in one language into another language. it is the act of transmitting meaning from one language to another. in the words of george steiner in after babel: aspects of language and translation, “all acts of communication are acts of translation.” this foregrounds the notion that translation works in an interwoven way in speech, movement, interpretation etc. according to schulte (2012), there is seldom a daily activity without some form of translation. schulte (2012) extends the description by positing that verbal, visual, and musical interpretations must be regarded as acts of translation. this paper has therefore translated some yoruba lullabies into english in order to expand the reader’s ability to explore through oral poetry the thoughts and culture of the yoruba society. translation is no doubt relevant for any civilization and allows the reader to enjoy the transformation of the strange into the familiar. this study observes little credence has been given to describing lullaby when compared to other oral poetry forms as proverbs, elegies, panegyrics etc. in the yoruba society. this statement of the research problem can be reinstated in finnegan’s undiluted words in one of her essays, “children’s songs and rhymes” (finnegan, 1970b). she observes that “little systematic interest has been taken in children’s verse in africa”. therefore, to foreground the data presentation and analysis of the object of enquiry, this study briefly describes its methodology, theoretical frame, geographical cum historical descriptions of the yoruba in southwestern nigeria. the study also reveals the problems encountered during the field work and provides possible recommendations to guide prospective researchers interested in this or similar research. 1.1 geographical description of south western nigeria south west nigeria encompasses six states: oyo, osun, ogun, ondo, ekiti, and lagos. it is mainly a yoruba inhabited area, with different dialects within each state. the south-west nigeria is endowed with a wide range of natural sights such as the springs in osun state, the historic city of ibadan, the mountain caves of ogun state, the beaches in lagos, just to highlight a few. its climatic conditions changes between the two distinct seasons in nigeria; the rainy and the dry season. the rainy season usually falls from march to november, while the dry season is usually from november to february. the dry season comes with harmattan dust, cold and dry winds while the rainy season brings wet lands (destination nigeria navigation, 2021). 1.2 brief historical description of the yoruba yoruba is one of the three major ethnicities in nigeria that dominate the southwestern region. however, it is pertinent to note that not only that many yoruba people can be found scattered all over the 36 states of nigeria, many yorubas can also be found as natives of other countries as benin, togo, sierra leone as well as communities in brazil and cuba (sadowsky,1999). on one hand, most yoruba men are skilled farmers of yams, corn and millet as staples, plantains, peanuts, beans, and peas as subsidiary crops, while cocoa as a major cash crop. some of them are traders or craftsmen. on the other hand, most yoruba women control much of the complex market system –yoruba women’s status depends more on their own position in the market place than on their husbands’ status (sadowsky, 1999). the yoruba people have traditionally been known to be among the productive craftsmen of africa. the people engage in such occupations as weaving of thick fabric (aso ofi), ivory and wood carving, blacksmithing, leatherworking, and glassmaking etc. their women are notable in cotton spinning, basketry and dyeing. the yoruba people are disputably never a single political unit despite they have shared a common language and culture for centuries. there is the historical belief that the yoruba people migrated from the east to their present region in the west of the lower niger river, more than a millennium ago (britannica, 2022). their lands were widely regarded to be among the most developed african towns of precolonial times. they established many kingdoms of various sizes, and each of them was centralized in a capital town and administered by a monarch known as the oba in yoruba parlance. the towns became highly crowded and eventually evolved into such modern day cities as oyo, ibadan, lagos, ile-ife, ilesha, ilorin, ijebu-ode, ikere ekiti, and others. oyo grew, in the 17th century, into the largest yoruba kingdom with ile-ife serving as a town for potent religious relevance and the origin of creation of the earth, according to the yoruba myth. as it is today, many yoruba people are either christians or muslims, although some remain animists with aspects of the traditional religion still in practice. the yoruba language has communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 3 extensively developed in both oral and written forms/genres. kinds of yoruba oral poetry include lullabies, panegyrics, proverbs, epics, threnodies, work songs etc. 1.3 methodology this research has combined both the quantitative and qualitative approaches in gathering its data in order to generate an indepth analysis. in its quantitative approach, six yoruba lullabies have been collected as samples to describe the lullabies of the yoruba society. the six lullabies have been collected from two aged yoruba women as respondents –mrs esther seun (51 years old) and mrs funke sanusi (65 years old) from ikire osun state, and ibadan oyo state respectively. through phone calls, the researcher has sorted the services of two fieldworkers –ibrahim nureni and afeez ajetunmobi who interviewed the two respondents, using a research template provided by the researcher. in its qualitative approach, the researcher has widely borrowed concepts in literary discourses and consulted books and academic papers in libraries and on the internet. and, all works used are duly acknowledged as in-text citation and in references. 1.4 hermeneutical frame: functionalism functionalism, as a set of theoretical principles emanated from anthropology in the early twentieth century. bronishaw malinowski, and a.r. radcliffe-brown are influential figures that contributed to the rise of functionalism. functionalist theory is thus a counter criticism to the perceived demerits of the evolutionist and diffussionist schools of thought of the nineteenth century as well as the historicism of the early twentieth (goldschmidt 1996, 510). according to porth eric et al., “two versions of functionalism developed between 1910 and 1930: malinowski’s biological (or psychological) functionalism and structural-functionalism, the approach advanced by radcliffe-brown”. functionalist approach is presented as a novel paradigm and opposition to what was perceived to be outdated ideologies. the approach attempts to separate its principles from those of the evolutionists and the diffusionists that are common in american and british cultural studies at the turn from nineteenth to twentieth century (lesser 1985, langness 1987, porth et al, 2009). according to porth et. al., “there was a shift in focus from the speculatively historical or diachronic study of customs and cultural traits as ‘survivals’ to the ahistorical, synchronic study of the social institutions within bounded functioning societies” (porth et al., 2009). functionalists postulate their theoretical leanings and methodologies as a way to extend sociocultural inquiry beyond the circumscriptions of the evolutionist assumption of social history. the evolutionists posit cultural behaviors as residual artifacts of cultural history. they further assert that an examined cultural fact is seen in terms of what it stands for in reference to what has formerly been the case, and not seen in term of what it is at the time of examination (lesser, 1985, porth, et al., 2009). from the functionalist stand point, such earlier approaches as the evolutionist and the diffusionist give primacy to speculative assumptions over the discovery facts. functionalists assume that the motive force of events is in their manifestations in the present. hence, if events are to be comprehended, it is their present functioning that should be examined and recorded (lesser, 1985). this study is thus framed by a.r radcliffe-brown’s focus on social structure that submits that a “society is a system of relationships maintaining itself through cybernetic feedback, while institutions are orderly sets of relationships whose function is to maintain the society as a system”. according to porth, et al. (2009), one of the major tenets of functionalism which this study has adopted as hermeneutical frame, is the attempt to analyze societies as they work in a single point of time, or as they work over a relatively short period of time. other leading proponents of functionalism include e.e evans-pritchard, sir raymond firth, sir edmund leach, meyer fortes, lucy mair, robert k merton, talcoff parsons, and audrey richards. 2. exposition of selected yoruba lullabies six yoruba lullabies are taken as samples to describe the characteristics of oral poetry as well as its sociocultural functions as it is in the cosmology of the yoruba people of nigeria. these features are largely around the fact that they are sung by mothers/babysitters using their natural words of mouth and that they are all communally owned in the yoruba society. the first two lullabies were sung and collected from mrs esther seun, a 51-year old yoruba woman from ikire, osun state; while the other four lullabies were sung and collected from another yoruba woman, mrs funke sanusi who is 65 years old. the following six lullabies or cradlesongs are usually sung or performed by mothers or babysitters in the yoruba society. lullaby 1 transcription in yoruba language translation in english language ta lo nan o? who beat it? communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 4 omo eye a young bird le’ko m’o pelt stone at it k’o salo let it runaway this is a common lullaby usually sung by babysitters in the yoruba society. it functions to soothe a crying baby to calmness. mrs esther seun reveals that during the performance, the singer makes an imaginary point as if there were a bird around to attract the baby’s attention to seeing the imaginary “young bird” that has come to disturb its peace. the song thus encourages the baby to throw a stone and chase away the imaginary young bird that has come to disturb its peace. this is a way of soothing a crying baby to be calm. the baby is often goggled or dangled up and down by the babysitter while performing this cradlesong which often soothe the baby to stop crying. lullaby 2: transcription in yoruba language translation in english language olorun ma gba emi mi owner of heaven, don’t take my life ni ‘jo iyawo re on your wedding day olorun ma gba emi mi owner of heaven, don’t take my life ki nle se iya omo so i can witness as spouse’s mother awon olowo ma wa the rich will come awon olola ma wa the eminent will come awon olosi si ma gbe’le won the paupers will remain in their house the above lullaby functions as a supplication usually sung by a mother in a yoruba society. the lullaby is an apostrophe to “owner of heaven”, olorun in the yoruba parlance that means god. the poet-persona prays to god as she anticipates her baby’s wedding. through this oral poetry, the mother is able to project into her child’s glorious future where wealthy and prominent personalities only attend her “baby’s” nuptial ceremony. the exclusion of the poor in the invitation list, in the last line of the above poem, suggests the orison that the baby would also grow to be as wealthy and prominent as his numerous associates who would attend its wedding. again, lullaby, like many other sub-genres of oral poetry, is used to promote cultural identity and pass societal norms to posterity. this is delineated in the following yoruba lullaby. lullaby 3: transcription in yoruba language translation in english language omo mi ni gilasi mi my child is my mirror omo mi ni gilasi mi my child is my mirror omo mi ni gilasi ti mo nfi w’oju my child is the mirror i use to see face omo mi ni gilasi ti mo nfi riran o my child is the glasses i use in seeing k’aiye ma gba gilasi mi let not the evil of the world take my mirror k’aiye ma gba gilasi mi lowo mi let not the evil of the world take my mirror from my hand unibasiti dara university is good nibit’awon omo mi wa 2x there; my children are 2x ibe l’omo mi yio lo that’s the place my child will go ori gbe omo mi de be o fate guides my child to the place similarly, the functions of aforementioned lullaby in the yoruba society align to what okot p’bitek confirms in the acoli cradlesongs of northern uganda thus: the lullaby…from a most important introduction to the cultural and moral education of the acoli child. as he participates in these enjoyable activities, he learns to express himself… in the poetry. he develops his sense of rhythm as he keeps time with the rest…[of the] music communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 5 and poetry of the adults. the child is plunged into the core of poetry which is the song that arises from tensions of human reactions (p’bitek, 1974, 2). in the same vein as p’bitek has described above, the child in the yoruba society is plunged into the art of poetry from birth as they listen to the rhythm, metre and rhyme embedded in the lullabies like “my child is my mirror”. the anaphora “my child is my mirror” does not only increase the musical qualities of the poem but also used to emphasize the continuity of one generation to another generation. the second verse thus offers the hope that the child will acquire cultural and moral education at the university when he becomes an adult to continue to frontier civilization. lullaby 4: transcription in yoruba language translation in english language kahidi konkolo little kahidi ile re la njo lo it’s your house we’re dancing to odo re la njo bo 2x it’s your place we’re dancing from o ko’le kan si okan ile, ile nla you built a house over there: a big house 2x o ra moto, o r aero, ero sansan you bought a car; bought machine: strong machine ko ma si oun ti ‘oni ra, kahidi there’s nothing you’ll not buy, kahidi o to, oko mi o, o to /2x be calm, my husband, be calm/2x ti nwon nba bu iya re if they insult your mother ma dahun, ma je ki won gbo don’t respond; don’t let them hear ti nwon nba bu iya baba re if they insult your father’s mother ma dahun, ma je ki won gbo don’t respond; don’t let them hear this lullaby is sung antiphonally, which is typical of most african songs that incorporate responsive singing. this song is usually performed by two or more babysitters as the singing is split into two parts to create a harmony. like most oral art forms are improvised without a fixed plot, the persona “kahidi” in the above lullaby can be substituted with the baby’s name. that is, if the baby to whom the lullaby is addressed is named jamiu for instance, then it would be sung as “little jamiu” instead of “little kahidi”. this change may slightly affect the rhythm of the first line but not the song in its entirety. lullaby 5: transcription in yoruba language translation in english language kilo eja ni ‘m’ara fun omo mi je kilo of fish, i’ll buy for my child to eat kilo eyin ni ‘m’ara fun omo mi je kilo of egg, i’ll buy for my child to eat a se banki l’emi npa’wo si so it is a bank that i’m saving to ojo ale ni emi o ko o at night time, i will make my withdrawal beyond incorporating the child into the art of poetry, the above song is used to pass sociocultural education in the society. the aforementioned lullaby can be described to fall into the category of songs that inculcate the value of responsible parenting as it urges parents to invest in their children by taking good care of them. the metaphor that the child is a bank peps parents to take care of their children if they desire a rewarding future for themselves “at night time” – which is a natural imagery that symbolizes old age. lullaby 6: transcription in yoruba language translation in english language alasake wajo, wajo, wajo alasake, come dance, come dance, come dance alasake wajo, omo ologe alasake, come dance, elegant child alasake, omo oba alasake, child of a king ma ma da’ran nigboro don’t get into trouble in town ko ma f’se gbe ‘mimi so your feet wont pack irritant communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 6 alasake wajo, wajo, wajo alasake, come dance, come dance, come dance alasake wajo, omo ologe alasake, come dance, elegant child like the fourth lullaby, the opening name of the persona “alasake” in this lullaby may be improvised with the name of the baby to whom the song is rendered. introducing the child to the art of oral poetry, the repetition “wajo” provides rhythm to the hearing of the child and a child could learn to easily speak the language by picking such foot in the metrical language. the song invites the baby to a celebration and eulogizes it as a vital element in the society, “child of a king”. however, it also cautions the child against developing vices that may bring disgrace to his glorious heritage. 3. problems encountered during research and recommendation the first challenge encountered in the beginning of the fieldwork is limited time as the researcher is engaged with coursework and attending classes. the researcher was able to surmount this challenge by hiring two agents to represent him in the field by dictating his research template to them. the two fieldworkers encountered different challenges during the fieldwork. one was sent out of a homestead because he did not take permission from the respondent’s husband before attempting to interview the woman with his recorder. although he eventually got another yoruba woman who attended to his questions unhindered, it is highly recommended that a fieldworker pays homage to or seek permission from the men who serve as heads of their families before proceeding to interview their women. the other fieldworker was arrested by some government officials in ibadan for flouting the covid-19 safety guideline of wearing facemask on a day slated to interview the aged respondent. the fieldworker was eventually released after a long delay and was able to conduct his interview with the woman after apologizing for being late and explaining his ordeal. 4. conclusion this study has basically described the sociocultural functions of selected yoruba lullabies. it shows beyond the function of lulling babies to sleep, calmness or quietness, some lullabies can be used to pass sociocultural education to posterity as children are incorporated into the art of oral poetry in the yoruba society. the study also foregrounds its data collected, presented and analyzed by briefly defining some key concepts as orature, oral poetry, lullaby and translation in its background. it further foregrounds the object of inquiry by briefly describing functionalism as its hermeneutical frame; the geographical cum historical description of yoruba societies in southwestern nigeria. the study has also revealed the methodologies used in its collection of data and described some of the problem encountered during the fieldwork as a possible guide for prospective fieldworkers in such terrain. though this study is circumscribed to describing the yoruba lullaby as a subgenre of oral poetry, it is highly recommended that the data collected and documented be preserved for posterity sake. thus, this study recommends further researches on the exposition of yoruba lullabies as it provides inexhaustible concrete materials to studies in orature, anthropology, cultural studies and the humanities as a whole. also, fieldwork data collected in their oral forms, as it is done in this study, may be transmitted through the broadcast media or through the university campus radio so that people can benefit in mass number. all in all, this study espouses the essentiality of translation of literatures for exploration and civilization. references bassnett, s., & lefevere, a. (1998) constructing cultures: essays on literary translation. vol. 11. multilingual matters. britannica, t. editors of encyclopaedia (2022). yoruba. encyclopedia britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/yoruba finnegan, r. (1970a) “the oral nature of african unwritten literature. oral literature in africa. cambridge: cambridge university press. finnegan, r. (1970b) topical and political songs. oral literature in africa. cambridge: open book publishers. finnegan, r. (1970c) children’s songs and rhymes. oral literature in africa. cambridge: open book publishers. goldschmidt, w. (1996) functionalism, encyclopedia of cultural anthropology, vol.2 david, l., & melvin, e. (eds) new york: henry holt and company. hermans, t. (2013) what is (not) translation. the routledge handbook of translation. www.taylorfrancis.com levinson, d, & ember, m, eds. new york: henry holt and company. langness, l.l. (1987) the study of culture. (revised ed.) california: chandler & sharp publishers, inc. lesser, a. (1985) functionalism in social anthropology. history evolution, and the concept of culture: selected papers by alexander lesser. (ed) sidney, w.m. cambridge: cambridge university press. p’bitek, o. (1974) horn of my lover, london: heinemann educational books ltd porth, e., neutzling, k., & edwards, j. (2009). functionalism. department of anthropology. https://anthropology.ua.edu/theory/functionalism/ communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 7 sadowsky, j. h. (1999) institutions of madness in colonial southwest nigeria. imperial bedlam. california: university of california press. isbn 9780520216167 schulte, r, (2012) translation review 83 (1) taylor & francis online. uwemedimo, e. i. (2009, april) “analysis of lullabic songs in traditional african communities: some nigerian examples”, african research review: an international multi-disciplinary journal, ethiopia. vol. 3 (3). issn 1994-9057. pp. 147-157 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 114 a multimodal approach to translating chinese zhuang folklore huihua chen college of international culture and education, guangxi normal university, guilin, china, email: mandy0130@163.com ※※funding: this research is supported by the “research on multimodal discourse construction in the english translation of zhuang folklore” under the project for strengthening the basic scientific research capacity of young and middle-aged university teachers in guangxi (grant no. 2022ky0043) and the “research on integrating ideological and political elements into english interpreting teaching at local universities in the context of new liberal arts” under the teaching and learning reform project at guangxi normal university (grant no. 2021szjg10). [in chinese: 广西高校中青年教师 科研基础能力提升项目“壮族民俗文化英译多模态话语建构研究”项目资助 (项目编号 2022ky0043); 广西师范大学 教育教学改革项目“新文科背景下地方高校英语口译课程思政建设研究”项目资助 (项目编号 2021szjg10).] abstract the zhuang ethnic minority is the largest minority in china. over its long history, the zhuang people have developed a rich collection of folklore that is an important component in the preservation of china’s diverse ethnic culture. although some art forms of zhuang folklore have been recognized as intangible cultural heritage, their accessibility and appreciation by majority cultures are largely undeveloped due to limited translations of these works. in this paper, we propose a multimodal approach to translating chinese zhuang folklore. the article first reviews studies on zhuang folklore and investigates works of translation. it then proposes a theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis as the basis for constructing meanings in the translation of zhuang folklore. finally, it examines how translators can mobilize the discourse domains of culture, context, content, and expression in order to produce multimodal translations. the proposal of a multimodal approach to translating zhuang folklore involves the utilization of different communicative modes, such as verbal, visual, and tactile modes. the goal is to develop an efficient mechanism for translating zhuang folklore in order to achieve wider transmission and appreciation of zhuang culture. keywords: multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation, chinese zhuang folklore 1. introduction as a multi-ethnic country, china is home to 56 ethnic groups. the zhuang nationality, with a population exceeding 19 million, is the most populous ethnic minority group in china (office of the leading group of the state council for the seventh national population census, 2022). among numerous zhuang cultures, zhuang folklore provides a distinctive lens through which to understand the zhuang people. examples of zhuang folklore include the epic of baeuqloxgdoh, zhuang folk songs, zhuang opera, zhuang clothing, and sanyuesan festival. various forms of zhuang folklore serve as important components in preserving and promoting the diverse ethnic culture of the zhuang people. a number of studies have been conducted on zhuang folklore over the years. however, many of these studies focus on the folkloric aspects of zhuang folklore (obuchová, 1999; lin & liu, 2021; li & mahamed, 2022). in contrast, research on the translation of zhuang folklore remains largely unexplored. limited translation has become a barrier inhibiting people outside china from appreciating zhuang folklore. advancements in digital technologies have significantly changed the landscape of translation, making it increasingly multilingual, multicultural, and multimodal. this has led to a growing interest in multimodal translation research. rather than focusing on a single mode of communication, such as written or spoken text, multimodality integrates various modes, including verbal, visual, and auditory modes. this article examines the translation of zhuang folklore from a multimodal perspective. it reviews the studies on the translation of zhuang folklore, explores the potential of multimodal discourse analysis as its theoretical basis, and presents a multimodal approach to translating zhuang folklore. in today’s interconnected world, a multimodal approach to translation is an effective method for improving crosscultural communication. 2. literature review as sims and stephens (2011) state, folklore is informally learned, unofficial knowledge about the world, ourselves, our communities, our beliefs, our cultures and our traditions that is expressed creatively through words, music, customs, actions, behaviors and materials. according to this definition, zhuang folklore can be divided into four main categories: folk literature, performing arts, customs, and material culture. some chinese scholars have published books on specific elements of zhuang folklore, including a zhuang-chinese-english trilingual book entitled the epic of baeuqloxgdoh (han & pan, 2013) and english-chinese bilingual books entitled two thousand zhuang proverbs from china with annotations and chinese and english translation (zhou, 2017) and pingguo mailto:mandy0130@163.com communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 115 zhuang liao songs: songs of lunar march (chen, 2022). however, due to language barriers posed by zhuang dialects, only a small number of international scholars have engaged in this area of research. one prolific international researcher is d. holm, who published translated works on various elements of zhuang folklore, including the ritual texts of buffalo sacrifice (holm, 2003), the baeu rodo scriptures (holm, 2004), the hanvueng epic (holm & meng, 2015), and the brigands’ song (holm & meng, 2022). these books play an important role in the study of zhuang folklore, providing valuable material for researchers and offering a unique perspective from which international and domestic scholars alike can gain insight into this field of study. this paper analyzes data from china national knowledge infrastructure (cnki) database to investigate the current status of research on the translation of zhuang folklore. the data show that the research began in the 1980s. in the initial stages, studies were mainly concerned with the intralingual translation from zhuang dialects to mandarin chinese. the research covered various subjects, including zhuang folk songs (qin, 1982), zhuang long narrative poems (nong, 1984), and zhuang folk wisecracks (li, 1990). these studies have improved the understanding of zhuang folklore among people from different ethnic groups. since the mid-1990s, scholars have directed their attention to interlingual translation, investigating methods for translating zhuang dialects into languages such as esperanto (lu, 1994), english (zhou, 2012), thai (wei et al., 2022), and vietnamese (luo, 2023). existing studies mainly focus on the strategies for translating specific zhuang folkloric elements. translations of folk legends and ethnic classics, including zhuang scriptures and liao songs, receive the most attention. the majority of these studies were conducted under a specific theoretical framework, such as eco-translatology (huang, 2014), eco-aesthetics (zhou, 2016), functional equivalence (li, 2018), and memetics (wang & li, 2019). in recent years, there has been a notable increase in scholarly publications that examine translation from a multimodal perspective. these include studies about multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal metaphors, and multimodal corpus. nevertheless, studies on multimodality remain scarce concerning the translation of zhuang folklore. advancements in digital technologies have greatly facilitated the process of using multimodal techniques in translation. therefore, it is necessary to extend the scope of translation research beyond the domain of text-based translations, directing attention towards a multimodal translation of zhuang folklore. the research on translation should investigate various modes of communication, including text, images, audio, video, and gestures. moreover, studies should be expanded to cover a wider variety of aspects in order to promote the dissemination and reception of zhuang folklore among international audiences. 3. theoretical framework mode is a socially shaped and culturally given semiotic resource for making meaning. image, writing, layout, music, gesture, speech, moving image, soundtrack, and 3d objects are examples of modes used in representation and communication (kress, 2010). in the digital age, communication has extended largely beyond languages, thus giving rise to the study of multimodality in translation. according to kress and van leeuwen (2001), multimodality is the use of several semiotic methods in the design of a semiotic product or event. zhuang folklore covers diverse elements, including zhuang opera, zhuang folk songs, and zhuang folk festivals, most of which contain multimodal characteristics. for example, zhuang opera includes three principal modes: verbal mode (such as written and spoken text), visual and tactile modes (such as makeup, clothes, gestures, and movements), and auditory mode (such as sound and music). therefore, it can be reasonably argued that multimodality should be employed in translating zhuang folklore. the objective of this paper is to examine methods for constructing meanings in multimodal discourse in order to develop effective translation strategies. this study adopts approaches of multimodal discourse analysis within the theoretical framework of systematic functional linguistics (sfl). the sfl theory, founded by m.a.k. halliday, has been expanded by numerous scholars over the years. guided by the sfl theory, martin (1992) introduced a framework for discourse analysis, comprising the following five levels: culture level, context level, meaning level, form level, and media level. following martin, lim (2004) conceptualized three planes for analyzing semiotic resources: the expression plane, the content plane, and the context plane composed of register, genre, and ideology. based on previous sfl studies, zhang (2009) proposed a four-dimension framework for multimodal discourse analysis: cultural dimension, contextual dimension, content dimension, and expressive dimension. in this framework (zhang, 2009), the cultural dimension refers to the cultural context. this context is regarded as a foundation upon which the situational context is built and is an essential component in producing effective multimodal communication. the contextual dimension includes the situational context and is associated with the contextual variables of field, tenor, and mode. the content dimension is divided into two sub-dimensions: the dimension of meaning and the dimension of form. the discourse meaning is composed of three elements: ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning, and textual meaning. the meaning of discourse is determined by the contextual variables of field, tenor, and mode. the form of discourse comprises a variety of modes, including verbal, visual, auditory, and tactile modes. these modes are interconnected in either complementary or non-complementary relationships. the expressive dimension refers to the media through which meanings are constructed, which can be classified into verbal and non-verbal media. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 116 zhang’s framework provides a comprehensive perspective for scholars to use multimodal discourse analysis in translation studies. this paper utilizes the framework developed by zhang to examine the construction of multimodal discourse in translating zhuang folklore. 4. a multimodal approach to translation 4.1 the cultural dimension culture is often divided into two categories: material culture and non-material culture. the elements of culture cover various aspects of human life, including artifacts, epics and legends, social customs, rituals, and values and beliefs. given the ethnic minority status of the zhuang people, some of their folkloric elements may be unfamiliar to individuals of other nationalities. therefore, translators should be able to perceive potential cultural differences between the source and target cultures and accurately convey the cultural connotations of zhuang folklore to a target culture. a variety of techniques can be used in multimodal translation. one commonly used method is addition, which refers to adding words or phrases to create a complete cultural image. a case in point is the translation of liu sanjie, a legendary figure in zhuang folk stories. although the stories are well-known among the zhuang people, the cultural image of liu sanjie may be unfamiliar to those from other nationalities. to overcome cultural barriers, apart from a verbal translation of the name liu sanjie itself, translators may consider adding a textual explanation and translating it into liu sanjie, a zhuang song fairy. apart from adding words, the technique of addition can be employed in many other instances. for example, translators can add pictures of liu sanjie as a visual supplement to the translation. the addition of text and images in this example reinforces the verbal meaning and illustrates the cultural image of liu sanjie. in addition, when translating zhuang folklore for museums or websites, translators can add audio or video recordings of liu sanjie’s folk songs. the use of multiple modes can enhance the presentation of the legendary figure. it should be noted that multimodal translation is not simply a piling up of different modes; rather, the modes should interact with each other to produce a good translation. a multimodal translation of zhuang folklore can help people from different cultural backgrounds better understand zhuang folklore, thereby promoting the dissemination and reception of zhuang culture. 4.2 the contextual dimension the environment of the text is the context of situation, which is an instance of a social context, or situation type (halliday, 1978). in the digital context, technologies such as ai and big data are exerting an increasing influence on translation. the advent of new media and technologies has resulted in a notable shift in international communication and translation and significantly facilitated communication in a technology-assisted multimodal context. information is now conveyed through a variety of media, including text, images, web pages, and social media platforms. it is readily accessible through multiple channels, including hyperlinks, live streaming, augmented reality, and virtual reality. the digital multimodal context, characterized by virtual interconnectedness, has broken down the barriers of physical existence, offering individuals the opportunity to engage in a digital experience without being constrained by space or time. as halliday (1978) asserts, all language functions in contexts of situation, and is relatable to those contexts. given the function of translation as a bridge between different languages and social contexts, translators must adopt proper translation techniques to match the changing contexts. for example, to enhance global communication, translators may reconstruct the context of situation in the target language. the key principle of contextual reconstruction is that it should be conducted on the basis of common values of humanity while preserving the unique chinese zhuang folkloric culture. the purpose of contextual reconstruction in translation is to construct a discourse with shared global values and distinct chinese characteristics. 4.3 the content dimension in terms of content, meanings should be constructed through a combination of modes, such as verbal, auditory, and visual modes. a combined use of these modes can facilitate the process of multimodal translation. take verbal modes for example. in addition to written and spoken texts, verbal modes include hypertext, which is a text that has gained popularity in the digital age. hypertext makes it easier to appreciate zhuang folklore because relevant information is readily accessible. besides verbal modes, translators can also use auditory modes to assist in the translation process. for example, translators can add audio material to the translation to illustrate the translated texts. a case in point is zhuang folk songs. this folkloric element is often characterized by rhymes and structured lyrics, as in the case of zhuang liao songs (chen, 2022). therefore, translators should try to preserve the original auditory characteristics and ensure that the translated lyrics are easy to sing along. in this way, it is possible to improve the transmission of zhuang folklore among people of other nationalities. another mode that can be used is the visual mode. by employing visual elements, translators can vividly present the translations of zhuang folkloric items. examples include comic books based on ancient zhuang legends and audiovisual translations of zhuang folkloric items. a multimodal translation method has proven effective in promoting cultures, as evidenced by existing translations for chinese performing arts, including theatre performances, television programs, and movies. however, there are not so many translations communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 117 available about zhuang folklore. therefore, it is necessary to use multiple modes to construct discourse meanings and achieve an effective multimodal translation of zhuang folklore. 4.4 the expressive dimension in translation, meanings are conveyed through media. these include languages and paralanguages, including spoken or written text, volume, pitch, and font size. in addition to verbal elements, it is also essential to utilize non-verbal elements. these include movements related to the human body and the platforms or environments in which communication occurs, including powerpoint presentations, the internet, and simultaneous interpretation booths (zhang, 2009). the expressive dimension can help translators achieve what words alone cannot. translators can use gestures, facial expressions, and body movements to facilitate the translation of zhuang folklore. take the zhuang opera for example. this performing art is notable for its richness in artistic presentations, with artists employing a range of verbal and non-verbal elements to convey their emotions or the implied meanings of the opera. translators can use paralanguage as an effective audio-visual supplement to textual meanings in translating promotional videos or documentaries related to zhuang folklore. to illustrate, when translating sanyuesan festival, a folk song festival of the zhuang people, translators may consider including videos of zhuang people dressed in festival clothes, singing songs, and dancing to the music in order to convey the joyful atmosphere of the festival. by employing different media, translators can utilize digital multimodal technology to enhance their translation of zhuang folklore. 5. conclusion the zhuang ethnic minority group is an ethnic group with a population second only to that of the han nationality. there are numerous folkloric elements in the cultural reservoir of zhuang folklore. however, research into the translation of zhuang folklore is limited, which has impeded the ability of individuals from other nationalities to comprehend the zhuang culture. this paper examines the current status of research on zhuang folklore and proposes a multimodal translation approach to its translation. the paper begins with a review of the scholarly literature on zhuang folklore, with a particular emphasis on translation studies. it finds that the studies are primarily concerned with various elements of zhuang folklore, including folk festivals, ritual practices, folk legends, folk literature, and folk songs. it also shows that previous studies mainly concentrate on translation techniques within theoretical frameworks such as eco-translatology, aesthetics, functional equivalence, and memetics. in the contemporary digital age, technologies are exerting an increasingly significant influence on translation. in this multimodal landscape, scholars have examined the vast potential of multimodality in translation studies. nevertheless, the impact of multimodality on the translation of zhuang folklore remains to be fully investigated. in order to facilitate the dissemination of zhuang folklore, it is essential to explore the potential of multimodality in translating zhuang folklore. this paper employs the multimodal discourse analysis framework of zhang delu (2009) to investigate translation from four dimensions of discourse: cultural dimension, contextual dimension, content dimension, and expressive dimension. the cultural dimension serves as the foundation for the construction of meanings. the contextual dimension determines the modes by which content is presented. the content dimension uses various modes to present meanings. the expressive dimension covers the media through which meanings are conveyed. these dimensions are interrelated in constructing meanings when translating zhuang folklore. since we live in a multimodal age, translation should be conducted with due consideration of the four dimensions of discourse. in particular, translators should examine cultural similarities and differences, consider social contexts, and utilize multiple modes in translating zhuang folklore. furthermore, it is also essential to use multimodal media through which meanings are conveyed. the techniques discussed in this paper offer a multimodal approach to translating zhuang folklore. in addition to multimodal discourse analysis, we can explore the translation of zhuang folklore by investigating other aspects of multimodality, including multimodal corpus or multimodal metaphors. effective multimodal translation of zhuang folklore can improve people’s understanding of the folk culture and help them know more about the zhuang people. references chen, b. 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(2016). an eco-aesthetic paradigm in the translation of ethnic minority classics: a case study of the english translation of guangxi zhuang liao songs, minority translators journal, (04), 29-35. [in chinese: 周艳鲜. (2016). 依 生之美: 少数民族典籍翻译的审美范式——以广西壮族嘹歌英译为例. 民族翻译, (04), 29-35.] zhou, y. (2017). two thousand zhuang proverbs from china with annotations and chinese and english translation. new york: peter lang publishing. volume03issue01.0914.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 50 on c-e translation strategies of corporate publicizing video based on variational translation theory: a communication science perspective yaxiong xu1, jie lü2 1school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, persist1998@163.com 2corresponding author: same as above, 1833904290@qq.com funding: stage achievements of higher education didactical reform project of guangdong province entitled “multidimensional integrated didactical reform and practice based on multiligual corpus of the governance of china by xi jinping”; supported by 2022 postgraduate curriculum construction project on ideology and politics of guangdong university of foreign studies “the ideological and political construction on the business translation studies based on the integration of knowledge and action”; supported by the institute of hermeneutics of guangdong university of foreign studies（fund no. csy-2021-ya-04） abstract corporate publicizing video has been widely used in international publicity and image building. against this background, its translation quality becomes increasingly crucial. according to communication science theory, translation quality depends on whether a good communication effect can be achieved and a corporate image can be built. however, chinese corporate publicizing video is characteristic of culture-loaded words, novel metaphors, and abstract expressions, which seriously interfere with the communication effect. to deal with these issues, the author combines communication science and variational translation theory to study the subtitle translation of chinese corporate publicizing videos. it is found that noise and communication load control serve as standards for the translation of chinese corporate publicizing videos, and they provide macro guidance for specific variational translation methods, including rewriting, adding, editing, and deletion, thus ensuring corporate publicizing videos meet the goal of publicity. key words: corporate publicizing video; audio-visual translation; communication science; variational translation theory 1. introduction recent years have seen the fast development of china’s foreign trade. according to white paper on chinese enterprises going global, which was published by linkedin on november 29th, 2022, the globalization of chinese enterprises has moved from “product internationalization” and “capital internationalization” to a new stage of “capability internationalization”. against this background, the communication effect becomes increasingly crucial for companies to achieve the goal of "going out from china to the target market" to "going into the target market". to go into the target market, corporate publicizing video is a perfect choice. it serves as a window for customers to learn the information and values of the enterprise and it is usually published on businesses' websites or distributed through their social media channels. publicizing video is often used for international publicity, and to change the attitudes and thinking of the target audience (bittner, 1986, p.50). in recent years, the translation quality of corporate publicizing videos has been greatly improved, but the problem of ignoring target-language culture, the needs of consumers, and being overly faithful to the original text still exists. suitable translation facilitates communication, while bad translation causes barriers and even tarnishes the company's image. as a result, its translation quality has a direct influence on economic benefits and it is urgent to study translation methods and standards for better corporate publicity effect. when it comes to the translation of corporate publicizing videos, it is faced with a debate between complete translation and variational translation. in this study, the author combines communication science and variational translation theory, aiming to study the subtitle translation strategies of chinese corporate publicizing videos. 2. previous studies on the translation of corporate publicizing video based on its purpose, publicizing video can be divided mainly into corporate publicizing video, political publicizing video, travel publicizing video, city publicizing video, and educational publicizing video (guo and wu, 2011). different from traditional written text, it is a type of film in which information can be transmitted through different modes. this information is purposefully selected to influence the cognition of the target audience. multi-modal feature of corporate publicizing video is a double-edged sword. on the one hand, the same information can be transmitted through multiple channels, including pictures, sound, and text. different modes cooperate to convey meaning, so the target consumer can receive more information communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 51 in a unit of time. on the other hand, how to restore the relationship between different modes of translation remains unsolved, presenting more challenges to the translator. if the subtitling translation can not be coordinated with other modes, it would fail to convey the original information and even confuse target consumers, influencing economic benefits. the translation of corporate publicizing video falls into audio-visual translation, which originated in film translation, expanded into screen translation, and eventually matured into audiovisual translation (liu, 2010). we are familiar with jakobson’s translation categories: intralingual translation, interlingual translation, and semiotic translation, on which multi-modal features are first shed light (jakobson,1959). however, audio-visual translation does not gain enough attention until pérez-gonzález (2014, p. 98) publishes audiovisual translation: theories, methods, and issues: routledge, in which he points out that most of the audio-visual translation lacks research on the interaction between written words and visual information, namely resource integration. it is worth noting that resource integration among different modes is not easy due to different semiotic characteristics. in the translation of the corporate publicizing video, the main research objective is the interlingual subtitle, which is the information presented in a film in a different language. it is usually in the form of one or more lines of text and is in sync with the original verbal information (gottlieb, cited in orero, 2004, p.86). the interlingual subtitle is usually placed at the bottom of the screen with limited space and time. for space constraints, both the subtitle and its transition should not occupy more than two lines or 35 characters (baker, 2001, p. 245). as a result, subtitle translation must be concise and clear as much as possible. for time constraints, the length of subtitles should conform to people’s normal reading time (cintas and anderman, 2009, p. 22). subtitling translation is widely used in audio-visual communication such as film and television (shuttleworth and cowie, 2014, p. 161). it is a kind of “constrained translation”, which means that audio-visual translation relies on the relationship between linguistic messages and information carried by non-linguistic systems (mayoral, kelly, and gallardo, 1988, p. 356). recent years have seen scholars make tremendous achievements in quality control and translation methods of subtitling translation, such as condensation, reductive paraphrasing, and deletion (li, 2001). several theories have also been applied to solve translation difficulties concerned with subtitle features and cultural differences. but the application of variational translation theory to publicizing video is still an area that is largely ignored. the study of variation in linguistics mainly reveals the relationship between language variation and society (lu and zhang, 2020). in different societies, variation plays a significant role in good international publicity. the corporate publicizing video has made an indelible contribution to helping chinese products and culture enter overseas markets. however, chinese audiovisual products have limited influence on the international stage. through the literature review, it is found that the intervention and integration of different modes have gradually become a hot and difficult topic in subtitling translation, and the choice of complete translation and variational translation remains controversial. 3. applicability of communication science and variational translation theory to publicizing video translation. variational translation theory mainly arises from yan fu’s adaptation techniques in the translation of evolution and ethics (huang and chen, 2016). it is first put forward by professor huang zhonglian, who claimed that variational translation theory is a kind of principle that help people understand the law and rules of the phenomena of variation in translation. (huang, 2002a, p.32) later on, professor huang (2002b) further put forward 7 specific translation techniques: adding, deleting, editing, narrating, condensing, integrating, and altering. based on the above seven adaptations, eleven variational translation methods, including selected translation, edited translation, narrated translation, condensed translation, summarized translation, summarized trans-comment, trans-comment, altered translation, annotated translation, trans-writing, and cited translation are proposed (huang, 2020, p.105) the core of variational translation theory is “adaptation”, which is to meet the specific needs of specific readers under specific conditions (huang, 2002c). it is raised compared to complete translation in which the translator converts all information from the source language into the target language. the distinguishing criterion is whether the original text should be fully kept. variational translation theory is not a pure theory, but a pragmatic translation one. as a result, the scope of its application remains to be discussed (wu, 2018). it has been proven effective in several translation topics, but little attention has been paid to its application in the translation of corporate publicizing videos. to meet this gap, this study will explore how variational translation theory serves as a guideline for the translation of corporate publicizing videos. at the same time, good communication effect is the goal that variational translation should achieve. communication science is established in the 1940s in the united states. in 1948, lasswell (1948, p. 35) devised the famous 5w model of communication in the structure and function of communication in society, which is regarded as the founding work of communication, namely: 1)who? 2)says what? 3)in which channel? 4)to whom? 5)with what effect? in this model, the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 52 effect of information is the top concern. some scholars argue that the effect of information on people is like a gunshot to a target and that readers are passive receivers. schramm, who is also one of the founders of communication science, does not agree with this idea and proposes that the effectiveness of mass media is determined by how they are used by the target audience (wilbur schramm, 1973, p. 196), that is, the effectiveness of the message depends on whether the content of the message meets the needs of the audience. communication science is closely linked to translation study. the purpose of communication science is to study human information dissemination, and translation is the tool of information transmission. wolfram wilss, a german translation theorist, argues that translation is a specific form of communication linked to linguistic acts and decisions, while the traditional linguistic theory ignores the communicative nature of translation (wills, 2001, pp. 13-14). the communication effect is crucial for companies’ development. and this paper is designed to probe variational translation strategies of corporate publicizing video from the perspective of communication science. it helps translators consider translation as an intercultural communication activity. translation is the tool, and publicity is the goal, as a result, translation should meet the goal of publicity. however, in most cases, translators only translate information but do not publicize corporate values in the translation practice, thus confusing the target audience. according to communication science, noise control, and communication load are priorities in the translation process. 3.1 noise control: in communication science, the information does not reach the audience completely after it is sent out from the information source due to the influence of various factors. these factors are collectively called "noise". it can be divided into linguistic, cultural, and psychological noise in the translation process. strange expressions, redundant structures, and illogical sentences can lead to noise interfering with the understanding of target consumers. in this study, noise can not only arise from subtitles but also from other modes, such as visual and aural modes. 3.2 communication load control in this study, communication load refers to the amount of information contained in unit words. it is worth noting that communication load is not measured by the number of words, but the amount of information carried by words. it is a crucial indicator that we can take into account when we choose different variational translation methods. for example, metaphor and culture-loaded words are short but rich in information, and their huge amount of information often causes "communication overload". in this study, communication science and variational translation theory are combined to build the following translation model for corporate publicizing video. table 1: an integrated translation model of corporate publicizing video according to this model, noise control and communication load control are goals of specific translation methods that are based on variational translation theory. the combination of communication science and variational translation theory provides invaluable insight into the translation of corporate publicizing videos. 4. translation strategies for translating corporate publicizing video influenced by chinese culture, some expressions in corporate publicizing videos are implicit and vague with many hidden meanings. these issues are demonstrated mainly in the following aspects: communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 53 (1) hyperbole and abstract expressions are often used in corporate publicizing videos, leading to semantic ambiguity. (2) the frequent use of metaphors leads to the absence or even conflict of connotative meaning. (3) culture-loaded words create barriers to understanding (4) industrial terminology and concept are not fully explained aiming at the above four translation issues, this study examines the guiding role of variational translation theory for corporate publicizing video translation. 4.1 rewriting rewriting is a flexible combination of translating and writing. it refers to changing the form, and style of the original information to a more acquainted and acceptable one for target consumers. that’s how we can meet the specific needs of specific consumers and make the translation conform to the reading habits of foreign consumers. it is often difficult for english consumers to understand some unique chinese expressions, and they may even be misunderstood. rewriting them can help readers easily obtain information. example 1 source text: target text guo yi, born in babusha, believes that he saw monsters when he was growing up. he saw dark winds and yellow sandstorms take people away. guo's grandpa told him that the monsters can be tamed by planting trees. as per tradition, guo's dad took over herding the family's donkeys, but guo yi is not keen to herd the animals when his turn comes. he wants to do something different. guo put something new up in the fields, which attracted villagers near and far. guo and his team are marching towards their goal, with great zeal. the wind is still blowing in babusha, but people do not feel the sand against their faces anymore. ——ant group this case is selected from the publicizing video of ant group: sowing. since the project began in 2016, it has achieved good fruits and brought a great reputation to ant group, and it has been praised by the united nations. picture 1 in this case, there are some tricky problems. the first issue is the translation of “donkey”. donkey is an important means of transportation for chinese farmers, helping to haul saplings in the process of planting trees, but modern target audiences may not have this kind of experience, as a result, most of them can not realize that the donkey’s role is to help transport saplings. based on the function of its role, it can be deduced that guo yi's father is given the task of planting trees when the donkey is given to his father. guo yi does not want to herd the donkey means that he does not want to plant trees traditionally. the 1 website: https://www.antgroup.com/news-media/media-library?type=%e5%ae%a3%e4%bc%a0%e7%89%87 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 54 donkey's message is too subtle and complex, causing great noise to the understanding of target consumers. as a result, it has to be rewritten. the second issue is the understanding of “flag”. in this video, its translation is “he wants to do something different", but what is the new thing? there is no clue in this video, as a result, it may confuse the target audience. based on visual information(picture 1), it can be found that the flag standing up is a camera. ant group is an internet enterprise, and it introduces a new model of planting virtual trees via mobile phone. as a result, the flag can be translated as "apply internet planting model to the desert". rewriting enables connotation to be explicit, thus reducing communication load. picture 2 the next translation issue comes from the understanding of “ , ”. according to visual information(picture 2), the dust comes from the process of planting trees, and it is just like the steam from cooking. the more efforts are made, the faster and thicker the dust is raised. as a result, it can be concluded that “ ” means people are planting trees with great zeal. a better translation version is “in high spirits’. it has the same meaning and conforms to the movement of dust from the ground to the sky. based on the above analysis, it is suggested to modify the translation version as follows: suggested translation guo yi, born in babusha, believes that he saw monsters when he was growing up. he saw dark winds and yellow sandstorms take people away. guo's grandpa told him that the monsters can be tamed by planting trees. guo's dad shoulders the responsibility for planting trees, but guo yi is not keen to plant trees traditionally when his turn comes. he wants to do something different. instead, guo applies an internet planting model to the desert, which attracted villagers near and far. guo and his team are marching towards their goal of preventing sandstorms, in high spirits. the wind is still blowing in babusha, but people do not feel the sand against their faces anymore. 4.2 deletion deletion means to omit redundant information as a way to highlight important information. due to the difference in ideology, some political information will lead to misunderstanding. the slow development of audiovisual translation research is not only caused by technical limitations but is also subject to strict scrutiny of political systems. its constraints are much greater than those of traditional texts because audiovisual materials convey more obscure messages. massidda (2015) is a pioneer who studies censorship in audiovisual translation, especially the influence of political correctness on translation. she claims that videos with incorrect political orientation have little chance to complete the whole process of information dissemination. as a result, the information involved in political issues must be deleted in translation. example 2 source text: 2 target text: we bring several experts from national thousand talent plan to implement a global strategic layout. ——bewis sensing the "national thousand talents plan", or the overseas high-level talents admission program, is organized by china in december 2008, and it aims to introduce high-level talents studying and working overseas. however, the u.s. government has repeatedly and systematically prosecuted experts and scholars participating in the "national thousand talents plan" on the grounds of obstructing national security since 2018. as a result, most of the common westerners believe that the companies which are involved in this plan are illegal companies seeking to steal critical science and technology. against this 2 website: https://www.bwsensing.com/aboutus.html communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 55 background, the "national thousand talents plan" is still translated in the company’s publicity video in 2023. it may lead to the intervention of the u.s. government and cause adverse effects on the company's business. according to communication science, the translator acts as a "gatekeeper", and he would filter some content in the process of information encoding(lewin, 1947, p. 145). translators are part of social networks and gatekeeping behavior is also governed by social factors and subject to specific "social standards" (duan, 2006, p. 143). in the translation process, a translator needs to fully understand the original message and translate it according to the expected publicity effect. the target audience of the corporate publicizing video is english-speaking consumers, so it needs to conform to their specific social standards. in this case, the translator ignored the social constraints of the "national thousand talents plan", which was suppressed by the western countries, thus causing serious political issues. 4.3 editing editing is the process of editing original work and then translating it. it adjusts the structure and sequence of the original work according to the thinking habits of the target audience. it is also used to extract the required information due to the pervasive existence of hyperbole, metaphor, and abstract expressions in corporate publicizing videos because they often lead to semantic ambiguity, so the translator should determine the relevance of the information to the recipient. example 3 source text: target text: through the verdant path, bring the breath of nature back to your home. through the four seasons of love, connects the whole world from a tiny corner. make your home one with the gifts of the earth, and give you a promise of health and happiness. ——haier picture 3 aesthetics is significant for chinese corporate publicizing videos, so several rhetorics are used. however, information and facts are emphasized in english-speaking countries. in this case, some chinese expressions are confusing, including "make your home be one with the gifts of the earth, give you a promise of health and happiness." what's the meaning of the gift of the earth? how can your home be integrated with the gift of the earth? it does not conform to facts and logic in english. according to visual information (picture 3), the fresh fruit tree is put into the refrigerator. at the same time, it is well-known that one of the main products of haier is the refrigerator, which is used to keep food fresh. as a result, it can be deduced that "the gift of the earth" in this video means fruit. “only keep these fruit fresh, can we be healthy” is a logical sentence. based on the above analysis, the chinese subtitle is edited as follows: “ and then we can deliver a better translation version based on the above edited chinese subtitle: “through the verdant path, bring the breath 3 website:https://www.haier.com/global/pressevents/materials/?category=video%20story&spm=net.32011_pc.header_150092_20200720.2 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 56 of nature back to your home. through the four seasons of love, connect the whole world from a tiny corner. make your home full of fresh fruits and vegetables, guaranteeing your health and happiness.” 4.4 adding adding means putting some explanatory words in translation when there is a cultural default, such as the addition of cultureloaded words which are widely used in chinese corporate publicizing videos. while conveying corporate values, these culture-loaded words present a great obstacle to target consumers, thus destroying the effect of communication. to deal with this problem, information supplementation serves as a good solution. example 4 source text: 00:12 4 target text: beginning with the south inspection speech and heading to the belt and road world stage. advancing with the times, senyuan electric pushes forward the revolution of electric manufacturing in china and even the world. the "great electric" development idea is always keeping pace with the national strategy. ——henan senyuan group co., ltd in this case, “south inspection speech” refers to the historical event that deng xiaoping visited wuchang, shenzhen, zhuhai, and shanghai in early 1992. during this tour, deng put forward some new viewpoints on a series of crucial issues, such as the core of marxism, and the essence of socialism. these significant speeches promote china’s reform and opening up. since then, private companies have sprung up in china, including senyuan electric. however, due to the lack of necessary cultural background, most of the target audiences are unable to tell the connection between “south inspection speech" and senyuan electric. as a result, this historical event becomes noise interfering with the information-decoding process. to eliminate noise brought by culture-loaded words, more information is needed in translation. since deng xiaoping is the hero of the "south inspection speech", and is well-known as the chief architect of china's reform and opening up, which promotes the development of senyuan electric, the speaker's name should be added. apart from that, it happens in 1992, the time of major historical events should also be noted. based on the above analysis, the suggested translation is “beginning with the speech made by deng xiaoping in 1992”. 5. conclusion this study provides a comprehensive and in-depth discussion on translation methods for corporate publicizing video, thus helping facilitate overseas communication. corporate publicizing video is a great way for businesses that want to reach more people to show off their products or services creatively and interestingly. as a result, the methods of adaptation and translation will lay a solid foundation for future publicizing video translation. based on variational translation theory, the author proposes different variation methods from the perspective of communication science, including adding, rewriting, editing, and deletion. it’s recommended that abstract information should be edited before translation. what’s more, an addition should be adopted in the translation of culture-loaded words. in this study, communication science provides a macro translation framework, while specific translation methods are summarized from variational translation theory. based on the integrated translation model of corporate publicizing video, the adaptation and integration of original information which is hidden in diverse modes will be achieved, thus helping build better communication effects for companies that want to occupy more overseas market share. references bittner, john r. (1986). mass communication, an introduction. new jersey: englewood cliffs, prentive hall. baker, m., & saldanha, g. (2001). routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. london: routledge. cintas, j. d., & anderman, g. (2009). audiovisual translation. new york: palgrave macmillan. duan, p. (2006). communication basis: history, frame and extension. beijing: communication university of china press. [in chinese: . (2006). . : ). guo, y. x.& wu, x. e.(2011).the history of publicity film. journalism lover. [in chinese, .(2011). 4 website: https://haokan.baidu.com/v?vid=6338075396034373152 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 57 . (04),100-102.] gottlieb, h.(2004). language-political implications of subtitling. in orero, p.(eds.) topics in audiovisual translation. amsterdam:john benjamins. huang, z.,& zhang, y. (2020). variational translation theory. singapore: springer. huang, z. l.(2002a). variational translation theory beijing: china translation corporation. [in chinese, . (2002a). . : .] huang, z. l.(2002b).seven variants of translation. foreign language research. [in chinese, .(2002b). . (01),93-96. ] huang, z. l.(2002c).variational translation theory: a new translation theory. foreign language learning theory and practice. [in chinese, .(2002c). : . (01),19-22.] huang, z. l. & chen, y. f. (2016).the process from adaptation techniques to translation variation theory foreign languages and their teaching.[in chinese, , .(2016). . (01),98-106+149. ] liu, d. y.(2010).the name of avt———avt studies from film translation to multimedia translation. shanghai journal of translators. [in chinese, . (2011). avt : . , 105(04):61-65.] li, y. x.(2001).strategies of translating subtitles. chinese translators journal. (04):38-40. [in chinese, . (2001). . (04).] lu, d. p & zhang, l.(2020). a review on translation study from the perspective of sociolinguistics: origin, relevance and prospect. journal of changchun university. [in chinese, , . (2020). —— . . 30(07):46-49.] lasswell, h. (1948). the structure and function of communication in society. the communication of ideas, 37(1), 216. lewin, k. (1947). frontiers in group dynamics: ii. channels of group life; social planning and action research. human relations,1(2),143-153. mayoral, r., kelly, d., & gallardo, n. (1988). concept of constrained translation. non-linguistic perspectives of translation. meta, 33(3), 356-367. massidda, s. (2015). audiovisual translation in the digital age: the italian fansubbing phenomenon. springer. pérez-gonzález, l. (2014). audiovisual translation: theories, methods and issues. london: routledge. shuttleworth, m., & cowie, m. (2014). dictionary of translation studies. london: routledge. wills, w. (2001). the science of translation: problems and methods. shanghai: shanghai foreign language education press. volume03issue01.0611.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 23 a corpus-based contrastive analysis of sino-u.s. national defense white papers: images, problems and strategies lan wang1, junchao wang2 1school of translation and interpreting studies, guangdong university of foreign studies, china melwang567567@gmail.com 2journal of guangdong university of foreign studies, gdufs, china, 201510091@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract the english translations of china’s national defense white papers play crucial roles in conveying china’s defense and military policies to the international community. their accuracy and authenticity directly impact foreign readers’ understanding of china’s defense policies and shape their perception of china. however, previous english translations have been problematic, with lengthy and difficult-to-read texts, excessive and complex nouns, and a writing style that does not conform to english conventions. this paper explores the specific translation problems, analyzes the underlying causes, and proposes feasible translation strategies. using china’s national defense in the new era (cndne) and 2022 u.s. national defense strategy (2022 nds) as sample texts, we established corpora of the national defense white papers for the two nations. with the assistance of weiciyun and antconc, we conducted a contrastive analysis between the original chinese discourse and its english translation, as well as between the chinese and american defense white papers. the analysis focused on highfrequency words and subjects to explore the images of the two countries constructed by each national defense white paper. furthermore, this study compared the features of cndne and 2022 nds using antconc and established a parallel corpus of cndne by aligning sentence pairs through tmxmall. we then utilized cuc_paraconc to analyze the words and sentence structures in the chinese and english versions of cndne, identifying translation problems in the translation and providing strategies. the findings provide insights, directions, and methods for the writing, translation and post-editing of china’s defense white paper and open new avenues for further research. keywords: national defense white paper, corpus translation studies, contrastive analysis, translation problems and strategies 1. introduction national defense is essential for the peace and development of a country. many countries release national defense white papers to maintain domestic stability, showcase their defense capabilities and strategies to the international community, and convey their intentions for international security cooperation. in recent years, china’s comprehensive national strength and military power have attracted the attention of foreign governments regarding china’s defense policies. therefore, the significance of china’s national defense white papers and their translations for foreign governments and the public to understand china’s defense situation and policies is self-evident. however, the english translations of defense white papers suffer from various problems, such as lengthy sentences, numerous and difficult-to-understand nouns, and a writing style that does not conform to english conventions. these problems often discourage english readers from completing the entire defense white paper, or if they do, they may struggle to grasp certain concepts or even misunderstand them, leading to unfavorable impressions of china. this study aims to explore and summarize the specific causes of these issues and proposes targeted translation strategies, offering inspirations to improve the translations of china’s defense white papers. it also provides insights and methods for scholars engaging in future research on national defense white papers. 2. literature review 2.1 research on white paper white paper is an official document issued by a government or organization that aims to explain specific issues, policies, or provide relevant information and recommendations. typically, it involves comprehensive analysis and explanation of a particular topic, to provide readers with an in-depth understanding of the specific issue and offer policy advice or action plans. the chinese white papers are compiled and released by the information office of the state council, with the translation into multiple languages by the foreign language press, a subsidiary of the foreign language bureau (li, 2020). however, there is a limited body of literature focused on the translation of chinese white papers, and the existing literature predominantly concentrates on the words in english translations of chinese white papers (with the exception of yang, 2018; kim, 2019) and those of different countries (e.g., dou, 2012; bertazzo, 2012; lee, 2013; seo, 2019; donadelli, 2021). as one type of white paper, the national defense white paper is published by the defense department or military institutions, intending to elaborate on a country’s defense policy, military strategy, and the development planning of military forces. it communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 24 usually encompasses aspects such as the assessment of national security threats, formulation of military strategies, and the organization, equipment, and development of military forces. its purpose is to communicate a nation’s defense policy and military intentions to domestic and international audiences, including the general public, military peers, and the international community. china’s defense white papers include various types of white papers related to defense released by the state council information office, such as cybersecurity, space, the taiwan question, nuclear security, and asia-pacific security cooperation. the focus of this study is on the white papers published on the official english website of the ministry of national defense, as they are the most easily accessible and significant materials about national defense for foreign audiences. since 2010, the ministry of national defense has published four defense white papers: china’s national defense in 2010, the diversified employment of china’s armed forces (2013), china’s military strategy (2015) and the latest china’s national defense in the new era (2019). since the 1990s, the broad categorization of u.s. defense white papers includes four main types: the national security strategy (by the white house), the national defense strategy (by the u.s. department of defense), the report of the quadrennial defense review (by the u.s. department of defense), and the national military strategy (by the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff). the publication of these white papers provides information about u.s. defense to the american public and u.s. allies, playing a role in maintaining public support and fostering cooperation among allied nations and having its wording features (yu, 2016). this study selected china’s national defense in the new era ( , cndne) and the 2022 national defense strategy (2022 nds), released on july 24, 2019 and october 27, 2022, respectively. this ensures comparability between the white papers of these two nations as both of them were released by the national defense authorities. 2.2 translations of china’s national defense white papers to effectively convey china’s national defense policies and enhance its international discourse rights, the translations of the national defense white papers should strive for accurate word selection that aligns with the knowledge and cultural background of the target audience. furthermore, the general office of the communist party of china issued a notice on solving prominent problems of formalism and reducing the burden on the comrades ( ), calling for the promotion of a concise, practical, and innovative writing style, and resolutely reducing the length of documents to prevent verbosity. however, the english translations of china’s national defense white papers are troubled with numerous problems (see huang, 2004; zheng, 2014; ji & xu, 2016; wang, 2019; tan & lu, 2022) and fail to overcome the formalism problems. existing research has come up with some principles for translation (yang, 2014; wu & ye, 2015). they do not directly address the specific challenges faced in the translation of national defense white papers. further research and collaboration between the white paper editors, translation teams, and experts in translation studies may be necessary to develop effective strategies for enhancing the translation quality and effectiveness of these important documents. 2.3 corpus research corpus research includes the construction of large-scale and multilingual corpora, and specialized corpora, as well as the use of monolingual or bilingual corpora to study vocabulary usage features, translator style, translation strategies, translation criticism, and translation and multimodality. wang (2008) found, based on corpus research, that translated chinese exhibits features such as lower degree of lexical variation, lower lexical density, explicitation of function words, explicitation of referential expressions, and increased frequency of common words compared to original chinese. xu (2016) suggested that translated english shows characteristics of explicitation in cohesion and repetition of content words between sentences compared to original english. hu (2017) proposed that it is possible to describe translator style based on statistical analyses of relevant translation facts and analyze the reasons or constraining factors for the formation of translator style from both translator-specific and non-translator-specific factors. wang (2015) pointed out that the research findings of parallel corpora, such as part-of-speech distribution, sentence length, and structural capacity, can be directly applied to the teaching process to enhance translation learning efficiency and effectiveness. li (2021) developed a multilingual parallel corpus of “xi jinping: the governance of china” and indicated its application value in the construction of multilingual parallel corpora, extraction of multilingual terminology, translation teaching, and machine translation. current corpus research in china primarily focuses on vocabulary, with limited involvement at the syntactic level and scarce attention to discourse. furthermore, most of the current corpus translation research revolves around corpus construction, literary translation studies, and overviews of corpus research, with fewer studies on the translation of political texts, and even rarer research specifically on the defense white paper. with the aid of corpus tools, scholars in the international translation community have conducted various studies, such as the creation of large corpora, corpus comparisons, and analysis of high-frequency words, to investigate text features, translation communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 25 problems, and translation strategies. corpus research in the translation industry is applied in various fields, including translation training, translation education, translation work, and the development of corpus technologies. baker conducted translator-style research based on corpora, and the analysis process typically does not consider the corresponding source texts. however, this study focuses on the investigation of translation style, so the characteristics of the source text are taken into consideration in the research. christodouloupoulos and steedman (2015) created a massively parallel corpus based on 100 translations of the bible and described the potential of the bible as a corpus for natural language processing. frankenberggarcia (2021 found that keyword analysis not only reiterates known problems of discourse in machine translation such as lexical inconsistency and pronoun resolution but can also provide valuable insights regarding contextual aspects of translated discourse. giampieri (2020) held that corpora allow one to grasp word use in contexts, find collocations or fixed expressions and deliver more fine-grained translation works. although the use of corpus technology in the field of translation has many benefits, some papers point out the drawbacks of excessive reliance on corpus technology. cho (2012 believed that after obtaining information by these tools, researchers have to return to the context. giampieri (2020) believed that when we use corpora to help us translate, we may feel overwhelmed by internet data and “distracted” by corpus evidence. du and chen (2022 made a bibliometric analysis of political discourse in translation studies from 1990 to 2020, revealing eight research themes, namely, linguistic analysis, ideology and manipulation, power embodied in political communication, interpreting and critical discourse analysis (cda), the recontextualization of political discourse in media discourse, diplomatic translation, the representation of political speeches in news translation, and conflict and politics. wang and feng (2018) used corpus tools to identify high-frequency keywords in political discourse, analyze patterns of their translation and reveal how ideology is decontextualized. pan (2020) used both comparable and parallel corpora, and found three types of shifts regularly made by chinese government-affiliated translation institutions, namely shifts in interacting with readers, in representing actions, and in identifying participants. 3. the construction of images of the national defense white papers 3.1 high-frequency words 3.1.1 high-frequency words in the original cndne by using weiciyun to segment cndne in the original, we can identify high-frequency words that play an important role in constructing the content of the text. studying these words helps enhance our understanding of the key content and intentions of the white paper. in this study, we excluded function words from the high-frequency ones and retained content words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. the top 30 high-frequency words are presented in table 1. table 1. high-frequency words in the original cndne (top 30 rank word freq. rank word freq. 1 185 16 40 2 94 17 38 3 92 18 37 4 71 19 33 5 68 20 32 6 67 21 30 7 63 22 29 8 62 23 29 9 52 24 28 10 52 25 28 11 51 26 28 12 50 27 28 13 43 28 26 14 42 29 26 15 42 30 25 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 26 as can be seen from table 1, the high-frequency nouns are (army), (country), (strategy), (military), (armed forces), (defense expenditure), (national defense), (strength), (new era), (world), (peace), (system), (task), and (mechanism), showing that in the new era of chinese socialism (since the 19th cpc national congress held on october 18, 2017), china attaches importance to military strategy and national defense force, calls for world peace, and pays attention to the construction of military systems and the planning of defense tasks, expenses and mechanisms. high-frequency verbs are (develop), (build), (maintain), (cooperate), (organize), (safeguard), (promote), (strengthen), (carry out), (adhere to), (combat), and (train), which show china’s national defense actions in the new era. the high-frequency words portray china as an active, constructive and friendly country that promotes development, construction and world peace and strengthens national security and international cooperation. 3.1.2 high-frequency words in the english version of cndne using antconc, we conducted a word frequency analysis of the english version of cndne. we excluded function words from the high-frequency words and retained content words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. the top 30 highfrequency words are shown in table 2. table 2. high-frequency words in the english version of cndne (top 30 rank word freq. rank word freq. 1 china 264 16 training 43 2 military 171 17 joint 42 3 defense 144 18 operations 42 4 security 128 19 pla 39 5 forces 109 20 system 35 6 national 88 21 combat 34 7 armed 70 22 era 33 8 strategic 70 23 support 32 9 new 65 24 build 31 10 development 63 25 peace 30 11 countries 59 26 regional 28 12 international 56 27 world 28 13 expenditure 52 28 country 27 14 force 48 29 stability 26 15 cooperation 43 30 capabilities 25 according to table 2, high-frequency nouns are defense, peace, force (s), development, countries, expenditure, cooperation, training, operations, peace, world, stability, and capabilities, which show that china attaches importance to military building and strengthens training to improve national defense capability, hopes for national security and stability and world peace, and highlights the development and international cooperation. compared with those of the chinese version, the top 30 highfrequency words in the english version are mostly nouns, instead of verbs, to some extent indicating that when it was translated from chinese to english, the parts of speech of china’s national defense in the new era have partially changed, especially from verbs to nouns. it makes the white paper more formal and solemn, and its narrative more objective. 3.1.3 high-frequency words in 2022 u.s. nds with the help of antconc, the high-frequency words in 2022 nds can be analyzed. after removing function words, the top 30 high-frequency words are obtained, as shown in table 3. table 3. high-frequency words in the 2022 nds (top 30 rank word freq. rank word freq. 1 department 117 16 strategy 29 2 partners 63 17 ability 28 3 deterrence 59 18 nuclear 28 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 27 4 force 58 19 states 28 5 allies 56 20 support 28 6 capabilities 54 21 aggression 27 7 defense 54 22 other 27 8 military 52 23 strategic 27 9 prc 41 24 national 26 10 security 38 25 united 23 11 joint 35 26 change 22 12 threats 33 27 conflict 21 13 competitors 32 28 integrated 21 14 forces 31 29 strengthen 21 15 challenges 29 30 advantages 20 according to table 3, high-frequency words are partners, deterrence, force, allies, capabilities, defense, military, prc, security, threats, strategy, conflict, and advantages. we can see that the 2022 nds repeatedly mentions the “threat” of china’s development to the united states. also, the ideological opposition and conflicts of interest among countries are depicted, which could have a subtle and gradual impact on the thinking of the american people and its allies, leading the public to regard china as a threat. the keywords also show that the united states seeks to strengthen military alliances and partnerships, aiming to maintain its advantages and deter other countries. 3.1.4 contrastive analysis of cndne and 2022 nds in both the english version of cndne and 2022 nds, we find high-frequency words such as “national”, “security”, “force (s)”, “military”, “capabilities”, “joint”, and “defense”. with antconc, the collocations of these high-frequency words and their corresponding paragraphs in the two defense white papers are searched, revealing some differences. figure 1 and figure 2 illustrate the word “military”. in the former, the high-frequency collocations of “military” include “the military and the government”, “the military and the people”, “military training”, “military exchanges and cooperation” and “military development”. in the latter, the high-frequency collocations of “military” include “military advantage (s)”, “military power”, “military action”, “military capability” and “military preparation”. by examining the paragraphs where these high-frequency collocations appear, we can observe that china is striving to develop its military, enhance military training, maintain a good relationship between the armed forces and the government as well as the people, engage in military cooperation with other countries. this conveys that china is focused on the development of the military to safeguard national security, maintain international cooperation, and defend the country and its people. it demonstrates that china’s national defense is defensive rather than offensive. on the other hand, the united states repeatedly mentions deterring other countries to ensure the future sustainability of its military advantage and protect its international military status. the emphasis is on military preparation. this portrays the united states’ efforts to maintain its international hegemonic position. but rather than focusing on its military development to become stronger, the u.s. diverts significant attention to deterring other nations. it reflects the zero-sum mindset of the u.s. in problem-solving. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 28 figure 1. high-frequency collocations of “military” in the english version of cndne figure 2. high-frequency collocations of “military” in the 2022 nds in the top 30 high-frequency words of the english version of cndne and the 2022 nds, there are also unique high-frequency words for each text. for example, in the english version of cndne, words such as “development”, “countries”, “international”, “cooperation”, “training”, “system”, “era”, “support”, “build”, “peace”, “world” and “stability” cannot be found among the top 30 high-frequency words of the 2022 nds. these words depict a pragmatic and moderate image of china in the new era that emphasizes the importance of development, construction, international cooperation, world peace and stability. among them, the word “cooperation” appears 43 times, as shown in figure 3. some of its collocations include “developing friendly cooperation with all countries”, “strengthening international cooperation in arms control and nonproliferation”, “china’s participation in international space cooperation”, “enhancing trust among regional countries, chinarussia cooperation”, “the china-us relationship based on coordination, cooperation, and stability”, “cooperation with asean countries”, “a china-europe partnership for peace, growth, reform, and civilization, and maritime security cooperation”. the above examples showcase china’s recent diplomatic initiatives and diplomatic goals, demonstrating communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 29 china’s commitment to strengthening friendly and trustworthy cooperation with other countries while maintaining a policy of non-alignment with any nation. figure 3. collocations of “cooperation” in the english version of cndne in the 2022 u.s. nds, there are unique words including “partners”, “deterrence”, “allies”, “threats”, “competitors”, “challenges”, “nuclear”, “support”, “aggression”, “conflict”, “integrated”, “strengthen”, and “advantages”. these words present a belligerent and aggressive image of the united states that perceives rapidly developing countries as threats, seeks to strengthen military alliances to deter these nations and emphasizes conflict rather than cooperation. among them, the word “partners” appears 63 times, as shown in figure 4. the collocation of “allies and partners” appears 47 times, and the verbs associated with it include “to reinforce robust deterrence”, “to modernize denial capabilities”, “to advance regional security goals that implement the higher-level aims of integrated deterrence”, “to ensure power projection in a contested environment”, “to deter, defend, and build resilience” and “will increasingly face the challenge of deterring two major powers with modern and diverse nuclear capabilities-the prc and russia”. in the 2022 u.s. nds, the u.s. allies and partners plan to focus on deterring other countries. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 30 figure 4. collocations of “partners” in the 2022 nds 3.2 subject analysis high-frequency subjects in the english translation of cndne and the 2022 nds are shown in table 4. this analysis reflects the respective word preferences and linguistic characteristics of the two texts. by conducting a comparative analysis, it can provide some references for modifying china’s defense white papers. table 4. top 10 subjects in the english translation of cndne and the 2022 nds rank cndne 2022nds subject freq. subject freq. 1 china 92 we 89 2 armed forces 46 department 73 3 they 31 prc 12 4 it 26 it 8 5 pla 23 deterrence 8 6 expenditure 17 russia 8 7 pap 14 nds 8 8 efforts 7 strategy 7 9 this 6 campaigning 6 10 countries 6 the united states 5 the english translation of cndne consists of 553 sentences, with 92 sentences using “china” as the subject. on average, there is one sentence with “china” as the subject every 6 sentences. on the other hand, the 2022 nds comprises 377 sentences, with 89 sentences starting with “we” as the subject. on average, there is one sentence starting with “we” every 4 sentences. the frequent use of “china” as the subject in the cndne translation contributes to a more objective narrative and reflects china’s independent and non-aligned foreign policy. conversely, the predominant use of “we” as the subject in the 2022 nds enhances the subjective narrative and emphasizes the role of issuing the nds-rallying allies and partners under the collective pronoun “we” to consolidate and maintain its international hegemonic status. however, the excessive repetition of “china” as the subject in the english translation of cndne results in a lack of sentence variation. to address this, it is recommended to use pronouns such as “it” as a substitute for “china” to bring more diversity to sentence structure. 3.3 summary the two white papers depict contrasting images of china and the united states. china’s image, as portrayed in its white paper, is characterized as active, constructive, and friendly. it emphasizes china’s focus on development, construction, and world peace, as well as its efforts to strengthen national defense and enhance international cooperation. on the other hand, the image of the united states presented in its white paper is portrayed as bellicose, aggressive, and viewing rapidly developing nations as threats. it emphasizes its so-called “priority” and opposition, highlighting the united states’ efforts to deter other countries and maintain its first position by forming alliances with allies and partners. 4. translation problems and strategies in the english translation of cndne the chinese version of cndne has a total of 20,646 characters. by using weiciyun, it was found that the total number of words in the text is 6,466, with an average sentence length of 37.59 words and a vocabulary density of 29.66%. however, in its english translation, the text consists of 13,315 words, with an average sentence length of 24.08 words and a vocabulary density of 19.50%. compared to the original chinese text, the english translation has undergone a reduction in length and a decrease in vocabulary density, indicating a simplification process during translation. the full text of the 2022 u.s. nds contains 9,391 words. its average sentence length is 24.91 words, and its vocabulary density is 20.98%. in contrast, cndne has an average sentence length of 24.08 words and a vocabulary density of 19.50%. english native speakers and bilingual individuals have previously expressed that the english version of cndne has excessively long sentences and is difficult to comprehend, while the 2022 nds is not. however, we can notice that the average sentence length and vocabulary density of the two documents are quite similar. so why the former was believed to be difficult to understand and read? from the analysis above, we can see that the portrayal of china in the defense white paper is quite positive. however, if english readers find it challenging to read, they may struggle to even finish the first chapter of the white paper. as a result, they may not be able to gain a comprehensive understanding of china’s defense policy and its true image. how can we address this problem? the answer will be elaborated in the following sections. 4.1 writing-style and tone adjustment communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 31 it is difficult to read through the english cndne, and one of the main reasons is that it remains faithful to the original text rather than considering the needs of the target audience. the translators of cndne did not realize that the readers are native english speakers, not domestic readers, and they did not make adjustments to the overall writing style and tone of the text. they simply translated the original text from chinese into english. zhao (2021) argues that being overly faithful to the original text in translation can lead to poor reception among audiences from different cultural backgrounds. to enhance the communication of china’s defense strategy in the international community, it is important to change the mindset. yuan (2005) suggests that translation for international communication should be directed toward the target language, ensuring that the recipients do not encounter obstacles in the process of receiving information. the translation should conform to the habits of the target language in terms of formatting and wording. table 5. chapters in the english cndne and 2022 nds cndne (english proportion 2022 nds proportion preface 1.52% statement of the department of defense 9.11% international security situation 9.86% introduction 10.99% china’s defensive national defense policy in the new era 13.42% security environment 15.90% fulfilling the missions and tasks of china’s armed forces in the new era 15.90% defense priorities 1.76% reform in china’s national defense and armed forces 27.36% integrated deterrence 15.62% reasonable and appropriate defense expenditure 10.17% campaigning 7.25% actively contributing to building a community with a shared future for mankind 20.43% anchoring our strategy in allies and partners and advancing regional goals 13.74% closing remarks 1.34% force planning 7.44% building enduring advantages 12.28% risk management 3.59% conclusion 2.32% table 5 presents the chapter layout of the english translation of cndne and the 2022 nds. the former is relatively lengthy. to address the problem of readers being unable to concentrate and read through the entire english version of cndne, we can draw inspiration from the writing style of the 2022 nds. therefore, the english version of cndne can begin with a chapter called “introduction”, which briefly summarizes the key points to be discussed in the following sections. it includes the purpose, current situation, actions, vision, and stance of china’s defense. this will provide the target readers with a general understanding of china’s defense policy and position, attract them to continue reading, and prevent them from stopping due to the perceived difficulty of the english translation, thus achieving the purpose of the english translation of china’s national defense white papers. for instance, the introduction part of the translated cndne can be adjusted as follows: as china pursues a defensive national defense policy, the development of its military is aimed at protecting its people, rather than posing a threat or challenge to other countries. safeguarding china’s sovereignty, security and development interests is the fundamental goal of china’s national defense in the new era. the south china sea islands and diaoyu islands are inalienable parts of the chinese territory. to solve the taiwan question and achieve complete reunification of the country is in the fundamental interests of the chinese nation. the strategic goals for the development of china’s national defense and military in the new era are: to generally achieve mechanization by the year 2020 with significantly enhanced informationization and greatly improved strategic capabilities; to comprehensively advance the modernization of military theory, organizational structure, military personnel, and weaponry and equipment in step with the modernization of the country and complete the modernization of national defense and the military by 2035; and to fully transform the people’s armed forces into world-class forces by the mid-21st century. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 32 4.2 pre-translation processing of st given the differences between internal and external publicity of the national defense, st can be processed and selected before the translation. baker (2006) emphasizes that when we narrate, we not only represent social reality but also constitute it. that is, translators consciously utilize various framing strategies to select and interpret source texts, choose specific angles, emphasize certain content, and employ translation strategies to “interpret” and “rewrite” the source text for their political purposes. when we translate for international readers, we can draw on narrative techniques such as selective storytelling and cumulative storytelling, as utilized by western media in translating our country’s enlistment videos (han, 2018). when translating national defense white papers, we should consider china’s needs in external communication and foreign readers’ reading experience. it is important to highlight the key content that needs to be communicated externally, omit events that are not suitable for external promotion, and shape a positive image of china. translation example 1. source text: source text romanized: shēnrù tuījìn dǎngfēng liánzhèng jiànshè hé fǎnfǔbài dòuzhēng. yánmíng zhèngzhì jìlǜ zhèngzhì guīju, yánsù cháchǔ guō bóxióng, xú cáihuò, fáng fēnghuī, zhāng yáng děng yánzhòng wéijì wéifǎ ànjiàn. target text: improving party conduct, upholding integrity and continuing the fight against corruption. china’s armed forces are tightening political discipline and rules, investigating and dealing strictly with grave violations of cpc discipline and state laws as in the cases of guo boxiong, xu caihou, fang fenghui, and zhang yang. anti-corruption is an internal event and policy, which is not needed to be translated and publicized overseas. cases like this should be omitted during the translation rather than be rendered directly in the tt (see the above case). 4.3 improving the translation of phrases 4.3.1 translation problems with noun phrases there are a lot of formal noun phrases in almost every sentence in the english version of cndne, which are wordy and require focus to read. yuan (2005) argues that chinese and english languages have different cultural backgrounds, values, and ways of thinking, which manifest linguistically in chinese expressions being excessively embellished, with ornate wording and synonymous repetition. zeng (2005) believes that the writing style of the chinese national defense white paper reflects the thinking characteristics of chinese cultures, such as the pursuit of balanced sentence structures and rhythmic phonetics, which result in the accumulation of words and cumbersome sentences. therefore, it is hard to keep the readers engaged. therefore, by not reorganizing the information from the original text and simply translating word-for-word following the structure and order of the original, it inevitably results in the english translation of the national defense white paper having a chinese structure, rather than looking like it was written in authentic english. this could be one of the reasons why english readers find it challenging to read. yang (2008) suggests that in diplomatic translation, one should not limit oneself to the linguistic form of the source language. it is necessary to make adjustments and bold choices in the language form based on the speaker’s context, thoughts, and background of foreign relations. this includes additions, deletions and conversions. therefore, this paper advocates avoiding excessive coordination of nouns in the translated text. the translation strategies include: 1) categorizing and organizing the nouns before translation, eliminating redundant expressions; 2) finding commonalities among the words to connect the vocabulary; 3) appropriately transforming noun structures into verb structures; 4) discarding the structure and form of the original chinese sentence and translating based on the inherent meaning of the sentence. translation example 2. source text: 2020 2035 source text romanized: xīn shídài zhōngguó guófáng hé jūnduì jiànshè de zhànlüè mùbiāo shì, dào 2020 nián jīběn shíxiàn jīxièhuà, xìnxīhuà jiànshè qǔdé zhòngdà jìnbù, zhànlüè nénglì yǒu dà de tísheng. tóng guójiā xiàndàihuà jìnchéng xiāng yīzhì, quánmiàn tuījìn jūnshì lǐlùn xiàndàihuà, jūnduì zǔzhī xíngtài xiàndàihuà, jūnshì rényuán xiàndàihuà, wǔqì zhuāngbèi xiàndàihuà, lìzhēng dào 2035 nián jīběn shíxiàn guófáng hé jūnduì xiàndàihuà, dào běn shìjì zhōngyè bǎ rénmín jūnduì quánmiàn jiànchéng shìjiè yīliú jūnduì. target text: the strategic goals for the development of china’s national defense and military in the new era are: communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 33 • to generally achieve mechanization by the year 2020 with significantly enhanced informationization and greatly improved strategic capabilities; • to comprehensively advance the modernization of military theory, organizational structure, military personnel, and weaponry and equipment in step with the modernization of the country and basically complete the modernization of national defense and the military by 2035; and • to fully transform the people’s armed forces into world-class forces by the mid-21st century. tt has the advantage of using bullet points to outline the strategic objectives of china’s national defense and military construction in the new era, which makes it clearer. however, the italicized part is noticeably wordy, with three noun structures and repetitive use of the term “modernization”. it appears overly formal and rigid. it could be improved by using verb structures, which would be more authentic and vivid. the italicized sentence could be modified as follows: “• to effectively modernize national defense and the military by 2035, we will focus on advancing military theory, organizational structure, personnel, and equipment in line with the country’s overall modernization efforts.” translation example 3. source text: source text romanized: zhōngguó jìxù bǎochí zhèngzhì āndìng, mínzú tuánjié, shèhuì wěndìng de liánghǎo júmiàn, zònghé guólì, guójì yǐngxiǎnglì, dǐyù fēngxiǎn nénglì míngxiǎn zēngqiáng, réng chǔyú fāzhǎn de zhòngyào zhànlüè jīyù qī, tóngshí yě miànlín duōyuán fùzá de ānquán wēixié hé tiǎozhàn. target text: china continues to enjoy political stability, ethnic unity and social stability. there has been a notable increase in china’s overall national strength, global influence, and resilience to risks. china is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development. nevertheless, it also faces diverse and complex security threats and challenges. the chinese language is known for its ornate and embellished expressions, which often involve excessive modifications. therefore, it is a characteristic of the chinese language to have numerous noun phrases listed in parallel within the same sentence. the 2022 nds also includes nouns in parallel, although they are words instead of phrases. the tt can be replaced by “china maintains political stability, ethnic unity, and social harmony. notably, it has witnessed a significant enhancement in its national strength, global influence, and resilience against risks. china is currently in a critical phase of strategic development opportunities. however, it also confronts diverse and complex security threats and challenges”. “political stability, ethnic unity, and social stability” can be modified to “political stability, ethnic unity, and social harmony” to avoid repetition of the word “stability” and make the vocabulary in the english translation more varied. additionally, “there has been a notable increase in china’s...” can be changed to “it has witnessed a significant enhancement” to unify the subject of the sentences as “china” and make them more coherent. 4.3.2 translating bulletpoint-in-numbers with footnotes in the english version of cndne, many phrases with chinese characters for numbers, especially political terms, were not explained, making them difficult to understand. readers sometimes have to search online to grasp the basic meanings of these phrases, which can be time-consuming. this could be another reason why it is challenging to complete reading the discourse. the translation strategy for such phrases is that the translators can add footnotes to the phrases with chinese characters for numbers, providing a brief introduction to their basic meanings. translation example 4. source text: source text romanized: zhōngguó jiānchí zài hépíng gòngchǔ wǔ xiàng yuánzé jīchǔ shàng fāzhǎn tóng gèguó de yǒuhǎo hézuò, zūnzhòng gèguó rénmín zìzhǔ xuǎnzé fāzhǎn dàolù de quánlì, zhǔzhāng tōngguò píngděng duìhuà hé tánpàn xiéshāng jiějué guójì zhēngduān, fǎnduì gānshè biégúo nèizhèng, fǎnduì shì qiáng líng ruò, fǎnduì bǎ zìjǐ de yìzhì qiángjiā yú rén. target text: china is committed to developing friendly cooperation with all countries on the basis of the five principles of peaceful coexistence. it respects the rights of all peoples to independently choose their own development path, and stands for the settlement of international disputes through equal dialogue, negotiation and consultation. china is opposed to interference in the internal affairs of others, abuse of the weak by the strong, and any attempt to impose one’s will on others. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 34 a footnote can be added to explain the meaning of the italicized phrase: “five principles of peaceful coexistence refer to mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual nonaggression, non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence.” translation example 5. source text: 2014 “ ” source text romanized: 2014 nián, xiāngshān lùntán shēngjí wéi "yī guǐ bàn" guójì ānquán hé fángwù duìhuà píngtái. target text: in 2014, the xiangshan forum was upgraded to a track-1.5 platform of international security and defense dialogue. a footnote “track 1.5 refers to a dialogue format that involves government officials and non-governmental participants, such as scholars and representatives from various sectors.” can be added. in the 2022 nds, there are also phrases with numbers, but the meanings of these phrases are either explained in the original text or the phrases themselves convey their intended meanings clearly. for example-the strategy identifies four top-level defense priorities that the department must pursue to strengthen deterrence. first, we will defend the homeland. second, we will deter strategic attacks against the united states, our allies, and our partners. third, we will deter aggression and be prepared to prevail in conflict when necessary. fourth, to ensure our future military advantage, we will build a resilient joint force and defense ecosystem. we will continue to work with congress as critical changes are made, informed by the recommendations of the independent review commission on sexual assault in the military, to increase accountability; ensure we have a culture of zero tolerance for harassment and assault; enable active prevention, and support those who come forward. finally, the department will seek to eradicate all forms of extremism in our ranks. 4.4 reducing excessive adverbs in the english translation of cndne, there are 156 adverbs. however, not all adverbs in the original chinese text need to be translated. some of them, especially those indicating a strong emotional intensity, can be omitted, such as “actively”, “firmly”, “resolutely”, “unswervingly”, “earnestly” and “faithfully”. it is acknowledged that retaining these adverbs in the translation can serve as a means to illustrate the attitude and spirit of china to the global audience. however, in the 2022 nds, there are fewer adverbs indicating emotional intensity-only four, including “urgently”, “seriously”, “actively” and “aggressively”. therefore, this paper acknowledges that translating all adverbs indicating emotional intensity may appear excessive, potentially conveying an impression of excessive eagerness for accomplishments. this, in turn, has the potential to negatively impact china’s national image. therefore, the translation strategy for addressing the issue of excessive adverbs is to remove adverbs indicating emotional intensity from the english translation. translation example 6. source text: source text romanized: zhōngguó yīguàn jījí cānyù guójì jūnkòng, cáijūn hé fáng kuòsàn nǔlì, fǎnduì jūnbèi jìngsài, wéihù quánqiú zhànlüè píng hé wěndìng, qiānshǔ huò jiārùle "bùkuòsàn héwǔqì tiáoyuē" děng shùshí gè duōbiān jūnkòng, cáijūn hé fáng kuòsàn tiáoyuē. target text: china actively participates in international arms control, disarmament and non-proliferation. china objects to the arms race and strives to protect global strategic balance and stability. to this end, china has signed or acceded to dozens of relevant multilateral treaties including the treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. “actively” appears 23 times, followed by “resolutely” (9 times) and “firmly” (7 times). however, in the 2022 nds, “actively” only appears once, which may suggest that the english version of cndne should exercise more restraint when using adverbs to convey emotions. therefore, i believe that the adverb “actively” in the tt can be omitted to avoid giving english readers the impression that china has ambitious aspirations for international involvement. translation example 7. source text: source text romanized: zhōngguó jiānchí tóng dìqū guójiā yīdào wéihù hépíng wěndìng, jiāndìng wéihù gèguó yījù guójì fǎ suǒ xiǎngyǒu de hángxíng hé fēiyuè zìyóu, wéihù hǎishàng tōngdào ānquán. target text: china continues to work with regional countries to jointly maintain peace and stability. it firmly upholds freedom of navigation and overflight by all countries in accordance with international law and safeguards the security of sea lines of communication (slocs). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 35 there is a mistake in the tt: “work with regional countries to jointly maintain peace and stability” should be revised as “jointly work with regional countries to maintain peace and stability”. in this context, “firmly” emphasizes china’s strong support for the lawful rights of other countries. however, it can be omitted to avoid an overly solemn tone. this does not mean all the excessive adverbs could be omitted, as some are needed in terms of tones and stances in the english translations. take example 8. translation example 8. source text: “ ” source text romanized: zhōngguó jiānchí "hépíng tǒngyī, yīguó liǎngzhì" fāngzhēn, tuīdòng liǎng'àn guānxì hépíng fāzhǎn, tuījìn zhōngguó hépíng tǒngyī jìnchéng, jiǎnjué fǎnduì yīqiè fēnliè zhōngguó de túmóu hé xíngjìng, jiǎnjué fǎnduì rènhé wàiguó shìlì gānshè. target text: china adheres to the principles of “peaceful reunification”, and “one country, two systems”, promotes peaceful development of cross-strait relations, and advances peaceful reunification of the country. meanwhile, china resolutely opposes any attempts or actions to split the country and any foreign interference to this end. the verb “oppose” already conveys a strong determination to disagree, so there is no need to translate the adverb “resolutely” in the tt. however, the translator chose to retain it, in an attempt to emphasize china’s strong opposition to any actions that undermine its sovereignty and domestic affairs. 4.5 using words with proper connotations the choosing of words is not precise enough, which can mislead english readers, lead to misconceptions, and potentially cause difficulties in understanding and harm china’s national image. to address this, the translation strategy includes: 1) translators should enhance their bilingual proficiency, increase political sensitivity, and actively consult parallel texts and reference materials. 2) reviewers should focus on establishing priorities in reviewing translations and improving political sensitivity. translation example 9. source text: “ ” “ ” “ ” “ ” “ ” source text romanized: fǎn fēnliè dòuzhēng xíngshì gèngjiā yánjùn, mín jìndǎng dāngjú wángù jiānchí "tái dú" fēnliè lìchǎng, jù bù chéngrèn tǐxiàn yīgè zhōngguó yuánzé de "jiǔ'èr gòngshí", jiājǐn tuīxíng "qù zhōngguó huà", "jiàn jìn tái dú", túmóu tuīdòng "fǎlǐ tái dú", qiáng huà díyì duìkàng, xié yáng zìzhòng, zài fēnliè dàolù shàng yuè zǒu yuè yuǎn. target text: the fight against separatists is becoming more acute. the taiwan authorities, led by the democratic progressive party (dpp), stubbornly stick to “taiwan independence” and refuse to recognize the 1992 consensus, which embodies the one-china principle. they have gone further down the path of separatism by stepping up efforts to sever the connection with the mainland in favor of gradual independence, pushing for de jure independence, intensifying hostility and confrontation, and borrowing the strength of foreign influence. independence refers to the independence of a nation, but taiwan has historically been a part of china. promoting “taiwan independence” is an act of separating the country. as the anti-secession law adopted by the npc has classified the term “taiwan independence” as an act of separating china, it is more appropriate to translate the term “ ” as “taiwan secession attempts” or “taiwan separatism,” which have been widely adopted by mainstream chinese media. when translating the defense white papers, it is essential to consider the political implications of vocabulary, conduct thorough research, and exercise caution in translation. 4.6 multimodalizing the translation multimodality can make the text more engaging, readable, and interactive. incorporating multimodality into the text enriches the ways information is conveyed, provides a more immersive reading experience, and helps readers better understand and digest the content. wang (2019b) suggests that combining text with illustrations can effectively compensate for the limitations of text alone. the cover of the u.s. 2022 nds is predominantly blue. in the center, there is a world map with the united states at the center, accompanied by the prominent words “2022 national defense strategy.” the map is surrounded by stars. at the top, there is the pentagon’s logo, along with the words “u.s. department of defense” and red and white stripes, incorporating elements of the american flag — blue, white, red, and stars. the second page displays the department of defense emblem and the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 03 no. 01 (2023) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 36 words “2022 national defense strategy.” the third and fourth pages contain the defense secretary’s address, ending with his signature. the fifth page presents the table of contents, featuring images of weapons and military personnel from the us army, navy, and air force, aiming to showcase america’s military power. within the main body of the text, each chapter’s title is represented at the top of the page using blue letters. the actions that the united states will take are presented in bullet points, making them clearer and easier to read. key points within each section are highlighted in blue, bold, larger, and italicized text, such as “strategic competition with the people’s republic of china (prc)”. such titles are the key to the discourse. using different colors and larger fonts can more effectively attract readers’ attention and draw their focus to these key pieces of information, thus achieving the purpose of the u.s. department of defense in publishing the white paper. the english translation of cndne utilizes multimodality to a limited extent, merely including bold chapter titles, presenting china’s national defense goals in bullet points, presenting some terms such as the names of military exercises in italics and bold, converting chinese tables into english, adding an acronyms at the end of the white paper. to make fuller use of multimodality in the translation of the white paper, adjustments can be made to present the content. for example: 1) highlighting the key points in different colors, larger fonts, bold, italics, capitalization, underlining, and quotation marks, allowing english readers to quickly capture the key information and enhancing the expression of emotion and impact. translation example 10. source text: source text romanized: zhōngguó de shèhuì zhǔyì guójiā xìngzhì, zǒu hépíng fāzhǎn dàolù de zhànlüè juézé, dúlì zìzhǔ de hépíng wàijiāo zhèngcè, "hé wéi guì" de zhōnghuá wénhuà chuántǒng, juédìngle zhōngguó shǐzhōng bùyú fèngxíng fángyù xìng guófáng zhèngcè. target text: the socialist system of china, the strategic decision to follow the path of peaceful development, the independent foreign policy of peace, and the best of cultural traditions – considering peace and harmony as fundamentals – determine that china will pursue a national defense policy that is defensive in nature. tt can be revised as “... that china was and is pursuing a defensive national defense policy.” 2) incorporating both textual and visual elements by inserting images, charts, and graphs within the text to enhance expression. this can be a collaborative effort between the translators, the original authors, and the graphic editors of the defense white paper to determine to add some visual elements that make the document more engaging and visually appealing. 3) the layout can be enhanced by improving the paragraph structure, page design, and differentiation of various heading levels. this can be achieved by using different font sizes or styles to highlight the varying levels of headings and distinguish different sections or chapters of the text. 5. conclusion by comparing and contrasting the different versions of the china’s national defense white paper, and those of china and the u.s., this study finds out the similarities and differences of the national defense white papers in terms of wording, sentences, textures and multimodalities based on a self-built parallel corpus. also, it is revealed that china and the u.s. constructed different national images in their defense white papers. furthermore, with a cross-lingual corpora analysis and text mining, this study has proposed four suggestions for the english translation of china’s national defense white papers: first, being reader-oriented and appropriately adjusting the narrative style and tone of the translation. if the english translation is difficult to read, we can add an introduction of the key information at the beginning of the discourse. second, selectively translating the original text due to the distinction between domestic and international promotion. third, translating the nouns flexibly through methods such as addition, deletion and conversion, while improving bilingual proficiency and political sensitivity; 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(2014). . .] declarations and acknowledgment: the author declares there is no conflict of interest. this work was supported by the national social science fund key project (under grant number 20&zd312), and the ministry of education's humanities and social sciences fund (under grant number 22yjczh250). 7-29-pb(revised)2.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 46 a bibliometric study of cognitive translation (2012-2021) qi wang school of foreign studies, hebei university, baoding, china, e-mail: m17367916753_1@163.com abstract cognitive translation emerged as an important part of translation studies development in the 1980s and 1990s, and reached a new level in 2010. this study, employing citespace and vosviewer to analyze articles retrieved from the wos core database from 2012 to 2021, presents the growing trends in cognitive translation studies. the results are as follows: (1) sweden and the university of ottawa unfold the most cooperation with the rest of the world as country and institution, respectively. (2) szarkowska is the author who has published the most articles in the past ten years, and those who are most frequently cited are wild and beaton. (3) proceedings of the national academy of sciences (pnas) is the journal that remains the highest level and quantity of academic output thanks to its highest h-index, and jmam journal of the american medical association is the most influential one in the field in 2021 due to its highest if (impact factor). (4) the area of the brain where researchers highly focus on exploring cognitive activity is the hippocampus; the cognitive load has been the emerging trend in the past ten years and will continue to be trending for years to come; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri), a dominant tool in cognitive neuroscience, is wildly adopted in studies of translators mental activity, and researchers also focus on methods like eye tracking to investigate the mental activity. nevertheless, in the pursuit of reliability and validity, multivariate inter certification should be adopted in researches in mental translation studies. keywords: bibliometric analysis, citespace, vosviewer, cognitive translation 1. introduction starting in the 1960s, cognitive translation has emerged as a brand-new research branch in the translation area which thanks to in-depth exploration in the 1980s and 1990s and the rapid development in the latest three decades (xiao & martín, 2020). it takes cognitive science theories, such as cognitive psychology, cognitive linguistics, and neurosciences, to investigate translators mental activity (wen et al., 2021). a host of universities worldwide launch centers or labs of mental translation study. meanwhile, the survey of the specific academic field has seen dramatically dynamic updates over methodologies in the past thirty years. a slew of research achievements of cognitive translation based on the empirical data has been generated with the help of analytical methods, such as thinking aloud method-centered oral report, keystroke record-centered translator behavior data recording, eye tracking, neuroimaging recording, and collection of physiological data of translators by heart rate detection and galvanic skin test which highlight the practical and interdisciplinary nature of translation studies (wen et al., 2021). what most complicated and worthy of exploring is the inner activity in a translator s brain, namely, the black box, and the brain basis should become the leading research topic in the translation studies field, as tymoczko (2012) puts it. as such, this study attempts to solve the following questions: q1) what is the growth trajectory of publications in the field of cognitive translation? q2) what implications and insights for cognitive translation can be obtained from the bibliometric analysis (most productive authors, institutions and countries)? q3) what main research trends have gained the greatest attention from the keyword-occurrence and keywords clusters analysis? 2. research design 2.1 data source a number of documents on cognitive translation studies have been investigated since the very day it emerged; therefore, the authors employ advanced research from the web of science (wos) core database in a bid to obtain an accurate data relevant to the academic area. a total of 1,676 documents composed of article titles, abstracts, authors, keywords, and references from 2012 to 2021 are selected and manually checked. in this paper, citespace is employed to produce a visual graph of countries, institutions, authors, journals, cited-authors, keywords, and clusters of keywords, and vosviewer is used to generate a graph of co-references. 2.2 methodology this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 47 citespace, designed by dr. chao-mei chen, is an information visualization software based on java, mainly aiming to analyze and visualize co-citation networks, and explore potential new trends in an academic area (liu, 2017). vosviewer (visualization of similarities viewer), introduced in 2009 by dr. ludo waltman and ness jan van eck, is a free network software tool to construct and visualize bibliometrics (win, 2020). both of them support bibliographical and citation data from web of science, scopus, and dimensions, among others. though convenient, some manual or semi-manual calculation remain a must to get clearer and more accurate results. figure 1 shows steps of the present research. figure 1. steps of bibliometric analysis of cognitive translation 3. research results and analysis 3.1 analysis of number of publications as shown in figure 2, publications of cognitive translation studies indicate a growing trend, from 115 papers in 2012 to 237 in 2021. from 2017 to 2018, there is a sharp rise, which potentially owes in large measure to mounting attention direct toward the multidisciplinary field. it is observable that the trend can be divided into two phases. phase 1 is from 2012 to 2017, showing a slow growth in the publications, and phase 2 from 2017 to 2021, enjoying a rocketing upsurge. a slight decline in the number of publications is observed in 2021 from a year before. figure 2. network analysis of publications in terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021) 3.2 analysis of countries and institutions in recent years, the world has witnessed a flourishing development trend in cognitive translation studies. a clearer image of the distribution of articles in geography and space will be presented by conducting a survey in the distribution of a diversity of countries. 115 109 115 135 142 127 203 222 271 237 110 50 100 150 200 250 300 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 publication per year communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 48 (a) (b) figure 3. network analysis of countries and institutions in terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021) (a). map of countries. (b). map of institutions the network from citespace of the collaboration for cognitive translation studies is displayed in figure 3(a), in which the magnitude of nodes represents the number of published articles in every country. the larger the node, the more publications are recorded in one country. as evidenced by table 1, topping the list is usa, housing 521 published articles. the nodes also represent the degree of centrality. sweden, enjoying the highest centrality (0.29), boasts the most frequent rates in cooperation with the others, including wales, serbia, north ireland, etc. spain (0.25) is only behind the nordic country, coming in the second place. canada (0.00) remains the last, conducting a relatively low level of coordination with the rest of the world than the other nine nations. table 1. top 10 countries in terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021) rank publications centrality countries 1 521 0.06 usa 2 204 0.12 england 3 176 0.00 canada 4 148 0.09 australia 5 122 0.10 peoples r china 6 121 0.03 germany 7 119 0.25 spain 8 113 0.03 netherlands 9 62 0.05 italy 10 60 0.29 sweden figure 3(b) shows the number of published articles from different institutions and collaboration between them. the magnitude of nodes represents the number of published papers from the top ten institutions. multiple universities from diverse countries contribute a lot to the field, such as the university of toronto, london’s global university, and mcmaster university, boasting 42, 30, 28 articles respectively. university of ottawa, enjoying the highest centrality of 0.29, is arguably the one that unfolds cooperation with its rivals in a relatively high level, including london’s global university, meanwhile, monash university remains the last, with 17 published articles and the centrality of 0.02, suggesting it comes with a relatively low rate communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 49 in coordination with other institutions in the rest of the world. to put it shortly, following a deeper level in collaboration among institutions and countries, a more brilliant future for cognitive translation will come. table 2. top 10 institutions in terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021) ranks publications centrality institutions 1 42 0.12 university of toronto 2 30 0.06 london’s global university 3 28 0.22 mcmaster university 4 20 0.04 mcgill university 5 20 0.06 the university of sydney 6 20 0.09 king’s college london 7 19 0.02 university of washington 8 18 0.06 karolinska institute 9 18 0.29 university of ottawa 10 17 0.02 monash university 3.3 analysis of author cooperation and co-citation networks authorship is also an essential factor in the study of the trends and evolution in an academic field. top 10 authors created from citespace in the area of cognitive translation are shown in the figure 4(a), suggesting many authors are inclined to cooperate with others in the field. (a) (b) figure 4. network analysis of authors in terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021). (a). top 10 most productive authors. (b). top 10 most frequently cited authors. agnieszka szarkowska claim the top spot, outperforming other authors including france legare, defeng li, adolfo m garcia, etc., all of who adeptly delve into cognitive translation and make great contributions to its advances and evolution. coauthorship analysis also matters in the research on the field. as shown in figure 4(b), each node represents an author, in which dorcas e beaton is the most frequently cited author with the biggest node. 3.4 co-citation journals analysis communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 50 the quantity of literature and citations must be involved in a bid to become acquainted with the core journals in one specific field. top ten journals created from citespace in the academic area of cognitive translation and their collaborations are displayed in figure 5. figure 5. top 10 journals in the terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021) plos one is home to 344 published articles, claiming the top spot, while jmam journal of the american medical association has 178 published papers, remaining the last one. proceedings of the national academy of sciences (pnas) boasts the highest h-idex of 699, suggesting that it enjoys the highest level and quantity of academic output. jmam journal of the american medical association boasts the highest if, in a testament to that it is the most influential journal in the area of cognitive translation in 2021. 3.5 cited references as shown in figure 6, co-references in cognitive translation are created by vosviewer. some overlaps between authors of the items can be easily observed in figure 4(b) and 6, in which the highest-impact authors are often the most-cited ones in terms of production and quotation instances. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 51 figure 6. co-citation in terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021) wild and beaton are the top two in both cited authors and cited references, and their strong expertise is what makes them stand out in the area of cognitive translation studies. wild (2005) says that a consensus can be reached on principles of good practice (pgp) for translation and cultural adaptation only by looking at fields of agreement from a broader perspective and allowing diverse ways to achieve the same goal for each step in the translation process. beaton (2000) argues that linguistically translated and culturally adapted items are a must if a diversity of cultures are to see the use of the health status measures, which will ensure the content validity of instrument at a conceptual level across a multitude of cultures to be maintained. 3.6 hotspots and emerging trends the emerging trends and hotspots in one academic field can be reflected from the keywords in published articles. keywords in cognitive translation are shown in figure 7. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 52 figure 7. visualization map of co-occurrence keywords in terms of cognitive translation (2012-2021) a more accurate analysis of the emerging trend in the academic field can be revealed from a cluster analysis of keywords, as shown in figure 8, in which, eight different colors represent eight clusters, including hippocampus, bilingualism, hiv, time, women, cognitive insight, reliability, health, cognitive control, and fmri. figure 8. keywords clusters visualization of the keywords in cognitive translation (2012-2021) the themes of cluster #0, # 1, #5, #6, #7, #8 and #9 are associated with hippocampus, bilingualism, cognitive insight, cognitive control, reliability, health and fmri. cognitive load refers to the total cognitive resources that an individual costs when conducting information process. to complete a task, the limited cognition in working memory, psychological resources, must be used, thus cognitive load will be generated (wen et al., 2021). pavlovic and jensen (2009) conduct an experiment using eye tracking to explore translators’ cognitive load in forward and backward translation, suggesting that the total load in backward translation is higher than that in its forward counterpart; the load that a translator deals with target text is higher than the one with source text regardless of forward or backward translation; the load of student translators is higher than that of their professional counterparts. delavari et al. (2020) perform an experiment to evaluate the developmental trajectory of hippocampal functional connectivity across human population, finding that a critical period of prefrontal cortex-hippocampalstriatal circuit dysmaturation, especially in the late adolescence, could be a target for short-term interventions to potentially achieve long-lasting rescue of circuit dysfunctions associated with psychosis. as ekstrom (2019) puts it, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri), a dominant tool in cognitive neuroscience, sees a little relation to underlying neural activity, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 53 particularly in human brain. by evaluating the proposal that blood oxygen level dependent-signal changes equate to the ones in gamma-band activity, which in turn may partially related to the spiking activity of neurons, ekstrom (2019) finds that deeper brain structures like hippocampus suggest both regional and frequency-wise differences. sharmin et al. (2008) conduct an experiment using eye tracking to analyze the impact of source text difficulty on translators’ cognitive load. three source texts that boast different difficulty in word frequency and syntax were chosen in the research, and cognitive load were measured by two indicators -fixation counts and average fixation duration. the results shows that the more difficult the text, the higher the average number of fixations per minute is, and that no significant changes are observed in average fixation duration. lu and sun (2018) compare cognitive processing in human translation and post-edition, finding that the processing speed of the latter is faster, pupil diameter, fixation number and duration are smaller, and cognitive effort is lower, moreover, translators pay more attention to the target text area, while do the same to the source text area in the process of manual translation. wu and wang (2019), through eye tracking and keyboard logging, study the process data of a group of student interpreters translating economic text from english to chinese. the experiment finds that cognitive effort in metaphor translation is higher than that in its non-metaphorical counterpart, and that differences of the effort can be seen from the dealing process of metaphor in different categories, the bigger the cultural differences between source and target text, the higher the cognitive difficulty is. in addition, different cognitive translation results in different cognitive efforts, from high to low, respectively, the replacement of source language image, retention of source language image, and interpretation. wen et al. (2021) argue that limitations exist in the major tools used in cognitive research of written translation, keystroke recording and eye tracking, and multivariate intercertification should be adopted with a view to meet the improvement of reliability and validity of experimental research. china’s relevant studies consider “thinking aloud” + “performance measurement” + “questionnaire/ interview” as the most common multiple combination. wang et al. (2013) explore relations between translators’ cognitive psychological factors and interpreting translation selection during consecutive interpreting, suggesting that among those factors, the distribution of attention and memory impacts on strategies for memory and concept formation, logical capability and comprehensive ability on express and coordinate strategies, and confidence, preciseness and perseverance on the interpreting process as a whole, three direct determinants on translators’ interpreting strategies. the theme of cluster #2 relates to hiv. as van pelt (2021) puts it, public significance statement hiv-affected children in botswana suffer a known pattern of cognitive difficulties that can affect school performance and later life outcomes. cluster #3 is associated with time. celian et al. (2021) perform an experiment, in a bid to enhance understanding over rehabilitation therapists’ real-time decision-making processes on the use of rehabilitation technology (rt) in clinical treatment. cluster #4 is linked to women. anandavadivelan et al. (2020) present a study to describe the cultural adaptation of the reproductive concerns after cancer (rcac) scale into swedish and evaluate its psychometric properties among young women who undergo treatment for cancer. simply put, hippocampus is the main area of brain that researchers focus on to explore cognitive activity; cognitive load is the mainstay in cognitive translation area, and will maintain the status quo in years to come; methods like fmri are wildly used, so are eye tracking, keyboard logging and keystroke recording, to investigate translators’ cognitive activity. in the pursuit of reliability and validity, multivariate intercertification should be adopted in studies. 4. conclusion and implications the state of the emerging trends in a certain academic area is a must for researchers, especially the beginning ones. the current bibliometric analysis study displays a lucid overview of cognitive translation studies from 2012 to 2021 and gives an insight into its trends and developments. first, through the analysis of nations and institutions, sweden and university of ottawa respectively claim the top spot in cooperation with the rest of the world. second, through the inquiry of authors and co-cited-authors, szarkowska outperforms other authors in the number of published articles in the past decade; among those who are most frequently cited are wild and beaton. third, through investigation into journals, it is found that proceedings of the national academy of sciences (pnas), enjoying the highest h-index, remains the highest level and quantity of academic output; jmam journal of the american medical association boasts the highest if, in a testament to that it is the most influential journal in the area in 2021. fourth, through exploration into co-occurrence of keywords, hippocampus remains the area in the brain that researchers focus on most to explore cognitive activity; cognitive load is the emerging trend in the past ten years and will continue to be trending for years to come; methods like fmri and eye tracking, among others, are wildly adopted in studies of translators’ cognitive activity. an even more brilliant future for cognitive translation studies will be seen in the foreseeable future, with more coordination unfolded among countries and institutions, and more academically achieved authors publishing professional and thoughtprovoking articles. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 02 no. 03 (2022) issn (online): 2766-791x; issn (print): 2770-6354 www.jhkpress.com 54 references anandavadivelan, p., wiklander, m., eriksson, l. e., wettergren, l., & lampic, c. (2020). cultural adaptation and psychometric evaluation of the swedish version of the reproductive concerns after cancer (rcac) scale. health and quality of life outcomes, 18(1), 1-8. beaton, d. e., bombardier, c., guillemin, f., & ferraz, m. b. (2000). guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. spine, 25(24), 3186-3191. celian, c., swanson, v., shah, m., newman, c., fowler-king, b., gallik, s., ... & rafferty, m. r. (2021). a day in the life: a qualitative study of clinical decision-making and uptake of neurorehabilitation technology. journal of neuroengineering and rehabilitation, 18(1), 1-12. delavari, f., sandini, c., zöller, d., mancini, v., bortolin, k., schneider, m., ... & eliez, s. (2021). dysmaturation observed as altered hippocampal functional connectivity at rest is associated with the emergence of positive psychotic symptoms in patients with 22q11 deletion syndrome. biological psychiatry, 90(1), 58-68. ekstrom, a. d. (2021). regional variation in neurovascular coupling and why we still lack a rosetta stone. philosophical transactions of the royal society b, 376(1815), 20190634. lu, z., & sun, j. (2018). an eye-tracking study of cognitive processing in human translation and post-editing. foreign language teaching and research, 50, (05),760-769+801(in chinese: muñoz, e., calvo, n., & garcía, a. m. (2019). grounding translation and interpreting in the brain: what has been, can be, and must be done. perspectives, 27(4), 483-509. pavlović, n., & jensen, k. (2009). eye tracking translation directionality. translation research projects 2, 93-109. sharmin, s., spakov, o., räihä, k. j., & jakobsen, a. l. (2008). where on the screen do translation students look while translating, and for how long?.copenhagen studies in language, 36, 31-51. su, w., & li, d. (2020). exploring processing patterns of chinese-english sight translation: an eye-tracking study. babel, 66(6), 999-1024. tymoczko, m. 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(2019). an eye-tracking study of cognitive efforts in translating english metaphors into chinese: with the translation of marriage metaphors in economic texts in focus. foreign languages in chinese, 16(04),95103 in chinese: xiao, k., & martín, r. m. (2020). cognitive translation studies: models and methods at the cutting edge. linguistica antverpiensia, new series–themes in translation studies, 19,1-24. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (cc-by) 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 20 exploration of multimodal communication of chinese culture: with reference to the dissemination of the cultural classic dao de jing qing zhuang1, shenggao cao 2 1faculty of english language and culture, institute of foreign literature and culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: 200411190@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn 2 corresponding author, faculty of chinese language and culture, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: caoshenggao@sina.com ※※this research is supported by the project of innovative youth cultivation 2023, institute of foreign literature and culture, gdufs ( 2023 ) ( 23qncx09), and featured innovative project, gdufs ( ) ( 23ts13). abstract the dissemination of chinese culture abroad enjoys a long history, which is not only a means of sharing the rich cultural heritage and contemporary achievements of china but a strategic move to foster global dialogue, mutual respect, and collaborative progress in an increasingly interconnected world. based on a questionnaire evaluating the effectiveness of cultural communication of china, it reveals that the dissemination of chinese culture has been successful in a number of fields to a certain extent, but there is still much room for improvement of effectiveness. in light of multimodality theory of communication, the paper suggests that in the communication process different modalities such as textual, visual and auditory forms can be employed together to promote the dissemination of chinese culture. it explores multimodal dissemination of the chinese cultural classic dao de jing such as visual, audio, and video modes, and suggests that by leveraging a multimodal approach, the richness and connotation of chinese culture can be more effectively conveyed to global audiences, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of cultural exchange and fostering a greater appreciation for chinese cultural heritage. the ultimate goal for the dissemination of chinese culture is that both the forms and essence of chinese culture can be effectively communicated. key words: multimodal communication, cultural dissemination, chinese culture, external communication strategy, dao de jing 1. introduction chinese culture refers to the sum of the lifestyles produced in china over thousands of years of history, including core ideas, traditional virtues, and humanistic spirit. the history of the dissemination of chinese culture can date back to the ancient silk road era. as early as the 2nd century bc in the han dynasty, china engaged in extensive cultural and trade exchanges with central asia, west asia, and even europe through the silk road, trading chinese silk, porcelain and tea with the locals. the maritime silk road, which began in the song dynasty, further expanded the reach of chinese culture to southeast asia, south asia, the middle east, and africa. the voyages of zheng he during the ming dynasty were notable for their cultural exchanges, as his fleet promoted trade and cultural dissemination to various regions. throughout history, china has sent envoys for cultural exchanges, such as monk xuanzang in the tang dynasty. in the modern era, with increased interaction with western powers, chinese literature, philosophy, arts, and crafts began to reach the west through books and exhibitions. the 20th century marked a new phase in cultural exportation with china’s open-door policy, as various forms of art and culture, including film, music, dance, and drama, started to gain global exposure. the advent of the 21st century and the rise of the internet and digital media have widened the spread of chinese culture, with pop culture, online literature, films, and tv dramas being shared globally through online platforms. the establishment of 166 confucius institutes in many countries in the world has become a significant initiative for promoting chinese language teaching and culture, further expanding china’s cultural influence. based on a questionnaire on the evaluation of the effectiveness of the dissemination of chinese culture worldwide at present, the current study expects to probe into the current situation of external dissemination of chinese culture and provide some suggestions for more effective dissemination. 2. evaluation of external dissemination of chinese culture based on questionnaire the research is based on a questionnaire1 on the current status of validity and reliability of chinese culture dissemination overseas. it evaluates the effectiveness of the dissemination of chinese culture from four main perspectives: dissemination 1 the questionnaire is from a research project on the dissemination of chinese culture, which begun on june 12, 2024 and was conducted by a team of researchers from guangdong university of foreign studies. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 21 awareness, content preference, communication evaluation, and suggestions for dissemination. 500 questionnaires have been sent out, and 489 valid questionnaires, received. the respondents are from 24 countries, including afghanistan, belarus, brazil, czech republic, ethiopia, greece, india, indonesia, kenya, kyrgyz, laos, nepal, pakistan, papua new guinea, poland, portugal, the republic of sierra leone, solomon islands, south africa, south korea, sri lanka, thailand, vietnam, yemen. here are the data of some questions from the latter three perspectives. 2.1 content preference question 9 is about favorite ways of learning about chinese culture. as suggested by figure 1, the most popular choice is film and tv works, accounting for 36.15%, followed by on-site experience (26.54%) and text reading (22.94%), indicating that while multiple avenues are widely used to learn about chinese culture, entertainment forms prove to be the most popular one. figure 1. question 9: a variety of ways to learn about chinese culture 2.2 communication evaluation questions 16 to 18, and 20 are from the section of communication evaluation. question 16 concerns the overall impression of the current dissemination of chinese culture to the outside world. question 17 inquires about the extent to which respondents resonate with the content of chinese culture. question 18 asks respondents what they think is the biggest problem in the dissemination of chinese culture to foreign countries. question 20 asks respondents for their opinion on the international influence of chinese culture compared to that of other countries. in figure 2, the answer of question 16 is that 28.76% and 33.66% of the respondents give a positive evaluation by choosing “very good” and “good”, followed by 27.76% choosing “fair”, indicating that the majority of respondents have an affirmative attitude towards the dissemination of chinese culture. question 17 inquires about the extent to which the respondents resonate with the content of chinese culture. figure 3 shows that 18.31% and 40.21% of the respondents feel that they completely and more than generally resonate with chinese culture. it reveals that chinese culture has a strong appeal and influence among the respondents. figure 2. question 16: the overall effect of the current dissemination of chinese culture to the outside world 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% text reading film & tv works on-site experience expert explanation 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% very good good fair poor very poor communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 22 figure 3. question 17: to what extent do the contents of chinese culture resonate with you? question 18 asks respondents what they think is the biggest problem in the dissemination of chinese culture to foreign countries. figure 4 shows that 53.25% of respondents believe that language barrier is the most significant factor that has hindered the effectiveness of the dissemination. cultural differences accounts for 30.61%, followed by homogenization of content (8.81%) and single mode of communication (7.33%). question 20 asks respondents for their opinion on the international influence of chinese culture compared to that of other countries. as indicated in figure 5, 45.88% of the respondents believe that chinese culture has a relatively strong international influence, and 20.70% think that the influence is very strong, altogether accounting for 66.58% of the total, while the rest one third, that is 25.51% (average), 7.78% relatively weak and 0.41% weak. the data demonstrates that chinese culture has gained a certain level of recognition internationally. figure 4. question 18: the biggest problem in the dissemination of chinese culture figure 5. question 20: compared with the culture of other countries, how do you think of the international influence of chinese culture? 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% completely more generally less not at all 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% language barrier cultural differences homogenization of content single mode of communication 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% very strong relatively strong average relatively weak very weak communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 23 2.3 suggestions for dissemination question 21 focuses on the aspects need to be paid attention to for chinese culture to go global. figure 6 shows that the respondents believe that the three aspects are particularly important, namely enhancing the interest of cultural content, enhancing interaction with audiences, and paying attention to the differences in cross-cultural backgrounds, accounting for 29.41%, 27.3% and 24.62% respectively. it is worthy of noticing that enriching the diversity of product forms, although less than the other three options, still occupies 18.67% of choices of the total respondents and thus should not be ignored. question 22 inquires about which channels respondents believe are more conducive to the dissemination and promotion of chinese culture. as figure 7 shows, the option of cultural and education institutions stands out with the highest ratio of 29.01%, closely followed by mainstream media, 28.19%. tourism projects, taking up 23.97%, are also effective channels. cultural and creative industries have also attracted of the favor of the respondents, revealed by the figure of 18.83%. question 25 asks respondents how they view the use and function of modern technology in enhancing the dissemination of chinese culture. figure 8 shows that 27.37% and 26.11% of the respondents believe that live broadcast interaction and artificial intelligence are the top two advanced technological means that should be employed to facilitate the dissemination of chinese culture to the outside world, followed by digital museum (23.60%) and vr/ar technology (22.92%). figure 6. question 21: what other aspects do you think need to be paid attention to for chinese culture to go global? (multiple choices) figure 7. question 22: what kind of channels do you think are more conducive to the dissemination and promotion of chinese culture? (multiple choices) 0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 30.00% 35.00% enhancing the interest of cultural content enriching the diversity of product forms enhancing interaction with audiences paying attention to the differences in cross-cultural backgrounds 0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 30.00% 35.00% mainstream media cultural and education institutions tourism projects cultural & creative industries communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 24 figure 8. question 25: how do you think chinese culture should be combined with modern technology to enhance its dissemination? (multiple choices) in summary, based on the above-mentioned data of the questionnaire, the following conclusions can be drawn. in terms of content preference, film and tv works of chinese culture are more preferred than textual forms. 36 respondents think that single mode of communication is the biggest problem for the dissemination of chinese culture and 91 respondents believe that the diversity of product forms should be enriched. according to the respondents, all the following dissemination channels of mainstream media, cultural and education institutions, tourism projects and cultural and creative industries are conducive to the promotion of chinese culture, and live broadcast interaction among all the options of modern technology should be given priority to. in short, the dissemination of chinese culture has been successful in a number of fields to a certain extent as indicated by questions 16, 17 and 20, but there is still room for improvement, the enrichment of modes of dissemination being one possibility. in light of multimodality theory of communication, the study suggests that in the communication process different modalities such as textual, visual and auditory forms can be employed together to promote the dissemination of chinese culture. 3. multimodal dissemination multimodal theory of communication is a framework that explores how different semiotic systems work together to convey information and meaning. it emphasizes that in the communication process, language is not viewed as the only means of communication but can be combined with other modalities like audiovisual, spatial, and body language to construct meaning together. with the development of modern technology, new communication channels and tools continue to emerge, providing more possibilities for multimodal communication. according to iedema, when the term multimodality was introduced, it was utilized to “highlight the importance of taking into account semiotics other than language-in-use, such as image, music, gesture” (iedema, 2003: 33). this suggests that in the era of complex multi-semiotic representations language should not be the only reliance, that is the “decentering of language” (ibid.: 33). in kress and van leeuwen’s words, multimodality is defined as “the use of several semiotic modes in the design of a semiotic product or event, together with the particular way in which these modes are combined”, which may reinforce each other, fulfill complementary roles, or be hierarchically ordered (kress & van leeuwen, 2001: 20). multimodality concerns communication practices with various resources to convey meanings and messages. the representational practices are increasingly redefined and cross-referenced, which manifests the blurring of cultural categories and contents (iedema, 2003: 38). kress and van leeuwen continue to define communication as a process in which a semiotic product or event is both articulated or produced and interpreted or used (kress & van leeuwen, 2001: 20). it stresses the context-dependence of communication in multimodal communication, and different communication contexts may require specific combinations of semiotic resources to achieve the best communication effect. in cross-cultural communication, language barrier naturally sets up obstacles for external dissemination of a culture. according to figure 4, language barrier is regarded by 53.25% of the respondents as the most prominent element hindering the effectiveness of the dissemination of chinese culture. the next part of the paper will employ the multimodal dissemination of the cultural classic dao de jing as an example to illustrate how multimodality could benefit the dissemination of chinese culture in general. 4. multimodal dissemination of dao de jing dao de jing (the chinese equivalent being ), or lao zi ( meaning old master), wuqian yan ( meaning five thousand characters), and daode zhenjing ( meaning dao de authentic scripture), more 20.00% 21.00% 22.00% 23.00% 24.00% 25.00% 26.00% 27.00% 28.00% vr/ar technology artifical intelligence live broadcast interaction digital museum communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 25 commonly known in the romanized form as tao te ching or tao teh king and alternatively translated as the way, lao tse or lao tze, is a literary, cultural and philosophical canon in china. it enjoys the status of the second most frequently translated works worldwide in human history, following the christian work the bible. with vague and ambiguous words, dao de jing has a poetic style and is difficult to understand, translate and interpret. being a treasure of ancient cultural classic of china, dao de jing experiences the process from single mode of dissemination, that is purely textual forms, to multimodal dissemination in various fields. publication of its translations is the most traditional mode which have introduced this classic to the western world. dao de jing has been translated into 2052 different versions in 97 languages and published worldwide (misha tadd, 2022:1). with the interpretation of generations of scholars at home and abroad, dao de jing is no long the simple, original version of 5,000 words/characters, the connotations of which have been excavated, extended, enriched and perfected (chen, 2023: 190). these translations include not only highly academic versions but also popular interpretations tailored to readers of different cultural backgrounds, providing them the possibility for understanding and interpretation of this cultural classic. 4.1 dao de jing with illustrations the multimodal dissemination of the translations of dao de jing bring the wisdom of this classical text to life through a variety of media and forms, facilitating its dissemination to a wider scope of audiences. for instance, illustrated some translation versions combine text with illustrations of ancient chinese art to enhance the visual experience of readers. the english translation of dao de jing by feng gia-fu and jane english is a typical example. figure 9 is an illustration accompanying chapter 37, the lines of which are: tao abides in non-action, yet nothing is left undone. if kings and lords observed this, the ten thousand things would develop naturally. if they still desired to act, they would return to the simplicity of formless substance. without for there is no desire. without desire there is. and in this way all things would be at peace. figure 9. illustration next to chapter 37 of dao de jing in feng & english’s translation the picture in figure 9 presents a fisherman sitting cross-legged alone on a small bamboo raft next to a big bamboo basket, working on his tools, set against the background of a rippled river. in black and white, the illustration seems to deliver the message that the life that the fisherman lives is a sort of desireless life, which is in accordance to what the lines suggest, that is, a peaceful world originates from a desireless world. visual signs were the primal mode of communication utilized by mankind in ancient time, which could transcend the boundaries of countries be recognized by individuals of various ethnicities in different regions (geng, 2018: 49). with its directness, visual form can convey the implicit and abstract meaning embedded in the original text, thus facilitates and completes the textual form. 4.2 dao de jing in audio mode besides visual means, audio mode is another common while effective way for communication. dao de jing in audio versions allow readers and learners to study dao de jing through reading and recitations of its text and interpretations in english and other languages. an outstanding advantage of audio forms lies in that people can continue their work at hand while listening, which allows the possibilities of multi-task collaboration and improves efficiency. there are quite a number of websites dedicated to audio representations. for instance, as indicated by figure 10, the audio version narrated by the translator stephen mitchell of his own translation of dao de jing (tao te ching) is available on audible.com. it contains some basic information communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 26 about the text, such as the translator, the length of the recitation, and details of ratings. figure 11 is snapshot of the narrated version by edoardo ballerini of the translation by john minford from soundcloud.com. it provides cover information of the book and sonogram of the audio text. figure 10. snapshot from narrated version of dao de jing (tao te ching) on audible.com figure 11. snapshot from narrated version of dao de jing (tao te ching) on soundcloud.com 4.3 dao de jing in (short) video modes video websites and mobile applications, especially those platforms prone to short videos, enjoy popularity of audiences worldwide, which can be seen from the attention aroused by the ban of tiktok in the u.s., a video sharing social network. the free video sharing website youtube.com will be taken as an example here. on youtube.com, the website user einzelgänger, boasting 2.24 million subscribers, has posted a series of videos about daoist philosophy titled “taoism: the art of not trying” (a record of 7.02 million watched times), “taoism: the power of letting go” (4.7 million), “taoism: the philosophy of flow” (6.57 million), which have been viewed millions of times as indicated in figure 12. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 27 figure 12. snapshot of videos about daoist philosophy by einzelgänger the video pages provide room for instant interactions between subscribers or viewers who can comment on the video, or respond to others’ comment. for instance, under the video of “taoism: the art of not trying” there are 8,822 comments with the top comment boasting 140,000 likes and 218 responses. the comments range from quotes from dao de jing and other chinese philosophical works like the analects of confucius, personal understanding of this work, compliment of the video. audio-visual language can increase the perceptual experience of the audience, stimulate multi-sensory thinking, and weaken or even remove language barriers in cross-cultural communication and between heterogeneous cultures (chen, 2021: 121). 4.4 dao de jing in the modes of animations and comics the modes of animations and comics versions, targeting younger audiences, can engage them with visual storytelling that is comparatively easier to understand. it can focus on the introduction of fundamental ideas in dao de jing with simplified language and rich illustrations. for instance, the animated books of the tao speaks and the tao of pooh, indicated by figure 13, offer humorous and enlightening introduction to taoism (daoism). figure 13. snapshots of two animated books based on dao de jing 4.5 other modes of dissemination as suggested by misha tadd, some translations of dao de jing coming out in the 21st century are e-versions that are published by platforms like createspace or are available in the form of kindle edition (misha, 2022). e-books can integrate text, images, videos, and annotations, and are either available online or can be purchased more conveniently than traditional paper books. bilingual or multilingual editions are reader-friendly to learners from different cultural backgrounds. the artistic creations and performance modalities of the dissemination of dao de jing is a multidimensional and cross-cultural process that encompasses a variety of artistic forms and means of expression, employing forms like music composition, dance performance, theatre production, film and tv, art exhibition, and public art projects. in dance performance, dance artists can express philosophical ideas from dao de jing, such as harmony with the natural world and the principle of non-action, through body language and physical movement. these dance works combine elements of classical chinese dance with modern dance, showcasing the dynamic beauty of dao de jing and chinese culture to the audience. in terms of theatre production, dramatic forms such as plays, operas, and musicals are important avenues for the dissemination of dao de jing. playwrights and directors, inspired by the themes and ideas from dao de jing may turn them into theatrical works, conveying its profound meanings to audiences through stage performances. through solo or group exhibitions combined with various artistic forms such as calligraphy, painting, and sculpture, the historical background and philosophical elements of this cultural classic, and extensively chinese culture on the whole, can be presented to the viewers in a straightforward manner. permanent exhibitions can be established in cultural centers to showcase continuously the cultural connotations and values of dao de jing to the public. moreover, digital museum is another popular and effective mode of communication which have already been put into place. aided ar and vr technologies, digital multimedia editions will offer the audience opportunities for immersive experiences, which will not only liven up the process of learning but arouse their interest and facilitate their understanding of dao de jing. together, these multimodal forms of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 28 dissemination promote cross-cultural exchange and the timeless legacy of dao de jing, facilitating the process of external dissemination. 5. conclusion in an era of media convergence when mobile terminal leads and rules, the priority and functions of advanced technology for more effective and successful dissemination of chinese culture are not to be ignored or undervalued. the external dissemination of chinese culture can draw on the multimodal dissemination of dao de jing in the following aspects: integrate various communication channels, emphasize cultural connotation, and encourage public participation. the effectiveness of dissemination is influenced by a variety of factors, including the choice of dissemination channels, the acceptance of the audience, and the appeal of cultural content. as yang comments, the choices of signs, together with the collocation of modes restrict the expressiveness of multimodal discourse. another issue to be paid attention to is the coordination of meaning-carrying capacity of various modes (yang, 2021: 350-1). to improve the effectiveness of dissemination, it may be necessary to further optimize dissemination strategies, strengthen cultural exchanges, utilize modern technological means, and address the issues identified by the respondents. references chen, k. (2023). cultural context, barriers to interpretation and validity of interpretation, social sciences in china, (2): 184203+208. [in chinese: . (2023). . . (2): 184-203+208.] chen, z. (2021). multimodal transformation mode of chinese cultural classics external communication—take the feng’s english version of tao te ching as examples. journal of north china university of science and technology (social science edition), 21(4): 120-123+146. [in chinese: . (2021). . . 21(4): 120-123+146.] feng, d. (2023). multimodal chinese discourse: understanding communication and society in contemporary china. london and new york: routledge. feng, g. & english j. (1972). the tao te ching. new york: vintage. geng, j. (2018). the multimodal discourse construction of chinese classics for cross-cultural dissemination: a case study of the documentary confucius (international version). journal of xihua university (philosophy & social sciences), 37(4): 48-54. [in chinese: . (2018). ——— ( ) . . 37 4 48-54 .] guo, z. (ed.) (2021). innovative study on the external dissemination of chinese culture. beijing: china social science press. [in chinese: . ( ) (2021). . .] iedema, r. (2003). multimodality, resemiotization: extending the analysis of discourse as multi-semiotic practice. visual communication, 2(1): 29-57. kress g. & van leeuwen t. (2001). multimodal discourse: the modes and media of contemporary communication. london: arnold. tadd, misha. (2022). the complete bibliography of laozi translations: a global laozegetics reference. tianjin: nankai university press. [in chinese: . (2022. . .] yang, y. (2021). short video expression: multimodal discourse innovation in the external communication of chinese concepts. guo zhenzhi. (ed.). innovative study on the external dissemination of chinese culture. beijing: china social science press, 346-352 [in chinese: . (2021). . . ( ). . , 346-352 .] communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 29 appendix questionnaire on the current status of validity and reliability of chinese culture dissemination overseas (version for survey overseas) dear sir/madam: thank you for taking to participate in our questionnaire survey. we are a research team from guangdong university of foreign studies, currently conducting a research project on the international dissemination of chinese culture. this survey aims to understand the current status of chinese culture’s dissemination overseas, audience feedback, and dissemination effects for providing references and suggestions for further enhancing the global influence of chinese culture. we sincerely invite you to participate in this survey, as your views and suggestions are invaluable to our research. we assure our commitment to adhere rigorously to academic standards and ethical principles, keep all the information you provide confidential, and use it only for academic research purposes. the questionnaire is anonymous, so please feel free to fill it out. your participation will contribute to sino-foreign cultural exchange, for which we are sincerely grateful! part i basic information if there is a line after each item, please use words or numbers to fill in; if there is an option, please tick the corresponding answer 1. what is your nationality? a. asia b. north america c. south america d. europe e. africa f. oceania please specify your country:_________ 2. what is your age group? a. 18-25 years old b. 26-35 years old c. 36-45 years old d. 46-60 years old e. above 60 years old 3. what is your highest education level? a. high school and below b. college c. bachelor’s degree d. master’s degree e. doctor’s degree and above 4. what is your occupation? a. government/public utilities b. education/scientific research c. finance/business d. culture/media e. medical/health f. student g. others (please specify: ________) part ii main questions please tick the appropriate answer according to your actual situation. there is no right or wrong question. please fill in truthfully. a. dissemination awareness 1. through what channels were you first exposed to chinese culture? a. news media b. cultural courses c. tourism activities d. books and newspapers e. others (please specify: ________) 2. what is your overall impression of chinese culture? a. very interested b. quite interested c. fairly interested d. not very interested e. not interested at all (please specify: ________) 3. what do you think is the biggest obstacle in understanding chinese culture? a. language barrier b. cultural differences c. lack of channels d. difficulty in understanding the content e. others (please specify: ________) 4. what do you think is the general awareness of chinese culture in your country? a. very well-known b. quite well known c. fairly well known d. not very well known e. not at all known (please specify: ________) communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 30 5. which historical period of chinese culture are you most interested in? a. ancient times to qin and han b. wei, jin, north and south dynasties, sui and tang dynasties c. song, yuan, ming and qing dynasties d. modern times e. none at all 6. what do you think is the position of chinese culture in world culture? a. very important b. relatively important c. average d. not very important e. not important at all 7. what do you think is the core meaning of the chinese national spirit? a. patriotism b. collectivism c. hard work d. thriftiness e. others (please specify: ________) b. content preferences 8. what aspects of chinese culture are you most interested in? a. literature and arts b. history and culture c. philosophy and thought d. folklore and customs e. others (please specify: ________) 9. what is your favourite way to learn about chinese culture? a. text reading b. film and television works c. on-site experience d. expert explanation e. others (please specify: ________) 10. among the different formats of traditional culture, what do you think best represents the characteristics of chinese culture? a. poetry and song b. opera and music c. calligraphy and painting d. classical music e. others (please specify: ________) 11. among the contemporary cultural forms, which one do you find most attractive to you? a. movies and tv dramas b. popular music c. modern literature d. fashion design e. others (please specify: ________) 12. which is your favourite traditional chinese festival? a. spring festival b. lantern festival c. dragon boat festival d. mid-autumn festival e. others (please specify: ________) 13. which traditional chinese skill would you most like to experience? a. peking opera b. tai chi c. calligraphy d. tea art e. others (please specify: ________) 14. what is your favourite place in china? a. beijing b. shanghai c. xi'an d. guangzhou e. xinjiang f. others (please specify: ________) 15. what language would you prefer to be used to disseminate chinese culture to the outside world? a. chinese b. english c. local language d. multilingualism e. other (please specify: ________) c. communication evaluation 16. what do you think is the overall effect of the current dissemination of chinese culture to the outside world? a. very good b. good c. fair d. poor e. very poor 17. to what extent do the contents of chinese culture resonate with you? a. completely b. more c. generally d. less e. not at all 18. what do you think is the biggest problem in the dissemination of chinese culture to foreign countries? communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 31 a. language barrier b. cultural differences c. homogenisation of content d. single mode of communication e. others (please specify: ________) 19. do you think chinese culture is fully respected in the process of overseas dissemination? a. fully respected b. quite respected c. generally respected d. not much respected e. not respected at all 20. compared with the culture of other countries, how do you think the international influence of chinese culture is? a. very strong b. relatively strong c. average d. relatively weak e. very weak d. suggestions for dissemination 21. what other aspects do you think need to be paid attention to for chinese culture to go global? a. enhancing the interest of cultural content b. enriching the diversity of product forms c. enhancing interaction with audiences d. paying attention to the differences in cross-cultural backgrounds e. other (please specify: ________________) 22. what kind of channels do you think are more conducive to the dissemination and promotion of chinese culture? a. mainstream media b. cultural and educational institutions c. tourism projects d. cultural and creative industries e. others (please specify: ________) 23. what groups of people do you suggest should be emphasized in the dissemination of chinese culture to the outside world? a. primary and secondary school students b. university students c. cultural practitioners d. tourists e. others (please specify: ________) 24. in your opinion, what forms can be used to enhance the understanding of chinese culture among people in different countries? a. cultural exchange activities b. co-operation in running school programmes c. sports events d. economic and trade exchanges e. others (please specify: ________) 25. how do you think chinese culture should be combined with modern technology to enhance its dissemination? a. vr/ar technology b. artificial intelligence c. live broadcast interaction d. digital museum e. others (please specify: ________) 26. do you have any other suggestions for improving the international influence of chinese culture dissemination? ________________________________________________________________________ 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 1 research on the effectiveness of chinese culture spreading in laos — an analysis based on questionnaire data yingjun liu 1, kaiju chen2 1 part-time researcher at the institute of hermeneutics, lecturer at the department of laotian, faculty of asian languages and cultures, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: 15011901018@163.com 2 corresponding author, professor, director of institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: 200010931@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract the dissemination of chinese culture in laos has a long history which is very diverse and interactive, and existing studies on the dissemination of chinese culture in laos in the academia generally neglect the in-depth analysis and evaluation of the dissemination effects. this study analyzes the current situation of chinese culture in laos and audience feedback through questionnaire surveys, which not only reveals the actual situation of chinese culture dissemination in laos, but also provides empirical support for the theory of its cross-cultural communication and international dissemination. at the theoretical level, this study emphasizes the influence of language barriers, cultural differences, communication forms and channels, and audience attitudes on the effectiveness of cultural communication, which provides a new perspective for the study of cultural soft power; at the practical level, the results of the study provide a basis for adjusting and optimizing the international communication strategy of chinese culture, especially in the areas of content innovation, the selection of communication channels, the optimization of narrative strategy and the evaluation of communication effectiveness. key words: chinese culture, external communication, laos, acceptability, effectiveness of dissemination 1. introduction external cultural communication is an important field of international communication and a special space for cultural inheritance, innovation and integration. paying attention to the external communication of our own culture and conducting research on external cultural communication are important issues in the development of societies around the world. since entering the 21st century, china has been developing rapidly, becoming the second largest economy in the world, and playing an increasingly important role in the international community, with its discourse power becoming more and more prominent. however, due to the long-standing situation of "the west is strong and the east is weak", coupled with the current treacherous international environment and the slanderous and defamatory remarks made against china by the western countries, how to better pass on and carry forward the excellent traditional chinese culture, enhance the confidence of the national culture, and further improve the soft power of the country; how to better fulfill china's leading role in the international community, promote the world's cultural diversity, and push forward the construction of a more fair and equitable international order and a community of human destiny are key issues that have been widely pondered and explored by all walks of life. these questions naturally lead to a reflection on the effectiveness of china's cultural communication to the outside world. since the 18th cpc national congress, general secretary xi jinping has put forward a series of new concepts, assertions and strategies for the promotion of outstanding traditional culture and the strengthening of international communication capacity building, which not only have practical significance in guiding the work of cultural communication to the outside world, but also put forward the requirements for the paradigm change of cultural communication to the outside world from a higher level. 2. the spread of chinese culture in laos: history and status quo china and laos are neighboring socialist countries linked by mountains and rivers, and their friendly relations have a long history, which, according to the historical records available in china, can be traced back as far as the early 3rd century a.d., when the tangming or dao ming state, the earliest state in laos, sent an envoy to china in the 6th year of the reign of the wu huangwu (227 a.d.) (gu, 2005). this "marked the beginning of formal relations between china and laos" (huang, 1962). according to lao history books, khun borom (known as pirogue in chinese history books), who is regarded as the ancestor of the lao nation and the founder of civilization, was a descendant of meng huo during the three kingdoms period, and was enthroned as the king of yunnan during emperor xuanzong of the tang dynasty (chen, 2007). he unified erhai and established the nanzhao kingdom. later, his eldest son established the luang prabang kingdom, a famous ancient kingdom in the history of laos, where king phaung finally established the lancang kingdom which is the first great united kingdom in the history of laos, in 1353 ad. tributary relations were established with the ming dynasty. at that time, the bilateral friendly relations between the two countries were mainly based on economic and trade exchanges and mutual exchange. according to statistics, from the eastern wu dynasty to the ming and qing dynasties, laos paid tribute to china for a total of 72 times, of which 65 times were paid in the ming and qing dynasties (zhou, 1987). the tribute paid by laos c ab ti communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 2 to the chinese court was mainly in the form of elephants, gold and silver, etc., while the gifts from china were mostly in the form of porcelain, silk and tea. thanks to the unique geographical location, along with the economic and trade exchanges, there was a large-scale migration of people, and the number of chinese who migrated to laos over the millenniums of history could not be verified before the 20th century. 1921, when the french census of laos was conducted, there were 6,710 chinese nationals. due to the restriction of the french colonizers on the entry of chinese into indochina, the number of chinese in laos was reduced to about 3,000 in the 1930s. it was only after the french withdrew from indochina in the 1950s that the number of chinese in laos increased over the years, to about 160,000 in the early 1970s (liu, 2001). the head of the vientiane chinese council estimated that at least 250,000 chinese from the mainland have traveled to laos from the 1980s to the present day to do business and make a living (fang, 2018). the chinese who moved to laos not only brought chinese production technology and daily necessities, but also introduced chinese customs and traditions into laos. chinese culture and chinese elements have taken root and grown in the lao society, intertwined and fused with the traditional lao culture and other foreign cultures, have had a positive impact on the economic construction, social and cultural development of laos. it has become an important driving force for mutual understanding, cooperation and development between china and the lao people's democratic republic. therefore, it can be said that the spread of chinese culture in laos has a long history. in recent years, with the continuous and in-depth development of the relations between china and laos, chinese education represented by the confucius institute, the dissemination of books and films, and the increase of cultural exchange activities promoted by the china-laos railway, the dissemination of chinese culture in the lao pdr has shown a wider and deeper trend: 2.1 chinese language education at present, laos has set up a total of 2 confucius institutes the confucius institute at the national university of laos and the confucius institute at souphanouvong university, which were officially inaugurated and operated in 2010 and 2018, respectively, not only provide basic chinese language teaching, but also offer undergraduate chinese language teacher training programs. as of 2023, the confucius institutes have cumulatively trained nearly 40,000 lao native chinese learners, trained chinese teachers for a total of 313 times in 12 sessions, had a cumulative total of 10,711 chinese proficiency exams, and recommended more than 200 scholarship students to study in china (chang, 2023). meanwhile various cultural activities such as "confucius institute day" are held regularly, including chinese textbook exhibition, chinese calligraphy, tea ceremony, chinese painting, chinese knotting and other chinese cultural experiences, which help to deepen the lao people's understanding and knowledge of chinese culture. the confucius institute is an important platform for the spread of chinese culture to laos. chinese language education in laos is also a link that promotes sino-lao exchanges, especially connecting chinese diaspora and local people, and facilitating the lao people's in-depth experience and understanding of chinese culture, for which the lao federation of chinese language education was especially set up in 2017, to pass on the excellent chinese culture and promote sino-lao people-to-people exchanges. 2.2 books and movies the dissemination of ancient chinese cultural classics in laos began in the late 1970s, mainly translated into lao language by lao scholars, with great masterpieces such as the art of war, the romance of the three kingdoms, and lao translations of journey to the west (lu, 2017). in the following decades, lu xun's works such as the homeland, diary of a madman, and the true story of ah q, the novel red rock, and the stories of heroes such as liu hulan and huang jiguang have been successively translated into lao (zhang, 1987). with china's "one belt, one road" initiative and the concept of building a community of shared future between china and the lao people's democratic republic, these two countries have begun to emphasize the dissemination of cultural classics between each other. the bureau of foreign languages of china has insisted on using books as a medium, launching multilingual high-quality books for the "belt and road" countries to expand the oversea influence and appeal of chinese civilization, xi jinping: the governance of china (i) and the constitution of the communist party of china have been translated into laotian and published in laos one after another. the dissemination of chinese film and television works in laos not only builds a bridge of cultural exchange, but also is a vivid embodiment of china's cultural soft power spreading overseas. since the first translated tv drama "mufu fengyun" caused a sensation in laos in 2013, chinese film and tv works have gradually become a window for the lao people to understand china with their rich and diverse themes and profound cultural connotations. from ancient costume dramas to realistic themes, from chinese animation to agricultural programs, the "china theatre" and other programs set up by the lao national television not only enrich the cultural life of local viewers by presenting chinese stories to them in the lao language, but also promote mutual understanding and friendly sentiments between the two peoples. 2.3 tourism culture driven by the china-laos railroad since the official opening of the china-laos railway on december 3, 2021, this steel dragon has not only shortened the geographical distance between the two countries, but also become a tourism and cultural link to promote the spread of chinese communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 3 culture in laos. stations along the railroad, such as the tea culture at pu'er station and the dai ethnic customs at oliba station, have become windows showcasing the charm of china's diverse cultures. through the railroad, china's historical attractions, natural landscapes and folk customs are visually presented, enabling the lao people to experience and learn chinese culture conveniently. the convenience of the railroad has further stimulated the interest of the lao people in traveling to china, providing more opportunities to enhance mutual understanding between the two countries. meanwhile, during the construction and operation of the china-laos railway, the export of chinese technology and cultural knowledge, as well as the chinese cultural festivals and tourism promotion activities held in laos on railway-related themes have greatly enriched the lao people's knowledge of chinese culture. the development of tourist culture has undoubtedly provided a new platform and strong impetus for the spread of chinese culture in laos. the spread of chinese culture in laos has a long history with diversity and interactivity. as the relationship between china and laos heats up rapidly and reaches the best period in history, the academic circles generally pays attention to the in-depth dissemination and promotion of chinese culture in laos, and the research on the dissemination of chinese culture in laos from the perspective of focusing on the official cooperation and cultural dissemination, exploring the role of media dissemination as well as interacting with the tourism and cultural exchanges has been carried out and achieved certain results. however, the existing research often neglects the crucial aspect of analyzing and evaluating the effects of communication in the field of cultural communication. general secretary xi jinping pointed out at a forum on the party's news and public opinion work held in 2016 that it is necessary to innovate the way of expression of foreign discourse, study the habits and characteristics of different foreign audiences, adopt concepts, categories and expressions that integrate china and foreign countries, combine what we want to say with what foreign audiences want to hear, combine "stating the case" with "reasoning", and combine "telling ourselves" with "telling others", so as to make the stories more recognized by the international community and overseas audiences (literature research office of the cpc central committee, 2017). in his speech at the 30th collective study session of the political bureau of the 19th central committee, he emphasized that we need to make our international discourse more effective and see that our communicators are competent and can adapt to the needs of international communication in the new era. we will step up theoretical research to better understand the rules governing international communication. we will establish a system for international communication, and improve our communication skills xi, 2022 . communication effect research focuses on the impact of information dissemination on the psychology, attitude and behavior of the audiences, which has important theoretical and practical significance. through empirical research, we can reveal the actual effects of cultural communication activities and assess their cognitive acceptance, emotional recognition and behavioral change among audiences. this not only helps us to understand the inner mechanism of cultural communication, but also provides a scientific basis for the development of more effective communication strategies. based on this, the author decided to analyze the factual data in the form of a questionnaire survey to study the effectiveness of the dissemination of chinese culture in laos, analyze the problems in the process, and seek for the best solution to promote the recognition and acceptance of chinese culture by more laotian people, so as to lay a solid foundation of public opinion for the construction of an unbreakable community of sharedfuture between china and laos. 3. basics of the questionnaire this study aims to understand the actual communication effects of chinese culture in laos through questionnaire surveys, analyze lao audiences' perceptions and attitudes towards chinese culture as well as problems and challenges in the communication process, and then provide a basis for optimizing the communication strategy of chinese culture in laos and even in the world. 3.1 questionnaire design questionnaire design is the core data collection tool of this study, and a well-designed questionnaire can ensure the accurate realization of the research objectives. the questionnaire of this study contains several key parts: basic information collection, which is used to depict the basic socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents; perception of cultural communication, which evaluates the channels and frequency of the respondents' exposure to chinese culture; content preference, which understands the respondents' interest in different elements of chinese culture; assessment of the communication effect, which is used to understand the audience's perceptions of the effectiveness of the communication of chinese culture through specific questions; opinions and suggestions, which are open questions to collect respondents' specific suggestions for improving the communication effect. the questionnaire was designed to emphasize the logic of the questions and the easy-to-understand language to adapt to the comprehension ability of the lao audience and to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data. 3.2 target audience combined with the design of the questionnaire and the research objectives, the target audience of the survey tends to focus on the laotian audience who have a certain degree of understanding and interest in chinese culture. the questionnaire survey communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 4 was conducted online, and a total of 149 questionnaires were collected, all of which were valid. specifically, the student population, with a high percentage of 64.43%, was the main participant of this survey, which reflects the high curiosity and acceptance of the younger generation towards exotic cultures. in addition, education/research workers accounted for 12.75%, and their professional background provided in-depth insights for the study. in addition, a certain percentage of government/public utility workers, culture/media practitioners, etc. also participated in the survey, providing the possibility of cross-disciplinary analysis. in terms of age distribution, young people between the ages of 18 and 25 constitute the largest group of respondents, accounting for 64.43%, indicating that the younger group plays an important role in cultural communication and acceptance. at the academic level, respondents with bachelor's degree are the most numerous, accounting for 42.28%, showing the active participation of higher education groups in cultural communication. the diversity of professional backgrounds and the universality of education levels provide a multi-dimensional and interdisciplinary perspective for the study, enhancing the depth and breadth of the findings. by surveying these audiences with different backgrounds, ages, education and occupations, we are able to comprehensively understand and assess the current status of chinese cultural communication and audience acceptance in laos, and provide an empirical basis for subsequent communication strategies. this data-based method of selecting survey respondents not only improves the relevance and effectiveness of the study, but also makes the results more convincing. 3.3 research methodology the selection of research methods is crucial to the science and validity of the study. this study synthesizes the research paths of communication, cognitive psychology and sociology, adopts a mixed research method, combining the advantages of quantitative and qualitative research. the quantitative part collects data through questionnaires then uses descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze respondents' basic characteristics and attitudes toward chinese culture. the qualitative part analyzes the responses to the open-ended questions in depth, revealing the respondents' deeper views and suggestions. in addition, the research methodology includes pre-testing to assess the validity of the questionnaire; data cleaning to ensure the quality of the data; and result validation to ensure the reliability of the findings. through this multi-method research design, this study aims to provide an in-depth and comprehensive assessment of the communication efficacy of chinese culture in laos and to provide empirical support for optimizing communication strategies. 4. the effectiveness of actual transmission of chinese culture in laos: based on a comprehensive analysis of questionnaire data in terms of communication awareness, most respondents were first exposed to chinese culture through the news media (67.11%), followed by tourism activities (28.86%) and cultural courses (23.49%). this indicates that media and education are important ways for chinese culture to spread in laos. respondents' overall impression of chinese culture is positive, with 62.42% saying they are "very interested" and 26.85% saying they are "quite interested"; regarding the status of chinese culture in world culture, 79.87% of the respondents think it is very important and quite important which fully shows that the lao audience has high interest in and recognizes chinese culture. in assessing the effect of the spread of chinese culture in laos, 50.34% of the respondents thought that the current effect of the spread was "very good" and 34.9% thought that it was "relatively good". regarding whether chinese culture is fully respected in the process of overseas dissemination, 30.2% and 50.34% of the respondents chose the options of "full respect" and "comparative respect" respectively; a total of 83.9% of the respondents felt that the international influence of chinese culture is strong. the above data provide sufficient support to show that the spread of chinese culture in laos has achieved relatively satisfactory results. however, 12.75% of the respondents considered the effect to be "average", while a small proportion considered the communication effect to be "poor", suggesting that there is still room for improvement. in terms of the degree of empathy, 23.49% of the respondents said they could "completely" empathize with chinese culture, while 40.27% said they could "more", which further confirms the attractiveness of chinese culture to laotian audiences, while the remaining 36% reminds us of the need to further adjust and optimize our communication strategies. in terms of audience interests and preferences, respondents' interest in chinese culture is mainly focused on modern and contemporary history, accounting for 47.65%, which is probably related to the fact that modern and contemporary historical events have a greater impact on contemporary society and that china and the lao people's democratic republic are both communist-led socialist countries. in terms of cultural content, poems and songs (42.95%) and movies and tv dramas (55.03%) are the traditional and contemporary forms of culture that audiences are most interested in, respectively, suggesting that the charm of traditional culture and the appeal of modern cultural products coexist. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 5 table 1. questionnaire on content preferences despite the overall positive effect of the dissemination, the questionnaire feedback data clearly shows the obstacles and shortcomings in the dissemination of chinese culture to laos, and the respondents also gave many valuable suggestions and directions for improvement in the dissemination suggestions and open-ended questions section. we will discuss this in depth in the next section. 5. analysis of factors affecting communication effectiveness 5.1 language barriers language is one of the main barriers to cultural transmission. according to the data of the questionnaire, 68.46% of the respondents believe that language barrier is the biggest difficulty in understanding chinese culture. therefore, in order to improve the effectiveness of cultural communication, it is necessary to make more use of languages familiar to the audience, such as laotian and english, and to adopt a multilingual combination for the translation and dissemination of cultural content. in addition, strengthening language education and cultural exchanges, cultivating the audience's interest in and understanding of the chinese language are also important ways to enhance the effectiveness of cultural dissemination. 5.2 cultural differences cultural differences are another important factor affecting the spread of culture. the data show that 18.79% of the respondents believe that cultural differences are an obstacle to understanding and accepting chinese culture. this suggests that when spreading chinese culture, we need to give more consideration to the cultural background and values of lao audiences, to present cultural content in a way that is closer to the audience and easier to understand and accept. at the same time, we need to reduce cultural misunderstanding and prejudice through education and communication so as to enhance cultural mutual understanding. 5.3 content and form of communication the interests and preferences of the audience have a direct impact on the effectiveness of cultural communication. the results of the questionnaire show that, with regard to various aspects of chinese culture, respondents are most interested in history and culture (34.23%), followed by literature and art (32.89%). among contemporary cultural contents, movies and tv dramas (55.03%) are the most popular. this indicates that history, culture, literature and arts are important resources for the spread of chinese culture in laos, while movies and tv dramas are effective communication media. based on this, developing cultural products that match the interests of the audience and utilizing the audience's favorite media for dissemination is an effective strategy to enhance the dissemination effect. 5.4 channels of dissemination the diversity and accessibility of communication channels are crucial for audiences to access and understand cultural content. as mentioned above, 67.11% of respondents were first exposed to chinese culture through the news media, followed by tourism activities (28.86%) and cultural programs (23.49%). respondents believed that channels through cultural education institutions (57.72%), mainstream media (57.05%) and tourism programs (48.32%) were more conducive to the dissemination and promotion of chinese culture. this shows that media and cultural education (institutions) are the main channels for cultural dissemination, while tourism activities are also an important supplement. 5.5 audience attitudes audience attitudes and feedback are important to assess and optimize the effectiveness of cultural communication. as mentioned earlier, about 85% of the respondents believe that the current overall effect of chinese culture dissemination abroad is good. it can be said that the dissemination of chinese culture in laos is relatively successful and can become a model for chinese cultural dissemination abroad. at the same time, the proportion of respondents' suggestions, such as enhancing the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 6 interest of cultural content (48.32%), increasing interaction with audiences (41.61%), enriching the diversity of product forms (34.9%), etc., can serve as an important reference basis for us to adjust and improve our cultural dissemination strategies, and to enhance the effectiveness and influence of cultural dissemination. 6. strategies and suggestions summarizing the results of the open-ended question at the end of the questionnaire, "do you have any other suggestions for improving the international influence of chinese cultural communication?” (70 items in total, see figure 2), and taking into account the current environment and needs of overseas cultural communication, this study proposes the following strategies and suggestions to further enhance the effectiveness of chinese culture communication in laos: table 2 high-frequency vocabulary in the recommendations 6.1 break the inherent pattern of western discourse and establish a good national image different eras of the powerhouse occupy dominant positions and enjoy unparalleled advantages through their control of mainstreaming as well as discursive channels. in turn, through discursive power the strong reinforce their dominant position (chen, 2012). to a large extent, one of the main reasons hindering chinese culture from "going out" or causing the embarrassing situation of chinese culture "going out but not sinking" is the negative labels put on china by the western world, which puts china in a passive and unfavorable discourse position with its long-standing discourse superiority in the international community. in this regard, china should endeavor to establish a good national image in the international community, promote chinese values that are beneficial to the future and the world, export china's excellent traditional culture, especially its core ideas, traditional virtues and humanistic spirit, so as to highlight china's respect for cultural characteristics and cultural diversity, and its pursuit of the ideals of harmonious coexistence, beauty, and commonwealth. 6.2 utilizing diversified communication channels; innovating discourse systems and narrative strategies on the one hand, we should, as in the past, make good use of the mainstream media, traditional media (such as newspapers, magazines, literature, etc.), and cultural education, which are important channels for the foreign dissemination of chinese culture, adhere to the narrative strategy of "one country, one policy". we should select works and themes that meet the aesthetic expectations and reading habits of the target countries, so as to ensure the pertinence of cross-cultural communication and minimize the problems of resistance and resentment brought about by blind and random communication. on the other hand, it is necessary to keep up with the times and give full play to the communication role of new technologies and media such as vr/ar technology, artificial intelligence and short videos, so as to produce cultural works in different formats and provide audiences with immersive and interactive cultural experiences. 6.3 highlight public diplomacy and diplomacy for all (guo, 2021), and take a pro-people approach "the friendship of nations lies in the proximity of peoples, and the proximity of peoples lies in the communication of hearts." we should take advantage of the law of dissemination of cultural proximity and, on the basis of respecting the target country and their people, understanding their cultural customs and beliefs, innovate various pro-people flexible ways and methods, encourage retired officials, public figures, scholars, foreign students and even netizens and so on, to tell a good story of china, convey the voice of china. this will deepen the audience's understanding of china and cultural identity, avoid the situation of "speaking one's own words but ignoring other people's opinions", so as to shape china's image as a friendly, respectable, lovable and trustworthy country. 6.4 develop a comprehensive evaluation framework to persistently monitor and gauge the impact of cultural dissemination it is imperative to foster the creation of a robust set of performance metrics for evaluating the international outreach of chinese culture. additionally, establishing a database with a monitoring and feedback mechanism is essential. this system will serve as a reliable repository for the aggregation and analysis of extensive data sets, providing a clear, accurate, and timely reflection communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 7 of the dissemination's global footprint. such insights will enable the timely recalibration and enhancement of our dissemination strategies, ensuring that our efforts are not only impactful but also precisely targeted. 7. conclusion this study analyzes in depth the current situation of chinese culture dissemination and audience feedback in laos by means of a questionnaire survey, which not only reveals the actual situation of chinese culture dissemination in laos, but also provides empirical support for the theory of its cross-cultural communication and international dissemination. at the theoretical level, this study emphasizes the influence of language barriers, cultural differences, communication forms and channels as well as audience attitudes on the effectiveness of cultural communication, which provides a new perspective for the study of cultural soft power; at the practical level, the results of the study provide a basis for adjusting and optimizing the international communication strategy of chinese culture, especially in the areas of content innovation, the selection of communication channels, the optimization of narrative strategy and the evaluation of communication effectiveness. references chen, j. 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(1st ed.). 124.] 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 76 exploration on international communication of chinese culture from the perspective of cultural contexts: taking poland as an example meng shen1, hong cai2 1school of foreign languages, guangzhou college of technology and business, e-mail: 3497494391@qq.com 2 corresponding author, institute for international education, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: 199210493@gdufs.edu.cn abstract international communication of chinese culture is a crucial subject in the field of cultural studies and one of the hot issues that raised intercultural communication concerns. this paper conducts a questionnaire survey on polish international students at guangdong university of foreign studies to study the influence of chinese culture in the international student group of target country, and analyses the current situation of chinese culture’s external communication based on the results of the survey. overall, this paper dissects the dilemmas faced by chinese cultural communication from the perspectives of physical, linguistic and intellectual contexts, and puts forward relevant countermeasures and suggestions in accordance with the cultural context theory. keywords: cultural context, chinese culture, international communication, poland 1. introduction culture is “knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs and practices acquired by persons as members of a society as well as any other compound of talents and habits.” culture is embedded in specific human groups, forming shared ideas, values and beliefs and generating behavior (taylor, 1992). the universally agreed upon, intrinsic national spirit, values, customs or ethical norms formed by the people of a particular nation constitute the cultural pattern of that nation and carry the kernel of that nation's cultural spirit and values. chinese culture is centered on the traditional cultural thoughts of confucianism, which embodies such outstanding qualities as loving others with kindness, convincing others with virtue, honesty and friendliness, and perseverance that constantly strive to be stronger, which have enabled the chinese nation to shine throughout the development of world civilization and the alternation of cultural models (he, 2023). in the construction of the “belt and road”, the dissemination of chinese culture to the international world plays an indispensable role in shaping china’s national image, enhancing the country’s cultural soft power and promoting economic development. general secretary xi jinping attaches great importance to the dissemination of chinese culture to the international world, pointing out that “we should promote the building of international communication capacity, tell chinese stories, disseminate chinese voices, and show the world that we have the ability to communicate with the outside world to present a real, three-dimensional and comprehensive china, and improve the national cultural soft power and chinese cultural influence.” (xi, 2019). china-poland friendship enjoyed a long and rich history. poland was not only one of the first countries to recognize new china and establish diplomatic relations with china, but also one of the first countries to respond to the “belt and road” initiative. china has been poland’s second-largest trading partner for many years whereas poland is also china’s largest trading partner in central and eastern europe (yao, xia & yan, 2023). in terms of culture, there are close cultural exchanges between china and poland, the development of chinese language education in poland is thriving, and polish language education and research in china is flourishing as well (li & xu, 2024). international students form a special group in universities whose thoughts and behaviors serve as a bridge between chinese and foreign cultures to promote cross-cultural communication and build up cultural gap. meanwhile, they serve as an important window for the dissemination of chinese culture to the outside world. based on this, this study selects polish international students of guangdong university of foreign studies as the research object to explore the influence of chinese culture in target country students to dissect the influence of chinese culture on international world. throughout the survey, interviewees are asked to answer questions consisting of their cognition of chinese culture, content preference and dissemination influence, in order to provide reference for the enhancement of china’s cultural dissemination power and cultural soft power. the study adopts a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods, combining literature analysis and questionnaire survey. in view of theories related to cultural context in the field of hermeneutics, the paper will analyze the current situation and difficulties of chinese culture dissemination in poland based on the results of the questionnaire survey, and explore the countermeasures and suggestions for the dissemination and promotion of chinese culture in poland from the perspectives of the physical context (channels of dissemination), the linguistic context (discourse power), and the intellectual context (symbols, heroes and values). 2. analysis of survey communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 77 2.1 cultural awareness the first part of the questionnaire investigates the ways of disseminating chinese culture among the polish international student community, obstacles in dissemination process, and the public’s overall perception of chinese culture. the data collected shown that polish students learn about chinese culture mainly through the news media, books and newspapers, and generally display a greater interest in traditional chinese culture, particularly from the ancient times to the qin and han dynasties and the modern period. among the many well-known chinese cultural values, patriotism, collectivism and hard work are regarded as the core of the chinese national spirit. however, language barriers and communication channels are still the main obstacles to cross-cultural communication between china and poland, and the influence of chinese culture in the international world still needs to be enhanced due to the “cultural gap”. 2.2 content preference chinese culture is vast and profound with rich contents including folk customs, film and television works, literature and art, philosophical thoughts and so on in a broad sense. in terms of content preference and dissemination methods, polish students are more interested in chinese literature and arts such as poems and songs, national culture such as taiji calligraphy and other traditional skills. the mid-autumn festival, which symbolize reunion, falls into the preference of polish students. in terms of forms and languages of communication, the respondents believe that multi-channel communication including text reading, film and television works, on-site experience and expert explanations should be adopted, and that english-based and multilanguage representational symbols should be used as the medium of communication. 2.3 evaluation of cultural dissemination the evaluation of communication includes the overall effect of cultural communication, the sense of identification with chinese culture, the influence of chinese culture and the barriers to communication. china and poland have maintained good relations of cooperation in political, economic and cultural fields since the founding of our country, and under the environment of increasing exchanges between the two countries and closer relations between the two countries, the spread of chinese culture in poland has been increasing day by day. according to the survey results, polish students have a strong sense of identity and empathy towards chinese culture, but the language barrier and content homogeneity are the main obstacles affecting the dissemination effect. 2.4 recommendation on cultural dissemination based on the above questionnaire, the respondents put forward suggestions on strategies to improve the communication power of chinese culture to the international world from different aspects. in terms of output content, the interest, diversity and interactivity of cultural content should be highlighted and the differences in cross-cultural backgrounds should be emphasized. in terms of communication channels, the advantages of multi-channels should be brought into play, and mainstream media, educational institutions, tourism projects and cultural and creative industries need to be used to promote cultural exchanges. furthermore, the audience of cultural communication should not be limited to intellectual groups such as university, middle school and primary school students, but also include the role of tourists and cultural practitioners in cross-cultural communication and exchanges. with the rapid development of artificial intelligence, digital media and cross-border ecommerce, the development of cultural communication has shifted from traditional paper media to modern approaches such as short videos, live broadcasting platforms and social media. hence, cross-cultural communication should follow the development trend of the times and give full play to the role of internet technology in international environmental exchanges, so as to disseminate the influence of chinese culture and demonstrate the chinese culture soft power. 3. major dilemmas 3.1 homogeneity of communication channels communication channels belong to the physical context elements in the cultural context, and their homogeneity is mainly reflected in the following three aspects. firstly, the international dissemination approach of chinese culture is single. in recent years, the rise of the media industry has made the media the major approach of international communication and dissemination. the development china’s media industry is relatively late compared to the western countries. official media plays the key role in dissemination of chinese culture and the approach, nevertheless, is rejected by the western media. at present, the international economic, political and cultural state is dominated by western media and there is still a huge gap between chinese media and authoritative one to enhance our international status and right of discourse. secondly, the means of disseminating chinese culture to the international world need to be strengthened. the internet and its derivatives are becoming major communication channels. however, in the process of china's cultural dissemination process to the international world, the existing technical means and channel platforms still suffer from the problems such as relatively traditional means of dissemination, single form and backward technology. under the traditional means of external communication, the relationship between the communicator and the communicated is more of a process in which the communicator acts as an authority to indoctrinate the communicated and the communicated passively accepts the culture as communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 78 an audience. finally, the way chinese culture is disseminated to the international world is in need of innovation. at present, the speed, depth and breadth of cultural dissemination have undergone profound changes, and the interactive and high-speed dissemination of massive information, the multi-centre radiation of public opinion, the diversification of audience groups and the diversification of ideologies have posed more challenges to the dissemination of chinese culture to the international world (xi, 2019). consequently, chinese culture should break through the traditional communication methods, make full use of internet resources such as building a platform for chinese language and cultural interests, updating the existing communication technology and applying appropriate communication strategies. they help facilitate the process of telling chinese stories and disseminating chinese voices in a more vivid way, enhancing the appeal and attractiveness of chinese culture to the audience groups, and promoting the real “going out” of chinese culture. 3.2 barriers of language differences language is a “system of representation”, the main tool for human beings to represent the world and to communicate (chen, 2009). the practical activities of human society rely on language to represent or characterize what we want to say, to express or convey a certain idea, concept, concept or feeling (hall, 2003). on account of the influence from enormous factors such as geographic environment and humanistic psychology, countries formed different referential systems represented by different linguistic symbols. therefore, the obstacles to cross-cultural communication come directly from the barriers of linguistic communication in the first place. language and culture are inseparable from each other as language is the path through which we can perceive human psychology, understand the psychological state, cognitive style and thinking pattern of a country. chinese and polish are two different types of languages, for example, polish lacks a direct equivalent for the word “you”. unlike chinese, polish does not follow strict rules of syntactic order, and in many cases the order of polish syntax depends on different factors such as the context or emotional mood of the message (li, 2023). poland is a typical low-context country whereas china is a high-context country. the understanding of discourse behavior and the interpretation of texts in highcontext countries entails the search for elements of the textual context, which is often not limited to semantic meaning or surface meaning. in low-context communication, the listener knows little about what is being said, must be told everything explicitly, and his or her responses in communication are more outwardly orientated. therefore, the differences in verbal behavior and the obstacles it brings are significant barriers to sino-polish cultural exchange. besides verbal communication, non-verbal communication also serves as a crucial role in intercultural communication. taking the classroom teaching of chinese teachers to polish students as an example, since polish culture pays more attention to individualistic values and equality of power relations, most polish students are inclined to keep a closer distance with their teachers and expect teachers to stimulate the classroom atmosphere with active body language. rich explanatory and instructive movements and positive expressive movements which can enhance the harmony and activity of the classroom atmosphere are encouraged and popular among polish students. the teacher's encouragement and infection will make students more actively involved in classroom learning, thus bringing about equal cultural communication (hou, 2023). 3.3 asymmetry of cultural context cultural context includes physical, linguistic and intellectual contexts. cultural differences brought about by physical context refer to the differences in time and space, direction, geography, clothing, food and other physical elements. for example, polish people might find it difficult in appreciating the significance of the word “panda” in symbolized in the mind of chinese people. the elements of the physical context are included in the text in the form of linguistic symbols and ultimately integrate into cognitive context. however, as the differences of physical context can be eliminated by studying literal materials such as books, journals, parallel texts, etc. related to the text, the physical context doesn’t constitute the most significant obstacle in cross-cultural communication (chen, 2023). the impact of differences in linguistic context on cognitive styles and verbal communication behavior has already been discussed in previous paragraphs and will not be discussed in this paragraph. indeed, the most crucial source of textual meaning in cross-cultural communication is knowledge context that contains encyclopedic knowledge and the intention of the messager, and the difference in cultural contexts formed by the knowledge context has become the biggest obstacle in cross-cultural communication. knowledge accumulates into an all-encompassing cultural empire through symbolic representation and the content of which can be divided into four aspects: material, spiritual, institutional and methodological from a macro perspective. as the crystallization of human cognition and experience, knowledge formed and inherited by different cultures will inevitably carry the characteristics of the cultural system itself, forming a distinctive cultural model. generally speaking, a cultural system contains common cultural phenomena, heroes and heroines, celebrations and rituals, and values etc. from the surface to the essence of the content. the different levels of a cultural system form an organic whole and guide people's life practices. however, the differences in cultural symbols, heroes, rituals and even values between different cultures constitute an asymmetry of cultural contexts, which should be paid attention to in cross-cultural communication. china has performed intercultural communication practices with poland in cultural promotion in recent years. for example, female hero symbols representing chinese culture, such as hua mulan, mu guiying, liang hongyu, have been created into the ip image of the game “original god”, whose appearance combines the images of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 79 a number of well-known and valiant female heroes. the game focuses on combining with chinese traditional culture in the promotion of polish localities, which provides opportunities for overseas players to get in touch with china’s excellent traditional culture and helps to enhance their curiosity and love. such practice helps to enhance their curiosity and favourite degree, and strengthens the sense of identity of chinese culture in poland (ma & ge, 2023). 4. responses and recommendations 4.1 enriching communication content and broadening communication channels physical context is an important part of cultural context, including geography, food, clothing, architecture and so on. in crosscultural communication, communication channels and modes of communication are important physical context elements that constitute cross-cultural communication. the mediated international social context has changed the way the world understands china, and the explosive development of digital video industry and internet industry has led to the expansion of overseas communication channels. currently, the top five social media platforms in the world are facebook, twitter, youtube, instagram, and tiktok. at present, youtube and tiktok are the two main platforms for the dissemination of chinese culture to the international world. using “china” as the keyword to search on youtube, the top 500 videos are screened by purposive sampling, with the number of viewings as the reference value, and the thematic contents are ranked in descending order as follows: music, sports, food and drink, film and animation, festivals, tourism, martial arts and acrobatics, life customs, crafts, games, dance, theatre, and history. music topped the list with 30 per cent; sports and food with 15 per cent and 13 percent respectively. on tiktok, using “chinese culture” as the keyword to search, the top 500 videos were filtered out through purposive sampling, using the heat ranking as the reference value, and the theme contents were, in descending order, living customs, values, language and culture, costumes, fine arts, performing arts (zheng, 2022). diversified communication channels have a strong impact on the development of china’s cultural industry and foreign communication, among which ip operation is an important way for cultural exchanges between china and poland. the term has been given a new connotation in china, referring to creative intellectual property that has strong attention, productivity and can be re-created. currently, there are successful cases of cultural exchange between china and poland such as demon hunter and three bodies. for example, the oriental philosophy in three bodies has attracted a large number of polish readers, and the book is unique in the western-dominated sci-fi literature world, providing western readers with an oriental narrative model for sci-fi novels (ma & ge, 2023). we should continue to dig deeper in the areas of operation strategy, precise placement, content production, and training of professional talents to build a perfect operation system and promote the spread of chinese culture. 4.2 constructing chinese discourse and enhancing cultural confidence people live in the world of language and symbols, and heidegger once said that “things fail to appear when words fail to express”, which means that people cannot clearly express their meaning and understand the world, nor can they communicate effectively without language. the use of language creates discourse, and discourse in turn embodies the characteristics of human behavior, which is purposeful, relevant and comprehensive. the use of discourse by communicators to achieve their goals leads to the creation of discourse which falls into the core topic of contemporary cultural studies (chen, 2009). on 22 june, 2024, polish president andrzej duda arrived in beijing together with his wife and began a five-day state visit to china. president xi jinping held talks with president duda to draw a blueprint for the future development of china-poland relations. both leaders of the two countries had an in-depth exchange of views on issues of concern and attended the signing ceremony of cooperation documents together (yu, ma & zhao, 2024). the elevated co-operative relationship between china and poland reflects china's rising discourse and international status. at present, the international environment facing chinese culture is still occupied by dominant western cultures, we must establish a correct concept of self-awareness, identify our own cultural positioning and set up correct cultural mentality (tong, 2014). the core values we advocate embody the connotations of “wealth, strength, democracy, civilization and harmony” and the bright vision of “patriotism, dedication, honesty and friendliness”, which not only conveys the positive discourse of the chinese nation’s amity, harmony and mutual benefit, but also lays the foundation for our people’s cultural self-confidence. in addition to maintaining a profound understanding and full confidence in our own culture, we should also be adept at actively learning from the outstanding cultural achievements of other nations and build up a discourse system that embodies chinese characteristics and unites the world’s consensus. it helps truly realize the harmonious coexistence of chinese and foreign cultures in the blending of water and milk. the construction of a foreign discourse system is not only reflected in the formal level, but also in the ideological level, which is the core content of the discourse system and the essence of cultural exchanges. 4.3 creating chinese cultural symbols and promoting cultural coexistence and co-prosperity cultural contexts are shaped by symbolic representations, condensed into all-encompassing cultural empires and embodied in cultural models or systems, which are material, spiritual, institutional and methodological in terms of content. according communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 80 to hofstede’s onion diagram of the elements of culture, the different layers of culture include symbols, heroes, rituals and values, which guide people's lives through practice (chen, 2023). cultural communication should start with the brand image of china’s core culture, and create product symbols and signs that embody the spirit, culture, sentiment, and temperament of the chinese nation. just as the hollywood film brand is the most intuitive elaboration of the american spirit of freedom, the german industrial manufacturing brand is the clearest expression of the german tradition of rigor and meticulousness, and the french clothing and luxury goods brand is the most direct demonstration of the french elegance and romantic sentiment, the cultural traits of the chinese are also in dire need of interpretation by symbols formed by chinese brands with international influence. as the most vivid carrier of culture, the words and deeds of chinese people are always interpreting the connotation of chinese culture and showing the charm of chinese culture, which is the most convincing display of chinese culture (wen, 2023). it can be said that the positive outlook and good image of the chinese people is the most crucial brand to optimize the overall image of chinese culture and is the most iconic sign and symbol to show the excellent culture of the chinese nation. at present, the mode of international cultural exchange is dominated by the west and traditional cross-cultural communication is centered on western civilization, mainly serving the global expansion of western culture. with the rise of china’s international status and discourse power as well as the construction of “belt and road” initiative, cultural exchanges should gradually migrate in the direction of “two-way interaction, symbiosis and co-prosperity”. the current cross-cultural communication is different from the traditional cross-cultural communication in that the focus of the communication is to find the point of convergence between chinese and foreign cultures, and to find the key to the value kernel that can inspire human empathy, bringing about a two-way interaction in cultural communication. for example, the overseas name of jiyin is tiktok, and alipay is called ascend in thailand; these cultural symbols are converted to match the local people's user habits and cultural needs (wen, 2023). 5. conclusion the heterogeneity of different cultures brought asymmetries on symbols, heroes, rituals, and values, which in turn bring about barriers to cultural communication from perspective of cultural context. in this paper, we conducted a questionnaire survey on polish students, investigated in communication awareness, content preference, communication evaluation and communication suggestions. countermeasures in terms of broadening communication channels, constructing the chinese discourse system and creating chinese cultural symbols are put forward to actively promote the dissemination of chinese culture to the international world and eventually reach cultural identity. references chen, k. (2009). on the power of language: the philosophical, cultural and pragmatic essence of language academic research 12, 154-160. [in chinese (2009). . (12), 154-160.] chen, k. (2023). cultural context, interpretive barriers and interpretive validity. chinese social sciences. (2), 184-203. [in chinese: (2023). . , (02), 184-203.] hall, s. (1997). representation cultural representations and signifying practices, sage publications in association with the open university. he, l. (2023). practical strategies of chinese culture communication from the perspective of community of human destiny. theoretical pilot. 10 (02).16-19. [in chinese: (2023). . . 10 (02).16-19.] hou, j. (2023). nonverbal behavior comparative research between chinese and polish teachers: take intermediate chinese class of the confucius institute in krakow, poland as an example. beijing foreign studies university. [in chinese: (2023). —— . .] li, b. & xu, b. (2024). chinese education in poland: development patterns, realities and countermeasures. overseas teaching trends. 9(1),77-96. [in chinese: , . (2024). . , 9(1),77-96.] li, y. (2023). a comparative study of poland’s nationalized textbook and general textbook: take “we speak chinese” and “boya chinese· elementary start i” as examples. university of chongqing jiaotong university. [in chinese, .(2023). —— · ⅰ . ]. ma, z. & ge, j. (2023). discussion on the role of ip operation in international communication: taking china-poland cultural communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 81 exchange as an example. international view.(08), 77-80. [in chinese: (2023). ip — . (08), 77-80.] taylor, e. (1992). primitive culture. shanghai translation publishing house. [in chinese . ]. tong, f. (2014). thoughts on promoting the external communication of chinese culture.research on socialism with chinese characteristics. 5 74-78. [in chinese: . (2014). . . 5 7478.] wen, x. (2023). from “crossing” to “turning” : an analysis of the innovative path of chinese culture’s external communication. [in chinese: .(2023). “ ” “ ” . 12(3):11-16.] xi, m. (2019). research on the external communication of chinese culture under the background of the “belt and road: initiative. journal of social sciences of shanxi university. 31(5), 92-95. [in chinese, . (2019). “ ” . 31(5), 92-95. yao, l, xia c. & yan, s. (2023). study on the path for china to expand imports from central and eastern european countries. foreign economics and trade practice. (7), 4-9+15. [in chinese: , . (2023). . , (7), 4-9+15.] yu, l., ma, t. & zhao, y. (2024). expand the pattern of economic and trade cooperation, discuss the regional security situation: the polish president’s visit to china is full of topics. global times, 1-2. [in chinese: .(2024). . , 1-2. zheng, h. (2022). study on the spreading power of chinese culture in overseas social media. international communication.7:9-12. [in chinese: (2022). . .7:9-12.] 16-75-pb.cabti.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 7 canton embroidery and the maritime silk road: the fusion of intangible cultural heritage traditions and modern values jing tian faculty of foreign languages, guangdong baiyun university, guangzhou, china. email: oldcat6702024@163.com abstract canton embroidery, one of the four famous embroideries of china, is not only an important cultural symbol along the ancient maritime silk road but also carries rich historical and cultural significance. this paper explores the historical role of canton embroidery on the ancient maritime silk road, its inheritance, and its innovation in modern society. it analyzes its contemporary value as an intangible cultural heritage (ich) in promoting cultural and economic exchanges within the framework of the “21st century maritime silk road”. through the study of its historical development, technical characteristics, current status, and paths for its inheritance and export, this paper examines the productization of ich represented by canton embroidery. it argues that the modern preservation of traditional ich crafts should be achieved through innovative design, modern marketing methods, and trade as a means to enhance economic value and foster regional economic development. keywords: canton embroidery; intangible cultural heritage; maritime silk road; modern inheritance 1. introduction with its unique artistic style and rich cultural symbols, canton embroidery is not only a significant carrier of lingnan culture but also an outstanding representative of chinese traditional culture. it has been recognized as one of the first national intangible cultural heritages. due to the rise of the canton trade system during the qing dynasty, canton embroidery became a leading force in the export of silk embroidery products. it not only successfully introduced traditional chinese art to europe but also actively absorbed western painting techniques, forming a distinctive blend of chinese and western art styles. in the 21st century maritime silk road strategy, canton embroidery can continue to promote mutual understanding and respect between different cultures. 2. canton embroidery as a cultural symbol of the maritime silk road the ancient maritime silk road refers to the maritime communication route that connected east asia and southeast asia through the indian ocean to the middle east and the eastern part of the africa, utilizing traditional navigation technology (jiang, 2023). this route facilitated not only maritime trade, but also the exchange of cultures, science, technology, religion, and ideas. it significantly enhanced cross-cultural communication between east and west, deepening mutual understanding and appreciation through the exchange of commodities. guangzhou, china, as one of the starting ports of the maritime silk road, became a key center for economic and cultural exchange between china and the west at an early stage. as early as the qin and han dynasties, the book of han – geography recorded that guangzhou’s panyu was the hub of maritime trade at the time: “near the sea, there were many rhinoceroses, elephants, tortoiseshells, beads and guillotines, silver, copper, fruits, and cloth, which enriched chinese merchants and trades. panyu, one of its capitals.” during the tang dynasty, guangzhou maintained its position as a maritime trade center, as recorded in the new book of the tang dynasty – jia tan zhuan: “guangzhou was a center of maritime trade.” in the song and yuan dynasties, as ocean trade flourished, the imperial court established the shi bosi (bureau for foreign shipping) in guangzhou to oversee sea transportation. merchant ships from guangzhou continuously exported chinese commodities to southeast asia, the middle east, africa, europe, and even to the wider world. in the ming and qing dynasties, due to alternating policies of “sea bans” and “open sea” policies, guangzhou gradually became the only foreign trade port. in the 23rd year of the kangxi period, the qing government established the guangdong customs to manage foreign trade, leading to the formation of guangzhou’s unique maritime trade system, with its “one port for all traders” policy. this system gave rise to the thirteen factories of canton, which specialized in foreign trade affairs. silk fabrics (embroidery), as a daily artwork with chinese characteristics that integrates aesthetics and utility, have always been an important trade commodity and cultural carrier of the maritime silk road. as early as the han and tang dynasties, maritime trade in silk fabrics (embroidery) flourished, with chinese silk fabrics (embroidery) being exported from guangzhou to southeast asia and spreading along the straits of malacca to west asia and europe. during the ming and qing dynasties, with the vigorous development of maritime commodity trade, the role of silk weaving (embroidery) products underwent a remarkable transformation—from being used mainly for personal use or small quantities as tribute, to evolving into bulk commodities for export (lan, 2018). due to guangzhou’s leading position on the maritime silk road and its advantageous communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 8 location, the embroidery factories and workshops in guangzhou flourished, and the traditional canton embroidery techniques became increasingly refined and sophisticated. in the ninth year of zhengde of the ming dynasty (1514), the portuguese purchased embroidered dragon robes pieces in guangzhou, which were highly appreciated by their king upon return. in the twenty-eighth year of wanli’s reign (1600), queen elizabeth i of england became enamored with the gold and silver thread embroidery exported from guangdong and personally advocated for the establishment of the british embroidery guild. it can be said that the export of canton embroidery directly promoted the development of silk embroidery craftsmanship in europe. the solid trade relations and trade patterns established by the thirteen factories of canton during the mid-qing dynasty further provided a favorable external environment for the development of the silk embroidery trade. according to argot’s diary of the guangzhou merchant house, a spanish manuscript, among the commodities purchased from guangzhou by european and american merchant ships at that time, raw silk and silk accounted for a considerable volume (tang & tian, 2024). however, in the 24th year of qianlong’s reign (1759), the imperial court imposed a “silk ban” on the export of zhejiang lake silk, citing the reason that “the price of silk was getting higher and higher”. as a result, guangzhou silk and satin became the primary export products of raw silk from guangdong ports. the silk embroidery industry in guangzhou, including canton embroidery, gradually expanded, making canton embroidery a significant export product in the late qing dynasty. not only was overseas demand for silk fabrics substantial, but they were also highly popular in the domestic market. canton embroidery, once a popular export product, rose to the status of imperial tribute. examples include the collection of canton embroidery pieces at the palace museum in beijing, such as canton embroidery of landscape with fishing and reading, canton embroidery of singing birds, canton embroidery of cranes and deer in spring, canton embroidery of red phoenix in morning sun, canton embroidery of spring comes in full form (white satin ground), and canton embroidery of double phoenix on bamboo and stone. the demand from both foreign and domestic markets caused the guangzhou silk weaving industry to thrive, a momentum that continued into the early years following the founding of the people’s republic of china. benefiting from guangzhou’s advantageous position as a key node on the maritime silk road, canton embroidery—the bright pearl of chinese embroidery art—demonstrates not only its excellent craftsmanship and rich cultural heritage but also serves as a vivid testament to the exchange and mutual understanding between chinese and western cultures. it symbolizies a significant cultural bond that promotes the progress of civilization between east and west. 3. canton embroidery as the shared cultural memory of china and the west canton embroidery, often referred to as the folk embroidery technique centered in guangzhou and extending to the pearl river delta region including shunde and nanhai, is one of china’s four famous embroideries, alongside suzhou, hunan and shu embroidery. as a representative of lingnan culture, canton embroidery carries the collective memory of the history, region, and social customs of the chinese nation. in june 2006, canton embroidery was included in the first group of china’s national intangible cultural heritage (nich), underscoring its significance in chinese culture and its recognition and protection by the state and society. as an intangible cultural heritage, canton embroidery is not only a representation of traditional chinese embroidery techniques but also a carrier of the historical and cultural memories of the lingnan region. simultaneously, it bears witness to the shared cultural memories between china and the west along the ancient maritime silk road. 3.1 shared cultural memory of decorative arts centered in guangzhou and circulated throughout the pearl river delta region, canton embroidery features strong regional characteristics. “the colors used in canton embroidery have always been vibrant, with contrasting red and green tones, reflecting the folkloric and lingnan flavors.” notes hu and lei (2019). this vibrant color scheme is closely related to the southern subtropical monsoon climate of the lingnan region, known for its abundant light, moist soil, and diverse plants and animals. in addition to the colorful palette, canton embroidery frequently features flowers and fruits as motifs, with allegorical patterns symbolizing prosperity. for instance, lychee, a characteristic fruit of lingnan, has long been a distinctive element in canton embroidery, and the peacock, a common bird in the subtropics, is a skillfully depicted and favored motif. in terms of technique, canton embroidery is renowned for its varied stitches, even stitching, and the skillful use of texture to express the materiality of objects. the bright colors, intricate compositions, exquisite craftsmanship, and rich textures make canton embroidery one of china’s most famous traditional arts, long celebrated for its beauty and cultural significance. during the canton trade system period, the thirteen factories of the qing dynasty, including the silk embroidery represented by canton embroidery, sparked a “china craze” in europe, directly influencing western art aesthetics. westerners recognized the skill and artistic achievement of canton embroidery, commenting, “the chinese are skilled in embroidery, and the people of guangdong are particularly good at it. ... canton embroidery is mostly imported into europe” (sun, 2007). eighteenthcentury chinese export works of art details the popularity of canton embroidery and other silk embroidery in the united communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 9 kingdom. canton embroidery’s complex double-sided scarves were particularly favored by british noblewomen, some of whom, via east india company ships, even sent clothing or fabric pieces to china, commissioning chinese embroiderers to decorate them. from the 17th to the 18th centuries, canton embroidery was also favored by european royalty. the british royal family was especially keen to decorate their homes with various “chinese-style” wall hangings, carpets, and porcelain to create “chinese rooms”. in france, the center of european fashion and culture at the time, the influence of chinese art was profound. louis xiv not only adorned the palace of versailles with bedspreads and draperies from china but also hosted a ball called the “emperor of china”, where men and women dressed in “chinese-style” embroidery patterns. since then, “chinese-style” embroidery has become a matter of pride in france. the demand for beautiful and exquisite canton silk embroidery exceeded the supply, greatly stimulating the european imagination about oriental aesthetics and prompting a transformation in european art. notably, chinese embroidery, especially canton embroidery, played a role in the transition of european art and decorative styles from the grand and majestic baroque style to the soft and delicate rococo style. the “chinese style” rococo style thus became an important element of western artistic aesthetics. 3.2 shared cultural memory of textile technologies the chinese embroidery represented by canton embroidery during the ming and qing dynasties set off a trend in the west for chinese-style textiles, spreading across europe from the late 16th century to the 18th and 19th centuries. this trend promoted the common progress and development of chinese and western textile technologies. early chinese silk exported to europe was primarily jacquard fabric, but due to the qing dynasty’s canton trade system, jacquard silk produced in jiangnan was more expensive to transport. consequently, the production of hand-painted and embroidered silk from guangzhou for export increased rapidly. in response to market demand, europe began innovating its textile processes to reduce shipping costs. after the invention of roller printing in scotland in the 18th century, machines could print various patterns directly, leading to a decline in demand for hand-painted silk. however, embroidered silk, including canton embroidery, with its exquisite technique, continued to meet western aesthetic demands and remained a standout product. the craze for chinese-style textiles, represented by canton embroidery silk fabrics, also encouraged the western textile industry to imitate chinese export textiles. the local silk weaving industry in europe thrived by adopting oriental motifs or imitating chinese clothing styles. queen elizabeth i, who adored cantonese gold and silver thread embroidery, founded the british embroidery guild in 1600, importing chinese silk threads for the nobility’s clothing. charles i encouraged silkworm cultivation and the development of the local silk industry. in france, louis xiv established factories specializing in handpainted or printed silk fabrics in oriental styles, designing embroidery patterns that combined chinese and western elements, which influenced global trends at the time. the combination of chinese-style textiles with traditional western garments and decorations led to innovative developments in both chinese and western textile techniques. for instance, european tapestries incorporated many canton embroidery patterns. the canton embroidery manila shawl, which fit the daily attire of the spanish, elevated the shawl to an art form and gradually incorporated into western fashion. during the 17th and 18th centuries, the western textile industry advanced significantly, driven by a fascination with chinesestyle textiles led by canton embroidery silk fabrics. in the 19th century, following the opium war, many western silk fabrics, enhanced by integrating oriental techniques, entered the chinese market, diversifying and enriching chinese textiles. for instance, european “exotic style silk” inspired by canton embroidery patterns and combining traditional western, indian and ottoman turkish motifs, was sold back to china, where it was admired and imitated as “western brocades”. the beijing palace museum still houses fragments of this “western brocade” and two imitations. as printing and dyeing technology in europe advanced, “chinese style” printed cotton with oriental patterns, incorporating rococo elements, gradually influenced the chinese silk textile composition and design (tang, 2021). 3.3 shared cultural memory of modern large-scale production and trade in chinese history, silk embroidery was traditionally a status symbol for princes and nobles. however, during the ming and qing dynasties, canton embroidery became closely linked to large-scale commodity production with strong “commercial attributes”. canton embroidery product categories were subject to market demands, appealing not only to the court, nobility, and bureaucrats but also to landlords, merchants, and the general public. its style reflected the “civic literature and art” of the time (lan, 2018). for example, the design of canton embroidery drawings combined originality and spontaneity. “the design of canton embroidery drawings is largely unrestricted: the creation is spontaneous, and the images are generally arranged in a fuller way, emphasizing festivity and liveliness”. the vibrant, full compositions catered to the public’s aesthetic preference for complexity. traditional canton embroidery also often featured religious or auspicious themes, such as lion dances or patterns communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 10 symbolizing blessings and good fortune. popular designs included “birds toward the phoenix,” “peony and phoenix,” “pine and crane,” “deer and crane in spring” and “peacock in flowering screen,” all of which reflected the folk belief in good luck and happiness (hu & lei, 2019). as demand for canton embroidery grew domestically, industry guilds were established. in the 58th year of qianlong’s reign (1793), guangzhou founded an embroidery guild—jinxiu hang—with a refined division of labor. this allowed for innovation and adaptation to market changes, ensuring canton embroidery remained relevant and evolving with the times. the development of canton embroidery as a commercial product mirrored the history of modern capitalist mass production in china. facing western markets, canton embroidery was the first to become closely associated with modern commerce and trade. to meet overseas demand, canton embroidery and other traditional chinese embroidery styles integrated more western artistic elements, such as a focus on the background depiction, perspective, and light refraction. this led to the use of brighter colors and a flashier aesthetic. as the maritime silk road expanded during the ming and qing dynasties, canton embroidery evolved into a unique fusion of chinese and western art styles, blending western painting techniques with traditional chinese brush painting. techniques like “using light and shadow to express three-dimensionality and perspective to show depth and distance became common (hu & lei, 2019). this integration not only enhanced canton embroidery’s expressive power but also made it more appealing to western tastes. through the establishment of the convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage (2003), unesco has emphasized the key role of intangible heritage in promoting cultural diversity, enhancing social cohesion, and maintaining of sustainable social development. in contemporary society, canton embroidery serves as both a bridge between the past and future and as an important medium for global cultural exchange and mutual understanding. as a unique cultural resource and handicraft with deep roots in both traditional chinese culture and local characteristics, canton embroidery should be integrated into the 21st century maritime silk road development strategy. its participation will not only promote economic growth and regional integration along the maritime trade routes, but also facilitate cultural exchange and mutual learning between different civilizations. 4. the heritage and export path of canton embroidery in the context of the 21st century maritime silk road canton embroidery has a rich history along the ancient maritime silk road. in the history of cultural exchanges between china and the west, canton embroidery has served as an indispensable “ambassador” for fostering cross-cultural communication. in the construction of the 21st century maritime silk road, this intangible cultural heritage (ich), represented by canton embroidery can play a vital role by promoting multi-level and multi-channel interactions between china and the countries along the route, helping to establish a harmonious and win-win international relations, that foster mutual respect and shared prosperity among different cultures. in terms of foreign exchanges, it is crucial to fully utilize the common cultural symbols of china and the west, such as those carried by canton embroidery on the ancient silk road, to establish cross-cultural platforms that strengthen humanistic ties between countries along the 21st century maritime silk road. this would promote the interaction of chinese and western cultures for mutual prosperity. for example, the creation of ich cultural innovation zones based on the shared cultural memory of the ancient maritime silk road has been proposed. these zones could establish cultural cooperation organizations, hold regular cultural exchanges and conferences, and vigorously develop the cultural industry system (ma & xu, 2019). the inheritance and development of the traditional art are indispensable in promoting ich, like canton embroidery, in the context of the 21st century maritime silk road. although canton embroidery was once known as “china’s gift to the west” for its unique aesthetics and decorations, contemporary technology has posed significant challenges to its traditional production process. the complex techniques of canton embroidery face the risk of being lost due to a lack of inheritors an issue common to many ich traditions. firstly, modern lifestyles have made the inheritance and preservation of ich programs more challenging. for instance, many young people are more inclined to pursue modern lifestyles and entertainment, showing less interest in traditional folk arts and skills. secondly, as noted in the unesco convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage (2003), safeguarding ich relies on strengthening its links with communities, groups and individuals (unesco, 2003, article 2). in the context of globalization, it is complex to protect ich characterized by local features, while preserving cultural diversity. alongside developing appropriate policies and legislation to protect these heritages, innovative methods and technologies should be employed to document and disseminate these intangible cultural assets. moreover, there should be a deeper understanding of global standards to enhance the safeguarding and transmission of this valuable heritage (stefano et al., 2012). the current canton embroidery cultural and creative products largely follow traditional design ideas, lacking the innovation and modern elements required to attract contemporary consumers, particularly younger generations. “existing canton communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 11 embroidery cultural creations mainly follow traditional thinking patterns, making it difficult to capture consumers’ attention” (yi, 2024). however, with globalization, opportunities still exist to continue passing down the ich represented by canton embroidery. with the improvement of living standards and the growth of cultural consumption, demand for traditional culture is increasing. by developing distinctive ich products and services, this demand can be met, further promoting the inheritance of ich and contributing to the economy. for instance, the cultural platform of the maritime silk road could offer both online and offline experiences of canton embroidery and other ich, creating unique multi-sensory immersive experiences that attract younger generations to the charm of canton embroidery. additionally, guangdong’s rich cultural heritage of the maritime silk road could be leveraged to foster collaboration between universities in guangdong and those in other countries along the 21st century maritime silk road, facilitating research in the humanities and social sciences while cultivating a pool of ich talents (jiang, 2024). canton embroidery, as a representative of ich in the marketplace, should focus on innovative design and the reconstruction of modern life. by integrating modern design and technological advancements, canton embroidery can develop cultural and innovative products with both contemporary appeal and market competitiveness. this integration can inject new vitality into canton embroidery, while also providing fresh inspiration for modern design and other fields. for instance, cross-border techniques could merge canton embroidery with modern decorative painting art, preserving the bright colors and traditional patterns while contrasting them with the simpler colors and styles of modern decorative art (chen, 2024). the high efficiency and accuracy of digital technology could also be harnessed to innovatively reconstruct canton embroidery’s traditional patterns and colors, blending cultural symbols of ich with modern aesthetics to achieve a “living inheritance” in daily necessities. in terms of marketing, a strategy combining ich with e-commerce, online and offline, could be adopted to promote canton embroidery through short videos, live broadcasts, and social platforms. this approach would help increase consumers’ understanding and appreciation of ich. e-commerce platforms could also facilitate the sale of ich products, integrating marketing efforts to boost both heritage preservation and market growth (wu & hu, 2024). 5. conclusion canton embroidery, a treasure of lingnan culture, not only integrates the artistic aesthetics of china and the west but also plays an essential role in fostering mutual understanding between civilizations and contributing to shared cultural memory. its historical legacy offers valuable insights and inspiration for the construction of the 21st century maritime silk road. canton embroidery’s influence in overseas markets, particularly its historical popularity in western societies and its reciprocal impact on china after being embraced by the west, has facilitated both the circulation of goods and the deepening of cultural understanding. through canton embroidery, china’s traditional craftsmanship has been merged with western aesthetic principles to create a unique artistic style. the spread of this style has helped build harmonious and mutually beneficial international relations, enhancing mutual respect and appreciation among different civilizations. in contemporary times, canton embroidery should continue to serve as a cultural bridge, providing new opportunities for guangdong—and china’s ich more broadly—to go global. by deepening cultural exchanges among countries along the 21st century maritime silk road, canton embroidery can strengthen both national unity and cultural confidence while fostering shared cultural memory and cultural community between china and the west. through canton embroidery, the power of traditional ich transcends time and space, connecting past and the future, east and west. references chen, h. (2024). innovative design and performance of modern cantonese embroidery subjects under cross-border integration. design (09), 35-38. [in chinese: . (2024). . (09),35-38.] hu, d. & lei, d. (2019). aesthetics of traditional cantonese embroidery. beijing: china light industry press. [in chinese: & .(2019). . : .] jiang b. (2023). a peek at the maritime silk road. secretarial work (11), 73-76.[in chinese: .(2023). . (11),73-76.] jiang, y. (2024). implications of the ancient maritime silk road for the construction of the 21st century maritime silk road. western journal (14), 22-25. [in chinese: . (2024). "21 " . (14), 22-25.doi:10.16721/j.cnki.cn61-1487/c.2024.14.039.] lan h.(2018). historical development and cultural qualities of canton embroidery. lingnan literature and history (02), 72-76+80. [in chinese: .(2018). . (02),72-76+80.] communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 12 ma, j. & xu, h. (2019). cultural interaction and the construction of the 21st century maritime silk road in guangdong. jinan journal (philosophy and social science edition) (05), 72-83. [in chinese: & .(2019). "21 " . ( )(05),72-83.] sun, p. (2007). history of chinese embroidery. beijing: beijing library press. [in chinese: . (2007). . .] stefano, m. l., davis, p., corsane, g., denes, a., cummins, a., dixey, a., ... & bedekar, v. h. (eds.). (2012). safeguarding intangible cultural heritage. boydell and brewer. tang, k. & tian, y. (2024). mid-qing trade between china and the west and the history of the thirteen houses of guangzhou as reflected in the spanish manuscript argot's diary of the guangzhou merchants' house. studies in qing history (03), 1-21. [in chinese: & .(2024). . (03),1-21.] tang z. (2021). 17th-19th century "chinese style" textiles and intercultural communication between east and west (master's thesis, beijing institute of fashion technology). [in chinese: .(2021).17-19 " " ( , ).] united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. (2003). convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage. https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/convention-safeguarding-intangible-cultural-heritage wu, ch., zhang ch. & hu, l. (2024). a study on the marketing strategy of "non-legacy + e-commerce" of guangqiu embroidery stores on jittery platform. china collective economy (01), 105-108. [in chinese: , & .(2024). " + " . (01),105-108.] ye y. (2024). bibliometric-based visualization and analysis of the broad embroidery knowledge graph. heritage identification and appreciation (06), 107-111. [in chinese: .(2024). . (06),107-111.] 16-82-pb.cabti.12.11.22024.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 13 exploring chinese economic discourse and translation strategies in the era of ai: a digital-tech approach junchao wang journal department of gdufs, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: 201510091@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract chinese economic discourse, often underexplored, serves as a comprehensive reflection of the country’s economic reforms and national governance system, while also epitomizing china’s unique developmental trajectory. this paper employs a digital-tech approach to conduct an in-depth analysis of the database from xi jinping: the governance of china (vols. i to iii), investigating the linguistic characteristics of chinese economic discourse and its translation strategies. the objective is to provide strategic insights for the global dissemination of this discourse. through both quantitative and qualitative analyses, the study identifies key terms such as “people,” “reform,” “opening-up,” “development,” and “security” that are prevalent in chinese economic discourse. additionally, it reveals that the discourse is rich in conceptual metaphors and culture-specific metaphorical expressions. furthermore, the findings highlight the significant role that artificial intelligence can play in interpreting and promoting this discourse internationally. key words: chinese economic discourse, chatgpt, digital-tech approach, post-editing, aipe, global dissemination 1. introduction in the wave of globalization, the advent of the era of artificial intelligence presents unprecedented opportunities and challenges for china’s national discourse analysis and its translation. chinese economic discourse is not only a comprehensive reflection of china’s economic reforms and national governance system but also a concentrated demonstration of the experiences and successes derived from china’s developmental path. it encompasses a wide range of topics, including economic policies, reform and development, socio-cultural issues, and ecological civilization, forming an integral part of china’s national discourse. however, due to the unique nature of china’s political system and the prevalent depiction of chinese politics by mainstream international media, chinese economic discourse is often marginalized in international communication and fails to fully showcase its unique value and appeal. with the significant enhancement of china’s international status and comprehensive national strength, countries around the world, particularly developing nations, have shown a keen interest in drawing lessons from china’s remarkable economic achievements. this not only provides a vast platform for the international dissemination of chinese economic discourse but also raises higher demands for the translation strategies associated with it. therefore, this study aims to adopt a digital humanities and translation studies perspective to conduct an in-depth analysis of the database of “xi jinping: the governance of china (vols. i-iii),” exploring the linguistic features of chinese economic discourse and its translation strategies. the goal is to provide strategic guidance for the global dissemination of chinese economic discourse. 2. literature review with the enhancement of china's comprehensive strength and the elevation of its international status, the dissemination of chinese national discourse—both domestically and internationally—has attracted significant attention from scholars in both china and abroad. this has emerged as a new perspective and a hot topic in the study of “china.” research on domestic and international dissemination has evolved from a focus on domestic communication to the construction of international discourse power, with much of the international research examining china from political and diplomatic dimensions. 2.1 research within china since the 18th national congress of the communist party of china, the construction and interpretation of the chinese political discourse system, as well as its international dissemination, have received high-level national attention (wang & zhang, 2017; qin & kong, 2019; xun, 2019; he, 2020; zhang, 2022; zhang & zhang, 2024). according to china national knowledge infrastructure (cnki), there have been a total of 1,685 research papers over the past 70 years related to the translation and dissemination of chinese political discourse/texts/literature. over half of these focus specifically on the translation of political works by party and state leaders (i.e., 864 papers). the primary research perspectives include studies on the types of chinese political discourse from the viewpoint of discourse genres, interpretations of party and state leaders’ discourse within a hermeneutic framework, linguistic features of chinese communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 14 political discourse from a linguistic standpoint, and translation studies of chinese political discourse from the perspective of communication and translation. from the perspective of communication studies, research has focused on both the intrinsic translation (e.g., translating from chinese to ethnic minority languages) and the interlingual translation (e.g., chinese to english, chinese to japanese), including studies on external translation dissemination strategies, translator decision-making, translation norms, and international acceptance or effectiveness (si & zeng, 2021; zhao & zhao, 2022; wang, 2023a). in terms of textual data, most studies focus on xi jinping: the governance of china. existing research often centers on issues related to the language and translation of specific volumes of the book, addressing topics such as metaphor translation, classical allusions, classical poetry and prose, subtexts, community of shared future for mankind, idioms, causative sentences, cognates, pragmatic markers, terminology standardization, culture-loaded terms, diplomatic discourse styles, euphemisms, and china-specific terminology (e.g., zhang, 2020). many studies leverage theoretical perspectives such as translation studies on external propaganda translations, german functionalism, post-editing, ecological translation studies, relevance theory, narratology, and reception theory to discuss translation strategies, methods, and principles related to the transformation, rephrasing, explicit strategies, creative translation, foreignization, and interpretation of chinese political and diplomatic discourse (e.g., zhong & fan, 2018). however, research driven by corpora in the context of external propaganda translation remains scarce, with notable exceptions such as ye and zhu (2022) and wang (2023a). these diverse studies provide valuable insights, particularly reflections and suggestions for the international dissemination of chinese political discourse within communication studies (guo, 2020). however, research within china is largely constrained by modern western disciplinary boundaries, with few scholars systematically exploring the translation publication and international dissemination of chinese economic reform discourse from interdisciplinary or digital humanities perspectives (wang & li, 2024). there is a pressing need for research focused on the significance of chinese economic reform discourse and the construction of its international discourse system. 2.2 overview of international research according to the web of science (wos) database, international research on chinese political discourse began later and remains relatively sparse. sydney (1998) highlighted the identity construction issues concerning ethnic minorities within chinese political discourse, drawing academic attention. since the 21st century, international political and cultural researchers have increasingly discussed themes such as democracy, gender, development, environment, diplomacy, the “belt and road initiative,” and territorial issues from a post-colonial perspective (demirtepe & ozertem, 2013; noesselt, 2016; goron, 2018; bertulessi, 2024). however, very few studies have examined the international role of chinese economic discourse (exceptions include munyrith & jiatai, 2020). the relevant works published by chinese scholars internationally primarily belong to the linguistic domain, focusing on corpus-driven political discourse analysis or research on translation strategies (wang, 2017; chen, 2020; wu & cheng, 2022; pan & wang, 2021). research combining the fields of publishing dissemination and translation studies is extremely rare. furthermore, the international translation studies community has begun to pay attention to the recent hot topics concerning the translation and dissemination of chinese political discourse, even dedicating special sections for calls for papers, such as the theme for the translator in 2024. international research is gradually transitioning from cross-cultural perspectives to interdisciplinary studies, which is significant in providing guidance and promoting progress. however, much of it tends to deconstruct chinese political discourse and distort the image of its leaders from a western discourse framework, often leading to a narrow focus that fails to recognize the international publication and dissemination of economic discourse within the chinese political discourse system. consequently, this has hindered the formation of theories, strategies, or methods intended to guide the dissemination of economic discourse and china’s reform experiences. 3. language features and translation strategies of chinese economic discourse by collecting bilingual corpora from xi jinping: the governance of china (volumes i to iii), we established a parallel database comprising over one million chinese characters and more than 700,000 english words. these three volumes include 79 significant works (arranged in 18 chapters) from xi jinping published between november 15, 2012 and june 13, 2014, 99 important works (in 17 chapters) from august18, 2014 to september 29, 2017, and 92 important works (in 19 chapters by topic) from october 18, 2017 to january 13, 2021. 3.1 keywords in chinese economic discourse communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 15 in the era of big data and artificial intelligence, we can conduct comprehensive and systematic visual analysis of the chinese economic discourse database by adopting the data-digital approach (wang, 2023b). the total word tokens for volumes i to iii are 753,318 and 481,751, respectively. the high-frequency words are summarized in table 1. table1. high-frequency words in the bilingual database chinese corpus english corpus rank word freq. rank word freq. 1 2085 1 people 2129 2 1653 2 china 2057 3 1518 3 development 1999 4 1334 4 party 1823 5 1293 5 chinese 1636 6 1185 6 work 949 7 1054 7 reform 883 8 1037 8 economic 821 9 997 9 system 695 10 980 10 build/s/ing/built 636 11 851 11 cpc 604 12 788 12 security 489 13 683 13 culture/al 458 14 641 14 growth 456 15 553 15 need 451 16 552 16 leadership 419 17 506 17 interests 404 18 392 18 economy 392 19 383 19 progress 391 20 366 20 long 384 21 366 21 develop 359 22 358 22 opening 337 23 339 23 market 311 24 332 24 innovation 310 25 328 25 peace 290 26 301 26 poverty 260 27 287 27 environment 232 28 279 28 education 217 29 273 29 stability 205 30 265 30 resources 200 using an online word frequency statistics tool (https://www.lzltool.cn/word-frequency), we can visualize the highfrequency words to understand the topics present in the economic discourse of the original texts. this visualization aligns closely with table1, indicating that the high-frequency content words in chinese economic discourse include: people, socialism, economy, country, issues, system, comprehensive, characteristics, leadership, system, spirit, path, reform, mechanism, development, deepening, stability, and resources among others. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 16 figure 1. visualization of high-frequency words in chinese economic discourse 3.2 rhetoric and translation strategies of chinese economic discourse chinese economic discourse features distinctive chinese expressions, terminological specificity, metaphorical usage, allusions, poetic qualities, and xi jinping’s particular wording style. consequently, it embodies a high degree of economy, literary quality, philosophical depth, and experiential insight into china’s economic development. due to space constraints, we will focus on metaphorical expressions within the economic discourse found in the database, employing ai to compare the translations of professional translators with those generated by ai to explore how technology can better serve the international dissemination of chinese economic discourse in the ai era. (1) keywords of chinese economic discourse: reform china’s national discourse system has undergone significant shifts, evolving through revolutionary discourse, construction discourse, and reform discourse. the reform discourse is a central reflection of china’s economic development (wang & li, 2024). metaphor is a commonly used rhetorical strategy in articulating chinese economic discourse, allowing for a vivid conveyance of the implications of economic policies and development ideas, thereby exerting a more powerful and far-reaching persuasive effect on readers. by exploring the database, we can identify a plethora of metaphors utilized to explain core terms in chinese economic discourse, including “reform” (e.g., deep water zone, tackling tough battles, hard nuts to crack, opening green lights, etc.), “development” (e.g., dual-wheel, dual wings, new normal, new track, baton, quality revolution, artisan spirit, supply-side reform, etc.), “innovation” (e.g., mass innovation, sharp blade), “regulation” (e.g., fine-tuning, expansive stimulus, strategic resolve, targeted regulation, timely regulation, precision regulation, “six ensures” and “six guarantees,” etc.), “ecology” (e.g., declaring war on pollution, building a beautiful china, “green mountains and clear waters are as valuable as mountains of gold and silver,” blue sky defense war, “five-in-one” strategy, scientific policymaking, treatment of both symptoms and root causes, strong-armed governance, green consumption, carbon peak, carbon neutrality), and “outcomes” (e.g., building a moderately prosperous society in all respects, targeted poverty alleviation, lifting out of poverty, designation of poverty alleviation efforts, rural revitalization, sustained efforts). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 17 figure 2. visualization of keywords in chinese economic discourse: reform in the chinese database of volumes i to iii, “ ” (deepening or furthering reform) appears 210 times, while “reform” appears 883 times in the english database, with occurrences of 425, 260, and 260 in volumes i, ii, and iii, respectively. this keyword is concentrated in the early parts of each volume but runs throughout the economic discourse of the text. by further analyzing its collocates, we encounter the following constructs: verb + reform: drive ... to a deeper level, promote ... in all respects, continue ... in all areas, carry out, launch, advance, further, achieve, support, center on, initiate, carry forward, uphold, introduce, keep on, uphold, ensure, push forward, integrate, seek, extend, adopt, etc. noun phrases: reform and opening up, the reform and opening-up policy, the reform and opening-up initiative, the reform and opening-up drive, the reform and opening-up move, the reform and opening-up effort, the reform and opening-up period, the reform and opening-up process, the pre-reform-and-opening-up phase, the post-reformand-opening-up phase, reform and development, reform and innovation, etc. adj. + reform: comprehensive, progressive, systematic, integrated, coordinated, economic, structural, social, financial, supply-side, soe (state-owned enterprise), all-round, continuous, continued, overall, deeper, profound, etc. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 18 figure 3. concordance plot of the keyword “reform” (2) conceptual metaphor network of reform contemporary metaphor studies generally propose that metaphors are not just rhetorical devices enriching language expression but are crucial cognitive modes underlying human thought (lakoff & johnson, 1980). chinese economic discourse contains rich metaphorical expressions that vividly describe and elucidate the nuanced meanings behind china’s economic reform and development. by “close reading” the context of the 883 occurrences of “reform” in the database, we can derive a collection of conceptual metaphors related to the discourse of “reform”: ∑reform is x = {reform is action, reform is travelling, reform is marching, reform is sailing, reform is driving, reform is grazing, reform is flying, reform is playing, reform is gardening, reform is battling, reform is eating, reform is illness, reform is nailing, ...}. figure 4. the conceptual metaphor network of reform (3) metaphorical expressions and translation comparison in chinese economic discourse, the rhetoric of “reform” contains both shared conceptual metaphors between chinese and english and unique metaphorical expressions within its specific context. we contend that universally shared conceptual metaphors are relatively easy to understand and translate, and ai can provide appropriate translations. however, for metaphorical expressions that are unique to the context of chinese reform and culture, ai can assist in enhancing our understanding and rendering of the source texts from xi jinping: the governance of china (xi, 2014, 2017, 2020). source text 1: ( 2018) source text 1 romanized: gǎi gé kāi fàng zhǐ yǒu jìn xíng shí, méi yǒu wán chéng shí. target text: reform and opening up is always ongoing and will never end. (xi, vol. i) ai chatgpt-4o: reform and opening-up is an ongoing process, never a completed one. aipe: china’s reform and opening-up is an ongoing process rather than a completed one. here, the conceptual metaphor of “reform is action” is applied, making the source text easy to understand. both versions effectively capture the intended meaning and convey it clearly. however, the official translation (tt1) is slightly softer and more nuanced in terms of the tone, as the ai translation highlights a more gradual and developmental perspective. by post-editing it, we can produce a refined version, i.e., the aipe version. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 19 source text 2: ( 2018) source text 2 romanized: zhōng guó gǎi gé yǐ jìn rù shēn shuǐ qū, kě yǐ shuō, róng yì de, jiē dà huān xǐ de gǎi gé yǐ jīng wán chéng le, hǎo chī de ròu dōu chī diào le, shèng xià de dōu shì nán kěn de yìng gú tou. target text: china’s reform is sailing in uncharted waters with tough challenges. it can be said that the easy part of the job has been done to the satisfaction of all. what is left are tough bones that are hard to chew. (xi, vol. i) ai chatgpt-4o: china’s reforms have entered deep waters. it can be said that the easy and widely welcomed reforms have already been completed; the good and juicy parts have been consumed, and what remains are the tough bones that are hard to chew. aipe: china’s reforms are navigating challenging waters. it can be said that the easy and widely supported reforms— akin to the juicy parts—have been completed, leaving behind the tough bones that are hard to chew. compared with the official translation, the ai version stays closer to the original meaning while maintaining clarity and flow; it effectively captures the metaphor of undertaking a challenging phase of reforms, making it accessible to and resonate well with a broader readership. however, considering the sentence structure of ai translation is a bit repetitive and redundant, we post-edit into a refined version. source text 3: “ ” “ ” ( 2017) source text 3 romanized: zài tuī jìn zhè “sì gè quán miàn” guò chéng zhōng, wǒ men jì yào zhù zhòng zǒng tǐ móu huà, yòu yào zhù zhòng qiān zhù “niú bí zi”. target text: in implementing this strategy, we should attend to both general planning and specific, critical problems. (xi, vol. ii) ai chatgpt-4o:“in promoting these ‘four comprehensives,’ we must focus on overall planning while also paying attention to key points.” aipe: in promoting these “four comprehensives,” we must strike a balance between the broader picture and the finer details. comparatively speaking, both the official and ai translations lose the metaphorical depth of the original text, and thus are less poetic. by looking in the dictionaries and chat with ai, the original metaphor can be rendered into “cut off the head of the snake” or “take the bull by the horns”, both of which are slightly different from the nuanced meaning underlying the source text. by adopting a more balanced and metaphorical approach, we post-editing the ai translation into a more metaphorical expression that conveys a sense of diligence in planning while also focusing on critical aspects. source text 4: ( 2017) source text 4 romanized: zhōng guó duì wài kāi fàng, bú shì yào yī jiā chàng dú jiǎo xì, ér shì yào huān yíng gè fāng gòng tóng cān yù, bú shì yào móu qiú shì lì fàn wéi, ér shì yào zhī chí gè guó gòng tóng fā zhǎn, bú shì yào yíng zào zì jǐ de hòu huā yuán, ér shì yào jiàn shè gè guó gòng xiǎng de bǎi huā yuán. target text: china’s opening up is not a one man show; it welcomes joint efforts from other countries; it is not a fight for spheres of influence, or a means of building a “garden” in its own backyard, but to support the common development of all countries or build a “park” that can be shared by the international community. (xi, vol. ii) ai chatgpt-4o: china’s approach to opening up to the outside world is not about staging a one-man show, but rather inviting all parties to participate; it is not about seeking spheres of influence, but supporting the development of all countries; it is not about creating its own exclusive backyard, but building a garden shared by all nations. the ai version not only vividly conveys the metaphors, but also reproduces the tone and intention of the original text, that is, by repeating the “not about, but rather” structure thrice, it expresses the original text’s reaffirmation of the purpose of china's reform with a serious tone. 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 82 an analysis of cultural symbolism in the bewitching braid (1996) jiayao zhu1, yingjun liu2 1ma student, faculty of english language and culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: zhujiayao0307@126.com 2corresponding author, part-time researcher at the institute of hermeneutics, lecturer at the department of laotian, faculty of asian languages and cultures, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: 15011901018@163.com abstract china has enjoyed a long history of communicating with portugal since ancient times with macao playing a significant role as a bridge. as one of the earliest platforms where chinese and portuguese cultures meet, collide, and communicate, macao continues demonstrating its rising potential in economic and cultural communication in the new era. when talking about literary and artistic works that reflect cultural collision and communication between china and portugal, the trailblazing movie the bewitching braid (1996) exemplifies the highest quality of macao film production. approaching from the perspective of stuart hall’s representation, the present study analyzes the strategies of the film in representing the diversity and harmony of chinese and portuguese cultures. it shows the film has organized a series of symbols in chinese and portuguese cultures to construct visual aesthetics that arouses interest from both sides. then it digs up the shared predicaments, attitudes and values of the protagonists to achieve the foundation of cultural harmony. in light of what has been found above and the results of a recent survey questionnaire on chinese culture dissemination overseas, the paper tries to offer inspiration for the future macao film production to enhance cultural communication between china and portuguese-speaking countries. specifically, it includes applying unique cultural codes, creating artworks based on social issues, and exploring familiar cultural patterns. keywords: the bewitching braid, representation, symbolism, sino-portuguese communication 1. introduction portugal has been one of the countries that enjoyed the most extended history of contact with china since the age of discovery. relevant historical records provide evidence of more than 400 years of sino-potuguese communication since the first portuguese jorge alvares arrived at the pearl river outlet in the guangdong region in 1513 of the ming dynasty (huang, 1999). the arrival of alvares, who was designated to trade nanyang spices as well as collect national information, has henceforth initiated various degrees of commercial intercourse from handicraft porcelain and tin products to raw materials of raw silk and chinese traditional medicine (wang, 2016). by the 16th century, the portuguese had almost monopolized important trading points with macao as their base, the only open port for overseas trade in china for 400 years. they mainly took control of the three major shipping routes of macao-india-lisbon, macao-nagasaki and macao-manila-mexico. to take an overlook at the map, the three shipping routes compose a triangle which is later known as the “the great triangle trade”. as an international trade club, macao was arguably not only a market for products from mainland china to the rest of the world, but also a trading hub for world products entering mainland china at ancient times. in the modern age, macao continues to demonstrate its strength as a bridge in sino-portuguese communication due to its exceptional location and history. in 2003, the forum for economic and trade co-operation between china and portuguese-speaking countries was initiated and hosted by the ministry of commerce of the people’s republic of china, and undertaken by the macao special administrative region (sar) government. seven portuguese-speaking countries, including angola, brazil, cape verde, guinea bissau, mozambique, portugal, and timor leste, actively responded and participated in it. wu yi, vice-premier of the state council of china, pointed out macao’s unique role in further serving as a bridge and link between mainland china and portuguese-speaking countries due to the resembling cultural foundation (guo, 2011). recently on june 26, 2024, an official report on the belt and road infrastructure development index has highlighted the advantage of macao’s function as sino-portuguese cooperation platform and manifested its outstanding contributions to the initiative (xu and zhu, 2024). as a window of communication between the east and the west from ancient times to the present, macao has shown its indispensable position and enduring potential as the platform that connects china and portuguese-speaking countries. in the future with the deepening globalization, to communicate with portuguese-speaking countries in greater scope and depth requires more attention of macao as an in-between medium, both economically and culturally. as a category of mass media, cinema features appealing impression and sense of reality. such unparalleled advantages outweigh the previous single mode of cultural dissemination, making cinema one of the most popular and influential forms of cultural communication today (chen, 2018). released in 1995, the bewitching braid (henceforth the braid) is acclaimed as the quintessence of collision and fusion of chinese and portuguese cultures. co-produced by the pearl river film company communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 83 and cai brothers (macao) film co., the braid is believed to unveil the program of macao’s independent film production (xing, 1996) as it was invested, directed and shot by the local and it reflected indigenous issues. set against the background of the 1930s, it tells a romantic story full of twists and turns between a portuguese aristocratic young man adozindo and a poor chinese water seller a-leng. the movie is adapted from the novel of henrique de senna fernandes (1923-2010), a macanese who was devoted to exploring the cultural foundation of the rising group of his own and their social predicament under the transition of the society. displaying exotic charm and expressing sincere feelings, the film obtains high reputation both domestically and internationally, winning a series of awards including the “best co-production feature film award” of the 19th hundred flowers award for popular film, and the special award at the 25th figueira da foz international film festival, etc. reviews of the braid reach agreement on the profundity of themes and aesthetics of various visual images that represent chinese and portuguese cultures (zhang, 2020). some claim it “points out the way for macao’s future movies by establishing the fundamental motif of cultural conflict and integration between the east and the west through visual imagery (yao, 2021).” yet despite the recognition from all sides, few have delved into how the film has reconfigured those visual symbols to represent chinese and portugal cultures, and how they function to serve universal themes against the backdrop of the handover of macao to china. in light of the above, this paper aims to investigate how the visual images are interwoven with the film’s themes. then, it explores how a shared cultural foundation is set and later achieved under a particular historical background. finally, in light of what has been found, this paper also tries to combine the results of a recent questionnaire to provide advice for better cultural communication between china and portugal with macao as a vital intermediary platform. 2. stuart hall’s theory of representation representation is one of the keywords in cultural studies and literary theory studies, with its meaning involving almost all fields of humanities and social science. the core of representation lies in the construction of meaning. “it is by our use of things, and what we say, think and feel about them -how we represent them -that we give them a meaning” (hall, 2003:3). cultural critic stuart hall clearly stated that representation is the production of the meaning of the concepts in our minds through language (hall, 2003:17). the meaning process of culture involves two systems of representation--the first amounts to a conceptual system of understanding and interpreting the world. in everyone’s brain there is a set of concepts or mental representations, a “conceptual map” referred to by hall, in which all kinds of objects, people, events, etc, are correlated. it enables one to give meaning to the world by different ways of organizing, clustering, arranging and classifying concepts, and of establishing complex relations (hall, 2003:17). to a great extent, the reason that those who can communicate share a similar conceptual map. the second system entails the function of language. the conceptual map is shared by being translated into a common language so that “we can correlate our concepts and ideas with certain written words, spoken sounds or visual images” (hall, 2003:18). things like words, sounds, images, etc, are all generally termed as signs. signs can be organized into language and it is the common language that enables us to translate our thoughts (concepts) into words, sounds or images, and then to use them as a language. it should be noted that language is used in a broader sense here and later in the paper. through the second system people are able to express and communicate. in conclusion, the relation of “things”, signs and concepts lies at the heart of the production of meaning in language (hall, 2003:19), and the process of how the three elements are linked and intertwined is what we call representation. 3. representation of diversity: displaying cultural difference the braid casts the audience of both sides to the exotic imagination of the concepts of family, love and foreign people by exhibiting diverse or even contradictory cultural symbols of the chinese and the portuguese. through the meticulous arrangement of a series of expressive visual signs, the film aesthetically and meaningfully conveys the message of different conceptions and practices in diverse cultures. 3.1 concepts of family: adozindo’s detached house and a-leng’s cheok chai un the different concepts of family and community of portuguese and chinese are represented by a detached house of adozindo’s family versus a chinese residential quarter called cheok chai un. according to hall, any sound, word, image or object can function as a sign and is able to be organized with other signs into a system that is capable of carrying meaning (hall, 2003:19). from this viewpoint, the concepts of family which consist of a series of embodiment can be deciphered for the significance behind. the male protagonist of the braid, adozindo comes from a respected and wealthy portuguese family who runs a shipping service family and they live in a big white house halfway up the mountain. the height of the house location symbolizes the high social class of adozindo’s family as a traditionally respected european one. the clean, bright and the spacious villa enjoyed by the adozindo family is a typical product of western supremacy in the colonized macao. the family’s culture is significantly compressed in a sailboat model displayed in the living room which indicates the family business and the pride of the great navigation. in fact, the colonial quality the house releases is homogenous to the patriarchy from which adozindo is inflicted. adozindo’s father has the only final say in the family as he frequently urges, interrogates and even threatens adozindo when it comes to the already arranged marriage of adozindo with a wealthy widow lucrécia. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 84 the mother and sister in all lenses are silenced both technically and allegorically. a traditional western family of that time is represented at heart: decent and free outwardly yet haunted by patriarchy inside. a-leng lives in a small room in the poor chinese quarter of cheok chai un. in the colonial period of macao, the chinese community struggles as the socially disadvantaged group and occupies less living materials than the portuguese. though faced with such an unfavorable environment, the members live their lives in solidarity and mutual assistance with a buoyant life attitude. a-leng’s adopted mother is the chief of the community, who has the power to decide the punishment and exile of the members. the chinese community that is represented as a matriarchal society, seems to echo those of adozindo’s, but such an arrangement indeed has its cultural background. record has that the local fisherfolk have a long history of worshiping maze, the chinese goddess of the sea (chen, 1999). the a-ma temple, which has a direct influence on the naming of macao by the portuguese, is frequented by the local chinese in all the important festivals. from the perspective of the historical process, the chinese community is in close relation to the female goddess and thus tinged with the matriarchal aura. besides, others see that as the retrospect for a particular indigenous group of dan family which is the matriarchal symbol of the birth of the macanese (su, 2004). like adozindo, a-leng cannot have her free will in deciding her marriage. the chinese family is portrayed as united and helpful, but in it personal affairs like marriage will be interfered to a great extent. 3.2 practices of love: trestle bridge and water well one of the vital themes of the braid, the love between the protagonists of distinct cultural background is symbolized by using typical symbols from the two cultures. for adozindo, he likes to date a-leng in a macao-style bridge as the rendezvous, a trestle bridge. the bridge appears three times in the film, with each time a-leng gradually accepting his courtship. in the west, the image of bridge is rich in symbolism and one of it is about love and romance. to look at the history of western film industry, the hollywood landmark waterloo bridge (1840) exemplifies the image of bridge as the symbol of ardent love where myra sacrifices her life out of her love for roy. besides, another prominent movie the bridge of madison county (1995) relates the symbol of a bridge to love on full-fledged level by depicting an audacious extramarital affair yet affectionate love. all of the above indicates that the image of bridge in the west is related to the passionate and open attitude of love. adozindo just features such an enthusiastic way of expressing his feelings. he falls in love with a-leng at first sight, straightforwardly articulates his affection and rushes to kiss her shortly after they begin dating. western concept and practice of love that adozindo holds are thus represented spatially by the trestle bridge. the traditional chinese concept of love is represented spatially by the water well area where a-leng is accustomed to chilling with her friends. in china, especially in the less civilized regions, a well does not merely provides the daily water supply, but it works as a social communication platform. apart from fetching water daily, the neighbors would like to gather and chat more or less, achieving emotional and intellectual exchange (hu, 2006). in this sense, a well area equals to an epitome of traditional chinese community. in this environment, personal affairs could be exposed to the public. when adozindo first comes to the well area, trying to be friendly to a-leng in front of the crowd, she bears the stares from around and feels annoyed, hurrying to leave the scene. later when adozindo visits again, she even feels so ashamed that she beats adozindo with the pole when he says he like her long black braid. the quite a few close-ups of the neighbors staring, gossiping and sneering create the same predicament that a-leng is facing for audience. by this the concept of love in chinese culture is better expressed: conservative, inward and implicit. besides, the well also implies the chinese quality of loyalty in love, as a well is unmovable and settled forever. thus chinese practice of love is conveyed in spatial form through the symbol of the well where a-leng is attached to. 3.3 views of foreign people: adozindo’s white suit and a-leng’s black braid in terms of shaping characters that represent the chinese and portuguese, the film has arranged typical features that arouse exotic interest. for adozindo’s part, western culture is personified by his frequently-worn complete set of white suit. clean, fitted and of high quality, the white suit reveals the wealthiness and good manner of adozindo. later in the film when adozindo is kicked out of his family, he barely wears his suit and it is when he struggles with poverty and starts to blame aleng sometimes. the white suit also visually leaks out the information of the civilized nature of the west. in fact, the colonial career that brings fortune to many portuguese like the adozindo’s family can never be regarded as polite and civilized for its brutal nature. in this sense the white suit only serves as a disguise of colonists’ so-called civilization. nevertheless adozindo at the end proves his genuine understanding and considerate personality from heart, not needing any special outfit for illustration. thus, the significance of the white suit is involved with multiple levels as the combination of typical personality as well as western culture. the characteristics of a traditional chinese woman fulfills its symbolism in a-leng’ long and black braid. adozindo’s falling for the braid at first sight is less a burst of desire than his obsession with the chinese culture behind it. well cared and preserved for a longtime, the braid symbolizes the caring disposition and enduring emotion of a chinese wife. besides, containing the trait of belonging, the braid alludes to the affiliation of a wife to the husband as a-leng claims to cut it if communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 85 aodzindo no longer loves her. though some believes that the “big braids” and long red cloth wrapping the chest in the film are portrayed as oriental spectacles carrying sexual symbols, with a strong postcolonial connotation (yao, 2021), it succeeds in presenting chinese cultural aesthetics and evincing the merits of chinese people through visual representation. 4. representation of harmony: establishing common humanity for hall, a shared language (here an extensive and inclusive term) functions as the dominant force during the process of exchanging meanings and concepts. the functioning of the second system, relies on constructing a series of relations between one’s conceptual map and others signs organized into languages. it is through the common language that one can express meanings and communicate thoughts to others (hall, 2003:18). in the braid, despite all kinds of cultural differences and even confrontations, adozindo and a-leng are able to express their ideas, communicate in harmony and finally understand each other through the representation of common language. 4.1 similar predicament: family interference in marriage though adozindo differentiates a-leng concerning the attitude and practice of love, they unite in the suffering of family’s obstruction in their marriage. when talking about the meaning, hall points out that it is constructed and fixed by the code, which sets up the correlation between our conceptual system and our language system (hall, 2003:18). as what has been discussed above, the two protagonists come from distinct organizations of family that are typical of portuguese and chinese. in order to set them in the same dilemma of enjoying no right to free love, the film actually has made the different settings in concordance with different social realities of both sides. adozindo’s right to get his true love has to be sacrificed for the family business, while a-leng is subjected to her clan’s taboo of exogamy out of a traumatized memory. the prohibition of exogamy results from a previous incident when a chinese girl was exploited and deserted by a portuguese. consequently, they both incurred isolation and exile. the common plight is constructed through different traditional cultural codes from the portuguese and chinese conceptual systems. in this way the audience shares the same sympathy for the protagonists and achieves an emotional connection. the common ground of the structure of feelings lays the base for later broader cultural communication and integration. furthermore, the families of both sides connote to the two countries they represent in historical context at the time when the movie was filmed. the reconciliation of the two families at the end signifies the agreement of the chinese and portuguese governments on the issue of macao’s handover. 4.2 shared emotion: sincere love for each other although differing in conceiving and practicing love, adozindo and a-leng share the exact value of love that unites them against cultural conflicts. as discussed previously, adozindo features western ways of expressing love in a straightforward, ardent, and passionate way. the case of adozindo would be more significant in that he undergoes the transition from a typical portuguese dandy from upper class in macao of the day, to a macaunese who respects and cherishes the love of his life. in the very beginning, adozindo sees a-leng as a challenge in his numerous pursuits for women, an oriental beauty that he can philander and then abandon. however, he takes a fateful turn and takes her seriously as he realizes a-leng is nothing but a human being just like him. the transformation of adozindo amounts to a man of a particular race and social class to one with general humanity. for a-leng, her early xenophobia, as the result of collective trauma, shuns her from facing up to her inner affection for adozindo. she has also undergone a transformation into a brave, independent, and strong-minded woman after her sensitization to adozindo’s love and resolve to respond to him. in this sense, the figure of a-leng has been elevated from a commoner with a narrow worldview to one embracing values that are universally recognized. moreover, the transition of the characters bears more profound significance in the social milieu of that time. premiered before the incoming of the handover of macao to china, the braid on the one hand expresses the spirit of the residents with the shared humanity in the land of hybrid cultures. on the other, it signifies the subject of the new citizens that china, portugal, and the new macao would like to interpellate to construct a promising future for the new land. 4.3 common attitude: mutual understanding for cultural distinction both at first holding prejudiced beliefs towards people from other racial backgrounds, adozindo and a-leng reach mutual understanding through communicating within the same discourse sphere. for hall, to exchange meanings effectively between people, they must share the same way of interpreting the signs of a language (hall, 2003:19). though adozindo and aleng love each other, they are still beset by their cultural variation from time to time. for example, a-leng takes a long time to accept adozindo out of her stereotype of western males: arrogant, lecherous, and irresponsible womanizers. at that time adozindo works as a silent and passive code misinterpreted by a-leng. later when the chinese maidservant of the adozindo family told a-leng that he was a polite, well-mannered, and grateful man unlike others of his ethnic group, she began to involve him in what hall calls her conceptual system, and understood him in the right way. a similar situation also comes when a-leng once belches when they dinnered together. adozindo felt irked for he criticized her as uncivilized because, in the west, it is considered impolite to make any noise when eating on a table. a-leng refuted how is it uncivilized when communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 86 i am so satisfied with the food that i get full? many chinese hold that belching means that one eats well as a physical compliment for the food. hall sees a cultural code as the result of a set of social conventions (hall, 2003:22). bearing different meanings in different cultures, a belch can be undisputed through effective communication within one discourse sphere. besides, they also differ in a-leng s custom of bearing foot. adozindo feels ashamed while a-leng practices it to preserve her only shoes. after a-leng heartbreakingly pours out her ideas of baring foot and her love for adozindo, their prejudice clears up and they understand each other. at the end of the film adozindo even takes off his leather shoes after the wedding, showing an act of really integrating into a-leng s culture. 5. inspirations for producing favorable cultural products for communication macao has proved its pivotal role as a platform in sino-portuguese cultural communication. as a work of art acclaimed by both sides, the braid offers a series of inspirations for producing more popular cultural creations to enhance cultural communication between china and portuguese-speaking countries. recently, a research team from the institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, has done a service about the validity and reliability of chinese culture in overseas communication in portuguese-speaking countries. forty-six questionnaire results have been collected before the paper is written. the respondents are mainly from portugal, cape verde, and macao, with various occupations and age groups from 18 to 60. this part of the paper will try to combine the strategies the braid uses for cultural representation and the results of the service to provide suggestions for cultural production that will realize communication between china and portuguese-speaking countries. 5.1 application of abundant cultural codes the profound histories and traditional cultures of china and portuguese-speaking countries provide inexhaustible resources for cultural production, from which special cultural codes can be organized to stimulate interest. to elaborate, tangible cultural practices like festivals, costumes, architecture, and so on are inspiring choices to be organized into creating a film or a novel. on the question which aspect of chinese culture interests you the most, 29 out of 46 chose history and culture and 9 chose folk custom. such preference for history, culture, and custom demonstrates the primary inclination of the foreign interest that artistic producers cannot neglect. macao has developed a diverse and coexisting lifestyle and customs influenced by the eastern and western cultures. for example, the lantern festival and the portuguese carnival occur on the same day in the braid. the hybrid and tolerant cultural environment serves as the platform for communication with mutual respect. it is described as a buffer zone between the eastern and the western cultures (xu, 2021). as the outline development plan for the guangdong-hong kong-macao greater bay area was issued in 2019, macao has the rising potential to be constructed as an exchange and cooperation stage with chinese culture as the mainstream and diverse cultures coexist. 5.2 creation based on social issues to create literary and artistic works of high quality, the contents must be carefully chosen and reconfigured to reflect the social reality and meet the requirements of the times. in the case of the braid, the disparity between different classes and nations is overshadowed by the theme of interracial marriage because it is one of the significant social issues in macao at the time when the film was shot. in fact, it restores more or less the origin of an important indigenous group, macanese, a mixed community of the chinese and the portuguese. it is through the representation of the local community of macanese that lots of local films showcase the fusion and harmonious coexistence of the eastern and western cultures. though the braid may be criticized for its fairy-tale and unrealistic plots, the happy ending indeed works as a comfort for all sides due to the true mirror of people s wishes. on the question of to what extent do the contents of chinese culture resonate with you, over half of the answers go to generally and less, showing a passive inclination of resonance. it indicates the urgency in artwork production of seeking common issues that both chinese people and those from portuguese-speaking countries can relate to. 5.3 exploration of familiar cultural patterns literary and artistic creation with profundity should never eschew exploring narrative patterns that are familiar to both sides, contemplating common human predicaments, and searching for shared solutions. as mentioned above, the braid is adapted from the portuguese novel by henrique de senna fernandes. as a macanese intellectual, he has profound knowledge of both chinese and portuguese literary traditions and is able to weave them into his novels that express and explore the macanese predicament in times of change. the english translator of the novel, david brookshaw, points out the echoes of the braid of the portuguese romantics, in which a-leng hovers between the slave heroine of bernardo guimarães s nineteenth-century brazilian novel, a escrava isaura (the slave girl isaura), and jorge amado s later brazilian barefoot beauty, gabriela, in the novel gabriela cravo e canela (gabriela clove and cinammon) (brookshaw, 2004). likewise, fernandes storytelling pattern resembles chinese traditional literary narrative, especially in the delighted ending. the butterfly-like kites in the last scene recall the chinese classic masterpiece the romance of liang shanbo and zhu yingtai. consequently, writers and artists communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 87 should be acquainted with the literary traditions and look for the similarity of storytelling in the cultures of china and portuguese-speaking countries to create works with universal recognition. 6. conclusion in the service on “among the contemporary cultural forms, which one do you find most attractive to you,” “movies and tv dramas” ranks the most with 33 out of 46. the choices, not surprisingly, prove the overwhelming dominance of mass media in cultural dissemination in today’s media era. cultural products like films, tv dramas and short videos and the messages they carry unconsciously permeate people’s everyday life and mentality. the braid, considered as the first macao movie, has gained a worldwide reputation since its release, exemplifying a classic cross-cultural love film with universal significance. the present study, probing from the perspective of representation, tries to account for the movie’s underlying cultural significance. in representing the different ideas of family, love and foreign people, the braid has organized a series of symbols unique in chinese and portuguese cultures to construct visual aesthetics which arouse interest from both sides. then despite all the cultural divergences, the braid digs out the common predicament faced by adozindo and a-leng, transforming them into ones that respect, understand and appreciate each other’s cultures through their partnership. through these strategies of harmony in diversity, the braid succeeds in achieving great fame from both sides and promoting cultural dissemination and communication with macao playing as the platform. to draw suggestions from macao’s story, literary and artistic production can fully apply cultural codes to their works from the profound chinese cultural resources. besides, common problems should be explored and the shared solutions should be sought in artworks to arouse resonance. plus, creators should apprehend and learn about the literary and cultural tradition of the other’s to produce works that can be appreciated by all sides. although it has been almost 30 years since the braid was released, the inspiration on how to produce universally acclaimed movies it brings still proves effectiveness and dynamics for the people who aspire to promote cultural communication. references chen, k. 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(02),12-16.] 15-70-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 1 a reception study on avt: a literature review yuxuan jin school of foreign languages, southeast university, e-mail: jinooyx613@163.com abstract this paper reviews and collates studies on avt reception conducted inside and outside china since the beginning of the 21st century, summarizing general trends and differences in this field over the past 20 years. it is found that avt reception studies in china tend to focus on the text analysis of cultural expression and digital humanities. in contrast, avt reception studies abroad are dominated by variable-oriented comparative empirical research, with translation mode and country of translation serving as the main variables. in terms of audiovisual works selection, scholars both inside and outside china are increasingly focusing on the reception of subtitle translation in online educational videos. additionally, foreign countries are more aligned with the growing trend of game localization, audio descriptions and subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing. this paper, by reviewing the commonalities and differences in avt reception studies inside and outside china over the past 20 years, offers insights into the application of experimental and questionnaire methods in avt reception studies and broaden the analytical perspective within this field. key words: audiovisual translation, reception study, digital humanities 1. introduction in china, avt reception studies began at the start of the 21st century, but in their initial stages, these studies primarily focused on text analysis without employing empirical methods to directly analyze audience attitudes. ou (2006) is a representative example from this early period, examining audience perceptions of subtitle translation and treating it as a psycholinguistic activity. using psycholinguistic theories on word and sentence reception and understanding, the study analyzes subtitle translation from three perspectives: textual reduction, syntax, and lexical expression. while this dissertation marks an early attempt to study audience reception of subtitle translation in the early 21st century, the lack of theoretical and technical support during that time limited the study to a textual level, resulting in only nominal reception analysis without empirical exploration of audience attitudes. it was not until 2007 that chesterman introduced the distinction of three types of translation reception—reaction, response, and effect (repercussion), collectively referred to as the 3r model. however, while chesterman outlined these concepts, he did not apply them to audiovisual works nor to specific cases. at that time, the application of the 3r model to explain avt phenomena was largely absent. audiovisual translation serves as a relatively promising and evolving perspective within translation studies, though has not yet become mainstream in reception studies, either domestically or internationally. despite the long history of translation reception studies, the german functionalist approach, as outlined by nord (1997), emphasizes the importance of receptionists, who possess specific cultural background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs, as a key component of translation behavior. yet, reception studies in translation have not gained widespread attention within the field. even among the various forms of translation, audiovisual translation—despite its potential as a novel focus—remains on the periphery of reception research, both inside and outside china. over the past 20 years, there have been 354 domestic and international studies in this area, with a peak in 2018, as shown in figure 1. however, in the special issue on audiovisual translation in perspectives (2022), a. valdeón (2022) identifies reception studies as one of the emerging trends in avt research. this paper aims to systematically review the existing body of avt reception research from a diachronic perspective, summarizing historical trends and significant achievements in the field. by analyzing and evaluating literature both inside and outside china, this paper seeks to offer new insights and methodologies for future studies in avt reception research. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 2 figure 1. development in the number of audiovisual translation reception studies (2000-2024) 2. overall trends through investigation, it has been found that the mainstream trend in avt reception studies in china focuses on cultural expression, with a growing shift toward digital humanities in recent years. in contrast, outside china, the dominant trend is empirical research, often using translation mode or country as key variables. table 1 outlines the total number of avt reception studies in each region and highlights the proportion of studies following these main trends. this section will summarize the representative works within each trend and their distinguishing characteristics. table 1. the number and proportion of trends in audiovisual translation reception studies (2000-2024) rank the total number of avt reception study trend numbers proportion china 33 avt reception study on cultural expression 16 48.48% avt reception study in digital humanities turn 9 27.27% outside china 321 avt reception study as variable-oriented empirical study 284 88.47% 2.1 domestic trends: avt cultural expression reception study and digital humanities turn domestic scholars have primarily focused on the reception of specific elements such as humor and cultural expression in translated works, proposing various methodologies from the theoretical perspective of digital humanities, though empirical studies remain limited. humor translation, a key aspect of audiovisual translation, has garnered significant attention from domestic scholars in recent years. shen (2017) examines humor-loaded cultural expressions in the renren subtitles of the first season of the big bang theory, using a questionnaire to analyze audience comprehension of humorous segments. the study concludes that audience understanding of these humor-loaded expressions is generally low. similarly, wang (2018) explores audience attitudes toward humor translation in avt, again using the big bang theory as a case study to assess audience psychology via questionnaire. wang’s longer study categorizes verbal humor into four types based on humor theory, finding that humor related to science is the most comprehensible to the audience. these two studies, as typical examples of avt reception studies focused on humor translation, reflect the trend toward empirical research in domestic avt, shifting from text analysis to investigating audience attitudes. however, both studies are limited in their selection of texts and subjects, as they primarily involve college students and focus on american sitcoms. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 3 over the past five years, three major trends have emerged in domestic avt reception studies: audience-oriented, exportoriented, and digital humanities-oriented approaches. zhu (2021) is a representative avt reception study directly targeting public audience attitudes, using a questionnaire to analyze audience responses to the subtitles of emergency call. while it retains the traditional focus on textual analysis, this study finds that annotations are a favored addition for chinese audiences. a notable aspect of this study is its use of questionnaires, which not only rely on the likert scale but also incorporate text cases from audiovisual works. however, its focus on a specific audience and a single film limits the generalizability of the findings. while most scholars have examined the introduction of foreign film and television works, liang (2022) presents a typical export-oriented study on the reception of subtitle translation in chinese science fiction films. this study introduces cognitive reception methods, such as eye-tracking technology and multimodal corpus analysis, to explore the reception of chinese works abroad. liang’s research marks a rare study on the international reception of domestic works in recent years. influenced by the digital humanities trend, li and zhang (2023) have expanded the methodologies used in avt reception studies. they propose using bibliometric tools and corpus analysis to quantitatively examine audience reception, and suggest integrating geographical information systems to track the dissemination of audiovisual translations. additionally, they encourage scholars to use programming languages to analyze audience comments and attitudes. these theoretical advancements offer multiple pathways for future avt reception research. 2.2 foreign trends: variable-oriented empirical study in contrast to domestic scholars’ focus on text analysis and cultural expression, foreign avt reception studies tend to prioritize comparative empirical research, with translation mode or country as key variables. several scholars have examined the reception of dubbing versus subtitling, comparing how audiences respond to each. perego et al. (2016a) uses eye-tracking and questionnaires to test audience reception of dubbing and subtitling, analyzing whether the complexity of av products affects viewers' scanning strategies. it is found that cognitive processing of subtitled material is as effective as that of dubbed material. this study combines behavioral data and eye-tracking technology, focusing on italian audiences—a population from a dubbing country. however, the short av clips used may limit the authenticity of the results. similarly, matamala et al. (2017) conducts a comparative study in spain, another dubbing country, examining audience attitudes toward dubbing and subtitling. this study divides participants into dubbing and subtitling groups, using evaluative and cognitive questionnaires. while it does not incorporate eye-tracking, the extended av segments made the results more realistic than those of perego et al. (2016a). foreign scholars have also considered how avt traditions vary by country and how audience nationality affects reception. perego et al. (2016b) examines nationality as a variable, selecting participants from italy, spain, poland, and dutch-speaking belgium. as in matamala et al. (2017), participants are asked to complete evaluative and cognitive questionnaires during the viewing process. the results show that in traditional dubbing countries (italy and spain), participants primarily consume dubbed content but are increasingly comfortable using subtitles. this experiment highlights the importance of considering individual differences, such as nationality, in avt reception studies, as countries with dubbing traditions may have distinct viewing habits compared to those with subtitling histories. 3. differences in the media 3.1 differences in avt products selection in terms of avt product selection, in addition to film and television works, chinese scholars pay more attention to the reception of online educational video subtitle, while foreign scholars’ product is more diverse and specific. ren (2018) focuses on the reception of subtitle translation in online educational videos, with the online athlete training videos from the international olympic organizing committee as materials, to analyze the audience’s reception according to the existing subtitle quality standards. it is found that the existing online educational video subtitle translation should improve the vigilance of misspellings and the accuracy of proper nouns. the study focuses on audience reception, expanding the scope of avt’s materials to include online educational videos, not limited to film and television works. but the focus remains on the processing of text. it does not directly touch the audience, but only makes error corrections according to the existing subtitle translation standards. scholars outside china not only analyze the text, but also adopt the method of empirical study to pay attention to the audience attitude of other av products except film and television works. mangiron (2016) conducts a small-scale reception study on video game captioning through eye-tracking technology and questionnaire survey. the subjects are divided into hearing users and deaf users and are under two surveys before and after playing games with the eye tracker. this exploration expands the product types of audiovisual translation reception study. hu (2020) adopts gambier’s reception model and, with eye tracking and questionnaire survey, respectively put perspectives on mt subtitle translation of moocs. compared with chinese communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 4 students’ raw machine translated subtitles, fully post-edited machine is more widely accepted. this study also expands the product types of avt to be studied and it follows the current trend of machine translation with mt taken into consideration rather than simply official subtitles or fansubbing subtitles and the experiment design is based on a concrete reception model. 3.2 differences in ad and sdh reception studies in china, xiao weiqing is a leading expert in audio description (ad) reception studies. xiao and dong (2020) shifts the focus from subtitle and dubbing translation to ad reception studies. their study, based on two comparable episodes of when will there be a moon, uses questionnaires to analyze audience attitudes toward speech synthesis and human voice dubbing. the results indicates a preference for human voice dubbing, though speech synthesis is also considered a viable option due to its efficiency. this study, which employs eye-tracking technology, represents a rare example of ad reception research in china. the research design is comprehensive, with pre-experiment interviews conducted with users, and the study stands out for its detailed literature review, clear text expression, and rigorous quantitative data. compared to just two ad reception studies in china, there are 37 such studies in foreign countries—more than 18 times the number in china. the methodologies used in foreign studies are also more mature. figure 2 illustrates the relationship between the quantity of studies and the year of publication inside and outside china. fernandez-torne et al. (2015) analyzes the reception of text-to-speech in dubbed films in the catalan context, using questionnaires based on the mean opinion score (mos) test. the study finds that most blind or visually impaired audience members accept text-to-speech audio descriptions, particularly those with synthetic feminine voices. chmiel and mazur (2022) also examines audience attitudes toward ad, dividing subjects into groups based on congenital blindness, non-congenital blindness, and low vision. this classification allows for more specific analysis, and the universal nature of ad in foreign countries leads to more diverse experimental materials and longer experiment durations, resulting in more authentic findings. in contrast, less attention has been paid to subtitles for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (sdh) in avt in china, though relevant reception studies exist in other countries. aleksandrowicz (2019) guides participants through a differential emotions scale questionnaire based on film fragments, revealing that all subtitling methods—whether they included musical descriptions, the title of the composition and performer’s name, or no information about the music—effectively convey the mood of the film score. this study, which focuses on background music subtitles in films, represents a rare example of sdh reception research, a subject often overlooked by scholars. figure 2. development in the number of ad reception studies (2000-2024) 4. conclusion through a review and analysis of relevant literature, this paper identifies significant differences in avt reception studies inside and outside china. in terms of overall trends, china remains more focused on the study of cultural expression reception and text analysis. although some scholars, within the context of digital humanities, have proposed using geographic techniques, programming languages, corpora, eye-tracking technologies, and other methods (liang, 2022; li & zhang, 2023), research still tends to emphasize theoretical approaches, with relatively few empirical studies. in contrast, other countries focus more on variableoriented empirical studies, examining factors such as the nationality of subjects, the type of subtitle producers (machine communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 5 translation or not), and the listening status of subjects. experimental methods, questionnaires, and interviews are commonly used to assess audience reception of audiovisual works across different variables. in terms of the reception of avt products beyond film and television, chinese scholars typically rely on relatively simple materials, such as online educational videos, and concentrate on textual analysis. meanwhile, foreign scholars are also following the trend of game localization, employing eye-tracking technology, questionnaires, and other methods to explore the gaming experience or video-viewing experience outside china. avt research encompasses not only video works, online videos, and games but also includes studies on audio description (ad) and subtitles for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (sdh). the review finds that, due to the prevalence of ad outside china, there is a greater volume of ad studies in foreign contexts, with more diverse research perspectives. some studies focus on sound sources, while others emphasize text content, with more specific classifications of subjects. foreign sdh reception studies also adopt more novel perspectives, such as tracking subtitle reception for film soundtracks (aleksandrowicz, 2019). however, recent work by the chinese team led by professor xiao has begun exploring these aspects, offering promising developments in this area. references aleksandrowicz, p. (2020). can subtitles for the deaf and hard-of-hearing convey the emotions of film music? a reception study. perspectives, 28(1), 58-72. chesterman, a. (2007). bridge concepts in translation sociology. benjamins translation library, 74, 171. chmiel, a., & mazur, i. (2022). a homogenous or heterogeneous audience? audio description preferences of persons with congenital blindness, non-congenital blindness and low vision. perspectives, 30(3), 552-567. nord, c. (1997). translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. manchester: st. jerome. fernández-torné, a., & matamala, a. (2015). text-to-speech vs. human voiced audio descriptions: a reception study in films dubbed into catalan. the journal of specialised translation, 24, 61-88. hu, k., o’brien, s., & kenny, d. (2020). a reception study of machine translated subtitles for moocs. perspectives, 28(4), 521-538. li, c. h. & zhang, z. (2023).a research paradigm for audiovisual translation based on digital humanities. foreign language research, (01),61-67. [in chinese, & . (2023). . .] liang, h. w. (2022). on the cognitive-receptive study of traslation of chinese science fiction films. translation research and teaching, (1),95-100. [in chinese, . (2022). . .] matamala, a., perego, e., & bottiroli, s. (2017). dubbing versus subtitling yet again? an empirical study on user comprehension and preferences in spain. babel, 63(3), 423-441. mangiron, c. (2016). reception of game subtitles: an empirical study. the translator, 22(1), 72-93. ou, m. (2006). studies on film subtitle translation from the perspective of audience perception (master’s thesis, sichuan university). [in chinese: . (2006). ( ).] perego, e., orrego carmona, d., & bottiroli, s. (2016). an empirical take on the dubbing vs. subtitling debate: an eye movement study. lingue e linguaggi, 19, 255-274. perego, e., laskowska, m., matamala, a., remael, a., robert, i. s., szarkowska, a., ... & bottiroli, s. (2016). is subtitling equally effective everywhere? a first cross-national study on the reception of interlingually subtitled messages. across languages and cultures, 17(2), 205-229. ren, x.(2018).the quality standard of online educational videos subtitling within the perspective of reception theory (master’s thesis, cup). [in chinese: . (2018). ( , ( )).] shen, w. j.(2017).audiences’ reception of subtitle translation for verbal cultural humor: taking the big bang theory as an empirical case. journal of guangdong university of foreign studies, (3),61-67. [in chinese, . (2017). —— . .] valdeón, r. a. (2022). latest trends in audiovisual translation. perspectives, 30(3), 369-381. wang, r. q.(2018).the reception of humor translation in sitcom subtitling (master’s thesis, chongqing university). [in chinese: . (2018). ( , .] xiao, w. q. & dong, l. n.(2020).new developments in audiovisual translation: the application of speech synthesis in communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 6 audio description-based on the acceptance experiments and surveys of visually impaired people. east journal of translation, (2),24-30. [in chinese, & . (2020). —— . .] zhu, l.(2021). on subtitle translation from the perspective of reception theory (master’s thesis, sichuan international studies university). [in chinese: . (2021). ( ).] communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 65 the dissemination of chinese daoist culture in arab countries yefei jiang1, shenggeng bao2 1faculty of english language and culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, china, email: 981194699@qq.com 2corresponding author, school of journalism and communication, guangdong university of foreign studies, guangzhou, china, e-mail: baoshenggeng@163.com abstract this paper provides an overview of the spread of chinese daoist culture in arab countries. it begins by tracing the historical background and evolution of daoist cultural exchanges between china and the arab world, emphasizing key moments and important scholarly writings that facilitated this intercultural dialogue. the study delves into the contributions of eminent scholars and cultural figures who have made great contributions to promoting daoist philosophy and practice in arab countries. in addition, the paper explores the attitudes and acceptance of daoist culture in arab countries, analyzing how these views have been shaped by historical interactions and contemporary influences. through an exploration of oriental perspectives, the study reveals the nuances of how daoist principles are understood and appreciated in the arab context. besides, the paper utilizes questionnaire responses from a survey of arab respondents to gauge their acceptance of chinese culture. these insights are used to identify existing challenges and opportunities in the cultural exchange process. based on this feedback, this paper proposes strategies to enhance the development and acceptance of daoist culture in arab countries. these suggestions aim to promote deeper intercultural understanding and cooperation, thereby enriching the cultural tapestry of the two civilizations. key words: chinese daoist culture, arab countries, cultural dissemination, oriental perspective 1. introduction in the era of globalization, competition among countries includes not only economic, political and military strength, but also cultural strength. as the spiritual pillar of national survival and development, culture serves a crucial role in promoting political, economic and scientific progress, and is an important criterion for measuring a country’s soft power. the dissemination of chinese culture to the outside world plays an indispensable role in shaping china’s national image, enhancing cultural soft power and promoting economic development. president xi jinping attaches great importance to the international dissemination of chinese culture. he emphasized the need to “improve international communication capabilities, tell chinese stories well, effectively disseminate chinese voices, present to the world a true, multi-dimensional and panoramic china, and enhance national cultural soft power and chinese cultural influence” (2018). the proposal and implementation of the “the belt and road initiative” have further strengthened sino-arab cultural exchanges, which can be traced back to the period of emperor wu of the han dynasty (141 b.c. to 87 b.c.), more than 2000 years ago. in ancient times, the silk road and spice route bridged the friendship between china and the arab world, promoting direct and indirect economic and trade exchanges. muhammad, the founder of islam, once told his followers, “seek knowledge even in china (utlub il ‘ilma wa law fis-sin)” (l. ma, 2011). this ancient arab maxim, which is still widely circulated in the middle east, reflects the arab people’s admiration for chinese civilization and wisdom and promotes sino-arab cultural exchanges. the arab geographer and historian al-masudi pointed out in his the meadows of gold and mines of gems that as early as the 5th century a.d., chinese ships “sailed to the city of hira on the banks of the euphrates river to trade with the arabs” (masudi, 1927). a steady stream of camel caravans and sea vessels helped exchange goods such as ceramics, silk, cotton, and spices, resulting in a thriving trade characterized by tributary, maritime, and reciprocal exchanges (wang & gu, 2013). despite the rich documentation of china in ancient arab texts, these accounts rarely delve into the spiritual world of the chinese. the influence of chinese culture on ancient arab regions was mostly limited to tangible items such as porcelain, silk and tea. it was not until the beginning of the 20th century that arabs began to gradually understand ancient chinese thought represented by confucius and laozi. among them, confucianism has received the most scholarly attention in arab countries. however, daoist thought and culture, an equally significant aspect of chinese civilization, have not been widely disseminated in the arab world. to strengthen the spread of chinese philosophy and culture, cultural exchanges must be enriched so that the prosperous cultural landscape of ancient china can take root and blossom in the arab region. 2. overview of the dissemination of daoist thought in arab countries 2.1 important philosophical concepts of daoism daoist culture is a treasure of chinese culture, containing not only historical flavor but also philosophical achievements, which contemplates transcendental principles in the realm of nature and human beings. it is profound and rich in content, covering communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 66 various fields such as nature, society, chinese medicine and behavioral sciences. some of its important philosophical concepts, such as “following the natural way”, “supreme goodness is like water”, and “tranquility and non-action” have had a significant impact on chinese thought. following the natural way: this philosophical concept has profoundly influenced how chinese people live in harmony with nature and how they get along with society. its essence is harmonious coexistence, and benign interaction between man and nature, and common development of the individual and society. when people undertake tasks, they should follow the laws of nature and the rules of society, rather than imposing them in a way that destroys the inherent nature of the phenomenon. supreme goodness is like water: laozi’s dao de jing (chapter 8) says, “supreme goodness is like water. water benefits all things but does not compete with them, and deals with the evils of all people, so it is several times better than the way” ((he, 2020). water nourishes and embraces all things, and its vast tolerance and serenity have become the life motto and ultimate pursuit of chinese people. tranquility and non-action: “wu wei (non-action)” is a significant concept in daoist culture. contrary to the literal interpretation of doing nothing, “wu wei” embodies the profound wisdom of selective action and inaction, aimed at achieving harmony. this principle is not only relevant to governance, where it suggests that the best way to manage society is through minimal interference, allowing for the natural autonomy of people and the maintenance of social harmony, but also extends to daily life. in the context of personal conduct, the idea of tranquility and inaction has become an important guiding principle for many. it advocates for a lifestyle that aligns with the natural order, moderating desires, and living in harmony with nature. this pastoral ideal reflects the daoist aspiration to live a life of simplicity and peace, conforming to the rhythms of the natural world. 2.2 the history of the dissemination of daoist thought in arab countries in 1938, mohammed galab, a professor at cairo university, published the book oriental philosophy, which devoted a quarter of the book to chinese philosophy. the book divides chinese philosophy into three stages: the age of beginnings, the age of maturity, and from maturity to modernity. the author focuses on pre-qin philosophers such as laozi, zhuangzi and confucius in the second part of the book. although oriental philosophy does not focus exclusively on daoist thought, oriental philosophy is one of the early works discussing daoist thought and have played an important role in introducing chinese philosophy to the arabs. after the founding of the people’s republic of china, interest in chinese thought among arab scholars increased dramatically. the establishment of diplomatic relations between china and egypt in 1956 marked the beginning of strengthened ties between china and the arab world. during this period, china established diplomatic relations with all 22 arab countries, including yemen, morocco and somalia, deepening their friendship. in the early 1950s, the prominent lebanese scholar munir baalbaki compiled a series of books titled self-education, which included arabic translations of lin yutang’s works the importance of living, and which were published in arabic in 1953 by the popular science publishing house in beirut under the title philosophy from china. although lin yutang’s englishlanguage work is not a scholarly work specializing in chinese daoist philosophy, it talks about zhuangzi, who “discovers the self” and laozi, who advocates “playing with the world, being foolish and pure, and being subtle and hidden” (lin, 1937) and so this fascinating work has helped arabs understand the philosophy of chinese intellectuals. in 1966, the way and virtue, the first arabic translation of dao de jing by abdul ghaffar al-makawi, was published by the egyptian arab archives publishing house, which opened the curtain on the translation and study of the dao de jing in the arab world. this translation is from the german language and is based on a german translation by günther debon. in 1995, the beirut literary library publishing house released tao te ching, a translation of the english text by chinese scholar feng gia-fu, which was widely and enthusiastically received by arab scholars and readers. in the book, translator hadi alawi wrote a 50-page preface introducing laozi’s thought, detailing his ontology, humanism, and political views. translator hadi alavi has written a preface introducing laozi’s thought, detailing the ontology, philosophy of life, and political views of laozi’s thought. at the same time, the book compares and analyzes laozi’s thought with sufi thought in islamic philosophy. in the 21st century, sino-arab exchanges have become “standardized, institutionalized and deepened” (t. ma, 1983). the successful convening of the sino-arab cooperation forum, the sino-arab economic and trade forum, the sino-arab cultural ministers forum, the sino-arab cities cultural tourism forum, the sino-arab young sinologists forum, and the sino-arab dialogue of civilizations symposium have greatly facilitated the multilateral cooperation between the two sides in a variety of fields, including politics, economics, and culture. (wu, senna, & liu, 2022). in 2005, the egyptian national translation center released the arabic translation of book of tao by sinologist mohsen elfarjani. this translation marked the first instance of a direct translation from chinese to arabic and was serialized in the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 67 egyptian literary news. during this period, the concept of daoist culture, an ancient chinese philosophical category, appeared widely in books, journals, and academic forums in various arab countries, leading to a growing awareness and acceptance of daoist thought among the arab population. 3. recognition and acceptance of daoist thought in arab countries a common feature found in contemporary cultural studies by chen kaiju is the “deconstruction of social power relations through cultural phenomena” (2009). said, after studying a large number of works on the western colonial powers, exposed the othering and demonization of colonized peoples (such as arab peoples) by the western colonial powers (said, 1994). said’s theories of orientalism and cultural imperialism not only reveal the effects of western cultural hegemony, but also emphasize the importance of finding and accepting different cultural perspectives. it is in this context that the acceptance of chinese daoist culture in the arab region has become a significant initiative to resist western cultural hegemony and seek independent cultural identity. in the study of the spread of ancient chinese thought in arabia, xue qingguo mentions that from the first half of the twentieth century to the present, “arab scholars have generally held an impartial attitude toward chinese culture and thought, and have been able to understand and appreciate chinese thought from an oriental perspective and identity that is different from that of westerners, as well as to realize the important spiritual values contained therein” (xue & ding, 2023). many scholars have also noted the uniqueness of chinese philosophy and believe that the achievements of modern china should be attributed to a certain extent to the positive elements in traditional chinese culture and thought. for example, in the book chinese philosophy, the egyptian diplomat shibli refutes the “western cultural centrism” prevalent in western academia, he mentions that china in ancient times (i.e., the tang dynasty of 618-906 a.d.) was experiencing the enlightenment of its civilization, and that its cultural prosperity was at its peak. sibyl points out “western scholars have favored the greco-roman civilizational heritage as the compendium of human civilization, while ignoring the splendid civilizational heritage left by our ancestors in the middle and far east for generations” (1967). the iraqi thinker alawi, who once worked in china, greatly admires chinese culture. he believes that chinese civilization and islamic civilization have a natural connection, both embodying the essence of “humanism”, unlike western spiritual nihilism and materialism. in his book treasures of china, he argues that chinese philosophy, unlike western philosophy’s pursuit of rigorous logic, excels in dialectics. he particularly values daoist thought, asserting that daoism transcends the formal connections between things described by aristotelian logic. it recognizes that things intertwine and interact while also opposing each other. in daoist thought, the existence of anything is inseparable from other things, each existing with its own contradictions, forming the foundation of their uniqueness and the mystery of their existence (1994). he compares daoist logic with aristotle’s principle of non-contradiction. he points out that daoism does not accept aristotle’s principle. whereas in aristotle’s philosophy, white is the opposite of black, in daoism, they are seen as the same. the law of transformation between opposites is the basic principle of daoist logic: life arises from death, and death from life, representing the principles of yin and yang. according to aristotle’s principle of non-contradiction, the existence of one thing does not eliminate the existence of another but rather calls forth another’s existence. similarly, daoist doctrine does not exclude anything. in daoism, mountains are not static or moving, and movement and stillness are relative states. there is no absolute movement or absolute stillness. heraclitus once said that it takes a powerful insight to understand the dialectic, and that its light can be found passing into eternity. daoism suggests that the perception of truth transcends the usual human way of dealing with things, and humans have been confused in change for too long, making it difficult to grasp the truth behind it. this reflects the difficulty of studying the relationship between opposition and intersection. both daoism and heraclitus realize the difficulty of mastering dialectics. scholars have also compared chinese daoist thought with arab islamic thought, laying an important theoretical foundation for deeper dialogue between chinese and arab civilizations in the future. egyptian sinologist muhsin translated numerous classics of chinese culture and incorporated his research insights into the preface and introduction of his translations. for instance, in the preface to his translation of laozi’s dao de jing, he compared the different views on life and death between chinese daoist philosophy and egypt, offering a very innovative interpretation of the reasons: “like all chinese philosophy, daoist philosophy does not focus on death, and the word ‘death’ has always been the taboo word for all chinese philosophers” (muhsin, 2005). scholars speculate that the difference in views on life and death between china and egypt may be the reason why the two ancient civilizations of china and egypt had no intersection. while the egyptian civilization’s contemplation of death lingered until it was buried in the mud, the chinese civilization’s obsession with life stood alone in the noisy caves of life. perhaps it is china’s vast population that provides the blazing fuel for the living of the land, while the growth of the population of the nile valley becomes a psychological burden that the immortal souls beneath the soil cannot bear. the most obvious difference between the two civilizations is reflected in the daoist invention of the elixir of immortality and the egyptian invention of the “mask of life”, the mummy. 4. strategies to promote the dissemination of daoist thought in arab countries communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 68 in 2024, guangdong university of foreign studies conducted a survey on the effectiveness and credibility of chinese cultural diffusion in the arab region. respondents from various arab countries expressed their opinions and suggestions on the spread of chinese culture. the survey included 47 participants, providing a substantial amount of feedback for analysis. among the surveyed arab population, 52.27% expressed an interest in china’s history and culture. however, 65.91% identified language differences as the biggest challenge to the current dissemination of chinese culture abroad. the survey also highlighted several suggestions from the respondents. notably, 61.36% of the participants expressed a desire to learn about chinese culture through films and television programs. additionally, 81.82% emphasized the need for more robust sino-arab cultural exchange activities. furthermore, 47.73% suggested that chinese culture should be disseminated using a combination of multiple languages to reach a broader audience. half of the respondents (50%) indicated that cultural dissemination should consider cross-cultural differences, and many proposed that chinese culture should integrate modern technology to enhance its impact. based on the survey results and feedback, the author of this paper proposes three strategies to enhance the spread of daoist culture in the arab world. 4.1 enhancing academic cooperation and research support since the 21st century, promoting friendly relations and cooperation among developing countries in the arab world has become a consensus among arab intellectuals and elites. influential figures in arab culture, such as the syrian poet adonis and the egyptian writer hector, have emphasized the importance of chinese culture and philosophy as part of china’s successful experience, which provides valuable insights for contemporary arab cultural development (xue & ding, 2023). these figures advocate for the integration of chinese philosophical principles, highlighting their potential to enrich arab cultural and intellectual landscapes. however, the sphere of influence of chinese cultural activities in arab countries is mainly confined to confucius institutes and universities, with very limited involvement of external communities. to address this issue, it is proposed to establish a sino-arab center for philosophical studies, focusing on intellectual and cultural exchanges beyond economic cooperation. this center would serve as a hub for scholarly dialogue and collaborative research, fostering a deeper understanding of daoist philosophy and its relevance to contemporary issues. cooperation with social organizations, chinese enterprises, and overseas chinese communities can be promoted to expand the dissemination of daoist philosophical thought. utilizing resources such as the “china international foundation for chinese language education” and the language exchange and cooperation center, it can provide powerful, diverse, and high-quality services for the dissemination of daoist culture. additionally, with the support of local governments and chinese enterprises, joint research projects between arab scholars and chinese scholars can be carried out to promote the study of chinese philosophy and expand the audience of daoist thought. these initiatives will create a robust platform for cultural exchange, enhancing mutual understanding and appreciation between chinese and arab societies. 4.2 introducing daoist thought courses into the education system of confucius institutes in arab countries in recent years, a number of arab countries have gradually incorporated chinese language into their education systems, and interest in chinese culture is growing. confucius institutes are indispensable platforms for chinese teaching and cultural exchange, but they are encountered with challenges in adapting their curricula to local conditions. chen ran’s study of confucius institutes in arab countries reveals the challenges faced by the current education system of confucius institutes, in which it is mentioned that the confucius institutes in arab countries mainly use general textbooks, mostly chinese annotated versions in english for the country, while the number of local textbooks suitable for arab students is very small and not yet popularized. the contents of the teaching materials are only “catering to the market demand, and specialized teaching materials such as business chinese and tourism chinese have been compiled” (chen r., 2022). overall, the growing demand for chinese language learning in the arab region is not yet compatible with the curriculum of the current confucius institute education system. in order to further promote daoist thought and culture and meet the different learning needs of arab students, it is recommended that chinese philosophical masterpieces such as the dao de jing and zhuangzi be incorporated into the chinese language curriculum of confucius institutes. given the cultural similarities between arab countries and china, cooperation between confucius institutes and local universities could enhance the localization of teaching materials, which could be developed according to the language learning needs and cultural background of arab students. in addition, emphasis should be placed on training local teachers who are proficient in chinese language and understand chinese philosophy, thus enriching the cultural exchange and educational experience of daoist thought in the arab world. 4.3 introducing technology and innovation in the era of advanced technology and popularization of the internet, innovative methods can effectively promote the dissemination of daoist culture in arab countries. utilizing modern technologies such as online platforms, mooc (massive communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 69 open online course) and micro-courses can overcome geographical barriers and provide students with a flexible, high-quality learning experience. establishing official social media accounts on platforms such as facebook, x, instagram, youtube and local platforms such as tiktok can promote daoist cultural content and activities and attract a wider audience. live streaming of cultural events and philosophical discussions at the sino-arab center for philosophical studies could increase visibility and accessibility, and utilize the connectivity of the internet to increase awareness and understanding of authentic, and contemporary chinese daoist culture among arab audiences. besides, the dissemination of daoist culture should not set the threshold at high knowledge level of undergraduate and graduate students, but should be younger and more popular. classic writings and stories, such as “zhuang zhou dreaming butterfly” and “the great thief’s great principle”, can be filmed and animated, and dubbed in arabic for local promotion, so as to inject the vitality of a new era into china’s ancient culture, and to promote the younger generation of groups in arab countries to also have an understanding of, and interest in, china’s daoist ideology and culture. the development of the new era is closely intertwined with the adoption of cutting-edge technology. beyond established platforms like internet-based social networks and traditional media such as film and television, the advancement of daoist thought necessitates leveraging the most advanced technologies to enhance its dissemination. specifically, establishing a digital museum dedicated to chinese daoist philosophy could integrate vr/ar technology and artificial intelligence (ai). this initiative would allow individuals in the arab region to immerse themselves in daoist culture, fostering interactive experiences that enhance both the enjoyment and contemporary relevance of philosophical teachings. 5. conclusion in conclusion, the spread of daoist thought in arab countries offers a valuable opportunity to enhance sino-arab cultural exchanges and mutual understanding. this is also significant for the development of sino-arab relations. although the cultural interactions between china and arab countries have a long history, the potential for enriching sino-arab cultural exchanges remains significant today through the increased dissemination of daoist thought in the arab region and deeper research and of daoist philosophy. these developments are contributing to the dismantling of the traditional cultural hegemony of the west, thereby establishing unique cultural discourses for china and the arab countries. this paper provides a brief overview of the spread of daoist thought and culture in the arab region, particularly after the founding of new china and the establishment of diplomatic relations between china and arab countries. as sino-arab exchanges have become more frequent, the traditional economic exchanges of artifacts have expanded to include cultural and philosophical exchanges. the arab region has shown increasing receptiveness to daoist thought and culture, including specialized studies of laozi, zhuangzi, and their classic works, as well as comparisons between islamic and daoist concepts. to effectively promote daoist thought, it is necessary to implement strategies that address current challenges and capitalize on modern opportunities: 1. strengthening academic cooperation and research support: establishing institutions and programs dedicated to the study and dissemination of daoist philosophy can facilitate cooperation between chinese and arab scholars, laying a solid foundation for deepening intellectual and cultural exchanges. 2. incorporating daoist thought into educational systems: developing localized teaching materials and training local educators in confucius institutes in arab countries can create a more engaging and relevant curriculum for arab students. this approach not only promotes daoist philosophy but also enhances the overall cultural exchange experience. 3. leveraging technology and innovation: utilizing online platforms, social media, and modern educational tools can overcome geographical barriers and provide flexible, highquality learning experiences. creating engaging multimedia content, such as animations and interactive digital museums, can further enhance the contemporary appeal and relevance of daoist philosophy. overall, the successful dissemination of daoist thought in arab countries requires a multifaceted approach. by adopting these strategies, we can foster a deeper understanding and appreciation of daoist philosophy and chinese thought in arab countries, while also providing new cultural stimuli and interpretive paths for chinese daoist thought. this, in turn, will strengthen sino-arab relations and promote shared values of harmony, tolerance, and mutual respect. references alawi. 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(2023). 中国古代思想在阿拉伯的传播. 国际汉学, (1), 41-54.] appendix complete version of questionnaire (arabic version): حول مدى فعالية انتشار الثقافة الصينية ومصداقيتها يف اخلارج )نسخة للجمهور يف اخلارج( السيدات والسادة األعزاء مرحًبا بكم! وشكرًا جزيالً لكم على ختصيص وقتكم الثمني للمشاركة يف استبياننا هذا. يد الدويل. والغرض من هذا االستطالع هو فهم الوضع الراهن حنن فريق حبثي من جامعة قوانغدونغ للتجارة والدراسات األجنبية نقوم حالًيا بتنفيذ مشروع حبثي حول انتشار الثقافة الصينية على الصع توفري مرجعية وتوصيات ملواصلة تعزيز التأثري الدويل للثقافة الصينية. النتشار الثقافة الصينية يف اخلارج وانطباعات اجلمهور عنها وآاثر انتشارها هبدف ملبادئ التوجيهية األخالقية الصارمة، ومجيع املعلومات اليت ندعوكم بكل سرور للمشاركة يف هذا االستطالع وآراؤكم ومقرتحاتكم ستكون قيمة يف حبثنا. حنن ملتزمون ابالمتثال للقواعد األكادميية واحنن ولذا يرجى تنزيل احملتوى أدانه والقيام ابإلجابة على النقاط فيه، ومشاركتكم ستسهم إسهاًما مهًما يف التبادل الثقايف تقدموهنا ستستخدم ألغراض البحث األكادميي واالستبيان يتمتع ابلسرية املطلقة، الصيين واألجنيب، وحنن نقدر هذا بصدق ونعرب عن خالص امتناننا لذلك. -- اجلزء األول: املعلومات األساسية ( على اإلجابة املقابلة، وإذا كان هناك مساحة فارغة مللئها فريجى ملؤها ابلكلمات أو األرقام. √إذا كان هناك خيارات بعد كل بند يرجى وضع عالمة ) ما جنسيتك؟ _________ -1 ما عمرك؟ -2 عاًما 25إىل 18أ. من عاًما 35إىل 26ب. من عاًما 45إىل 36ج. من communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 71 عاًما 60إىل 46د. من عاًما 60هـ. أكثر من ما أعلى مستوى تعليمي لديك؟ -3 أ. الثانوية العامة فما دون ب. املرحلة اجلامعية ج. اإلجازة اجلامعية د. املاجستري هـ. الدكتوراه فما فوق ما مهنتك؟ -4 أ. احلكومة/اخلدمات العامة ب. التعليم/البحث العلمي ج. املالية/األعمال التجارية د. الثقافة/وسائل اإلعالم هـ. الطب/الصحة و. الطالب ز. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ________( -- اجلزء الثاين: احملتوايت الرئيسة ( على اإلجابة املقابلة وفًقا لوضعك الفعلي، وليس هناك سؤال صحيح أو خاطئ، يرجى ملؤه بصدق. √يرجى وضع عالمة ) كيف كان تواصلك مع الثقافة الصينية ألول مرة؟ -1 أ. وسائل اإلعالم ب. الدورات الثقافية ج. األنشطة السياحية د. الكتب والصحف والدورايت هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ______( ما انطباعك العام عن الثقافة الصينية؟ -2 أ. مهتم جًدا ب. مهتم إىل حد ما ج. متوسط د. غري مهتم جًدا هـ. غري مهتم على اإلطالق )يرجى التحديد: ____________( برأيك ما أكرب عائق أمام فهم الثقافة الصينية؟ -3 أ. حاجز اللغة ب. االختالفات الثقافية ج. عدم وجود قنوات اتصال communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 72 د. احملتوى الصعب هـ. مسائل أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ______( برأيك ما مدى وعي اجلمهور العام ابلثقافة الصينية يف بلدك؟ -4 أ. واسع املعرفة ب. ذو معرفة نسبية ج. متوسط د. ليس واسع املعرفة هـ. ليس واسع املعرفة على اإلطالق )يرجى التحديد: ____________( ما الفرتة التارخيية للثقافة الصينية اليت هتتم هبا أكثر؟ -5 أ. من العصور القدمية إىل أسريت تشني وهان ب. وي، وجني، والسالالت اجلنوبية والشمالية، وسوي واتنغ ج. أسرات سونغ ويوان ومينغ وتشينغ د. العصور احلديثة هـ. مل يتم فهم أي منها ما رأيك مبكانة الثقافة الصينية يف الثقافة العاملية؟ -6 أ. مهم جًدا ب. مهم إىل حد ما ج. متوسط د. غري مهم جًدا هـ. غري مهم على اإلطالق ما هو برأيك الداللة األساسية للروح الوطنية الصينية؟ )أسئلة االختيار من متعدد( -7 أ. الوطنية ب. اجلماعية ج. العمل اجلاد الشاق د. االجتهاد واالقتصاد ______(هـ. آخرون )يرجى التحديد: -- ب. تفضيالت احملتوى من بني مجيع جوانب الثقافة الصينية، ما اجلانب الذي يثري اهتمامك أكثر؟ -8 أ. األدب والفن ب. التاريخ والثقافة ج. األفكار الفلسفية د. العادات الشعبية هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ____________( communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 73 ما الشكل الذي تفضله للتعرف على الثقافة الصينية؟ )أسئلة االختيار من متعدد( -9 أ. قراءة النصوص ب. األعمال السينمائية والتلفزيونية ج. اخلربة يف املوقع د. شرح اخلرباء هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ____________( من بني احملتوايت الثقافية التقليدية، ما هو برأيك أفضل ما ميثل خصائص الثقافة الصينية؟ -10 أ. الشعر واألغاين ب. األوبرا والفنون الشعبية ج. اخلط والرسم د. املوسيقى الكالسيكية هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ____________( من بني احملتوايت الثقافية املعاصرة، ما الذي جتده أكثر جاذبية؟ -11 أ. األفالم واملسلسالت التلفزيونية ب. املوسيقى الشعبية ج. األدب احلديث د. تصميم األزايء هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ____________( ما هو املهرجان الصيين التقليدي املفضل لديك؟ -12 أ. مهرجان الربيع ب. مهرجان الفوانيس ج. مهرجان قوارب التنني د. مهرجان منتصف اخلريف هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ______( ما املهارة الصينية التقليدية اليت ترغب يف جتربتها أكثر؟ -13 أ. أوبرا بكني ب. اتي تشي ج. اخلط د. فن الشاي هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: _____( ما مكانك املفضل يف الصني؟ -14 أ. بكني ب. شنغهاي ج. شيان د. قوانغتشو هـ. شينجيانغ و. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ______( communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 74 ما اللغة اليت تريد أن تنشر فيها الثقافة الصينية إىل العامل اخلارجي؟ -15 أ. الصينية ب. اإلجنليزية ج. اللغة احمللية د. مزيج من لغات متعددة هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ____________( -- ج. تقييمات االتصاالت برأيك، ما التأثري العام لالنتشار احلايل للثقافة الصينية إىل العامل اخلارجي؟ -16 أ. جيد جداً ب. جيد ج. متوسط د. ضعيف هـ. ضعيف جداً إىل أي مدى تتفاعل مع الثقافة الصينية؟ -17 أ. قادر متاًما ب. أكثر قدرة ج. قدرة متوسطة د. قادر قليالً هـ. غري قادر على اإلطالق برأيك، ما أكرب مشكلة يف االنتشار احلايل للثقافة الصينية إىل العامل اخلارجي؟ -18 أ. االختالفات اللغوية ب. االختالفات الثقافية ج. جتانس احملتوى د. طريقة واحدة للتواصل هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: _____( هل تعتقد أن الثقافة الصينية حتظى ابالحرتام الكامل خالل انتشارها يف اخلارج؟ -19 أ. االحرتام التام ب. االحرتام إىل حد ما ج. االحرتام املتوسط د. االحرتام املتواضع هـ. عدم االحرتام التام ما التأثري الدويل للثقافة الصينية مقارنة ابلثقافات األخرى؟ -20 أ. قوية جداً communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 75 ب. قوية نسبياً ج. متوسطة د. ضعيفة نسبياً هـ. ضعيفة جداً -- د. نشر التوصيات واالقرتاحات ما اجلوانب اليت تعتقد أنه جيب االهتمام هبا عندما تصبح الثقافة الصينية عاملية؟ )أسئلة متعددة اخليارات( -21 أ. حتسني االهتمام ابحملتوى الثقايف ب. إثراء تنوع أشكال املنتجات ج. تعزيز التفاعل مع اجلمهور د. االنتباه إىل االختالفات يف اخللفيات بني الثقافات هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ______________( ما القنوات اليت تعتقد أهنا أكثر مالءمة لنشر الثقافة الصينية والرتويج هلا؟ )أسئلة االختيار من متعدد( -22 أ. وسائل اإلعالم الرئيسة ب. املؤسسات الثقافية والتعليمية ج. املشاريع السياحية د. الصناعات الثقافية واإلبداعية هـ. أخرى )يرجى التحديد: ________( ما الفئات اليت جيب الرتكيز عليها عند نشر الثقافة الصينية التقليدية إىل العامل اخلارجي؟ )أسئلة االختيار من متعدد( -23 أ. طالب املدارس االبتدائية والثانوية ب. طالب اجلامعات ج. املمارسون الثقافيون د. السياح ____________( هـ. آخرون )يرجى التحديد: ما الطرق اليت تعتقد أنه ميكن للناس حتسني فهمهم للثقافة الصينية يف خمتلف البلدان؟ )أسئلة االختيار من متعدد( -24 أ. أنشطة التبادل الثقايف 18-113-pb2.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 56 a comparative critique of the controversial trauma narratives in hollywood and local films about the iraq war huiming cai1 kaiju chen2 1. faculty of english language and culture, institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: 2206789662@qq.com 2. institute of hermeneutics, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: 200010931@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn abstract films about the iraq war created by hollywood and middle eastern filmmakers present notably different trauma narratives. while hollywood productions tend to highlight the war s impact on soldiers, local films present civilian s collective suffering. this divergence raises the contentious question of whose suffering deserves greater recognition. using the hollywood film american sniper and the local film turtles can fly as case studies, this paper addresses this debate by applying edward said s orientalism and michael walzer s theory of just war. it examines how these films construct opposing trauma narratives and the motivations behind them, ultimately advocating for higher attention to the anti-colonial perspectives expressed in local films. key words: iraq war films; hollywood; local films; trauma narratives 1. introduction the iraq war remains one of the most politically and morally divisive conflicts of the 21st century due to its unclear justifications and devastating consequences. prior to the war, the united states claimed that iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, and had connections to al-qaeda, who was deemed as the perpetrator of the 9/11 incident. so the iraq war was defined by the u.s. as a preemptive war (smith, 2007). however, months after the war s outbreak, there was still no evidence to sustain these claims, calling into question the legitimacy of the u.s. military intervention. this fueled global antiamerican sentiment and sparked worldwide anti-war protests in 2003. philosophers such as michael walzer criticized the war for violating the principles of (justice of war). the conflict resulted in over 200,000 civilian deaths (according to the iraq body count project) and long-term destabilization that fueled sectarian violence and the rise of isis. as america s excuse for invasion happened to be a scandal, t hollywood, with its global reach, serves as an important tool for the u.s. to rescue its international image. binns (2016) as serdouk (2021) observes, film shapes reality and strongly influences emotions, focusing more on formal elements than on real-world images. thus, films can more effectively shape audience perceptions than actual events. often glorifies military heroism to support its narrative, while local films highlight civilian suffering showing stories of orphaned children, destroyed infrastructure, and bodily harm. this contrast reveals a clash of ethical frameworks: duty-bound patriotism versus human rights. although local films may not always originate from iraq, together they offer a narrative however, as arab cinema remains largely absent from north american screens and film criticism (turan, 2019), consequently a large audience tend to be swayed by the narrative of hollywood while neglecting the trauma of civilians. obviously, both hollywood and local films aim to present themselves as the primary victims of the war, creating a contradiction between the individual suffering of american soldiers and the collective suffering of local civilians. the hollywood and local films construct conflicting trauma narratives about the iraq war, and what distinct motivations underlie th it employs edward said s orientalism and michael walzer s theory of just war. said (1999) argues that the west often depicts arabs as either mysterious terrorists or helpless victims, perpetuating colonial discourses of civilization versus barbarism . the local context serves as a contrast to the western moral framework. walzer(2008) defines just war by evaluating three phases of war: before war (justifications such as self-defense or self-preservation ), during war communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 57 ( proportionality in war: maximizing the profits and minimizing harm), and after war (post-war responsibilities to prevent ongoing animosity). using american sniper (2014) just w turtles can fly (2004), and finally critiques the contradiction between imperial discourse and anti-colonial resistance underlying these conflicting trauma narratives. american sniper, directed by clint eastwood, is a classic hollywood war film that achieved major box office success and won multiple awards, focusing on the heroism and psychological trauma of the u.s. sniper chris kyle. turtles can fly, an iraq-iranian co-production by bahman ghobadi, gained international recognition at the berlin international film festival. it focuses on the suffering of a group of kurdish kids under war, encouraging impact on innocent groups. by centering local voices, this study challenges western dominance in war narratives and advocates for a decolonial discourse in war representation. 2. hollywood s trauma narrative--the soldier s dilemma hollywood s films about the iraq war, through artistic choices and narrative framing, emphasize aspects that are favorable to american soldiers while obscuring those that are less flattering. they reshape the narrative surrounding the iraq war, focusing on american soldiers heroic actions, physical harm and psychological struggles. in this way, they transform the war into a platform that emphasizes the responsibility and morality of american soldiers. 2.1 individual psychological struggles hollywood s depiction of the iraq war consistently follows a highly stylized logic that reduces the war to moral dilemmas confronting individual american soldiers. this approach centers on the protagonist s inner struggles and psychological trauma, transforming systemic violence into personal heroism and avoiding direct scrutiny of the legitimacy of the war. emmanuel levinas argues that a true ethical relation requires the recognition of the non-assimilability of the other , rather than reducing it to a projection of the self (jiang, 2025). in hollywood films, this relation is completely dissolved. iraqi civilians, combatants, and the battlefield in the films exist only as backdrops to the protagonist s moral choices, lacking independent voices. clint eastwood s american sniper is a quintessential example of this paradigm. based on the memoir of the legendary u.s. sniper chris kyle, the film employs a highly selective narrative that transforms an unjust war of aggression into a personal heroic epic. kyle s central dilemma in the film is framed as the moral paradox of killing for his country and to protect his comrades. his ptsd (post-traumatic stress disorder) is not rooted in skepticism about the war itself, but rather in the guilt of not being able to save more comrades. this narrative portrays u.s. soldiers as dual victims physically harmed and morally tormented. the film first showcases kyle s patriotism. he is proud of being a member of marines because he thinks america is the greatest country in the world. this means that kyle fully supports his country and is proud that he can sacrifice his life for it. therefore, when he is on the battlefield, kyle does not consider what he is doing to be an act of aggression, but rather as a way of serving his country. what he needs to do is trying his best to eliminate any potential dangers for his comrades even if that means killing civilians. this frames kyle s violence as an inevitable act of patriotism. a controversial visual device in the film is the repeated sniper-scope perspective. when kyle s cross-hairs lock onto an iraqi child holding a rocket launcher, or a woman carrying a grenade, the camera compels the audience to adopt the shooter s gaze. this reduces the complex ethics of war to a binary choice: shoot and become a murderer, or remain passive and allow your comrades to be killed. this technologized moral dilemma makes kyle passive; in turn, it highlights the kindness and righteousness of kyle. but it obscures more fundamental questions: why are american soldiers in iraq? why do iraqi children pick up weapons? and who creates these extreme situations where killing is a necessity ? according to michael walzer, there are two legitimate reasons to engage in war: self-defense and self-preservation. certainly, hollywood is not able to answer these questions. from the very beginning, the film avoids providing these basic background explanations. instead, it portrays all the american soldiers as being in a passive state, saying, any male of military age who is still here... is here to kill you , in order to pave the way for their military operations. then by abstracting their violence into a matter of inevitable choice, hollywood effectively diverts attention from the structural guilt associated with american military hegemony. more notably, the film depicts kyle as a victim of the war by focusing on his ptsd. after his retirement, kyle suffers from long-term ptsd. then the narrative ultimately reverts to the conservative theme of a good soldier alienated by war. he struggles to reintegrate into normal life, reacting with stress whenever he hears sounds resembling gunfire, and erupting in rage to protect his loved ones when they are threatened. these behaviors indicate that years of war have shaped him into a war machine. moreover, he often feels guilty over his fallen comrades. kyle can only seek inner peace by assisting disabled communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 58 veterans. his death shot by a fellow veteran also suffering from ptsd is imbued with a sense of martyrdom. at the film s conclusion, thousands of people line the streets to bid farewell to kyle s body, mourning him as a national hero. whereas his death is portrayed as a national tragedy, the casualties among iraqis are completely neglected in this final narrative. clearly, the film never allows iraqis to speak for themselves; their presence serves only to validate the suffering of american soldiers. represented by american sniper, most hollywood films about the iraq war share a common trauma narrative. first, they replace political discourse with emotional appeal by fostering a strong sense of empathy between the audience and the protagonists. second, they personalize responsibility by breaking down the violence of war into numerous individual choices of last resort, thereby dissolving national guilt into personal tragedies. third, they complete the narrative loop by depicting soldiers as post-war victims, showing how they ultimately fail to reintegrate into normal life. this structure ultimately reinforces phelan (2011) reveals . when the audience is sacrifice true voices that are silenced are those of the iraqi civilians who exist outside the hollywood lens, as the voices of the subjugated are (chen, 2018). 2.2 dehumanization and erasure of local suffering in order to emphasize the righteousness of american soldiers, hollywood films often undergo artistic selection and processing. these films typically focus on scenes depicting the u.s. military confronting dangers, being compelled to fight back, and making sacrifices. meanwhile, they tend to overlook the suffering endured by local civilians or resistance forces, and frequently employ dehumanizing rhetoric to portray the local population in a negative light. while american sniper glorifies kyle as an american hero, it systematically dehumanizes iraqis and erases the suffering of local civilians caught in the conflict. the narrative frames the war through an exclusively american lens, reducing iraqis to either faceless enemies or passive victims, thereby reinforcing orientalist stereotypes and justifying u.s. military actions. one of the most striking aspects of american sniper is its depiction of iraqis without any backgrounds or depth. the film s antagonists, such as the sniper mustafa and the brutal butcher , are portrayed as one-dimensional villains devoid of humanity. mustafa is an olympic marksman who turned insurgent. but he is given no backstory or motivation beyond his role as kyle s rival. in the film, mustafa s killing of american soldiers is consistently depicted as evil and abominable, while kyle s killing of iraqi militants is depicted as gratifying and admirable. so actually, his presence serves only to validate kyle s skill and moral superiority, reinforcing the binary of american heroism versus iraqi barbarism. moreover, the film frequently employs visual and narrative techniques that strip iraqis of their individuality. as the film says, there s evil everywhere . the film s portrayal of all the iraqi images reinforces this statement. crowds of iraqi civilians are often shown in chaotic and blurred masses, while insurgents are depicted as barbarians who only charge forward and then die. even women and children are portrayed as threats that cannot be ignored. additionally, most of the enemies are portrayed wearing turbans and covering their faces, rendering them devoid of identity, not to mention personality. as the enemies are depicted as emotionless war machines lacking any individuality, their deaths become insignificant. thus, when these enemies emerge one after another and are killed by the u.s. military, the scenes vanish right away after being hit and then another group show up. this video game-like portrayal, without any focus on the deceased iraqi, effectively diminishes the horrors of war, dissolving the violence of the u.s. military. even in scenes where iraqi civilians are present, their suffering is secondary to kyle s personal struggles. for instance, when kyle hesitates before shooting a child who might be carrying a grenade, the tension revolves around his moral dilemma rather than the child s humanity. the film never explores the broader consequences of such actions on iraqi families, effectively erasing their pain. and iraqi militants death will never be focused in the film. they are shot and fall, only to be quickly replaced by another wave of enemies. in starkly contrast, when american soldiers are shot, the camera centers on their pain and the sadness of their teammates. and there are many instances where us soldiers think of their families when on the verge of death. apparently, this narrative leaves the audience no time to empathize with the iraqis as they quickly show up and then disappear, but it intentionally infused the audience s compassion into the trauma faced by u.s. soldiers. to conclude, by dehumanizing iraqis and erasing their suffering, american sniper discourages audiences from questioning the true costs of war. it achieves this by demonizing the iraqi people as a whole or depriving them of individuality, thereby downplaying the violence of the us military. the absence of iraqi voices and the victimization of american soldiers perpetuate a narrative that prioritizes american trauma over iraqis suffering. 3. local cinema s counter narrative: civilian survival as resistance communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 59 portrayal of the iraq war emphasizes the physical suffering and psychological struggles faced by american soldiers, local films focus on the collective trauma experienced by civilians during the conflict, exposing their dire living conditions. local films here are not limited to those made by iraqi directors, but also by directors from neighbor countries such as iran, turkey and lebanon, etc, since they belong to a islamic community. besides, whereas hollywood movies often structure their timelines local films underscore the long-term consequences of the war to tell that the damage caused by war is eternal. this fundamentally challenges promote the better its intention to create a just image. 3.1 collective suffering over individual heroism turtles can fly is filmed by iranian director bahman ghobadi. in an interview, he stated, two weeks after the war had started, i went to iraq with a dv camera. i visited the iran-iraq border, which is the location seen in the film...i found children in dire circumstances all over kurdistan, they were easy to find (hamid& ghobadi, 2005). but why, as an iranian director, ghobadi was willing to present the suffering of iraqi children to the world? hamid (2006) offers insight into iranian cinema beyond its border, stating, although we often think of iran as being completely closed to the rest of the world, its filmmakers have begun to show an increasingly broad outlook. this regionalist cinema is fueled by the seemingly contradictory impulses of promoting a humanist critique of the prejudices and abuses of islamic fundamentalism and the feeling of religious and cultural solidarity . in other words, when ghobadi made this film, he did not limit himself to the identity of an iranian; instead, he positioned himself as a member of the islamic community, speaking on behalf of the entire islamic group. therefore, the definition of a local film about the iraq war is not confined to the iraqi region, as the suffering endured by the iraqi people is part of a collective trauma experienced by the islamic community. the main part of turtles can fly takes place in a refugee camp just days before america s invasion into iraq. it centers on a kurdish refugee community situated along the border between iran and iraq, who were all victims of saddam regime s atrocities. one of the main characters, satellite, is a boy around thirteen years old who harbors an american dream, yet he is the leader of a group of orphans because he organizes them to work, including digging up landmines and loading dismantled shells. some of these children are disabled as a result of the domestic conflict and their landmine-digging activities. for these kids, their living is depending on these dangerous activities that can take away their lives at any moment. another protagonist, agrin, is only twelve years old but possesses the maturity and sorrow of an adult. this is because of her traumatic past of having been sexually assaulted by saddam soldiers, which led to her giving birth to a blind child at such a young age. she attempts to abandon the child but is continuously prevented by her brother. ultimately, overwhelmed by her shattered life, she drowns the child in a river and then commits suicide by jumping off a cliff. her brother, hengov, is also a tragic figure. he lost both of his hands due to the domestic turmoil and must use his mouth to dig landmines for a living. the director grants him the ability to foresee impending disasters. yet tragically, he is powerless to prevent them from happening, including the death of his nephew and his sister. these three characters are forced to assume adult responsibilities, taking care of the children and seeking ways to survive themselves. this incredible reality is as absurd as the name of the movie turtles can fly . as the us claimed to bring iraqi freedom and peace on the broadcast, these kids once expected the arrival of u.s. military. however, their fate did not improve after the outbreak of the iraq war. the arrival of u.s. troops at the end of the film marked merely the beginning of further turbulence for these children, suggesting the continuity of their suffering. the us declaration of liberating the iraqi people turned out to be an illusion. this continuity indicates that even with a change of regime, civilians remain the primary victims of power struggle. in this desperate ending, agrin and the blind infant died; hengov weeps in despair because he lost all his family members and becomes alone; satellite s american dream is shattered and his leg is blown off by a landmine; children with families seek refuge elsewhere, while orphans continue to wander and struggle to survive amid the continuing war. throughout the entire film, there is no appearance of a savior to these kids, imbued with a profound sense of depression and despair. ghobadi chose children as the subject to illustrate the cruelty of war, which actually alludes to the even more profound suffering of adults under war. as he said, i think that the adults are far more damaged than the children. they are thinking about how to put food on the table. they are extremely poor; they have families to take care of and no means to take care of them. they can think only about surviving from day to day. they ve had a lifetime of dealing with a harsh reality and they have no hope. they treat the kids that way because they have reached a point in their lives where nothing else matters but survival (hamid&ghobadi, 2005). so by depicting children who must assume adult responsibilities to survive and the adults indifference towards them, the film conveys to the audience the even greater helplessness and despair experienced by the adults. when they struggle to ensure the survival of their own families and themselves, it is impossible for them to pay communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 60 attention to these displaced children who are engaged in dangerous work. thus, this is the collective suffering of an entire community. through the representation of the collective suffering of ordinary people, ghobadi expressed that turtles can fly offers an opportunity for western viewers to see what is left behind by foreign wars and the impact they have on ordinary people (hamid&ghobadi, 2005). but the collective suffering of civilians is precisely what is often concealed in hollywood s portrayal of the iraq war. by obscuring civilian suffering, the narrative of american sniper can focus solely on the battlefield, thereby demonizing all iraqis and framing suffering, the violence of the us military can be downplayed. in this disguised manner, american soldiers are portrayed as the primary victims of the war. so local films focus on collective suffering directly deconstruct this illusion. it directly tells the audience how widespread and severe the suffering of civilians was behind the hollywood war narratives. 3.2 long-term consequences vs. hollywood s mission-based timeline why can you enjoy the alps in europe, but not the beautiful hills here? it is because this place has been used as a pawn by the superpowers for their advantage. they have taken out all the resources and left destruction, fields of landmines, artillery shells, and discarded weapons. this is how they have left these people to live, stated by ghobadi angrily in the interview (hamid&ghobadi, 2005). yes, the mines buried everywhere are just like the impact of war on local civilians, which persists even after the war was over. when hollywood movies use the missions of american soldiers as the timeline and ends with their return to the united states to reunite with their families, they create a closed loop of depicting heroism. this misleads the audience into believing that the war is over with a happy ending, while completely forgetting about the local civilians who have been profoundly and enduringly harmed by the war. american sniper follows a linear, goal-oriented structure: chris kyle enlists, completes missions, faces moral dilemmas, and returns home. the war is framed as a series of missions, such as ing ping the complex conflict into a soldier s execution time. and the films end with kyle returning home to accommodate the normal life, as if the war were over and everything were going toward better. but it completely ignores the continuous instability and suffering caused by the us invasion. this structure reinforces the myth that war is a finite endeavor with a clear resolution, rather than a prolonged catastrophe for those who live through it. it actually evades the discussion on post-war responsibilities, without which animosity and indignation will persist according to michael walzer. set in a kurdish refugee camp on the iraq-turkey border just before the 2003 u.s. invasion, turtles can fly depicts war not as a series of missions but as an endless cycle of sufferings. the main characters of the film are children who scavenge for landmines to sell for livings unlike american sniper, there is for those children only its perpetual existence. although there is not scene of fighting in the film, every element inside implies the long term consequence of war. first, the war left behind a large number of orphans. in turtles can fly, the children all need to support themselves after losing their parents. children around ten years old have to take on adult responsibilities, while adults show indifference towards the children s lives. this was a sign of disruption of the iraqi social structure. second, the landmines and bombs left over from the war still pose a constant threat to everyone s life, just like the bullets that were flying around during the war. the war forces these children to survive by picking up landmines, but ironically, these landmines that sustain their livelihoods can also take away parts of their bodies or even their lives at any moment. third, the trauma left by the war in children can never be erased. the film repeatedly focuses on agrin s gloomy expression and the child she is carrying. it is a repeated mention of her tragic experience during the war. this experience has been haunting her like a demon, tormenting her soul, without any solution to cure it. it eventually drives her to death. the film also repeatedly focuses on satellite s lame assistant. he lost a leg in the war and has to walk with a stick. however, he seems very optimistic and often makes funny gestures with his amputated leg to amuse people. but his optimism does not make the audience think of his strength; instead, it keeps reminding the brutal war that has devastated a child s entire life. last, the film ends with the invasion of the us military. the u.s. forces, who were once the saviors the children had expected, now become another invading force in reality. this implies the continuation of the war and the continuation of hopelessness. for these children, war always exists; they have no memory of peace. the fairy tale in hollywood that war could have a happy ending is an illusion in local films. 4. the root of the narrative conflict: imperial narrative and anti-colonial resistance the comparison above clearly shows that hollywood s trauma narrative, which positions soldiers as the main victims, conflicts with the collective suffering depicted in local films. what, then, contributes to this conflict? the trauma narrative in hollywood war films is not accidental; it is deeply embedded in the imperial discourse of the united states. the united states has consistently global sheriff communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 61 soldiers actually obscures the aggressive acts of the u.s. in this role. films such as american sniper serve a core function in constructing the emphasizing the sacrifices and struggles of individual soldiers, these films recast the u.s. military intervention as a moral necessity to combat evil, rather than an extension of political and economic interests. in doing so, they obscure discussions about the purposes of war, which are supposed to be considered when determining whether a war is just or not according to michael walzer. this narrative strategy is highly isomorphic with the logic of american exceptionalism, namely the united states was chosen by god and serves as the guiding light of the world. in terms of morality, the united states is superior to other countries and was selected by god to play the role of promoting world progress (li, 2022). the american soldiers depicted in these films are often endowed with complex human characteristics, while the enemies are . this binary encoding resonates with orientalist discourse, which constructs the middle east as a barbaric space in need of western military discipline. according to said (1999), the west has long believed that the east is not yet ready (or simply lacks the capability) to manage itself, and only under the guidance and assistance of the west can the east be governed. it actually exemplifies the white savior ideology of the west (yang, 2014). through this ideology, the west has carried out conquest and governance over the east under the guise of saving the east (xu, 2020). thus hollywood portrays the united states presence in iraq as a just act because america is cast as the savior. however, in turtles can fly, the united states appears as a new invading force, inflicting further suffering on civilians rather than providing salvation. this directly undermines the savior narrative prevalent in hollywood films. with technological rationality, hollywood further sanitizes violence. through the precise targeting of a sniper scope, hollywood presents warfare as a technical and specialized activity, thereby obscuring the brutal nature of violence itself. baudrillard (2003), in the gulf war did not take place, pointed out that the media-driven narrative of war turns killing into , with cinema acting as a visual accomplice in this process. furthermore, by focusing on the psychological trauma of soldiers, when audiences lament the ptsd of soldiers, their emotions are channeled towards a macro perspective bruta , (direct, visible violence) and (structural violence embedded in capitalism, ideology, etc.) (ding, 2020). he points out that people often focus on emotional outrage over subjective violence while ignoring the more hidden systemic violence. this kind of emotional consumption becomes an ethical trap, making people mistake sympathy for actions. hence, the conflict between the narrative of individual trauma and that of collective trauma exposes the elements often obscured by hollywood films, deconstructing the false logic of justice portrayed in hollywood movies. in addition, the u.s. department of defense has long intervened in the production of war films by providing military equipment, advisory support, and other means in exchange for the promotion of a positive image of the u.s. military (such as series of transformers). a report of 2022 revealed that the pentagon and the central intelligence agency had exercised scriptediting control over more than 2,500 film and television productions, based on documents from the u.s. department of defense. the control includes the removal of topics that are deemed disgraceful or controversial such as war crimes, torture, veteran suicides, etc (matthew & tom, 2017). films that refuse such military intervention may not even get the chance to be released. consequently, the relationship between hollywood and the u.s. government appears to be close. this collusive s narratives towards an imperial perspective. in contrast, local films like turtles can fly present starkly different war scenes. through survival narratives from a civilian perspective, these films reveal the central contradiction: whose suffering is more worthy of being noticed? hollywood favors the depiction of individual physical and psychological trauma while neglecting the broader impact on local civilians. this creates the illusion that the substantive harm of war is borne by the u.s. military. on the contrary, local films present the structural trauma of the entire society. ghobadi employs the innocent perspective of children to expose the pervasive alienation of everyday life caused by war, as these innocent children are forced to take on adult responsibilities, with mine clearance serving as their only means of survival. while hollywood local films lament that it poses more threats to local civilians, directly pointing to the fundamental contradiction of imperialism: violence carried out however, under the dominance of global cultural hegemony, local films cannot escape the intervention of cultural hegemony if they manage to gain dissemination. since consequently, local narratives often can only achieve limited dissemination through european film festivals, resulting in a --challenging western hegemony while being compelled to conform to the western portrayal yet it represents the most significant form of resistance that those affected can muster communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 62 answer cannot be dictated by cultural hegemony; rather, it should center on the collective trauma of civilians that most accurately reflects the brutality of war. he asserts that t an (jiang, 2025). therefore, when audiences confront the characters on screen, they are inevitably moved by this ethical call, fostering ements, effectively blocking the ethical appeal of civilians. in contrast, local films place the desperate expressions of children and adults in direct confrontation with the audience. this approach successfully positions viewers at the center of the ethical call, appealing to pay more attention to the collective trauma that local civilians suffer. 5. conclusion the conflict of trauma narratives between hollywood and local films lies in the clash between the individual trauma of soldiers and the collective trauma of civilians. hollywood tends to emphasize the personal struggles of american soldiers, portraying the reluctant violence of the u.s. military while avoiding discussions about the underlying purposes of war and post-war responsibilities. this approach ultimately seeks to justify the imperialist rationale behind military operations in iraq. in contrast, local films reconstruct the ethical dimensions of war by focusing on the collective trauma of civilians. by highlighting the long-term suffering and permanent disabilities of civilians as symbols of resistance, these films deconstruct trauma narratives and appeal for the attentions on collective trauma that is attempted to be obscured. references communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 63 16-98-pb.2025.edited.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 1 on the english version of china's energy transition: national identities in the international publicity discourse of chinese energy from the perspective of transitivity yang liu the center for cpc literature translation studies, tianjin foreign studies university, e-mail: 912010860@qq.com abstract this study analyzes discourse from the perspective of transitivity, which helps to uncover the social significance embedded in energy-related discourse. utilizing the english version of the white paper titled china's energy transition, released by the chinese government in 2024, a corpus has been built, and high-frequency keywords were extracted by using the corpus software antconc. the transitivity of the discourse was annotated with uam corpus tools and analyzed. the findings indicate that the english version of the white paper predominantly employs material process within its transitivity, while relational process, mental process and other types are subordinative. this pattern highlights china's achievements and conveys a cautious approach to energy construction and development. consequently, it constructs national identities for china as a global contributor to energy development, a leader in green development, and an advocate for energy transition. keywords: transitivity; energy discourse; china's energy transition; english version; national identity funding: stage achievement of 'research on the translation achievements of the communist party of china over the past century', supported by research and interpretation of the spirit of the sixth plenary session of the 19th central committee of the communist party of china, a key project of the national social science fund (fund no. 22azd006); and 'research on the foreign translation and introduction of the history of the communist party of china', supported by the national social science fund project (fund no. 21byy059). 1. introduction the current international energy situation is developing towards sustainability, cleanliness, and efficiency. energy transition has become an unstoppable trend in the international energy development. at the same time, under the background of economic globalization, factors such as energy transition, geopolitical issues, and the global economic situation, accelerating energy transition is still an urgent global strategic adjustment. it is essential to tell the international community viewpoints, positions, plans, and strategies in the international energy field, promote the dissemination of china's energy policies internationally, enhance china's energy discourse power and influence globally, as a necessary step in countering international malicious propaganda, achieving positive national identity shaping, and building a great modern socialist country. energy-related chinese government white papers, as typical chinese energy discourse, contribute to building china's international energy discourse system, seeking participation in international energy discourse construction, enhancing china's influence and voice in the international community, and giving the full play to china's role in global energy governance. research on energy discourse has only attracted the attention of the academic community in recent years in china. the research involves comparative studies on energy discourse at home and abroad (zhao & liu, 2020; liu & liu, 2021; zhang, 2022; zhang & chen, 2023), studies on us government energy discourse (zhao & zhao, 2021; zhao & song, 2023) and national identity (wang, 2022), research on the securitization logic and national image construction in chinese energy discourse (ge, 2020), corporate identity construction (chen, 2022), characteristics of new energy discourse (kong and han, 2023), and the construction of a clean energy discourse system (wang, 2024). the research is mostly conducted from the perspectives of critical discourse analysis (zhao & zhao, 2021; wang, 2022; kong & han, 2023; sun, 2022), positive discourse analysis (xu, wu & li, 2021; ma & lin, 2021) historical discourse analysis (wang & zhou, 2021), etc., and the research methods predominantly employing corpus analysis, forming a research path combining qualitative and quantitative research. however, there is a scarcity of research on the construction of national identity in china's energy international publicity discourse, especially from the perspective of transitivity, and no studies have explored the role of transitivity process utilization in national identity construction. 2. theoretical foundation halliday (1978) pointed out in the systemic functional grammar theory that language has metafunctions, which are ideational function, interpersonal function, and textual function. among them, the ideational function can be further divided into experiential function and logical function. experiential function refers to the expression of various experiences that people communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 2 have in the real world (including the physical world) through language, while logical function refers to the expression of logical relationships between two or more units of meaning (hu, zhu and zhang, 2005). through the experiential function, we can explore the subjective and objective worlds reflected in language, including the events that occur, the people and objects involved, and the time and space in which these events take place. experiential function is mainly realized through transitivity and mood. transitivity is a semantic system that categorizes various practical activities of humans in the real world into six processes. based on different real experiences, halliday distinguishes them as: material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal process, and existential process. by specifically categorizing experiences in real world into six processes, from the perspective of systemic functional grammar, it categorizes experiences in real world through grammar, clarifying the participants and environmental components involved in various process. consequently, transitivity represents a choicemaking behavior wherein the acting subjects integrate their choices of process types, roles of participants, and environmental components associated with the selected process types, thereby constructing the experiential processes through which they perceive the physical and psychological worlds (halliday, 1973). in addition, as a resource for constructing meaning, transitivity not only reflects the author's understanding and experience of reality but also influences the reader's understanding of specific social practices through discourse. in the context of translation, the application of transitivity is not only a cognitive mapping of the source language text by the translator, but also profoundly influences the reader's understanding of the discourse of the translated text as a representation of specific social practices. through an analysis of the transitivity system, it is possible to delve into the content contained or missing in discourse, thereby revealing how social, cultural, political, and ideological factors coordinate the selection of transitivity types in discourse (mayr, 2008). similarly, coordinating the use of transitivity in the translation process can achieve a positive utilization of discourse to complete the construction of national identity, guiding readers of the translated text to correctly understand and accept the national identity conveyed in the discourse of the translated text. therefore, this study utilizes the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition" as the corpus for analysis. this document serves as a quintessential international publicity text on national energy discourse. the aim is to explore the discourse's meaning and its role in constructing china's identity within the realm of energy discourse, specifically from the perspective of transitivity. ultimately, this analysis seeks to offer valuable insights for promoting china's national identity in the international energyrelated publicity. 3. research design 3.1 corpus source the corpus is derived from the english version of the white paper "china's energy transition", published by the state council information office at the end of august 2024. this white paper is a key document on china's energy transition and the second government white paper on energy issues in 2024. as a typical international publicity discourse on chinese energy, it not only analyzes the international energy situation and trends but also points out the importance and urgency of the global energy transition. it emphasizes critical issues such as clean energy development, energy efficiency improvement, and carbon reduction, while introducing to international readers china's energy consumption structure, energy production situation, the energy transition process, and the experiences and achievements china has accomplished in the energy sector. furthermore, it clarifies the future direction of china's energy transition and policy recommendations, including accelerating the development of clean energy, strengthening energy security, fostering energy technology innovation, and enhancing international energy cooperation, all underpinned by important concepts such as green, low-carbon development, energy security, innovation-driven development, and win-win international cooperation, as proposed by the president of the people's republic of china, xi jinping. 3.2 research questions (1) what are the high-frequency keywords in the english version of this white paper? (2) what are the characteristics of the use of transitivity in the english translation of this white paper? (3) what kind of national identity is constructed through the transitivity utilization in the english translation of this white paper? 3.3 research methods obtain the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition" from the official website of the state council information office of the people's republic of china (http://www.scio.gov.cn/). clean the original text by extracting analyzable content from charts, removing redundant spaces and garbled characters, and accurately splitting paragraph into sentences for precise annotation. the text was then converted to a plain text format in utf-8. an independent corpus has communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 3 been established, containing 595 sentences with 13,279 tokens and 2,241 types in the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition". this study selected the crown2021 corpus as the reference corpus. the corpus is part of the brown family american english corpus, developed by the china foreign language education research center of beijing foreign studies university and released in november 2022. the study extracted 26 texts from the category h of the corpus, totaling 48,114 words, sourced from official documents released by the white house, various federal government departments, and state governments in the united states in 2021. by comparing the government documents in crown2021, it is conducive to effectively reveal the keyword usage features in the english translations of chinese government white papers. using the corpus software antconc 4.0.4 developed by american scientist laurence anthony, the word list function is used to extract keyword tokens from the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition," adopting the h category corpus of crown2021 as the reference corpus. after manually removing prepositions, conjunctions, and other invalid words, highfrequency and meaningful keywords are obtained, the top 30 high-frequency keywords are counted and sorted, and a list of high-frequency keywords is established. subsequently, the corpus software uam corpus tools 3.3 developed by the autonomous university of madrid, was used to annotate the transitivity of the corpus automatically and then manually proofread and tested to ensure the accuracy and credibility of the obtained data. this process culminated in an analysis based on the high proportion of transitivity types, enumerating specific examples and analyzing the role of transitivity in the national identity construction within the english translation of the white paper "china s energy transition". 4. results and discussion 4.1analysis of high-frequency keywords and transitive by comparing with the reference corpus of h category texts in crown2021, high-frequency recurring keywords in the text are extracted by using the keyword-list function of antconc. the high-frequency keywords obtained through comparison effectively reveal the discourse themes, while analyzing a certain number of high-frequency keywords in summary can not only provide an overall understanding of the discourse content, but also reveal the social and cultural implications behind i t (xu, 2019). the extracted high-frequency keywords in the study can to some extent reflect the main topics and focus of the white paper "china's energy transition," and also reflect the social and cultural background of the discourse content, thereby aiding in understanding and interpreting the government's attitudes, measures, and motives towards energy issues in the current international and domestic contexts. after manually removing prepositions, pronouns, and other non-substantive and non-content-bearing keywords, the study extracted the top 30 keywords in the white paper "china's energy transition" sorted by log likelihood ratio test (llrt) values, which include: "energy," "china," "power," "green," "development," "carbon," "transition," "electricity," and etc., as shown in table 1. by contextualizing the discourse and categorizing the high-frequency keywords, it can be found that the high-frequency keywords are mainly nouns, such as "energy," "china," "power," "development," "carbon," "development," accounting for a high proportion of 76.7%; followed by adjectives, such as "green," "clean," "world," "new," "installed," "nuclear," accounting for 20%; and verbs are the least, with only "built," accounting for 3.3%. by classifying the parts of speech of the high-frequency keywords, it can be found that the high-frequency nouns reflect the high attention and emphasis of the chinese government on energy types, energy reserves, energy development, energy consumption and supply, and green-oriented transition of energy; the high-frequency adjectives reflect the urgent demand for clean, green new energy resources, the interaction between china and the world in energy field, and china's efforts in developing clean energy such as hydropower; and the high-frequency verbs reflect the proactive measures and fruitful results taken by china in clean energy development and ensuring national energy security. through this analysis, it can be understood that china and the chinese government attach great importance to the development of green and low-carbon energy, energy security, and international energy development trend and cooperation, reflecting that china is not only an energy consumer but also an energy producer. while actively promoting the development of clean energy and improving energy efficiency, china is actively advancing the construction of clean energy infrastructure, enhancing and enriching energy types and supply sources, taking solid steps in leading global energy transition and ensuring national energy security. table 1. top 30 in term of high-frequency keywords and llrt values high-frequency keywords llrt value high-frequency keywords llrt value energy 1188.15 sector 82.632 china 506.854 storage 82.57 power 321.437 conservation 77.953 green 313.043 supply 74.814 development 159.129 efficiency 72.509 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 4 carbon 158.444 market 70.63 transition 134.518 world 61.934 electricity 129.345 wind 61.847 capacity 116.847 new 59.851 clean 106.15 built 59.674 consumption installed 57.439 coal 103.514 gas 54.356 cooperation 98.077 hydro-power 52.088 country 95.668 stations 50.764 enterprises 88.877 nuclear 47.724 by employing uam corpus tools, the transitivity of the corpus were annotated, and through manual check and repeated proofreading, the distribution characteristics of transitivity in the english version of the white paper "china's energy transition" were obtained. the application of transitivity in the discourse illustrates how the discourse describes events happening in the real world, the elements involved such as people, things, time and space environment, and the cognition and evaluation of specific social practices conveyed through discourse. by distinguishing and annotating the transitivity in the english version of the white paper "china's energy transition," it is clear that material process is in dominate position, with other types of transitivity as subordinative, as detailed in table 2. material process, relational process, and mental process are the main types of transitivity used in this white paper, with material process accounting for 88.078%, occupying a dominate position in the total number of process clauses in the discourse, highlighting the discourse's tendency towards objective descriptions of real-world experiences. it can be seen that the discourse content has a strong factual nature, reflecting the discourse author's or speaker's level of understanding and attitude towards the reality of the topic; relational process account for 9.02%, second only to material process in terms of total quantity, to a certain extent reflecting the discourse author's or speaker's understanding of the topic's ownership and attributes, indirectly reflecting the discourse author's or speaker's value judgment; mental process account for 1.255%, with a small total quantity but serving as an important basis for inferring the discourse author's and speaker's value orientation and emotional attitude, as well as a crucial channel for constructing the psychological state, ideological orientation, and value orientation of the reader for discourse. these three types of transitivity process are the main source of transitivity used in the white paper "china's energy transition" for constructing china's national identity and are the focal points of analysis in this study. table 2. categories of transitivity and their quantities and percentages types quantity percentage material process 1123 88.078% relational process 115 9.020% mental process 16 1.255% behavioral process 9 0.706% verbal process 7 0.549% existential process 5 0.392% total 1275 100% 4.2 transitive and national identity construction the author or speaker of discourses makes a continuous choice through the transitive system to express the physical world and external experiences of people, and this choice is often influenced by the theme and discourse type (xue, 2008). by analyzing the transitivity in the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition," it can explore the situation of the chinese government as a discourse author making transitivity choices, revealing the cultural connotations and social significance expressed by chinese government. the analysis will focus on the process types of transitivity and the national identity implied in the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition". 4.2.1material process the material process refers to the process of doing something, which is manifested by dynamic verbs and involves two participants, namely the actor who acts as the logical subject and the goal that acts as the logical direct object. therefore, the material process focuses on "who did what," in other words, the actor and the action they performed. according to table 2, clauses of material process occupy the dominant position in quantity in the english translation of this government white paper. the government white paper, issued by the chinese state council, is an official document focusing on expressing the views and positions of the state and the government, with the government as the narrative subject. it's narrative content mainly consists of the government's principles, policies adopted, achievements made, and problems encountered, and is a selfcommunication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 5 narrative discourse based on objective facts. therefore, in the english translation of the white paper, the actors in material process and material clauses are mostly chinese institutions or organizations representing china--" ", which are often translated as "china," "the government," "the chinese government," or the pronoun "it". the coherent identity of the actors in material process in the discourse reflects the strategic policies and specific actions taken by china and the chinese government through vigorous promotion in developing new energy, promoting energy transition, and ensuring national energy security. example 1. china (actor) has realized greater control (goal) over its own energy supply (circumstance). example 2. china (actor) has established a comprehensive energy supply system encompassing coal, oil, gas, nuclear, hydro, wind, and photovoltaic (pv) energy (goal), providing robust impetus (goal) for the fast and sustained development of the economy and society (goal). example 3. in this way (circumstance), the government (actor) encourages the entire society (goal) to prioritize the use of green energy and purchase of green products and services. example 4. china (actor) is committed to striking a balance between traditional and new energy sources in order to facilitate its energy transition while ensuring a stable energy supply tailored to the country's national conditions and development stage (circumstance). example 5. the chinese government (actor) actively guides the public (goal) to prioritize green energy and carry forward the nation's traditions of diligence and thrift (goal). example 6. it (actor) is endeavoring to ensure energy security (goal) in an open environment (circumstance), open its energy sector (goal) wider to the world (circumstance), promote high-quality belt and road cooperation (goal), actively engage in global energy governance (circumstance), guide global cooperation (goal) in climate change (circumstance), and build a global community of shared future (goal). through the observation of the components involved in the material process in the above cases, verbs such as "realized," "established," "encourages," "is committed to," "guides," etc., have authentically presented specific social practices of china and the chinese government in energy construction and development, promoting the popularization and application of green and clean energy, guiding and encouraging the gradual shift of social development towards green and clean energy as the driving force. it also demonstrates china and the chinese government's proactive promotion of energy transition in line with the trend of global energy development, and their steadfast attitude in pursuing the path of green and sustainable energy development. through words or phrases of the goal, such as "the entire society," "the public," "greater control," "a comprehensive energy supply system," "ensure energy security," "high-quality belt and road cooperation," "global cooperation," etc., reflect china and the chinese government's emphasis on mobilizing domestic and international collective forces, guiding the domestic population, strengthening international cooperation to promote energy development and transformation, ensure energy security, balance national energy security, and actively participate in addressing global energy issues. in addition, the components of circumstance, such as "over its own energy supply," "in order to facilitate its energy transition," "to the world," "in global energy governance," "in climate change," etc., further demonstrate that the policies and measures adopted by china and the chinese government are all aimed at serving global energy development and governance, addressing global issues such as climate change, solidifying the concept of "a global community of shared future," and promoting the benefits of energy development worldwide. the collaborative interplay of the actor, goal, and circumstance in material processes outlines china's identity as a contributor to global energy development for readers. 4.2.2 relationship process the relational process refers to the process of determining the relationship between various entities. the relational process can be divided into the "attributive" class, which indicates what attributes someone or something has or to which type it belongs, and the "identifying" class, which indicates that someone or something is identified as a specific entity. the attributive class relational process involves two participant roles: the "carrier" and the "attribute," while the identifying class relational process involves two participant roles: the "identified" and the "identifier." the relational process clarifies the relationship between participants and also reflects the value judgment and attitude of the discourse author or speaker through the choice of transitivity. the choices made by the translator in utilizing transitivity in the translation process encompass not only loyalty to judgments regarding participant relationships in the source text but also convey the judgement and attitudes of the translator or translation institution concerning these relationships. as an official international publicity text, the government white paper represents the value tendency of china and the chinese government. therefore, the analysis for the relational process in the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition" can reveal china's and the chinese communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 6 government's value judgment and attitude towards energy transition, and further explore the reasons for the corresponding cognitive generation. example 7. energy transition (identified) is the only way forward (identifier) example 8. sustainable development and climate change (carrier) are common challenges for all of humanity. (attribute) example 9. green development (carrier) is a defining feature of an eco-civilization. (attribute) example 10. the development and utilization of energy (carrier) is an important aspect of the interaction (attribute) between humanity and nature (circumstance). example 11. it (carrier) is crucial (attribute) for the country (circumstance) to establish green ways of production and life and realize high-quality economic and social development. analyzing sentences classified as relational processes reveals the contextual background, motivating factors, and significance of china's push for energy transition. from the above cases, it is evident that the identified relations in the government white paper are mostly related to energy, environment, and development topics, such as "energy transition," "sustainable development and climate change," "green development," "the development and utilization of energy," "it," etc. it can be seen that china and chinese government do not simply view energy issues in isolation, but rather consider them as interconnected with environmental protection, social development, and other multiple issues. they adopt a dialectical approach to the positive or negative impacts that energy transition may bring, objectively proving the necessity and importance of energy transition. the identifiers or attributes are mostly judgments of the values related to energy, environment, and development that the identified relations and carriers involve, such as "the only way forward," "common challenges for all of humanity," "a defining feature of an eco-civilization," "an important aspect of the interaction," "crucial." through the analysis of identifiers and attributes in term of implication, it is evident that china and its government spare no effort in conveying to the readers the importance and necessity of energy transition, to demonstrate that china's promotion of energy transition is a choice in line with development trends and objective laws, a correct decision to practice environmental protection and achieve sustainable development. the components, such as the carrier and attribute, the identified and identifier, in clauses of relational process reveal to the readers an identity of a forward-looking and science-driven leader in green development. 4.2.3 mental process the mental process refers to the process of representing "sensing," "reflecting," and "cognition" and other psychological activities. the mental process generally has two participants, one is the subject of psychological activity, that is, the "senser," and the phenomenon perceived as the object of perception. the mental process is the representation of the cognition, emotions, and attitudes towards the objects of cognition in the real world by the discourse author or speaker, showing the emotions, joys, sorrows, and other emotions of the senser in the real world at the textual level, reflecting the senser's own spiritual will and desires. through the analysis of the mental process in this government white paper, it can reveal the thoughts and opinions of the discourse author or speaker, and explore the underlying value orientation and ideology. therefore, it can figure out what is the will, ideology, and value orientation of china and the chinese government and how to realize synaesthesia and transfer their cognitive judgment to the reader through the cognitive and value orientation of the mental process in the english translation of the white paper. example 12. the green revolution (senser) concerns the wellbeing of everyone and future generations (phenomenon). example 13. china's energy transition (senser) abides by the following principle putting the people first (phenomenon). example 14. the eco-environment of mines (senser) has seen significant improvement (phenomenon). example 15. china (senser) firmly believes that clear waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets, and acts accordingly (phenomenon). example 16. china (senser) has seen large-scale and cluster development of offshore wind farms (phenomenon), with a cumulative installed capacity of 37,280 mw. through the analysis of mental process in the translated text, it can be found that china and the chinese government actively convey the intention of promoting energy transition to readers. from the above example analysis, it can be seen that in the white papers, the senser are mostly related to china itself or activities led by the chinese government, such as "china," "the green revolution," "china's energy transition," "the eco-environment of mines," etc., while the phenomenon are more diverse, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 7 including specific achievements and abstract visions, such as "the wellbeing of everyone and future generations," "the following principles," "significant improvement," etc. by analyzing the psychological process of sensers, the deep-seated ideas and intentions of energy transition implied in the discourse structure can be better explored. it can be seen that china and the chinese government fully express their recognition of the development law that "energy transition is a necessary condition for achieving sustainable development," as in examples 11 and 14; affirm themselves for the achievements in new energy development in recent years, as in examples 13 and 15; and convey that china's promotion of energy transition is scientific, principled, and methodical, as in example 12. thus, the "achievements in new energy development in china" stem from practicing the "scientific principles and methods," which are based on the understanding of the development law that "energy transition is a necessary condition for achieving sustainable development." the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition" highlights china and the chinese government's understanding and support for the rationality of energy transition through mental process, and thereby influences readers' emotional and attitudinal cognition for china and the chinese government's actions in energy transition. this aligns with presenting china as an advocate for the active pursuit of energy transition. 5. conclusion this study takes the english translation of the white paper "china's energy transition" as the research corpus for china's energy international publicity discourse. adopting antconc to extract high-frequency keywords, the topics and focuses of this white paper have been identified. subsequently, through uam corpus tools, the corpus was annotated and manually verified, clarifying the usage characteristics of transitivity in the english translation of the white paper, and then analyzing the role of transitivity in constructing china's national identity. the study found that material process focus on realistic experiences, establishing an identity of global energy development contributor that continuously optimizes energy structures, strengthens international energy cooperation, and facilitates global energy transition in more green and low-carbon way; relational process focus on relationships among participants and their value judgments, building a leader identity that promotes the coordinated development of economy, society, and environment on a green development path; while mental process focus on perception and cognition, creating an identity as supporters who endorse and actively practice energy transition. as one of the important types of government documents for international publicity, chinese government white papers on energy play a significant role in constructing china's discourse system on energy and shaping china's positive national image in the international community. under the current global energy crisis context, the translation of governmental white papers on energy not only serves as an effective way to explain china's energy development reality to the world and present china's energy propositions to international community, but also constitutes an important part of building china's international discourse system and national identity. therefore, it is necessary to translate government documents such as white papers on energy-related topics to tell china's story well, paying attention to the coordination between the using of transitivity and discourse strategies in translation. this will allow for a clear and accurate transmission of china's attitudes, positions, solutions, and insights to international readers, facilitating their understanding of china's national identity within a coherent context. references chen, c. g. 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(2020). a comparative study of energy white papers between china and britain from the perspective of international ecological discourse. journal of china university of petroleum (edition of social sciences). [in chinese, communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 9 , . (2020). . ( ), 36(06) :17-25.] zhao, x. f. & song, b. b. (2023). coalition and confrontation:the energy security discourse in the context of the american party system. journal of china university of petroleum (edition of social sciences). [in chinese, , . (2023). : . ( ), 39(01) :54-66.] zhao, x. f. & zhao, l. (2021). a corpus-based critical discourse study on energy strategy discourse of the trump administration. journal of china university of petroleum (edition of social sciences). [in chinese, , . (2021). . ( ), 37(01) :2835.] issue01.pb.2025.edited.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 21 research on the translation and dissemination strategies of china’s poverty alleviation discourse: a digital-data approach junchao wang1; chengcheng li2 1. journal department of gdufs, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: 201510091@oamail.gdufs.edu.cn doi.org/10.1075/babel.00370.wan 2. school of interpreting & translation studies, guangdong university of foreign studies abstract: since 1949, china has continuously advanced poverty alleviation efforts. general secretary xi jinping announced that china has completed the goals of poverty eradication in the new era as scheduled, achieving remarkable achievements that have attracted worldwide attention. this not only represents a great achievement of human civilization but also is crucial for china’s foreign communication and the construction of its international image. in the current era of profound changes, constructing an external discourse system for poverty alleviation is of great significance in breaking western discourse hegemony. since the 18th national congress of the communist party, theories and practices of poverty alleviation have continued to innovate, with the media playing a key role. however, there are still cognitive limitations and misunderstandings among overseas audiences regarding china’s poverty alleviation efforts. in view of this, this paper constructs a database of poverty alleviation discourse written by xi jinping from the perspectives of international communication and foreign translation, and adopts the “digital-data” approach. the aim is to provide a digital and intelligent pathway for china’s external promotion of poverty alleviation discourse, thereby contributing to global poverty reduction as well as enhancing china’s cultural soft power and international discourse power. keywords: china’s poverty alleviation discourse, international communication, translation strategies, discourse database, digital-data theory 1. introduction since the founding of p.r.c., the country has consistently carried out poverty alleviation and eradication efforts. general secretary xi jinping pointed out that after eight years of persistent efforts, china has achieved the poverty alleviation goals of the new era as scheduled. under the current standards, all rural impoverished populations have been lifted out of poverty, all impoverished counties have removed their poverty labels, absolute poverty and regional overall poverty have been eliminated, and nearly 100 million people have escaped poverty, securing a major victory that has drawn worldwide admiration. china’s poverty alleviation is not only a monumental achievement in the history of human civilization but also a key element in china’s international communication and the construction of its global image. amid unprecedented changes in a century, building an international discourse system for china’s poverty alleviation has become a crucial breakthrough in deconstructing the western discourse hegemony of the “china threat theory”, holding significant practical and theoretical implications (hu, 2022). since the 18th national congress of the communist party of china, china’s poverty alleviation efforts have entered the phase of targeted poverty eradication, with continuous advancements in theoretical and practical innovations. this highlights the pivotal role of poverty alleviation in the decisive battle to build a moderately prosperous society in all respects and signals a transformation in poverty research and intervention models (huang & yuan, 2018). the media has played a vital role in poverty alleviation, and delivering effective poverty alleviation reporting is an essential requirement for enhancing international discourse power (zhang & zhou, 2018). the coverage by mainstream local media across the country has profound significance for the progress of poverty alleviation. analyzing their journalistic practices, discourse characteristics, and problems provides guiding insights for optimizing all poverty alleviation reporting (jing, 2019). china’s remarkable achievements in poverty alleviation have attracted global attention, yet overseas audiences still harbor numerous cognitive limitations and misunderstandings about china’s poverty alleviation story (luo & zhou, 2020). therefore, from the perspective of international communication and translation, this study constructs a self-built database of xi jinping’s discourse on china’s poverty alleviation, employs “digital-data” approach (wang, 2024; wang & li, 2024), and thereby proposes a digital-intelligent pathway for the international promotion of china’s poverty alleviation discourse. this not only offers a chinese solution to global poverty reduction but also contributes to enhancing china’s cultural soft power and international discourse influence. 2. literature review communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 22 2.1 domestic literature review since the theme of “poverty alleviation” first appeared in chinese academic research in 1985, the construction and development of china’s poverty alleviation discourse system have undergone four decades of refinement and accumulation, forming a multidimensional, cross-disciplinary research and dissemination framework. according to existing statistics, there have been 29,046 related research outputs domestically, showing a year-by-year growth trend (see figure 1). this system not only encompasses multiple dimensions such as national poverty alleviation narratives, political discourse, documentaries, short films, films and television productions, literary works, news reports, ideological courses, academic research, and international topics, but also constitutes a vital component of china’s governance philosophy, exerting profound influence on poverty reduction efforts both within china and globally. figure 1. trends in academic research on china’s poverty alleviation discourse (1985-2024) we will now provide a brief review from multiple dimensions, including theoretical research on china’s poverty alleviation, studies on national poverty reduction topics or narratives of poverty-alleviated nations, literary works on poverty alleviation themes, analyses of films and documentaries, examinations of domestic and international news reports, as well as research on curriculum-based ideological education and international relations related to poverty alleviation. (1) research on the ontology of poverty alleviation theory in the ontological research of poverty alleviation theories, scholars have explored the theoretical foundations and practical pathways of china’s poverty eradication from various perspectives. for instance, hu (2022) examined the construction, components, and approaches of china’s poverty alleviation discourse system for international audiences. liu and jiang (2021) focused on governance in daily life, proposing a theoretical paradigm and practical pathway for intervening in the poverty trap faced by households that have escaped poverty. similarly, zhang (2007) investigated the historical trajectory of china’s poverty alleviation and development efforts from 1949 to 2005. while these studies provide theoretical support for understanding the underlying logic of china’s poverty alleviation policies, research on how to effectively communicate these theories to the international community from a translation and communication perspective remains insufficient. (2) research on national poverty alleviation topics, political documents, or narratives of poverty-alleviated countries at the national narrative level of poverty alleviation, xi (2021) emphasized that “poverty alleviation is not the end goal” and proposed a series of poverty alleviation strategies (see our established database for details). wang (2021) explored the perceptions and implications of african ambassadors in china regarding china’s poverty alleviation achievements. these studies analyze china’s poverty alleviation efforts from political and policy perspectives, but from the viewpoint of translation and communication studies, research on how to enhance international understanding and recognition of china’s poverty alleviation policies through external communication translation strategies remains relatively scarce. (3) literary works on poverty alleviation themes the literary community has actively engaged in creating novels, poems, and other works centered on poverty alleviation, including “chronicles of bailizhou: a firsthand account of poverty eradication” by zhu chaomin, “pipa village” by wen yanxia, “the nation’s warmth: my field surveys from 2019 to 2020” by jiang wei, “eighteen stories from shibadong village” by li di, and “the lofty yuangu dui” by qin ling. zhao (2024) analyzed the literary portrayal of poverty alleviation in liang xiaosheng’s “pastoral ode”, while yue (2023) explored the characterization and literary origins in novels on poverty alleviation themes. these studies reflect the social impact of poverty alleviation from a literary perspective, but research on how to convey china’s poverty alleviation stories through translated literary works and international publicity remains insufficient. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 23 (4) analysis of documentaries and short films in recent years, poverty alleviation has become a prominent theme in documentaries, short videos, and other audiovisual works. examples include “eradicating poverty”, “our poverty alleviation stories in 2020”, “monument: xinjiang’s poverty alleviation records”, and “farewell to poverty”, produced under the guidance of the central propaganda department and china media group. “china’s war on poverty”, a collaborative effort by the state council’s poverty alleviation office, cgtn, the kuhn foundation, and pbs southern california, provides a comprehensive overview of china’s “targeted poverty alleviation and eradication” strategy. these works vividly document and showcase china’s remarkable journey and achievements in poverty alleviation through diverse perspectives and narrative techniques. in this regard, wu and zhang (2024) examined the representation of china’s national image in the new era through poverty alleviation documentaries, while zhao (2023) analyzed the visual rhetorical strategies of “telling china’s stories well” using the short film “a poverty alleviation story in a cup of coffee”. these studies highlight the significance of audiovisual works in shaping and disseminating national image, but further exploration is needed on how to enhance their international influence through translation and cross-cultural communication strategies. (5) analysis of relevant news reports from china and abroad in the analysis of chinese and foreign news reports, huang and zhang (2022) conducted a critical discourse analysis of poverty alleviation and eradication coverage in mainstream western and chinese media based on corpus data. yu (2024) examined the use of reporting verbs in news reports on “targeted poverty alleviation”. these studies provide comparative perspectives on media coverage, but from the standpoint of translation and communication studies, research on how to optimize such reports to enhance international communication effectiveness remains insufficiently explored. (6) research on poverty alleviation in ideological and political education or international relations in the context of ideological and political education and international relations research, teng (2022) explored the integration of the spirit of poverty alleviation into ideological and political courses in higher education, while lu and chen (2022) analyzed poverty alleviation from the perspective of global governance. these studies offer new insights into poverty alleviation education and international cooperation. however, from the perspective of translation and communication studies, there is significant room for development in research on how to disseminate china’s poverty alleviation experience through educational and international cooperation platforms. 2.2 review of international research trends research on “poverty” is quite extensive internationally. according to incomplete statistics, it covers numerous languages and regions, including english (85,362 articles), korean (167 articles), spanish (148 articles), french (118 articles), turkish (108 articles), japanese (93 articles), portuguese (78 articles), russian (68 articles), polish (51 articles), german (50 articles), arabic (42 articles), croatian (33 articles), afrikaans (29 articles), and more. one of the earliest monographs on the subject is krauth’s “poverty”, published in 1858. between 1800 and 1950, a total of 1,068 monographs discussed the ontology of “poverty” and its relationships with waste, resources, development, wealth disparity, education, population, war, regions, stability, and other factors. among these early studies, some focused on the theme of “poverty alleviation”, such as classic works like “the destruction of poverty” (robinson, 1898), “poverty and dependency” (gillin, 1926), “the abolition of poverty” (hollander, 1914), and “prohibiting poverty” (martin, 1933). one of the earlier studies on china is “population, poverty and prosperity: china’s environmental woes” (russell, 1989), which analyzed the relationship between population, poverty, development, and the environment. related works were published later, such as “poverty issues and policies in china” (tong, 1991), “china: from afforestation to poverty alleviation and natural forest management” (rozelle, huang, husain & zazueta, 2000), “roads improvement for poverty alleviation in china" (hajj & pendakur, 2000), and "china: overcoming rural poverty” (world bank, 2001). since international institutions raised the issue of “poverty alleviation in china” in the early 21st century, global research on this topic has become more focused. the united nations development programme (undp) china office (2003) analyzed the relationship between poverty alleviation in china and microfinance. international studies have continued to adopt multidimensional analytical perspectives, such as the links between poverty alleviation and the environment (groom et al., 2010), poverty and water resources (cohen & sullivan, 2010), poverty alleviation and property rights (webster, wu, zhang & sarkar, 2016), poverty alleviation and social security (hammond, 2019), and poverty alleviation and health (muttaqin, 2024). on the other hand, much of the research employs quantitative empirical methods. for instance, duclos, araar & giles (2010) measured and estimated chronic and transient poverty in china; cohen & sullivan (2010) developed a multidimensional assessment tool to evaluate the relationship between water resources and poverty in rural china; sullivan (2011) further analyzed the impact of risk, time, and poverty on china’s forest tenure reform; meng (2013) used regression communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 24 discontinuity methods to assess china’s poverty alleviation programs; ward (2016) empirically analyzed transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability in rural china; westmore (2018) and gustafsson & sai (2023) both employed comparative data analysis to examine china’s poverty reduction efforts. additionally, research on china’s poverty alleviation campaign has expanded into multidimensional studies, such as bakre & dorasamy (2023) exploring the lessons of china’s poverty alleviation for rural development in south africa; liu, du, and liu (2024) conducting a multimodal analysis of posters related to china’s poverty alleviation efforts; and muttaqin (2024) examining the health impacts of china’s poverty alleviation campaign on rural populations from a medical perspective, among others. overall, existing research in china has covered theoretical discussions on poverty alleviation, analyses of films and television works, comparisons of news reports, studies on national issues, literary representations, as well as ideological education in curricula and international relations. however, most studies focus on domestic perspectives and practices. from the perspective of translation and communication studies, how to effectively convey china’s successful experiences and stories of poverty alleviation to the international community, and how to shape a positive image of china on the global stage, remains a research gap that urgently needs to be addressed. future research could pay more attention to cross-cultural communication strategies, techniques for international publicity translation, and communication mechanisms in international cooperation, to enhance the global dissemination and influence of china’s poverty alleviation discourse. 3. linguistic features of chinese economic discourse and translation strategies by collecting chinese and english corpus on the theme of poverty alleviation from xi jinping: the governance of china (volumes i to iv), we have established a poverty alleviation discourse corpus, which includes 10 key articles. using this thematic data as the corpus, the following will provide a digital-data analysis of china’s poverty alleviation discourse. 3.1 keywords in poverty alleviation discourse in the era of big data, with the help of powerful text analysis tools, we can conduct comprehensive and systematic visual analysis of china’s poverty alleviation discourse database. the total number of characters in the chinese and english poverty alleviation-themed articles from volumes i to iv are 14,587 and 20,530, respectively. the keywords are shown in table 1. table 1. high-frequency content words in chinese and english databases chinese corpus english corpus r rank word freq. r rank word freq. 1 250 1 poverty 3092 2 229 2 areas 769 3 158 3 alleviation 754 4 144 4 impoverished 595 5 124 5 should 571 6 110 6 must 448 7 96 7 development 444 8 81 8 rural 407 9 79 9 people 362 10 68 10 poor 350 11 67 11 party 348 12 66 12 cpc 338 13 63 13 targeted 274 14 62 14 fight 261 15 61 15 central 223 16 59 16 villages 203 17 54 17 have 200 18 54 18 elimination 199 19 49 19 prosperous 198 20 48 20 moderately 197 21 46 21 ensure 175 22 46 22 measures 175 23 44 23 china 171 communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 25 24 44 24 officials 161 25 44 25 prosperity 159 26 43 26 stricken 159 27 42 27 chinese 156 28 41 28 respects 147 29 40 29 society 145 30 39 30 problems 142 by using online word frequency analysis tools, we can obtain a visual representation of high-frequency words, making the topics of the target text immediately clear (https://www.weiciyun.com/). this visualization aligns closely with table 1, showing that the high-frequency substantive words in china’s poverty alleviation discourse include: poverty alleviation, poverty, poverty relief, tackling tough issues, development, and so on. figure 1. visualization of high-frequency words in china’s poverty alleviation discourse 3.2 rhetorical features of china’s poverty alleviation discourse and translation strategies for foreign audiences since the 18th national congress of the communist party of china, the party central committee with comrade xi jinping at its core has placed poverty alleviation in a prominent position in state governance, promoting the implementation of targeted poverty alleviation strategies and mobilizing efforts to win the unprecedented battle against poverty in human history. china, home to nearly one-fifth of the world’s population, has completely eradicated absolute poverty, achieving the poverty reduction target of the united nations 2030 agenda for sustainable development a decade ahead of schedule, making significant contributions to global poverty reduction and human development. xi jinping: the governance of china comprehensively presents the governance philosophy and strategies of the central leadership, with its poverty alleviationthemed literature serving as a condensed response to the issue of poverty reduction. the discourse on poverty alleviation is characterized by its literary and philosophical qualities, as well as its rich empirical insights into china’s economic development. due to space constraints, this study focuses on identifying metaphorical expressions within the poverty alleviation discourse from the database and employs ai to compare and analyze translations by professional human translators and ai-generated versions, exploring how technology can better serve the international dissemination of china’s poverty alleviation discourse in the ai era. (1) key terms in china’s poverty alleviation discourse: poverty alleviation communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 26 the narrative of poverty alleviation and eradication is an overlay of political and economic issues such as rural development, a moderately prosperous society, rural revitalization, and the community with a shared future for mankind. it is a long-term news agenda aligned with the national social security system and social assistance (yang, 2023). at its core, however, the discourse on poverty eradication revolves around efforts to combat poverty. metaphor is one of the commonly used rhetorical devices in china’s poverty alleviation discourse (zeng, 2022), as it vividly conveys the essence of poverty relief policies and development philosophies, making them more persuasive and engaging. by analyzing databases, it becomes evident that metaphors are extensively employed in china’s poverty alleviation discourse to explain specific policy measures, including “poverty eradication” (a campaign), “policies” (flood irrigation, targeted treatment, precision drip irrigation, targeted therapy, taking root, staggered advancement, flipping pancakes), “standards” (weights and measures, appetite), “work style construction” (tightening the institutional cage), “cadres” (those who act get positions, those who endure hardship gain favor), “outstanding issues” (leaving no dead ends, filling the gaps), and “railways" (accelerators). figure 2. keywords in china’s poverty alleviation discourse: a visual representation of poverty eradication in the chinese database spanning volumes 1 to 4, the term “poverty alleviation” appears 250 times, while “poverty” occurs 430 times in the english database. across the four volumes, the frequencies are 9, 148, 115, and 158 times respectively, showing a relatively even distribution in poverty alleviation discourse articles. through further analysis of its contextual collocations, we can identify several common structures: noun phrases: poverty alleviation, poverty elimination, the fight against poverty, the battle against poverty, wars on poverty, poverty-stricken areas, poverty alleviation and development, etc.; preposition + poverty: against poverty, out of poverty, etc.; verb + poverty: break away from ..., leap from ..., emerge from ..., escape from ..., rise from ..., etc.; communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 27 figure 3. the concordance plot for the keyword “poverty alleviation” (2) the conceptual metaphor network of poverty alleviation cognitive linguist lakoff’s conceptual metaphor theory posits that metaphor is not merely a rhetorical device but a reflection of the conceptual system in human language. at its core, metaphor involves using a concrete concept (the source domain) as a reference to understand and interpret another, more abstract or less directly graspable concept (the target domain). this process constitutes a mapping from one cognitive domain to another, embodying human thought patterns. china’s discourse on poverty alleviation is rich in metaphorical expressions, employing vivid and figurative language to describe and explain specific policy measures for poverty eradication. by closely examining the 430 contexts in which “poverty” appears in the database, we can derive the conceptual metaphor set for the “poverty alleviation” discourse: ∑against poverty is x = {against poverty is making gold. against poverty is running. against poverty is battle. against poverty is voyage. against poverty is taking wing. ...} figure 4. the conceptual metaphor net (2) metaphorical expressions of poverty alleviation in china’s discourse on poverty alleviation, there exist both conceptual metaphors shared by chinese and english, as well as unique mapping relationships specific to the chinese context. source text 1: (volume 1) source text 1 romanized: zhǐ yào yǒu xìn xīn, huáng tǔ biàn chéng jīn. target text 1: with confidence, even barren clay can be turned into gold. ai deepseek: with strong faith, even the barren soil can turn into gold. aipe: with strong faith, even the barren soil can be turned into gold. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 28 the original text primarily discusses helping people in revolutionary base areas and impoverished regions overcome poverty and achieve prosperity. both versions effectively capture the metaphor of poverty alleviation. since humans are the agents of poverty alleviation, the subject of this sentence is implied. in english, passive voice is often used in such cases, making the official translation's voice more appropriate. however, the ai version conveys a more resolute tone, which can also reflect the difficulty of poverty alleviation in reverse. source text 2: (volume 2) source text 2 romanized: tuō pín gong jiān zhàn de chōng fēng hào yǐ jīng chuī xiǎng. target text 2: we have sounded a clarion call in the battle against poverty. ai deepseek: the clarion call for the battle against poverty has been sounded. aipe: the clarion call for the battle against poverty has been sounded. the use of the metaphor “poverty alleviation is a battle” here helps readers better understand the importance the party and the state attach to this matter. both the official and ai translations effectively preserve the original metaphorical treatment, with the only difference being that the official version uses the pronoun “we” as the subject. english articles typically avoid firstperson pronouns to maintain objectivity, so the ai version aligns better with english expression norms and requires no modifications. source text 3: “ ” “ ” “ ” (volume 2) source text 3 romanized: wǒ zài fú jiàn níng dé gong zuò shí jiù jiǎng “ruò niǎo xiān fēi”, jiù shì shuō pín kùn dì qū pín kùn qún zhòng shǒu xiān yào yǒu “fēi” de yì shí hé “xiān fēi” de xíng dòng. target text 3: when i worked in ningde, fujian province, i told the locals a folktale titled a weak bird takes flight early. my intention was to explain to them that the area and the people should do two things – first, “take wing” and then “leave the nest”. ai deepseek: when i was working in ningde, fujian, i often mentioned that “the weaker bird must fly first,” which means that impoverished areas and people must first have the consciousness to "take flight" and the initiative to “fly ahead.” aipe: when i worked in ningde, fujian, i told the locals a folktale titled a weak bird takes flight early, and the purpose was to explain to them that in order to escape poverty, the area and the people must first “take flight” and then “leave the nest”. the original sentence is based on the story of “the slow (or clumsy) bird must fly early,” using “fly” as a metaphor for the requirements of poverty alleviation. it suggests that while the state provides external support, the “wings” are their own. since impoverished individuals lack innate advantages, they must rely on acquired efforts to prosper. the official translation uses “take wing,” which originally means “to take off,” here metaphorically representing “to begin development.” similarly, “leave the nest” carries a comparable meaning, effectively replicating the metaphorical sense of the original. in contrast, the ai version is confusing and unclear. moreover, the speaker is emphasizing the principle of “the slow bird must fly early” in the present context, not recalling a past “emphasis,” so the past continuous tense is unnecessary. therefore, the ai’s translation has been revised accordingly. source text 4: “ ” (volume 3) source text 4 romanized: bù gǎo dà shuǐ màn guàn, bù gǎo “shǒu liú dàn zhà tiào zao”, yīn cūn yīn hù yīn rén shīcè, duì zhèng xià yào, jīng zhǔn dī guàn, bǎ xiàng zhì liáo, fú pín fú dào diǎn shàng fú dào gēn shàng. target text 4: we do not spray preferential policies indiscriminately or “kill fleas with a hand-grenade”. instead, we adopt targeted measures for different villages, households and individuals according to their specific conditions, so that we can address the root causes of poverty. ai deepseek: we will not employ a one-size-fits-all approach, nor will we use a sledgehammer to crack a nut. instead, we will tailor our measures to the specific conditions of each village, household, and individual, ensuring targeted and precise interventions. our poverty alleviation efforts will be focused on the root causes and key areas, delivering assistance where it is most needed and effective. aipe: we do not spray preferential policies indiscriminately or use a sledgehammer to crack a nut. instead, we tailor our measures to the specific conditions of each village, household, and individual, ensuring targeted and precise interventions. in a word, assistance is delivered where it is most needed and effective. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 29 the paragraph containing this sentence summarizes poverty alleviation practices, so the future tense is unnecessary. it can be observed that both versions retain the metaphor only in the first half, with the official translation handling the expression “flood irrigation” more vividly. additionally, the official version is more concise than the ai's. based on this, the ai's translation was edited to produce the post-edited version. source text 5: (volume 4) source text 5 romanized: duì tuō pín xiàn yào fú shàng mǎ sòng yī chéng, shè lì guò dù qī, bǎo chí zhǔ yào bang fú zhèng cè zǒng tǐ wěn dìng. target text 5: to buttress counties that have emerged from poverty, we will institute a transition period during which the main poverty alleviation support policies will generally remain in place. ai deepseek: for counties that have emerged from poverty, we will provide continued support to ensure a smooth transition. we will establish a transitional period during which the main assistance policies will remain generally stable, helping them to firmly establish their footing and move forward steadily. aipe: for counties that have emerged from poverty, we will give them a leg up. we will establish a transitional period during which the main assistance policies will remain generally stable, helping them to firmly establish their footing and move forward steadily. the phrase “ ” in the original text means that elders should provide comprehensive assistance during the growth of younger generations. both translation versions have somewhat lost the original metaphorical meaning. compared to the official translation, the ai version is slightly repetitive but clearer in conveying the meaning at the end. through conversations with ai and consulting electronic dictionaries, it was found that “ ” can be expressed in english with the relatively close phrase “give someone a leg up”, which means helping someone get started or providing initial support. this phrase also aligns with the literal meaning of mounting a horse in reality, making it suitable for further revisions of the translation. 4. conclusion as a key component of china’s political discourse, the discourse on poverty alleviation is critically linked to the effectiveness of its international communication and the quality of its foreign translation. these factors are deeply intertwined with the construction of china’s international discourse power and the shaping of its global image. this study innovatively integrates theories from translation studies, communication studies, and political science, employing a digital-data approach facilitated by digital intelligence. through systematic collection of chinese and english corpus data centered on poverty alleviation from xi jinping: the governance of china (volumes 1–4), the research successfully assembles a specialized corpus of poverty alleviation discourse and accurately extracts key thematic keywords. poverty alleviation discourse not only embodies distinctive literary charm and profound philosophical insights but also vividly encapsulates china’s valuable economic development experiences. due to space limitations, this study primarily focuses on the metaphorical expressions within the corpus. additionally, by leveraging ai technologies, it conducts in-depth comparative analyses between translations produced by professional human translators and ai-generated translations. this endeavor aims to explore how, in the era of artificial intelligence, technological advancements can be harnessed to provide more high-quality and efficient support for the international dissemination of china's poverty alleviation discourse. finally, with ongoing technological progress and continuous scholarly inquiry, it is anticipated that the research scope will expand further to explore the deeper connotations and strategic dissemination of poverty alleviation discourse. such efforts will help to promote the grand achievements and valuable experiences of china’s poverty alleviation campaign on the international stage more broadly and profoundly, thereby contributing stronger chinese wisdom and strength to the global poverty reduction initiatives. acknowledgement: this paper was funded by guangdong province philosophy and social science foundation project “the evolution of translation, publication, and international communication models of chinese political discourse” (1952-2022) (grant no. gd24cwy10); 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(2024). . ] 16-82-pb.cabti.12.11.22024.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 23 research on an integrated translation teaching model based on the governance of china database: a case analysis of the president of gdufs's speech to freshmen jie lü school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail:1833904290@qq.com abstract the governance of china database (the database) is a comprehensive platform for both research and teaching. this paper establishes an integrated teaching model based on the principles of embodiment-cognition-construction, leveraging the database to enhance translation education. with the aid of the database, students can access numerous reference examples to refine their translations of a speech delivered to freshmen by the president of gdufs. both the model and the database are applicable to similar discourse translations. keywords: teaching model; governance of china database; embodiment-cognition-construction 1. introduction contemporary translation teaching must meet various educational objectives: beyond improving students' translation skills, it should also foster ideological and political awareness. it should align with the "three entries" (curriculum, textbooks, and classrooms) to help students deepen their understanding of national development, become familiar with national discourse, and enhance their ability to share china's stories effectively. the english translations of xi jinping: the governance of china (hereinafter referred to as the governance), published from 2018 to 2022, have attracted considerable interest in translation studies. according to zhou and he (2023), research on the governance primarily explores translation strategies, methods, and the handling of specific language phenomena, with limited application in teaching. an integrated platform of multilingual database of xi jinping: the governance of china1 (hereinafter referred to as the database), developed by the institute of corpus research at shanghai international studies university, serves as a high-level database for state political discourse. since the release of version 2.0 in june 2022, university teachers have actively explored methods for integrating the database into their teaching. however, current practices and research indicate that the application is still suboptimal, as most teachers have not yet found the most effective way to incorporate it. 2. translation teaching based on the database the database comprises a corpus, a knowledge base, and a literature base, with the multilingual parallel corpus being its most essential component. bilingual parallel corpora aid students in understanding source texts and translating them more fluently into target languages (zanettin, 1998). second language learners often lack familiarity with national discourse, a gap the understanding contemporary china textbook series aims to address. when translating texts reflective of chinese contemporary discourse, students often struggle with comprehension and expression. the abundant language data and examples in the database help students overcome these difficulties. wang (2004:28) argues that corpus tools are particularly valuable when translating from one's mother tongue into a foreign language. he also notes that parallel corpora can facilitate the search for specific translation strategies, enhancing accuracy, authenticity, and providing multiple translation options that go beyond what bilingual dictionaries offer. one of the database's primary goals is to support translation education. li and hu (2021:87), developers of the database, assert that "through observation and analysis of extensive language data, students improve through self-discovery and self-exploration" and that it "provides more data support for teaching political text translation, allowing for a more objective and scientific approach to language teaching." the database should therefore provide robust support for translation instruction. there are two main approaches to incorporating the database into translation education: directly applying the platform content in teaching or using the platform as tools in a more tool-oriented approach. the former approach is straightforward— for example, the “teaching module” within the database offers translation strategies and techniques, such as conversion, domestication, specification, omission, perspective change, alienation, addition, and more. the “terminology library” and 1 http://imate.cascorpus.com communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 24 “allusion library” in the knowledge base can also serve as translation course materials. however, this method tends to be criticism-oriented, and the platform’s limited case selection can make the teaching process monotonous, reducing both teachers' and students' enthusiasm. teachers should emphasize the second approach: toolizing the database and embedding it into teaching. research in this area remains sparse. for instance, wang and liu (2023) built a corpus based on the governance and applied it in teaching, guided by constructivist teaching theory and using a scaffolding model for chinese-english translation instruction. zhang (2023) developed an ideological and political approach in translation courses based on the database by integrating content with language instruction. to effectively toolize the database, it is necessary to combine specific teaching philosophies and designs to achieve holistic integration. 3. an integrated teaching model 3.1 theoretical bases with extensive teaching experience, the author has developed an integrated teaching model of “embodiment-cognitionconstruction,” grounded in experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics, and constructivism. these three theoretical foundations have been combined to guide translation teaching and studies. for instance, zeng (2011, 2013) proposed an embodiment-constructivism model, suggesting that constructivism requires experiential cognitive perspectives to reveal the essence of translation across language, thought, and mind, with the two theories having complementary effects. wang (2021) proposed embodiment-cognition theory, asserting that translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions. translators thoroughly understand the meanings expressed in the original text, which relate to both the real and cognitive worlds, and use various methods to map these meanings into the target language, constructing and conveying them through creative imitation. this paper aims to integrate experiential philosophy, cognition, and constructivism into a unified model. 3.1.1 experiential philosophy the experiential philosophy in teaching originates from cognitive linguistics (lakoff & johnson, 1980, 1999) and emphasizes learning through experience and reflection. it focuses on practical, hands-on activities to enhance understanding and skill development. as zeng (2013:63) states, human experience of the world relies on the senses, each with specific experiential perceptiveness. in translation teaching, this approach can be implemented by incorporating real-world translation tasks, simulations, and interactive exercises, allowing students to apply theoretical knowledge in practical contexts. experiential learning activities help students improve their translation skills, critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and cultural awareness. this approach also promotes active engagement and collaboration, creating a more immersive and effective learning experience in translation education. 3.1.2 cognition cognition involves the mental processes of acquiring, processing, storing, and using information, including perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, decision-making, and reasoning. researchers in cognitive psychology study how individuals perceive, think, and remember, aiming to understand the mechanisms and structures underlying these processes. wang (2007:583) emphasizes that translation is grounded in multiple interactive cognitive activities. in translation, efforts should be made to outline both the real and cognitive worlds that the author seeks to depict. cognitive science draws from psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, and computer science to explore mental functions and information processing. tan (2012) suggests that teachers should guide students to use various cognitive tools and resources to reconstruct meaning across diverse textual contexts, highlighting the importance of cognition in translation teaching. 3.1.3 constructivism constructivism likens learning to the process of building or constructing (fox, 2001:23). learners develop knowledge about the world and build cognitive structures through environmental interaction. the psychological and cognitive development of learners is influenced by social factors, with the environment playing a critical role in their growth. huang (2013:70) suggests that a comparable corpus contains texts in two or more languages within the same domain, enabling teachers to select texts that stimulate students’ interest according to specific teaching tasks. constructivist teaching encourages teachers to create authentic contexts that meet each student’s learning needs in every new situation, turning them into facilitators of learning and addressing students' diverse needs (green & gredler, 2002:59-61). educators should foster a conducive learning environment, inspire student enthusiasm, guide exploratory learning, and enhance knowledge acquisition. the learning process includes context, negotiation, conversation, and meaning construction. 3.2 teaching design to effectively integrate the database into translation teaching, it is essential to select texts similar to the discourse system. teachers should enhance their understanding of national leaders' discourse and actively gather relevant language materials. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 25 the author has focused on identifying suitable teaching content, with high-quality language materials being key to utilizing the database effectively and sparking students' interest in translation. the 2022 speech delivered to freshmen by the president of guangdong university of foreign studies serves as an ideal teaching material—its relevance to campus life resonates with students, enhancing engagement. four paragraphs, totaling 1,059 words, are selected, with each paragraph approximately 250 words. students work in groups of four, with 4–6 groups based on class size. for classes with more than four groups, paragraphs can be translated multiple times to allow peer comparison. a flipped classroom model is employed: students first complete the translation task in groups, and in class, the teacher compares, analyzes, and revises their translations with reference to the database. for example, in the four parallel classes taught by the author in 2023, differences appeared in the translations produced by different classes. this paper selects and compares representative student translations, summarizing and explaining these differences during discussions. 3.3 an integrated model of embodiment-cognition-construction this paper proposes an integrated model grounded in the theories and teaching design discussed above. the model can be visualized as follows: in the first stage, students enter the embodiment phase, where they experience the translation process and challenges by working on a translation exercise of the president’s speech. they create a tentative translated version in small groups. when encountering translation difficulties, they may consult dictionaries, search online, or discuss with teammates. in the second stage, students move into the cognition phase. here, the teacher introduces the database and demonstrates examples relevant to their translation. these examples help students reassess their translations and reflect on specific translation issues. in the third stage, students enter the construction phase, where they address translation problems and revise their translations with guidance from the teacher and support from the database. the three stages are interconnected, with significant interaction between students and the teacher throughout. 4. case analysis 4.1 translating quotes using the database directly students often lack familiarity with language resources and national discourse. research shows that even when students are aware of the database, they seldom actively use it in translation practice. some sentences in the president’s speech are direct quotes from the governance, and the database provides “ready-made” translations for these. by showcasing these translations, students gain a more profound understanding of the usage and context of these quotes. this approach leaves a lasting impression and reinforces their learning. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 26 table 1. translation examples directly quoted from the database no. source text student’s version database example 1 zhì bù lì, tiānxià wú kě chéng zhī shì. ambition does not stand, nothing can be achieved. without resolve, one can accomplish nothing. example 2 qīngnián lǐxiǎng yuǎndà, xìnniàn jiāndìng, shì yīgè guójiā, yīgè mínzú wú jiān bù cuī de qiánjìn dònglì. teenagers with giant ambition and strong belief are the invincible motive power of a country and a nation. young people with great ideals and firm beliefs are the driving force that builds an invincible nation . example 3 ...... fèndòu shì qīngchūn zuì liànglì de dǐsè...... struggle is the most vibrant backdrop of youth... hard work paints a bright backdrop for a young life. example 4 dàxué zhī dào, zài míngmíng dé, zài qīn mín, zài zhǐ yú zhì shàn. the way of university study lies in enlighten the brilliant virtue, making intimate association with people, and striving to attain the highest accomplishment. the way to great learning is to manifest bright virtue and to treat the people as one 's own family , thereby arriving at supreme goodness . the above four sentences selected from the speech have been quoted from the governance and can be easily searched from the database. compared with the version from the database, students’ version are problematic in grammar, diction or style. since students translated these sentences tentatively, they are pleased to learn the well-translated version from the database. 4.2 translating words and phrases by referring to the database translation example 5. source text: “ ” source text romanized: yī shì xīwàng nǐmen yǐ lǐxiǎng zhàoyào wèilái, zuò "yǎn zhōng yǒu guāng" de xīn shídài guǎngwài rén. target text student’s version the first is to hope that you will illuminate the future with ambition and become gdufsers of the new era with "light in the eyes". referential examples from the database source text: ...... source text romanized: wǒ xiāngxìn...... zài xīngxīng huǒjù de zhàoyào xià, zài dǎng de yángguāng de mùyù xià, wèi shíxiàn zhōnghuá mínzú wěidà fùxīng de zhōngguó mèng shíkè zhǔnbèi zhe. target text: i believe you have made yourselves ready to realize the chinese dream, guide by your flag of the star and torch. source text: source text romanized: lǐxiǎng zhī guāng bù miè, xìnniàn zhī guāng bù miè. target text: the light of our ideal will not go out and the light of our faith will not go out. revised version for example 5. source text: “ ” target text: first i hope your future can be guided by your ideals and you grow up into a new generation of gdufsers with “light in your eyes”. translation example 6. source text: source text romanized: communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 27 target text student’s version): ambition and belief are the cornerstones of your standing. referential examples from the database source text: source text romanized: guǎngdà qīngnián yīdìng yào jiāndìng lǐxiǎng xìnniàn. target text: first young people must be firm in your ideals and convictions . referential examples from the database source text: ,...... source text romanized: shítǐ jīngjì shì yīguó jīngjì de lìshēn zhī běn,...... target text: the real economy is the very foundation of an economy,... revised version for example 6. source text: target text: ideals and convictions are the foundation of your life. the student’s version has some problems in translating “ ” and “ ” after the teacher showed them some examples containing the above four-character phrases, she also revised the translated version. in this case, students can learn the approach of applying the database. translation example 7. source text: “ ” “ ” source text romanized: yǒule lǐxiǎng xìnniàn zhè ge “yā cáng shí” hé “zhǔ xīn gǔ”, qīngchūn suìyuè jiù bù huì xiàng wú duò zhī zhōu piāobó bù dìng, qiúxué zhī lù cái néng cóngróng zìxìn. target text student’s version): with ambition and belief as the “ballast stone” and “backbone”, youths will not drift aimlessly, and the journey of pursuing knowledge will be self-assured and confident. referential examples from the database source text: source text romanized: target text: good china us cooperation will serve as an anchor for global stability and a booster for world peace. referential examples from the database source text: ,...... source text romanized: zhōng-měi liǎng guó hézuò hǎo le, jiù kěyǐ zuò shìjiè wěndìng de yā cáng shí, shìjiè hépíng de zhù tuīqì. target text: ...always act as the backbone of the chinese people in its historic response to domestic and international risks and tests of all kinds. referential examples from the database source text: source text romanized: qīngnián zhì cún gāoyuǎn, jiù néng jīfā fèn jìn qiánlì, qīngchūn suìyuè jiù bù huì xiàng wú duò zhī zhōu piāobó bù dìng. target text: high ambitions can stimulate your potential to forge ahead, so that you will not drift aimlessly like a boat without a rudder. revised version for example 7. target text: with ideals and convictions as your anchor and backbone, you will be confirmed with confidence on your way of study without drifting aimlessly like a boat without a rudder. translation example 8. source text: source text romanized:bù xiè fèndòu shì nǐmen de dònglì zhī yuán. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 28 target text student’s version): persistent endeavor is the source of your motivator. referential examples from the database source text: ...... source text romanized: ràng qíndiligōngxué chéngwéi qīngchūn yuǎnháng de dònglì...... target text: you should make assiduous learning a driving force... revised version for example 8. target text: the unremitting endeavors would be the source of your driving force. many examples can be identified in this category. from students’ version, we can find that they may misunderstand the phrases in source text and translate them improperly. in example 6, student’s version for “ ”is “ballast stone”, which is a literal translation. yet the referential example from the database translate it into “anchor”. the replacement of the metaphor, on one hand can keep the vividness of the speech and the other hand, is a more idiomatic expression in english world. considering the following up clause “ ”, the word “anchor” make the whole sentence more coherent. in the process of teaching, the teacher shows the students the referential examples, tells them how to use the examples and helps them revise their translated version. 4.3 translating sentences by referring to the database when we cannot find direct quotations or phrases from the database, we can also refer to it with some sentence structures or patterns. translation example 9. source text: ...... source text romanized: ...... bù fù sháohuá, bù fù shídài, bù fù rénmín, zài qīngchūn de sàidào shàng fènlì bēnpǎo, shūxiě xīn shídài guǎngwài rén xīn xì jiāguó, dāndāng fèngxiàn de qīngchūn huá zhāng. target text student’s version): ...live up to the youth, live up to the times, and live up to the people, run hard on the track of youth, write the youth chapter of ‘gdufsers' caring for our country, and taking on the responsibility of dedication. referential examples from the database source text: ...... source text romanized: wǒmen yào bù fù rénmín zhòng tuō, wú kuì lìshǐ xuǎnzé...... target text: we must live up to the trust the people have placed in us and prove ourselves worthy of history’s choice. referential examples from the database source text: source text romanized: zài wèi rénmín lìyì de bù fù fèndòu zhōng shūxiě rénshēng huá zhāng ! target text: ....and write a vivid chapter in your tireless endeavors to serve the interests of the people. revised version for example 9. target text: i hope you can live up to the youth, live up to the times, and live up to the people. run vigorously on the track of the youth and write a vivid chapter of patriotism and dedication presented by new gdufsers. translation example 10. source text: ...... source text romanized: ...... zuò yǒu déxíng, zhī jìngwèi, míng dǐxiàn, shǒu guīzé zhī rén. target text student’s version): you should advocate moral character, yearn for kindness, respect your own personality, to be a person who have virtue, know reverence, clear bottom line, observe discipline. referential examples from the database source text: ...... source text romanized: ..... péiyù zhī róng rǔ, jiǎng zhèngqì, zuò fèngxiàn, cù héxié de liánghǎo fēngshàng. target text: ...and cultivate the social trends of recognizing honor and disgrace, practicing integrity , encouraging dedication and promoting harmony. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 29 revised version for example 10. target text: being a person of having virtues and merits, knowing what to respect, clarifying the bottom line, and obeying rules and regulations. in these two examples, the teacher presents students with similar sentence structures or patterns. this method can also effectively enhance students’ awareness of parallel texts. 5. conclusion with the assistance of the database, both teaching and learning have improved. the integrated model of embodimentcognition-construction proves effective for both teachers and students. for teachers, it enables them to enhance their own knowledge while teaching. for students, it provides a means to find suitable reference examples and revise their translations. the teaching model and methods discussed in this paper are applicable in similar translation classes. as mentioned above, the database is a comprehensive and resourceful platform that requires further exploration for more applications in both teaching and research. fund: the paper is one of the achievements of 2022 guangdong higher education reform project, “reform and practice of teaching english translation based on the multilingual database of xi jinping: the governance of china”. 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(2023). 2015—2022 . ] zanettin, f. bilingual comparable corpora and the training of translators. meta, 43(4): 616–630. 16-82-pb.cabti.12.11.22024.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 31 an analysis of the current situation of hong kong city image communication on youtube and research on strategies zhe zhang guangzhou college of commerce guangdong, china email: 20122022@gcc.edu.cn abstract this research takes the hong kong city promotional videos released by china international television (cgtn) on the youtube platform as the research object, aiming at exploring the unique performance, influencing factors, and improvement strategies of this promotional videos in international communication. in this paper, python software was used to obtain the comment data of hong kong city's international promotional videos on youtube platform, and combined with the methods of word frequency measurement and text analysis, semantic network was analyzed. then a response strategy is proposed from the 5w communication theory (communication subject, communication content, communication channel, communication audience and communication effect). this research focuses on the hong kong city promotional videos released by china global television network (cgtn) on the youtube platform. the study aims to explore the unique characteristics, influencing factors, and potential improvement strategies for these promotional videos in the context of international communication. using python, the comment data from these videos on youtube was collected and analyzed through methods such as word frequency measurement and text analysis. a semantic network analysis was also conducted. based on the findings, a response strategy is proposed using the 5w communication theory, addressing the communication subject, content, channel, audience, and effect. keywords: hong kong; city image; international communication; semantic network; affective tendency; 5w communication theory 1. introduction 1.1 background of the research a good national image influences the construction of cities and the establishment of their image, and the image of cities feeds the national image in the same way. the 2016/2017 state of china's cities report proposes to plan the future of china's cities with a global vision, not only the development of global cities will affect the country's world influence and popularity, but also every city that wants to find a place in the forest of the world reconstructs people's imaginations and perceptions of the country and the city(guo, chen &du, 2018). especially since china hosted the olympic games in 2008, people's attention to the image of the city has become higher and higher, and the world's attention to chinese cities can not be ignored, the construction and development of china's national image and the need for image shaping of each city has become more and more urgent. as the number of global internet users continues to grow, the flourishing of international online social media provides more space for city image communication. as the internet enters the web 2.0 era, the global social media platforms represented by youtube, twitter and facebook have become the main positions for international social activities to ‘happen’ and ‘speak out’. youtube is undoubtedly the world's largest video sharing platform with more than 1 billion visits per month, and it is one of the six social media platforms with the largest number of visits from overseas, which means that presenting the national image and the city's image on the youtube platform creates a complete communication chain of the city's image in an allrounded, multi-level and deep pattern, and has a forward-looking effect on the presentation of the city's hardware facilities, living environment, humanistic style and spiritual delicacies. it has a forward-looking role and irreplaceable value for showing the city's hardware facilities, living environment, humanistic style and spiritual delicacy. 1.2 significance of the research hong kong, as an international metropolis, the communication of its city image is not only about economic benefits, but also about the display of cultural soft power. however, the current status of city image positioning and communication is still vague and needs to be further explored. hong kong ranks first in the report on building overseas communication power of chinese cities in 2021, which has certain research value in terms of its influence as well as the strength and scope of its communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 32 communication (beijing, 2022). however, the current status of hong kong's city image communication on youtube is all vague, thus requiring a deeper investigation. the study finds that by investigating and exploring the communication status of hong kong's international city image on youtube, and summarizing the international communication ideas of hong kong's city image accordingly, it is also inspiring and useful for the external communication of such cities. therefore, this study is of great practical significance and application value. through the in-depth analysis of the current situation of hong kong's city image communication on youtube, this paper expects to provide relevant policy makers and practitioners with scientific theoretical basis and practical guidance, with a view to better shaping and communicating hong kong's city image in the new media era. 1.3 research theory in the structure and function of social communication, lasswell constructively put forward the ‘5w’ model of communication, namely ‘who’, ‘says what’, ‘in which channel’, ‘to whom’, ‘with what effect’, ‘with what effect’, ‘in which channel’, ‘to whom’, ‘with what effect’, and ‘with what effect’. ’, ‘in which channel’, ‘to whom’, ‘with what effect’ with what effect’. these five elements explain the complete process of communication and play a fundamental role in the subsequent research of communication (gao, 2008). this paper explores the main body of urban image communication on youtube, clarifies who is communicating hong kong's urban image, and with the prosperity of social media, the range of communicators is also expanding, and then analyses in detail the content of the urban image, which also contains invisible emotional factors and is the presentation of the communicator's attitudinal tendencies. youtube, as a channel for the communication of hong kong's urban image, provides a platform for the publicity of domestic and foreign cities. youtube, as a channel for hong kong's city image to be disseminated, provides a platform for the city to promote itself to the outside world, and the city can make use of the diversified forms of communication in social media to increase the readability of the message, and the forms of communication are also a part of the ‘media analysis’ extended by the 5w model. youtube is used by users from all over the world, thus expanding the range of recipients of the city's image in general, and the communicators are also the recipients, and the two are increasingly connected, with the effect of the communication mainly reflected in the degree of attention to the message, the degree of recognition, and the effect of diffusion. compared with the unidirectional linear communication of the 5w model, the powerful commenting and retweeting functions provided by social media platforms, such as youtube, increase the feedback link, which is conducive to the ‘reproduction’ of information content by communicators. 1.4 innovations literature research reveals that there is a considerable amount of literature on city image research, but the research perspective mainly focuses on domestic social media, especially the literature that examines the construction of city image by short videos, while the literature that examines the city's international image is relatively small; most of the literature within the scope of the current research only focuses on the international dissemination of the city's image in a general sense, so this paper conducts a quantitative and qualitative investigation of hong kong's city image on youtube. this paper is a quantitative and qualitative study of hong kong's city image on youtube, which not only enriches the academic exploration of the international communication of hong kong's city image, but also expands the research ideas and contributes thoughts or ideas to other studies on city image. 2. research methodology 2.1 sample extraction this paper uses python technology for data collection, and investigates and researches the current situation of hong kong's city image communication on youtube through content analysis and case study. this paper is based on the current situation of hong kong's city image communication on youtube. taking into account the fact that hong kong's ranking in the top one of the domestic cities regarding the influence of international communication and that there being a sufficient amount of data, the overall data selection is from the year of 2019 to the year of 2022. in this study, the python tool was used to explore the data on youtube about hong kong's city image from 11 october 2019 to 19 december 2022, with ‘hongkong’ as the keyword, to exclude the chinese comment samples and focus on the overseas comment samples. chinese comment samples and focusing on overseas comments, non-english samples (due to small data size and language recognition difficulties), and pure emoji, punctuation and other meaningless symbol samples. in the end, we obtained 100,852 valid audience comment data. the study mainly employs data text analysis and semantic network analysis methods, aiming to investigate the effectiveness of hong kong's city promotional videos in international communication as well as improvement strategies. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 33 table 1. cgtn hong kong's international dissemination data on youtube platforms name of the data first release date number of views number of likes number of comments 1. hong kong and the greater bay area (gba): internationalization and integration-part 1 24th nov. 2020 247,447 78 15074 2. hong kong youth in shenzhen: try the greater bay area 22nd jun. 2022 3,197 147 525 3. hong kong's new era: stories from after 1997 | cgtn documentary 19th dec. 2022 13,959 418 29434 4. hong kong youth, here is a hong kong history class 11th oct. 2019 50,008 1287 21818 5. hong kong is building a 2.5m person city from scratch 7th dec. 2021 360,993 9892 18395 6. hong kong and the greater bay area (gba): internationalization and integration-part 1 24th nov. 2020 247,447 78 15606 2.2 category construction based on the basic attributes of the youtube platform and the two categories of concepts, namely the concepts given to communication texts by mass communication and the concepts such as emotions contained in communication texts (deng, 2021:498), this study follows the rule that a complete youtube text is a unit, and is based on four aspects, namely, user identity information, tweet content information, tweet interaction information, and tweet emotion information, according to youtube's available information sources are encoded. the user identity information includes the user's positioning, identity and influence; the tweet content information contains the tweet content and multimedia information; the tweet interaction information is mainly about the dissemination effect, audience comments, including likes, comments, retweets, and audience comments on the top5 texts; the tweet sentiment information is mainly related to the sentiment tendency, including positive, neutral and negative categories. the latest version 0.16.0 of textblob, an open source library based on the python programming language, produces two values of ‘polarity’ and ‘subjectivity’. the two values are ‘polarity (or positive and negative emotions)’ and ‘subjectivity (subjectivity)’, where a polarity of 0 is neutral (neither positive nor negative), a positive value (maximum of 1 and greater than 0) is positive (i.e., love, liking, recommending, approving, admiring, worshipping, etc.), and a negative value (minimum of -1 and less than 0) is negative (i.e., resisting, antipathy, sarcasm, complaining, hatred, etc.), (i.e., resistance, antipathy, sarcasm, complaint, hatred, etc.). the above categories are basically in line with the 5w model and its extended theoretical content. 3. analysis of the current status of hong kong city image communication on youtube 3.1 semantic network analysis of overseas audience comments on hong kong cities after word frequency cleaning and statistical processing of overseas audience's comments on hong kong city promotional videos, we installed ‘java11 for windows’ and imported the data into the data visualization software ‘gephi 0.10.1’ to draw semantic network maps based on co-occurring words and to summarize the main issues arising from overseas audience's comments on the sample documentaries. the data was imported into the data visualization software ‘gephi 0.10.1’, and a semantic network diagram based on co-occurring words was drawn. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 34 figure 1. semantic network diagram of the ‘hong kong people, events and situations discussion’ framework. in the network graph, there are several nouns that have the highest node degree values, they are ‘people’ ‘china’ ‘city’ ‘do’ ‘not’ ‘chinese’ ‘country’ ‘bridge’ ‘beautiful’, and ‘great’. the magnitude of the degree values of these nodes can be seen that the degree values of the nodes are not only related to the word frequency, but also consistent with the emotional tendency of the audience. this suggests that the comments are generally positive and more focused on the hong kong crowd. moreover, the comments are not only limited to evaluating people and events in hong kong-related news events, but also cover broader topics such as government administration. the most important node word in the center is ‘china’, and the most closely related node word is ‘people’, with the word ‘people’ in the densest network relationship. the word ‘people’ is in the densest network relationship. this shows that hong kong's participation in the construction of the greater bay area is beneficial to the local people, with the ‘motherland’ as the background for the construction. 3.2 analysis of the emotional tendencies of hong kong city's overseas audience in this paper, the sentiment annotation of the corpus based on the latest version 0.16.0 of textblob, an open-source library in python programming language, produces two values of ‘polarity’ and ‘subjectivity’, where polarity (sentiment value) of 0 means the sentiment is neutral (neither positive nor negative), and the sentiment value is positive (neither positive nor negative). the two values are ‘polarity (sentiment value)’, where a polarity of 0 is neutral (neither positive nor negative), a positive value (maximum 1 and greater than 0) is positive (i.e., love, like, recommend, approve, admire, worship, etc.), and a negative value (minimum -1 and less than 0) is negative (i.e., resistance, resentment, sarcasm, complaint, hatred, etc.), sarcasm, complaint, hatred, etc.). at the level of comment entries, the overall percentile values of the database for the proportion of positive entries, the proportion of negative entries, the proportion of neutral entries, and the proportion of subjective entries. the following results were obtained after importing nearly 2188 audience comments on guangzhou city promotional films into the sentiment analysis runtime code: 56.7% of the entries with positive comments (sentiment polarity>0); 30.94% of the entries with neutral attribute comments (sentiment polarity=0); 30.94% of the entries with negative attribute comments (sentiment polarity<0) accounted for 12.31%, and subjective polarity<0) accounted for 73.11% (see figure 2). it can be seen that overseas audiences' emotional responses to this guangzhou city film are mainly positive and neutral, while there are also 12.31% of negatively inclined comments. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 35 figure 2: the emotional attitude towards the guangzhou city promotional video 4. strategies for improving the international image of hong kong cities hong kong city's international communication has not only gained favorable comments from overseas audiences, but also a certain proportion of negative comments, which indicates that there is still room for improvement in the relevant hong kong city's international communication work. based on the above problems, the following improvement strategies are designed in a targeted manner. 4.1 constructing a diversified outreach organization youtube is the world's leading video-sharing platform, and the dominant domestic voice in this field comes mainly from official media and a limited number of organizations and individual accounts. nonetheless, there is a scarcity of chinese media entities that are truly capable of exerting a wide-ranging communication effect and far-reaching influence on the international scene. currently, the official-dominated communication model leads to a clear distinction between content and style, and this monolithic communication often leaves a question mark over the audience's acceptance of propaganda films. in order to break this pattern, we need to identify and motivate more civil society groups and individuals to enter into the creation and dissemination of promotional videos, and support those organizations that have the potential and strength to share more quality content (green & gredler, 2002:59-61). particularly in the case of international communication of hong kong's city image, it is crucial to build a diverse group of communicators and to enhance the creative drive and capacity of all parties. such a shift will not only drive more creative talents and organizations to join the cause of international communication of hong kong's and even china's culture, but also leverage on their unique perspectives and modes of expression to showcase hong kong's story to the world. on this basis, we should make unremitting efforts to broaden the horizons of the communicators, so that they are no longer confined to building up an image of hong kong or china, but extend to the whole grand blueprint of international communication. cultivating such a body of communicators will ensure that we can build a more proactive image of china in the international arena, and create a group of international communicators who can convey china's voice and show china's style. this is a cultural self-renewal and a new chapter in conveying china's story to the world. 4.2 constructing the concept of a "community with a shared future for mankind": content and audience model for dissemination" against the backdrop of deepening global integration, the concept of building a ‘community of human destiny’ has become more and more crucial. this concept seeks to gradually dissolve cultural barriers between nations through the bonds of empathy and information exchange, and to expand mutual understanding and respect. instead of pursuing total cultural assimilation, we should embrace diversity and the wisdom of ‘harmony and difference’. through the bridge of empathy, we can not only dispel irrational stereotypes, but also stimulate intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding franco& ortiz, 2020). the ‘community of human destiny’ not only inherits the profound heritage of traditional chinese culture, but also integrates the essence of the western enlightenment era's concepts of the supremacy of reason and sociability. the concept is not only a modern elaboration of ancient chinese wisdom, but also a deep insight into the current structure of the ‘nationstate’. it rejects the western hegemonic approach whereby national power determines the map of influence, and advocates a new paradigm of international relations based on morality and justice the ‘way of the king’. it encourages dialogue among nations on an equal footing, eschews confrontation and moves away from alliances to create a more coherent international community. china's adherence to the concept of ‘community of human destiny’ on the global stage not only demonstrates its hong kong positive ratio negative ratio neutral ratio subjective ratio communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 36 confidence in its national cultural heritage, but also reveals to all mankind a new way of resolving international disputes and cultural collisions. this innovative strategy of cultural diplomacy aims to promote the harmonious coexistence of global cultures, effectively resolve misunderstandings and stereotypes brought about by differences in history, culture and ideology, and contribute valuable strength to world peace and co-prosperity. 4.3 building multi-dimensional communication channels although ‘joint narratives’ with a multitude of voices can compensate for the limitations of a single narrator, enrich the dimensions of communication, and enhance the effectiveness of international communication, they are still based on the perspective of ‘i’ bremer, mayr, schmidtner & rutzinge 2016). however, a single ‘self-report’ is not enough to reach a global audience, and the techniques of ‘endorsement’ and ‘voice-over’ can compensate for this, enhancing the authenticity, trust and effectiveness of the message. the techniques of ‘endorsement’ and ‘voice-over’ can compensate for this and increase the authenticity, trust and impact of the message. for example, the overwhelming response to a documentary about the greater bay area on youtube, with 2.39 million views and thousands of comments, suggests that international audiences are open to and even appreciative of china's stories delivered through third parties, and are likely to place a higher degree of trust in such non-china-centric content. this phenomenon undoubtedly provides valuable insights into our international communication strategies. 5. conclusion international social media breaks through time and space limitations, giving cities more and more opportunities to display their characteristics and attract admirers on the globalized stage, and bringing brand new opportunities for city construction and development. youtube, as one of the most visited international social media, provides a broad platform for cities to promote themselves to the outside world. this survey explores the communication status of hong kong's city image on youtube through data mining and content analysis, and draws the following conclusions: combined with the specific survey results: youtube presents hong kong's economic image of booming industries, advancing with the times in science and technology and education, and creating a brilliant future; its cultural image of deep cultural heritage and outstanding sports characteristics; its ecological image of complete infrastructure, well-developed transport, and excellent environment; and its ecological image of a city of high quality and high quality, and its ecological image of a city of high quality and high quality. it also presents the ecological image of hong kong with well-developed infrastructure, excellent transport and environment, as well as the image of warm and tolerant residents and the social image of poor law and order. in terms of communication subjects, the users' regional orientation is dispersed, mainly in eurasian countries, and the communicators are mainly individuals, lacking opinion leaders; in terms of communication content, the main focus is on cultural and ecological areas. the image of culture and economy is prominent, and information related to the city's sports events, gastronomy culture and economic industry is centrally disseminated. in terms of communication form, it is mainly in the form of graphics, most of which are just simple text communication, and the overall utilization rate of short videos is not high, which needs to be supported by richer, more vivid and interesting forms of communication. in terms of communication emotion, positive emotion is the main focus. in terms of communication effect, the influence is still insufficient, the audience comments are polarized, and the overall communication effect needs to be further improved. on the basis of sorting out hong kong's image on youtube, this study proposes a communication idea based on the 5w theory of marketing, that is, to enhance the city's image in three aspects, namely, to build a diversified foreign propaganda body, to build a communication content and audience mode of the concept of ‘community of human destiny’, and to build a multidimensional and three-dimensional communication channel. due to the limitations of ideological theory and academic level, there are still deficiencies in this research, for example, the sample capacity of the survey is not comprehensive enough compared to the amount of urban image content in youtube. when summarizing the characteristics of the city and its image positioning, there may not be completely reasonable, and there is still room for improvement. in the future, we will improve the exploration of the relevant topics and contents, and gain more from the investigation and research related to the communication of the city's image. references bremer, m., mayr, a., wichmann, v., schmidtner, k., & rutzinger, m. (2016). a new multi-scale 3d-gis-approach for the assessment and dissemination of solar income of digital city models. computers, environment and urban systems, 57, 144-154. franco, i. d., & ortiz, c. (2020). medellín in the headlines: the role of the media in the dissemination of urban models. cities, 96, 102431. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 02 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 37 munjal, r., liu, w., li, x. j., & gutierrez, j. (2020). a neural network-based sustainable data dissemination through public transportation for smart cities. sustainability, 12(24), 10327. bnunmcr. (2022). 2021 report on chinese cities' overseas communication power building. https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1720395252644876912. [in chinese: . (2022). 2021 ]. deng, s. m. (2021) .communication research methods and essay writing. beijing: renmin university of china press, 498. [in chinese: .(2021). . : , 498.] gao, h.b. (2008) .exploring the source of lasswell's 5w model. international journalism, 2008(10):37-40.[in chinese: guo k, chen y and du y. (2018).generation mechanism and theoretical interpretation of global city image communication--taking shanghai city image as an example. journalism university,(06):1-8+146.[in chinese: , , & . (2018). -. (6), 9.] fund: this work was supported by 2022 humanities and social sciences research program of the ministry of education of china (youth fund project): research on international image construction and intercultural communication strategies of guangdong, hong kong and macao greater bay area (22yjczh250); and guangdong province philosophy and social science foundation project “the evolution of translation, publication, and international communication models of chinese political discourse (1952-2022)” (gd24cwy10). 15-69-pb.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 45 the effectiveness of chinese cultural transmission in central and eastern europe — taking serbia as an example hengyi xu1, peng zhou2 1faculty of european languages and cultures, academy of international and regional studies, guangdong university of foreign studies. email: karlaxu@163.com 2corresponding author, director of international office, guangdong university of foreign studies. email: zhoupeng@gdufs.edu.cn abstract: this study focuses on the actual impact and effect of chinese cultural transmission in central and eastern europe. taking questionnaire analysis as the main research methods, combined with the theoretical perspectives of cultural identity and the external transmission of cultural "soft power" in cultural studies, this study focuses on analyzing the form, content and effect of the transmission of chinese culture in serbia as an example of the central and eastern european region. after analyzing, the study concludes that the transmission of chinese culture in serbia should pay more attention to the youth group and should also pay more attention to the digital technology in terms of the methods and forms to enhance the sense of experience and participation in cultural exchanges, and combine chinese language with the local language and culture. this study provides effective references for the further enhancement of the transmission of chinese culture in serbia and the central and eastern europe. key word: transmission of chinese culture in serbia; cultural identity; belt and road initiative fund support: research on perceptions and policies of central and eastern european countries towards us-china strategic competition, academy of international and regional studies, guangdong university of foreign studies (gdufs) 2023 bidding project. 1. literature review 1.1 definition and measurement of culture culture is a multidimensional, complex and widely discussed concept, and due to the vastness of its connotations, its definition has changed over time and across fields of study. edward tylor (1871) first defined it as any of the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and other faculties and related experiences acquired by human beings as members of society. in the social sciences, scholars such as clifford geertz (1973). have proposed that culture is a function of "sign systems", i.e., systems of meaning shared by a group or society, through which human beings express, maintain, and transmit life experiences. in the 1980s, geert hofstede, through cross-cultural studies, defined culture as "collective mental programming" that distinguishes between members of different groups or categories. the difficulty of cultural measurement lies in the abstract and subjective nature of culture. the influential theories of cultural assessment and measurement in quantitative cultural research that have been developed by scholars include hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions, fons trompenaars and charles hampden-turner's "seven cultural dimensions"(1997) et al. scholars such as geertz, on the other hand, have proposed a qualitative approach to measuring culture, advocating that culture be analyzed and understood through in-depth fieldwork to document and analyze in detail the lifestyles, customs, and rituals of specific cultural groups. this approach emphasizes the interaction between the researcher and the subject and the richness of cultural data obtained through long-term participation and observation. 1.2 research on cultural communication the study of cultural communication aims to examine how elements of culture spread and change globally through various means and mechanisms. tylor (1871) pointed out that cultural diffusion is an important engine of cultural development. several important theories of cultural communication include edward hall's (1973). theory of cross-cultural communication in high-context and low-context cultures, which identifies cultural differences in cultural communication and their effects on message transmission; everett roger (1962, 1995) theory of diffusion of innovations, which states that the process of cultural diffusion can be viewed as a process of diffusion of innovations. the symbolic interaction theory of culture, proposed by geertz (1973) argues that culture as a symbolic system enables cultural transmission through the exchange of signs and meanings. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 46 with regard to the means and mechanisms of cultural transmission, the main divisions are linguistic transmission, media transmission and intercultural communication. among them, language is an important tool for cultural transmission. with the development of science and technology, the role of media communication in cultural transmission is becoming more and more significant. marshall mcluhan (1994) put forward the idea that "the medium is the message", emphasizing the important influence of media forms on cultural communication. hofstede (2001) in his theory of cultural dimensions suggests that differences in cultural backgrounds affect people's communication styles and behavioral patterns. in terms of its impact, cultural diffusion is not only a process of cultural exchange, but also a driving force for cultural change and integration. cultural diffusion can promote diversity and innovation, but it can also lead to cultural conflict and homogenization. 1.3 research on identity and cultural diffusion identity refers to an individual's or group's understanding and orientation of themselves on a psychological and social level. cultural transmission has a profound effect on identity formation and change. erik erikson (1968) believes that the development of identity is one of the central tasks of the individual in the process of socialization and is significantly influenced by social and cultural factors. cross-cultural communication with cultural diffusion, while bridging the cognitive gap, may also lead to identity conflicts. hofstede (2001) points out that there are significant differences in the values, beliefs and behaviors of people from different cultures, and these differences may lead to identity conflicts and cultural adaptation problems in cross-cultural exchanges. anthony giddens (1991) points out the two-way influence between cultural transmission and identity: on the one hand, cultural transmission influences the formation and change of identity through cultural products, language, customs, etc. on the other hand, identity also influences the way and content of cultural transmission. identity is constantly reshaped in the process of globalization, which in turn affects the dynamics of cultural transmission. the medium is the main vehicle of cultural transmission and has a significant impact on the formation of identity. stuart hall (1990) points out that the medium not only transmits information, but also influences the construction of identity through the processes of reproduction and symbolization. in the current era, the rise of the internet and social media has brought about new modes of cultural communication and facilitated the formation of fluid identities. manuel castells (2011) points out that identity in the new media environment is characterized by networking, decentralization and mobility, which allows individuals and groups to freely switch and reconstruct their identities in different cultural spaces. 1.4 research on chinese culture transmission to foreign countries the external transmission of chinese culture refers to china's promotion of its cultural elements to the world through various means. with the enhancement of china's international status and the acceleration of globalization, the external transmission of chinese culture has become an important field of cultural studies and international communication research. its significance lies in enhancing china's cultural soft power and promoting international understanding and recognition of china. 1.4.1 mainstreaming theories of cultural communication to the outside world the theory of soft power put forward by joseph nye is one of the mainstream theories for interpreting the external communication of culture. according to nye, a country's soft power derives from the attractiveness of its culture, political values and foreign policy. this theory suggests that countries communicate through culture with a view to enhancing their international image and influence. another mainstream theory is intercultural communication theory, which focuses on the exchange of information and interaction in different cultural contexts. studies by scholars such as stuart hall emphasize the importance of cultural identity and symbolic meaning in intercultural communication. this theory helps to understand the reception and transmission of culture in different cultural environments. 1.4.2 ways and means of spreading chinese culture abroad the media is an important channel for cultural transmission. in recent years, chinese cultural content has been disseminated to the world not only through the media of movies, television and the internet, but also through evolving social media platforms, such as weibo, wechat and tiktok etc. confucius institutes are one of the important vehicles for the transmission of chinese culture abroad. by setting up confucius institutes and confucius classrooms around the world, china promotes chinese language teaching and chinese culture. research shows that confucius institutes have achieved remarkable results in promoting chinese language learning and cultural exchange, but they also face challenges of cultural adaptation and localization. (lahtinen, 2015). communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 47 international cultural exchange activities, such as the beijing olympics and the shanghai world expo are also important ways of displaying and spreading chinese culture. in addition, international cultural festivals, cross-border exhibitions and international touring performances are also important ways of displaying chinese culture. 1.4.3 the effectiveness of chinese cultural communication to foreign countries with the continuous development of chinese cultural transmission abroad, many scholars have conducted research on it. one group of scholars has explored the overseas transmission of chinese culture from the perspective of foreign propaganda practice, and one representative study is jia shumei's the story of china internationally expressed ( ), which shows and analyzes 60 cases of foreign cultural communication, pointing out that although china's foreign cultural transmission activities are becoming more and more frequent, the actual effect and influence still face challenges. it is pointed out that in order to improve the communication effect, it is necessary to understand more deeply the psychology and needs of the audience in the target countries, and to formulate more precise communication strategies accordingly. another group of scholars started from the confucius institutes (wu & shi, 2011). through qualitative research on chinese language learners in confucius institutes, they assessed the effectiveness of confucius institutes as a platform for the transmission of chinese culture to foreign countries, pointing out that confucius institutes have achieved certain results in promoting chinese language teaching and disseminating chinese culture, but still need to be strengthened in terms of deep cultural exchanges and influence. there are also scholars who have explored from the perspective of cross-cultural communication, such as xie luncan and yang yong's (2017) research on countermeasures for chinese culture going out in the context of belt and road initiative. xu qing's (2021) research on the path and countermeasures for overseas cultural communication of chinese culture etc. these researches analyzed the overseas transmission of chinese culture from the perspective of macro policy design and the international competitiveness of chinese cultural products. 2. raising questions, research methodology and sample profile 2.1 raising of the research question based on the above review of relevant studies, it can be found that the current research on the effect of chinese cultural transmission abroad mainly focuses on the macro level of institutions and system design, and empirical research from the specific micro level is relatively scarce, and there are fewer relevant studies for central and eastern european countries. therefore, this study asks the following questions based on existing research: question 1: under the current communication methods and approaches, how do audiences in target countries really feel about the chinese cultural which they receive? question 2: what is the actual demand for chinese culture among audiences in target countries, and what are the cultural elements that could be the breakthrough points for chinese culture transmission abroad? question 3: under the current development of science and technology, how could the effect of chinese culture transmission in target countries be optimize? 2.2 selection of target countries china's belt and road initiative has been proposed since 2013, with the aim of promoting closer economic partnerships and achieving common prosperity by facilitating cooperation in infrastructure construction, trade and investment, and cultural exchanges among countries along the route. within the scope of this study, serbia, an important partner country along the belt and road initiative that has not yet been covered in such research area, was selected. serbia is an important partner of china in the balkans. cooperation between china and serbia is mainly in the field of infrastructure construction, such as the belgrade-budapest railway project, one of the landmark projects under the belt and road initiative, and the cooperation trend continues to be favourable, with the two countries' relations becoming increasingly close. this study takes serbia as the target country, in order to analyze the effect and experience of chinese culture transmission on the ground, and to help china and the target countries to further broaden and deepen the level of cooperation, as well as to promote the construction of the belt and road initiative. 2.3 methodology 2.3.1 quantitative and qualitative analyses based on questionnaires based on the model of the previous study, this study further expands the scope of the research. while the research scope of the previous study is usually limited to language learners in confucius institutes or chinese language institutions in the target countries, this study expands the scope of interviewee from chinese language learners to all groups over 18 years old in the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 48 target countries, i.e., weakening the influence of the respondents' preference for chinese culture, breaking through the limitation of the single element of language learning, and investigating the panoramic feedback on the effect of the transmission of chinese culture in the target countries. synthesizing the aforementioned established theories of cultural communication, this study designed a set of 26 questions based on the pre-existing impression of chinese culture among audiences in the target countries, the communication media, the audience's knowledge of chinese culture, identification, preferred cultural contents and products, contexts, linguistic channels, as well as the effect of chinese culture communication, the challenges faced by chinese culture communication, and suggestions for chinese culture communication, etc. the open-ended anonymous internet questionnaire covers the whole process of cultural communication. in the distribution section, the questionnaire was delivered to the target country audience through language learners, private social relations, confucius institutes, teachers and students of partner institutions, etc. the surveyed population was not limited to chinese language learners, but also included general audiences who have been exposed to chinese culture or are interested in chinese culture. 2.3.2 literature analysis this study will also adopt the literature analysis method and will combine the data of relevant research findings conducted by other institutions in recent years for comprehensive analysis. through careful examination and comparison of these findings, this study will draw on existing research findings to supplement and improve the analytical interpretation of the findings in order to enhance the comprehensiveness of the conclusions. at the same time, it will help to identify potential deficiencies and research gaps in the existing studies and provide directions for more in-depth exploration in the future. 2.4 sample size and structure 2.4.1 population of the target country and sample size for this study according to the 2020 census data released by the statistical office of the republic of serbia in 2021, the total population of the country is about 6.9 million. by gender, 51.3 % of the population is female and 48.7% male. the process of ageing is continuing, with the percentage of young people in the country's total population continuing to decline and the percentage of elderly people high and increasing, with 21.1% of the population aged 65 and over and 14.3% of the population under 15 years of age in 2020. by 30 june 2024, 54 valid questionnaires were obtained for this survey. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 49 2.4.2 sample structure the nationalities of the valid fillers of this research were all serbian, and the distribution of age groups was as follows: 39 persons aged 18-25, or 72.22%; 8 persons aged 26-35, or 14.81%; 5 persons aged 36-45, or 9.26%; 2 persons in the 46-60 age group, or 3.70 % and there were no fillers in the age group of 60 years or older. the participants of this research were mainly concentrated in the age group of 18-25 years old, followed by people in the age group of 26-45 years old. table 1. age structure of interviewees in the distribution of educational and occupational structures, 27 participants, or 50 %, had a secondary school education or less; 18 participants, or 33.33%, had a bachelor's degree; 6 participants, or 11.11%, had a master's degree; 2 participants, or 3.7%, had a doctoral degree or higher; and 1 participant had a tertiary college degree. the data show that the proportion of participants who are in or have just completed basic education and those with a bachelor's degree or higher is about half each. table 2. distribution of interviewees by educational and occupational structure in terms of occupational distribution, 32 participants (59.26%) are students, 8 participants (14.81%) are employed in the education and research sector, 4 participants (7.41%) are employed in the financial and commercial sector, 1 participant is employed in the culture and media sector, and 9 participants (16.67%) are employed in other occupations. in other words, the participants are mainly students, education and research, and culture and media (75.92 %), and about 24% of the participants communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 50 in other professions are engaged in the following professions: interpreters, philosophers, administrators, chemical engineers and construction. 3. statistical analysis of questionnaire data 3.1 overall impression, perception and recognition in terms of the overall understanding of chinese culture, about 10% of the respondents chose "very well understood" and "fairly well understood ", while two-thirds (66.67%) of the respondents thought that the overall understanding of chinese culture among the people in their own countries was "not very well", and another 22.22% thought that it was "average". two thirds of the respondents (66.67%) think that the general understanding of chinese culture among the people in their country is "not very well", while 22.22% think that the level of understanding is "average". more than 70% of the respondents believe that the core connotations of the chinese national spirit are "hard work" (77.78%) and "collectivism" (74.07%), while 50% chose "patriotism" (51.85%). another nearly 20% of respondents chose "hard work and thrift". the rest of the respondents chose "respect for the elderly", "respect for authority", "modesty", "male values", and "pioneering and pragmatic spirit". in terms of overall recognition, more than 90% of the respondents indicated that they were either "very interested" (72.22%) or "quite interested" (25.93%) in chinese culture. among them, the proportion of those who chose "very interested" to the total number of people in their age groups is in the following order: 100% for those aged 46-60, 77% for those aged 18-25, 60% for those aged 36-45, and 50% for those aged 26-35. in terms of their views on the overall status of chinese culture, more than 80% of the respondents believe that the status of chinese culture in the world's culture is "very important" (48.15%) or "relatively important" (40.74%), and about 10% believe that it is "generally important", and the number of choices for other options is 0. among them, the proportion of those who chose "very important" to the total number of people in their age groups is in the following order: 100% of the 46-60 year olds, 60% of the 36-45 year olds, 50% of the 26-35 year olds, and 44% of the 18-25 year olds. table 3. percentage of options for respondents' views on the position of chinese culture in world culture 3.2 route of transmission in terms of transmission channels, the respondents were first exposed to information related to chinese culture mainly through the news media, cultural courses, books and newspapers, and other channels (social media and other applications). among them, the largest number of respondents (27.78%) chose "other ways (new media and social software, the internet, tv series and movies, wikipedia, and work)", followed by "news media" and "books and newspapers" (22.2% each). "cultural courses" was chosen by 18.52%, while "travelling activities" had the lowest percentage (9.26%). 3.3 content and cultural product preferences in terms of content preferences for chinese culture, "history and culture" is the most popular area of interest (44.44%), followed by "folklore" (22.22%), "philosophy" (12.96%), "chinese literature and art" (11.11%). other areas of interest communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 51 provided by respondents are: "traditional customs", "values", "business culture", and "all of the above". when further broken down into specific periods of chinese history, the "modern and contemporary" period received the most attention (50%), followed by the "song, yuan, ming and qing dynasties" (27.78%), "ancient china to qin-han period" (14.81%) and "wei, jin, northern and southern dynasties, sui and tang periods" (7.41%). as to the contents of traditional culture, nearly 60% of the respondents (59.26%) believe that "calligraphy and painting" can best reflects the characteristics of chinese culture, followed by "poems and songs" (27.78%) and "opera and music" (12.96%). among contemporary cultural contents, "films and tv series" are the most popular (62.96%), followed by "modern literature" (27.78%). only fewer respondents chose "fashion design" (5.56 %) and "popular music" (1.85 %). in terms of other specific cultural elements, the survey chose traditional skills, festivals and cities. statistics show that "peking opera" is the most popular traditional skill (33.33%), followed by "calligraphy" (25.93%), "taiji" (20.37%) and "tea craft" (16.67%). while "traditional weaving" and "martial art" were the traditional skills that respondents gave feedback on outside of the questionnaire. among traditional festivals, "chinese new year" was the most popular (42.59%), followed by "lantern festival" (25.93%) and "mid-autumn festival" (16.67%). the popularity of "dragon boat festival" was 14.8%, while no one chose any of the other options. in terms of city impressions, "shanghai" is the most popular chinese city (37.04%), followed by "beijing" (22.22%). xi'an, the ancient capital, and guangzhou, the city famous for foreign trade, are also attractive (14.8 % each). 3.4 communication context (form) preferences in terms of preferred forms of communication, "film and television productions" (70.37%) and "live experiences" (68.52%) were the most popular, followed by "reading text" (53.7%) and "reading books" (53.7%). comparatively speaking, "expert explanation" was the least preferred, only 14.81%. 3.5 language preferences table 4. percentage of language options in which respondents want chinese culture to be disseminated to the outside world overall, the majority of respondents would like to learn about chinese culture through "chinese" (42.59%) or "chinese with other languages" (42.59%). in contrast, significantly fewer people chose to learn about chinese culture in "english only" (12.96%) and "local language only" (1.85%). 3.6 overall communications evaluation in terms of the overall evaluation of chinese cultural communication, the largest number of respondents (77.78%) think that chinese culture has been communicated to the outside world "quite well" (31.48 %) and "generally well" (46.3 %). among them, the 18-25 and 46-60 age groups are more specific: both respondents aged 46-60 had previously chosen to be "very interested" in chinese culture. however, in this question, one respondent thinks that the transmission effect of chinese culture is "very good" and the other thinks that it is "very poor". among the 18-25 year olds, 2.56% think that the transmission effect of chinese culture is "very good", 25.6% think that it is "good", and 51.3% think it is "average", 15.4% think it is "poor", and 5.1% think it is "very poor". in other words, 71.8% of the respondents in this age group are not satisfied with the transmission effect of chinese culture. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 52 in terms of evaluation of communication content, 55.56% of respondents think that the chinese culture they encountered could resonate with them "quite well"; 18.52% chose "completely"; 20.37% chose "generally"; 63% of the option "generally" was chosen by 18-25 year olds and 27% by 26-35 year olds. 5.56% of respondents chose "relatively less resonates" and all of whom fell into the group of 18-25 year olds. none of the respondents chose "not at all". in terms of attitudes during communication, most respondents believe that chinese culture is "highly" respected (35.19%) or "objectively treated" (31.48%) in the process of overseas communication. however, 25.93% of the interviewees think that chinese culture is "not sufficiently respected", and only a few interviewees think that chinese culture is "completely respected" (3 people) or "not respected at all" (1 person) in overseas communication. the proportion of respondents choosing "highly respected" and " objectively treated" is 61.5 % for those aged 18-25, 75 % for those aged 26-35, and 100 % for those aged 36-45. in terms of influence of communication, the majority of respondents think that the influence of chinese culture in the world is "relatively strong" (46.3%) or "average" (37.04%), only a few think that the international influence of chinese culture is "very strong" (11.11%) or "relatively weak" (5.56%), and no one thinks its influence is "very weak". among the six people who chose "very strong", four were 18-25 years old, one was 26-35 years old, and one was 46-60 years old; the three people who chose the "very weak" were all 18-25 years old. 3.7 main obstacles and recommendations for transmission 3.7.1 obstacles to transmission in terms of barriers to communication, on one hand, when it comes to understanding chinese culture, audiences in the target countries think that the biggest obstacles are the lack of channels for obtaining information (37.04%) and the language barrier (35.19%), followed by cultural differences (20.37%). 5.56 % of people think that it is more difficult to understand the content of chinese culture. 46% of 18-25 year olds chose "lack of channels", a significantly higher proportion than other age groups, accounting for 90% of the total number of people who chose this option; 30% of 18-25 year olds, 37.5 % of 26-35 year olds and 60 % of 36-45 year olds chose "language barrier". table 5. percentage of options where respondents think chinese culture is currently facing the biggest problem in spreading overseas on the other hand, respondents think that the biggest problem faced by chinese culture in foreign communication is "cultural differences" (42.59%), followed by "language barriers" (29.63%), "homogenization of content" (12.96%) and "not enough means communication" (11.11%). other issues listed by respondents outside of the options were "negative impression of china due to political opinions and influence of propaganda received before" and "political opinions and inherent bias". 3.7.2 transmission recommendations in terms of communication content, 72.22% of the respondents think that the "entertainment content should be enhanced"; 57.41% suggest "enhancing interaction with audiences"; 44.44% suggest "attaching importance to cultural differences"; 20.37% suggest "enriching the diversity of products"; and outside of the options, "enriching the content of popular culture" was given by respondents. in terms of means of transmission, the most popular choices were "cultural institutions"(66.67%) and "tourism projects" (61.11%), followed by "mainstream media" (55.56%) and "cultural and creative products" (53.7%). outside of these options, respondents suggested "social media" and "strengthening links with local audiences". communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 53 table 6. percentage of respondents identifying options for ways to combine chinese culture with modern technology in terms of communication contexts (forms), 90.74% of the respondents chose "cultural exchange activities" to enhance their understanding of chinese culture, followed by "cooperative education programmes" (70.37%), "sports events" (37.04%) and "economic and trade exchanges" (27.78%). outside of these options, respondents suggested "cultural research" and "interpersonal communication". with the development of digital technology, 75.93% of respondents considered "live broadcasting" to be the most useful technology for spreading chinese culture, followed by "digital museums" (50%). virtual reality/augmented reality" and "artificial intelligence" were chosen by 14.81% and 12.96% respectively. one respondent, aged 18-25, specifically stated that he/she was "not interested in modern technological means". in terms of the audience, most respondents believe that promoting chinese culture overseas should focus on "university students" (85.19%) and "primary and secondary school students" (74.07%), followed by "cultural practitioners" (35.19%) and "tourists" (25.93%). outside of the options, respondents suggested the following recommendation: "there should be appropriate communication methods for each age group". in addition, respondents dedicated specific suggestions such as: "it is very important to present chinese culture as a culture that the audience can identify with. china and serbia are very similar cultures despite their distance. through idioms and phrases we can see similarities in worldviews, through ways of eating we can see differences, and through different ways of functioning of the education system we can learn from each other ......" "more attention should be paid to the communicability of culture. for example, south korea and japan are expanding their cultural influence though products such as popular music and anime. china should also think about it so that chinese cultural products will become popular and people will become interested in chinese culture." and "china should be more involved in (cultural) interactions with other countries." 4. synthetic analysis and findings among other polls on how serbian people perceives china, the institute for european affairs (institut za evropske poslove) and ninamedia and the periodical new serbian political thought (нова српска политичка мисао) conducted polls on the local population's perception of china in serbia in 2022 and 2023, respectively. combining the data published in these surveys allows for a better synthesis and interpretation of the results of this research. 4.1 pre-existing impressions and identities among other opinion polls on how the serbian public perceives china, the survey conducted by the institute for european affairs in cooperation with the ninamedia in 2022 showed that, in terms of overall perceptions, from the scale of 1 to 5, 43% of respondents rated sino-serbian relations as “5” or perfect; 31 % rated it as 4 and 17 % as 3; 80% respondents considered "china is a friend of serbia"; 72 % believe that the relationship between serbia and china will be better in the future. according to the results of this survey, the larger group of respondents who gave higher scores were male respondents who were above 60 years of age and below 30 years of age. in the opinion poll conducted by the periodical new serbian political thought in october 2023, statistics showed that in the question "whether to support the establishment of the 'strongest relations' with russia, china and the brics countries", 41.2% of the respondents chose "support" and 26.9 % of respondents chose "'yes'" more than 'no' ", and about 18.4% of respondents had a more negative attitude towards it. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 54 the data of this research, combined with the data of the above researches, may reflect that the majority of the serbian population, although do not consider themselves to be very familiar with chinese culture, have a high level of favourability and recognition of chinese culture, and a positive attitude towards the development of cooperation with china, and believe that the chinese culture has a high level of importance in the world's culture. there also shows a positive correlation between the age of the target population and their favourability and regard of chinese culture. consistent with the data from the above studies, in this study, the 46+ age group has the highest positive and important attitudes towards chinese culture, followed by the 36-45 age group and the 26-35 age group, which show a stable and high level of positive and important attitudes towards chinese culture. on the other hand, the 18-25-year-old group's level of interest in chinese culture and perception of the status of chinese culture varied considerably, reflecting that the youth groups in the country have a high desire to explore chinese culture, but have different views on the importance of chinese culture. 4.2 transmission route in terms of channels of communication, one third of the respondents (33%) in the study conducted by the institute of european affairs and ninamedia in 2022 said that they learnt about serbia-china relations through "television", followed by "portals" (27%), "social networks" (16.5%) and "print media" (10%), while 7.8 % said they learn about relations between serbia and china through "family, friends and colleagues" and 3 % from "radio". compared to data from the year prior to the study, the percentage of respondents who get china-related information through television has decreased, while the percentage of audiences who get their information through web portals and social media has risen. this is also consistent with the trend reflected in this research, indicating that with the development of new media and social software, people in the target countries are gradually shifting their access to information from mainstream media and books to internet platforms and social media. at the same time, it should be noted that traditional news media, books and newspapers are still important communication channels in the target countries. in this study, although the proportion of respondents who chose "cultural courses" as a way to get in touch with chinese culture for the first time was relatively low, the proportion of respondents who chose "cultural education institutions" was the highest among the preferred ways to get to learn chinese culture, which reflects that this approach has advantages in terms of systematicness and professionalism. tourism activities were less frequently chosen as a means of communication, probably due to higher costs of money and time. 4.3 transmission of content in terms of content, when analyzing the two sets of data on preferences for traditional and contemporary cultural content, and in terms of time period, audiences in the target countries were most interested in contemporary cultural content, with beijing opera and chinese new year being the most popular traditional performing arts and festivals, and shanghai being the most popular chinese city, followed by beijing. it is interesting to note that "classical music", which is similar in nature to "opera", was not selected, and that movies and tv series were the most popular choices for modern cultural content, compared to literature and pop music. this comparison may reflect a general preference for chinese cultural content that is presented in a visual way. 4.4 transmission context (form) in this study, film and video and on-site experience are the most popular forms of communication, followed by reading, with expert lectures accounting for the lowest proportion. this set of data may reflect that audiences in the target countries have a higher degree of subjectivity and independence in acquiring knowledge, and they are more inclined to acquire information independently, personally and proactively than in the passive traditional classroom format, so as to form their own independent cultural experience and cognition. in terms of specific options, cultural exchange activities and cooperative education projects are the most recognized methods, while live interaction and digital museums are considered to be the most helpful technological avenues, all of which reflect the preference and importance of authentic human interaction among audiences in the country. at the same time, however, it is important to note that there are respondents are not interested in modern technological means. 4.5 languages of communication in terms of language preference, the findings differ from the traditional emphasis on full localization, i.e., the use of the target country's language exclusively to introduce chinese culture. most respondents of this research preferred to learn about chinese culture through "chinese" or "chinese combined with local languages" rather than "english" or "local languages only". this result shows the demand and recognition of the importance and authenticity of chinese language in cultural communication. language is an important tool for cultural communication. language is not only a carrier of information, but communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 55 also a reflection of cultural connotations and values. this choice may at the same time reflect the respondents' psychological belief that understanding chinese culture requires direct contact with chinese language, so that they can understand the chinese culture more deeply and accurately. 4.6 target of transmission from the data of this research, respondents believe that the transmission of chinese cultural should give more importance to primary and secondary school students and university students, while multi-level transmission methods should be developed for different occupations and age groups. 4.7 overall communications evaluation in terms of the overall evaluation of chinese cultural communication, a combination of data from this study and other related studies shows that most audiences in the target country have a neutral or high evaluation of the effectiveness of chinese cultural communication, cultural resonance and attitudes, but the proportion of those who are dissatisfied with this is not small, especially in the 18-25 age group, which shows a large difference in attitudes in this age group. similarly, there are also big differences in the views of youth audiences in the target country on the influence of chinese cultural communication overseas. this suggests that chinese cultural content can be understood and agreed upon by the audience to a large extent in the target country, but among the youth population, the extreme negative propaganda content may have influenced some people's stereotypical impression of china, leading to greater variability in the youth population's evaluations of chinese culture. the fact that a larger proportion of young age group chose the option of complete affirmation or complete denial may reflect a greater degree of intensity of the expression of opinions in this group. 5. conclusion and outlook 5.1 recommendations for the transmission of chinese culture in serbia based on the analyses of the data from this research and the results of other related studies, this study makes the following suggestions for the transmission of chinese culture in serbia: in terms of overall impression, more attention should be paid to the youth group, so that they can better experience and understand the real chinese culture through various forms such as social media and cross-border exchange programmes. secondly, cross-border cooperation with famous brands and ips of the target countries could be carried out, and chinese cultural elements can be promoted through films, animation, music and other forms. for example, through cooperation with films or short films in a foreign country, audiences in that country can build up a more in-depth and vivid perceptual understanding of chinese culture. from the viewpoint of communication channels, with the advent of the digital era, the preference of audiences for realtime interaction grows, and the role of social media and the internet in cultural transmission and identity forming becomes more and more important. attention should be paid to the application of modern technological means in cultural transmission. on the one hand, the development of cultural websites and applications in local languages should be developed to provide richer cultural content. on the other hand, by encouraging the operation of multi-language accounts on mainstream social media platforms, it can enrich the display of short videos, live interactions, graphics and other contents. at the same time, there can also be more cooperation with well-known news media and social media opinion leaders to launch special reports and columns on chinese culture, so as to increase the depth and breadth of the reports; and publish high-quality books in local language, especially works introducing the culture and daily life of modern and contemporary china. in addition, mooc and other internet platforms and online education resources can be used to provide free chinese culture courses and attract the participation of scholars and culture enthusiasts from around the world. in terms of communication context (form), there could be more cooperation with educational and cultural institutions to provide more exchange study programs, enriching the cooperation of bilateral cultural research projects. it is also suggested to design more tourism routes and projects with strong cultural characteristics, and promote them through platforms such as well-known travel agencies and tourism portals in the target countries to attract tourists from the target countries to come and experience chinese culture. what’s more, to develop virtual tourism projects by using vr/ar technologies and promote them through social media, so that foreigners who are unable to visit china in person can also experience chinese culture; international cultural exhibitions, art exhibitions, performances, cultural interactive experience workshops, exchanges and other activities can also be organized on a regular basis, and scholars and enthusiasts could be invited to participate in these activities, so as to enhance the experience of cultural exchanges and the sense of participation. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 56 in terms of content, as cultural content combined with visual presentation is more favored by audiences in the target country, it is recommended to increase the display of chinese culture in social media though videos, online short films, film and tv dramas, and to increase the proportion of content that introduces china's modern and contemporary history and daily life. to display the culture and life in shanghai and beijing, which are of greater interest to audiences in the target countries, as a starting point, so as to draw closer to the audience. this might attract more people to explore and understand chinese culture. while highlighting the uniqueness of chinese culture, care should be taken to ensure that the content is not too obscure and esoteric, and that it is organically linked to the culture and daily life of the target country, so as to present chinese culture in a way that is easier for the audience to understand and accept. in addition, cultural experience activities related to traditional chinese festivals and traditional skills, such as chinese new year celebrations and peking opera performances, can be carried out. chinese language learning can also be added to the content of communication, enriching language learning and language support resources, helping audiences learn and use chinese more easily, and increasing their sense of acquisition. in terms of the language during cultural communication, due to the respondents' demand and recognition of the importance and authenticity of chinese, chinese should not be totally localized or borrow english as a communication medium in the communication of chinese cultural content, but should be organically combined with local language and culture, so that it can effectively convey the content while taking into account the highlighting of the chinese language's individuality and characteristics, and enhance the audience's sense of experience. this also helps to enhance the accuracy of the audience's understanding of chinese cultural content. multilingual content should also be encouraged, such as original chinese soundtracks with subtitles in local languages and other auxiliary forms. in terms of target audience groups, it should be pointed out once again that more attention should be paid to the construction of cultural content for young people, and the enrichment of cultural products for young people. in view of the inherent differences in the needs and preferences of this group, in terms of content construction, on the one hand, emphasis should be placed on providing richer entertainment content, including games, animation, pop art, short videos and so on; on the other hand, it is necessary to provide in-depth cultural experiences and professional explanations, for example, by organizing activities such as cultural lectures, performances, workshops and cultural exchanges, so as to enhance the depth of cultural transmission. overall, the overseas transmission of chinese culture needs to strengthen brand awareness, and iconic chinese cultural brands should be built, and super symbols of chinese culture should be created. at the same time, the influence of international platforms should be utilized to actively participate in and organize international cultural events, such as international film festivals, music festivals, animation festivals, book fairs, etc., so as to attract audiences of target countries by enhancing chinese culture’s international recognition and influence. in terms of overall planning, it is recommended that attention be paid to the systematic and sustainable nature of cultural communication, that long-term cultural communication strategies and plans be formulated, and that special institutions for cultural communication be set up for overall planning and implementation. regular research should be conducted to assess the effectiveness of cultural communication, so as to make timely adjustments to communication strategies and contents. 5.2 limitations and outlook of the research inevitably, there are limitations in this research. firstly, the sample size of the research is relatively limited, which makes it impossible to analyze more accurately the differences in the attitudes and perceptions of audiences of different ages, occupational backgrounds, cultural backgrounds and regions of the target countries towards chinese culture. second, the questionnaire was designed with a limited number of options, which may not fully cover the real thoughts of all respondents. in addition, the complexity of cultural communication channels makes the questionnaire options may not be able to fully present the real situation, and the respondents' perception and attitude towards chinese culture are subjective, which may be limited by their personal experience, educational background and media influence, resulting in a certain degree of deviation between the data results and the real situation. looking ahead, based on this research, the sample size and diversity will be further expanded, the questionnaire design will be improved, and the coverage of open-ended questions and options will be increased to ensure that diversified perspectives and suggestions can be captured. combining quantitative and qualitative research, we will further increase the number of research avenues, aiming to obtain richer data through interviews, focus groups and other methods. in future studies, more attention will also be paid to research targeting digital communication channels, such as social media, virtual reality and digital museums, to analyze their role and impact in cultural communication. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 04 no. 01 (2024) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 57 the current study involves only one country, but this study will be used as a basis for a multi-country cross-cultural comparative study to explore cross-cultural differences and commonalities in 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(2022).istrazivanje javnog mnjenja avgust. https://iea.rs/blog/2022/09/02/stavovi-gradjana-srbije-prema-kini-2/ novo istraživanje: srbi bi radije u briks nego u evropsku uniju. https://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/579695/novoistrazivanje-srbi-bi-radije-u-briks-nego-u-evropsku-uniju 18-111-pbddd.pdf 18-115-pb1220.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 65 coherence and cohesion in multimodal translation: a case study of audio description jie lü school of english for international business, guangdong university of foreign studies, e-mail: 1833904290@qq.com abstract this paper investigates coherence and cohesion in multimodal translation, with a particular focus on audio description (ad) as a representative case. while coherence and cohesion have been extensively studied in interlingual translation, less attention has been paid to their role in multimodal contexts, where meaning emerges from the interplay of linguistic, visual, and auditory modes. drawing on theories of textual cohesion and multimodal discourse analysis, the study situates ad as a form of multimodal translation that must balance internal textual cohesion with cross-modal coherence. in audio description, cohesion primarily serves to create textual continuity through devices like reference and conjunction. coherence, in contrast, is built upon a framework of narrative logic, clear temporal-spatial sequencing, and the strategic integration of dialogue and sound effects. the analysis highlights that cohesion secures the internal flow of the ad text, whereas coherence emerges from multimodal alignment and audience cognitive processing. these findings suggest that coherence in multimodal translation is distributed across semiotic resources and must be addressed holistically. the study concludes by emphasizing the theoretical and pedagogical implications of treating coherence as a central concern in multimodal translation. keywords: coherence, cohesion, multimodal translation, audio description, accessibility 1. introduction the study of textual coherence and cohesion has long been a cornerstone in translation studies and discourse analysis. classical research has predominantly concentrated on single-modality, interlingual translation especially written-to-written or speech-to-speech texts where linguistic mechanisms such as reference, conjunction, ellipsis, substitution, and lexical repetitio task has often been conceptualized as preserving semantic and pragmatic continuity across linguistic boundaries. while this language-centered paradigm has yielded valuable insights, it does not fully capture the complex semiotic reality of contemporary communicative practices, in which meaning is frequently constructed through multiple modes beyond language alone. with the proliferation of audiovisual media, streaming platforms, and accessibility initiatives, translation increasingly involves multimodal texts, in which meaning emerges from the interplay of multiple semiotic resources such as images, sound, gesture, music, and language (kress & van leeuwen, 2001; valdeón, 2024). in multimodal translation, coherence is no longer merely a matter of linking clauses and sentences but rather one of orchestrating cross-modal relations so that audiences perceive a continuous and meaningful whole (stöckl, 2022). among multimodal practices, audio description (ad) constitutes a particularly compelling case. ad is a form of multimodal translation designed to render visual information accessible to blind and partially sighted audiences by converting visual elements into spoken descriptions (maszerowska, matamala, & orero, 2014). unlike subtitling or dubbing, ad operates under severe temporal constraints, as descriptions must be inserted into pauses between dialogues or sound effects, and it must remain unobtrusive whil in the case of audio descriptions (ads), the text is written to be read and needs to be both linguistically cohesive within itself and cohesive with the visual content it describes, both in its original form and in its possible translated form taylor, 2014, p.42). the ad script must therefore strike a delicate balance: it must maintain narrative coherence by clarifying character identities, spatial relations, and plot continuity, while also respecting multimodal cohesion with dialogue, sound, and music (reviers, 2018). these demands render ad an exemplary site for investigating coherence in multimodal translation, since even minor disruptions in descriptive cohesion can lead to significant comprehension gaps for target audiences (braun & starr, 2020). despite its significance, coherence in ad has received comparatively limited theoretical attention. existing ad guidelines emphasize clarity, concision, and neutrality (american council of the blind, 2010; ofcom, 2019), yet they seldom provide a systematic account of how coherence operates across modes. meanwhile, empirical studies in multimodal linguistics and multimodal coherence involves temporal synchronization, semiotic complementarity, and cross-modal referentiality that are communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 66 absent from monomodal texts (stöckl, 2022; reviers, 2018). this gap suggests that ad research not only contributes to accessibility studies but also has broader implications for refining multimodal translation theory. this paper therefore seeks to address the following questions: 1) how are coherence and cohesion operationalized and distinguished in ad as a multimodal translation practice? 2) what analytical frameworks can comprehensively capture the construction of coherence in ad? 2. the name and nature of multimodal translation the term multimodal translation has gained increasing traction in recent decades, reflecting the recognition that translation is no longer confined to the interlingual transfer of written texts but extends to meaning-making processes across multiple semiotic resources. early translation theory often operated within a monomodal framework. this view, however, was challenged by key precursors. roman jakobson's (1959/2012) category of intersemiotic translation and katharina reiss's (1971/2000) concept of the audio-medial text type explicitly acknowledged the role of non-linguistic modes, thereby laying the groundwork for contemporary multimodal translation studies. yet as scholars in semiotics and discourse studies have long emphasized, communication is inherently multimodal. gestures, images, sound effects, typography, spatial layout, and color all contribute to meaning, and in contemporary media these semiotic modes frequently interact in complex ways (kress & van leeuwen, 2001). before proceeding with our analysis of multimodal translation, it is essential to clarify the conceptual landscape. the field encompasses several distinct yet overlapping research foci: translation in multimodal text, translation of multimodal text and multimodal translation. the following table clarifies the core differences between three key terms, which are often used interchangeably but represent distinct conceptual scopes: term translation in multimodal texts translation of multimodal texts multimodal translation research focus the translation of the linguistic components within a multimodal context. treating the entire multimodal text as the unified unit for translation. the process of translation is inherently multimodal, or the product is a new multimodal text. theoretical perspective focuses on the strategies and challenges of translating verbal text, with other modes treated as a contextual frame. focuses on the coordinated translation and adaptation of multiple modes (text, image, sound) to recreate a coherent target text. views translation as a multimodal practice per se, often involving intersemiotic transposition across different sensory modes. example translating dialogue for subtitles in a film; translating the text labels in an infographic. the localization of a website or a video game, where text, audio, and visual elements are adapted. audio description (translating images into spoken words); creating a signed language performance of a written poem. these distinctions are crucial for positioning current research. studying translation in multimodal texts often aligns with traditional translation studies, expanded to a new context. translation would not only be seen as a language and culture transfer, but also as a modal transfer (kaindl, 2013, p.266 . analyzing the translation of multimodal texts requires a holistic, coherence-driven approach. in contrast, investigating multimodal translation means engaging with the fundamental nature of translation as an intersemiotic process. against this backdrop, multimodal translation can be defined as the set of translational practices that operate within or across semiotic modes, in which the translator must manage not only interlingual correspondences but also intermodal relations. gambier (2006, p.6) was among the first to articulate the importance of considering multimodality in translation studies, arguing that audiovisual translation (subtitling, dubbing, voice-over) already demonstrated that translation is never purely verbal but always semiotically hybrid. the nature of multimodal translation thus differs from interlingual translation in at least three key respects. first, it foregrounds the semiotic ensemble rather than language alone: the task of the translator involves orchestrating relations between words, images, and sounds rather than simply rendering words into words. second, it is inherently situated in communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 67 medium-specific constraints, as meaning is realized not only through linguistic systems but also through temporal synchronization, visual design, and acoustic layering. third, it brings audience reception into sharper focus: in multimodal contexts, coherence and comprehensibility depend on how viewers integrate information across modalities, which makes reception studies indispensable as braun (2011, p.648) ideas, taking place in the recipie to illustrate these properties, consider audiovisual translation (avt) more broadly. subtitling requires condensing spoken dialogue into written form while aligning it temporally with visual and auditory cues; dubbing must synchronize spoken target-language utterances with lip movements and performance styles; and audio description transforms visual images into spoken language that fits into temporal gaps without disrupting the soundtrack. in each case, the translation process involves choices that affect the multimodal orchestration of the target text. thus, multimodal translation is not a discrete subfield parallel to avt but a conceptual framework that allows us to theorize translation practices that negotiate meaning across semiotic systems. importantly, debates about terminology persist. some scholars prefer the term multidimensional translation (gottlieb, 2005), emphasizing different semiotic dimensions; others employ multimodal mediation to capture a broader set of practices that meaning across different semiotic systems, while using "transformation" to refer to the reorganization of meaning within a single mode. (2011) argues, multimodal discourse analysis provides the methodological tools to study how meaning arises from the interplay of modes. and thus translation studies can draw on the above insights to account for how meaning is preserved, altered, or reconfigured in multimodal transfer. in short, the name multimodal translation signals a shift in translation studies from language-centered to semiotically inclusive frameworks. its nature is characterized by hybridity, orchestration, and reception-oriented complexity. understanding its defining features provides the necessary foundation for analyzing coherence and cohesion in audio description, which epitomizes the challenges of multimodal translation. 3. coherence and cohesion in audio description as multimodal translation to systematically deconstruct how ad achieves coherence, we propose a tripartite analytical framework that examines the practice from complementary angles: the product (functional), the process (operational), and the reception (cognitive). this framework allows us to move beyond descriptive accounts to a more mechanistic understanding of coherence construction. audio description is a typical multimodal translation as gambier (2013, p.50) states involves the reading of information describing what is going on on the screen (action, body language, facial expressions, costumes, etc.), information that is added to the soundtrack of the dialogue, or to the dubbing of the dialogue for a foreign film, with no interference from sound and music effects . scholarly work in multimodality aims to analyze how meaning is constructed through both verbal and nonverbal channels, including visual and auditory elements, by systematically examining their available resources and semiotic capacities (van leeuwen, 2005). a key aspect of this process lies in the interplay within and across modes, which generates additional layers of meaning beyond what each mode can convey in isolation. this phenomenon has been conceptualized in various ways: ntegration and codifferences in terminology, these scholars concur that the integration of diverse modes constitutes the most critical mechanism for meaning-making in multimodal texts, including audiovisual forms, and that the full semiotic potential of each mode is realized only through such interaction. tseng (2013) extends the cohesion into multimodal text by analyzing image, sound, verbal language, written language, camera movement, framing, colour, and many more operates. audio description (ad) represents a complex multimodal translation practice that requires systematic analysis of its coherence mechanisms. this section examines ad through three complementary analytical frameworks: the functional perspective , the operational perspective and the cognitive perspective. this tripartite framework is systematically derived from audio description's core nature as constrained translation. the functional perspective analyzes the ad product what meanings (narrative, descriptive, emotional) are constructed. the operational perspective addresses the process how describers negotiate meaning under temporal and selective constraints. the cognitive perspective centers on reception to what effect visually impaired persons (vips) integrate descriptions into a coherent mental model. together, they form a holistic cycle and provide a comprehensive understanding of how ad achieves coherence across different dimensions of the translation process. 3.1 functional framework: meaning construction in ad communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 68 the functional framework examines what ad accomplishes as a communicative act, focusing on the core meaning dimensions it must construct to ensure narrative comprehension and engagement. narrative competence enables multimodal coherence not only in the different modes presented simultaneously, but also in their linear sequence (meier, 2022, p.9). this statement reveals that narrative competence serves as the core mechanism for constructing multimodal coherence. it functions not only as an integrator of meaning spatially across simultaneously presented modalities but also as a logical connector temporally within linear sequences. through narrative logic, fragmented, multimodal semiotic resources are woven into a semantically coherent and plot-fluid whole, thereby effectively conveying knowledge, emotions, and perspectives. 3.1.1 narrative coherence: advancing plot comprehension narrative coherence in ad ensures the logical progression and comprehensibility of the story through strategic description of visual elements. a narratological approach helps identify what is narratologically most relevant, aiding describers in recreating the filmic experience for blind and partially sighted audiences (vercauteren, 2012, p.6). this coherence is primarily achieved by maintaining plot connectivity and providing clear spatio-temporal orientation, which together guide the audience through the narrative. 1) plot connectivity as vercauteren (2012, p.1) notes, content selection lies at the heart of audio description research, focusing on what should be described and how this should be done . ad maintains narrative flow by describing key actions and their sequences. for instance, rather than simply noting "a character picks up a book," effective ad might describe "her fingers tremble as she reaches for the leather-bound journal," establishing both action and emotional subtext. the description of causal relationships between visual events such as showing how a character's discovery of a letter leads to their subsequent actions ensures visually impaired persons vips can follow the plot's logical development without visual cues. 2) spatio-temporal orientation ad constructs and maintains mental maps of story spaces through consistent spatial references. descriptions like he moves from the dimly lit hallway into the brightly lit ballroom create clear spatial transitions. temporal orientation is achieved through phrases that mark scene changes in the meeting room ) or duration ("throughout the night"), preventing temporal disorientation that could disrupt narrative comprehension. spatio-temporal order is instrumental in structuring narrative events and securing story coherence. it functions as an organizing principle that defines the relations between events within a narrative topic, which is crucial for maintaining a meaningful story logic (wildfeuer,2014, p.193). 3.1.2 descriptive coherence: building visual representation this dimension focuses on creating and maintaining consistent mental images of characters and environments. it serves as the foundational layer upon which narrative comprehension is built, translating visual cues into a stable mental framework for the vips. 1) character identification and tracking ad establishes character identities through distinctive visual features that remain consistent across scenes. a character introduced as "the tall man with a scar across his left cheek" should be subsequently referenced using these identifiable traits. crucially, when a character's designation shifts for instance, from a descriptive label like "the mysterious stranger" to a revealed name like "mr. darcy" the ad must forge a clear logical link. this can be achieved through explicit verbal cues (e.g., "the stranger, who we now know is mr. darcy, nods") or through unambiguous situational context, ensuring vips perceive the continuity of identity without confusion. the description must also track character movements and spatial relationships, ensuring vips can follow who is present and where they are positioned in each scene. 2) environment and atmosphere rendering visual atmospherics are translated through careful description of settings and lighting. rather than simply listing objects, effective ad creates mood through descriptions like cold moonlight filters through barred windows, casting long shadows across the dusty floor. color descriptions serve both identificatory and symbolic purposes, while lighting conditions are described for their emotional connotations rather than just their physical properties. the description of color in audio description is governed by the principle of narrative relevance rather than visual completeness. while color is a fundamental component of visual storytelling and should be included when it serves identificatory, symbolic, or mood-setting functions (snyder, 2014), descriptors must be mindful of its potential ambiguity for blind-born audiences. 3.1.3 emotional coherence: guiding affective response emotional coherence enables vips to connect with characters and narrative developments at an affective level. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 69 1) body language and expression interpretation ad translates non-verbal cues into emotional information through descriptions like her shoulders slump in defeat "or his eyes widen in sudden recognition. these interpretations must balance observable physical cues with narrative context, avoiding over-interpretation while providing sufficient emotional context for comprehension. 2) stylized description for empathy the linguistic style of description can enhance emotional engagement during key moments. during emotional climaxes, descriptions might adopt more evocative language or strategic pacing slowing down for poignant moments or quickening during tense sequences. the vocal delivery itself, including tone and rhythm, works in concert with lexical choices to create empathetic resonance. 3.2 operational framework: practical challenges in ad while the functional framework outlines what ad achieves, the operational framework reveals how these achievements are accomplished in practice, focusing on the concrete challenges and decision-making processes describers face. 3.2.1 temporal challenges: creating within constraints the time-bound nature of ad presents fundamental challenges for coherence construction. 1) information density and speech rate balance describers need to strike a balance between linguistic efficiency (to fit time constraints) and comprehensibility (for the audience), often employing syntactic compression strategies like nominalization ("his rapid exit" instead of he exited rapidly ) to convey maximum information within limited time frames. the speech rate must allow for cognitive processing while fitting within available auditory gaps. 2) anticipation and delayed description describers must constantly negotiate between describing immediate visuals and preparing for upcoming developments. strategic choices about when to describe instantaneously versus when to delay description until a narrative lull require careful judgment about what information will be most coherently integrated at which moment. 3.2.2 selective challenges: determining content priority the necessity of selection from abundant visual information represents a core operational challenge. 1) relevance filtering describers employ hierarchical selection criteria, prioritizing information based on narrative significance, character development, and emotional impact. this involves distinguishing between essential plot elements, supplementary contextual information, and redundant visual details that can be omitted without compromising coherence. 2) cultural code interpretation visual elements with cultural specificity require careful handling. ad must decide when to explicitly explain cultural references, when to approximate through culturally accessible analogues, and when to trust that the narrative context provides sufficient understanding, all while maintaining cultural authenticity and narrative flow. 3.2.3 linguistic challenges: determining expression the translation from visual perception to verbal expression involves multiple linguistic decisions. 1) precise mapping from image to lexicon describers must select vocabulary that accurately captures visual qualities while remaining economically efficient. this involves choices between specificity and generality, such as deciding whether to describe a color as "red," "crimson," or "blood-red" based on narrative relevance and time constraints. 2) objectivity and implication tension maintaining descriptive neutrality while providing sufficient narrative guidance requires careful balancing. describers must avoid unjustified interpretation while still offering necessary contextual clues, such as describing a character's nervous glance around the room without labeling them guilty . 3.3 cognitive framework: audience processing of ad communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 70 while multimodal cohesion refers to observable cross-modal semiotic ties, multimodal coherence remains an interpretive the ultimate test of ad coherence lies in the audience's experience. the cognitive framework shifts perspective to examine how vips process and integrate ad information to construct meaningful narrative understanding. 3.3.1 perceptual coherence: forming basic mental representations this level concerns how vips integrate auditory information to form unified perceptions. 1) auditory and verbal integration vips continuously synthesize ad with existing soundtrack elements, creating a coherent perceptual whole. successful ad anticipates how descriptions will interact with musical cues, sound effects, and dialogue, ensuring they complement rather than compete with each other in the listener's perceptual field. 2) spatial mental model formation ad constructs navigable mental spaces through consistent spatial language and vantage points. descriptions that maintain stable spatial relationships and use consistent perspectival frameworks enable vips to build and update mental maps of the narrative environment throughout scene changes. 3.3.2 cognitive coherence: enabling inference and understanding this dimension addresses how vips process ad information to construct narrative meaning. 1) guiding causal reasoning ad provides visual evidence that enables vips to infer causal relationships. by describing crucial visual antecedents or consequences that might be absent from dialogue or sound, ad allows vips to reconstruct the logical chain of narrative events and character motivations. 2) disambiguation ad resolves potential uncertainties arising from ambiguous dialogue or sound by providing clarifying visual context. when dialogue references something visually present but auditorily invisible, or when sounds could have multiple interpretations, ad supplies the necessary visual information to ensure unambiguous comprehension. 3.3.3 emotional coherence: achieving immersion and empathy this final level examines how ad supports emotional engagement and sustained narrative immersion. 1) emotional signal reception vips extract emotional meaning from both the content and delivery of ad. the semantic content provides explicit emotional information, while paralinguistic features like timing, pitch, and rhythm convey implicit emotional cues that help vips align their emotional responses with narrative developments. 2) maintaining narrative immersion coherent ad prevents disruptions to the "storyworld" experience by ensuring smooth transitions between description and original audio elements. consistent character voices, uninterrupted emotional through-lines, and seamless integration with the soundtrack all contribute to maintaining the listener's sense of presence within the narrative. through the integrated application of these three dimensions, we can appreciate ad as both a technical practice and a cognitive interface that enables comprehensive access to audiovisual narratives. the functional perspective reveals what meanings ad constructs, the operational perspective shows how these meanings are technically achieved, and the cognitive perspective demonstrates how these meanings are ultimately realized in the listener's experience. 4. conclusion this study has examined coherence and cohesion in multimodal translation, with a particular focus on audio description (ad) as a paradigmatic case. building on existing scholarship in translation studies and discourse analysis, the paper has argued that while cohesion in ad refers to the internal linguistic ties within the descriptive text, coherence extends beyond the verbal domain to encompass cross-modal integration and cognitive interpretation. tseng et al. (2021) regard cohesion as the formal, multimodal textual structure that provides cues, and coherence as the viewer's constructed understanding, with multimodal cohesion playing a functional role in guiding attention and shaping coherent event interpretation. the combination of these two dimensions determines the accessibility, clarity, and interpretive richness of multimodal translation. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 71 the review of multimodal translation theory demonstrated that the concept itself has evolved beyond interlingual frameworks, embracing intersemiotic and transmodal practices. in this context, ad stands out as a form of translation that inherently traverses modalities: it transforms visual cues into verbal narration while simultaneously synchronizing with existing auditory and narrative layers. this dual function reveals the centrality of coherence as an organizing principle. cohesion ensures that the ad text is syntactically and lexically intelligible, while coherence ensures that this text harmonizes with the multimodal environment of film and television. coherence in ad is maintained through strategies such as reference, lexical chains, conjunction, and parallel syntactic structures. at the same time, coherence relies on temporal ordering, causal logic, and spatial orientation, all of which must be negotiated across modalities. implicit or explicit sense-relation exists between two or more signs of a different or same mode in a given text that helps the viewer to create a coherent textual semantic unit (reviers & remael, 2015, p.54). importantly, the ad script does not stand in isolation but interacts with dialogue, sound effects, and audience cognitive schemata. this dual perspective reveals several broader implications for multimodal translation research and practice. first, cohesion and coherence must be understood as interdependent but distinct dimensions. cohesion provides the textual scaffolding, while coherence ensures interpretive plausibility and emotional resonance. second, coherence in multimodal contexts is distributed across semiotic resources. unlike written texts, where coherence is constructed primarily through linguistic means, multimodal texts rely on alignment between modes. this insight confirms that multimodal translation is not merely linguistic transfer but an act of semiotic orchestration. third, ad exemplifies how coherence can be audience-oriented, requiring translators to anticipate the inferential processes of visually impaired audiences, who construct meaning through partial input from multiple modalities. the findings also raise methodological and pedagogical implications. for researchers, adopting multimodal discourse analysis frameworks allows for a systematic examination of coherence beyond linguistic cohesion. for practitioners, ad training should emphasize strategies that balance brevity with clarity, ensuring that cohesion at the textual level does not come at the expense of multimodal coherence. furthermore, given the global rise of streaming media and accessibility initiatives, understanding coherence in ad contributes to the broader goal of inclusive communication, aligning with ethical imperatives in translation studies. in conclusion, coherence and cohesion in multimodal translation represent not only linguistic concerns but also semiotic, cognitive, and ethical dimensions. ad, as a case of transmodal translation, foregrounds the necessity of addressing these dimensions holistically. future research may further explore coherence across different genres and modalities such as subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (sdh), sign language interpreting, or immersive media translation to deepen our understanding of how coherence functions in increasingly complex multimodal landscapes. ultimately, recognizing coherence as a central concern allows scholars and practitioners to refine both theoretical models and applied strategies, ensuring that multimodal translation continues to serve diverse audiences effectively. acknowledgement: the paper is funded and one of achievements of the 2024 guangdong philosophy and social science (project no.: gd24cwy02).[ 2024 gd24cwy02 ] references american council of the blind. 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(2014). film discourse interpretation: towards a new paradigm for multimodal film analysis. routledge. issue01.pb.2025.edited.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 10 an empirical study of linguistic landscape and language services strategies of binzhou city and its pedagogical implications for english language teaching hu cheng school of foreign languages, shandong university of aeronautics, e-mail:chenghucn@163.com abstract with the rapid development of china’s economy and the ongoing process of urbanization, the prevalence of language service strategies reflected in the language landscape has increased. the primary objective of language services is to utilize the communicative function of language to convey information and facilitate interaction across various industries, thereby serving the needs of countries, social groups, or individuals. furthermore, in the context of economic globalization, the language landscape is exhibiting an increasing trend toward internationalization. this paper examines the language landscape of binzhou and the associated language service strategies, drawing on the framework of language landscape theory and newmark’s translation theory. the study analyzes the phonetics and structural aspects of diverse language landscapes, explores the naming conventions and characteristics, and offers valuable insights for the future naming of signage in binzhou. in addition, this research contributes to the formulation of language planning policies and improvements in language services within the region. the empirical analysis of the language landscape also provides a foundation for the development of regionspecific slogans and supports the standardization of language use in the area. keywords: communicative translation; linguistic landscape; language service this paper presents the interim research results of the following projects: (1) the 2022 teaching reform project of binzhou university, titled "research on the construction path of the professional curriculum system for 'translation of traditional chinese culture' under the background of ideological and political education in courses" (project no. byjyyb202216). (2) the 2022 binzhou university textbook compilation project. : (1) 2022 “ ” byjyyb202216 (2) 2022 1. introduction the academic concept of linguistic landscape may be unfamiliar to many, yet it encompasses everyday elements such as billboards, bus stop signs, street names, place names, and other informative slogans that surround us. although these features differ from natural landscapes, they persist as an integral part of the urban environment. with the increasing scholarly attention and rapid development in the field of linguistic landscape studies, these elements also hold inherent aesthetic value. linguistic landscape has emerged as a significant research area within sociolinguistics, focusing on the use and selection of language in public signage. public signage is typically categorized into two groups based on its origin: official signage and private signage. official signage is usually installed by local or central government agencies and reflects governmental stances, behaviors, and language policies; this is often referred to as top-down signage. in contrast, private signage, which is typically placed by individuals or businesses for commercial or informational purposes, is known as bottom-up signage or unofficial signage. binzhou, a prefecture-level city in the northern part of shandong province, boasts a rich history and is recognized as the birthplace of yellow river culture and qi culture. it is also an economically prosperous city, ranked among china’s top 100 foreign trade cities. as binzhou’s economic and cultural profile continues to develop, its language landscape is inevitably evolving towards internationalization, prompting changes in complementary language service strategies. this study will involve on-site investigations of major commercial areas, street names, place names, and prominent tourist attractions in binzhou. through data collection and analysis, the research will explore how the language landscape and language services in the region are transforming under the influence of internationalization. drawing on established theories and methodologies in linguistic landscape research, this paper focuses on street signs, building signs, shop signs, billboards, and posters in binzhou. a field survey approach will be employed, capturing language data through photographs to facilitate analysis. 2. literature review 2.1 definition of linguistic landscape communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 11 in 1997, canadian scholars rodrigue landry and richard y. bourhis introduced the concept of linguistic landscape, which refers to the visibility and prominence of language on public and commercial signs within a specific geographic area. this concept encompasses social public facilities, including street signs, billboards, street names, place names, shop signs, and government buildings. the linguistic landscape examines how languages are displayed in public spaces, such as street signs, billboards, and shop names, to analyze the linguistic dynamics of a region. the languages presented on these public signs collectively form the language landscape of a region or urban area. linguistic landscape research focuses on two primary types of signage: official signage, which is typically established by government authorities, and private signage, which is set up by individuals or businesses (landry & bourhis, 1997). the language landscape serves two main functions: the informational function and the symbolic function. the informational function refers to the direct information that can be derived from the language landscape, such as navigational or commercial details. in contrast, the symbolic function relates to the ideological messages that the language landscape reflects within a given social context. while both functions are significant, the informational function is often the most prominent and familiar to the general public. in everyday life, people primarily engage with language landscapes to obtain practical information, whether from a bus stop sign or a street name. the symbolic function, however, is more evident in the underlying messages that designers intend to convey through their use of language in these public spaces. 2.2 newmark’s translation theory in the contemporary globalized environment, globalization is an inevitable trend, affecting not only economic dimensions but also various other aspects of society. the globalization of english, while facilitating the widespread use of the language, has also contributed to the rise of bilingualism in the linguistic landscape, gradually establishing it as a standard for development. to explore the emergence of additional language identities beyond the native language in the linguistic landscape, it is valuable to apply the translation theory proposed by peter newmark. in his work discussion on translation problems, newmark introduced two key concepts: communicative translation and semantic translation. communicative translation prioritizes the feelings of the target language audience, focusing on the reader's perspective, while semantic translation centers on the author's intent, striving to convey the meaning of the source language accurately within the limits of the target language's semantics and grammatical structure (newmark, 1981). from the perspective of communicative translation, the english component of english-chinese bilingual language landscapes is intended for foreign audiences who are familiar with english. in this context, the english signage should cater to the needs and perceptions of the english-speaking audience. in contrast, from the viewpoint of semantic translation, when reflecting chinese local characteristics and culture in the english-language landscape, the translation should endeavor to maintain the original nuances and meaning of the source language as faithfully as possible. this ensures that the cultural essence is conveyed correctly, facilitating the promotion of chinese culture. this approach aligns with a language service-oriented strategy aimed at cultural communication. 3. the development of language landscape 3.1 the development of language landscape china the study of the international linguistic landscape can be traced back to the 1970s, when scholars began examining public language signage, primarily focusing on language use and the implementation of language policies. for example, rosenbaum (1977) conducted a study on the use of english in store signs along the keren kayemet commercial street in jerusalem. he found that most store signs were in english, which conflicted with the official language policy that only supported the use of hebrew. similarly, spolsky and cooper (1991) selected jerusalem as a case study and observed the use of english, french, hebrew, and arabic in street signage. however, these early studies did not use the term "linguistic landscape" (spolsky & cooper, 1991). the concept of linguistic landscape was first formally introduced in 1997 by landry and bourhis, who studied the language landscape of quebec, canada. they defined linguistic landscape as the language visible on public signage, including street signs, billboards, place names, shop signs, and government buildings, within a specific territory or region. according to landry and bourhis (1997), the language presented on these public signs collectively forms the linguistic landscape of a particular area. following its formal introduction, this concept was widely adopted and further explored by scholars, marking 1997 as the year when the study of linguistic landscape truly entered the academic research field. 3.2 the development of language landscape in the west in contrast, the development of the domestic language landscape started relatively late. at present, it mainly focuses on the norms of bilingual use of public signage, and has not deeply explored the important topics such as policy, power and identity communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 12 behind the language phenomenon. therefore, there is still a big gap between the theoretical depth and research methods and the international frontier language landscape research [5]. at the same time, the domestic language landscape research lacks a certain theoretical basis, and many foreign language landscape studies and other auspicious theories are used for reference, such as the newmark translation theory adopted in the study of the binzhou language landscape in this paper. on the other hand, the domestic language landscape is influenced by internationalization and presents a development trend of bilingualism. english signs are gradually added to the slogans of bus stops, road signs, tourist attractions, and commercial areas to meet the needs of english-speaking people for language landscapes, and at the same time create new language service strategies. 4. data collection of linguistic landscape in binzhou city in this part, the paper analyzes the general situation of the language landscape in binzhou city and the bilingual landscape problem. 4.1 data collection the language landscape collection in binzhou took place from january to february 2022, spanning a duration of two months. the investigation primarily covered government signs, street signs, and bus stop signage in bincheng district and zhanhua district. additionally, the study examined the language landscape at key tourist attractions, including the china sun tzu city of art of war, as well as the language landscape in major business areas such as binzhou wanda plaza. signs within and around binzhou railway station and binzhou dagao airport were also inspected. a total of 160 language landscape photographs were collected, capturing these signs from various angles. these photos provide a comprehensive reflection of the current development and future trends of binzhou's language landscape. figure 4.1 ticket barrier at binzhou railway station (source: binzhou traffic bureau website) binzhou railway station features bilingual signage in both chinese and english at each ticket gate, with blue nameplates to assist passengers in locating the corresponding gates for check-in. as english is a global lingua franca, most countries incorporate both the local language and english in public services. in the waiting areas of the station, announcements are first made in chinese, followed by an english translation. on the trains, the announcer similarly provides announcements in both languages to remind passengers of their upcoming stops. english signage is prevalent throughout the station, with train information—such as departure locations, terminal stations, and arrival times—clearly translated into english. the main service desk is staffed by personnel with proficient english skills, ensuring that foreign passengers who may be unfamiliar with station procedures receive timely assistance. additionally, a store specializing in local souvenirs has been established at the station, with product descriptions in english that provide detailed information about the local culture and customs. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 13 figure 4.2 the name sign of the exterior building of dagao airport (source: binzhou traffic bureau website) figure 4.3 boarding gate prompt sign at dagao airport (source: binzhou traffic wechat public account, 2019) dagao the signage at dagao airport is concise and standardized. for instance, the terminal name is displayed in chinese at the top, followed by english, making it easily comprehensible. the airport's language landscape design is notably userfriendly. specifically, the airport provides bilingual signage for key boarding procedures. additionally, bilingual signs are present in various areas, including drinking rooms and consulting rooms, ensuring accessibility for all passengers. the frequent international exchanges in the aviation sector are a significant reflection of the nation's growing global presence and comprehensive national strength. as a result, the airport staff possess a certain level of english proficiency, enabling effective communication with foreign passengers. english literacy is especially emphasized for flight attendants and announcers, who are required to meet high linguistic standards. furthermore, both the lounges and dining areas are equipped with english signage, and english-speaking service staff are available to provide assistance, ensuring a satisfactory service experience for international travelers. on the boarding pass, bilingual signage is used to display crucial flight information, such as departure details and estimated time of arrival. notably, english magazines and periodicals are provided in the cabin, further enhancing the travel experience. this comprehensive approach to bilingual signage underscores the airport's commitment to offering a comfortable and accommodating environment for passengers, particularly those traveling internationally. 4.2 the development of language landscape in binzhou city 4.2.1 characteristics of language landscape based on the field survey data analysis, it is evident that the predominant language in binzhou s landscape is chinese. the informational content of various language landscapes in the city is primarily conveyed through the national language, which serves to facilitate the transmission of information, cultural dissemination, policy advocacy, tourism promotion, and business interests. these aspects are central to the city's language service strategies. in the context of globalization, especially with the increasing prominence of english, bilingual chinese-english language landscapes have emerged in binzhou. however, due to the relatively low number of english speakers in the region, the communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 14 adoption of these bilingual signs has been limited. furthermore, some of these bilingual signs have been misrepresented, particularly in the form of "chinglish" (a blend of chinese and english). the widespread occurrence of such errors across various bilingual signs in binzhou is a reflection of historical and social factors. based on their characteristics and the potential for correction, these errors can be categorized as follows: the first category includes chinese-english translation errors, such as spelling and grammatical mistakes, which are the most easily identified. for example, a restaurant menu in binzhou prominently displayed the word weicome on its cover, which was a clear misspelling. the second issue concerns the mixing of english with chinese pinyin, primarily seen on road signs. this inconsistency stems from the lack of unified standards. for instance, shenghua road is translated as shenghua road in english, but other road signs in the city use pinyin exclusively, resulting in a lack of uniformity and coordination. 4.2.2 bilingual language landscape problems with the ongoing development and modernization of binzhou, its language landscape is continuously evolving. a noticeable trend in the domestic language landscape is the increasing use of bilingual signage in chinese and english. however, the development of bilingual signage in binzhou remains imperfect. during a two-month field investigation, several issues were identified in major public spaces across the city, particularly the absence of translations in certain areas. while most urban railway stations in china feature english translations beneath their station names, binzhou railway station, for instance, only displays chinese-language signage. moreover, during an inspection of binzhou dagao airport, it was observed that some bilingual signs contained translation errors. such mistakes could potentially lead to misunderstandings, particularly when travelers rely on these signs for important instructions, thereby undermining the efficacy of the language landscape in fulfilling its role in providing essential services. other issues were noted as well. for example, the business reception desk at a mobile business office in binzhou was inaccurately translated as business reception desk, when the correct translation should be business reception. in some hospitals in binzhou, the sign smoking is not allowed in this hospital was deemed overly strict and inconsistent with the more simplistic nature of signage. a more suitable translation would be smoke-free. additionally, the investigation of certain areas revealed problems in the bilingual translation of store names, highlighting the ongoing need for more accurate and consistent bilingual language strategies in binzhou s urban landscape figure 4.4 the bilingual name of the clothing store (source: the author s photograph) a sportswear shop in binzhou city directly translated its chinese name “ ” into “fast fish.” however, in the context of the english language, this direct translation leads to semantic confusion. most chinese compound words cannot be translated literally into english without causing misunderstandings. the original chinese term “ ” likely carries a brand concept, emphasizing the dynamic and energetic nature of the brand, with the metaphor of being as free as a fish. however, in english, the word “fast” typically refers to speed, while “fish” denotes a living creature. these two words, when combined, do not convey the intended meaning of the original chinese phrase. this phenomenon, where merchants use literal translation to convert chinese words into english, is common in binzhou city. many businesses follow a similar approach, employing vocabulary, stylistic choices, and syntactic structures that align with the target language, but often fail to capture the intended cultural or conceptual nuances. as a result, these direct translations may not effectively communicate the intended message to english-speaking consumers, highlighting the importance of culturally sensitive and contextually appropriate translation strategies. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 15 figure 4.5 the bilingual name of a clothing store (source: author’s photograph) unlike the previous example, the translation of this store's name involves a transliteration issue. in this case, the shop owners first determine the correct chinese pronunciation of the store's name, then identify english letters that closely resemble the sound of the original pronunciation, and use them for a comparative translation. as a result, the translation of " " became "mooewe."transliteration is one of the earliest methods of translation that most people encounter. it involves the transcription of spoken language into written form, based on the pronunciation of the original language. in this method, the goal is to find equivalent sounds in the target language that closely mirror the original pronunciation. transliteration is commonly used for translating proper nouns, such as country names, company names, and place names. for instance, the popular swedish furniture store " " is transliterated as "ikea," and the internationally renowned cosmetic brand " ," favored by many women, is transliterated as "revlon." figure 4.6 a bilingual translation of the name of a photo studio (source: the author’s photograph) the original name of the store, " " (literally "pine cone"), could have been directly translated into english as "pine cone." however, the store owners creatively adapted the chinese pinyin pronunciation and ultimately selected the name "so good," which closely resembles the original chinese pronunciation. this english translation, used by the binzhou photo studio, introduces a homophonic element, where the focus is on sound rather than meaning. in contemporary business practices, many companies employ various translation strategies when naming their stores in english. on one hand, such names can capture customer attention due to their humorous or catchy nature. on the other hand, they help create a distinct linguistic identity, making the business stand out. this approach subtly enhances competitiveness within the industry, while also facilitating the exchange and integration of multiple linguistic styles, which promotes broader communication across cultures. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 16 figure 4.7 the bilingual name of the clothing store (source: author’s photograph) the examples provided above also illustrate the mistake of directly using pinyin instead of an english translation. this type of translation is not standardized and fails to accurately convey the store's intended information, which can easily lead to misunderstandings among non-chinese speakers. additionally, there are cultural differences in the translation of road signs within binzhou city. in north america, "avenue" typically refers to streets running in a north-south direction, while "street" refers to those running east-west. however, in china, there are no strict directional planning requirements, and therefore, most street names in binzhou use the term "street."pinyin, a system used to represent the pronunciation of chinese characters, is primarily a tool for marking chinese syllables, distinguishing tones, and promoting the use of mandarin. given the simplicity of the chinese phonetic syllable system, many businesses adopt the pinyin model for their store names for reasons of convenience and aesthetic appeal. however, there are clear differences between pinyin-based trademarks and englishlanguage trademarks. english trademarks often have multiple corresponding translations for chinese characters, whereas pinyin trademarks, despite their phonetic resemblance, may have very different meanings, apart from their visual similarity to the original characters. therefore, it is important not to assume that pinyin trademarks are equivalent to english trademarks simply because they appear similar. 5. discussion: language services strategies embodied in the language landscape this chapter studies the translation of binzhou city’s language landscape to find out its characteristics and influencing factors in the process of translation. 5.1 information transfer as introduced earlier, the concept of "language landscape" may be unfamiliar to some, yet it is omnipresent. the primary function of the language landscape is the transmission of information. street signs, for example, communicate road names, orienting individuals and guiding them to their destinations. for instance, if the destination is binzhou library, located at no. 662 huanghe 12 road, binzhou city, a pedestrian who encounters the yellow river 12 road sign will be able to assess the distance to their destination and make informed decisions regarding their route. similarly, bus stop signs convey locationspecific information, helping passengers determine which bus to take and at which stop to disembark, thereby facilitating effective information transfer. for example, in investigating the commercial language landscape of binzhou department store, taking the second bus from binzhou city can further enhance the commercial interests associated with the language landscape, thus serving its purpose in information transmission. 5.2 cultural dissemination chinese culture, with its rich and profound history, spans over 5,000 years. unlike the nearly extinct cultures of ancient civilizations like egypt or india, chinese culture has continuously evolved, nurtured by both time and its inherent ability to adapt. various cultural elements have developed simultaneously, often complementing, learning from, and influencing one another. the yellow river, which flows through shandong province, is central to the development of chinese civilization and has made the province a significant cultural hub. during the warring states period, shandong was under the jurisdiction of the qi state, which gave rise to qilu culture a tradition that continues to play a prominent role in the cultural fabric of communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 17 the region. this rich cultural heritage is evident in the language landscape of binzhou city, where local road names serve not only as geographical markers but also as carriers of cultural meaning. for example, the naming of "yellow river twelve road" reflects both the geographical positioning and the cultural significance of the yellow river, a symbol of chinese civilization. the use of the yellow river in the road name serves to transmit cultural information and enhances the effect of cultural dissemination. in addition to incorporating symbols and elements of chinese culture into road names, another key aspect of the language landscape's role in cultural dissemination is through its aesthetic presentation. this is particularly evident in the language landscape associated with sun tzu s art of war tourist site in binzhou city. the fonts used for signs at this location differ from those found in public facilities such as street signs and bus stop signs. rather than modern printed fonts, the signs feature lettering on plaques, which enhances their aesthetic appeal and reflects the ancient art of chinese calligraphy and lettering. this unique presentation serves not only as a visual tribute to chinese cultural heritage but also contributes to the broader goal of cultural dissemination. 5.3 policy advocacy although there is no unified definition of language policy in academic circles, it is clear that the formulation of a country s language policy aims to achieve specific interests, with the national language serving as a symbol of the country and its people. the hanyu pinyin plan, implemented by china in 1958, established regulations regarding the phonetic transcription of proper names, including those of persons, places, ethnic groups, and institutions. in 1979, the united nations secretariat issued a "notice on the adoption of chinese pinyin," which mandated that hanyu pinyin be used as the standard for transcribing personal and place names in the people s republic of china. this decision meant that hanyu pinyin would become the "foreign language version" of chinese names and place names. in 1982, hanyu pinyin was formally recognized as the international standard (iso 7098: chinese roman alphabet spelling). according to this standard, all countries and regions using chinese must employ hanyu pinyin when transcribing chinese names and place names. the hanyu pinyin scheme thus became a unified standard for the romanized spelling of chinese names, place names, and documents, especially in contexts where chinese characters are impractical or unavailable. additionally, xue guang (2017) reports that, in the more than 30 years since 1978, the national people s congress, the state council, and relevant state departments have issued a series of regulations, totaling ten, with the central theme being the promotion of "chinese pinyin." furthermore, six regulations explicitly prohibit the use of english spelling and chinese phonetic spelling for chinese place names, though these are not discussed here due to space constraints. these regulations highlight that, despite the increasing trend of internationalization and the push for bilingual language landscapes (especially in chinese and english), the state continues to emphasize the use of chinese in official signage. this reflects the state s ideological priorities, as the language landscape serves both as a medium for information transmission and as a tool for propagating state policies. furthermore, the role of language landscapes in promoting public health awareness has been increasingly evident in recent years. for example, during a field survey of the language landscape in binzhou city, the researcher observed the presence of banners displaying epidemic prevention slogans at major public locations during the covid-19 pandemic. these banners conveyed important information to citizens, urging vigilance and providing guidelines on preventing the spread of the virus. such language landscape features not only serve informational purposes but also contribute to public policy communication, underscoring the role of language landscapes in supporting governmental health initiatives. 5.4 cultural image this field study focuses on the cultural phenomena conveyed through the language landscape of the binzhou hebanshan national forest park. the language used in the park s signs adopts a practical style, which aligns with the nature of tourismrelated texts. as such, the internal and external factors influencing the language landscape in this context are similar to those found in tourism-related texts. in her framework for purpose-oriented text analysis, nord (1997) categorizes the factors influencing the translation of a text into two groups: extratextual and intratextual. extratextual factors include the sender and intention of the text, the intended recipients, the medium, and the motivation for communication. intratextual factors, on the other hand, include the text s theme, content, structure, vocabulary, and syntactic features. a translator must analyze both sets of factors to determine the translation s function and choose the appropriate translation strategy. during the on-site investigation, it was observed that the language landscape signs in the park primarily fall into the following categories: landscape names, landscape descriptions, street signs, guide signs, and warning signs. due to the specific nature communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 18 of the environment, most of the chinese text on the signs is concise and specialized, serving primarily to transmit information and promote public awareness. a unique feature of this type of translation is that both the source and target languages are used within the same context. a challenge for translators arises when too much "foreignization" is used, as this may hinder the target language audience, particularly tourists, from achieving their communicative goals within the limited space available on the signs. 5.5 summary this section provides a summary of the language landscape in binzhou city, as discussed above. public spaces in binzhou, such as subway stations and airports, generally feature bilingual signs that are accurate and well-established. this is largely due to the oversight of the government and the regulatory efforts of relevant institutions. however, it should be noted that the bilingual signage of some individual vendors on binzhou s streets does not adhere to standard language norms. many shops use translations of their names that are vague or do not effectively convey the intended message. additionally, at tourist sites like hebanshan, there is an issue with incomplete english signage. on a positive note, the signage at binzhou wanda plaza serves as an excellent example of standardized language practices. in conclusion, while language services in binzhou have made significant progress, there is still substantial room for improvement and future development. the language landscape serves as a direct reflection of a region s political, economic, and cultural dynamics. through the language landscape, one can observe binzhou s vibrant growth as well as the challenges it faces in the process of globalization. as a key tool in the city s internationalization efforts, the language landscape should be uniformly regulated. to this end, appropriate laws and regulations based on language domain theory and language management theory should be enacted to maintain and promote binzhou s city image. 6. pedagogical implications for english language teaching the study of language landscapes public signage, official directives, and commercial displays provides a unique lens through which the interaction between language policy, cultural values, and commercial interests can be examined. in binzhou city, the language landscape reflects a blend of cultural identity, regulatory standards, and market-driven forces, offering a rich area for empirical research. this section explores the implications of these findings for university-level english language teaching, particularly in preparing students for the challenges and opportunities of culturally and linguistically diverse environments. 6.1 cultural imagery in the language landscape cultural imagery within language landscapes conveys the collective identity of a place. in binzhou, public signage often incorporates elements of traditional chinese aesthetics alongside bilingual translations, aiming to balance local heritage with international accessibility. street signs, government buildings, and public spaces prominently feature chinese characters, frequently accompanied by english translations. this bilingualism is not purely functional but also acts as a bridge for cultural exchange, symbolizing respect for cultural heritage while fostering global accessibility. for college students, exposure to such culturally rich visual cues offers valuable language-learning opportunities. understanding the nuances of translation between chinese and english can deepen students appreciation of the cultural values embedded in language. by analyzing how translations preserve or modify cultural references, students are encouraged to explore language as both a tool of communication and a vessel for cultural meaning. this approach fosters a deeper connection between language and cultural context, which is essential in developing students' intercultural competence. 6.2 language policy and public signage: the influence of regulatory language the regulatory framework governing binzhou s language landscape is in line with national language policies, such as the hanyu pinyin system. implemented in 1958 and later adopted as an international standard, hanyu pinyin ensures the consistent transcription of chinese place names and personal names. these policies not only promote uniformity but also contribute to the creation of a national linguistic identity, emphasizing the importance of a shared language. for university-level english education, examining the impact of language policy within the context of language landscapes can enrich students understanding of the relationship between language and governance. policy-driven language usage on public signage exemplifies how governments use language to organize society and shape cultural perceptions. by studying the evolution of language policies and their influence on public signage, students can gain valuable insights into how linguistic regulations affect public communication and shape the linguistic landscape they encounter. this knowledge enhances students awareness of the broader socio-political contexts in which language operates. 6.3 commercial values and the language landscape communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 19 in the commercial sector, the language landscape often reflects the dynamic interaction between market demands and linguistic inclusivity. in binzhou, bilingual signage in department stores, shopping districts, and transport hubs serves both practical and commercial purposes. for example, english is frequently used on promotional signage and storefront displays to attract foreign tourists or english-speaking residents. this highlights how commercial motivations drive the use of multilingual signage. understanding this commercial dimension of the language landscape is particularly valuable for college students, especially those studying business english or marketing. by observing how businesses utilize language to broaden their appeal, students can see real-world examples of english's role in global commerce. furthermore, analyzing the effectiveness of bilingual and sometimes multilingual signage provides insights into how language choices can influence consumer behavior, a key aspect of commercial strategy. 6.4 pedagogical implications: applying empirical findings to english teaching the empirical study of binzhou's language landscape offers valuable insights into english language teaching. integrating findings from linguistic landscape research into the curriculum provides students with opportunities to analyze real-world linguistic phenomena. by examining public signage and commercial language usage in binzhou, students can develop a deeper understanding of translation practices, cultural sensitivity, and compliance with language policies. one practical application involves case studies focused on translation accuracy and cultural adaptation. for instance, students could analyze the language used on signage for public facilities or transportation, assessing how effectively it communicates essential information. exercises involving the translation of similar signage for hypothetical international audiences could further enhance students' language skills, critical thinking, and intercultural awareness. moreover, understanding the influence of language policies on public communication helps students appreciate the complexities of linguistic regulation. this awareness is crucial in a globalized world, where language policies and multilingualism are integral to international communication. 7. conclusion this research conducts a field investigation of binzhou s language landscape through the lens of linguistic landscape studies and newmark s translation theory. by analyzing the development of domestic and international language landscapes in the context of globalization, and using survey sampling as data support, the study explores the language service strategies reflected in the quasi-language landscape. overall, binzhou s language landscape reveals five primary language service strategies: information transmission, cultural communication, policy publicity, tourism impression building, and commercial value acquisition. however, in the context of internationalization, there are areas for improvement specifically, the limited presence of bilingual signage and inconsistencies in translation, which highlight the need for further development. these issues suggest a new direction for the evolution of the language landscape in binzhou. binzhou s language landscape offers a valuable empirical case for examining the intersection of language, culture, policy, 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[in chinese: . . .] 18-106-pb.issue1.pdf communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 33 a study on the translation strategies of literary works from the perspective of cognitive metaphor theory——taking the aeronaut as an example qi he1; leping huang2 1. school of foreign languages, tianjin university of commerce, e-mail:hq13290230031@163.com 2. school of foreign languages, tianjin university of commerce, e-mail:huangleping@tjcu.edu.cn abstract this study takes the english translation of shuang xuetao’s novel the aeronaut as its research object. based on cognitive metaphor theory and adopting a qualitative research approach, it aims to explore the translatability of metaphors in literary works and the cross-cultural transfer mechanisms of folkloric metaphors within northeast china’s industrial context, while summarizing translation strategies for metaphorical imagery in literature. metaphor is not merely a rhetorical device, but more essentially a cognitive function that plays a vital role in helping people understand and engage with the world. the use of metaphor enriches human experience of the world, and its significance in the development of human civilization cannot be underestimated. the conversion of literary language involves people’s cognition of linguistic meaning and the pragmatic effects of deep-seated semantic layers, which lay the foundation for the conveyance of metaphoric meaning in translation. the findings reveal that textual processing is always conducted within specific contextual environments. in the process of metaphor translation, the constraining role of cultural context is most prominent. therefore, metaphor translation must also take textual context and literary context into consideration. when facing different types of metaphors in varying situations, translators employ distinct strategies. the author categorizes these into three types: retaining the source domain for bodily universal metaphors, modifying the source domain for culture-specific metaphors, omitting the source domain for incommensurable metaphors. the study on english translation of metaphors in the aeronaut contributes to enriching interdisciplinary perspectives in cognitive metaphor research, while also holding referential value for the translation practice of avant-garde fiction, particularly regarding the english translation of metaphors. keywords: cognitive metaphor theory; literary works; translation strategies 1. introduction metaphor is not only a rhetorical device of language, but also a cognitive tool and way of understanding. it originates from the life experience of cultural groups and is intrinsically related to culture. since the rise of cognitive linguistics in the 1980s, the theoretical direction of metaphor research has undergone a major transformation, from a traditional rhetoric paradigm to a cognitive semantic perspective. this shift suggests that the essence of metaphor transcends verbal modification and serves as a building mechanism for the human conceptual system. the existence of metaphor is not limited to language expression, but is also significantly reflected in individual actions. in fact, the conceptual structure on which human cognition is based, including thoughts and actions, is fundamentally constructed through metaphorical mapping within a cognitive framework (lakoff & johnson, 1980). as a representative text of avant-garde novels, the aeronaut becomes an ideal sample for observing language examples of cognitive models due to its high-density metaphor network. cognitive models with metaphorical characteristics will inevitably be reflected in the process of language expression and cognition, and will leave obvious traces in different texts. in literary translation, cross-lingual reconstruction of these traces poses unique challenges, mainly because of the conceptual asymmetry between the source language and the target language. cognitive metaphor theory provides methodological support for analyzing cross-cultural conceptual mapping in translation. by systematically examining the metaphor processing mechanisms in the english version of the aeronaut, this study reveals the regular path of cognitive model transformation in avant-garde literary translation, thus enriching the interdisciplinary perspective of cognitive metaphor research and providing reference value for the translation of metaphor-intensive texts. 2. literature review 2.1 cognitive metaphor theory the understanding of metaphor has undergone a profound transformation over centuries of scholarly inquiry. the concept of metaphor has a history spanning over two millennia in western theoretical thought, originating in ancient greece where it communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 34 was primarily viewed within the domains of rhetoric and poetics. in this traditional view, metaphor was considered a stylistic device, a figure of speech used for embellishment or comparison, distinct from literal language. however, the 20th century marked a significant turning point, driven by the “linguistic turn” and the rise of cognitive science, which dramatically altered the scope and definition of metaphor (guo, 2011). cognitive metaphor theory posits that metaphor is not merely a linguistic phenomenon but, more fundamentally, a cognitive one. it is understood as a mode of thought, a primary means by which humans conceptualize abstract domains in terms of more concrete or experiential domains. this conceptual mapping, rather than just a linguistic substitution, is the core of metaphor according to cognitive metaphor theory. this cognitive function is arguably the most important tool for understanding abstract concepts, citing analyses in diverse fields like poetry, politics, philosophy, and mathematics as evidence for its pervasive nature. the understanding of metaphor has shifted from a purely linguistic or rhetorical phenomenon to a basic cognitive mechanism, which has a profound impact on its research in many fields, including literary analysis and translation. people now think that metaphor is not just a matter of words, but also a matter of thought and action, and it builds the way we perceive, conceptualize and interact with the world (cao, 2018). this cognitive perspective highlights the important role that metaphor plays in helping people understand abstract concepts by mapping them into more concrete or experienced areas. the use of metaphor enriches human experience and is closely linked to the development of human civilization (liu, 2005). lakoff and johnson are credited with the groundbreaking work of cognitive metaphor theory, their theory has also been reviewed and debated. questions have been raised about their research methods, specific theoretical interpretations, and classification of metaphor types, including structural metaphor, ontological metaphor, and directional metaphor. these criticisms and challenges did not weaken the theory of cognitive metaphor, but instead promoted its continuous revision and improvement, and promoted the further development of the theory. kövecses (2020) explores complex issues such as the existence of literal language, the interaction between the conceptual and contextual levels of metaphor, and the differences between offline and online metaphor processing, further enriching this field and demonstrating the continued vitality and complexity of cognitive metaphor research. finally, the cognitive approach advocated by international researchers interprets metaphor as a complex cognitive phenomenon, which is of great significance to communication, psychology and cognition. its role is not limited to style improvement, but also includes cognitive structure construction and communication efficiency improvement, and even plays a role in genre formation, heuristic exploration, and memory coding (radetska & milova, 2025). this comprehensive view of metaphor as a basic cognitive tool provides a solid theoretical framework for analyzing the function of metaphor in literature and the challenges it faces in cross-cultural communication. the transition from viewing metaphor as a rhetorical device to viewing it as a cognitive function represents a fundamental paradigm shift in the field of metaphor research. shi (2017) traces this evolution, pointing out that the focus of research has shifted from focusing on the decorative function of metaphor to exploring its conceptual role, and has shifted from analyzing linguistic expressions to examining non-verbal metaphorical thinking and even multimodal presentation. this broadened perspective recognizes the fusion and complementarity of different metaphorical concepts, including rhetoric, cognition, grammar, context, and multimodal forms. the influence of cognitive metaphor theory has gone far beyond the field of linguistics and penetrated into philosophy, cognitive science and even natural science and computer science, making metaphor a ubiquitous and increasingly complex theoretical concept. 2.2 metaphor of literary works translation of literary works has long been the core and complex part of the field of translation studies. unlike the translation of technical or information texts, literary translation must not only accurately convey the meaning at the linguistic level, but also convey aesthetic values, emotional resonance, cultural nuances, and the author’s unique style. among the many linguistic and rhetorical devices used by the author to achieve these effects, metaphor is particularly important. traditionally, metaphor has been mainly regarded as a rhetorical device and a decorative decoration on literal language, but the true depth and widespread impact of metaphor on human thinking and communication are increasingly recognized, especially with the emergence of cognitive science and cognitive linguistics. the challenges inherent in translating metaphor, particularly those deeply rooted in specific cultural or folkloric contexts, are significant. such metaphors often carry layers of meaning, associations, and emotional weight that are not easily transferable to a target culture with different systems and experiences. cognitive poetics explored by scholars such as gronas (2010) explicitly uses conceptual metaphors when analyzing literary criticism, reader participation in classic texts, the social use of poetry, and even the mechanisms of the creative process. this perspective holds that literary texts are not just products of language, but structures that can interact with and be processed by human cognitive systems. many studies have proved that using cognitive metaphor theory to analyze specific aspects of literary works is of great importance. similarly, trites (2014) used cognitive literature theories, including cognitive metaphor theory, cognitive communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 35 linguistics, and experiential philosophy, to study how the concepts of growth and maturity are presented in youth literature. the study believes that the human cognitive structure understood through these theories has led to the widespread use of the concept of growth as a metaphor and narrative model in this literary genre. this highlights the fact that basic cognitive mappings not only influence specific language choices in literature, but also broader narrative structures and thematic development. cognitive stylistic analysis drawing heavily on cognitive metaphor theory can reveal how metaphorical language contributes to the overall effect and meaning of the text. nasutin (2024) used cognitive metaphor theory to analyze cognitive metaphors in lyrics, identify structural metaphors, ontological metaphors and directional metaphors, and explore their impact on lyrics creation. although this study focuses on lyrics rather than traditional prose or poetry, it highlights how cognitive metaphor theory can be used to systematically identify and classify the conceptual basis of metaphorical language in various literary forms, revealing how abstract and concrete elements merge to shape narratives and elicit specific responses. more and more studies have begun to directly apply cognitive metaphor theory to metaphor translation studies, providing insights into the cognitive process involved and the strategies adopted by translators. this approach holds that metaphor translation is not just a language transfer, but a process of processing conceptual mappings across languages and cultures, which often involves interlingual asymmetry (massey& ehrensberger, 2017). teng (2023) examines the english translation of poetic images, especially flower images, in china poetry from the perspective of cognitive metaphor theory. the study regards poetic image as a cognitive metaphor that maps the source domain to the target domain, and believes that translation strategies depend on whether there is a corresponding conceptual mapping in the target culture. based on this, the study identified five translation methods: literal translation, literal translation with explanation, image replacement to express meaning, provincial attention, and transliteration with explanation. this study provides specific examples of how cognitive metaphor theory guides strategy choices based on conceptual relationships between source and target domains and cultural differences. there seems to be differences in focus. china research represented by the abstracts provided shows a strong interest in the theoretical discussion of cognitive metaphor theory in the chinese academic context, including discussions on its development and criticism (liu, 2005). the research also shows that cognitive metaphor theory has been extensively used in the english translation of china literary works as well as the chinese translation of english works. it conducts a detailed analysis of specific literary techniques such as images and character titles, and clearly emphasizes the unique cultural connotations and challenges of language challenges (teng & yang, 2023). qi and liang qiu (2025) used cognitive metaphor theory to analyze the english translation of images in china’s classic poem a moonlit night on the spring river, focusing on the translation strategies of structural metaphor, ontological metaphor and directional metaphor. the research results show that there are different strategies for each metaphor type. structural metaphors may need to be literal translated or interpreted based on cross-cultural mapping. ontology metaphors benefit from human's universal understanding of entities and can usually be literal translated. orientation metaphors require reconstruction of the connection between spatial orientation and emotional connotation. this detailed analysis demonstrates how classifying metaphors based on cognitive metaphor theory can guide the selection of appropriate translation strategies to promote crosscultural transmission of poetic meaning. therefore, the literature review reveals a clear trajectory in metaphor studies, moving from a rhetorical to a cognitive understanding, with cognitive metaphor theory providing a powerful framework for analyzing metaphor’s role in thought, language, and literature. while traditional translation studies has addressed metaphor translation, the application of a comprehensive cognitive theory is a more recent development. studies applying cognitive metaphor theory to translation highlight the cognitive processes involved, the impact of cultural and conceptual differences, and inform the development of strategies that go beyond linguistic substitution to address the underlying conceptual mappings. research on literary metaphor translation from a cognitive metaphor theory perspective, particularly for chinese-to-english translation of novels and their culturally specific elements, is an active and developing area, providing a strong foundation for the current study on the aeronaut. the existing literature confirms the significance of cultural context and metaphor type in determining translation strategies and supports the exploration of strategies based on retaining, modifying, or omitting the source domain, particularly when dealing with culturally embedded metaphors. 3. introduction of the aeronaut this study takes the english version of shuang xuetao’s novel the aeronaut as the research object, and aims to explore the translatability of metaphors in literary works from the perspective of cognitive metaphor theory. it attempts to explore the cross-cultural transformation mechanism of folk metaphors with the industrial background of northeast china, and based on this analysis, summarizes effective translation strategies for metaphorical images in literature. although cognitive metaphor theory emphasizes the universality of some basic conceptual mappings based on common human experience, it also recognizes that culture and experience have a significant impact on the specific conceptual metaphors prevalent in specific languages or communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 36 groups (sun & zhou, 2020). this interaction between universal cognitive principles and specific cultural examples is particularly important when considering the cross-cultural transformations inherent in translation. the subjectivity of metaphorical discourse reflects the speaker’s perspective, emotions and understanding, and is also an area explored within the framework of cognitive metaphor theory, which adds another layer of complexity to its analysis (peng & lin, 2021). as identified in the literature review, cognitive metaphor translation research has overlooked region-specific industrial-folk metaphors. shuang xuetao’s the aeronaut—with its dense network of northeastern china’s rust belt symbols and folk taboos, makes it an ideal case to test cognitive metaphor theory’s applicability to culturally embedded avant-garde fiction. shuang xue tao’s story collection the aeronaut stands as a seminal text of “new northeastern literature”. set against the industrial decline of shenyang’s tiexi district in the 1990s, it reconstructs the collective memory of northeast china’s rust belt transition through the intertwined destinies of two working-class families, the gaos and the lis. core symbols like “rusteaten gears” and “smokeless chimneys” function both as tangible relics of industrial space and as metonymies of collective trauma. this study selects the work for three pivotal reasons: first, its innovative heavy-industrial-lexicon metaphorization—using “rust-eaten gears” to signify interpersonal alienation or a “boiler pressure valve” to symbolize emotional thresholds—emerges from the workers’ collective unconscious. the binding of cultural signifiers (industrial objects’ physical traits) to signifieds (lived experience) creates a regional cognitive model untranslatable through western metaphor frameworks. second, jeremy tiang’s english translation exemplifies cultural transference fractures: when “cupola furnace” loses its connotation of communal nostalgia, or “afflicts” fails to convey the cognitive weight of “ ” in folk taboos, it exposes fault lines ideal for testing conceptual integration theory. third, the text’s pioneering multimodal metaphors—like li mingqi’s parachute descent described as “a body adrift like a paper kite,” fusing industrial gravity with existential weightlessness—offer quintessential material for visual-linguistic translation analysis. crucially, the systemic integration of northeastern folk symbols—such as “winter-hibernation” embodying survival wisdom in extreme cold, or the familial ethics encoded in “kang heated beds”—targets blind spots in metaphor translation. these symbols lack cognitive equivalents in western frameworks, leading to semantic petrification in translation. such gaps directly resonate with this study’s core inquiry: resolving cultural-cognitive ruptures in cross-linguistic metaphor transfer. thus, the text’s intrinsic properties and irreplicable status as a regional cultural artifact necessitate its selection. is metaphor translatable? and to what extent it can be translated has long been a subject of ongoing debate within academia regarding translation practice. metaphor possesses commonalities at the linguistic level, which enables the feasibility of metaphor translation (tan & ge, 2005). for instance, in the text, when li mingqi describes his own physical constitution as having “ ” (“light bones,” literally), the chinese use “ ” (“light”) to construct an orientational metaphor, which corresponds perfectly with the ontological understanding of “light bones” in english, achieving a cross-cultural mapping (shuang, 2017). however, as a cognitive processing method and thinking framework, metaphor is inseparably linked to the cultural-cognitive experiences of the source and target language communities. according to m.b. dagut’s research, the translatability of a source-language metaphor depends primarily on its underlying cultural background and the associated semantic connotations (dagut, 1976). in other words, the key to achieving high-quality translation lies in whether target-language readers can, through the semantic associations evoked by the source metaphor, establish a corresponding cognitive connection at the conceptual mapping level. this allows target readers to grasp the metaphorical core based on the universal concept of “energy blockage”. based on the above discussion, metaphor possesses a certain degree of translatability, but does this imply that cross-cultural conversion is achievable across all dimensions? this paper will explore the scope and limitations of metaphor translatability in different language environments from the perspective of cognitive semantics and cross-cultural communication. based on the research results of cognitive linguistics, people from different cultural backgrounds have similar cognitive patterns in the process of perceiving and understanding the world. this common cognitive framework enables different ethnic groups to generate similar conceptual systems when recognizing objective phenomena. metaphor is not only a language tool, but also a basic way of thinking in human universal cognitive activities. its transformation between different language systems depends on the existence and stability of this basic cognitive structure. because of this, cross-language translation and analysis of metaphors can be based on this cognitive commonality, thereby achieving a certain degree of cultural and meaning transmission. from a cross-cultural perspective, cultural conceptual metaphors encountered in bilingual conversion involve deep-rooted cognitive and cultural differences between language systems, which objectively create potential obstacles for translators to express such metaphors. with the continuous strengthening of global cultural exchanges, the deepening of cultural penetration, and the gradual integration of cultural elements, members of society have gradually reached consensus on many core issues. although cultural differences communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 37 can still lead to understanding biases and conflicts between different ethnic groups, individuals from different cultural backgrounds can often share certain “basic metaphors” thereby promoting cross-cultural understanding and communication. 4. translation strategies of the aeronaut from the perspective of cognitive metaphor theory hu zhuanglin categorizes cognitive metaphors into three types: ontological, structural, and orientational cognitive metaphors (hu, 2011). in the english translation of the aeronaut, a rich system of metaphorical expressions is observed. faced with different types of metaphors across contexts, the translator employs diverse strategies. the selection of strategies is determined by three interrelated factors: the type of cognitive metaphor (ontological, structural, orientational); the degree of cultural embedding (low, medium, high); and the contextual function of the metaphor (narrative, expressive, or cultural-transmissive) in the text. 4.1 preserving the source domain ontological metaphors grounded in universal bodily experiences are prioritized for source domain retention, as they rely on shared cognitive mappings across cultures. low cultural load metaphors retain the source domain, leveraging universal experiential knowledge. for narrative function, source domain retention ensures plot coherence. st1: 1979 st romanized: 1979 nián, lǐmíngqí dì yī cì lái gāo jiā shí, gāolìkuān shífēn guānghuǒ, bìng bùshì yīnwèi lǐmíngqí dāngshí chuānle yītiáo lǎbā kù, xìzhe yītiáo huā pídài. tt1: that morning in 1979 when li mingqi first showed up at his doorstep, gao likuan bristled, and not just at the boy’s outlandish attire—although his bell-bottoms and flashy leather belt certainly didn’t help. analysis: “ ” (literally: flames ignite) metaphorically depicts rising anger. the translator directly uses “bristled” (hair standing on end), preserving the ontological source domain of an animal’s physiological reaction to anger/fear. chinese and english cultures share cognitive experiences of “anger triggering physical responses”, fully conveying emotional tension and achieving cognitive equivalence. anger is a physical reaction' explains why retaining the source domain works: both ‘ ’ and ‘bristled’ map anger to bodily arousal, illustrating cross-cultural structural isomorphism in emotional metaphors. st2: st romanized: dànshì tā jiǔliàng dà, bù nàoshì, xīnlíng shǒuqiǎo, yě zhīdào shí jú biànle, jiù xiàng fā dà shuǐ, suīrán shá dōu méiliǎo, yī dì de níbā, kě yěshì xīn de jīhuì. tt2: even so, he could hold his liquor and never caused problems. he was alert and skillful with his hands, and he knew that the times had changed. as he saw it, the floodwaters had just receded, leaving a swath of bare soil. here was his opportunity. analysis: the chinese uses “floodwaters receding to expose soil” to metaphorize the orientational relationship between destruction and rebirth. the translation preserves the source domain, resonating with the cross-cultural consensus of “land becoming arable after disaster”, aligning target readers’ cognitive path to “opportunity” with the source text. st3: st romanized: bùguò bié kàn wǒ jiù yī zhī yǎn, kěshì kàn dé qīngchǔ, wǒ a, qù yě bái qù, hé lǐ yóu de rēng mǎlù shàng, yībù yě zǒu bùliǎo. tt3: i may only have one eye, but i can see clearly, and i know there’s no point in me going. why ask a fish to walk on land? analysis: the source text constructs “maladaptation” through the survival structure of a fish out of water. the translation fully preserves the source domain, conveying identical cognition via the same structural metaphor, organisms cannot survive outside their native environment. humans universally experience “aquatic life suffocating on land,” achieving metaphorical functional equivalence without conversion. st4: st romanized: méi xiǎngdào lǐmíngqí téngkōng ér qǐ, miàn dài yīyàng shuāi zài chuānghù gēndǐ xia. tt4: unexpectedly, mingqi arced through the air, crash landing under the window like a sack of flour. analysis: “ ” (flour sack) metaphorizes the physical properties of a heavy, soft body (ontological metaphor). the literal translation “sack of flour” preserves the source domain of “inanimate heavy object falling.” flour sacks are common imagery in both eastern and western cultures, enabling readers to identically perceive “clumsy, uncontrolled descent” with no cognitive loss. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 38 st5: st romanized: xiǎngdào zìjǐ wǔdàsāncū, xīnyǎn bǐ zhēn bí hái xiǎo, jiù zhǎle zhǎ nà zhǐ dúyǎn, tànle kǒuqì. tt5: he saw how a big, tall man like himself could have a heart smaller than the eye of a needle, and he sighed, blinking with his single eye. analysis: chinese uses the minuscule trait of “ ” (eye of a needle) to metaphorize narrow-mindedness. the translation preserves the source domain “eye of a needle”. both concretize abstract measurement into a tiny aperture. the universality of ontological metaphors allows target readers to directly trigger the cognitive association of “extreme pettiness.” 4.2 modifying the source domain structural metaphors with culture-specific conceptual systems often require source domain modification to preserve core mappings while adapting to target cultural schemas. medium cultural load metaphors require modification to align with target cultural references. for expressive function, modification enhances emotional resonance in the target language. st6: st romanized: rúguǒ nà nánrén zhǐshì xiùhuā zhěntou. zhè ràng gāoyǎ chūn hěn shì dānxīn, suǒyǐ qián jǐ cì xiāngqīn tā dōu gēnzhe qù, yī kàn duìfāng shì xiùhuā zhěntou, dāngchǎng jiù gěi jiǎohuo huángle. tt6: if the guy was just a pretty face —a lousy pillow in a nicely embroidered case—she’d halt proceedings immediately. analysis: the chinese “ ” is a structural metaphor (object structure mapping human quality), emphasizing “splendid exterior, rotten core.” the translator modifies it to “a lousy pillow in a nicely embroidered case,” more comprehensible in english culture. it preserves the core metaphorical structure but changes the specific imagery, achieving equivalent cognitive transfer. this structural metaphor relies on culturally specific object-quality mappings. the modification to ‘lousy pillow in a nicely embroidered case’ aligns with cognitive metaphor theory’s emphasis on preserving conceptual mappings while adapting the vehicle to target cultural familiarity. st7: st romanized: tā zhǐ juédé zhège bà suī shì yījiā zhī zhǔ, qíshí nèixīn jiǎndān, liǎng méi tángyī pàodàn jiù jí chuānle xīnfēi. tt7: she believed that although he was the head of the household, his inner workings were simple, and this gift would be all it would take to win him over—as chairman mao said, a candy-coated bullet to pierce his heart. analysis: “ ” concretizes abstract corruption into a physical object (ontological metaphor). the translation uses “candy-coated bullet,” as “bullet” is more commonly associated with danger metaphors in the west. this better aligns with english readers’ cognitive experience of “covert threat,” mapping the same target domain. st8: st romanized: nǐ zhè biān huǒ shàng fángle, tā nà biān wāi zài kàngtóu shuìzhele. tt8: a crisis could be raging, and she’d still be asleep on the heated platform of the kang bed-stove. analysis: the ‘ ’ is not merely a ‘bed-stove’ but a cultural signifier of northeastern communal living (family members sharing warmth in harsh winters). while the translation ‘heated platform of the kang bed-stove’ simplifies its material form, contextual cues implicitly convey its social function, mitigating cultural loss through narrative context. the english source domain “crisis raging” employs a war metaphor. “raging crisis” suits the western tradition of war narratives, modifying the motivator. fire metaphors in english denote concrete disasters but lack the extended meaning of urgency. st9: st romanized: gāolìkuān shuō, dé qù yīgè yuè, jiàn tiān er guān zài wūzǐ lǐ jiǎng mǎkèsī lièníng, wǎnshàng dàmén dū shàng suǒ, nǐ xíng? tt9: and that was how gao behaved when he had his freedom. it stood to reason that, cooped up in the cadre school, he would get bored and sneak out for a drink, leading, inevitably, to trouble. analysis: this dialectal metaphor roots temporal continuity in the visible cycle of ‘heaven’, reflecting the industrial working class’s reliance on natural rhythms. the translation ‘cooped up’ shifts to a spatial metaphor but loses this cultural link— highlighting the challenge of translating region-specific cognitive models tied to local livelihoods. the source domain “ ” is a time metaphor based on celestial motion. the target domain “cooped up” is a spatial confinement metaphor from animal husbandry. “ ” emphasizes the time dimension of confinement. english “coop up” originates culturally from poultry farming, evoking spatial oppression but losing the time dimension. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 39 st10: st romanized: tā pà tā bà, jiù xiàng shì bāgē kànjiàn māo, zài zěnme dǒu jīling yěshì méi yòng de. tt10: she was scared of her father and, like a mynah bird confronted with a cat, knew that no amount of talk would help the situation. analysis: chinese “ ” contains an orientational metaphor (“ ” implies dynamic struggle). the translator concretizes the abstract action into the scenario “mynah bird confronted with a cat,” replacing “ ” with the bird’s “feather-fluffing behavior” before a predator. this uses the shared experience of “vertical-positional struggle” to achieve metaphor conversion, preserving the core meaning of “futile resistance.” st11: x y st romanized: cóng shí jǐ suì qǐ, jiù zài línghún shēn chù nào gémìng, bǎ gāolìkuān de suǒyǒu dōngxī dū sǎodìchūmén, zhōngyú zhǎng chéngle yīgè hé gāolìkuān wánquán bùtóng de nánrén, zhège bùtóng de chéngdù zěnme shuō ne, jiù xiàng x hé y de bùtóng. tt11: at that young age, he’d staged a revolution deep in his soul and swept everything to do with gao likuan out the door. analysis: chinese uses mathematical symbols “x/y” to construct a structural metaphor (abstract difference = algebraic symbols). the translation deletes this source domain, replacing it with action metaphors “revolution in soul” and “swept out the door.” the cognitive mapping through algebraic symbols is entirely substituted. st12: st romanized: gāolìkuān shuō, guàibùdé wǔqiān mǐ dōu méi shuāi sǐ nǐ, yuánlái shìgè gǔ shàng zǎo. tt12: no wonder falling from five thousand meters didn’t kill you; you’re a flea on a drum. analysis: “ ” (a flea on a drum—chinese folk metaphor for someone with superb lightness skill) structurally metaphorizes weightlessness via “an insect jumping unstably on a drum surface.” the translation modifies it to “flea on a drum.” though slightly adjusting the imagery, it preserves the core source domain of “a tiny creature moving agilely on a vibrating surface.” readers in both languages can understand “extraordinary lightness” through this structure, achieving metaphorical function transfer. 4.3 deleting the source domain orientational metaphors lacking cross-cultural equivalence may necessitate omission if their spatial logic fails to resonate with target readers. highly culture-specific metaphors balance retention of core signification with explanatory context to bridge cognitive gaps. for cultural transmission, strategic modification preserves cultural essence while ensuring intelligibility. st13: st romanized: wéiyī de wèntí shì, zhàosùyīng xìnggé màn, gāolìkuān xìnggé jí, jiéhūn zhīqián bù zhīdào, jiéhūn zhīhòu cái fāxiàn, shízài tài màn, liǎng gēn diànxiàn gānzǐ néng zǒu bàn gè xiǎoshí. tt13: the only problem was suying’s slow nature—she could spend half an hour walking between two telegraph poles. analysis: the structural metaphor uses spatial distance to map temporal duration, implying extreme slowness. the translation deletes the metaphorical mapping, retaining only literal description. english lacks a parallel structure to convey “slow movement through prolonged spatial traversal,” necessitating omission to avoid cultural dissonance. the deletion of the spatial-temporal metaphor reflects cognitive metaphor theory’s insight that unshared conceptual mappings (chinese ‘spatial extension → temporal duration’ vs. english direct temporal description) necessitate prioritizing target-domain meaning over source-domain form. st14: st romanized: gāolìkuān dùzǐ li yǒu huò, néng fēn chū liǎng sān diǎn. yī mō dùdōu, yìngbāngbāng, biàn zhīdào lǐmiàn yǒu huò. tt14: gao likuan may have had a facial deformity, but his bearing was respectable—his shoulders were broad, his face was square—and though he couldn’t speak as well as the professor, he could muster a couple of talking points when absolutely necessary. communication across borders: translation & interpreting; vol. 05 no. 01 (2025) issn (online): 2766-791x issn (print): 2770-6354 40 analysis: chinese “ ” (having goods in the belly) is an ontological metaphor (concretizing knowledge as physical objects within the abdomen). the translation deletes the “abdominal container” source domain, using the abstract expression “muster talking points.” the carrier “belly” and its metaphorical logic are stripped away. due to differences in cultural systems and literary traditions between chinese and english, the imagery carried by metaphors is difficult to directly replace. constrained by contextual factors, the focus of metaphor translation often shifts to conveying the inherent meaning of the original domain (shu, 2000). free translation can transcend linguistic form constraints, transmitting core information through semantic conversion to recreate the metaphor’s essence. deleting the target domain from the source language sometimes better aligns with target readers’ cognitive habits. 5. conclusion cognitive metaphor theory opens up a new perspective for literary translation practice. taking the english translation of shuang xuetao’s the aeronaut as an example, this study systematically examines the cross-cultural transformation mechanism of metaphors and other culturally loaded metaphors in the industrial context of northeast china within the framework of cognitive metaphor theory. the research results show that the translatability of metaphor and the choice of translation strategies fundamentally depend on the cognitive basis and depth of cultural embeddings of the source domain in the target culture. in specific translation practice, translators must also consider other relevant factors, such as cultural differences and differences in the cognitive level of metaphor. for metaphors that can directly map to the target language readers cognitive concepts, literal translation can be adopted, while for metaphorical images with obvious cultural imprints, they must be handled in conjunction with specific cultural background and context. in order to successfully promote chinese culture around the world, it is necessary to more deeply identify and interpret the cultural connotations carried by metaphorical images in the source text. in the process of metaphor translation, cultural context plays the most prominent role. text 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