







































Communication, Society and Media 
ISSN 2576-5388 (Print) ISSN 2576-5396 (Online) 

Vol. 1, No. 2, 2018 
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/csm 

149 
 

Original Paper 

Literature Review on the Digital Museum in a Chinese Context 
Qiong Dang1* 

1 Department of Communication Sciences, Free University of Brussels (Vrije Universiteit Brussel), 

Brussels, Belgium 
* Qiong Dang, Department of Communication Sciences, Free University of Brussels (Vrije Universiteit 

Brussel), Brussels, Belgium 

 

Received: September 9, 2018   Accepted: October 14, 2018   Online Published: November 28, 2018 

doi:10.22158/csm.v1n2p149                   URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/csm.v1n2p149 

 

Abstract 

Parry (2007) claims that “it would be an exaggeration to suggest that the computer has been the cause 

of the recent ‘reimagining’, ‘rethinking’, ‘reshaping’ and ‘reframing’ of the museum” (p. 140). 

Technological innovation creates new possibilities for the development of the museum, and the digital 

museum as one of its products plays a key role in the preservation and communication of cultural 

heritage. However, research on the digital museum is lacking in China. Therefore, this article is an 

attempt to determine the extent to which factors influence the construction of digital museums. In order 

to answer the research question, a systematic review has been utilized in order to comb the available 

literature in the Chinese context. As a result, 1829 articles have been retrieved and 205 articles have 

been accessed, and finally, 41 studies have been selected and reviewed. The results indicate that the 

development of the digital museum is influenced by technology, human resources, and funding. Then, 

suggestions and implications are put forward for further research. 

Keywords 

digital museum, human resources, technology and funding 

 

1. Introduction and Problem Statement 

1.1 Introduction 

In the twenty-first century, technology has already brought about great breakthroughs in our society, 

which is self-evident in that technology is ubiquitous (Maleuvre, 1999; Chang, 2012). Museums have 

been transformed by their social context and the proliferation of information technology. The history of 

automation of museums might have begun in 1963 in Washington, D. C. (Cui, 2015). Since then, 

technology has changed the way museums interact and communicate with others. For example, in 2001, 

the Palace Museum’s website was open to the public, indicating Chinese museums’ first step into the 



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digital era (Zhao, 2013). By the end of May 2016, the Baidu Encyclopedia Digital Museum Project had 

1,609 museum websites, including 56 3D panoramic digital museums (Note 1). Nowadays, as Bearman 

and Geber (2008) state, a museum without a collections database and a web presence is hardly 

considered professional. Therefore, the museum finally might achieve the goal of being wall-less, 

which corresponds with André Malraux’s famous idea regarding the imaginary museum without walls 

presented in 1947. In China, confronted with this new situation, the state has formulated a series of 

policies to support museums to embrace technology, such as the State’s 11th Five-Year (2006-2010) 

Plan regarding Cultural Relics Undertakings; the State’s 11th Five-Year Plan of Cultural Development; 

the State’s 11th Five-Year (2011-2015) Plan regarding Cultural Relics Undertakings; the Ministry of 

Culture on 12th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Culture and Technology and Science; Outline 

of Museums Medium and Long-Term Development Plan (2011-2020). Therefore, museums in China 

have devoted themselves to the facilitation of the digitalization of the museum. However, in the current 

literature, research concerning the extent to which factors influence the concept of the digital museum 

is lacking.  

1.2 Problem Statement 

In Chinse-language literature, research on the relationship between new technology and museums 

mainly emphasize the following aspects: First, an emphasis on the application of new technology for 

museums (Zhang et al., 2003; He et al., 2008; Lu, 2012). Second, an emphasis on communications 

channels for digital museums (Jin, 2010; Chang, 2010; Ren, 2015). Third, a discussion on the 

educational function museums would have in a virtual environment (Guan, 2006; Liu, 2009). However, 

little research has been conducted to explore the extent to which factors influence the development of 

the digital museum.  

Therefore, the research question of “which factors affect the development of the digital museum in 

China?” has been proposed. More specifically, the objective of this study is twofold: (1) how is the 

digital museum conceptualized in previous studies in the Chinese context? (2) Which factors affect the 

development of the digital museum in China? There are two main research purposes to this study: one 

aims to provide theoretical insight for the better understanding of the digital museum; the other is to 

provide some managerial implications for museum practitioners. 

 

2. Method 

In order to answer the research question, a systematic review has been undertaken in order to gather 

data concerning which factors influence the development of digital museums. Petticrew and Roberts 

(2006) define that “systematic reviews are literature reviews that adhere closely to a set of scientific 

methods that explicitly aim to limit systematic error (bias), mainly by attempting to identify, appraise 

and synthesize all relevant studies (of whatever design) in order to answer a particular question (or set 



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of questions)” (p. 9). It can scientifically and comprehensively analyze the related resources and 

display the corresponding fair results. In the systematic review, all of the studies related to the topic 

have been identified, appraised and synthesized, aiming to guarantee that the research results are more 

credible and valid (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006). This study has selected the literature based on 

Petticrew and Robert’s (2006) pre-defined procedure which is presented as follows: 1) Formulate the 

research question of an appropriate scope; 2) Study and screen the related resources on the basis of the 

inclusion or exclusion criteria; 3) Describe the study characteristics, sample appraisal, and synthesis. 

2.1 Search Procedures 

This research has been conducted in a Chinese context, so therefore we have selected the Chinese 

database as the retrieval object. We searched through the available literature by utilizing the databases 

of the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), which is one of the most authoritative and 

largest databases in China). The search was conducted using a combination of the following three sets 

of key words: 1) Digital media, digital technology, digital exhibition, digital environment, virtual 

reality; 2) Museum computerization, online museum, digital museum, virtual museum, physical 

museum; 3) Museum management, museum audience, museum talents, museum funding. 

2.2 Inclusion Criteria and Selection Results 

Studies that met the following inclusion criteria were selected: (1) the study focused on the concept of 

the digital museum in a Chinese context; (2) the study focused on management, audiences and the 

public, and the media and technology related to the development of digital museums in China; (3) the 

published articles were written in Chinese; (4) the scope of the literature (peer-reviewed journal articles 

were considered); (5) the journal articles had been published between 2000 and the beginning of 2017.  

The database search retrieved 1829 articles. First, the list of titles was scanned and 1442 articles were 

excluded. Then, the abstract of the 387 remaining articles were evaluated and the full texts of 205 of 

them were retrieved and analyzed in order to make a final selection. Based on the application of those 

five previously mentioned inclusion criteria, 41 articles were ultimately selected and shown to fulfil the 

inclusion criteria, and as such were included in this database (see Figure 1). Of the total number of 

studies included, there were 38 related studies and 3 theoretical studies. Moreover, the articles were 

excluded if they solely focused on information communication technology and computing science, 

such as the case if, for example, the study was conducted in order to research the application of a new 

technology in museums from a computing perspective. The same topic and duplicate studies were not 

mentioned.  

 



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Figure 1. Flow Chart of the Selection Process 

 

2.3 Analysis of Selected Studies 

According to the system theory, an organization can be considered an open or closed system and may 

be affected by internal or external environments (Von, 1986). An open system consists of three 

significant elements; the first is inputs, which means the resources the organization receives such as 

equipment, natural and material resources, their staff, etc.; then, the inputs are transformed, which are 

called throughputs, and then the products and services are yielded, which is called the output (Rice, 

2013). Drawing on the system theory, museum management is defined in this study by a distinct 

ongoing process of allocating inputs (human, economic and material resources) by typical managerial 

functions (planning, organizing, directing and control) so as to achieve the stated objective (Liu, 2009). 

Therefore, the development of digital museums is mainly influenced by human, economic, and material 

resources. Based on the above statement, each study was summarized into a classification scheme and 

included three central aspects: (1) how the digital museum is defined; (2) how human resources affects 

its development; (3) how material resources affects its development.  

 

3. Results 

3.1 The Digital Museum Defined in the Literature 

Remarkably, amongst the 41 articles reviewed, the digital museum was defined in 32 of them. Six of 

the articles mentioned digital museum without providing a further explanation of what is meant by the 

concept. A considerable account of different terms was adopted in 32 of the reviewed studies in order 

to represent “the digital museum” in different stages. These terms included: electronic museum, the 



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digitalized museum, online museum, museum website, online museum, and the virtual museum. 

Although these terms might overlap and are used in most contexts, each conception has evolved 

accompanying the innovation of new technology. Meanwhile it indicates that there is no uniform 

definition of the digital museum in China, and the concept of the museum on the construction of 

digitalization is in a mess. The development of the digitalization of the museum experienced three 

different conditions from “museum digitalization”, “the digitalized museum” to “the digital museum”. 

Next, three main terms have been discussed; then, the definition of the digital museum is adopted.  

First, the term “museum digitalization” had begun to circulate in the 1970s due to the application of 

computers in the field of museums and continues to be widely used today. Based on the content 

analysis of the definition of museum digitalization, in brief, it is a dynamic process including 

digitalizing every aspect of the museum (Zhu, 2010; Peng, 2011; Liang, 2013). Scholars have indicated 

museum digitalization includes three main components: (1) it refers to the utilization of digital 

technology (such as computer technology, Database Technology (DBT), multimedia technology, 

network technology, communication mechanisms and automatic control technology); (2) to digitize the 

museum entity, which is a dynamic process that contains the establishment of websites, digital 

management of collections, virtual displays, building automation, network construction, etc. (Li, 2008; 

Gao, 2013; Ran & Li, 2016); (3) Its purpose is to effectively achieve a sharing, utilization, and 

management of information resources in museums (Zhao, 2012). This analysis also implies that a 

digitalized museum is one of the results of museum digitalization. 

Second, the term “the digitalized museum” was traced back to the 1990s, with its associated integration 

of museums and the internet. Zhen (1999) first defined the digitalized museum as “the digital museum 

is a museum that the functions of collection, research, entertainment, display, and education is 

presented to the public in a digital way” (p. 14). According to the content analysis of the concept of the 

digitalized museum, it is understood in two different ways. 1) the digitalized museum refers to an 

important application of modern information technology centered on computers at cultural institutions, 

which aims to combine internal information collection management with external information queries 

(Zhen, 1999; Chen, 2000; Tian & Zhu, 2009; Zhao, 2013), and its development has resulted in a radical 

revolution in museum management. The digitalized museum is divided into four different aspects 

(Chen, 2000): 1). a local area network of collection data management. Workers utilized the LAN to 

register, classify and manage the collection; 2) Touchscreens and computer facilities are used to 

retrieve information. These facilities serve the visitor, and the visitor may use them to obtain further 

information regarding cultural relics and cultural knowledge; 3) The museum website provides the 

latest information for the audience no matter where you are and who you are; 4) The computer is used 

to manage routine work. 5) the digitized museum refers to an application of digital technology to store 

and process the information of collection, exhibition, the management of museums, and depends on 



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LAN and the Internet to communicate with others (Zhang & Ning, 2000; Zheng et al., 2004; Li & Pan, 

2005; Yang, 2006). In essence, it is a comprehensive information service system combining computer 

technology with communication technology, similar to the concept of the digital museum (Gu, 2006; 

Chen, 2007). It provides a comprehensive, efficient and convenient service for their audience or other 

users of the network. It is a new development trend for traditional museums, although traditional 

museums cannot be replaced by it. They complement each other and provide services to meet the 

different requirements of the audience. Its essential characteristics include digital storage, network 

transmission, resource sharing, and management computerization (Li, 2008; Li, 2016). It aims to 

realize the resource sharing. The two different understandings both emphasize the application this new 

technology has to the field museums. The first understanding considers that the digitalized museum 

utilizes modern computer technology in order to transform the traditional museum by aiming to realize 

the digitalization of its collection and management. The second understanding stresses that the 

digitalized museum has completed digital processing and is also the result of museum digitalization.  

Third, the term “the digital museum” first emerged in the twenty-first century, in addition to the Palace 

Museum’s website which was opened to the public in 2001, marking Chinese museums’ first entry into 

the digital era. It is a new thing accompanying the digital library and one part of the digitalized 

museum (Cui, 2015; Zhou & Yang, 2016). Its three basic characteristics are the digitization of cultural 

relics and specimens, a network for information dissemination and liberalization of data retrieval (Lu, 

2012; Liang, 2013). According to an understanding of the digitalized museum, it refers to an 

information service system and database, which takes information on cultural relics as kernel content 

and uses modern information technology (including computer technology, virtual reality technology, 

multimedia technology, internet and database, etc.) to gather, arrange and manage the information on 

the cultural relics in order to provide the public with the rich cultural resources through the internet. 

Although these terms have differences, they do possess some dimensions of overlap. Moreover, the 

three terms “represent the development of the digitalization of the museum in the different conditions, 

and their relationship is shown in Figure 2. Museum digitalization refers to digitalizing the traditional 

museum and the process for finally realizing the concept of digital museum and is the foundation for 

constructing it. The digitalized museum is a concrete and existing museum which has already achieved 

the museum digitalization and is a prerequisite for the existence of a digital museum. Therefore, in this 

study, we agree that the digital museum, in essence, is an information system and database and includes 

the online museum, virtual museum, web museum, and internet museum.  

 



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Figure 2. The Relationship of the Three Terms 

 

3.2 The Factors Affecting the Development of the Digital Museum in China 

31 out of 41 of the studies mentions the extent to which factors influence the development of the digital 

museums. Based on the analysis of the reviewed studies, three main factors have been identified affect 

the development of digital museums, i.e., human resources, technology and funding. 

3.2.1 Technology  

Thirteen articles mention that technology is the decisive factor concerning the construction of the 

digital museum, in a total of 31 studies. Technology, such as internet technology, virtual technology, 

and digital technology, provides the possibility for museums to endow a new life to cultural relics and 

enlarges channels of communication for the museum (Jin, 2013). Concerning the influence of 

technology on the digital museum, two aspects mainly are emphasized: data standardization and 

intellectual property rights.  

With respect to data standardization, it is mentioned among eleven different articles, which influences 

the dissemination and sharing of culture resources in museums. Data standardization is the basic work 

of establishing a digital museum and is the prerequisite for accomplishing interconnection and 

interworking, resource sharing, safe business collaboration, and reliability. Data standardization is the 

basic issue in terms of the construction of the information system, such as the resource classification 

standard, data exchange standard, application service standard, and so on. Data standardization could 

aid the digital museum “actively created and constructed-in-practice” (Harbers, 2005, p. 268). However, 

the fact is that there is a lack of a uniform data standard concerning the construction of digital museums 

in China, means this concept in the country still has a long way to go to build and improve. 

In terms of intellectual property rights, eleven of the reviewed studies involved the issue of intellectual 

property rights. Intellectual property rights are an important part of museums’ assets, and their 

protection and utilization are also a significant part of the management of museums. Huang (2018) 

states that it mainly contains “copyright, trade and mark right, patent right, realm name right and the 

right of the name” (p. 14). Digital museums spreads their information through the internet, and as a 

result, almost anyone is able to access the digital resources the museum provides, causing a potential 



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information security hazard. Therefore, more attention should be paid to defending the security of 

intellectual property rights.  

3.2.2 Human Resources 

Ten of the articles demonstrated that professional talents are an important factor for developing digital 

museums. A lack of inter-disciplinary talents and a brain drain are two key issues digital museums face. 

As the digital museum is a newborn thing, its development and growth cannot work without the 

guidance of new ideas. Moreover, the construction of the digital museum has been a growing 

requirement for inter-disciplinary talent who possess a rich knowledge on management and business, as 

well as the late-model professional who masters modern information technology and has a better 

understanding of museum work. 

3.2.3 Funding 

Nine of the articles state that it is expensive to introduce new technology and buy new equipment to 

create digital museums. In China, state-owned museums are public welfare cultural institutions and are 

not-for-profit. Their financial allocation from the government is the main source of their money. 

However, this allocation cannot satisfy the requirements of the development of museums. Seven of the 

articles mentions that the imbalance of this resource allocation results in an unbalanced development of 

digital museums. As China is a huge country, and the development level of museums is different across 

the different regions. For instance, in the more developed areas, such as Shanghai and Beijing, more 

resources can be obtained to facilitate the museum’s development; however, in the more developing 

regions, such as Anhui and Gansu, fewer resources are allocated to the development of digital 

museums. 

 

4. Discussion and Conclusion 

To conclude, two problems have been tackled in this study: 1) the concept of the digital museum has 

been identified; 2) the factors affecting the development of the digital museum are illustrated in China. 

In essence, the digital museum is an information system and database and includes an online museum 

and uses the internet to disseminate its digital resources. The concept and connotation of the digital 

museum has experienced four stages: representation which emphasizes the protection of digital 

collections and online displays; reconstruction which recovers the disappeared and evolved cultural 

heritage; replacement which utilizes information technology to restore historical appearances; and 

recollection, which integrates the collection through the internet. The development of the digital 

museum has been influenced by these factors: technology, data standardization, intellectual property 

rights, information management, human resources, funds, and allocation of resources.  

According to the results, managerial implications are proposed for policymakers and museum 

managers. First, findings can be considered when policymakers make plans for facilitating the 



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development of a digital museum. For example, measures should be taken to standardize the data and 

protect intellectual property rights. Plans should be taken to manage the human and material capital to 

ensure and facilitate the development of the digital museum. Second, museum managers should have a 

better understanding of digital museums and make plans to introduce comprehensive talents and new 

technology. Moreover, in order to obtain more funding to support the development of digital museums, 

marketing should be employed to make further profits, creative products should be developed, and the 

cooperation between museums and the tourism sector should be enhanced.  

 

5. Limitations and Future Research 

There are several limitations. Firstly, this study is an analysis of secondary sources and lacks first-hand 

data. Second, the results cannot be generalized for museums due to the limited sample size. In the 

future, semi-structured interviews concerning which factors influence the digitalization of museums 

will be conducted in order to gather first-hand source to deeply probe into this topic. 

 

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Note 

Note 1. https://baike.baidu.com/museum/ 


