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Communication across Borders: Translation & Interpreting 

Volume 01, Issue 01, 2021, ISSN: 2766-791X 

A Study on Chinese Single-Player Video Game Title 

Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 

Zhixiang Li; Zhaofeng Jiang 

Nanning Normal University, Guangxi, China 

Abstract: As video games gain popularity worldwide and become one of the most 

common entertainment forms in the digital era, the game’s title is given both 

commercial value and entertainment value. In the process of translation, in order to 

achieve these two values, the correct translation theory and strategy need to be adopted. 

Translating Chinese game titles accurately and effectively into English is challenging 

for Chinese translators. The idea “the end justifies the means” from Skopos Theory 

indicates that the translation effects decide translation strategies. Based on Skopos 

Theory, this paper explores the translation of Chinese game titles, and provides 

suggestions about translation methods for Chinese game translators to facilitate Chinese 

game developers’ goal of going global.  

Keywords: Localization; Game text translation; Chinese-to-English translation; Skopos 

Theory 

1. Single-Player Video Games

A single-player video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with an input 

device to generate visual feedback for a player, whereby only one player is expected 

throughout the course of the gaming session. According to a report issued by Gamma 

Data (2019), the actual sales revenue of China’s single-player game upped to RMB 640 

million in 2019, an increase of 341.4%, reflecting the flourishing development of Chinese 

single-player games. Another Chinese single-player games bestselling list for 2020 shows 

that two single-player video games, Gunfire Reburn and Pascal’s Wager, had sold over 

one million copies, owing to the development of Chinese games in video games digital 



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distribution services platforms like Steam and Wegame (Gamelook, 2021). In 2020, 

China Audio-video and Digital Publishing Association (CADPA, 2020) issued a report 

showing that the actual marketing revenue of China’s independently developed games in 

overseas markets was US$15.450 billion, an increase of US$3.855 billion over the 

previous year, maintaining high growth momentum. In terms of regional distribution, the 

US, Japan, and Korea are still the main markets for China’s self-developed games, with 

combined revenue of 60.27% of the total overseas revenue, manifesting that overseas 

markets are significant for China’s game development.  

2. Game Localization  

For a good localization can promote a game in different regions and lead to a spike in 

game sales, localization is the top priority before promoting the game globally. Game 

localization refers to the preparation of video games before they are released in new 

regions or countries, including modifying the game process, changes to the game content, 

new physical packaging, manuals, recording new audio, and modifying good content 

according to the censorship requirements, and most importantly, the translation of the 

game text. Game translation not just means to translate the text literally but to translate 

the culture of the source language into the target language. Chris Crawford (1982), a 

game designer, defined the game as “a rudimentary cultural form”. In the backdrop of 

globalization, the game has become a new cultural form with the capacity to spread 

culture abroad. For some game players, it is Japanese games like Dynasty Warriors and 

Romance of The Three Kingdoms that introduce them to the historical figures of the 

Three Kingdoms of China (220–280). Despite China’s long history and rich culture, these 

cultures have rarely been spread abroad successfully through Chinese games. With the 

increase of China’s international influence, cultural communication, and media 

innovation, western gamers are attracted to oriental myths increasingly. It is not 

uncommon in some Chinese game discussion groups to see English-speaking gamers 

petitioning Chinese game developers to release the English versions. Therefore, as a 

game translator, one should be clear about the localization translation methods and 

strategies to translate culture. 

 

3. Game Titles Translation and Skopos Theory 

Game translation involves the translation of UI (User Interface), game dialogue text, plot 

subtitles, and so on. This paper mainly discusses the translation of Chinese single-player 

video game titles. The importance of the game title is mirrored in its entertainment value 

and commercial value. The former (the entertainment value) is to please the target players 



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and show them the features and the culture of the game. The latter is to stimulate their 

desire to buy and gain commercial profits. It is both crucial and challenging to translate 

the game title well, as a proper translation boosts game selling, while a bad translation 

may discourage the game players from buying it. 

Minako O’Hagan (2013:150), the Associate Professor at the School of Cultures 

Languages and Linguistics, suggests that the Skopos Theory should be the guiding theory 

of game translation because game translation is “primarily driven by its purpose 

(Skopos), which is ultimately to entertain the end-user of the translated product”. Skopos, 

a Greek word defined as “aim or purpose”, was introduced into translation theory and 

developed by Hans J. Vermeer in the late 1970s. The idea was then extended by some 

Skopos theorists, most notably, Christiane Nord. According to Nord (2018:12), in the 

framework of Skopos Theory, the communicative needs and the culture-specific world 

knowledge of the intended receiver are important factors that determine the purpose of a 

translation. When choosing a game, gamers expect to choose a game with a catchy title 

that captures their interest. A good game translation should have both entertainment value 

and commercial value to meet players’ needs. After identifying the goals of the gamers, 

the question is how to apply the right translation strategy to guide the game title 

translation practice.  

According to Reiss and Vermeer (1984:90), the paramount rule for any translation should 

be the Skopos rule which means “the end justifies the means”. It is expected to solve the 

existing dilemmas of domestication and foreignization. Nord (2018:28) claims that “the 

Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful translation’, or 

anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which translation is 

needed”. In other words, domestication and foreignization are suitable for translation 

strategies under Skopos Theory, and they can be applied in game translation. 

4. Domestication and Foreignization 

4.1  Domestication  

Domestication is based and centered on the target language. It adopts target language 

expressions that the target language readers can understand, striving to enter the target 

language readers’ world, attempting to convey the information intended by the source 

language text and make the translation vivid. The advantage is that it can make the target 

language readers understand the source language text without obstacles. Domestication is 

frequently used in the translation of game titles. 



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The examples thereinafter are Chinese single-player video games released on the Steam 

platform. It is noted that the translations of these games have been officially used on the 

Steam platform, which means all of them are officially authorized translations. 

Example 1  

Original Version English Version (Official Translation) 

Xī Yóu Jì Zhī Dà Shèng ɡuī Lái  

(西游记之大圣归来) 

Monkey King: Hero Is Back 

Zhǐ Rén (纸人) Paper Dolls 

Xiān Jiàn Qí Xiá Zhuàn (仙剑奇侠传) Chinese Paladin: Sword and Fairy 

Liǎo Bù Qǐ De Xiū Xiān Mó Nǐ Qì 

(了不起的修仙模拟器) 

The Amazing Cultivation Simulator 

Yù Jiàn (御剑)  Flying Sword 

 

Regarding the translation of game titles, Minako O’Hagan (2013:176) suggests using the 

strategy of substitution, where the original title is replaced with a reference analogous in 

the target culture, to achieve a similar effect on the target user. In Example 1, the official 

translator replaced the concepts in original versions with the corresponding ones in the 

target language and tried to achieve an equivalence effect on the target player. It is worth 

noting that only some of the English versions mentioned above are acceptable because 

the strategy of substitution was used correctly. “Zhǐ Rén (纸人)”, for example, literally 

means paper man in Chinese concerning different expressions for the same concept in 

different languages. Chinese people call this kind of paper man-shape toy paper man 

based on its material and appearance, while English speakers call it paper doll based on 

its material and usage. Besides, the image of paper man is a common element in Chinese 

horror movies and novels while foreign horror movies often use the doll as a creepy 

element. The translation of Monkey King: Hero Is Back also uses substitution. The 

translator replaced the original title “Dà Shèng (大圣)” in Chinese with “Monkey King” 

which is a more familiar title to the western players. Nevertheless, the translation of “Xī 

Yóu Jì Zhī Dà Shèng ɡuī Lái (西游记之大圣归来)” is still debatable. Monkey king has 

other titles like Sun Wukong, which is more welcome in the western players because 

some popular games have characters named after it. Apart from it, the translation’s 

subtitle, “Hero Is Back”, is clearly missing an article in front of it, making the sentence 

less coherent.  

Errors such as misunderstandings or misuses of words also occurred in the official 

translation versions. As an SLG game (Simulation Game) of Chinese fantasy influenced 

by Chinese mythology, the translation of “Liǎo Bù Qǐ De Xiū Xiān Mó Nǐ Qì (了不起的



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修仙模拟器)” may be mistaken for a farming game because the word “cultivation” can 

not fully explain the meaning of “xiū xiān(修仙)” which means a mortal becomes a 

celestial being through supernatural training or practice in Chinese mythology. Even 

though some foreign players have accepted the word “cultivation” as the translation of 

“xiū xiān(修仙)”, the word “cultivation” usually refers to farming games in English 

games, which will give the wrong information to the target information player. Similar 

errors also can be found in “Xiān Jiàn Qí Xiá Zhuán (仙剑奇侠传)” which mistakes the 

word “Paladin” for the equivalence of “xiá (侠)”. The translation of “Yù Jiàn (御剑)” is 

acceptable because even though it changes the part of speech in the original word, it still 

conveys the correct message to the target players. 

Example 2  

Original Version English Version (Official Translation) 

Guǐ Gǔ Bā Huāng (鬼谷八荒) Tale of Immortal 

Zǐ Sài Qiū Fēng (紫塞秋风) The Wind Road 

Shén Wǔ Huàn Xiǎng (神舞幻想) Faith of Danschant 

Pà Sī Kǎ Qì Yuē (帕斯卡契约) Pascal’s Wager 

 

The famous American translation theorist Eugene Naida (2001), who advocates 

domestication, suggests that the reader of “a translated text should be able to comprehend 

it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have 

understood and appreciated it”. Domestication gives the reader a smooth reading 

experience as if reading a work in the native language. For the purpose of making the 

target player conceive the ideas of the original text, some images or concepts should be 

reformed in the target text. Therefore, it is acceptable to omit, add, or even create some 

concepts for the sake of coherence and expressiveness. The word “shén wǔ (神舞)”, for 

example, is translated as “danschant” which is a compound word created by the 

translator. Since the game’s genre is related to ritual dance, the innovative translation 

may bring a new perspective to the players.  

4.2  Foreignization 

Domestication and Foreignization are not the same as literal translation and free 

translation, in that domestication and foreignization extend the concepts of literal 

translation and free translation and elevate language to an aesthetic level. Lawrence 

Venuti (2004:20), a famous American translation theorist, introduced the pair of 

translation terms of domestication and foreignization and described the foreignization 



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method as “an ethnodeviant pressure on those values to register the linguistic and cultural 

difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad”.  

Foreignization requires the translator to take the original text as the center so that the 

target language readers can experience the language characteristics, culture, exoticism, 

etc., of the source language. Simultaneously, the translation requires the target language 

readers to accept the unique features of the source language.  

Today’s game industry is centered on the United States and Japan, which has drawn 

criticism from some scholars (Dongwon Jo, 2020). The long-term game culture 

domination of the United States and Japan has been drawing global gamers’ attention to 

these two countries, while the game culture in other countries are ignored due to their 

underdeveloped game industry. Consequently, most game players in China are more 

familiar with western game culture than westerns being familiar with Chinese game 

culture. Venuti (2004) argues that, “foreignization entails choosing a foreign text and 

developing a translation method along lines that are excluded by dominant cultural values 

in the target language”. His remarks further illustrate that the use of foreignization is 

feasible in game translation for Chinese culture is excluded by the dominant game culture 

in the target language. 

Example 3  

Original Version English Version (Official Translation) 

Gǔ Jiàn Qí Tán  (古剑奇谭)  Gujian 

Xuān Yuán Jiàn (轩辕剑) Xuan Yuan Sword 

Tài Wú Huì Juàn (太吾绘卷) The Scroll of Taiwu 

Xiá Zhī Dào (侠之道) Path of Wuxia 

Dà Yǎn Jiāng Hú (大衍江湖) Evolution of Jianghu 

Jiàn Pò (剑魄)  JianPo 

 

The examples of foreignization are also divided into two parts. In this part, the original 

versions all contain culture loaded words with oriental culture, such as “xiá (侠)” “pò 

(魄)” and “jiāng hú (江湖)”, which have no exact equivalences in the target language. In 

their English versions, they are all translated through pinyin transliteration. The 

advantage of this translation method is that it can lead the target language players to 

Chinese culture. As early as 2010, Oxford English Dictionary included the phrase 

“Wuxia” and defined the phrase as a genre of Chinese fiction or cinema featuring 

itinerant warriors of ancient China, often depicted as capable of superhuman feats of 

martial arts. Besides, Chinese phrases like “Guanxi” and “Add Oil” have been included 



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in the dictionary. As Chinese phrases make it into Oxford English Dictionary, it reflects 

the increasing acceptance of Chinese culture in the English-speaking world. 

However, as mentioned above, Chinese game culture is not the dominant culture yet. 

Some phrases like “gǔ jiàn (古剑)”, “tài wú (太吾)” or “jiàn pò (剑魄)” are not included 

in the western dictionaries. If the target language players do not know Chinese culture 

well enough or only pay cursory attention to the related themes, they cannot get any 

information from it. Therefore, using transliteration to translate a game’s title may 

confuse the player and discourage them from buying it. On top of that, some English-

speaking players may have a hard time remembering the title of the game. 

 

Example 4  

Original Version English Version (Official Translation) 

Huī Jìn Zhī Guān (灰烬之棺) Coffin of Ashes 

Bō Xī Yà Shí ɡuānɡ (波西亚时光) My Time At Portia 

Qiāng Huǒ Chóng Sheng (枪火重生) Gunfire Reborn  

 

Apart from video games based on Chinese mythology, many games made in China are of 

world-contents or settings related to western culture.  In this case, it is easy to find the 

corresponding concepts or words in English. By adopting foreignization as the translation 

method, the English version is smooth and readable. It conveys the information in the 

original language and keeps its form of the original sentence. 

5. Conclusion 

In conclusion, the Chinese game industry enjoys strong growth momentum. In order to 

maintain rapid development, Chinese game developers should concentrate on the 

overseas markets and the localization translation of games. A game title is the first 

impression of the game. Because of cultural differences and different language usages, 

translating Chinese game titles accurately and effectively into English is challenging for a 

Chinese translator. Based on Skopos Theory, game titles can be translated by means of 

domestication and foreignization according to the purposes of the addressee. Both 

domestication and foreignization are used with high frequency in the game title 

translation. Besides, it is important to note that the translator must take the pragmatic 

differences into consideration when they translate Chinese game titles into English. 

  



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